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See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/357752610Maintenance modeling of technical systems under conditions of uncertaintyPresentation · December 2021CITATIONS0READS301 author:Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:Robotic system of intelligent internal transport View projectRisk and safety assessment in transport View projectSylwia Werbińska-WojciechowskaWroclaw University of Science and Technology105 PUBLICATIONS 615 CITATIONS SEE PROFILEAll content following this page was uploaded by Sylwia Werbińska-Wojciechowska on 11 January 2022.The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.5th International Conference on Mathematical Techniques in Engineering Applications (ICMTEA2021) December 3-4, 2021 Graphic Era Deemed to be University | Graphic Era Hill University Dehradun, Uttarakhand, INDIA Sylwia Werbińska-WojciechowskaFaculty of Mechanical EngineeringDepartment of Technical Systems Operation and MaintenanceWroclaw, Poland2IntroductionClassification of main maintenance strategies –model-oriented approachUncertainty in operation and maintenanceResilience-based maintenance concept –potential-oriented approachConclusionsDiscussion, Q&AAgenda3IntroductionThe main difficulties that need to be overcome:•selection of proper maintenance strategy (PM, CBM, Predictive, RBM, RCM,....),•definitionofmachines’maintenancescheduleandperiodicinspections(inspection intervals, maintenance activities times),•selection of operational parameters that should be monitored continously orperiodically,•the amountof data to be processed and analyzed by the Manufacturer/Maintenance Service Provider,•transferring data (about all monitored parameters) between machinery basicmonitoring systems and used maintenance software (system reliability, softwarequality, interface readability, ….)According to PN-IEC 60300-3-10 standard maintenance isdefined as a combination of activities to retain a component in,or restore it to, a state (specified condition) in which it canperform its designated function.Main question:What? When? At what cost? should be maintained in order to provide a desiredsystem operational effectiveness/availabilityWerbińska-Wojciechowska S.: Technical system maintenance. Delay-time-based modeling, Springer 2019 4MaintenancestrategyselectionFailure prediction/ degradationmodellingMaintenanceplanningSpare partsprovisioningRisk management in maintenanceWarranty and maintenanceSystem designMaintenance performance measurementWerbińska-Wojciechowska S.: Technical system maintenance. Delay-time-based modeling, Springer 2019 The main challenge for the maintenance manager is to structure themaintenance procedures and activities to be undertaken in such a way thatthe strategic objectives associated with them are achieved. (De Almeida etal. 2015)Introduction5Classification of main maintenance strategiesCriterionDichotomous divisionDiagnosingDuring operation (e.g. Condition-based M. -CBM)During machine downtime(e.g. First Time M. – FTM)ForecastingProbabilistic (e.g. Predictive M.)Deterministic (e.g. Shutdown M.)PlanningScheduled (e.g. Time-based M.)Unscheduled (e.g.Breakdown M.)ComplexityLow or medium (e.g. production systems)High or very high (e.g. infrastructure networks)UncertaintyLimited (low or medium)Deep (high or very high)ImpactNon-criticalCritical Model-oriented policy for systems operating under conditions of limited uncertainty6The main classification of maintenance strategiesMaintenance strategyPMCBMINSPECTION MAINTENANCEDTMDecision variablesPM frequency/maintenance scheduleinspection frequency/ maintenance threshold inspection frequency/ inspection schedule inspection frequency, delay time parameterMain objectives minimize costs, maximize availability, maximize throughput Classification of main maintenance strategiesWerbińska-Wojciechowska S.: Technical system maintenance. Delay-time-based modeling, Springer 2019 7The main classification of maintenance strategiesMaintenance strategyPMCBMINSPECTION MAINTENANCEDTMDecision variablesPM frequency/maintenance scheduleinspection frequency/ maintenance threshold inspection frequency/ inspection schedule inspection frequency, delay time parameterMain objectives minimize costs, maximize availability, maximize throughput Classification of main maintenance strategiesWerbińska-Wojciechowska S.: Technical system maintenance. Delay-time-based modeling, Springer 2019 8The main classification of maintenance strategiesMaintenance strategyPMCBMINSPECTION MAINTENANCEDTMDecision variablesPM frequency/maintenance scheduleinspection frequency/ maintenance threshold inspection frequency/ inspection schedule inspection frequency, delay time parameterMain objectives minimize costs, maximize availability, maximize throughput Classification of main maintenance strategiesWerbińska-Wojciechowska S.: Technical system maintenance. Delay-time-based modeling, Springer 2019 9Classification of main maintenance strategiesCriterionDichotomous divisionDiagnosingDuring operation (e.g. Condition-based M. -CBM)During machine downtime(e.g. First Time M. – FTM)ForecastingProbabilistic (e.g. Predictive M.)Deterministic (e.g. Shutdown M.)PlanningScheduled (e.g. Time-based M.)Unscheduled (e.g.Breakdown M.)ComplexityLow or medium (e.g. production systems)High or very high (e.g. infrastructure networks)UncertaintyLimited (low or medium)Deep (high or very high)ImpactNon-criticalCritical What policy for highly complex systems (SoS) operating underconditions of deep uncertainty and critical impact of disruptions??1010Uncertainty and variability are one of the fundamental characteristicsof systems and processes.Model uncertaintyProcessuncertaintyEnvironment uncertaintyUncertainty due to modeling process, physical properties, assumed safety factors, data availability, etc. Uncertainty of the ongoing operational/management process and its associated phases Uncertainty related to external conditions (e.g., pricing, regulations, customer safety/reliability requirements), environmental impact on process/system Uncertainty in operation and maintenance11Uncertainty in operation and maintenanceTheconsequenceofknowledgeimperfectionsistheuncertainty in the maintenance process.The concept of uncertainty is understood here as asituation of having limited knowledge, such as: the order, nature, or state of things is unknown, and theconsequence,extent,ormagnitudeofcircumstances, conditions, or events is unpredictable.Bukowski L., Werbińska-Wojciechowska S.: Using fuzzy logic to support maintenance decisions according to Resilience-Based Maintenance concept, Eksploatacja i Niezawodnosc – Maintenance and Reliability, 2021; 23 (2): 294–307.12UncertaintyAleatoryuncertaintyEpistemicuncertaintyUncertainty in operation and maintenanceShamsi M.H, Ali A., Mangina E., O’Donnell J.,A framework for uncertainty quantification in buildingheat demand simulations using reduced-order grey-box energy models, Applied Energy, 275, 2020,115141.1311000Small amount of dataAverage data volumeNo data BIG DATA30DeepuncertaintyMedium uncertaintyLow uncertaintyDEEP LEARNING – AUTONOMOUS D-MSTATISTIC-BASED DECISION-MAKINGBAYESIAN-INFERENCE - BASED D-MHigh uncertaintyRESILIENCE-BASED DECISION-MAKINGVery high riskareaHigh risk areaMedium risk areaLow risk areaBukowski L. Cognitive Dependability Engineering: Managing Risks in Cyber-Physical-Social Systems under Deep Uncertainty, CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 2021 Data volumeLack of knowledgeWeak knowledgeModerateknowledgeStrongknowledgeUncertainty in operation and maintenance14Highly complex systems (SoS) operating under conditions of deepuncertainty and critical impact of disruptions – potential*-orientedpolicy implementationSystemTypeSystembehaviorThepurposeofthe systemResponsetodisruptionMaintenancepolicySystemexamplePassivestaticorquasi-staticpreservationof the stateresistanceCorrectiveMaintenancenon-repairablemodulesReactivedynamic;predictablyvariablemaintainingsystemavailabilityrobustnessReliabilityBasedMaintenancetechnicalsystemsActivedynamic;unpredictablyvariableensuringsystemcontinuityresilienceResilienceBasedMaintenancecyber-physicalsystemsPotential-oriented policy - RBMSystem types with maintenance policy recommendations*Potential –someone’s or something’s ability to develop, achieve, or succeed (possibility of being or becoming) (https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/potential)15General definition:Resilience – ability of complex systems to survive disruptive changesand disturbances while preserving essential services.Definition of resilienceBukowski L. Cognitive Dependability Engineering: Managing Risks in Cyber-Physical-Social Systems under Deep Uncertainty, CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 2021 16Modelling resilience17Maintenance management in an organization requires it toprepare specific ability, which can be generally described asMaintenance Support Capability. We propose to define thisterm as follows:MaintenanceSupportCapabilityistheabilityofanorganization to ensure that physical assets continue tofulfilltheirintendedtaskseffectively,efficiently,andsafely,undergivenexpectedaswellasunexpectedconditions of use and maintenance.Ameasureofanorganization’smaturityintermsofmaintenance is its degree of ability to create and maintainspecific potentials over time to resiliently respond to anyforeseeable and unpredictable operating events.Resilience-based Maintenance (RBM) conceptBukowski L., Werbińska-Wojciechowska S.: Using fuzzy logic to support maintenance decisions according to Resilience-Based Maintenance concept, Eksploatacja i Niezawodnosc – Maintenance and Reliability, 2021; 23 (2): 294–307.18Maintenance Support Potentials (MSP) Potential to respond (PR): knowing what to do and being able toreact correctly to any threats and hazards by activating correctlyplanned and prepared actions, by adjusting the required mode ofoperation,orbyintroducingnewactivities,proceduresorprocesses. Potential to monitor (PM): being able to monitor all signals fromthe internal and external environment that may affect anorganization’s performance in the near- or long-term future. Potential to learn (PL): being able to draw conclusions fromexperience, in particular ‘to learn the right lessons from theright experiences’. Potential to anticipate (PA): knowing what to be expected andpredicting future developments considering particular potentialdisruptions, constraints, and changing operating conditions.Resilience-based Maintenance (RBM) conceptBukowski L., Werbińska-Wojciechowska S.: Using fuzzy logic to support maintenance decisions according to Resilience-Based Maintenance concept, Eksploatacja i Niezawodnosc – Maintenance and Reliability, 2021; 23 (2): 294–307.19A functional diagram of the Maintenance Support System for RBMBukowski L., Werbińska-Wojciechowska S.: Using fuzzy logic to support maintenance decisions according to Resilience-Based Maintenance concept, Eksploatacja i Niezawodnosc – Maintenance and Reliability, 2021; 23 (2): 294–307.Resilience-based Maintenance (RBM) concept20Resilience-based Maintenance (RBM) conceptA new organization's maintenance support potential level assessment ratio (�):�������(3)where:� – organization's maintenance support potential level; � – ith maintenance support potential; � – weight for ith maintenance support potential; n – number of analyzed maintenance support potentials.We may use:-qualitative approaches-quantitative approachesBukowski L., Werbińska-Wojciechowska S.: Using fuzzy logic to support maintenance decisions according to Resilience-Based Maintenance concept, Eksploatacja i Niezawodnosc – Maintenance and Reliability, 2021; 23 (2): 294–307.21Assessment methods and modelsModelling based on fuzzy logicuseQualitative analysis basedonexpertopinionsandweighted point methodResilience-based Maintenance (RBM) concept22Resilience-based Maintenance (RBM) conceptBukowski L., Werbińska-Wojciechowska S.: Using fuzzy logic to support maintenance decisions according to Resilience-Based Maintenance concept, Eksploatacja i Niezawodnosc – Maintenance and Reliability, 2021; 23 (2): 294–307.MSP assessment parametersReadiness levelReadiness to respondReadiness to monitorReadiness to learnReadiness to anticipateProcess regency Responding regencyMonitor regencyLearning regencyForecasting regencyApplication of fuzzy logic – an example for automotive company23Surface view of the fuzzy inference system – an applicationexample for automotive companyBukowski L., Werbińska-Wojciechowska S.: Using fuzzy logic to support maintenance decisions according to Resilience-Based Maintenance concept, Eksploatacja i Niezawodnosc – Maintenance and Reliability, 2021; 23 (2): 294–307.Resilience-based Maintenance (RBM) concept24ConclusionsNew challenges regarding Industry 5.0 In 2021, the European Commission formally called for the Fifth Industrial Revolution Industry 5.0: towards a sustainable, human-centric and resilient European industry. Luxembourg, LU: European Commission, Directorate-General for Research and Innovation; 2021• Sustainable–circular processes (4’s „R” -reuse, repurpose, recycle, reduce),• Human-centric–from technology-driven to society-centric approach,• Resilient–arming production and services against disruptions and crisis. 25Conclusions• Needs a multidimensional approach incorporation:a)Configuring a resilient topologyb)Creating a functionally resilient SoSc) Providing the modelling approachd)Developing maturity model – for maintenance potential levelassessment26Thank you for attentionSylwia Werbińska-Wojciechowska, Department of Technical Systems Operation and Maintenance e-mail: sylwia.werbinska@pwr.edu.pl; tel. +48 71 320 34 27 View publication stats | RESEARCH GATE |
See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338422343The Influence of Plasticizer Nature and of Processing Mode Upon theCharacteristics of Flexible Poly(vinyl chloride) CompositesArticle in MATERIALE PLASTICE · January 2020DOI: 10.37358/MP.19.4.5275CITATION1READS7926 authors, including:Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:Nano-Composite Coatings: Processing, Characterization, Properties, and Applications View project"Contingency of CBRN hazards and improvement of national security resources SECURE-NET" PN-III-P1-1.2-PCCDI no.70/2018 View projectComan Alina ElenaThe National Institute for Research & Development in Chemistry and Petrochemis…7 PUBLICATIONS 18 CITATIONS SEE PROFILERaluca GaborNational Institute for Research and Development in Chemistry and Petrochemistry123 PUBLICATIONS 1,053 CITATIONS SEE PROFILECristian-Andi NicolaeNational Research and Development Institute for Chemistry and Petrochemistry -…203 PUBLICATIONS 2,140 CITATIONS SEE PROFILEValentin RaditoiuNational Institute for Research and Development in Chemistry and Petrochemistry155 PUBLICATIONS 1,044 CITATIONS SEE PROFILEAll content following this page was uploaded by Coman Alina Elena on 19 June 2020.The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.MATERIALE PLASTICE ♦ 56 ♦ no. 4 ♦ 2019 845 http://www.revmaterialeplastice.ro The Influence of Plasticizer Nature and of Processing Mode Upon the Characteristics of Flexible Poly(vinyl chloride) Composites ALINA ELENA COMAN1,2, AUGUSTA RALUCA GABOR1, CRISTIAN ANDI NICOLAE1, VALENTIN RADITOIU1, GHEORGHE HUBCA2*, TANTA-VERONA IORDACHE1* 1Polymers Department-The National Research & Development Institute for Chemistry and Petrochemistry-ICECHIM, Bucharest, 060021, Romania 2Faculty of Applied Chemistry and Materials Science, Advanced Polymer Materials Group, University Politehnica of Bucharest,1-7 Polizu Str., 011061, 011061, Bucharest, Romania The topic of this paper refers to the influence of the plasticizer and the processing mode upon the characteristics of the poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) composites. Thereby, in this study two types of industrial plasticizers were used to highlight their influence upon the properties of final composites. The employed lubricant was stearic acid, the most common and cheapest additive used in the industry for cables manufacturing. For economic reasons, calcium carbonate of 2 m size was used as reinforcing agent. Further on, two sets of samples were prepared, targeting the influence of the processing mode upon the properties of final composites. Beside the structure (by FT-infrared), thermal behavior (thermal analyses and differential scanning calorimetry) and mechanical properties (dynamic mechanical analyses, tensile strength and elongation at break) of PVC composites, the limiting oxygen index (LOI) and the overall morphology of the samples were also investigated. Keywords: plasticizer influence, LOI, processing methods PVC is intensively used nowadays, due to its low cost, fire resistance, chemically resistance to acids, salts, bases, fats, and alcohols, making it resistant to the corrosive effects of sewage (which is why it is extensively utilized in manufacturing sewer piping systems), electrical protecting properties, good insulation properties, good tensile strength, ability to use it in rigid, semi flexible or flexible state and because it can be colored in a wide range of colors [1-5]. In industry, the most important issues are the quality of the product and the price [6]. It can be said that both are on the same line. Therefore, in this paper a commercial formulation of flexible PVC composite was modified to obtain a more cost-efficient product with improved properties. To accomplish these objectives, diisononyl phthalate (DINP) and dioctyl terephthalate (DOTP) were used as plasticizers. These two plasticizers are intensively used in the industry, because they are cheap and also because they deliver the required properties for the PVC composites according to their final application. DOTP is a non-phthalate plasticizer, being the diester of terephthalic acid and of branched-chain 2-ethylhexanol. DINP is usually a mixture of chemical compounds consisting of various isononyl esters of phthalic acid [7-8]. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is rigid at normal temperature due to intermolecular forces between molecules and short distances between them. When the polymer is heated to a high temperature, the energy of the molecular motions exceeds the energy of the intermolecular forces, and this broadens the molecular distances resulting in PVC softening. Addition of plasticizer prevents the PVC molecules from coming closer to each other. The molecules of the polymer are isolated even at normal temperature and its softening is preserved. This process is called plasticizing [9]. Diisononyl phthalate is categorized as a commodity phthalate ester plasticizer and maintains good performance of composites at low temperature. Dioctyl terephthalate is preferred for volatility resistance, which prevents the health and toxicity issues [10]. Lubricants play a fundamental role in the way in which polyvinyl chloride melts and flows during compounding [11]. Lubricants can be internal, external or combined. External lubricants are used to reduce the friction between the polymer melt and metal surfaces during processing, and internal lubricants are used to reduce frictional forces within the polymer matrix and to lower the effective viscosity. Mixed lubricants have both uses. The employed lubricant in this study was stearic acid, which is a mixed lubricant [12-14]. The calcium carbonate reinforcing material is cheap and also provides good fire-resistance properties to PVC composites. When the compounds are exposed to a flame, CaCl2 is produced and captures the hydrochloric acid emitted during decomposition of the PVC matrix [15-16]. \ In a previous study of the same group the influence of the lubricant upon the properties of PVC composites was investigated [17]. As a result, considering the present literature, this paper provides forward a comparative study on the influence of plasticizers and of the processing mode. Therefore, the study was performed on two variation levels, which implied analyzing two series of PVC composites (with DINP and DOTP) for structure, thermal stability, homogeneity * email: gheorghe_hubca@yahoo.com, Phone: +40744754210; iordachev.icechim@gmail.com, Phone: +40755159896 MATERIALE PLASTICE ♦ 56 ♦ no. 4 ♦ 2019 846 http://www.revmaterialeplastice.ro and fire-resistance. The samples were prepared using different processing modes, i.e. by passing once or by passing twice through the extruder. The literature of PVC composite materials is abundant with new fillers or nanofillers and new plasticizers, but they lead to very high production costs. Therefore, this study also provides an alternative to the eccentric recipes for PVC composites by improving the existing commercial formulations, at lower costs. Experimental part Materials and method For this research the following materials were used: - PVC Ongrovil S5070 from Borsod Chem (K-value 70.4); Diisononyl phthalate (DINP) as plasticizer (LG Chem); Dioctyl terephthalate (DOTP) as plasticizer (Chem Flexx); Ca-Zn salt as heat stabilizer (Baeropan MC 91446 KA/3, Baerlocher); Calcium carbonate particles of 2 m (CaCO3) as reinforcing agent (Omya Calcita); Stearic acid (Stera Chemicals) as lubricant. The test specimens were prepared by melting and mixing PVC with the heat stabilizer, reinforcing agent, plasticizer and lubricant. First of all, the heat stabilizer was mixed with PVC to prevent degradation before processing, afterwards the rest of materials were added in the following order: plasticizer, lubricant and reinforcing agent (formulations given in Table 1). The ingredients were blended in a masticator and heated at 110 °C. After 1 hour, the obtained mass was cooled-down at 50 °C. The next procedure consisted of passing the material through an extruder. The one series of PVC with plasticizer was passed once through the extruder and another series was passed twice. Afterwards, the grains resulted from extrusion were blended into a two-roll mill at 160 °C for 20 min. The temperature of roll milling depends on the final use of end product. For cable isolation, as final application of the employed PVC composites, the temperature is 160 °C. The roll milling smoothed the product by rolling followed by compression at 170 °C to form sheets with dimension 150×150×1 mm3. Table 1 FORMULATIONS OF PVC BASED COMPOSITES Sample code* Plasticizer Processing mode PVC_DINP 1 DINP 1 extruder pass PVC_DOTP 1 DOTP 1 extruder pass PVC_DINP 2 DINP 2 extruder passes PVC_DOTP 2 DOTP 2 extruder passes *All the samples have the following formulation: PVC 100 phr, plasticizer 50 phr, reinforcing agent 80 phr, lubricant 0.4 phr and heat stabilizer 4 phr Infrared spectroscopy analysis (FTIR) Molecular structure of the PVC composites was analyzed using an infrared spectrometer type JASCO FT/IR 6300 Specac Golden Gate ATR with diamond in transmission mode. The measured range was 400-4000 cm-1, 16 scans. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) The thermogravimetric analysis was performed using a thermogravimetric analyzer (Q5000IR, TA Instruments) at a heating rate of 10 °C min-1 under a nitrogen atmosphere or air. Samples of approximately 8 - 14 mg were analyzed in the 40-700 °C temperature range. Differential scanning calorimetric analysis (DSC) Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) experiments were carried out using DSC Q2000 from TA Instruments, working in temperature-modulated mode (MTDSC) with dynamic purge gas (helium 99.99% with flow rate 25 ml min-1, modulated scan). Approximately, 25 - 30 mg samples were weighted and heated from -110 to 155 °C with a heating rate of 20 °C min-1. Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) experiments were carried out using DMA Q800 from TA Instruments, module DMA Multi-Frequency–Strain, in the tension mode. The thermal behaviour of the PVC composites was obtained through the temperature ramp method. The sample size was 13.5 × (6.4-7) × (0.77-0.79) mm and the heating rate was 5 °C min-1 from – 75 to 105 °C. Tensile strength and elongation at break The tensile strength and elongation at break of the samples were performed on a computer-controlled electronic tensile testing machine (Instron 3382) with a constant speed of 100 mm min-1 at room temperature. Limited oxygen index (LOI) The limited oxygen index (LOI) index was tested using a Stanton Redcroft FTA Flammability Unit instrument. The test specimens were 120×60×2 (L×W×T) mm in dimension. MATERIALE PLASTICE ♦ 56 ♦ no. 4 ♦ 2019 847 http://www.revmaterialeplastice.ro Scanning electronic microscopy (SEM) Scanning electronic microscopy (SEM) was used to study the morphology and homogeneity of the PVC samples. Vega-3 (Tescan, Brno, Czech Republic) apparatus in high vacuum mode with working distances in the range of 4–8 mm and an acceleration voltage of 5 kV was used. Before examination, the samples were coated with a thin layer of gold with a gold coater (Quorum Q 150 RS; Quorum Technologies, Lewes, UK). Results and discussion FTIR analysis Plasticizers provide compound flexibility, which improves viscosity and processability [18]. These types of phthalate plasticizers behave like solvents but they are not chemically bounded to PVC [19]. Figure 1 presents the plasticizers IR spectra, which are very much similar due to similarities of the structure. Figure 2 shows the characteristic bands of PVC, plasticizer, lubricant and CaCO3. The presence of PVC is given by de C-Cl bond appearing around 600 cm−1. The band at around 1720 cm-1 is attributed to the C=O vibrations belonging to the ester plasticizer. The decrease of the band intensity at 1720 cm-1 suggests the plasticizer migration. It can be observed that the compound with DINP had a higher decrease of intensity compared to DOTP-based composites. This means that DINP migrate faster from the compound than DOTP [20]. Fig.1 Infrared spectra of plasticizers Fig. 2 FTIR spectra of CaCO3 and 2 PVC composites For carbocatenary long chain (CH and CH2 bonds) of the plasticizer and of the lubricants are overlapping with those of PVC chain at 2850 and 2916 cm−1. At 1270-1273 cm-1 the vibrations of C-O groups belonging to the lubricant (aliphatic carboxyl) and phthalate plasticizer (aromatic carboxyl) appear [21]. The reinforcing agent displays specific bands around 874 cm-1 attributed to Ca-O vibrations, and the bands from 1418 cm-1 corresponding to C-O group from the carbonate structure [22]. The series of PVC composites passed 2 times through the extruder, presented the same bands as the series passed 1 time through the extruder. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) TGA analysis (Table 2) showed that the total mass loss of neat PVC, in the first stage (150 - 380 °C) is about 64 wt.%. In the 40 - 150 °C temperature range no significant mass losses are observed (approximately 0.01 wt.%). The thermal degradation of PVC takes place in two steps, as follows: in the first step (150 - 380 °C), hydrochloric acid is emitted and polyene structures are formed, and in the second step (380- 540 °C) the cyclization of the polyene structures takes place with the formation of aromatic compounds. In the second stage the mass losses are about 27 %. The second stage represents the thermal decomposition of PVC backbone and, therefore, lower molecular weight compounds and smoke are produced [23-25]. MATERIALE PLASTICE ♦ 56 ♦ no. 4 ♦ 2019 848 http://www.revmaterialeplastice.ro For the PVC composites however, an improvement regarding the weight losses in both stages can be observed. After addition of plasticizer, lubricant, stabilizer and reinforcing agent, the mass loss in the first step is about 47-51 wt.% for DINP-based composites and 49-61 wt.% for DOTP-based composites. This mass loss is due to plasticizer desorption [26]. In this temperature range (i.e. 150 – 380 °C), decomposition of the stearic acid lubricant (and of Ca-Zn stabilizer, which is also a metal carboxylate) also begins. In the second step, the composites lose approximately 20 wt. % from the total mass and CaCO3 starts to decompose slowly. Hence, it can be confirmed that this stabilizer is good for this temperatures range as the composites were much more stable at higher temperatures. CaCO3 also minimizes the emissions of hydrochloric acid during the PVC composites degradation by adsorbing hydrochloric acid released during PVC decomposition, leading to the formation of CaCl2. CaCO3 with 2 µm particle sizes can absorb higher amounts of hydrochloric acid [17]. Therefore, it can be stated that calcium carbonate acts as a heat stabilizer by trapping hydrochloric acid. Table 2 THERMOGRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS FOR RAW MATERIALS USED IN PVC COMPOSITES Sample 40 -150°C 150 - 380°C 380 - 540°C 540 - 640°C Onset Point Residue at 700°C Wt. loss Wt. loss Tmax1 Wt. loss Tmax2 Wt. loss Tmax3 Temp Weight (N2) (Air) % % °C % °C % °C °C % % % Neat PVC 0.01 64.19 291.0 27.85 453.2 0.42 - 274.2 99.99 7.29 0.001 PVC_DINP 1 0.15 51.49 286.4 16.70 458.0 1.81 620.4 253.7 98.98 28.63 19.48 PVC_DINP 2 0.16 46.73 275.7 16.89 459.1 2.38 597.9 262.8 98.95 32.78 19.76 PVC_DOTP 1 0.08 61.31 284.6 14.43 456.8 1.02 622.1 261.4 99.06 21.22 13.54 PVC_DOTP 2 0.08 49.18 274.3 11.38 453.3 1.56 556.9 261.8 99.10 33.86 26.77 From the two series of PVC composites, it was noticed that series 2 (composition two times passed through the extruder) presented higher decomposition temperatures, indicating a better homogeneity of the material; this is highly desired to prevent decomposition of PVC before processing. Hence, TGA analysis, underlined that PVC composites with DINP presented similar thermal stability to those with DOTP, as lubricant, but a much better thermal behavior compared to either neat PVC or the first series of samples passed only once through the extruder. Differential scanning calorimetric analysis (DSC) To evaluate the glass transition temperature (Tg) of the composites, DSC was used. The Tg is very important for the composites in general, to establish the processing temperature without degrading the polymer. The decomposition temperature of neat PVC (around 160 °C) is lower than the melting temperature (260 °C). Therefore, it is mandatory to decrease the Tg in order to prevent degradation before processing [27-28]. In Table 3, the Tg for each PVC composite can be observed. Neat PVC, without additives, has a Tg of approximately 85 ºC. According to Table 3, the lowest Tg values were obtained for the samples that passed two times through the extruder machine. This is due to a better homogenization of the materials, gained when the raw materials were extruded twice. PVC compositions with DINP presented a decrease of Tg with about 3 ºC, compared to those with DOTP. This may be due to a more hydrophilic character of DINP, as suggested by the TGA as well (higher water weight loss). Table 3 DSC RESULTS FOR PVC BASED COMPOSITES 1st Heating PVC - Glass Transition Total heat Flow Onset (°C) Tg (°C) End (°C) Δ Cp [J/(g·°C)] PVC_DINP 1 -56.1 -28.9 -2.4 0.252 PVC_DINP 2 -58.0 -36.4 -2.8 0.275 PVC_DOTP 1 -53.7 -25.6 6.0 0.309 PVC_DOTP 2 -56.6 -33.4 -2.3 0.256 Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) One of the most important characteristics for processing the polymeric materials is viscoelasticity. This parameter may be evaluated using a dynamic mechanical analysis instrument, to measure the storage modulus, loss modulus and damping properties. An important index for measuring the stiffness and elasticity of polymeric materials is the storage modulus. Figure 3 shows the storage modulus of PVC composites in DMA temperature scans. It can be seen that composites presented MATERIALE PLASTICE ♦ 56 ♦ no. 4 ♦ 2019 849 http://www.revmaterialeplastice.ro higher storage modulus than neat PVC through the whole temperature scan range. Slight difference can be observed between the samples due to different plasticizers. Composites with DINP showed a higher storage modulus than those with DOTP. The second pass through the extruder is important and it can be observed by the difference in the storage modulus. According to Figure 3 the second series of PVC composites (PVC_DOTP 2 and PVC_DINP 2) registered an increase of the storage modulus and a decrease of the loss modulus. These results confirmed once again that passing the material twice through the extruder leads to more homogenous and compact composites. Tan delta (Figure 4) however, did not present significant differences between composites. The range of this parameter was between 0.39 and 0.4. Concluding, the plasticizer incorporation increased the storage and loss modulus, compared with neat PVC, which explained the higher heat dissipation in the PVC composites compared with neat PVC, confirming that the new formulations of PVC are flexible. Fig. 3 Storage modulus of PVC composites Fig. 4 Tan delta for PVC based composites Tensile strength and elongation at break In practical applications, for evaluating the quality of flexible PVC composites, the most important properties are the mechanical properties such as: tensile strength and elongation at break. It can be observed from Figure 5 a and b that elongation at break and tensile strength of test samples increased when the samples were passed two times on the extruder. From the Figure 5, it can be stated that the mechanical properties made the difference between the two plasticizers. For PVC composites with DINP the increase of tensile strength and elongation at break is approximately 14 %, but for those with DOTP the increase for these properties was about 65 %. Samples with DINP did not attained remarkable mechanical properties compared to neat PVC. Therefore, it can be concluded that DOTP is more efficient when the composites are passed twice through the extruder. The improvement of mechanical characteristics can also be partially attributed to the increase of PVC mobility after passing twice on the extruder [29]. a) b) Fig. 5 Mechanical properties for the two PVC series of composites a) tensile strength, b) elongation at break Limited oxygen index (LOI) The limiting oxygen index represents the percentage of oxygen present to support combustion of the plastic, therefore the higher the LOI the lower the flammability. Any material with LOI value of less than 21 will probably burn in an open-air situation. Values of LOI greater than 21 mean that the composites do not burn immediately in air [30-31]. MATERIALE PLASTICE ♦ 56 ♦ no. 4 ♦ 2019 850 http://www.revmaterialeplastice.ro To register the LOI values, the composite samples were trapped in a vertical glass column fed with a slow stream of oxygen/nitrogen mixture. The samples were ignited with a flame and burned downward. These results are shown in Figure 6. Calcium carbonate cannot be considered a flame-retardant agent, but it acts as a radical scavenger during the ignition and prevents the reaction between PVC molecules and oxygen [16]. The plasticiser plays an important role, as well, in the flame-retardancy of the PVC samples. Usually plasticized composites are more flammable than rigid composite, due to the plasticiser. The highest and lowest LOI were attained for PVC_DINP 2 and PVC_DOTP 1, respectively. Comparing the two series of composites, with DINP or DOTP, it can be observed that the highest value for oxygen index is achieved when the samples are extruded two times. Hence, the sample with DINP (second pass) presented a LOI of 26 % and the one with DOTP (second pass) a LOI of 24.5 %. Fig. 6 LOI values for PVC composites Scanning electronic microscopy (SEM) The final study regarding the PVC samples is the morphology of the composites. As it can be seen from the micrographs in Figure 7, that the samples passed twice through the extruder are more homogenous. Fig. 7. SEM analysis for PVC composites The raw materials are mixed better, and the particle agglomerations are avoided. Samples with one pass through the extruder presented macropores and agglomerations. The plasticiser exhibited an influence on the surface morphology, as well. Samples with DOTP presented a smoother surface compared with DINP samples. This means the compatibility of DOTP with the other raw materials was better assured. Conclusions PVC composites with potential applications in the industry for electrical wires and cables were prepared and characterized. Calcium carbonate with particle size of 2 m as cheap version of flame-retardant filler was used as reinforcing agent. Further on, the influence of plasticizer was studied using two common commercial plasticizers used in the cable industry, i.e. DINP and DOTP. Both plasticizers have proven to decrease the Tg value of PVC and also to deliver adequate properties for the final products. The thermal, mechanical and flame-retardant properties of the PVC composites presented similar improvements when the material was passed twice through the extruder. Yet, a significant MATERIALE PLASTICE ♦ 56 ♦ no. 4 ♦ 2019 851 http://www.revmaterialeplastice.ro increase was observed for the mechanical properties when DOTP was used. Therefore, it can be stated that the optimum formulation of PVC composites for this particular application should be based on DOTP as plasticizer. Plus, the material should definitely be passed through the extruder two times, for better homogenization, as the overall characteristics of the composites have proven to be highly dependent upon the homogenization degree. Acknowledgements: The work has been funded by the Operational Programme Human Capital of the Ministry of European Funds through the Financial Agreement 51668/09.07.2019, SMIS code 124705 and by a grant awarded by UEFISCDI in framework of the PCCDI competition, contract no. 70PCCDI/2018 SECURE-NET. References 1. ZHANG M., BUEKENS A., JIANG X., LI X., Dioxins and polyvinylchloride in combustion and fires, Waste Manag. Res., 33, 2015, p. 630–643. 2. PETROVIC E. K., HAMER L. K, Improving the Healthiness of Sustainable Construction: Example of Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC), Buildings, 8, no. 28, 2018. 3. 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N., SOOMRO S.A., AZIZ S., Effect of various additives on the physical properties of Polyvinylchloride resin, J. Anal. Environ. Chem., 11, no. 2, 2012, p. 44 – 50. 28. MARTIN T. M., YOUNG D.M., Correlation of the glass transition temperature of plasticized PVC using a lattice fluid model, Polym J., 44, 2003, p. 4747–4754. 29. BURDONOV A. E. , BARAKHTENKO V. V., ZELINSKAYA E. V., YUDIN V. E., ELOKHOVSKII V. Y., Dynamic mechanical analysis of composite materials based on polyvinyl chloride and thermal power station waste, Int. Polymer Sci. and Tech., 42, no.7, 2015, p. 53-57. 30. NAKAGAWA Y. A., Note on an Oxygen Index test on Electric Cables, J Fire Sci., 1994; https://doi.org/10.1177/073490419401200603. 31. AL-MOSAWI A. I., MAROSSY K., KÓNYA C., Effect of Plasticizer Percentage on Thermal Properties of Plasticised PVC, Elixir Materials Science, 117, 2018, p. 50509-50511. Manuscript received: 12.11.2019 View publication stats | RESEARCH GATE |
Rural Ceramic Manufacture in PrecolumbianHonduras: The Application of Pétrographie Analysisto the Study of the Chaînes OpératoiresMeaghan Peuramaki-Brown+ABSTRACT. Tbis study presents a prelimi-nary attempt to examine stages witbin thechaîne opératoire of Late Classic (650-900C.E.) ceramic manufacture at the Preco-lumbian site of Rancho del Rio, Honduras.Materials recovered from patio, bousemound, and midden excavations in a ruralsetting, including finished vessel sherdsand potstands, in addition to briquettesmade from local clay sources, are examinedthrough tbin section petrography. Tbisattempt to outline technological chainsand styles allows the classification andunderstanding of behaviour and ultima-tely, cognition, through the identificationof the series of units of actions that bringa material from its natural state to a fabri-cated form.RÉSUMÉ. Cette étude présente une tenta-tive préliminaire d'examiner les étapes dela chaîne opératoire dans la fabricationde céramique au site précolombien (650-900 ap. J.-G.) Rancho del Rio, en Honduras.Des tessons de poterie et des supports àvases recouverts dans les fouilles archéolo-giques d'un patio, d'un monticule domes-tique, et d'un dépotoir dans un contexterurale, en plus de briquettes faites à partirde sources locales d'argile, ont été examinéspar analyse pétrographique. Cette tenta-tive de décrire les chaînes et les modèlestechnologiques permet la classification etla comprébension de comportements, etfinalement, l'approche cognitive, par l'iden-tification de la série des unités d'actions quiapporte un matériel de son état normal àune forme fabriquée.APPLYING MACROSCOPIC TECHNIQUES,. to the analysis of pottery as a meansto understand socio-political identi-ties and boundaries, world systems,and daily activities is commonplacein Precolumbian Mesoamerican stud-ies. Research and the application ofmicrovisual and elemental techniquesto address how and where pottery wasmanufactured were relatively morelimited until approximately 20 yearsago. Key reasons for ignoring such ques-tions and approaches included issues ofpreservation, an inability to efficientlyrecognize manufacture locations andremains, the focus of excavations onmajor site epicentres and elite civic-ceremonial structures to the detrimentof lower strata houselots where muchmanufacture was likely to have occurred(Robin 2002), and a lack of convictionon the part of many archaeologists asto the advantages of archaeometricand geological approaches to the studyof ceramics. Despite numerous ethno-graphic and ethnoarchaeological stud-ies of pottery-making in Mexico andGentral America, literature of the pastcentury reveals additional cause for theomission of archaeometry and geologyfrom these studies including: an absence• Department of ArchaeologyUniversity of Calgary, 2500 University Dr. NW,Calgary, AB T2N 1N4 [mmpeuram@ucalgary.ca]CANADIANJOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY/JOURNAL CANADIEN D'ARCHÉOLOGIE 36: 166-187 (2012)RURAL CERAMIC MANUFACTURE IN PRECOLUMBIAN HONDURAS • 167of questions posed regarding the chaîneo/>érato¿re of manufacture; and the beliefthat archaeological typologies based onmacroscopic characteristics can supplysignificant and abundant informationregarding finished vessels (Wardle1992:11).This paper presents a study in thecharacterization of the micro-natureof ceramics from the Precolumbiansite of Rancho del Rio in northwesternHonduras through the use of thin sec-tion pétrographie analysis to outiine thechaîne opératoire of manufacture. Thisstudy serves as a preliminary attempt tocombine macrovisual and microvisualanalyses of both finished ceramics andmanufacture residue in the discussion ofmanufacture behaviour on a local, com-munity level in Precolumbian Honduras.Identifying Ceramic ManufactureWhy study ceramic manufacture andproduction?' Is it important to under-stand where, how, and by whom vesselswere made? Manufacture, or technol-ogy, is "not simply a body of explicitiyformulated and objectively describedknowledge," but "is one of the socialprocesses by which individuals negoti-ate and define their identities, in termsof gender, age, belief, class, and so on"(Sinclair 2000:196). Individuals learnthe techniques of manufacture as mem-bers of their respective societies, makingthem part of the social processes thatarchaeologists and anthropologists areso keen to understand. As such, outlin-ing the manufacturing processes ofceramic vessels can lead to an under-standing of incorporated social proc-esses and behaviours.Understanding ceramic manufacturethrough the behaviour of producers isan attempt to codify phenomenal orderswithin ceramic variation as opposed tothe ideational orders of typical type-variety systems (Ford and Steward 1954).The adoption of techniques that focuson the understanding of manufactur-ing choices, or chaînes opératoires, allowsthe classification and consideration ofbehaviour and potentially cognition,through the identification of series ofbehavioural units or actions that bringa material from its natural state to afabricated form (Bleed 2001; Cresswell1976; Lemonnier 1986). Such actionsare imbued with cultural and evenindividual influences while at the sametime being restricted by the physio-chemical properties of the raw materials(Arnold 1971; Hassan 1988; Schiffer1976). This approach to material cultureallows archaeologists a closer view ofdynamic individual agency and sharedideas within given social groups of theprehistoric past, through the identifica-tion of patterns and differences in static"things" that are reflective of choices(Lemonnier 1992). The chaîne opératoireapproach serves to outiine the four ele-ments of any technological process—materials, tools, actions, and specificknowledge (Sheets et al. 1975)—andfocuses directiy on the behaviours of arti-sans and the use of discontinuities in themanufacture process to isolate analyticaltaxa in an attempt to place behaviours ina framework of theoretical interrelation-ships (Sheets etal. 1975:378).Considering behavioural units,Arnold (1991:87) distinguishes threeclasses of data that might potentiallyserve to identify Mesoamerican ceramicmanufacture locations and inferredbehaviour from the archaeologicalrecord induding: 1 ) the tools and facili-ties of manufacture, including oftencited "enigmatic firing features"; 2) themistakes and residues of manufacture;and 3) the finished products (see RiceJOURNAL CANADIEN D'ARCHÉOLOGIE 36 (2012)168 • PEURAMAKI-BROWN1996 and Stark 1983 for similar classesof data). This third class of data canprovide a wealth of important informa-tion concerning patterns of distribution,characteristics of consumer populationsand most importantly, information onthe physical manufacture of the items.The ability to recover such diverse datafrom this final category is critical as mostoften it is the third class archaeologistsare left to consider.Any combined analysis of all three ofArnold's classes can therefore potentiallyprovide more in-depth interpretationsregarding the reconstruction of specificprimary and secondary technologi-cal behaviours comprising the chamesopératoires involved in ceramic manufac-ture. A study of these chains thereforerequires multi-step approaches involv-ing both the characterization of finishedproducts and the linking of these itemsto a manufacturing location, associatedtools, and material source on the land-scape.Valle de CacaulapaDuring the summers of 2003 and 2004,archaeological survey, testing, andexcavations were conducted at the Pre-Columbian site of Rancho del Rio in thelower Valle de Cacaulapa of the SantaBarbara District, northwestern Hondu-ras (Figure 1 ). The Valle de Cacaulapa isa narrow valley of the Rio Chamelecónand its tributary, the Rio Cacaulapa, andis located approximately 35 km westof the modern city of San Pedro Sula.Originating in the igneous/volcanic andmetamorphic highlands to the south,the rivers carry water year-round andthe valley itself is situated at the nexusof three geological zones: the Atimalimestone formation to the southeast;Contour lines = 500 m asi50 kmFIGURE i. Map showing location of Rancho del Rio in northwestern Honduras (redrawn fromSmall and Shugar 2004:Figure 1 ).CANADIANJOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY 36 (2012)RURAL CERAMIC MANUFACTURE IN PRECOLUMBIAN HONDURAS • 169igneous rock intrusions and flows to thesouth; and various areas of sand andsiltstone to the north and east (Wells2004:68-69). This unique posirionprovided numerous resources for thePrecolumbian populations of the valley:copper ores, basalt, perlite, limestone,chert, volcanic tuff/ash, and clay-basedsoils. Valley soils are of limestone originand are highly fertile, while other valleysediments are well suited for ceramicproduction (Wells 2004:69).The valley was first extensively sur-veyed in the late 1990s (Urban et al.2000; Wells 2003), at which time 38sites were identified, the largest beingEl Coyote in the southern portion of thevalley. This site covers approximately6 km'-^ and encompasses a minimum of360 platform structures, 28 of whichform the site epicentre. El Coyote wasoccupied from the Middle Preclassic(ca. 600-400 B.C.E.) until the EarlyPostclassic (900-1100 C.E.), with itsstrongest episode of occupation occur-ring in the Late Classic (650-900 C.E.)and Early Postclassic (900-1100 C.E.)periods (Small and Shugar 2004; Urban2007). The rural hinterland sites associ-ated with El Coyote range from hamletscomposed of 22 mounds to mere artifactscatters; Rancho del Rio is includedamong these rural hinterland sites.Rancho del RioThe small site of Rancho del Rio, situ-ated on private farmland immediatelyadjacent to the main highway and aschool yard, was first visited and surveyedby archaeologists in 1997 as part of thelarger valley reconnaissance (Small andShugar 2004). The site consists of atleast seven mounds, ranging in heightfrom under .5 m to 5 m, surrounding alarge central courtyard (Figure 2). Thisconfiguration suggests a small rural set-tlement in the hinterlands of El Coyotelikely inhabited by a loosely connectedgroup of people. The initial investiga-tive season at the site in 2003 aimed tounderstand its physical extent and toconstruct a chronology of its occupa-tion. Test excavations concentrated onthe primary courtyard of the site and thearea to the south of Mound 1 to revealthe relationship of these open areaswith surrounding mounds (Small andShugar 2004). Occupation was found tobe limited to the Late Classic and EarlyPostclassic periods, with the majorityof activity taking place in the former. Avery similar occupation span was notedat many other small hamlet locationsstudied to date in the valley (Urban2007). Excavations in 2004 opened upa large section of the northeast portionof the courtyard (Suboperation B) andMound 7, following discoveries made inthe previous season (Small and Peura-maki-Brown 2004).6\Plaza Excavations¡2004)Midden 2(2003)FIGURE 2. Rectilinear map of Rancho delRío site and location of 2004 excavationsand 200.^5 midden discoveries (redrawn fromSmall and Shugar 2004:Figure 2).JOURNAL CANADIEN D'ARCHÉOLOGIE 36 (2012)170 • PEURAMAKI-BROWNRancho del Rio Ceramic ManufacturingDuring the 2003 testing it was discoveredthat the ancient inhabitants of Ranchodel Rio were possibly engaged in potteryproduction. Large middens, consist-ing primarily of ceramic debris, wereencountered in the courtyard and southof Mound 1. This debris included oppor-tunistic ceramic tools (broken sherdsused as scrapers, shapers, and smoothersin pottery manufacture, similar to thosefound at the site of K'axob in NorthernBelize [Várela etal. 2001:186-187]),vitrified ceramic (occasionally labelledas ceramic "slag"), pieces of clay waste,crushing implements (manos andmetates), countless broken sherds ofthefour paste groups examined in this study,possible temper blocks of a low-gradeschist (discussed below), and potstands.Potstands comprise a distinctive arti-fact class in this region during the LateClassic. They typically conform to a fairlystandard design consisting of a flaringbase surmounted by a straight neck ter-minating in a flat rim, usually fashionedfrom a modified jar rim (Figure 3). Manyare spattered with clay globules towardtheir bases, possible tell-tale signs ofmanufacture. This presence of globules,often multiple layers thick, implies theuse of these artifacts as supportive restsfor vessels while they were still wet andbeing shaped. The baked nature of theclay globules also suggests that the standsheld the shaped vessels during the firingstage, thus serving as a piece of firingfurniture (Urban 2007:44).Similar potstands have been recov-ered at the nearby site of Las Canoasand elsewhere in the valley (Stockett2005:388). Despite excavation of twoLate Classic pottery kilns at La Sierra inthe neighbouring Naco valley, no similarFIGURE 3. Geramic potstand with arrow indicating clay globules on exterior surface (photo-graphed by M. Peuramaki-Brown, 2004).CANADIANJOURNAL OF ARGHAEOLOGV 36 (2012)RURAL CERAMIC MANUFACTURE IN PRECOLUMBIAN HONDURAS • 171artifacts were uneartbed along with thesefiring features (Urban etal. 1997:44).Such a pattern might suggest ceramicswere fashioned at the same time in bothareas, but following different proce-dures within each valley. The potstandstherefore serve a potential direct linkin the chaîne opératoire, from the rawmaterial through the forming stage tothe finished object, as they supply two,and sometimes three, possible identifi-able local fabrics—tbe original pot andthe adhering clay(s). Work with ceramicsherds and potstands recovered from2003 testing and the more extensive2004 excavations at the site strives tocreate a preliminary base from whichinvestigations into the chaînes opératoiresof ceramic manufacture and resultantquestions concerning production mightbe launched.Thin Section PetrographyThe importance of knowledgeof the potter's materials is self-evident. The materials set limitswithin which the potter had towork and the status of the crafthas to be judged witbin tbeselimits. Furthermore, the potter'schoice of materials and the waysin which she used them, togetherwith form and style of decoration,are trademarks—our means, oftenpowerful, of locating centres ofproduction [Shepard 1965: xii].In order to begin the study of ceramicmanufacturing processes it is necessaryto adopt techniques that provide greaterinsight into the physical materials (char-acterization of finished products) thanis provided by traditional macroscopictype-variety systems. Thin section pétro-graphie analysis is a geological techniqueemployed to systematically describe,classify, and identify mineral and rock(Barclay 2001:9; Bishop et al. 1982:285;Gribble and Hall 1992:6; Rice 1987:376;Rye 1981:51-52; Shepard 1965:139; Tite1999:195; Vince 2003). It is derived fromthe broader field of petrology and is con-cerned witb the origin, occurrence, com-position, and history of rocks, incltidingboth chemical and physical-opticalcharacterizations (Rice 1987:376). Thetechnique is not complex but requirestime to prepare thin sections (or, less fre-quently, individual grain mounts [Rice1987:381]), and to perfect identificationskills. Even after many years of applica-tion this technique remains a qualitativeand individual method that varies frompractitioner to practitioner. For a briefhistory of the technique, see referencesin Bishop (1994) and Thompson (1991).The application of pétrographieanalysis to pottery studies is hingedon a view of ceramics as "an anthropo-genic low pressure meta-sediment... anartificial mudstone ... usually contain-ing temper... Typically this material isalso geological, e.g., sand grains, shellsor rock fragments" (Groom 2004;see also Rice 1987:376). Petrographyis applied to ceramic analysis for anumber of potential purposes includ-ing the description and classification offabrics, identification of raw materialsand paste recipes, prediction of rawmaterial source-locations and manufac-ture locales, and technological sttidies(Barclay 2001:10; MacSween 1995:135).Each of these issues cannot always besuccessfully addressed, however, "inregions with a relatively complex igne-ous and metamorphic geology, it isoften possible, in the case of coarse-textured pottery, to suggest the generalarea (or areas) from which the tempercould have originated on the basis ofJOURNAL CANADIEN D'ARCHÉOLOGIE 36 (2012)172 • PEURAMAKI-BROWNpétrographie description of the potteryfabric itself (Tite 1999:196; see alsoVince 1995:121). For an ideal exampleof ceramic pétrographie analysis, seeShepard's (1936) work on the ceramicsfrom Pecos in the southwestern UnitedStates in which she demonstrates thatpottery previously believed to have beenmade locally had actually been traded infrom neighbouring regions.The Pétrographie ProcessPétrographie analysis initially involvesthe preparation of thin sections, a proc-ess involving the removal of a slice ofthe sherd perpendicular to the surfaceusing a tile saw (Barclay 2001:9; Vince2003). If the specimen is found to bebrittie or friable, as is often the case withlow-fired ceramics, it is impregnated withepoxy resin prior to fine grinding andpolishing. The section (roughly 2 cm^)is then glued to a frosted glass slide withepoxy and once dry, is ground to an idealthickness of .03 mm (30 ]im), and sealedwith a thin cover slip using Canadianbalsam sap that allows removal of the slipif desired (Barclay 2001:9-10; Shepard1965:139).^The prepared thin section is thenplaced under a polarizing microscopefor examination. Light is directed tovibrate/travel in a single plane, ratherthan multiple planes as normal by pass-ing through two polarizers (calcite prismreflectors) (Gribble and Hall 1992:1-4;Rice 1987:377-379). When the light ispassed through both prism reflectors(the lower polarizer and the analyzer)the specimen is under a "crossed polar-ized" condition (Rice 1987:377).Since mineral crystals are distin-guished from each other by differentinternal and external morphologies(faces, planes, axes, cleavage points),the transmission of the polarized lightthrough the various mineral crystalsproduces unique images, textures, andcolours that can be interpreted by theanalyst to produce an identification(Gribble and Hall 1992; Mason andBerry 1968:12; Rice 1987:376). Thereare several primary properties examinedas a means of mineral identification:relief, pleochroism, and colouration(under plane polarized light); birefrin-gence, twinning, and isotropism (undercrossed-polarized light); and mineralfeatures including cleavage, fracture,habit (shape), and degradation (Gribbleand Hall 1992:6-15; Rice 1987:378-379;Whitbread 1986:79). Simple chemicalstaining of sections can also be used todifferentiate between minerals of simi-lar optic and pétrographie appearance(e.g., calcite and dolomite) (Barclay2001:9).When dealing with ceramics, pétro-graphie analysis serves to identify natu-rally occurring mineral/rock inclusions(aplastics) in the clay body and may alsolead to the identification of intention-ally added materials known as "tempers"(Barclay 2001:10). This technique servesan ideal middle-ground between mac-rovisual and compositional (elemental)analysis, thus shedding light on suchissues as potting choices, raw materialaccess, and paste recipes. Each aplastictype is identified, using the above men-tioned characteristics, and is countedthrough either a technique known as"point counting" or an area percentageestimation. Research comparing theeffectiveness of both, as well as grainsize estimates, suggest little variationbetween results from each method(Friedman 1958).For the petrofabric descriptionsmade in this study, I expressed aplasticabundance as a percentage of the totalceramic body (due to time constraints).CANADIAN JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY 36 (2012)RURAL CERAMIC MANUFACTURE IN PRECOLUMBIAN HONDURAS • 173achieved by visually comparing theaplastic grains present in the thin sec-tions with prepared charts illustratingdifferent percentages. Granulometryor textural analysis was performed byobserving grain size, shape, degree ofroundedness and sphericity, degreeof sorting, and particle density foreach aplastic type and determined bycomparison with charts developed bysedimentologists (Figure 4). These char-acteristics can help to further distinguishdifferent petrofabrics represented in aceramic assemblage and may also pro-vide clues concerning the geographicor geologic location of raw materialsources and manufacturing centres aswell as vessel function. Each descriptionconsisted of macroscopic detail (colourbased on the subsurface margins of thesherds, believed to represent the "natu-ral" clay colour [see Rye 1981:119]) anda pétrographie description. Descriptionsare modelled after those of Sunahara(2003).Stages of AnalysisThe following analysis addresses thequestion of pottery manufacture atRancho del Rio during the Late Classic(650-900 C.E.) (for complete analysisresults and interpretations, see Peura-maki-Brown [2004]). Pétrographie anal-ysis was chosen above other analyticaltechniques due to the large number ofaplastics within the pastes. The analysiswas composed of three stages, conform-ing to Arnold's three classes of dataaforementioned.Stage 1: Preliminary Identification (Arnold'sThird Class)Stage 1 consisted of the selection andpettographic description of 20 unslipped(utilitarian) ceramic sherds from fourprominently represented paste groupswithin midden material at the site. TheCacaulapa, San Joaquin, Pueblo Nuevo,and Pitones paste groups were based onthe type-variety-mode system employedby Urban and Schortman for the Valleyof Cacaulapa (Henderson and Beaudry-Corbett 1993). The sample consisted offive jar rim sherds from each of the mac-rovisual paste groups. As differences inpaste can occur between different partsof a vessel (e.g. the base versus the rim),only sherds of the same type (rims) wereselected for the analysis. This ensuredvalid comparisons could be drawn whenthe sherds were observed microscopi-cally•1%10%• • •2%15%5%'••-•' •21»ií50% 75%INCtUSION PERCENTAGEvery well sorted well sortedDEGREE OF SORTINGSUB-ROUNDEDROUNDEDNESSGRITVERY COARSE SANDCOARSE SANDMEDIUM SANDFINE SANDVERY FINE SANDSILT>2.0 mm1.0-2.0 mm05-1.0 mm1/4-1/2 mm1/8-1/4 mm1/16-1/amm<l/16mmFIGURE 4. Granulometr)' visualization charts (redrawn from Groom 2004 based on varioussedimentology source material; no associated figure or page numbers).JOURNAL CANADIEN D'ARCHÉOLOGIE 36 (2012)174 • PEURAMAKI-BROWNThe sherds (including potstandsmentioned below) were systematicallyselected from midden and occupationdebris lots in Suboperation B. These lotswere directly associated with the late LateClassic courtyard surface, which, in turnare associated with the middens idend-fied in 2003. Each sherd was describedmacroscopically, illustrated, photo-graphed, and thin sectioned. This sam-pling strategy was based on suggestionsin Orton (2000) and Schneider (1995)for preliminary pétrographie studies.Time constraints and available fundingfurther restricted the number of samplesanalyzed. Petrofabric descriptions wereconducted based on qualitative analyses:individual aplastic identification; aplasticabundance (as percentage); and granu-lometry (inclusion sphericity, size, anddegree of sorting). Any changes due tofiring were also noted.Stage 2: Potstand Analysis (Arnold'sFirstand Second Classes)Stage 2 consisted of the pétrographieanalysis of clay globules on potstandsfrom Rancho del Rio courtyard debrisand middens. Thin sections were createdfrom five identified potstarid sherds (PI,P2, P3, P4, and P5) with globules repre-senting two macrovisually different resi-dues (large tan-coloured globules and athinner less clumping grey residue) inan attempt to match this manufacturingwaste to one or more of the identifiedpetrofabrics.Stage 3: Clay Sourcing (Arnold's Secondand Third Classes)The final stage consisted of attemptsto identify the environment and/orsources from which the clays and possibletempers used in pottery manufacture atRancho del Rio were obtained. Three claysources were collected, based primarilyon proximity to the site and ease of cur-rent access, and tested through briquettemanufacture and open-pit firing: SourceA consisted of an exposed clay bed on thewest side of the Rio Cacaulapa, southeastof the site; Source B was an exposed claybed from the north side of the Rio Cha-melecón beneath the highway bridgesouth of the site; Source C was an openpit in an escarpment approximately250 m northwest of the site on the oppo-site side of the main highway. The clayfrom this pit is currently mined as washfor bajareque (watde and daub) houses.During Precolumbian times it was possi-bly used in a similar fashion, as well as inceramic production. A fourth briquetteincluded the crushed schist (possibletemper) from courtyard and middentesting and excavations. Thin sectionsof each briquette were examined macro-scopically and petrographically.Results and DiscussionAs is common practice, petrofabrics'are named for their most abundantinclusion (Sunahara 2003:187). As thefive petrofabrics from Rancho del Riohave volcanic ash as their most abun-dant inclusion, I will use this rule foronly three fabrics and will name theremaining two for their next most abun-dant inclusion that distinguishes thesegroups from the others. From the fourtype-variety paste groups representedin the Rancho del Rio ceramic sample,five petrofabric groups were identifiedusing the aforementioned observationcategories: Volcanic Ash 1 (VAl); Vol-canic Ash 2 (VA2) ; Volcanic Ash 3 (VA3) ;Muscovite 1 (Ml); and Muscovite 2 (M2)(Figure 5 and Table 1 ).The clay bodies appear very similarin aplastic content, including volcanicash and many fine particles of muscoviteand polycrystalline quartz, and are likelyCANADIAN JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY 36 (2012)RURAL GERAMIG MANUFAGTURE IN PREGOLUMBIAN HONDURAS • 175FIGURE 5. Rancho del Rio petrofabrics, plane polarized light lOx magnification (photo-graphed by M. Peuramaki-Brown, 2004).derived from similar environments.They are secondary in nature and likelyof metamorphic and igneous origin,indicated by metamorphic and igneousrock fragments within the clay body(natural inclusions), volcanic ash, andpolycrystalline quartz (MacKenzie andAdams 1994:48,153-155; MacKenzieand Guilford 1980:71). This would seemtypical of river sediments in the area,particularly from the Chamelecón River,which has its headwaters in the igneous/volcanic and metamorphic highlandsto the south. Unfortunately, good geo-logical maps are not currentiy availablefor the valley (the creation of such amap would be a useful future project).Trace amounts of ash in current localday deposits (discussed below) may bea result of the temporal nature of ashdeposits as layers within day sediments.PetrofabricsAlthough the aplastic content appearsto represent a continuum, differencesin ratios of aplastics, grain size, as wellas shape, provide a rationale for theproposed division of the pétrographiegroups. All contain a high percentage ofvolcanic ash, though only VAl appearsto have ash temper. The "crisp" edgesof the ash within the clay body, unlikethe "blended" ash borders seen in VA2,VA3, Ml, and M2, together with thegreat abundance of ash, lends credenceto this premise (for similar observations,see Jones [1991:172]). Volcanic ash is adesirable inclusion because its low levelof thermal expansion and irregular parti-cle shapes allow for stronger bonds withday (Arnold 1991:23-24). During theLate Classic throughout most of lowlandMesoamerica, volcanic ash is a highlyfavoured tempering material (Ford andRose 1995). Therefore it is possible thistemper addition is related to larger world-systems trends. Overall, VAl is extremelyhomogenous when compared with theother petrofabrics in the sample. The rel-atively fine grain size of all inclusions andthe abundance of volcanic ash suggestthat this paste was carefully prepared, pos-sibly by sieving the clay prior to manufac-ture and/or the addition of ash temper.JOURNAL CANADIEN D'ARGHÉOLOGIE 36 (2012)176 • PEURAMAKI-BROWNTABLE I. Comparison of granulometric observationsPetrofabrie AplasticsVolcanic volcanic ashAshlplagioclase^^•mmmm-zi g y p s u mscbistpolyciystallinequartzopaquesbasaltchert^^^^^pp muscovitegrogK^Ç& chloritepseudobone'•" " - " granite/gneissVolcanic volcanic ashAsh2plagioclaseg>'psum''-.'^^^^ scbistpolycrystallinequartzopaquesbasaltchertmtiscovitcgrogcbloritepseudobonegranite/gneissVolcanic volcanic ashAsh 3plagioclasegypsumschistpolycrystallinequartzopaques%391<1<15<1<1<15001<^32313105<1<15103<^3231382Shapeangularsubrounded tosubangularsubangular toangularsubrotinded tosubangularsubangular toangularrotindedsubangularsubangularsubangularangularsubangular toangularangularsubangtilarsubangular toangularsubangularsubangular toangularroundedsubangularsubrounded tostibangularsubangtilarangularangularsubangtilar toangularangtilarsubangtilarsubangular toangularsubangtilarsubangular toangularroundedfor each of the five petrofabrics.Sortingwellpoorlymoderatelypoorlypoorlywellmoderatelymoderatelypoorlywellwellmoderatelypoormoderatelypoorpoormoderatelywellwellmoderately-wellwellwellwellmoderatelymoderatelyinoderatelypoorpoormoderatelyGrain sizefine to meditim sand |Ivery fine to medium sandvery fine to medium sandvery fine to coarse sandvery fine to coarse sand •fine to meditim sandmedium to coarse sandmedium to coarse sandsilt to medium sand ^ji^g;medium to coarse sandmedium to coarsefine to coarse sandvery fine to coarse sandvery fine to medium sandvery fine to very coarse ,isandveiy fine to medium sandvery fine to medium sandmedium to very coarsemedium to coarse sandmedium sandmedium to coarse sandcoarse sand imédium to coarsefine to médium sandvei'y fine to fine sandvery fine to fine sandvery fine to coarse sandvery fine to fine sandvery fine to medium sandCANADIANJOURNAL OE ARCHAEOLOGY 36 (2012)RURAL CERAMIC MANUFACTURE IN PRECOLUMBIAN HONDURAS • 177TABLE I continued.Petrofabric Aplasticsbasaltchertmuscovitegrogchloritepseudobonegranite/gneissMuscovite 1 volcanic ashplagioclasegypsum1,"' 'lî schist*polycrystallinequartz«• at,' opaquesbasaltl^\'" chertmuscovitec hlorite^ i ^ pseudobonegranite/gneissMuscovite 2 volcanic ashplagioclasegypsumschistpolycrystallinequartzopaques^ ^ ¿ basaltcherts K ^ muscovitegrogchloritepseudobone^.h- ' ' •" gi.inite/gneiss%33<103<^251<115157<11152<15<^152110107<1110<1<15<1Shapesubangularsubrounded tosubangularsubangularangularangularsubangular toangularangularangularsubangular toangularsubrounded toangularsubangular toangularroimded tosubangularsubroundedsubroundedsubangular toan0*ularc u JI C^ LA 1 vLlsubangular toangularangularangularsubangular toangularangularangularsubangular toangularsubrounded toangularsubangular toangularsubroundedsubroundedsubroundedsubangular toangularangularangularangularsubangular toangularSortingwellwellwellwellwellwellpoorlypoorlymoderatelypoorlypoorlymoderatelywellpoorlymoderatelymoderatelyvery wellwellwellmoderatelypoormoderatelypoorpoormoderatelywellwellmoderatelymoderatelyvery wellwellwellGrain sizemedium to very coarse *medium to coarse sandfine sandmedium sand^ ^medium to coarse sandmedium to coarsefine to very coarse sandfine to coarse sandfine to coarse sandmedium to very coarsesandvery fine to coarse sandvery fine to medium sandcoarse to very coarse sandfine to coarse sandfine to medium sandfine sand to gritcoarse sandcoarse sand *Ï^^Bmedium to coarsevery fine to medium sandfine to coarse sandfine to coarse sand ,fine to coarse sandvery fine to coarse sandvery fine to medium sandcoarse :coarse to very coarse sandfine sandmedium sandfine to medium sandcoarse sandmedium to coarse |JOURNAL CANADIEN D'ARCHÉOLOGIE 36 (2012)178 • PEURAMAKI-BROWNVA2 and VA3 are similar to VAl intheir high content of volcanic ash andtheir relatively porous body; however,the ash in these petrofabrics is moresimilar to that of Ml and M2. The bor-ders of the ash are blended making itappear to be a natural part of the clay.They also possess a slightly higher per-centage of inclusions (other than ash)when compared with VAl, though lessthan the Muscovite petrofabrics. Theyare slightly coarser than VAl and thelighter colour (7.5 YR 6/3 to 7/2, lightbrown to pinkish gray) of VA2 as com-pared with VAl and VA3 (7.5 YR 6/4 to5 YR 5/4 light brown to reddish brown)may be due to its higher content of mus-covite and polycrystalline quartz. Wlienfired, higher silica contents produce acream-pink to light brown colour (de laFuente 2004:6).While the most abundant inclusion inMl and M2 is volcanic ash, they differ sig-nificantly from their Volcanic Ash petro-fabric counterparts in their very highcontent of muscovite mica, polycrystallinequartz, and micaceous schist. The pres-ence, although small, of chlorite (likelypart of the schist) also distinguishes thesepetrofabrics from the three Volcanic Ashpastes. The abundance of these threeinclusions, as well as their more angularand coarse nattire (characteristic of mate-rials that have been ground up) whencompared with the previous three petro-fabrics suggest their possible addition astemper (Rye 1981:37).During excavations in the courtyard,lumps of easily flaked low-grade meta-morphic micaceous schist were recov-ered in association with other ceramicdebris. Schist blocks were not used inthe architecture of the valley, nor haveknown source outcrops been identifiedto date. The nearby Naco Valley doeshave schist sources and Precolumbianinhabitants used varieties of the stonein architectural construction. As isexplained below, experimentation withthe schist found at the site producedresults similar to those observed in theMuscovite petrofabrics. The possibilityof trade in schist between the two valleysis a subject that deserves future investiga-tion. Finally, the differences in ratios ofmuscovite, polycrystalline quartz, andmicaceous schist between Ml and M2may account for the colour differentia-tion between the two petrofabrics, as itdoes between VA2 and VA3.While grog (crushed, recycledsherds) could add strength to a vessel,due to the angular nature of the crushedparticles, and would have been a readilyavailable material at any ceramic manu-facture location (Jones 1986:20), onlya small amount was present in four ofthe five petrofabrics. These pieces weredistinguished from other argillaceousinclusions by their angular shape, inclu-sions (similar to those of the identifiedpetrofabrics, though the clay bodyappears different), and narrow inter-face between inclusion and clay body(a corona shaped void) (Jones 1986:20;Whitbread 1986). Although it is possiblethat only a small amount of grog waspurposely added to these ceramic fab-rics, perhaps for ritual purposes includ-ing the transference of mana (spiritualforce) as suggested by L. Cecil for somelowland Maya censer pastes (personalcommunication), it is also possible thatthe addition of any grog was uninten-tional. For example, crushed bits ofceramic on work surfaces could havebeen accidentally kneaded into the claybodies during preparation.PotstandsWhen the potstand thin sections wereexamined (Figure 6), the thinner lessCANADIANJOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY 36 (2012)RURAL CERAMIC MANUFACTURE IN PRECOLUMBIAN HONDURAS • 179FIGURE 6. Rancho del Río potstands with arrows indicating globule layers on exteriors, planepolarized light lOx magnification (photographed by M. Peuramaki-Brown, 2004).clumped gray sediment found coat-ing PI, P2, and P3 did not resembleany of the petrofabrics representedin the Rancho del Rio ceramic thinsections. Under the microscope, theresidue appeared to be of silt size grainsinstead of clay. It is possible this siltyresidue was the result of past floodingin areas of the courtyard due to a rise inwater levels in the nearby ChamelecónRiver. The high quantity of calcite inthe silt might be related to the calciteobserved in the clay sources analyzedfrom the valley and linked to the flowof the river through the Atima forma-tion. P4 and P5 were much more typi-cal in appearance for potstands withglobules observed at other sites in thevalley. The similarity of the exteriorglobules with two of the petrofabrics(VA2 and VA3 respectively) repre-sented in the Rancho del Rio ceramicmaterial suggest that manufacture wasindeed occurring at the site; however,it is important to remember these areonly preliminary sttidies and otherpotstands similar to those in this studyshould be analyzed before any firmconclusions are attained.Clay SourcesAlthough none of the clay sources(Figure 7) analyzed were an exact matchto the ceramic petrofabrics, primarilydue to the presence of temper in theceramics and lack of large volcanicash percentages in the sources, somesimilarities were observed. Muscovite,polycrystalline quartz, micaceous schist,plagioclase feldspar, basalt, and gypsumare all rocks and minerals found in boththe Rancho del Rio petrofabrics and thethree clay sources. The lack of ash withinthe sources, except for a small amount inSource B, could be due to the spatial andtemporal distribution of volcanic ashdeposits (correct clay bed not sampled)and addition of volcanic ash as temperto ceramics. If sources from differentgeological times/periods are testedfrom the valley, it is possible volcanic ashdeposits will be located within the sedi-ments. The high content of calcite in allsources (absent in ceramics), hkely dueto river flow through the Atima forma-tion, may also be a temporal character-istic. Overall, the particular mineralsand rocks found within the clay sources(metamorphic and igneous/volcanic),as well as their angularity, suggest a pos-sible match in environmental sourcing.However, there can be no definite con-clusion drawn as analyses of more sourceand sherd samples are required.When some of the easily flaked mus-covite schist (a low-grade metamorphic)JOURNAL CANADIEN D'ARCHÉOLOGIE 36 (2012)180 • PEURAMAKI-BROWNSOURCE ASOURCE BSOURCE C with schist temper1 mmFIGURE 7. Glay sources tested, plane polarized light lOx magnification (photographed byM. Peuramaki-Brown, 2004).that was recovered from courtyardexcavations was crushed and added to atest briquette with Clay Source C, someinteresting observations were made.The overall percentage of muscovite(common in schistose rock), polycrys-talline quartz, and micaceous schistincreased. Also present after the addi-tion of the temper was chlorite, whichis found primarily within the identifiedschist fragments.Numerous observations indicate theaddition of this material as temper byLate Classic potters. First, the presenceof this rock associated with potterysherds, possible ceramic manufacturingtools, and manufacture residue withinthe late facet of the Late Classic court-yard suggest associated use patterns. Theabsence of known outcropping in thevalley and the lack of use of this type ofrock in Late Classic valley architecturesuggest an anomalous use pattern forsuch stone sources. Finally, the increasedpresence of muscovite, polycrystallinequartz, micaceous (muscovite) schist,and chlorite within two of the petrofab-rics from the Rancho del Rio sample andthe angular nature of these inclusionssuggest the addition of schist temper.Why schist was added, given that it hasno known advantage in pottery manu-facture, is uncertain. However, the addi-tional "sparkle" that the muscovite in theschist provides may have been a desiredcharacteristic, exemplified by other highmicaceous content paste groups fromthe valley such as Joya, Monte Redondo,and Minitas (Pat Urban and EdwardSchortman, personal communication2004) and the specular hematite finisheson Coner ceramics at the nearby MayaCANADIANJOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY 36 (2012)RURAL CERAMIG MANUFACTURE IN PREGOLUMBIAN HONDURAS • 181city of Copan (Goodall et al. 2009). Ifwe consider modern uses, muscovite(the predominant mineral in the RDRrecovered schist) is frequently used inwindows for high temperature ovens andas a heat and electrical insulator becauseit is fireproof and withstands extremetemperatures; ideal properties for manyvessel types (Deer et al. 1997:1-55).Finally, the addition of the schist toClay Source C also created a post-firingcolour change (10 YR 7/6 yellow whenwet, 7.5 YR 6/4 light brown post-firing)not observed in tbe briquette made onlyof Clay SourceC (10YR7/6yellow whenwet, 7.5 YR 7/4 pink post-firing). Theaddition of the schist caused a colourchange from a yellow to a light brown,similar to that observed in Ml, M2, andVA2, all of which have more schist, mus-covite, and polycrystalline quartz thanthe other petrofabrics.ConclusionsResults from this study allow the initial"roughing out" of behavioural units andassociated knowledge of the chaînes opéra-toires of ceramic manufacture at Ranchodel Rio. The location and contents ofmiddens associated with a number ofhouse mounds and the central court-yard of the site suggest manufacture ata community level, versus individualhouseholds, perhaps similar to Stark'sethnographic/ ethnoarchaeologicalobservations of "worksbop production"(Stark 1983:160). Such a communitylevel organization of ceramic manufac-ture might also suggest this activity wasintegral to the identity of the overallcommunity, botb economically andsocially, within the larger valley system(Urban 2007:67).Local river-derived clays beds were thelikely source of materials for manufac-ture, suggesting a degree of knowledgeof local environments and sediments.Based on similarities of content charac-teristics between petrofabrics and localsources, as well as ethnographic stud-ies relating the close proximity of claysources to vessel manufacture locations(Arnold 1971, 1985; Stark 1983:164), itis reasonable to assume clays were col-lected near the site with access to claybeds even being controlled by commu-nity residents. Clay Source C is currentlymined as wash for bajareque (wattleand daub) bouses and a cursory pétro-graphie analysis of daub from arcbaeo-logical contexts at tbe site conductedat tbe same time as tbe ceramics of thisstudy shows similar characteristics to thisparticular source.Formation of pots was achieved usingpotstands for at least two of the petro-fabrics, and assisted by the use of oppor-tunistic ceramic tools. The use of thesespecialized ceramic manufacture toolsmay also support a more specializedview of production for the community asopposed to the occasional firing of potsfor individual use. The presence of allmaterials required for paste preparationand vessel shaping within the courtyardarea also suggest unilocal manufacture.Paste recipes appear very similar andwere possibly prepared on hard multi-purpose surfaces based on the occa-sional grog inclusions. Although similar,some recipes vary in terms of the degreeof sifting and temper additions, basedon observations of degrees of sorting ofaplastics and non-local materials foundin excavations and petrograpbic observa-tions. These differences may be linkedto individual potter's styles, desiredvessel performance, or appearance.Regardless, it does suggest cognition ofintended manufacture outcomes.The presence of particular petro-fabrics analyzed in this study at otherJOURNAL CANADIEN D'ARCHÉOLOGIE 36 (2012)182 • PEURAMAKI-BROWNsites in tbe valley may suggest excbangefrom this manufacture locale; however,ceramic manufacture is demonstratedfor many other sites in the valley.Complementary pétrographie data fromother sites is required to further thisdiseussion of individual eommunity dif-ferenees and roles. If fabries are found tobe manufaetured at other rural hamlets,this may suggest that pottei^y manufae-ture was important to individual eommu-nity identity at this time, as opposed tomore overarebing politieal entities thatmay control manufacture and link theiridentities to more specialized forms andiconography (or shared iconographyon widespread forms), as has been sug-gested for tbe neighbouring Naco Valley(Scbortman et al. 2001; Wells 2003). Tbiswould suggest two completely differentbut neighbouring strategies for politicalorganization and manipulation in tbisregion (Urban 2007:67). A comparisonof pastes and manufacturing tecbniquesfrom different sites might highlight avariety of manufacture and productionscenarios, including the sharing orguarding of recipes between communi-ties. Future work should also attemptto address any possible correlationsbetween petrofabric pastes, macrovisualtype-variety groups, and vessel form.Researcb at tbe site of Rancbo del Rioin tbe Valle de Cacaulapa, northwesternHonduras has the potential to uncovercritical information concerning thechaîne opératoire of ceramic manufactureand production in this corner of theMesoamerican world. Beginning such astudy with the analysis of the final stageof manufacture is the most logical start-ing point. Although traditional type-vari-ety systems of ceramic organization doprovide useful information for the studyof ceramics in general, more in-depthpetrological information is requiredfor the study of ceramic manufacture.Information derived from petrographycan complement other forms of ceramictypologies and compositional analysesand might serve to answer questions pre-viously unaddressed by other typologicalclassifications.This study covered three stages ofpétrographie analysis on eeramies andelays from the site and area of Ranehodel Rio: 1) the ereation of petrofabriegroups based on 20 eeramie sherds;2) tbe comparison of clay globules onmanufacture potstands witb the identi-fied petrofabrics; and 3) the compari-son of the petrofabrics witb tbree claysources from the valley. This three-stageapproach allowed a preliminary glimpseat the various steps of the chaîne opératoireof manufacture of particular ceramictypes at Raneho del Rio through theidentifieation and analysis of Arnold'sthree elasses of data. The results encour-age future investigation into ceramicmanufacture and production in this areaof Mesoamerica where "typical" ceramicmanufacture signatures are recovered(debris, tools, etc.) in addition to "atypi-cal" remains (shaping and firing furni-ture) . Further questions may address thetrade of raw materials, such as the schisttemper identified in this study, used inpottery manufacture in the valley, andthe degree of production representedin the archaeological record, usingpetrography to examine the standard-ization of vessel form with petrofabricas well as tbe standardization of tooland potstand forms. Additional studieswould also be encouraged in tbe com-parison of Raneho del Rio petrofabriesand elay sourees petrographieally withthose of other sites in the valley and inneighbouring valleys. The results wouldfurther eontribute to our understandingof inter- and intra-valley relationsbipsCANADIANJOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY 36 (2012)RURAL CERAMIC MANUFACTURE IN PRECOLUMBIAN HONDURAS • 183regarding ceramic production in thisarea, and possibly within Mesoamericain general.Acknowledgements. Thank you to my supervi-sory committee at The Institute of Archaeol-ogy, University College London, in particularDrs. Bill Sillar and Elizabeth Graham. TheInstituto Hondureno de Antropología eHistoria granted permission for the exportof samples and field excavations. Dr. DavidSmall (Lehigh University) and Dr. AaronShugar (The Smithsonian Institution) co-directed the Rancho del Rio project (2004)and encouraged this research topic. Fundingwas provided by Lehigh University and theInstitute of Archaeology, University CollegeLondon. Drs. Edward Schortman and Patri-cia Urhan (Kenyon College) were invaluablesources of information and guidance. RobIxer and Simon Groom instructed me inpétrographie methods and provided initialguidance. Thank you to Maria, Glenn, Cait-lin, Hannah, and Shawn. Thank you to LeslieG. Cecil, Ellen S. Moriarty, and one anony-mous reviewer for their helpful comments.Any mistakes and/or inconsistencies withinthis work are those of the author.Notes1. Rice (1996:167) distinguishes betweenmanufacture, "the actual act of fab-ricating ceramics", and production,"the social and economic organiza-tional arrangements within whichpottery manufacture is carried out."2. Initial wet tile sawing, epoxy impreg-nation, and slide mounting wasconducted by the author in the labo-ratories of the Institute of Archaeol-ogy, UCL. 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https://doi.org/10.1177/14732254211004764Youth Justice 1 –17© The Author(s) 2021Article reuse guidelines: sagepub.com/journals-permissionsDOI: 10.1177/14732254211004764journals.sagepub.com/home/yjjSentencing explanations provided via judicial remarks made within the English magistrates’ youth court: Towards a better global understandingMax LowensteinDepartment of Humanities and Law, Bournemouth University, UKAbstractThis article qualitatively explores the English judicial approach towards sentencing explanations via remarks made within the magistrates’ youth court. First, the extent of their correlation with the three known purposes behind sentencing explanations is considered within a wider introductory discussion. Second, judicial interviews provide new insights regarding the extent of their alignment with the introductory discussion by indicating degrees of correlation. Third, the English judicial approach towards sentencing explanations and the degrees of correlation are concluded upon. Finally, recommendations are made to assist in a better understanding of sentencing explanations globally, particularly in jurisdictions where their publication has increased.KeywordsYouth, sentencing, explanation, remarks, criminal, judiciary, England, globalIntroductionHailed for promoting young adults’ (18–25-year-olds’) sentencing transparency (Howard League for Penal Reform, 2017), English young adult sentencing explanations have expanded, from their increasing written publication online since 2014 and their increas-ing video publication since 2020 under the Crown Court (Recording and Broadcasting) Order 2020.1 Under Section 51(4), the Coronavirus Act 2020 encourages live courtroom links to assist English young adult sentencing processes and judicial role play, which have been disrupted by COVID-19 – but not for children (10–17-year-olds). Meanwhile, Corresponding author:Max Lowenstein, Bournemouth University, Fern Barrow, Poole, Dorset, BH12 5BB, UK. Email: mlowenstein@bournemouth.ac.uk1004764 YJJ0010.1177/14732254211004764Youth JusticeLowensteinresearch-article2021Original Article2 Youth Justice 00(0)English youth sentencing explanations provided to children are not published and remain limited to the private arena of the magistrates’ youth court, where judicial remarks are delivered face-to-face to children, their parents and youth workers, bucking the increas-ing publication trend of sentencing explanations for young adults. To better understand this, this article attempts to answer the following focal question: What is the English judicial approach towards youth sentencing explanations made within the magistrates’ youth court? To answer this question, the three theoretically defined purposes behind them (Weijers, 2004: 30) – related to the relevant legal obligations, ideological perspec-tives, and understandings of childhood and moral judgements – are drawn on to provide a wider introductory discussion. Second, building on this, the English judicial approach towards youth sentencing explanations made within the magistrates’ youth court is explored further through normative interview data findings. Third, the introductory dis-cussion and findings are concluded upon and the next steps towards a better global understanding are considered.Legal obligationsInternational and domestic children’s standards place some legal obligations on English judges as they try to understand the human behaviours exhibited by children when sen-tencing in the magistrates’ youth court (Weijers, 2004: 30). The international standards, despite being ‘incomplete’, ‘are the common language of youth justice’ (Kilkelly, 2008: 191). English judges should ensure that their sentencing communications provide: ‘(1) child-friendly information, (2) child participation in proceedings and (3) child-friendly remedies’ (Liefaard, 2019: 216). The effective implementation of sentencing communica-tions at sentencing depends on nuanced interpretations between the child and the adult judge, testing judicial communication skills. While understanding the former matters, unlike the latter, children do not create and are not obligated to improve their sentencing communications, justifying the judicial focus here. Globally, judicial interpretations of these standards and their effective implementation face ‘many challenges’ (Kilkelly and Liefaard, 2019: 617). In England, out of court, youth offending service managers have ‘asserted their own priorities and objectives in seeking to deliver effective services’ (Smith and Gray, 2019: 567), while, in court, child-friendly justice and enhanced child participa-tion at sentencing require improvement in relation to ‘what children want’ (Daly and Rap, 2019: 15) and recognition of their ‘gendered, cultural and material inequalities’ (Phoenix, 2018: 18).The relevant international legal obligations outlined in the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child are legally binding, albeit not on the courts. Under Article 37(b), English judges are obligated to protect a child’s liberty following their ‘arrest, detention or imprisonment’, ensuring custodial sentences remain as a ‘last resort and for the shortest appropriate period of time’. Furthermore, under Article 40(1), English judges are obligated to treat children ‘in a manner consistent’ with promoting their ‘dignity and worth’, recog-nising their positive ‘reintegration’ and ‘constructive role’ within society, while, under Article 40(4), English judges are obligated to apply a variety of youth sentencing options that are ‘appropriate to [the child’s] well-being and proportionate both to their Lowenstein 3circumstances and the offence’ (United Nations, 1989). Child-friendly justice under Rule 14 of the Beijing Rules guides English judges to manage courtroom procedures in a way that promotes a child’s ‘free expression’ and ‘participation’ (United Nations, 1985), while a ‘child-centred orientation’ under Rule 3 of the Riyadh Guidelines (United Nations, 1990) recommends a child’s ‘constructive reintegration’ into society, reaffirming the global com-mitments of the Convention on the Rights of the Child (Goldson, 2019: 210–211).Domestic legal obligations when sentencing children are placed on English judges externally via legislation and sentencing guidelines, and internally via judicial precedent in case law and judicial training publications. Externally, the principal legislative basis comes from both Section 44 of the Children and Young Persons Act 1933, which requires judges to ‘preserve the welfare of young offenders’, and Section 37(1) of the Crime and Disorder Act 1998, which requires judges to ‘prevent re-offending’. The Sentencing Council for England and Wales issues offence-specific sentencing guidelines, which English judges ‘must’ follow, unless it is contrary to ‘the interests of justice’ under Section 125(1) of the Coroners and Justice Act 2009. The sentencing steps include, first, the offence category, which ranges from high to low seriousness based on the young offend-er’s culpability and offence harm (Sentencing Guidelines Council, 2004: 3). Second, the starting points and category range provide a non-exhaustive list of typical aggravating and mitigating factors (Sentencing Council, 2017: 15–16). The final step is the sentencing explanation, where the judge ‘must’ give clear reasons for their sentence ‘in ordinary lan-guage and in general terms’ under Section 52 of the Sentencing Act 2020.Internally, English judges are guided by case-law precedents set in higher courts and judicial training publications issued by the Judicial College, Magistrates Association and Ministry of Justice. Most youth offending is of low to medium seriousness and is sentenced by a panel of three lay magistrates, with one as chairperson, in the youth courts (Ministry of Justice, 2020: 14). These magistrates receive specific youth court training to be ‘active listeners’ who adopt ‘age-appropriate language’ and promote ‘individual responsibilities in preventing further offending behaviour’ (Judicial College, 2017: 106, 104). The magistrates’ court sentencing guidelines, issued online by the Sentencing Council, are child-centred (Judicial College, 2020: 46) and welfare-focused (Sentencing Council, 2017: 5–6), and ensure that parental responsibilities are supported (Ministry of Justice, 2007: 4–5). To summarise, the legal obligations of child-friendly justice, participation, constructive societal reintegration and welfare appear to be important.Ideological perspectivesAdopting simplified language within English youth sentencing explanations (Weijers, 2004: 30) can be related to the ideological perspectives of judicial legitimacy and experi-ence. Judicial legitimacy at sentencing has attracted metaphorical, reformative and socio-legal control critiques (Carlen, 1976: 48). With regard to the latter, primarily sociological understandings of the law (Weber, 1978: 311–312) have in recent times increasingly tried to connect various perspectives of social theory with legal practice (Wandall, 2008: 10–13). For Luhmann (1993), judicial legitimacy requires judges to justify the law 4 Youth Justice 00(0)appropriately, which judges attempt to do in their sentencing explanations, the impact of which can be a measure of ‘functional success’ (Cotterrell, 2006: 24), while Weber (1968: 874–875) views judicial legitimacy in sentencing processes that culminate in sentencing explanations as being ‘the product or the technical means of a compromise of interests’.Judicial attempts to demystify their sentencing requirements in Habermas’s ‘lifeworld’, where Luhmann’s (1993) functional systems involve everyday social experiences, result in the development of ‘background knowledge’ (Habermas, 1996: 23). Judges, in creating and then providing their sentencing explanations to young offenders, self-legitimise and objectively rationalise their efforts based on their own subjective sentencing experiences. Habermas (1996) further argues that the legal regulation of contemporary society requires the ‘lifeworld’ to be legitimate. He appears to suggest that judicial consensus and con-formity-building contribute to the everyday social experience of judges, which he labels communicative rationality. Communicative rationality defines law and morality as dis-tinct and is itself justified by judicially controlled legal processes (Cotterrell, 2006: 26). To summarise, the ideological perspectives that consider judicial legitimacy and judges’ sentencing experience appear to be important.Understandings of childhood and moral judgementsJudicial difficulties in understanding children in England can be exacerbated by ‘marginal participation’ with other courtroom actors (Weijers, 2004: 23). Procedural delays can dis-rupt trial proceedings and lead to frustrated children at sentencing; some have reported that their lives have been ‘unnecessarily disrupted’ (Taylor, 2016: 30). Children’s ‘active involvement in the trial process’ can be inherently limited (Bevan, 2016: 5) and they may report confusion as to ‘who to trust, what to do, how to do it, when and why?’ (Howard League for Penal Reform, 2018: 62). Judicial engagement with children, their parents and youth services can determine ‘how young people’s experiences and views are heard, and what is heard’ (Drake et al., 2014: 38). It is important to overcome these judicial difficul-ties when setting moral goals at sentencing to help children reform (Weijers, 2004: 30).Judicial attempts at moral goal-setting for reform assume individual child autonomy, and it ‘benefits the person who will experience it, as a way of helping him to gain moral knowledge, if he chooses to listen’ (Hampton, 1984: 214). Judicial moral messages can involve ‘a concrete moral goal, which punishment should be designed to accomplish, and that goal includes the benefiting of the criminal himself’ (Hampton, 1984: 215). If they regularly appear in the form of judicially led sentencing explanations, they may legiti-mately be dismissed as a ‘moral limit to the law’ (Edmundson, 1990: 505). However, for moral education theorists, judges would then risk appearing ‘indifferent to the people they punish’ (Hampton 1984: 219).According to Haidt’s (2003) theoretical exposition of universal moral foundations, judicial moral goal-setting (a) can be related to characteristic emotions (b) and punish-ment outcomes (c). Applying Haidt’s exposition of universal moral foundations to judges setting moral goals for reform includes discussions with the child regarding the harm(s) caused (a), which is related to characteristic emotions (b) and, if associated with genuine remorse, includes ‘intentions and often actions’ (Maslen, 2015: 5–6; for a list of remorse Lowenstein 5emotions, Maslen specifically refers to Smith, 2002: 98–99). Moral foundations (a) and characteristic emotions (b) then relate to the punishment given (c), which may be a Parenting Order that has been judicially drafted (c) (Canton, 2015: 67). To summarise, the understandings of childhood and moral judgements which appear to be important are the judicial difficulties in understanding children and moral goal-setting to help children reform.Sample and designThe research started in 2013 with a literature review and informal discussions with magis-trates already known to the researcher, which informed a qualitative interview guide. The proposed interview guide, qualitative methodology and safeguarding of the sample’s data were then ethically reviewed and approved at the institutional level. Funding to cover travel and institutional transcription costs was acquired in 2014. Judicial access, which required a formal interview at the Royal Courts of Justice, London, received approval from the then Senior Presiding Judge, Lord Justice Gross, in 2014. Informal telephone and/or email discussions with magistrate court managers, as well as individual magistrates, assisted the researcher’s dissemination of the interview guide. These discussions facilitated the magistrates’ understanding of the scope of the research and helped promote the informed consent of the sample before agreeing to be interviewed. The researcher flexibly engaged with the busy judicial sample over four years from September 2014 to March 2018. As an experienced qualitative interviewer of the English judiciary, there was an acute awareness of the potential time, cost and judicial access difficulties (Lowenstein, 2013: 33).Furthermore, this reliance on the engagement of the sample over time meant that the researcher could not ensure that the sample was representative of the wider population. To boost the sample size, it was necessary to take time to arrange and complete all 24 inter-views at the participants’ convenience. However, while this increased the risk of delays to data gathering, it increased the opportunity for judicial engagement with the researcher. The researcher also spent time in developing greater familiarity with all of the interview-ees via phone calls or emails before the interviews took place. This helped the researcher’s attempts to explain the interview guide and gain the trust and respect of the sample (Steinke, 2004: 185). The researcher reassured the sample that all of the face-to-face inter-views would, first and foremost, be focused on and always led by the sample (Harding, 2019: 75). By giving the sample the space and time to lead and be in control of their own interviews, the breadth and depth of the interviews was maximised (King et al., 2010/2019: 66). Each interview lasted 45 minutes on average, which appeared to reflect a high degree of judicial interest in engaging with the interview guide.Respecting the anonymity and confidentiality of the judicial sample, the qualitative interview guide only recorded their gender, age and length of bench time served. This was gathered from each judicial interviewee in order merely to define the overall sample char-acteristics. A quantitative analysis of these characteristics could not be expected to yield any detailed information regarding youth sentencing explanation practices. This signifi-cant limitation further justified why a qualitative method and analysis were considered necessary and adopted as the primary mode of analysis (Kleining and Witt, 2001: 6).6 Youth Justice 00(0)Overall, in terms of gender, there were 14 males and 10 females, 13 of whom were regular chairpersons. This meant that a relatively equal gender balance was present. Overall, in terms of age, perhaps unsurprisingly all of the 24 judges interviewed were between 41 and 70. By age bracket, 5 were aged 41–50, 9 were aged 51–60 and 10 were aged 61–70, suggesting that they were predominantly at a senior stage in their sentencing careers. The seniority of the English judicial volunteers was also reflected in their overall length of bench experience, where 11 had served for 7–12 years, 9 had served for 13–18 years and 4 had served for 19–24 years.The eight youth court areas were chosen, first, as they were all geographically proxi-mate, saving time and costs, as well as being reasonably accessible and familiar to the researcher. Second, the court areas provided a helpful snapshot of youth court magistrates serving in the south of England. Third, they could each be distinguished by using a quan-titative approach in terms of rural and urban development by gathering the publicly avail-able population statistics. The eight magistrates’ courts selected served the areas around Folkestone (Kent), Brighton (East Sussex), Worthing (West Sussex), Portsmouth and Southampton (Hampshire), Bournemouth (Dorset), Exeter (Devon) and Truro (Cornwall). However, beyond these eight selected areas, magistrates serving Guildford (Surrey) also volunteered to become involved. Overall, the researcher noted that the 24 youth court magistrates who sentenced youth offenders were largely based in urban areas, which were surrounded by rural areas that they also served (Pateman, 2011: 7).Method and analysisAs other qualitative researchers will know, there is no standard method for analysing the complex responses captured during interviews. Each magistrate received the interview guide and consent form via post or email, which required their formal agreement before an interview could take place. The interview guide contained the questions and methodol-ogy. Although the opportunity was there before the interviews for the magistrates to debate the meaning of the interview guide, no detailed explanation from the researcher was requested before the interviews. Prior to the interviews, all 24 magistrates confirmed that they fully understood the interview guide and the methodology applied, and wel-comed that they were open to their interpretation. This meant that, at interview, they were free to, and did, spontaneously lead their interview. This approach allowed the judicial interviewees to debate their own perceptions freely and to control their own interview (Foddy, 1993: 22).The qualitative analysis of the judicial perceptions gathered at interview encompassed three stages. First, the researcher, in reading the full interview transcripts, identified simi-lar and repeated meanings in the judicial responses. This helped to condense the volume of the qualitative data. Identifying common experiences, feelings and values helped to reveal shared thematic understandings (King et al., 2010/2019: 299). The similar shared perceptions of the sample formed the basis of the researcher’s understanding, which was supported by the selection of explanatory direct quotations from the sample.Second, the level of analysis turned to ad hoc meaning-generation, which by its own flexible nature allowed the researcher to understand the deeper data semantics. This Lowenstein 7approach recognised that an interpretation of meaning and language required recognition of the academic perspective adopted. In this case, it was socio-legal, which incorporated the interviewer’s subjective interpretations of what could be positive or negative, similar or different. The researcher’s perspective could then be interpreted for, and later validated by, a readership of judges, academics, legal professionals, politicians and the public. The ad hoc meaning-generation approach involved an attempt by the researcher to work out metaphors that captured the meaning of the full transcripts (Kvale, 1996: 203–204).Third, the researcher recognised and embraced their own subjective bias when explain-ing the interview questions to the interviewees. This also included their subjective inter-pretations during the qualitative analysis of the data gathered. This significantly reduced the objective validity of the data examined. However, this could be justified as an alterna-tive and innovative way to develop an in-depth understanding of the judicial perceptions gathered, by treating them as narrative interview data (Kvale, 1996: 236).FindingsLegal obligationsThe findings have been structured thematically, as in the preceding wider introductory discussion, to discuss the relevant legal obligations, ideological perspectives, and under-standings of childhood and moral judgements. First, judicial alignment to the legal obliga-tions of child-friendly justice, participation, constructive societal reintegration and welfare was discussed with the judicial sample. Each of these legal obligations was spontaneously recognised as relevant – particularly welfare – by the whole sample. When asked to iden-tify which legal sources referred to them most, the whole sample similarly agreed that it was domestic sources, and that they had the most influence, with sentencing guidelines having the highest relevance, followed by judicial training publications and, lastly, legis-lation. As one of the magistrates summarised:We must safeguard the well-being of young people first and foremost. We want them to feel included during proceedings and at sentencing, by discussing the ways in which they need to reform. This is written into our sentencing guidelines, which guide us and which we are mandated to follow.For the three magistrates who referred to judicial training publications as most relevant for their legal obligations, this was based on the detailed guidance provided by the ‘Youth court bench book’ (Judicial College, 2017) and ‘Equal treatment bench book’ (Judicial College, 2020). Child-friendly justice and participation with children were encouraged within their specialist youth court training when understanding behaviour. As one of the three magistrates explained:Our youth court training is extensive. We receive many case examples that contain youth health and well-being issues, which we discuss together in training. Their life experiences, from mental health, limited communication abilities, drug and alcohol abuse to suffering from bullying or poor and neglectful parenting, are very relevant to us.8 Youth Justice 00(0)The importance of constructive societal reintegration and safeguarding child welfare was discussed. When protecting a child’s health and well-being, 22 magistrates spontaneously shared the view that the young offender, their parents or primary caregiver, as close sup-porters, mattered most, followed by youth services interventions as detailed in their pre-sentence reports. This was based on who the magistrates most perceived young offenders had regular involvement with and their expected greater influence on the young offenders’ day-to-day life. As one of these 22 magistrates concluded:Establishing those who are closest and thereby have influence is crucial to protecting their welfare and providing them with the encouragement required to improve their life. Parents will nearly always be closest as they have raised them and have known them the longest.However, while 22 magistrates provided similarly positive accounts of how proactively questioning and listening to the young offender and their close supporters assisted their understanding of the offender’s health and well-being needs, for two magistrates, the lim-ited assistance of close supporters could hinder their constructive societal reintegration and welfare. For them, negative accounts were spontaneously shared of persistent serious offending and strained family relationships, which harmed the young offender’s welfare and hindered their reform, despite the best efforts of their youth worker to support them. As one of these magistrates reflected:We make a point of asking young offenders if they need anything to better support them, which improves our understanding. We closely work with their youth worker and parents. However, where there is persistent offending and few close family bonds, perhaps due to local authority care, from experience we know it will be much harder for us to help them and, more importantly, for them to help themselves.The judicially perceived extent of expected child reform from their youth sentencing explanations further revealed the importance of child-friendly justice, participation, con-structive societal reintegration and welfare. To initially help the magistrates frame their discussion of the extent of the expected reform, the whole sample completed a Likert attitudinal scale before the interviews, ranging from a very high to a very low expected reform impact from their sentencing explanations. Of the 24 magistrates, 5 responded with very high, 12 with high, 7 with moderate and none with low or very low reform impact. For the 17 magistrates who felt they had a very high to high reform impact, they spontaneously related child-friendly discussions more with first-time offenders. They described first-time offenders similarly, who they felt were more likely to engage with them through receptive body language. This was attributed to maintaining eye contact and listening, which suggested there was genuine remorse and engagement with their sentenc-ing explanations. They similarly described how they facilitated reform through positive and individually tailored child-friendly discussions, ensuring the offender’s participation and mapping their path to constructive societal reintegration while safeguarding their wel-fare needs. As one of these 17 magistrates described:To achieve meaningful engagement and promote their future reform, we tend to ask personal questions, such as ‘What do you need to reform?’ and ‘Who is around most to help you to Lowenstein 9improve your life?’ To help them to think more about their reform, we can make suggestions, such as getting psychological support, developing their confidence by going to school or college, and trying to remove themselves from bad influences such as peer pressure, often exerted in criminal gangs.The remaining seven magistrates, who felt that they had a moderate reform impact, spon-taneously related child-friendly discussions more with persistent young offenders, who had frequent previous convictions that had increased in seriousness. They similarly described that this was evident from the facts of the case, with escalating seriousness fea-turing high levels of offender culpability and harm. Such persistent young offenders were negatively perceived as less likely to participate with them, through unreceptive body language, which was commonly attributed to limited eye contact and poor listening skills. These magistrates agreed that they were more likely to encounter failure in their attempts to map a path for the constructive societal reintegration of persistent young offenders with complex welfare needs. As one explained:As I encourage reform, I have found that they have less and less impact as the custody cusp is reached. With such offenders, there is little eye contact and little care for those around them or the victims they have harmed. I will include their youth worker and their pre-sentence reports revealing the reasons for their reoffending, current health and well-being. I will try to include their parents, family and friends who support them.Ideological perspectivesSecond, the relevant ideological perspectives, which consider judicial legitimacy and their sentencing experience, were discussed. In these discussions, the whole sample spon-taneously agreed that they, first, ensured young offenders had a clear understanding regarding their sentence requirements, as a matter of judicial legitimacy, and, second, recognised the limited ability of children to fully understand them, in their sentencing experience. As one of the magistrates remarked:I don’t think you will get much disagreement on their primary function. We are duty-bound to adopt simplified language that they are familiar with. We check their understanding by asking questions like ‘Do you fully understand this?’ ‘Would you like me to explain that more?’To successfully enhance their judicial legitimacy, 21 magistrates spontaneously referred most to their frequently positive, inclusive and successful sentencing explanations. The magistrates directed them mostly towards the young offender and, to a lesser extent, their close supporters – that is, their parents and youth worker in the courtroom. They similarly described, from their sentencing experience, the importance of protecting each young offender’s welfare with the assistance of youth services and their parents. As one of the magistrates concluded:It is crucial that every young person fully engages and understands their sentence. We constructively engage with them, so they are crystal clear, and involve their family and youth worker in our discussions about their well-being. Their parents and youth worker can help 10 Youth Justice 00(0)support them beyond the courtroom, but it is the young person themself who is most responsible for adhering to the requirements of our order.However, for the remaining three magistrates, they spontaneously referred most to infre-quent neutral, limited or unsuccessful sentencing explanations that hampered their judi-cial legitimacy. The magistrates had similarly directed them mostly towards the young offender’s youth worker and parents, or, to a lesser extent, the child in their sentencing experience. Further researcher prompting was required to ascertain why. They also referred to challenging circumstances where the young offender had a very limited under-standing of their sentence requirements. Due to this, further intervention and guidance from their close supporters within the courtroom were required to ensure their full under-standing of the sentencing requirements and protect their future welfare. As one of these magistrates revealed:Parents and youth workers can greatly assist us with some children who are really struggling to understand their sentence and their own health issues over time. These children need significant therapeutic intervention. Sadly, if they don’t interact well with it, when appointments with their youth offending team become sporadic and parental supervision is poor, they are much less likely to complete their sentence.How each judge predominantly expressed their sentencing explanations was discussed. The whole sample responded with ambiguity regarding what their principal mode of expression could mean. Interviewer prompting was therefore necessary to further define it as either positive or negative words and actions. A Likert attitudinal scale was pre-sented, which ranged from a predominantly positive to negative expression of their sen-tencing explanations. Fifteen magistrates responded with a predominantly positive, nine with a moderately positive, and none with a neutral, moderately negative or negative mode of expression. The whole sample shared a similar consensus that their mode of expression in words and actions was overwhelmingly positive in their sentencing experi-ence. As one of the magistrates explained:It really has to be positive, doesn’t it? We try to softly encourage by our tone of voice and by looking at the young person to better understand the consequences of their actions in order to begin changing themselves. To achieve this, they must be honest with us about themselves and thoughtfully process the hurt their offending has caused to their life and those closest to them.The reasons why the whole sample similarly described their mode of expression in words as either positive or moderately positive were focused on. For 21 magistrates, their posi-tively expressed words mostly coalesced around providing simplified phrases which suc-cinctly explained their sentencing requirements, thereby enhancing their judicial legitimacy. As one remarked:To be clear, you must get to the point quickly with no legal jargon to successfully connect with them. We largely focus on what we feel they will need to know, such as what they will do and when.Lowenstein 11The other three magistrates similarly felt that their words mostly coalesced around utter-ing reassuring phrases that explained their sentencing requirements thoroughly, thereby enhancing their judicial legitimacy. As one of them commented:When I speak, I choose my words very carefully, as each word can be understood differently. Taking my time does slow me down, but sometimes they say they understand when they don’t out of embarrassment. That is why encouraging them and anyone else with them to ask questions helps give them greater ownership of their sentence.The reasons why the whole sample described their mode of expression in actions as either positive or moderately positive were focused on. The whole sample similarly related posi-tive actions in their past sentencing experience, where their pace and tone of voice, as well as body language, had assisted them. For 22 magistrates, their positive actions were mostly static with them commonly adopting a slow pace, a calm and measured tone of voice, and open body language, while maintaining eye contact to engage with a receptive young offender. As one of them explained:Over many years, I have learnt that, as a panel, we should avoid showing any agitation or lack of patience with them in both our voice and body language. To remain positive and inclusive, I take my time, do not raise my voice and look at who I am talking with to ensure we are developing a meaningful connection with them, their parents and youth worker.For the other two magistrates, their positive actions remained mostly fluid and commonly involved adopting a moderate pace, an assertive tone of voice and closed body language, while limiting their eye contact to adapt to an unreceptive young offender. As one of these magistrates described:Looking back, I have noticed that repeat youth offenders at sentencing are more likely to look down with crossed arms or legs. We ask them to uncross them and look up, but sometimes they just won’t listen and don’t want to be there. In those circumstances, we are left with no alternative than to simply reel off the requirements of our order, leaving the details for their parents and youth worker to go through with them later when they are in a better frame of mind to receive them.Understandings of childhood and moral judgementsThird, the relevant understandings of childhood and moral judgements, from judicial dif-ficulties in understanding children to moral goal-setting for reform, were discussed. The whole sample spontaneously agreed that, with regard to the former, what mattered most was asking questions that explored each child’s vulnerabilities, utilising their sentencing experience. The child vulnerabilities that were most often recognised by the magistrates included physical and mental health disabilities, developmental maturity and communica-tion difficulties, as well as past child abuse or trauma. As one of the magistrates explained:We ask questions to facilitate open discussions about the difficulties they are facing in life. They may not be attending school and have learning difficulties affecting that. They may have increasingly common mental health issues such as anxiety and depression. They may have 12 Youth Justice 00(0)suffered past trauma and abuse that can lead to self-harm and periods of isolation. Being aware of these complex difficulties is crucial for us and we are reliant upon their legal counsel, parents and youth worker for that important information.The whole sample was asked whether morality featured in their youth sentencing explana-tions, and there was agreement by all of the judges that it did. Further researcher prompt-ing was required to help the judges explore the morality within their youth sentencing explanations. The relevant morality depended, first, on relating to the case facts and set-ting moral goals for reform, which the magistrates commonly felt improved each young offender’s understanding of their own culpability. Second, it depended on relating to those perspectives that each young offender was closest to, amplifying discussions around offence harm and developing genuine remorse for the harm caused. When setting moral goals for reform through their offence-harm discussions, the magistrates similarly dis-cussed both morally right and wrong values, behaviours and associated emotions with the young offenders, their parents and youth worker. As one of the magistrates identified:Of course, there is morality in what we do. In reshaping their morals, we discuss wrongs and rights. If they have assaulted someone, for example, in that moment of aggression they have hurt someone else, which is wrong. We want them to develop a sense of regret about being aggressive and better manage their anger by avoiding situations that make them anxious or upset leading to violence, which is right.How best to address judicial difficulties in understanding children and set moral goals for reform attracted two different schools of thought amongst the sample as to which court-room perspective(s) mattered most. For 18 magistrates, their focus mostly centred on recognising each young offender’s unique perspective when setting moral goals for reform. They commonly described how they, first, attempted to ascertain the young offender’s existing moral values; second, attempted to correct any immorality detected; and, third, guided them towards setting their own moral goals for reform. As one of these magistrates discussed:I mainly seek to explore what actions the young person can do to make amends for what they have done and change their moral code. So, for example, where they have been antisocial, perhaps causing damage to other people’s property, they can agree to be more considerate and thoughtful in future and voluntarily fix or compensate them. If they are involved in knife or drugs crime, they can agree that carrying a knife or taking drugs is very dangerous for them and those around them.For the remaining six magistrates, their focus mostly centred on recognising the perspec-tives of the young offender’s close supporters when setting moral goals for reform. They commonly described how they, first, gathered the moral perspectives of the parents and youth worker; second, used these perspectives to help correct any immorality they detected in the young offender; and, third, included them in setting moral goals for reform. The magistrates similarly felt that this inclusive approach assisted them most in developing within the young offender a greater awareness and recognition of the harm their offending had caused. As one of these magistrates explained:Lowenstein 13We try to keep their parents and youth worker fully involved by asking them what they think about the offending. They help us as we suggest ways in which the young person can improve their behaviour. If they are stealing, their parents and youth worker can encourage them to stop being dishonest and become trustworthy. Coming from someone close to them, that can be really effective in recalibrating their moral compass.Exploring how the judges amplified offence-harm discussions and developed genuine remorse for harm caused when setting moral goals required further prompting from the interviewer because offence harm itself relates to varying levels of offence seriousness in England. The interviewer therefore suggested, and the whole sample agreed to, a common sentencing context of both an early guilty plea and a low to medium seriousness offence focus for their offence-harm discussions. There were two different schools of thought within the sample as to which courtroom perspective attracted their principal focus.For 18 magistrates, their offence-harm discussions when moral goal-setting were mostly directed at the individual young offender, utilising their sentencing experience. Within the courtroom, they similarly discussed how they, first and foremost, encouraged genuine remorse for the harm caused from the young offender. For these magistrates, genuine remorse was commonly expressed through the young offender’s words and changes in their body language as they expressed feelings of regret for the harm caused. As one of the magistrates remarked:When we first discuss the harm that they have caused and their regret for it, our focus is on them. Their body language can be poor, looking down a lot and keeping their hands in their pockets. We ask them: ‘How do you feel about your offending?’ ‘Why are you doing it?’ ‘What do you regret most about it?’ By engaging with them directly, their body language often improves, they look and sit up, and their shame for what they have done seems to be expressed with more sincerity.For the other six magistrates, their offence-harm discussions when setting moral goals were mostly directed at the young offender’s close supporters – typically their parents and youth worker – utilising their sentencing experience. Their most successful moral goal-setting attempts commonly involved thoughts and feelings about the harm caused to their close sup-porters in order to help encourage genuine remorse in the young offender. For these magis-trates, too, genuine remorse was commonly expressed through words, changes in body language and feelings of regret for the harm caused. As one of these magistrates discussed:What is genuine remorse? Looking back, I have found that discussing the hurt caused to their nearest and dearest family members can really help young people empathise with others and feel sorry for their offending, if they don’t already do so. In one case, only after his mother had spoken about the hardship his offending had caused her as a single parent did his demeanour improve. His eye contact increased, he sat up with his arms uncrossed and his apology really appeared to be much more heartfelt.ConclusionsThis article has posed and then attempted to answer the following focal question: What is the English judicial approach towards youth sentencing explanations made within the 14 Youth Justice 00(0)magistrates’ youth court? In the sample and design, the randomness of the opportunity sampling adopted was limited by seeking the most committed and engaged judicial vol-unteers. Furthermore, in the findings, the judicial interviews could only provide insights into the magistrates’ perceptions of their sentencing remarks, rather than the actual prac-tice of sentencing explanations. Overall, the high degree of judicial concordance in the findings indicates the relevance of the wider introductory discussion, where the three theoretically defined purposes behind sentencing explanations have some relevance (Weijers, 2004: 30). However, ascertaining whether most English judges follow a similar predefined script or operate within a narrow, perhaps erroneous framework of understand-ing children’s offending when explaining their sentences requires more data. Should their judicial publication ever occur in England, or expand across offences, as has been the case for young adults, this will become more attainable.First, the findings indicate that the relevant legal obligations of child-friendly justice, participation, constructive societal reintegration and, particularly, welfare appear to be important, as English judges try to understand the human behaviours exhibited by chil-dren in their courtrooms. Judicial understandings of each child’s health and well-being needs appear to be important, but thus far academics have been reluctant to provide pre-scriptive guidance for their youth sentencing remarks in England due to the ‘characteris-tics of the individual child and the complexity and circumstances of each case’ (Hollingsworth and Stalford, 2020: 4–5). Determining whether creating and sharing pre-scriptive sentencing explanation guidance would promote judicial understandings of each child, and protect children’s distinct participatory rights to be included and human rights to be treated equally at sentencing (Lam, 2013: 151), would benefit from more empirical data-gathering, but this could be developed.Second, the findings indicate that the relevant ideological perspectives, which consider judicial legitimacy and their sentencing experience, appear to be important, as English judges use simplified language in their sentencing explanations for children. Accessing magistrates’ sentencing experiences of language simplification to develop prescriptive sentencing explanation guidance capturing best practice would require a ‘specific judicial investment in tailoring judgments for children, responding to children’s uniquely and uni-versally disenfranchised position within the legal process’ (Stalford and Hollingsworth, 2020: 1057). The data presented here suggests that this may be enhanced by greater judi-cial attempts to provide positive sentencing explanations that include parents and youth workers.Third, the findings indicate that the relevant understandings of childhood and moral judgements that appear to be important are English judges’ difficulties with understand-ing children and their setting of moral goals to assist each child’s reform. With regard to the former, each child’s vulnerabilities were judicially recognised, including their ‘chronic inability to successfully navigate particular sorts of interaction’ (Johnson, 1993: 76, referring to Habermas’s communicative action concept). With regard to the latter, moral goals to help children reform involved offence-harm discussions with judges, who sought to develop genuine remorse as part of their moral education attempts both within and beyond the youth courtroom. Developing prescriptive sentencing expla-nation guidance incorporating offence-specific moral goals for children could improve Lowenstein 15transparency and be part of ‘the hallmarks of a good judgment more generally’ (Stalford and Hollingsworth, 2020: 1058).To improve our understanding of youth sentencing explanations globally, particularly in jurisdictions where their publication has been expanding, the next steps involve ‘finer-grained (international and intra-national/sub-national) critical inquiry’ (Goldson, 2019: 209). Such inquiries may be qualitative surveys or interviews from the judicial perspec-tive to better understand the theoretically defined purposes behind them, with courtroom observations and case transcripts acting as alternatives to explore the judicial lens (Bouhours and Daly, 2007). They could consider the impact of youth sentencing explana-tions in and beyond the courtroom from the perspectives of the child, their parents, legal counsel and youth worker to test whether youth sentencing explanations actually provide ‘clarity, caring, integrity and are being well informed’ (Hollingsworth, 2020: 6). Their impact beyond the courtroom can involve children’s relationships and interactions with their parents and youth workers, and may include their life development via their future ‘careers and trajectories’ (Evans, 2006: 148). Improving our understanding of their pur-pose and impact globally should prompt comparative inquiries across different criminal justice systems, despite the ‘risks of ethnocentrism and relativism’ (Nelken, 2010: 18–19) and uncritical ‘criminological tourism’ (Smith, 1995/2014: 219). 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His research interests encompass sentencing law, comparative law, criminology and criminal justice. | RESEARCH GATE |
Simulation and educationComparison of different methods of more effectivechest compressions during cardiopulmonaryresuscitation (CPR) in the dental chairTakashi Hitosugi a,*, Norimasa Awata b, Yoichiro Miki c, Masanori Tsukamoto d,Takeshi Yokoyama aAbstractIntroduction: When performing cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) on a patient who has suffered a cardiopulmonary arrest during dental treat-ment, few dental chairs have sufficient stability to perform effective chest compressions. We previously proposed a method of stabilizing the backrestof a dental chair using a support stool. As a result, we confirmed that the vertical displacement of the backrest could be significantly reduced. In thepresent study, we verified the effectiveness of the stool stabilization method using several dental chairs (flat and curved) with significantly differentbackrest shapes.Methods: Vertical displacement of the backrests of dental chairs was recorded. Data were obtained at three different stool positions (without a stool,under the chest at the level that participants were performing manual chest compressions, and under the shoulders). Reduction displacement ratioswere calculated to evaluate the effectiveness of the stool positions.Results: The method significantly reduced the vertical displacement of the backrest for all types. When the curvature of the backrest was large, thereduction in vertical displacement was 40% when the stool was placed under the chest at the level of manual chest compressions and 65% whenplaced underneath the shoulder. In the case of a flat dental chair, this reduction was 90% when using a stool in either position, compared to no stool.Conclusion: When we need to perform CPR on a patient in the dental chair, placing a stool under the shoulders allows effective manual chestcompression by firmly supporting the backrest of a dental chair of any shape.Keywords: Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), Manual chest compression, Dental chair, Stool position, DentalIntroductionThe positioning of a stool underneath a dental chair to stabilize it inorder to perform an effective manual chest compression site hasbeen reported previously.1,2 This technique is intended to providegreater stability by reclining the dental chair and placing a stool underthe backrest so that it is in contact with the back of the chair. It wasadopted in the 2015 and 2021 European Resuscitation Council(ERC) guidelines.3,4 However, we found that the support effect var-ied depending on the position of the stool. For dental chairs with aheavily curved back outline, a stool placed under the shoulder com-pared to under the manual chest compression site significantlyreduced vertical displacement, resulting in a large reduction ratio.2However, that study was based on only one type of dental chair.The purpose of this study was to compare the effectiveness ofthree stool positions (no stool, under the manual chest compression,and under the shoulder) in stabilizing three types of dental chairs withsignificantly different external shapes.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resplu.2022.100286Received 5 June 2022; Received in revised form 25 July 2022; Accepted 26 July 2022Available online xxxx2666-5204/� 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).Abbreviations: CPR, Cardiopulmonary resuscitation, ERC, European Resuscitation Council, AHA, American Heart Association* Corresponding author.E-mail address: hitosugi.takashi.724@m.kyushu-u.ac.jp (T. Hitosugi).R E S U S C I T A T I O NP L U S 1 1 ( 2 0 2 2 ) 1 0 0 2 8 6Available online at www.sciencedirect.comResuscitation Plusjournal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/resuscitation-plusMethodsEthical statementsThis was a manikin study and there were no human participants. TheInstitutional Review Board at Kyushu university confirmed that noethical approvals were required.Study design and settingThree dental chairs (#1: EOMaⅡ�; GC, Tokyo, Japan, #2: EOM-PLUS SS�; GC, Tokyo, Japan, #3: EOM P�; GC, Tokyo, Japan)were used in this study. #1 exterior has a severely curved backrestexterior, #2 and #3 have a flatter shape.The study procedure was performed according to a previouslyestablished method in which the CPR manikin (Resusci Anne� TorsoBasic version 2011; Laerdal Medical AS) was positioned on thereclined dental chair with the upper end of the manikin torso alignedwith the top edge of the backrest in Fig. 11,2. The superior surface ofthe backrest under the lower half of the manikin’s sternum was posi-tioned horizontally using a leveling instrument. The hand position formanual chest compressions was the center of the chest. A metalindicator (point P) was secured to the inferior surface of the dentalchair directly under the area for manual chest compressions andmade parallel to the floor with a level gauge. The distance of pointP relative to the inferior surface of the backrest remained fixed forthe duration of the study. Displacement of point P was capturedusing video recordings and measured while each health care provi-der performed manual chest compressions on the resuscitation man-ikin. Manual chest compressions depth was kept between 5.1 to6.0 cm during the study. The actual manual chest compressionsdepth was evaluated with the manikin‘s Skill-Reporter system whichhas a green light that indicates manual chest compressions depths of5.1 to 6.0 cm. Any compressions outside of that range (i.e., withoutthe green light) were excluded. When compression depths werewithin 5.1 to 6.0 cm, the vertical displacement of the backrest fromits initial position was recorded and included for analysis. Video datawere transferred to a computer, and the backrest vertical displace-ment measurements were determined using the simultaneously cap-tured ruler for reference. The stabilizing stool placed under thebackrest of the dental chair for this study was round with a hard seat-ing surface (diameter 30 cm; height 45 cm; FB-01ALLBK, Fuji BoekiCo., ltd.). The superficial edge of the stool’s seat was set to verticallycontact the backrest either just under the area for manual chest com-pressions or under the shoulders.OutcomesThree American Heart Association-trained BLS providers (A: 47-year-old male, 175 cm, 93 kg; B: 44-year-old male, 177 cm, 60 kg;C: 44-year-old female, 157 cm, 50 kg.) were tested at their conve-Fig. 1 – Manikin setup and positioning of the stabilizing stool. The upper end of the manikin torso was aligned withthe top edge of the backrest (A; red line). The superior surface of the backrest under the lower half of the manikinsternum was positioned horizontally using a leveling instrument. The edge of the stool’s seating surface was set totouch the backrest vertically under the area for manual chest compressions (A; blue line). The stool was set to touchthe backrest vertically under the shoulders (B; green line). The center of the manikin’s chest (C; red ellipse) was thehand position during chest compressions. Measuring vertical displacement and chest compression depth. A metalindicator (D: point P) was made parallel to the floor with a leveling gauge and secured to the inferior surface of thedental chair directly under the area for manual chest compressions next to a fixed vertical-measurementinstrument. Chest compression depth was assessed using the manikin’s Skill-Reporter system (E) with greenlights indicating chest compression depths of 5.1–6.0 cm and red lights for 3.8–5.0 cm. The distance of point Prelative to the inferior surface of the backrest remained fixed (F).2R E S U S C I T A T I O NP L U S 1 1 ( 2 0 2 2 ) 1 0 0 2 8 6nience. Each study participant individually performed 10 contiguousrounds of manual chest compressions (20 compressions per round;200 compressions total) at a pace of 100 compressions per minute insynchrony with a metronome for each of the 3 stool configurations(i.e., under manual chest compressions area, under shoulders, orno stool). Participants rested sufficiently after each round to avoidfatigue. A total of 600 manual chest compressions 5.1 to 6.0 cm indepth were recorded per participant in each dental chair. Each par-ticipant had a total of 1,800 manual chest compressions recordedat three different dental chairs.Analyses and statisticsThe programming language R (version 4.0.2; The Comprehensive RArchive Network, USA) was used for statistical analysis. Displace-ment measurements (maximum distance of Point P from baselineduring MCC) by three participants were analyzed separately at eachof the three respective positional configurations. The change in ver-tical displacement for each of the two stool positions (under manualchest compressions or under the shoulders) compared with no stoolposition (baseline) was calculated using the following equation (1).reduction ratio ¼ 1 �displacement with stooldisplacement without stoolð1ÞFig. 2 – Vertical Displacement Measurements. The physiques of the Provider’s body size (A, B, C) who performedmanual chest compression differed greatly. The thick lines represent median values, the boxes representinterquartile ranges, over and underlines represent date ranges, and circles represent outliers. In dental chairs#2 and #3, there were significant differences in stool positions because between under the shoulders and under thechest. In contrast #1 made little difference. (Please note that the horizontal axis does not start with zero only in thealpha figure).R E S U S C I T A T I O NP L U S 1 1 ( 2 0 2 2 ) 1 0 0 2 8 63Data sets were analyzed using the Shapiro-Wilk test to determinethe normality of distribution. The non-parametric data sets were thenanalyzed using the Wilcoxon rank sum test to determine statisticalsignificance (P < 0.001).ResultsThe vertical displacements of the dental chair backrest induced bymanual chest compressions were assessed with and without theplace of a stool (placed under manual chest compressions or underthe shoulders). A total of 5400 (1800 per participant) manual chestcompressions were recorded, but 32 were excluded due to anunclear recording or inappropriate compression depth. The verticaldisplacement was significantly reduced, and the reduction rateincreased in all situations when using the stool as a stabilizer(Fig. 2). The model of dental chairs has different characteristics forsupportive effect depending on the position of the stool. Particularlyin chair #1 which has a severely curved backrest exterior, there wasa significant difference in stool positions. As we placed a stool undermanual chest compressions in #1, Compared to no stool, a stoolunderneath the manual chest compression site resulted in a medianreduction ratio in chair displacement of 0.41, 0.42, and 0.38 for thethree BLS providers, and a stool underneath the shoulder resultedin a median reduction ratio in chair displacement of 0.67, 0.65, and0.64 (Fig. 3). In contrast chairs, #2 and #3 had flatter shapes. Theymade little difference between under the shoulders and under man-ual chest compressions. However, these were clearly different fromthe no stool (Fig. 2, 3).Fig. 3 – Calculated Reduction Ratios. Measurements of dental chair backrest vertical displacement during manualchest compressions and calculated reduction ratios. Results are expressed as median (interquartile range).4R E S U S C I T A T I O NP L U S 1 1 ( 2 0 2 2 ) 1 0 0 2 8 6DiscussionThis study has shown that manual chest compressions can be effec-tively performed by placing a stool under the shoulder for any shapeof the dental chair when we need to perform CPR on a patient in adental chair.When a patient suffers a cardiopulmonary arrest during dentaltreatment, many practitioners are uniformly upset and impatient. Thisis because they are not skilled in emergency life-saving proceduresand have difficulty calmly determining what to do next and reactingsmoothly; the ERC and AHA guidelines emphasize the importanceof minimizing interruptions during manual chest compressions. If car-diac arrest is suspected, manual chest compressions should be ini-tiated as soon as possible in a stable location.5,6 However, if it isdifficult to quickly and safely move a patient seated in a dental chairto the floor, CPR for a patient seated in a dental chair may be lesseffective than manual chest compressions if the vertical displace-ment of the backrest is large. Additionally, the backrest may not beadequately supported for effective resuscitation.7–10 Many moderndental chairs are ergonomically designed with a curved backrest thatgradually flattens upward to the patient’s shoulders; the externalshape of the chair backrest is on the lower bodyside (e.g., abdomenand lower back), rather than on the area where manual chest com-pressions are performed, is often more pronouncedly curved, andfor stabilization adversely affect the point of contact with the stool,reducing stability (Fig. 4). The exterior of many current dental chairsis characterized by an upward more flattened profile. If the stabilizingstool is positioned below the shoulders, it provides a larger, widercontact area and is more easily stabilized. The back of the dentalchair is further stabilized when there is a distance between thepatient’s seating position and the stabilizing stool.The video image results showed little displacement of the stool inresponse to the external force of the chest compressions. When per-forming this method of CPR in practice, we determined that no otherperson was needed to stabilize the stool position.LimitationsThis study had some limitations. First, only three types of dentalchairs were included in this study; however, many types of dentalchairs are in use worldwide. Second, the usefulness of other typesof stabilizers has not yet been tested, and the stools were only setin specific positions. Additional studies should be conducted to eval-uate other positions of the stabilizing stools for maximum effective-ness. Third, this study did not consider the effect of the dentalFig. 4 – Differences in stool position for manual chest compressions (Red arrow). A: The stool was placed under thechest compression site. B: The stool was placed under the shoulders. When the backrest of the dental chair wascurved in shape as shown in B, placing the stool on the shoulder side reduced the vertical displacement.R E S U S C I T A T I O NP L U S 1 1 ( 2 0 2 2 ) 1 0 0 2 8 65chair cushion or the use of a hard backboard during manual chestcompressions.11,12 Next, we need to demonstrate the clinical effec-tiveness of the method. For example, we should study subjects toimprove the success rate of chest compression depth and reducefatigue from chest compressions. Finally, because this study wasconducted using a mannequin model, caution should be exercisedin applying the results to human patients. However, no previous stud-ies have demonstrated that vertical displacement is significantlyreduced using this technique in several types of dental chairs. Theplacement of a stool to support the dental chair is a simple and effec-tive way to increase the effectiveness of manual chest compressionsand should be utilized when performing CPR on a patient sitting in adental chair.ConclusionThe present study demonstrates that our method is more stable foreffective manual chest compressions in any dental chair if the stoolis positioned under the shoulders rather than the manual chest com-pressions. These results suggest that dentists need to prepare inadvance an appropriate method (stool position) according to theexternal shape of the dental chair backrest to perform effective man-ual chest compressions and that it is very effective.Declaration of Competing InterestThe authors declare no competing interests.CRediT authorship contribution statementTakashi Hitosugi: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – origi-nal draft, Writing – review & editing. Norimasa Awata: Data cura-tion. Yoichiro Miki: Software, Validation, Investigation, Writing –review & editing. Masanori Tsukamoto: Supervision. TakeshiYokoyama: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – review &editing, Project administration, Investigation, Supervision.AcknowledgmentsNot applicable.Availability of data and materialsThe data sets during and/or analyzed the current study availablefrom the corresponding author upon reasonable request.Informed consentFor this type of study, formal consent is not required.Author detailsaSection of Dental Anesthesiology, Division of Maxillofacial Diag-nostic & Surgical Sciences, Faculty of Dental Science, KyushuUniversity, 3-1-1 Maidashi, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka City, Fukuoka 812-8582, Japan bSmile Dental Clinic, 1-1-5 Kamimoto-cho-nishi, Chuo-ku, Osaka City, Osaka 542-0062, Japan cSchool of InterdisciplinaryScience and Innovation, Faculty of Arts and Science, KyushuUniversity, 744 Motooka, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka-shi, Fukuoka 812-8582, JapandDepartment of Dental Anesthesiology, Kyushu Uni-versity Hospital, 3-1-1 Maidashi, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka City, Fukuoka812-8582, JapanR E F E R E N C E S1. Awata N, Hitosugi T, Miki Y, et al. Usefulness of a stool to stabilizedental chairs for cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR). BMC EmergMed 2019;19:46. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12873-019-0258-x.2. Hitosugi T, Awata N, Miki Y, et al. A Comparison of two stoolpositions for stabilizing a dental chair during CPR. Anesth Prog 2022.In press.3. Truhla´rˇ A, Deakin CD, Soar J, et al. Cardiac arrest in specialcircumstances section Collaborators, European ResuscitationCouncil Guidelines for Resuscitation 2015: Section 4. Cardiac arrestin special circumstances. Resuscitation 2015;95:148–201.4. Lott C, Truhla´rˇ A, Alfonzo A, et al. ERC Special CircumstancesWriting Group Collaborators, European Resuscitation CouncilGuidelines 2021: Cardiac arrest in special circumstances.Resuscitation 2021;161:152–219.5. Monsieurs KG, Nolan JP, Bossaert LL, et al. ERC Guidelines 2015Writing Group. European Resuscitation Council Guidelines forResuscitation 2015 Section 1. Executive summary. Resuscitation2015;95:1–80.6. Kleinman ME, Goldberger ZD, Rea T, et al. 2017 American HeartAssociation Focused Update on Adult Basic Life Support andCardiopulmonary Resuscitation Quality: An Update to the AmericanHeart Association Guidelines for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation andEmergency Cardiovascular Care. Circulation 2018;137:7–13.7. Chi CH, Tsou JY, Su FC. Effects of rescuer position on thekinematics of cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and the force ofdelivered compressions. Resuscitation 2008;76:69–75.8. Chi C, Tsou J, Su F. Effects of compression-to-ventilation ratio oncompression force and rescuer fatigue during cardiopulmonaryresuscitation. Am J Emerg Med 2010;28:1016–23.9 Tomlinson AE, Nysaether J, Kramer-Johansen J, et al. Compressionforce-depth relationship during out-of-hospital cardiopulmonaryresuscitation. Resuscitation 2007;72:364–70.10. Hasegawa T, Daikoku R, Saito S, Saito S. Relationship betweenweight of rescuer and quality of chest compression duringcardiopulmonary resuscitation. J Physiol Anthropol 2014;33:16–23.11. Perkins GD, Smith CM, Augre C, et al. Effects of a backboard, bedheight, and operator position on compression depth during simulatedresuscitation. Intensive Care Med 2006;32:1632–5.12. Olasveengen TM, Mancini ME, Perkins GD, Collaborators ABLS,Support ABL, et al. International Consensus on CardiopulmonaryResuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care Science WithTreatment Recommendations. Circulation 2020;2020:41–91.6R E S U S C I T A T I O NP L U S 1 1 ( 2 0 2 2 ) 1 0 0 2 8 6 | RESEARCH GATE |
See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/360298624PSYCHOSOMATIC RELATIONSHIPS IN THE MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM ANDTHEIR IMPORTANCE FOR WELLNESSConference Paper · May 2022CITATIONS0READS141 author:Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:Body IMage View projectPhysical Culture from an Interdisciplinary Perspective (Frontiers in Psychology, Impact Factor: 4.232; CiteScore: 4.0; Q2) View projectDaniela StackeováVŠTVS Palestra s.r.o.18 PUBLICATIONS 52 CITATIONS SEE PROFILEAll content following this page was uploaded by Daniela Stackeová on 01 May 2022.The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.Vysoká škola tělesné výchovy a sportu PALESTRA, spol. s r.o. 7. BIENÁLE MEZINÁRODNÍ KONFERENCE WELLNESS, ZDRAVÍ A KVALITA ŽIVOTA PRAHA 4. 11. 2021 The College of Physical Education and Sport PALESTRA, L.t. d 7th BIENNALE INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC CONFERENCE WELLNESS, HEALTH AND QUALITY OF LIFE PRAGUE 04/11/2021 Vysoká škola tělesné výchovy a sportu PALESTRA, spol. s r.o. 7. BIENÁLE MEZINÁRODNÍ KONFERENCE WELLNESS, ZDRAVÍ A KVALITA ŽIVOTA 4. 11. 2021 The College of Physical Education and Sport PALESTRA, L.t. d 7th BIENNALE INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC CONFERENCE WELLNESS, HEALTH AND QUALITY OF LIFE 04/11/2021 TEMATICKÉ OKRUHY, CÍL: Diagnostika a funkční testování ve wellness. Multidimenzionální přístup ke kvalitě života a podpoře zdraví. Sebehodnocení a wellness plán. Bio-psycho-sociální rovnováha. Cílem mezinárodní konference je pomoci překlenout propast mezi výzkumem a aplikací výstupů. Celkovým účelem je usnadnit sdílení znalostí a praktických transformací z mezinárodního hlediska. THEMATIC AREAS, AIM: Diagnostics and function testing in wellness. Multidimensional approach to quality of life and health support. Self-assessment and wellness plan. Bio-psycho-social balance. The aim of the international conference is to help bridge the gap between research and application outputs. An overall purpose is to facilitate the sharing of knowledge and practical transformations from an international perspective. PRAHA Sborník abstraktů 7. bienále mezinárodní konference „Welness, zdraví a kvalita života“ Proceedings of abstracts of 7th Biennale of the International Scientific Conference “Wellness, health and Quality of Life“ Editoři/Editors: prof. PaedDr. Milada Krejčí, CSc. Mgr. Kamila Bulířová Alena Malcová © Vysoká škola tělesné výchovy a sportu PALESTRA, spol. s r.o. © The College of Physical Education and Sport PALESTRA, L.t. d PRAHA 2021 PRAGUE 2021 ISBN 978-80-87723-95-1 (online) 17 environment of Karlovy Vary on the mood states (tension, anger, fatigue, depression, confusion, vigour) of the participants. The questionnaires were completed by 36 participants (25 women, 11 men) aged between 20 and 65 years (⌀ 45 years). Based on the statistical evaluation, positive changes were observed in all investigated mood states. First of all, significantly increased vitality and, on the contrary, decreased fatigue (p-value <0.001) were confirmed. The training also had a positive effect on the anger and depressive states, with a significant reduction in both cases (p-value <0.05). This study results have confirmed that Nordic walking training in the natural environment of Karlovy Vary forests has a positive effect on the mood states of the participants and their mental health. These results will be the basis for follow-up research investigating the impact of physical activity in spa environments on the mental health of visitors and residents of spa towns. Keywords: Mental health; POMS; nordic walking; therapeutic landscape; Karlovy Vary; spa. PSYCHOSOMATIC RELATIONSHIPS IN THE MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM AND THEIR IMPORTANCE FOR WELLNESS DANIELA STACKEOVÁ Abstract The locomotor system is directly affected by our emotional state, both muscle tension and its distribution, and locomotor functions. Knowledge of these psychosomatic relationships is important for all professions that work with the locomotor system of an individual, whether clinical, such as physiotherapy or non-clinical, including wellness specialists. We present an overview of them here. Increase and redistribution of muscle tension in persons who are under stress (different reaction in postural and phasic muscles) potentially leads to impairment of the present muscle imbalances, in the long run to a development of painful condition associated with muscle hypertension and strain of fibrous structures. Emotions associated with stress are accompanied by a specific reaction in the postural system, including impairment of balance functions and ultimately decrease in quality of motor functions (fluency of movement, its effectiveness, motor coordination, etc.). The neurophysiological basis of this reaction is the influence of the limbic system on the control of motor functions. Significant is also the change in respiratory function due to stress. A change in the type and depth of breathing is accompanied by a change in the involvement of the respiratory muscles (especially involvement of the upper scalupa fixators supporting the impairment of the functional state of the musculoskeletal system). By targeted intervention, whether of a passive nature, such as massage, or active nature, such as various methods of kinesiotherapy, we can not only eliminate the impact of stress on the musculoskeletal 18 system, but also target the psychic and support the harmony of the individual. However, a necessary condition is erudition in this area, including knowledge of the presented psychosomatic relationships. Keywords: Psychosomatics; psychosomatic relationships; wellness; kinesiotherapy. PHYSICAL AND SPORTS EDUCATION AS A MEANS OF FORMING A RELATIONSHIP TO LIFELONG PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND HEALTH ELENA BENDÍKOVÁ Abstract The aim of the study presents and points out the importance of including physical and sport education in movement regime of pupils as a mean involved in forming the relationship to lifelong physical activity. The research sample consisted of 𝝨n=726 pupils in Slovakia, of which 378 girls in age (x) 17.5±1.4 years (body height (x) 166.4±3.6 cm, body weight (x) 61.9±4.8 kg) and 348 boys in age (x) 17.9±1.2 years (body height (x) 178.9±7.9 cm, body weight (x) 63.2±5.6 kg). In terms of data collection methods in the period 2020-2021, an interrogation method was used, based on pedagogical practice. Our findings show that physical and sport education is perceived in both genders with a positive attitude, but different interests with a significant difference (p <0.01) to the detriment of girls. Demands for the quality of the subject content is (p <0.01) higher in girls. Girls prefer within the PA subject of aesthetic focus, without direct contact (p <0.01), while boys prefer dynamic and conditioning PA (p <0.01). In girls and boys, this subject belongs to those that significantly (p <0.01) form a relationship to lifelong PA as well as to health (p <0.01). In the overall movement regime of pupils, there are significant (p <0.01) differences between the genders to the detriment of girls in terms of bulk of performed PA, frequency, and intensity (p <0.01). Which is related (p <0.01) also to a worse perception of health and health problems (p <0.01). At the same time, we significantly (p <0.01) confirm that physical and sport education is one of the transformational means involved in performing PA in daily movement regime of pupils (even in the pandemic period). This project was supported by VEGA 1/0519/19. Keywords: Health; interest; physical aktivity; physical and sport education; pupil. COVID 19 - UP CALL TO FOCUS ON WELLNESS MILADA KREJČÍ, LUDMILA VACEK Abstract Covid-19 pandemic represents an exceptional experience in the whole world and still is going through touched everybody. Never before has health and wellness declined so fast. It has also been a hard lesson about general health issues and health prevention as it became evident that healthier individuals with stronger immune systems were and View publication stats | RESEARCH GATE |
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