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400 | Electrification These were invented by Joseph Swan in 1878 in Britain and by Thomas Edison in 1879 in the US. Edison’s lamp was more successful than Swan’s because Edison used a thinner filament, giving it higher resistance and thus conducting much less current. Edison began commercial production of carbon filament bulbs in 1880. Swan's light began commercial production in 1881. Swan's house, in Low Fell, Gateshead, was the world's first to have working light bulbs installed. The Lit & Phil Library in Newcastle, was the first public room lit by electric light, and the Savoy Theatre was the first public building in the world lit entirely by electricity. The first central station providing public power is believed to be one at Godalming, Surrey, U.K. autumn 1881. The system was proposed after the town failed to reach an agreement on the rate charged by the gas company, so the town council decided to use electricity. The system lit up arc lamps on the main streets and incandescent lamps on a few side streets with hydroelectric power. By 1882 between 8 and 10 households were connected, with a total of 57 lights. The system was not a commercial success and the town reverted to gas. The first large scale central distribution supply plant was opened at Holborn Viaduct in London in 1882. Equipped with 1000 incandescent lightbulbs that replaced the older gas lighting, the station lit up Holborn Circus including the offices of the General Post Office and the famous City Temple church |
401 | Variation of the field When the field is patterned with an even number of horizontal (fesswise) stripes, this is described as "barry" e.g. of six or eight, usually of a colour and metal specified, e.g. "barry of six argent and gules" (this implies that the chiefmost piece is argent). With ten or more pieces, the field is described as "barruly". A field with narrow piles throughout, issuing from either the dexter or sinister side of the shield, is "barry pily". When the field is patterned with an even number of vertical stripes (pallets), the field is described as "paly". When the field is patterned with a series of diagonal stripes (bendlets), running from top-left to bottom-right, the field is described as "bendy". In the opposite fashion (top-right to bottom-left) it is "bendy sinister" (of "skarpes," the diminutive in England of the bend sinister); of chevronels, "chevronny". An unusual example of bendy is one in which a metal alternates with two colours. In modern practice the number of pieces is nearly always even. A shield of thirteen vertical stripes, alternating argent and gules, would not be "paly of thirteen, argent and gules", but "argent, six pallets gules". One unusual design is described in part as "bendy of three" though, as each third is again divided, the effect is of a six-part division. If no number of pieces is specified, it may be left up to the heraldic artist, but is still represented with an even number. An instance of a "fess.. |
402 | Aftermath of the 2000 Fijian coup d'état On 31 August, Justice Gerard Winter decided to adjourn until 30 September the hearing of the lawsuit of former FLP parliamentarians Lekh Ram Vayeshnoi and Gaffar Ahmed, after defence lawyer Akuila Naco asked for more time to prepare his case. On 15 September, Justice Winter set 14 October for Mahendra Chaudhry's compensation trial to begin. He refused a request from Timoci Silatolu's lawyer for a Military investigation into the 2000 upheaval to be made public, after the Military lawyer claimed Military privilege. Speight and his co-defendants appeared in Court on 27 January 2006 for a preliminary hearing, pending the full hearing scheduled for 1 May. |
403 | State Intellectual Property Office (Croatia) The State Intellectual Property Office of the Republic of Croatia (SIPO Croatia; ) is a government agency responsible for registration of patents, trademarks and design in Croatia. It was established in 1991, originally under the name "Republic Industrial Property Office" and then "State Patent Office". Since 1996, its name is "State Intellectual Property Office." The following persons have held the office of Director General: |
404 | Joint Force Air Component Headquarters The (JFACHQ) is the United Kingdom's deployable air command and control unit. The JFACHQ is run by the Royal Air Force with representation from the other services. The JFACHQ has members from the operations and operations support branches of the RAF to both plan and execute the air war as well as support the deployed air components from A1 to A9. The unit is based at RAF High Wycombe. It can deploy worldwide at short notice to run an air campaign. The constituent parts of the JFAC are broken down according to the Continental staff system: |
405 | Water of crystallization Historically, the structures of many hydrates were unknown, and the dot in the formula of a hydrate was employed to specify the composition without indicating how the water is bound. Examples: For many salts, the exact bonding of the water is unimportant because the water molecules are labilized upon dissolution. For example, an aqueous solution prepared from CuSO and anhydrous CuSO behave identically. Therefore, knowledge of the degree of hydration is important only for determining the equivalent weight: one mole of CuSO weighs more than one mole of CuSO. In some cases, the degree of hydration can be critical to the resulting chemical properties. For example, anhydrous RhCl is not soluble in water and is relatively useless in organometallic chemistry whereas RhCl is versatile. Similarly, hydrated AlCl is a poor Lewis acid and thus inactive as a catalyst for Friedel-Crafts reactions. Samples of AlCl must therefore be protected from atmospheric moisture to preclude the formation of hydrates. Crystals of hydrated copper(II) sulfate consist of [Cu(HO)] centers linked to SO ions. Copper is surrounded by six oxygen atoms, provided by two different sulfate groups and four molecules of water. A fifth water resides elsewhere in the framework but does not bind directly to copper. The cobalt chloride mentioned above occurs as [Co(HO)] and Cl. In tin chloride, each Sn(II) center is pyramidal (mean O/Cl-Sn-O/Cl angle is 83°) being bound to two chloride ions and one water |
406 | Revelation 12 sign prophecy " Some people suggest this will be fulfilled because the planet Jupiter will be traversing the constellation after having undergone apparent retrograde motion after entering what they perceive to be Virgo's "womb" around November 20, 2016. Jupiter exits the lower part of the "womb" 42 weeks later, which is the approximate length of a human gestation (normal gestation periods lasting from 37 to 42 weeks). It was also discovered that the apparent retrograde of Jupiter in the womb of Virgo was preceded by C/2017 E1 (Comet Borisov) which is being called the "Conception Comet". This comet traveled from the loins of the constellation Leo to the womb of the constellation Virgo on November 17, 2016, just before the entrance of Jupiter into the womb. Some proponents of the Revelation 12 Sign are suggesting that this comet represented the divine insemination of the woman, which subsequently produced the male child (Jupiter). This will be the comet's only trip through our solar system as it is not a solar orbital. The complete astronomical alignment occurred on September 23, 2017, over Jerusalem. The Revelation 12 Sign may have coincided with the High Holy Day of Rosh Hashanah on the Jewish calendar, which is also called the "Feast of Trumpets". The Feast of Trumpets is the first of the Fall Feasts and its timing is traditionally based on the visibility of the new moon, which in 2017 is began on the evening of September 20 and ended on the evening of the 22nd |
407 | Zdenko Strižić After fleeing Yugoslavia, Strižić joined the faculty of the University of Melbourne (1956–1961), writing a thesis, collaborating on many publications, and returned to designing. His project for the Australian House of Representatives (1956-1962) was awarded the first prize in a major competition. In the late 1950s, Strizic taught at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in the United States, and later collaborated with the International Academy of Architecture and Town Planning at the UN. He was invited to Braunschweig in the 1960s to establish a third design department at the university of the time and from 1962 on, he lectured at the High Technical School in Braunschweig. There, Strižić became interested in the current topic of airport architecture and planning, which he followed with some notable studies. In 1968, Strižić's book "Wohnbauten", the third sequel to previous books on architectural design, was published. In the late 1960s and through the 1970s, Strižić produced notable projects; in 1967, in conjunction with the Schweitzer Atelier, he received the first award for the Brake-Niederweser School Centre, and in 1970 he was awarded the performance of the Kanzelerfeld Centre with over two hundred apartments. He published articles and reviews in the field of architecture and urban planning in, Croatian and foreign journals. He was lecturer and mentor of Vjenceslav Richter, influencing his respect for Bauhaus principles. died on 1 November 1990 in Braunschweig, where he was buried |
408 | Uruk There are three major tells within the site, the Eanna district: Bit Resh (Kullaba), and Irigal. The location of was first scouted by William Loftus in 1849. He excavated there in 1850 and 1854. By Loftus' own account, he admits that the first excavations were superficial at best, as his financiers forced him to deliver large museum artifacts at a minimal cost. Warka was also scouted by archaeologist Walter Andrae in 1902. From 1912 to 1913, Julius Jordan and his team from the German Oriental Society discovered the temple of Ishtar, one of four known temples located at the site. The temples at were quite remarkable as they were constructed with brick and adorned with colorful mosaics. Jordan also discovered part of the city wall. It was later discovered that this high brick wall, probably utilized as a defense mechanism, totally encompassed the city at a length of . Utilizing sedimentary strata dating techniques, this wall is estimated to have been erected around 3000 BC. The GOS returned to in 1928 and excavated until 1939, when World War II intervened. The team was led by Jordan until 1931, then by A. Nöldeke, Ernst Heinrich, and H. J. Lenzen. The German excavations resumed after the war and were under the direction of Heinrich Lenzen from 1953 to 1967. He was followed in 1968 by J. Schmidt, and in 1978 by R.M. Boehmer. In total, the German archaeologists spent 39 seasons working at Uruk |
409 | Technological singularity This more capable machine could then go on to design a machine of yet greater capability. These iterations of recursive self-improvement could accelerate, potentially allowing enormous qualitative change before any upper limits imposed by the laws of physics or theoretical computation set in. It is speculated that over many iterations, such an AI would far surpass human cognitive abilities. Intelligence explosion is a possible outcome of humanity building artificial general intelligence (AGI). AGI would be capable of recursive self-improvement, leading to the rapid emergence of artificial superintelligence (ASI), the limits of which are unknown, shortly after technological singularity is achieved. I. J. Good speculated in 1965 that artificial general intelligence might bring about an intelligence explosion. He speculated on the effects of superhuman machines, should they ever be invented: Good's scenario runs as follows: as computers increase in power, it becomes possible for people to build a machine that is more intelligent than humanity; this superhuman intelligence possesses greater problem-solving and inventive skills than current humans are capable of. This superintelligent machine then designs an even more capable machine, or re-writes its own software to become even more intelligent; this (even more capable) machine then goes on to design a machine of yet greater capability, and so on |
410 | Or Give Me Death MyJohn is Patsy's boyfriend and husband later on in the novel. He is well-liked by everyone, especially Anne. Unlike Patsy, he is kind and gentle but still able to keep things under control. He is one of the only people Patsy listens aside from her father. MyJohn has a great influence in the Henry family being Patsy's husband and with Patrick Henry gone fighting for independence through speeches, he manages a lot of what goes on as well and works hard on the plantation. Pegg is the main slave in the household and is the seventh daughter of a seventh daughter. While disliked by Patsy, Pegg and Anne get along well. She is more gentle with the children and earns some authority with the children when Patsy realizes she can't handle it by herself. Pegg is related to Neely which leads Mrs. Hooper to the assumption that the Henrys' slaves were writing letters in the newspaper. Neely is let into the house secretly by Pegg without Patsy knowing. She goes with Neely to try to gain freedom from Neely's master, Estave, and possibly escape as well. Anne keeps it a secret and Pegg's daughter helps with cooking while Pegg is out. However, Patsy is told that Pegg is sulking in her room because Patsy accused her of wanting to poison her. Anne and Pegg's daughter grows closer while Pegg is gone and awaits the news. In the end, Pegg comes back and Neely is beaten to death by her master. Spencer Roane befriends Anne. He talks to Anne about things she actually is interested in such as horses |
411 | Peter Elias (November 23, 1923 – December 7, 2001) was a pioneer in the field of information theory. Born in New Brunswick, New Jersey, he was a member of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology faculty from 1953 to 1991. In 1955, Elias introduced convolutional codes as an alternative to block codes. He also established the binary erasure channel and proposed list decoding of error-correcting codes as an alternative to unique decoding. Elias received the Claude E. Shannon Award of the IEEE Information Theory Society (1977); the Golden Jubilee Award for Technological Innovation of the IEEE Information Theory Society (1998); and the IEEE Richard W. Hamming Medal (2002). was born on November 23, 1923, in New Brunswick, New Jersey. His mother Anna Elias (née Wahrhaftig) was born on April 19, 1897, in New York City. His father Nathaniel Mendel Elias, born on February 21, 1895, worked for Thomas Edison in his Edison, New Jersey, laboratory after graduating from Columbia University with a degree in chemical engineering. His paternal grandparents were Emil Elias and Pepi Pauline Cypres (daughter of Peretz Hacohen Cypres and Lea Breindel Cypres) who married in 1889 in Kraków, Poland. Elias died (at age 78) on December 7, 2001, of Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease. |
412 | Swedish Institute in Rome The (, ) is a research institution that serves as the base for archaeological excavations and other scientific research in Italy. It also pursues academic instruction in archaeology and art sciences as well as arranging conferences with themes of interest to the institute. The Institute has at its disposal a building in central Rome with a relatively well-supplied library, archaeological laboratory and around twenty rooms and smaller apartments for the use of visiting researchers and holders of scholarships. The institute was founded in 1925 by, among others, King Gustaf VI Adolf, then Crown Prince of Sweden. The Institute has conducted several major excavations. Before World War II, excavations were carried out on the Forum Romanum among other places, but since then most of them have taken place in southern Etruria. |
413 | Smallest-circle problem The solution of the subproblem is either solution of unconstrained problem or it is used to determine the half-plane where the unconstrained solution center is located. The n/16 points to be discarded are found the following way: Points are arranged to pairs what defines n/2 lines as their bisectors. Median of bisectors in order by their directions (oriented to the same half-plane determined by bisector ) is found and pairs from bisectors are made, such that in each pair one bisector has direction at most and the other at least (direction could be considered as -formula_11 or +formula_11 according our needs.) Let be intersection of bisectors of -th pair. Line in the direction is placed to go through an intersection such that there is n/8 intersections in each half-plane defined by the line (median position). Constrained version of the enclosing problem is run on line what determines half-plane where the center is located. Line in the direction is placed to go through an intersection such that there is n/16 intersections in each half of the half-plane not containing the solution. Constrained version of the enclosing problem is run on line what together with determines quadrant, where the center is located. We consider the points in the quadrant not contained in a half-plane containing solution. One of the bisectors of pair defining has the direction ensuring which of points defining the bisector is closer to each point in the quadrant containing the center of the enclosing circle. This point could be discarded |
414 | African-American history Petersburg, an industrial city, by 1860 had 3,224 free blacks (36% of blacks, and about 26% of all free persons), the largest population in the South. In Virginia, free blacks also created communities in Richmond, Virginia and other towns, where they could work as artisans and create businesses. Others were able to buy land and farm in frontier areas further from white control. The Black community also established schools for Black children, since they were often banned from entering public schools. Richard Allen organized the first Black Sunday school in America; it was established in Philadelphia during 1795. Then five years later, the priest Absalom Jones established a school for black youth. Black Americans regarded education as the surest path to economic success, moral improvement and personal happiness. Only the sons and daughters of the black middle class had the luxury of studying. The revolt of Haitian slaves against their white slave owners, which began in 1791 and lasted until 1801, was a primary source of fuel for both slaves and abolitionists arguing for the freedom of Africans in the U.S. In the 1833 edition of "Nile's Weekly Register" it is stated that freed blacks in Haiti were better off than their Jamaican counterparts, and the positive effects of American Emancipation are alluded to throughout the paper. These anti-slavery sentiments were popular among both white abolitionists and African-American slaves |
415 | Climate restoration One key recommendation of the Rand Corporation study is that an ambitious climate restoration goal may seek to achieve preindustrial concentration by 2075, or by the end of the century. It concludes that "The best we can do is pursue climate restoration with a passion while embedding it in a process of testing, experimentation, correction, and discovery." On September 25, 2018, Rep. Jamie Raskin introduced a resolution on Climate Restoration to the U.S House Committee of Energy and Commerce, concluding with "Whereas scientists have researched methods for keeping warming below 2° C, but have not yet researched the best methods to remove all excess CO2, stop sea-level rise, and restore a safe and healthy climate for future generations; and whereas declaring a goal of restoring a safe and healthy climate will encourage scientists to research the most effective ways to restore safe CO2 levels, stop sea-level rise, and restore a safe and healthy climate for future generations." This was followed by the Congressional Climate Emergency Resolutions (S.Con.Res.22, H.Con.Res.52) which “demands a national, social, industrial, and economic mobilization of the resources and labor of the United States at a massive-scale to halt, reverse, mitigate, and prepare for the consequences of the climate emergency and to restore the climate for future generations.. |
416 | The Space Bar Steve Meretzky said that Rocket Science Games' European partner company would be "marketing heavily in Europe." Rocket Science demonstrated "The Space Bar" alongside "Obsidian" at the mid-1996 Electronic Entertainment Expo (E3); Peter Smith of "Computer Games Strategy Plus" wrote that the two titles "made a big splash" at the show. However, Meretzky later told "Gamasutra", "With typical Boffo luck, they [Rocket Science] ran out of money halfway through the project and sold our game to SegaSoft." In August 1996, Rocket Science laid off its marketing team of 20 people in an effort to transition exclusively to game development, and signed with SegaSoft to publish "The Space Bar", "Rocket Jockey" and "Obsidian". By the 20th, Rocket Science's old marketing division had been picked up by the publisher and put to work on these titles' promotional effort. All three games were set to launch by Christmas. SegaSoft described the deal as an effort to break into the computer game industry; its first releases in this market—"Puzzle Castle" and "Fractured Fairy Tales"—launched later that year. Estimated in "PC Gamer US"s September 1996 issue as three-fourths complete and on track for October, "The Space Bar" ultimately missed Christmas, alongside "Obsidian". The latter game failed commercially upon its January 1997 release, as did "Rocket Jockey" in late 1996. In reaction, SegaSoft split with Rocket Science in early April 1997 and the developer entered a financial downward spiral, closing later that month |
417 | Hemicellulose Xylan backbone synthesis, unlike that of the other hemicelluloses, is not mediated by any cellulose synthase-like proteins. Instead, xylan synthase is responsible for backbone synthesis, facilitating the addition of xylose. Several genes for xylan synthases have been identified. Several other enzymes are utilized for the addition and modification of the side-chain units of xylan, including glucuronosyltransferase (which adds glucuronic acid units), xylosyltransferase (which adds additional xylose units), arabinosyltransferase (which adds arabinose), methyltransferase (responsible for methylation), and acetyltransferase (responsible for acetylation).Given that mixed-linkage glucan is a non-branched homopolymer of glucose, there is no side-chain synthesis, only the addition of glucose to the backbone in two linkages, β1-3 and β1-4. Backbone synthesis is mediated by enzymes in cellulose synthase-like protein families F and H (CSLF and CSLH), specifically glucan synthase. Several forms of glucan synthase from CSLF and CSLH have been identified. All of them are responsible for addition of glucose to the backbone and all are capable of producing both β1-3 and β1-4 linkages, however, it is unknown how much each specific enzyme contributes to the distribution of β1-3 and β1-4 linkages. In the sulphite pulp process the hemicellulose is largely hydrolysed by the acid pulping liquor ending up in the brown liquor where the fermentable hexose sugars (around 2%) can be used for producing ethanol |
418 | Maschsee Other sculptures on the eastern side are the ""Menschenpaar"" by Georg Kolbe (1936–37) and two lion sculptures created by Arno Breker (1938). In 1948 Erich Haberland unveiled his piece "The Swimmer", which stands in the public bathing area. Spanish artist Santiago Sierra caused a sensation in 2005 when he remembered the fact that the was built through a Nazi work programme by installing a walk-in room filled with mud at the Kestner Society Art Gallery. A light art project was held around the lake at the start of 2009 under the title "New Moon on the Lake". The display consisted of 22 illuminated pieces that had been created by international artists, which formed the opening of the 2009 Garden Project in Hanover. The lies close to such other notable places as the New City Hall, the Lower Saxony State Museum, the Sprengel Museum, the AWD-Arena (home of the football club Hannover 96), the main city indoor swimming pool as well as the Lower Saxony broadcasting houses of television channels NDR and ZDF. The lake is directly accessible by using the bus stops at the AWD Arena and the Sprengel Museum. Additional bus and tram stops such as the Aegidientorplatz, Schlägerstraße, Geibelstraße, Altenbekener Damm and Döhren Tower also lie in relatively close proximity to the lake. Numerous foot and cycle paths lead to the and follow along its shoreline |
419 | Logistics is generally the detailed organization and implementation of a complex operation. In a general business sense, logistics is the management of the flow of things between the point of origin and the point of consumption to meet the requirements of customers or corporations. The resources managed in logistics may include tangible goods such as materials, equipment, and supplies, as well as food and other consumable items. The logistics of physical items usually involves the integration of information flow, materials handling, production, packaging, inventory, transportation, warehousing, and often security. In military science, logistics is concerned with maintaining army supply lines while disrupting those of the enemy, since an armed force without resources and transportation is defenseless. Military logistics was already practiced in the ancient world and as the modern military has a significant need for logistics solutions, advanced implementations have been developed. In military logistics, logistics officers manage how and when to move resources to the places they are needed. management is the part of supply chain management and supply chain engineering that plans, implements, and controls the efficient, effective forward, and reverse flow and storage of goods, services, and related information between the point of origin and point of consumption to meet customer's requirements. The complexity of logistics can be modeled, analyzed, visualized, and optimized by dedicated simulation software |
420 | Plautus Plays were performed in public, for the public, with the most prominent members of the society in the forefront. The wooden stages on which Plautus' plays appeared were shallow and long with three openings in respect to the scene-house. The stages were significantly smaller than any Greek structure familiar to modern scholars. Because theater was not a priority during Plautus' time, the structures were built and dismantled within a day. Even more practically, they were dismantled quickly due to their potential as fire-hazards. Often the geography of the stage and more importantly the play matched the geography of the city so that the audience would be well oriented to the locale of the play. Moore says that, "references to Roman locales must have been stunning for they are not merely references to things Roman, but the most blatant possible reminders that the production occurs in the city of Rome". So, seems to have choreographed his plays somewhat true-to-life. To do this, he needed his characters to exit and enter to or from whatever area their social standing would befit. Two scholars, V. J. Rosivach and N. E. Andrews, have made interesting observations about stagecraft in Plautus: V. J. Rosivach writes about identifying the side of the stage with both social status and geography. He says that, for example, "the house of the "medicus" lies offstage to the right. It would be in the forum or thereabouts that one would expect to find a "medicus" |
421 | Echo sounding 282009 for the invention of echo sounding "(device for measuring depths of the sea and distances and headings of ships or obstacles by means of reflected sound waves)" on 22 July 1913. One of the first commercial echo sounding units was the Fessenden Fathometer, which used the Fessenden oscillator to generate sound waves. This was first installed by the Submarine Signal Company in 1924 on the M&M liner S.S. Berkshire. |
422 | Sewage treatment For example, constructed wetlands have a lower energy requirement than activated sludge plants, as less energy is required for the aeration step. plants that produce biogas in their sewage sludge treatment process with anaerobic digestion can produce enough energy to meet most of the energy needs of the sewage treatment plant itself. In conventional secondary treatment processes, most of the electricity is used for aeration, pumping systems and equipment for the dewatering and drying of sewage sludge. Advanced wastewater treatment plants, e.g. for nutrient removal, require more energy than plants that only achieve primary or secondary treatment. The sludges accumulated in a wastewater treatment process must be treated and disposed of in a safe and effective manner. The purpose of digestion is to reduce the amount of organic matter and the number of disease-causing microorganisms present in the solids. The most common treatment options include anaerobic digestion, aerobic digestion, and composting. Incineration is also used, albeit to a much lesser degree.The use of a green approach, such as phytoremediation, has been recently proposed as a valuable tool to improve sewage sludge contaminated by trace elements and POPs. Sludge treatment depends on the amount of solids generated and other site-specific conditions. Composting is most often applied to small-scale plants with aerobic digestion for mid-sized operations, and anaerobic digestion for the larger-scale operations |
423 | Cotton Price Stabilization Board The (French: "Caisse de Stabilisation des Prix du Coton", CSPC) was a Chadian governative board created in 1968. Its task was to stabilize prices paid to peasant producers by funding operating losses incurred by Cotontchad, the parastatal giant that bought, ginned and sold all the cotton produced in Chad. The CSPC also played an important role in the program to improve yields: it is estimated that between 1971 and 1983 57% of all payments by the CSPC were made in conjunction with the program to improve cotton production. As for the funding of the CSPC, between 1971 and 1983, virtually all income to the CSPC derived from rebates paid by Cotontchad into the system. After 1984 the sharply reduced income of Cotontchad made the system for paying the producers heavily dependent on external sources of funds (such as Stabex), while the government completely exempted Cotontchad from the rebates to the CSPC. The difficulties of the CSPC, whose staffs had already been considerably reduced in the late 1980s, came to a head with the great recession that hit the cotton market between 1991 and 1993, leading to the abolition of the board in 1993. It was decided to let the prices paid to the producers fluctuate freely, following the international price of cotton. |
424 | Project Labor Agreement Modern PLAs particularly developed from those used in construction carried out during World War II, a period when skilled labor was in demand, construction unions controlled 87% of the national market and government spending on construction had increased significantly over a short period of time. These early PLAs focused on establishing standard rates of pay and preventing work stoppages. PLA projects that followed included Cape Canaveral in the 1960s, Disney World from 1967–71 and the Trans-Alaska Pipeline from 1973-77. During this period and subsequently, the unionized share of the construction industry precipitously declined as construction users sought more open competition. By the 1980s, nonunion contractors claimed in excess of 80% of the construction work, in a wide variety of trades, with some variation in different parts of the country. The Boston Harbor reclamation project that began in the 1980s became the focus of debate over the legality of PLAs. When the Massachusetts Water Resources Authority elected to use a PLA for the project that mandated union-only labor, the Associated Builders and Contractors of Massachusetts/Rhode Island, Inc. challenged its legality, asserting that the use of a PLA was prohibited by the National Labor Relations Act. In 1990, the First Circuit federal appeals court ruled that the Boston Harbor PLA breached federal labor law because of its union-work requirement. On October 23, 1992, while the Boston Harbor case was still in court, President George H. W |
425 | Crystal skull Since the synthesis of carborundum dates only to the 1890s and its wider availability to the 20th century, the researchers concluded "[t]he suggestion is that it was made in the 1950s or later". None of the skulls in museums come from documented excavations. A parallel example is provided by obsidian mirrors, ritual objects widely depicted in Aztec art. Although a few surviving obsidian mirrors come from archaeological excavations, none of the Aztec-style obsidian mirrors are so documented. Yet most authorities on Aztec material culture consider the Aztec-style obsidian mirrors as authentic pre-Columbian objects. Archaeologist Michael E. Smith reports a non peer-reviewed find of a small crystal skull at an Aztec site in the Valley of Mexico. Crystal skulls have been described as "A fascinating example of artifacts that have made their way into museums with no scientific evidence to prove their rumored pre-Columbian origins." A similar case is the "Olmec-style" face mask in jade; hardstone carvings of a face in a mask form. Curators and scholars refer to these as "Olmec-style", as to date no example has been recovered in an archaeologically controlled Olmec context, although they appear Olmec in style |
426 | Relevant market Sometimes consumers may be unable to react to a price increase, nevertheless, producers may be able to do so by for example, increasing their supply to satisfy the demand of these consumers. If other producers respond to an increase in the relative price of the products supplied by the single supplier by switching production facilities to producing the monopolized collection of products, the increased level of supply may render any attempted price increase unprofitable. In this case, those producers with the ability for supply-side substitution should be included in the relevant market. The geographic market is an area in which the conditions of competition applying to the product concerned are the same for all traders. The same factors used in delineating relevant product markets should be used to define the relevant geographic market. The elements to be taken into consideration when defining the relevant geographic market include the nature and characteristics of the concerned products, the existence of entry barriers, consumer preferences, differences among the market shares of undertakings in the neighboring geographic areas, as well as significant differences between suppliers’ prices and transport costs level. An interesting aspect to which competition authorities look at are transport costs, given that high transport costs may explain why trade between two regions is economically infeasible. |
427 | Generalized anxiety disorder Patients with GAD can sometimes present with symptoms such as insomnia or headaches as well as pain and interpersonal problems. Further research suggests that about 20 to 40 percent of individuals with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder have comorbid anxiety disorders, with GAD being the most prevalent. Therapy has been shown to have equal efficacy in patents with GAD and patients with GAD and comorbid disorders. Patients with comorbid disorders have more severe symptoms when starting therapy but demonstrated a greater improvement than patients with simple GAD. Pharmacological approaches i.e. the use of antidepressants must be adapted for different comorbidities. For example, serotonin reuptake inhibitors and short acting benzodiazepines (BZDs) are used for depression and anxiety. However, for patients with anxiety and substance abuse, BZDs should be avoided due to their abuse liability. CBT has been found an effective treatment since it improves symptoms of GAD and substance abuse. Compared to the general population, patients with internalizing disorders such as depression, generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) have higher mortality rates, but die of the same age-related diseases as the population, such as heart disease, cerebrovascular disease and cancer. The American Psychiatric Association introduced GAD as a diagnosis in the DSM-III in 1980, when anxiety neurosis was split into GAD and panic disorder |
428 | Thermal oxidation Thermal oxide incorporates silicon consumed from the substrate and oxygen supplied from the ambient. Thus, it grows both down into the wafer and up out of it. For every unit thickness of silicon consumed, 2.17 unit thicknesses of oxide will appear. If a bare silicon surface is oxidized, 46% of the oxide thickness will lie below the original surface, and 54% above it. According to the commonly used Deal-Grove model, the time "τ" required to grow an oxide of thickness "X", at a constant temperature, on a bare silicon surface, is: where the constants A and B relate to properties of the reaction and the oxide layer, respectively. This model has further been adapted to account for self-limiting oxidation processes, as used for the fabrication and morphological design of Si nanowires and other nanostructures. If a wafer that already contains oxide is placed in an oxidizing ambient, this equation must be modified by adding a corrective term τ, the time that would have been required to grow the pre-existing oxide under current conditions. This term may be found using the equation for "t" above. Solving the quadratic equation for "X" yields: Most thermal oxidation is performed in furnaces, at temperatures between 800 and 1200 °C. A single furnace accepts many wafers at the same time, in a specially designed quartz rack (called a "boat"). Historically, the boat entered the oxidation chamber from the side (this design is called "horizontal"), and held the wafers vertically, beside each other |
429 | Integrating ADC As mentioned above, the purpose of the run-up phase is to add an unknown amount of charge to the integrator to be later measured during the run-down phase. Having the ability to add larger quantities of charge allows for more higher-resolution measurements. For example, assume that we are capable of measuring the charge on the integrator during the run-down phase to a granularity of 1 coulomb. If our integrator amplifier limits us to being able to add only up to 16 coulombs of charge to the integrator during the run-up phase, our total measurement will be limited to 4 bits (16 possible values). If we can increase the range of the integrator to allow us to add up to 32 coulombs, our measurement resolution is increased to 5 bits. One method to increase the integrator capacity is by periodically adding or subtracting known quantities of charge during the run-up phase in order to keep the integrator's output within the range of the integrator amplifier. Then, the total amount of artificially-accumulated charge is the charge introduced by the unknown input voltage plus the sum of the known charges that were added or subtracted. The circuit diagram shown to the right is an example of how multi-slope run-up could be implemented. The concept is that the unknown input voltage, formula_6, is always applied to the integrator. Positive and negative reference voltages controlled by the two independent switches add and subtract charge as needed to keep the output of the integrator within its limits |
430 | Millennium Park A 2001 investigative report by the "Chicago Tribune" described the park then under construction and its budget overruns as an "expensive public-works debacle that can be traced to haphazard planning, design snafus and cronyism". According to Lois Weisberg, commissioner of the Department of Cultural Affairs, and James Law, executive director of the Mayor's Office of Special Events, once the full scope of the project was finalized the project was completed within the revised budget. had 3 million visitors in its first year; annual attendance was projected to grow to between 3.31 and 3.65 million by 2010. According to "Crain's Chicago Business", however, the park had about 4 million visitors in 2009. In addition to the different uses detailed for each of the permanent features (above), the park has hosted some other notable events, including the annual Grant Park Music Festival, and two temporary pavilions to mark the centennial of Daniel Burnham's 1909 Plan of Chicago. has also been featured in several films and television shows. The Grant Park Music Festival (formerly Grant Park Concerts) is an annual 10-week classical music concert series, which features the Grant Park Symphony Orchestra and the Grant Park Chorus as well as guest performers and conductors. Since 2004, the festival has been housed in the Jay Pritzker Pavilion in Millennium Park. On occasion, the festival has been held at the Harris Theater instead of the Pritzker Pavilion |
431 | Nuclear winter Historical data on residence times of aerosols, albeit a different mixture of aerosols, in this case stratospheric sulfur aerosols and volcanic ash from megavolcano eruptions, appear to be in the one-to-two-year time scale, however aerosol–atmosphere interactions are still poorly understood. Sooty aerosols can have a wide range of properties, as well as complex shapes, making it difficult to determine their evolving atmospheric optical depth value. The conditions present during the creation of the soot are believed to be considerably important as to their final properties, with soot generated on the more efficient spectrum of burning efficiency considered almost "elemental carbon black," while on the more inefficient end of the burning spectrum, greater quantities of partially burnt/oxidized fuel are present. These partially burnt "organics" as they are known, often form tar balls and brown carbon during common lower-intensity wildfires, and can also coat the purer black carbon particles. However, as the soot of greatest importance is that which is injected to the highest altitudes by the pyroconvection of the firestorm – a fire being fed with storm-force winds of air – it is estimated that the majority of the soot under these conditions is the more oxidized black carbon. A study presented at the annual meeting of the American Geophysical Union in December 2006 found that even a small-scale, regional nuclear war could disrupt the global climate for a decade or more |
432 | Floris and Blancheflour is the name of a popular romantic story that was told in the Middle Ages in many different vernacular languages and versions. It first appears in Europe around 1160 in "aristocratic" French. Roughly between the period 1200 and 1350 it was one of the most popular of all the romantic plots. The following synopsis is from the original Old French "aristocratic" version ("Floire et Blancheflor") of the late 12th century. The Middle English version of the poem derives from an Old French "aristocratic" version but differs somewhat in details. The opening section concerning how the two are born is missing from the English versions. Originally it dates to around 1250 and was called "Floris and Blanchefleur". Felix, King of Al-Andalus (Muslim Spain), on one of his ventures into Galicia in northwestern Spain attacks a band of Christian pilgrims en route on the Way of St James to the famous medieval pilgrimage shrine of Santiago de Compostela. Among the pilgrims are a French knight and his recently widowed daughter, who has chosen to dedicate the rest of her life to the sanctuary. The knight is killed, and his daughter is taken prisoner to Naples, where she is made lady-in-waiting to Felix's wife. Both women are pregnant, and the children are born on the same day, Palm Sunday: Floris, a son, to the Muslim Queen, and Blanchefleur, a daughter, to her lady-in-waiting. Floris ("belonging to the flower") and Blanchefleur ("white flower") are raised together at the court and grow close |
433 | Systematic review A scoping review is an attempt to search for concepts, mapping the language which surrounds those and adjusting the search method iteratively. A scoping review may often be a preliminary stage before a systematic review, which 'scopes' out an area of inquiry and maps the language and key concepts. As it is a kind of review which should be systematically conducted (the method is repeatable), some academic publishers categorize them as a kind of 'systematic review', which may cause confusion. Scoping reviews are helpful when it is not possible to carry out a systematic synthesis of research findings, for example, when there are no published clinical trials in the area of inquiry. Scoping reviews are a helpful method when an area of inquiry is very broad, for example, exploring how the public are involved in all stages systematic reviews. There is still a lack of clarity when defining the exact method of scoping review as it is both an iterative process and is still relatively new and there have been a number of attempts to improve the standardisation of the method. PROSPERO does not permit the submission of protocols of scoping reviews, although some journals will publish protocols for scoping reviews. The main stages of a systematic review are: Once these stages are complete, the review may be published, disseminated and translated into practice after being adopted as evidence |
434 | Mundane science fiction Maddalena says that SF connoisseurs disagreed with MSF’s call to avoid “unlikely” technologies or futures, as these speculative futures are sci-fi writers’ “rebellious bread and butter”. Roger Luckhurst, a professor in Modern and Contemporary Literature at London’s Birkbeck College, says the MSF movement was developed because writers did not want “…to imagine shiny, hard futures [but [rather] give a] sense of sliding from one version of our present into something slightly alienated”. A critic from "Fantastic Worlds", a sci-fi journal, criticizes the “very selective use of "science" in Mundane science-fiction”. One MSF advocate criticizes depictions of rocket flight in mainstream SF, saying rocket flight is “pretty much played out” in real life technology; the "Fantastic Worlds" critic points out that in 2011, there are a dozen competitors in rockets in the “major boom” in spaceflight. The goal of MSF seems to be to paint a “depressing” view of the future, so MSF advocates “carefully pick and choose only those aspects of scientific reality which are unpleasant, rejecting those which offer felicitous solutions.” Science fiction writer Kay Kenyon calls MSF “a useful handle for sf stories of their type”, but he criticizes the large number of “crappy Mundane SF”, its claim that stories set outside the Solar System create “a wasteful attitude toward Earth”, as there are “environmental cautionary tales” set in other planets outside our Solar System |
435 | Women in the World organizes live journalism events. is an annual summit launched in 2010 by Tina Brown, the British-born former editor in chief of Tatler, Vanity Fair, The New Yorker, Talk, Newsweek and The Daily Beast and author of The Diana Chronicles, a biography of Diana, Princess of Wales. First held at New York’s Hudson Theater, the summit now takes place at Lincoln Center’s David Koch Theater, convening women leaders, activists and political change-makers from around the world to share their stories, and offer solutions to building a better life for women and girls. Former ABC news producer Kyle Gibson is senior executive producer and managing editor of the event. The inaugural summit took place from March 12–14, 2010 and included appearances by Queen Rania of Jordan, Meryl Streep, Valerie Jarrett, Christine Lagarde, Hillary Clinton, Madeleine K. Albright, Nora Ephron, and Katie Couric. At the second summit, held from March 10–12, 2011, participants included President Bill Clinton and Hillary Clinton, Dr. Hawa Abdi, Condoleezza Rice, Sheryl Sandberg, Dr. Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala, Diane Von Furstenberg, Melinda Gates, Ashley Judd and more. In 2011, three-day summit moved to Manhattan’s Lincoln Center and was attended from March 8–10 by more than 2,500 women. Hillary Rodham Clinton, Angelina Jolie, Madeleine K. Albright, Nobel Peace Prize laureate Leymah Gbowee, Dalia Ziada, Meryl Streep, Nancy Pelosi, Gloria Steinem, Zainab Salbi, Christiane Amanpour, Amy Chua, Tzipi Livni, and Sheryl Sandberg were featured in the program |
436 | Iterative impedance The iterative impedance of this network, "Z", in terms of its output load (also "Z") is given by, and solving for "Z", Another example is an L-circuit with the components reversed, that is, with the shunt admittance coming first. The analysis of this circuit can be found immediately through duality considerations of the previous example. The iterative admittance, "Y", of this circuit is given by, where, The square root term in these expressions cause them to have two solutions. However, only solutions with a positive real part are physically meaningful since passive circuits cannot exhibit negative resistance. This will normally be the positive root. is a similar concept to image impedance. Whereas an iterative impedance is formed by connecting port 2 of the first two-port network to port 1 of the next, an image impedance is formed by connecting port 2 of the first network to port 2 of the next. Port 1 of the second network is connected to port 1 of the third and so on, each subsequent network being reversed so that like ports always face each other. It is thus no surprise that there is a relationship between iterative impedances and image impedances. In the L-circuit example for iterative impedance, the square-rooted term is equal to the image impedance of a half section. That is, an L-circuit where the component values are halved |
437 | Shared leadership Social network analysis (SNA) addresses some of the flaws of collective leader behavior ratings by assessing the patterns of connections that emerge in a team and providing a method for modeling both vertical and shared leadership within a team. SNA examines the relationships that form between individuals and uses these relationships as the units of analysis. In the leadership domain, a relationship, or "tie" as it is referred to in SNA literature, occurs when one team member perceives another as exerting leadership influence on the team. The proportion of actual ties that exist in a team to all potential ties that could have emerged in a team is called network density and can be used as a measure of shared leadership. Some researchers go further into SNA and analyze a network's centralization, which helps assess the distribution of leadership, as well as the quantity. Network centralization is measured using centrality values that are calculated for each individual. A centrality value for an individual represents the number of connections that individual has with others. The sum of the differences between the maximum individual centrality value and every other individual centrality value, divided by the maximum possible sum of differences, produces a measure of network centralization between 0 and 1, which describes the extent to which connections are concentrated around one individual, or if multiple individuals are central to the leadership network |
438 | Operation Cathedral One reason for the high profile of the operation was the unusually high number of images possessed, produced, and distributed by "Wonderland" members (more than 750,000 images and 1,800 videos). One requirement for entry to the club, apart from a recommendation from an existing member, was the expectation to supply 10,000 new or self-produced pornographic images of children. Despite substantial police work, only 17 of the 1,263 individuals appearing in the images have been identified: one from Argentina, one from Chile, one from Portugal, 6 from the United Kingdom, and 7 from the United States. The Portuguese national was later identified as Rui Pedro Teixeira Mendonça, an 11-year-old boy kidnapped in Lousada on 4 March 1998 and whose whereabouts are currently unknown. Six members of the club committed suicide after the raids. Other raids related to the Cathedral operation include 1999's Operation Queensland, involving 20 police forces, and 2001's Operation Janitress, which included police forces across 12 regions. The following is a list of UK citizens arrested as a result of Operation Cathedral, and their ages when convicted: On 13 February 2001, seven UK members of "Wonderland" were sentenced at the same court hearing at Kingston Crown Court. At this time, however, the maximum sentence for the particular crimes in the UK was 3 years, leading to the UK-based perpetrators only being sentenced between 12 and 30 months for their crimes |
439 | Nationalism Soviet dictator Josef Stalin at Tehran in 1943 rejected the Jagiellon Concept because it involved Polish rule over Ukrainians and Belarusians. He instead endorsed the Piast Concept, which justified a massive shift of Poland's frontiers to the west. After 1945 the Soviet-back puppet communist regime wholeheartedly adopted the Piast Concept, making it the centerpiece of their claim to be the "true inheritors of Polish nationalism". After all the killings, including Nazi German occupation, terror in Poland and population transfers during and after the war, the nation was officially declared as 99% ethnically Polish. Jewish nationalism arose in the latter half of the 19th century and it was largely correlated with the Zionist movement. This term originated from the word "Zion", which was one of the Torah's names for the city of Jerusalem. The end goal of the nationalists and Zionists was a Jewish majority and in most cases, a state, in the land of Palestine. A tumultuous history of living in oppressive, foreign, and uncertain circumstances led the supporters of the movement to draft a declaration of independence, claiming Israel as a birthplace. The first and second destructions of the temple and ancient Torah prophecies largely shaped the incentives of the Jewish nationalists. Many prominent theories in Jewish theology and eschatology were formed by supporters and opponents of the movement in this era |
440 | Quantum pseudo-telepathy If Alice and Bob meet before the game begins and exchange information, this will not impact the game in any way; the best the players can do is still win with probability 8/9. The reason why the game can only be won with probability 8/9 is that a perfectly consistent table does not exist: it would be self-contradictory, with the sum of the minus signs in the table being even based on row sums, and being odd when using column sums, or vice versa. As a further illustration, if they use the partial table shown in the diagram (supplemented by a −1 for Alice and a +1 for Bob in the missing square) and the challenge rows and columns are selected at random, they will win 8/9 of the time. No classical strategy exists which can beat this victory rate (with random row and column selection). If the game was modified to allow Alice and Bob to communicate "after" they discover which row/column they have been assigned, then there will exist a set of strategies allowing both players to win the game with probability 1. However, if quantum pseudo-telepathy were used, then Alice and Bob could both win the game "without" communicating. Use of quantum pseudo-telepathy would enable Alice and Bob to win the game 100% of the time "without" any communication once the game has begun. This requires Alice and Bob to possess two pairs of particles with entangled states. These particles must have been prepared before the start of the game. One particle of each pair is held by Alice and the other by Bob |
441 | Conditioned place preference As in Pavlovian conditioning, an initially neutral stimulus, in this case environmental cues, is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus that naturally produces a response prior to conditioning (the unconditioned response). Over time and pairings the neutral stimulus will come to elicit responses similar to the unconditioned response. In conditioned place preference the unconditioned stimulus could be any number of things including food pellets, water, sweet fluid, novel toys, social interaction, drug intoxication, drug withdrawal, foot shock, illness, wheel running or copulation. The initially neutral environmental cues become associated with the motivational properties of the unconditioned stimulus leading to either approach or avoidance of the environment. Often in practice there is a control and treatment group used to strengthen the ability to make causal claims from the results. The treatment group is administered the unconditioned stimulus while the control group is given saline or nothing to control for all elements of the procedure. The conditioned place preference protocol makes use of an apparatus that contains two or more compartments or areas. These two compartments are designed so that the animal can discriminate between them. Differently patterned walls or floors or different types of floor texture may be used to ensure the animal can discriminate between the compartments. involves three phases: habituation, conditioning and preference testing |
442 | Stratigraphy The geologic time scale was developed during the 19th century, based on the evidence of biologic stratigraphy and faunal succession. This timescale remained a relative scale until the development of radiometric dating, which gave it and the stratigraphy it was based on an absolute time framework, leading to the development of chronostratigraphy. One important development is the Vail curve, which attempts to define a global historical sea-level curve according to inferences from worldwide stratigraphic patterns. is also commonly used to delineate the nature and extent of hydrocarbon-bearing reservoir rocks, seals, and traps of petroleum geology. Chronostratigraphy is the branch of stratigraphy that places an absolute age, rather than a relative age on rock strata. The branch is concerned with deriving geochronological data for rock units, both directly and inferentially, so that a sequence of time-relative events that created the rocks formation can be derived. The ultimate aim of chronostratigraphy is to place dates on the sequence of deposition of all rocks within a geological region, and then to every region, and by extension to provide an entire geologic record of the Earth. A gap or missing strata in the geological record of an area is called a stratigraphic hiatus. This may be the result of a halt in the deposition of sediment. Alternatively, the gap may be due to removal by erosion, in which case it may be called a stratigraphic vacuity |
443 | Against the Grain: A Deep History of the Earliest States Grains like wheat or rice are more valuable per weight than other sources of food, and much easier to transport. As he puts it, "The key to the nexus between grains and states lies, I believe, in the fact that only the cereal grains can serve as a basis for taxation: visible, divisible, assessable, storable, transportable, and 'rationable.' Other crops--legumes, tubers, and starch plans--have some of these desirable state-adapted qualities, but none has all of these advantages." Making people pay taxes in grain forced people to shift away from other sources of food that they may have preferred. Scott describes early states as population machines. Rulers were focused on the productivity and number of "domesticated" subjects. The early states had to collect people, settle them near the center of power, and force them to create a surplus in excess of their own needs. He also notes that since early states were full of disease, population tended to fall unless people could be replaced by new slaves. In early states this population control often took the form of forcefully settling peoples on fertile land, and then preventing them from fleeing to avoid bondage and labour. One piece of evidence Scott cites is the earliest legal codes, stating that they were "filled with such injunctions" intended to "discourage and punish flight." One code that Scott cites specifically is the Code of Hammurabi. This contains six laws intended to discourage the flight and escape of slaves |
444 | Catherine Pepinster Her work has also been featured in "America Magazine". In April 2017, Pepinster was appointed as the United Kingdom's Development Officer for the Anglican Centre in Rome. Pepinster is a practising Catholic and describes herself as liberal. She is a survivor of breast cancer. |
445 | Canadian Welding Bureau In addition, the CWB is the Authorized National Body for Company Certification (ANBCC) for the IIW providing certification services under ISO 3834. The CWB qualifies welders, welding inspectors, welding supervisors, welding engineers and welding electrodes/consumables. The activity of the CWB contributes to the high level of competence enjoyed by industries employing welding and joining and the consistent progress in welding technology, and the reliability of welded products. Comprehensive training courses and products are provided through the CWB Institute. The CWBi was formerly known as the Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning, which was created in 1996 following the closure of the Welding Institute of Canada (WIC). Focusing primarily on welding related material, the CWBi provides training for welding supervisors (co-ordinators), welding inspectors, welding engineers and other welding professionals. Training courses are offered in several formats, including classroom, on-line and self-study. The CWBi maintains a series of 39 individual learning modules as part of the CWBi Modular Learning System. These learning modules cover a wide range of subject matter and are constantly updated by CWBi staff. In addition, CWBi provides training for non-destructive evaluation methods including radiography, ultrasonic, magnetic particle and liquid penetrant. In April 2013, the CWB Office of Public Safety was launched by the CWB |
446 | Slovene months Additional names include "brumen" (< Italian "bruma" 'depth of winter'), "sečen" (related to "suh" 'dry' or from "sek-" 'cut'), "ledenec" and "lednik" (< "led" 'ice'), "mali božičnjak" and "malobožičnjak" (< "mali božič" 'Epiphany'), "prozimec" (probably contamination of "prosinec" with "zima" 'winter'), "prvnik" (< "prvi" 'first'), and "zimec" (< "zima" 'winter'). The name "prosinec", associated with millet bread and the act of asking for something, was first written in the Škofja Loka manuscript. Additional names include "sečan" and "sečen" (both related to "suh" 'dry' or from "sek-" 'cut'), and "sečni mesec" (< "sek-" 'cut'). The name "svečan" may relate to icicles or Candlemas. This name originates from "sičan", written as "svičan" in the "New Carniolan Almanac" from 1775 and changed to its final form by Franc Metelko in his "New Almanac" from 1824. The name was also spelled "sečan", meaning "the month of cutting down of trees". In 1848, a proposal was put forward in "Kmetijske in rokodelske novice" by the Slovene Society of Ljubljana to call this month "talnik" (related to ice melting), but it has not stuck. The idea was proposed by the priest and patriot Blaž Potočnik. A name of February in Slovene was also "vesnar", after the mythological character Vesna |
447 | Kinematic synthesis As the cam rotates its contact with the follower face drives its output rotation or sliding movement. The task for a cam and follower mechanism is provided by a displacement diagram, which defines the rotation angle or sliding distance of the follower as a function of the rotation of the cam. Once the contact shape of follower and its motion are defined, the cam can be constructed using graphical or numerical techniques. A pair of mating gears can be viewed as a cam and follower mechanism designed to use the rotary movement of an input shaft to drive the rotary movement of an output shaft. This is achieved by providing a series of cam and followers, or gear teeth, distributed around the circumferences of two circles that form the mating gears. Early implementation of this rotary movement used cylindrical and rectangular teeth without concern for smooth transmission of movement, while the teeth were engaged---see the photo of the main drive gears for the windmill Doesburgermolen in Ede, Netherlands. The geometric requirement that ensures smooth movement of contacting gear teeth is known as the "fundamental law of gearing". This law states that for two bodies rotating about separate centers and in contact along their profiles, the relative angular velocity of the two will be constant as long as the line perpendicular to the point of contact of their two profiles, the profile normal, passes through the same point along the line between their centers through out their movement |
448 | Pressure injection cell Pressure Injection Cells, sometimes referred to as "bomb-loading devices" are used in proteomic research to enable controlled dispensing of small-volume liquid samples. Using high pressure, pressure injection cells are used for two applications: densely packing nanobore capillary columns (micro-columns) with solid-phase particles for use in LC/MS analysis; and precisely infusing microliter samples directly from microcentrifuge tubes into mass spectrometers without additional transfers, wasted sample, or contact with metallic surfaces which adsorb some negatively charged molecules such as phosphopeptides. A typical pressure injection cell holds a micro-tube or a vial in its central chamber. A small magnetic stir bar can be used to keep the particles in suspension. The pressure cell is connected to a source of compressed gas (such as Argon, Helium or Nitrogen). A capillary is placed through a ferrule in the cap so that one end is in contact with the liquid in the tube or vial. The distal end of the capillary is fritted to retain the particles while packing. Pressure from the compressed gas can be regulated to adjust the flow rate of the sample into the capillary. |
449 | Fuzzy-trace theory (FTT) is a theory of cognition originally proposed by Charles Brainerd and Valerie F. Reyna that draws upon dual-trace conceptions to predict and explain cognitive phenomena, particularly in memory and reasoning. The theory has been used in areas such as cognitive psychology, human development, and social psychology to explain, for instance, false memory and its development, probability judgments, medical decision making, risk perception and estimation, and biases and fallacies in decision making. FTT was initially proposed in the 1990s as an attempt to unify findings from the memory and reasoning domains that could not be predicted or explained by earlier approaches to cognition and its development (e.g., constructivism and information processing). One of such challenges was the statistical independence between memory and reasoning, that is, memory for background facts of problem situations is often unrelated to accuracy in reasoning tasks. Such findings called for a rethinking of the memory-reasoning relation, which in FTT took the form of a dual-process theory linking basic concepts from psycholinguistic and Gestalt theory to memory and reasoning. More specifically, FTT posits that people form two types of mental representations about a past event, called verbatim and gist traces. Gist traces are fuzzy representations of a past event (e.g., its bottom-line meaning), hence the name fuzzy-trace theory, whereas verbatim traces are detailed representations of a past event |
450 | Wisdom Buddhist scriptures teach that a wise person is usually endowed with good and maybe bodily conduct, and sometimes good verbal conduct, and good mental conduct.("AN 3:2") A wise person does actions that are unpleasant to do but give good results, and doesn’t do actions that are pleasant to do but give bad results ("AN 4:115"). is the antidote to the self-chosen poison of ignorance. The Buddha has much to say on the subject of wisdom including: To recover the original supreme wisdom of self-nature (Buddha-nature or Tathagata) covered by the self-imposed three dusty poisons (the kleshas: greed, anger, ignorance) Buddha taught to his students the threefold training by turning greed into generosity and discipline, anger into kindness and meditation, ignorance into wisdom. As the Sixth Patriarch of Chán Buddhism, Huineng, said in his Platform Sutra,"Mind without dispute is self-nature discipline, mind without disturbance is self-nature meditation, mind without ignorance is self-nature wisdom." In Mahayana and esoteric buddhist lineages, Mañjuśrī is considered as an embodiment of Buddha wisdom. In Hinduism, wisdom is considered a state of mind and soul where a person achieves liberation. The god of wisdom is Ganesha and the goddess of knowledge is Saraswati. The Sanskrit verse to attain knowledge is: in Hinduism is knowing oneself as the truth, basis for the entire Creation, i.e., of "Shristi" |
451 | Transistor Having unearthed Lilienfeld's patents that went into obscurity years earlier, lawyers at Bell Labs advised against Shockley's proposal because the idea of a field-effect transistor that used an electric field as a "grid" was not new. Instead, what Bardeen, Brattain, and Shockley invented in 1947 was the first point-contact transistor. In acknowledgement of this accomplishment, Shockley, Bardeen, and Brattain were jointly awarded the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics "for their researches on semiconductors and their discovery of the transistor effect". Shockley's research team initially attempted to build a field-effect transistor (FET), by trying to modulate the conductivity of a semiconductor, but was unsuccessful, mainly due to problems with the surface states, the dangling bond, and the germanium and copper compound materials. In the course of trying to understand the mysterious reasons behind their failure to build a working FET, this led them instead to invent the bipolar point-contact and junction transistors. In 1948, the point-contact transistor was independently invented by German physicists Herbert Mataré and Heinrich Welker while working at the "Compagnie des Freins et Signaux", a Westinghouse subsidiary located in Paris. Mataré had previous experience in developing crystal rectifiers from silicon and germanium in the German radar effort during World War II. Using this knowledge, he began researching the phenomenon of "interference" in 1947 |
452 | Demographics of sexual orientation 6% of women with underage children, and 0.5% of women with adult children. In a YouGov survey of 1,632 adults, 5.5% identified as gay, 2.1% as bisexual, and 88.7% as heterosexual. Asked to place themselves on the Kinsey scale, 72% of all adults, and 46% of adults aged 18–24 years, picked a score of zero, meaning that they identify as totally heterosexual. Four percent of the total sample, and 6% of young adults, picked a score of six, meaning a totally homosexual identity. Sex researcher Simon LeVay criticized this survey as unreliable because the respondents were not randomly sampled from the entire population. In all years, it was observed that an LGB identity is most common among London residents and those aged under 35. Homosexual identity in 2016 was more than twice as common among men (1.7%) than among women (0.7), whereas bisexual identity was more common among women (0.9%) than men (0.6%). A female-only survey found that 4% of British women identify as gay or bisexual. The United Kingdom Office for National Statistics Annual Population Survey reported over 1 million (2.0%) of the UK population aged 16 and over identified as Lesbian, Gay or Bisexual (LGB). This represented a statistically significant increase from 1.7% in 2015. In a Survation poll on adults aged 40–70, 92.5% identified as heterosexual, 3.5% as gay, 2.4% as bisexual, 0.5% as Other and 1% did not want to reveal their sexual orientation. Those under 60 were less likely to identify as heterosexual than those aged 60–70 |
453 | Solid modeling A central problem in all these applications is the ability to effectively represent and manipulate three-dimensional geometry in a fashion that is consistent with the physical behavior of real artifacts. research and development has effectively addressed many of these issues, and continues to be a central focus of computer-aided engineering. The notion of solid modeling as practised today relies on the specific need for informational completeness in mechanical geometric modeling systems, in the sense that any computer model should support all geometric queries that may be asked of its corresponding physical object. The requirement implicitly recognizes the possibility of several computer representations of the same physical object as long as any two such representations are consistent. It is impossible to computationally verify informational completeness of a representation unless the notion of a physical object is defined in terms of computable mathematical properties and independent of any particular representation. Such reasoning led to the development of the modeling paradigm that has shaped the field of solid modeling as we know it today. All manufactured components have finite size and well behaved boundaries, so initially the focus was on mathematically modeling rigid parts made of homogeneous isotropic material that could be added or removed. These postulated properties can be translated into properties of subsets of three-dimensional Euclidean space |
454 | Childhood's End After finishing "Guardian Angel", Clarke enrolled at King's College London and served as the chairman of the British Interplanetary Society from 1946 to 1947, and later from 1951 to 1953. He earned a first-class degree in mathematics and physics from King's in 1948, after which he worked as an assistant editor for "Science Abstracts". "Guardian Angel" was submitted for publication but was rejected by several editors, including Campbell. At the request of Clarke's agent and unbeknown to Clarke, the story was edited by James Blish, who rewrote the ending. Blish's version of the story was accepted for publication in April 1950 by "Famous Fantastic Mysteries" magazine. Clarke's original version of "Guardian Angel" was later published in the Winter 1950 issue of "New Worlds" magazine. After Clarke's nonfiction science book "The Exploration of Space" (1951) was successfully received, he began to focus on his writing career. In February 1952, Clarke started working on the novelization of "Guardian Angel"; he completed a first draft of the novel "Childhood's End" in December, and a final revision in January 1953. Clarke travelled to New York in April 1953 with the novel and several of his other works. Literary agent Bernard Shir-Cliff convinced Ballantine Books to buy everything Clarke had, including "Childhood's End", "Encounter in the Dawn" (1953), (which Ballantine retitled "Expedition to Earth"), and "Prelude to Space" (1951) |
455 | Cyclopentadienyl magnesium bromide is a chemical compound with the molecular formula . The molecule consists of a magnesium atom bonded to a bromine atom and a cyclopentadienyl group, a ring of five carbons each with one hydrogen atom. The compound is a Grignard reagent, a type of organometallic compound that features a magnesium atom bonded to a halogen atom and to a carbon atom of some organic functional group. This compound is of historic importance as the starting material for the first published synthesis of ferrocene by Peter Pauson and Thomas J. Kealy in 1951. The compound can be prepared by reacting cyclopentadiene with magnesium and bromoethane in anhydrous benzene. |
456 | Operation Woodrose was a military operation carried out by the Indira Gandhi-led Indian government in the months after Operation Blue Star to "prevent the outbreak of widespread public protest" in the state of Punjab. The government arrested all prominent members of the largest Sikh political party, the Akali Dal, and banned the All India Sikh Students Federation, a large students' union. In addition, the Indian Army conducted operations in the countryside during which thousands of Sikhs, overwhelmingly young men, were detained for interrogation and subsequently tortured. Despite its purported success in controlling the armed insurgency in the Punjab region, the operation was criticized by human-rights groups for the suspension of civil liberties and habeas corpus, resulting in the disappearances of thousands of Sikh men. After the operation, the central government was criticized for using "draconian legislation" to repress a minority community. The operation consisted of the rounding up of thousands of Sikh youth, including several presumably innocent civilians. According to estimates published by Inderjit Singh Jaijee, approximately 1 million individuals were reported as missing or killed as a result of Army operations during this period. According to Dr.Sangat Singh, Joint Intelligence Committee, about 100,000 youth had been taken into custody within first four to six weeks of the operation and he adds that many of them were not heard of again. He further adds about 20,000 youth crossing over to Pakistan |
457 | Mathematical chemistry is the area of research engaged in novel applications of mathematics to chemistry; it concerns itself principally with the mathematical modeling of chemical phenomena. has also sometimes been called computer chemistry, but should not be confused with computational chemistry. Major areas of research in mathematical chemistry include chemical graph theory, which deals with topology such as the mathematical study of isomerism and the development of topological descriptors or indices which find application in quantitative structure-property relationships; and chemical aspects of group theory, which finds applications in stereochemistry and quantum chemistry. The history of the approach may be traced back to the 19th century. Georg Helm published a treatise titled "The Principles of Mathematical Chemistry: The Energetics of Chemical Phenomena" in 1894. Some of the more contemporary periodical publications specializing in the field are MATCH Communications in Mathematical and in Computer Chemistry, first published in 1975, and the Journal of Mathematical Chemistry, first published in 1987. In 1986 a series of annual conferences MATH/CHEM/COMP taking place in Dubrovnik was initiated by the late Ante Graovac. The basic models for mathematical chemistry are molecular graph and topological index. In 2005 the International Academy of Mathematical Chemistry (IAMC) was founded in Dubrovnik (Croatia) by Milan Randić |
458 | Willard Van Orman Quine Quine confined logic to classical bivalent first-order logic, hence to truth and falsity under any (nonempty) universe of discourse. Hence the following were not logic for Quine: Quine wrote three undergraduate texts on formal logic: "Mathematical Logic" is based on Quine's graduate teaching during the 1930s and '40s. It shows that much of what "Principia Mathematica" took more than 1000 pages to say can be said in 250 pages. The proofs are concise, even cryptic. The last chapter, on Gödel's incompleteness theorem and Tarski's indefinability theorem, along with the article Quine (1946), became a launching point for Raymond Smullyan's later lucid exposition of these and related results. Quine's work in logic gradually became dated in some respects. Techniques he did not teach and discuss include analytic tableaux, recursive functions, and model theory. His treatment of metalogic left something to be desired. For example, "Mathematical Logic" does not include any proofs of soundness and completeness. Early in his career, the notation of his writings on logic was often idiosyncratic. His later writings nearly always employed the now-dated notation of "Principia Mathematica". Set against all this are the simplicity of his preferred method (as exposited in his "Methods of Logic") for determining the satisfiability of quantified formulas, the richness of his philosophical and linguistic insights, and the fine prose in which he expressed them |
459 | USSR anti-religious campaign (1921–1928) The Komsomol and later LMG would try to implement the 10th congress resolution by various attacks, parades, theatrical performances, journals, brochures and films. The Komsomol would hold crude blasphemous 'Komsomol Christmases' and 'Komsomol Easters' headed by hooligans dressed as orthodox clergy. The processions would include the burning of icons, religious books, mock images of Christ, the Virgin, etc. For example, in one Christmas play on December 25, 1923 in the city of Gomel, the Komsomol actors presented a performance of a mock trial of deities in a city theatre; the defendants were stuffed scarecrows representing the deities of different religions as well as their clergy. The judges were proletarian Komsomol, and they handed down the verdict that all deities and clergy must be burned at the stake. The whole mass then poured out into the streets with torches and scarecrows in their hands saying 'Away with the churches, away with the synagogues!" The effigies were then publicly burned in the city square. They often organized their parades at the same time as celebration of religious holidays such as Christmas and Easter, and they placed them right outside churches that were holding services. This often prevented traditional Orthodox processions to occur at the same time. Appeals were made to bakeries not to bake traditional foods for these feast-days. The propaganda campaign, however, was a failure and many people remained with their religious convictions |
460 | Proposed wildlife crossings in Jackson, Wyoming The Teton County Master Plan takes these biological-conservation and permeability factors into account in its analysis and planning process. The Teton County Wildlife Crossing Master Plan has identified 12 crossing priorities, and has ranked the locations based on eight criteria: land security, political viability, key-partner support, technical feasibility, long-term solution, human-safety impact, wildlife-mortality impact, and habitat connectivity value. Among other data sets, the master-plan research team used extensive nature mapping, collision data, WYDOT traffic data, and migration data for mule deer, elk and moose to compile the rankings. Research indicates that combining wildlife crossings with other mitigation measures can result in an 83-percent reduction in collisions. Without complex planning and the integration of multiple measures, an average mitigation reduces collisions by 40 percent. Some advocates cite statistics indicating that a combination of fencing and crossing structures can reduce collisions by 90 percent. Recommended crossing locations are ranked as follows: Wildlife-collision mitigation systems vary in complexity, cost and design. A number of studies indicate a high success rate when mitigation measures are designed with target species in mind, rather than being applied broadly to a region. Other studies indicate the highest rate of success when several mitigation measures, such as crossing structures and fencing, are used in conjunction |
461 | DSL modem Most of these differences are of little interest to consumers, except the greater speed of DSL and the ability to use the telephone even when the computer is online. As technology advances, functions that are provided by multiple chips can be integrated onto one chip. Higher levels of integration have benefited DSL just as they benefited other computer hardware. A requires the following for its operation; exactly what is on the circuit card and how it is arranged can change as technology improves: Apart from connecting to a DSL service, many modems offer additional integrated features, forming a residential gateway: |
462 | Black–Scholes model Despite the lack of a general analytical solution for American put options, it is possible to derive such a formula for the case of a perpetual option - meaning that the option never expires (i.e., formula_88). In this case, the time decay of the option is equal to zero, which leads to the Black–Scholes PDE becoming an ODE:formula_89Let formula_90 denote the lower exercise boundary, below which is optimal for exercising the option. The boundary conditions are:formula_91The solutions to the ODE are a linear combination of any two linearly independent solutions:formula_92For formula_93, substitution of this solution into the ODE for formula_94 yields:formula_95Rearranging the terms in gives:formula_96Using the quadratic formula, the solutions for formula_97 are:formula_98In order to have a finite solution for the perpetual put, since the boundary conditions imply upper and lower finite bounds on the value of the put, it is necessary to set formula_99, leading to the solution formula_100. From the first boundary condition, it is known that:formula_101Therefore, the value of the perpetual put becomes:formula_102The second boundary condition yields the location of the lower exercise boundary:formula_103To conclude, for formula_104, the perpetual American put option is worth:formula_105 By solving the Black–Scholes differential equation, with for boundary condition the Heaviside function, we end up with the pricing of options that pay one unit above some predefined strike price and nothing below |
463 | WISDOM (radar) WISDOM (Water Ice and Subsurface Deposit Observation on Mars) is a ground-penetrating radar that is part of the science payload on board the European Space Agency "Rosalind Franklin" rover, tasked to search for biosignatures and biomarkers on Mars. The rover is planned to be launched in August–October 2022 and land on Mars in spring 2023. The search for evidence of past or present life on Mars is the principal objective of the ExoMars programme. If such evidence exists, it will most likely be in the subsurface, where organic molecules are shielded from the destructive effects of ionizing radiation and atmospheric oxidants. For this reason, the "Rosalind Franklin" rover mission has been optimized to investigate the subsurface and sample those locations where conditions for the preservation of evidence of past life are most likely to be found. WISDOM is a step frequency radar that operates in the frequency range from 0.5 to 3 GHz. It will provide high-resolution 3D imaging down to a depth of 3 metres. WISDOM will use UHF radar pulses to provide the three-dimensional geological context of the shallow subsurface underneath the ExoMars rover. It will be used to identify optimal drilling sites and to ensure the safety of the core drill, as well as investigate the local distribution and state of subsurface water ice and brine. It can transmit and receive signals using two, small Vivaldi-antennas mounted on the aft section of the rover |
464 | Directed attention fatigue Hence, there are two types of attention, distinguished in terms of the effort involved in their use and their changes in attentional shift: There are measures that can be taken in order to reduce the impact of DAF. These include reducing the number of distractions present in one's external environment, trying to clear one's mind of any internal distractions and taking short breaks during prolonged periods of focus. can be reduced by getting a sufficient amount of sleep each night because during sleep, inhibitory attention chemicals are replenished. An aesthetic environment may also serve a restorative function in fostering recovery from mental fatigue. Research has shown that restorative experiences, such as clearing one's head and reflecting on one's life and priorities, may help combat Directed Attention Fatigue. As investigated by attention restoration theory, natural environments, such as forests, mountain landscapes or beaches, appear to be particularly effective for restoring attention, perhaps because they contain a vast amount of diverse, relatively weak stimuli, thus inciting the mind to wander freely while relaxing its strict focus. Ongoing research is examining ways in which the incidence of DAF can be decreased, and suggests that exposure to the natural environment may aid in the reduction of DAF symptoms. A number of researchers have investigated Directed Attention Fatigue recently. Leading contributors include Rachel and Stephen Kaplan, environmental psychologists at the University of Michigan |
465 | Maxwell's demon William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) was the first to use the word "demon" for Maxwell's concept, in the journal "Nature" in 1874, and implied that he intended the mediating, rather than malevolent, connotation of the word. The second law of thermodynamics ensures (through statistical probability) that two bodies of different temperature, when brought into contact with each other and isolated from the rest of the Universe, will evolve to a thermodynamic equilibrium in which both bodies have approximately the same temperature. The second law is also expressed as the assertion that in an isolated system, entropy never decreases. Maxwell conceived a thought experiment as a way of furthering the understanding of the second law. His description of the experiment is as follows: In other words, Maxwell imagines one container divided into two parts, "A" and "B". Both parts are filled with the same gas at equal temperatures and placed next to each other. Observing the molecules on both sides, an imaginary demon guards a trapdoor between the two parts. When a faster-than-average molecule from "A" flies towards the trapdoor, the demon opens it, and the molecule will fly from "A" to "B". Likewise, when a slower-than-average molecule from "B" flies towards the trapdoor, the demon will let it pass from "B" to "A". The average speed of the molecules in "B" will have increased while in "A" they will have slowed down on average |
466 | Cerebellar model articulation controller In the adjacent image, there are two inputs to the CMAC, represented as a 2D space. Two quantising functions have been used to divide this space with two overlapping grids (one shown in heavier lines). A single input is shown near the middle, and this has activated two memory cells, corresponding to the shaded area. If another point occurs close to the one shown, it will share some of the same memory cells, providing generalisation. The CMAC is trained by presenting pairs of input points and output values, and adjusting the weights in the activated cells by a proportion of the error observed at the output. This simple training algorithm has a proof of convergence. It is normal to add a kernel function to the hyper-rectangle, so that points falling towards the edge of a hyper-rectangle have a smaller activation than those falling near the centre. One of the major problems cited in practical use of CMAC is the memory size required, which is directly related to the number of cells used. This is usually ameliorated by using a hash function, and only providing memory storage for the actual cells that are activated by inputs. Initially least mean square (LMS) method is employed to update the weights of CMAC. The convergence of using LMS for training CMAC is sensitive to the learning rate and could lead to divergence. In 2004, a recursive least squares (RLS) algorithm was introduced to train CMAC online. It does not need to tune a learning rate |
467 | Mycroft (software) Mycroft is a Free software voice assistant for GNU-based operating systems which have Linux kernel. It uses a natural language user interface. Its code was formerly copyleft, but is now under a lax license. Inspiration for Mycroft came when Ryan Sipes and Joshua Montgomery were visiting the Kansas City makerspace, where they came across a simple and basic intelligent virtual assistant project. They were interested in the technology, but did not like its inflexibility. Montgomery believes that the burgeoning industry of intelligent personal assistance poses privacy concerns for users and has promised that Mycroft will protect privacy through its open source machine learning platform. Mycroft has won several awards including the prestigious Techweek's KC Launch competition in 2016. Mycroft was part of the Sprint Accelerator 2016 class in Kansas City and joined 500 Startups Batch 20 in February 2017. The company accepted a strategic investment from Jaguar Land Rover during this same time period. To date, the company has raised more than $2.5 million from institutional investors and has opted to offer shares of the company to the public through Startengine, an equity crowdfunding platform. It is named after a fictional computer from 1966 science fiction novel "The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress". Mycroft provides Free software for most parts of the voice stack. Mycroft does Wake Word spotting, also called keyword spotting, through its "Precise" Wake Word engine |
468 | Syriac studies is the study of the Syriac language and Syriac Christianity. A specialist in is known as a Syriacist. Specifically, British, French, and German scholars of the 18th and 19th centuries who were involved in the study of Syriac/Aramaic language and literature were commonly known by this designation, at a time when the Syriac language was little understood outside Assyrian, Syriac Christian and Maronite Christian communities. In Germany the field of study is distinguished between "Aramaistik" (Aramaic studies) and "Neuaramaistik" (Neo-Aramaic (Syriac) studies). At universities are mostly incorporated into a more 'general' field of studies, such as Eastern Christianity at the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Aramaic studies at the University of Oxford and University of Leiden, Eastern Christianity at Duke University, or Semitic studies at the Freie Universität Berlin. Most students learn the Syriac language within a biblical studies program. Conferences for include the Symposium Syriacum, the Section "Bible and Syriac Studies in Context" at the International Meetings of the Society of Biblical Literature, and the Section "Syriac Literature and Interpretations of Sacred Texts" at the Annual Meetings of the Society of Biblical Literature. Syriac academic journals include the annual "Oriens Christianus" (Wiesbaden) and "Syriac Studies Today". "Syriaca.org" is a centralized academic portal for Syriac studies. |
469 | Morton number In fluid dynamics, the (Mo) is a dimensionless number used together with the Eötvös number or Bond number to characterize the shape of bubbles or drops moving in a surrounding fluid or continuous phase, "c". It is named after Rose Morton, who described it with W. L. Haberman in 1953. The is defined as where "g" is the acceleration of gravity, formula_2 is the viscosity of the surrounding fluid, formula_3 the density of the surrounding fluid, formula_4 the difference in density of the phases, and formula_5 is the surface tension coefficient. For the case of a bubble with a negligible inner density the can be simplified to The can also be expressed by using a combination of the Weber number, Froude number and Reynolds number, The Froude number in the above expression is defined as where "V" is a reference velocity and "d" is the equivalent diameter of the drop or bubble. |
470 | Floor Floors using small ( and smaller) ceramic tiles generally use only an additional layer of plywood (if that) and substitute adhesive and substrate materials making do with both a flexible joints and semi-flexible mounting compounds and so are designed to withstand the greater flexing which large tiles cannot tolerate without breaking. A ground-level floor can be an earthen floor made of soil, or be solid ground floors made of concrete slab. Ground level slab floors are uncommon in northern latitudes where freezing provides significant structural problems, except in heated interior spaces such as basements or for outdoor unheated structures such as a gazebo or shed where unitary temperatures are not creating pockets of troublesome meltwaters. Ground-level slab floors are prepared for pouring by grading the site, which usually also involves removing topsoil and other organic materials well away from the slab site. Once the site has reached a suitable firm inorganic base material that is graded further so that it is flat and level, and then topped by spreading a layer-cake of force dispersing sand and gravel. Deeper channels may be dug, especially the slab ends and across the slab width at regular intervals in which a continuous run of rebar is bent and wired to sit at two heights within forming a sub-slab 'concrete girder' |
471 | Developmental psychology The majority of a newborn infant's time is spent in sleep. At first, this sleep is evenly spread throughout the day and night, but after a couple of months, infants generally become diurnal. Infants can be seen to have six states, grouped into pairs: Infant perception is what a newborn can see, hear, smell, taste, and touch. These five features are better known as one's "five senses". Infants respond to stimuli differently in these different states. Babies are born with the ability to discriminate virtually all sounds of all human languages. Infants of around six months can differentiate between phonemes in their own language, but not between similar phonemes in another language. At this stage infants also start to babble, producing phonemes. Piaget suggested that an infant's perception and understanding of the world depended on their motor development, which was required for the infant to link visual, tactile and motor representations of objects. According to this view, it is through touching and handling objects that infants develop object permanence, the understanding that objects are solid and permanent and continue to exist when out of sight. Piaget's sensorimotor stage comprised six sub-stages (see sensorimotor stages for more detail). In the early stages, development arises out of movements caused by primitive reflexes. Discovery of new behaviors results from classical and operant conditioning, and the formation of habits |
472 | Benchmark (surveying) The term benchmark, or bench mark, originates from the chiseled horizontal marks that surveyors made in stone structures, into which an angle-iron could be placed to form a "bench" for a leveling rod, thus ensuring that a leveling rod could be accurately repositioned in the same place in the future. These marks were usually indicated with a chiseled arrow below the horizontal line. The term is generally applied to any item used to mark a point as an elevation reference. Frequently, bronze or aluminum disks are set in stone or concrete, or on rods driven deeply into the earth to provide a stable elevation point. If an elevation is marked on a map, but there is no physical mark on the ground, it is a spot height. The height of a benchmark is calculated relative to the heights of nearby benchmarks in a network extending from a "fundamental benchmark". A fundamental benchmark is a point with a precisely known relationship to the vertical datum of the area, typically mean sea level. The position and height of each benchmark is shown on large-scale maps. The terms "height" and "elevation" are often used interchangeably, but in many jurisdictions they have specific meanings; "height" commonly refers to a local or relative difference in the vertical (such as the height of a building), whereas "elevation" refers to the difference from a nominated reference surface (such as sea-level, or a mathematical/geodetic model that approximates the sea level known as the geoid) |
473 | Finance charge In United States law, a finance charge is any fee representing the cost of credit, or the cost of borrowing. It is interest accrued on, and fees charged for, some forms of credit. It includes not only interest but other charges as well, such as financial transaction fees. Details regarding the federal definition of finance charge are found in the Truth-in-Lending Act and Regulation Z, promulgated by the Federal Reserve Board. In personal finance, a finance charge may be considered simply the dollar amount paid to borrow money, while interest is a percentage amount paid such as annual percentage rate (APR). These definitions are narrower than the typical dictionary definitions or accounting definitions. Creditors and lenders use different methods to calculate finance charges. The most common formula is based on the average daily balance, in which daily outstanding balances are added together and then divided by the number of days in the month. In financial accounting, interest is defined as any charge or cost of borrowing money. Interest is a synonym for finance charge. In effect, the accountant looks at the entire cost of settlement on a Housing and Urban Development (HUD) form 1 (the HUD-1 Settlement Statement) document as interest unless that charge can be identified as an escrow amount or an amount that is charged to current expenses or expenditures other than interest, such as payment of current or prorated real estate taxes. |
474 | Hercules (Seneca) Lycus, having slain Creon and his sons, has established himself on the throne and governs the kingdom. He seeks to marry Megara, using every stratagem, and threatens violence in case she refuses. Hercules asks for the pardon of Phoebus and the rest of the Gods, that although having been commanded, he had dragged Cerberus from the underworld to the regions above. Hercules having returned from the underworld with Theseus encounters Amphitryon who greets him and informs him about events. Hercules goes off to kill Lycus. Theseus provides Amphitryon with an account of the underworld and the deeds of Hercules. The Chorus sings of the victory of Hercules gained in the underworld, and praises the hero. Hercules having returned after the slaughter of Lycus, as he is about to offer sacrifices to the Gods whom he has invoked, becomes mad and under the influence of his madness, he kills his wife and children, and then falls into a deep sleep! Hercules wakes, with his mind restored, and learns that he has killed his own children. He prepares to kill himself, but prevailed on, by the appeals of Amphitryon and Theseus, he refrains from suicide, and at the suggestion of Theseus, he starts for Athens, to undergo the ordeal of atonement for his mad acts. |
475 | International Marketing Review The is a peer-reviewed academic journal published by Emerald Group Publishing. It was established in 1983. The editors-in-chief are Jeryl Whitelock (University of Bradford) and John Cadogan (University of Loughborough). According to the "Journal Citation Reports", the journal has a 2009 impact factor of 1.164. The journal is ranked an 'A' in Europe, and an 'A' or 'B' in the rest of the world. The Australian New Zealand Association for Marketing has recently in 2011 recommended that IMR along with Psychology and Marketing be upgraded from 'B' to 'A' in Asia-Pacific marketing rankings. |
476 | Gender mainstreaming More specifically, the INIM aims to institute in all sectors a system of gender-focus indicators and to achieve equal opportunity in all State body programming. In 1994, the INIM with 62 women's groups held discussions to mobilize their initiatives and form a bill of action. The discussions formed a plan, which defined patriarchy, sexism, and gender stereotypes to reduce inequality in education, employment, and violence. Although the Nicaraguan Institute for Women claimed to "have been instrumental in mainstreaming gender equality principles and strategies into agriculture, socio-economic development, higher education, and sexual and domestic violence prevention," the United Nations General Assembly on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women in 2007 raised several concerns, such as the backlog of important women's rights legislation in the country, the lack of studies on abortion, and the available funds of the Institute. Under the influence of the UN community, the usage of the term increased in Taiwan since 2000. Local feminist organizations have different views on gender mainstreaming. Some groups considered that the Commission on Women Rights Promotion under Executive Yuan should be expanded, while other groups, including the National Alliance of Taiwan Women's Associations, considered that gender mainstreaming is not promotion of women's rights but an assessment of all policies and requires a specific organization |
477 | Landauer's principle Owing to the fast dynamics and low "inertia" of the single spins used in the experiment, the researchers also showed how an erasure operation can be carried out at the lowest possible thermodynamic cost — that imposed by the Landauer principle — and at a high speed. can be understood to be a simple logical consequence of the second law of thermodynamics—which states that the entropy of an isolated system cannot decrease—together with the definition of thermodynamic temperature. For, if the number of possible logical states of a computation were to decrease as the computation proceeded forward (logical irreversibility), this would constitute a forbidden decrease of entropy, unless the number of possible physical states corresponding to each logical state were to simultaneously increase by at least a compensating amount, so that the total number of possible physical states was no smaller than it was originally (i.e. total entropy has not decreased). Yet, an increase in the number of physical states corresponding to each logical state means that, for an observer who is keeping track of the logical state of the system but not the physical state (for example an "observer" consisting of the computer itself), the number of possible physical states has increased; in other words, entropy has increased from the point of view of this observer. The maximum entropy of a bounded physical system is finite |
478 | State collapse Christopher Booker describes a fantasy cycle of Wishful thinking in politics in which a 'dream stage' of optimism and expansion is followed by 'frustration' and 'nightmare' stages and a final 'explosion into reality'. Examples of state collapse through civil war include: the War of the Roses in 15th-century England; the Thirty years war (1618–48); the Irish Civil War (1916-22); the Chinese Communist Revolution (1949); and the Cuban Revolution (1958). State collapses through revolutions, not featuring civil war, took place in Imperial China (1911), in Russia (1917), and in Iran (1979). Collapse through "Coups d'etat" occurred in Egypt (1952), in Iraq (1958), and in Libya (1969). Negotiated surrenders of power took place in the English Commonwealth (1660); and in the collapse of the Soviet Union (1991), when it fragmented into fifteen independent states |
479 | Pharnavaz I of Iberia Pharnavaz I (; ) was a king of Kartli, an ancient Georgian kingdom known as Iberia in classical antiquity. "The Georgian Chronicles" credits him with being the first monarch founding the kingship of Kartli and the Pharnavazid dynasty, while other independent chronicles, such as the "The Conversion of Kartli" make him the second Georgian monarch. Based on the medieval evidence, most scholars locate Pharnavaz's rule in the 3rd century BC: 302–237 BC according to Prince Vakhushti of Kartli, 299–234 BC according to Cyril Toumanoff and 284–219 BC according to Pavle Ingoroqva. Pharnavaz's rise, advent and imperial expansion of the Iberian monarchy was directly tied to the victory of Alexander the Great over the Achaemenid Empire. Pharnavaz ruled under the suzerainty of the Seleucid Empire. According to the "Georgian royal annals", Pharnavaz descended from Uplos, son of Mtskhetos, son of Kartlos, who was one of the powerful and famous eight brothers, who from their part were descendants of Targamos, son of Tarsi, the grandson of Japheth, son of the Biblical Noah. He is not directly attested in non-Georgian sources and there is no definite contemporary indication that he was indeed the first of the Georgian kings. His story is saturated with legendary imagery and symbols, and it seems feasible that, as the memory of the historical facts faded, the real Pharnavaz "accumulated a legendary façade" and emerged as the model pre-Christian monarch in the Georgian annals. According to the c |
480 | Prestressed concrete This provides many benefits to building structures: Some notable building structures constructed from prestressed concrete include: Sydney Opera House and World Tower, Sydney; St George Wharf Tower, London; CN Tower, Toronto; Kai Tak Cruise Terminal and International Commerce Centre, Hong Kong; Ocean Heights 2, Dubai; Eureka Tower, Melbourne; Torre Espacio, Madrid; Guoco Tower (Tanjong Pagar Centre), Singapore; Zagreb International Airport, Croatia; and Capital Gate, Abu Dhabi UAE. Concrete is the most popular structural material for bridges, and prestressed concrete is frequently adopted. When investigated in the 1940s for use on heavy-duty bridges, the advantages of this type of bridge over more traditional designs was that it is quicker to install, more economical and longer-lasting with the bridge being less lively. One of the first bridges built in this way is the Adam Viaduct, a railway bridge constructed 1946 in the UK. By the 1960s, prestressed concrete largely superseded reinforced concrete bridges in the UK, with box girders being the dominant form. In short-span bridges of around , prestressing is commonly employed in the form of precast pre-tensioned girders or planks. Medium-length structures of around , typically use precast-segmental, "in-situ" balanced-cantilever and incrementally-launched designs. For the longest bridges, prestressed concrete deck structures often form an integral part of cable-stayed designs |
481 | Dark (broadcasting) A service can go dark for any number of reasons, including financial resources being drained to continue effective operation of the service as being of benefit to its community of license; abandonment for a different channel or to go cable-only; complicated technical adjustments involving radio antenna repair, requiring the broadcast tower to be de-energized for the work to be done; structure fire or natural disaster that has rendered the facility inoperable; or technical adjustments that would make it prohibitively expensive to perform the work and carry on the normal operations of the station in question. The service is not required to notify the FCC of silence if the period of silence is less than 10 days. If the period of silence is to last at least 10 days but less than 30 days, the licensee must notify the FCC in writing explaining why the service is silent and an expected return to the air. A service that expects to be silent for more than 30 days must apply to the FCC using Form 0386, which can be done electronically (preferred method) or by a paper application. On this application, the date the station has gone dark or its targeted date to go silent must be stated on the application, along with the reason for silence. The Silent STA (special temporary authority) is valid for a period of 180 days. If the station is required to remain off the air beyond the 180-day period, a "Request to Extend STA" must be subsequently filed, along with the reason |
482 | Heroes (American TV series) com, it offers behind the scenes information, polls, trivia, and quizzes, as well as recent posts by Hana Gitelman. The features air once a week, and are designed to be viewed concurrently with that week's episode. Complete episodes of "Heroes" are available online, to US residents only, along with downloads through the "NBC Direct" service. Episodes are also available on iTunes in 720p High Definition, although they were unavailable for a few months when NBC and Apple Inc. were unable to come to a renewal deal. Seasons 1, 2, 3, and 4 are currently available for streaming via subscription on Netflix, Amazon Video, and Hulu Plus. NBC Universal announced on April 2, 2008, that NBC Digital Entertainment would release a series on online content for the summer and fall of 2008, including more original web content and webisodes. "Heroes" webisodes are expected to air through an extension of the "Heroes Evolutions" in July. Other media and digital extensions announced include an online manhunts for the villains, the addition of more micro sites that allow the users to uncover more of the "Heroes" universe, wireless iTV interactivity and the ability to view the graphic novel on mobile platforms. "Create Your Hero" is a fan-based, interactive promotion on NBC.com, which calls upon Heroes fans to vote on various personalities and physical attributes for the creation of a new hero. The new hero "[comes] to life" in an original, live-action series run exclusively on NBC.com. The promotion is sponsored by Sprint |
483 | List of years in poetry This page gives a chronological list of years in poetry (descending order). These pages supplement the List of years in literature pages with a focus on events in the history of poetry. |
484 | Print culture Thomas Jefferson was noted as saying, “The basis of our government being the opinion of the people, the very first object should be to keep that right; and were it left to me to decide whether we should have a government without newspapers, or newspapers without a government, I should not hesitate for a moment to prefer the latter.” This serves as an excellent example of how newspapers were highly regarded by the colonial people. In fact, much like other forms of 18th century print culture, newspapers played a very important role in the government following the Revolutionary War. Not only were they one of the few methods in the 18th century to voice the opinion of the people, they also allowed for the ideas to be disseminated to a wide audience, a primary goal of printed text. A famous example of the newspaper being used as a medium to convey ideas were the Federalist Papers. These were first published in New York City newspapers in 1788 and pushed for people to accept the idea of the United States Constitution by enumerating 85 different articles that justified its presence, adding to a series of texts designed to reinforce each other, and ultimately serving as a redefinition of the 18th century. Today, print has matured to a state where the majority of modern society has come to have certain expectations regarding the printed book: Copyright laws help to protect these standards. However, a few regions do exist in the world where literary piracy has become a standard commercial practice |
485 | Open sustainability innovation These quality management systems, however have a very big challenge moving into a more sustainable minded consumption world, because they have based their innovations on gradual continuous improvement, and they align their development with the status quo of the industry. This may prove to be a barrier because the changes needed to reach more sustainable products and services is quite radical, hence this struggle as stated before. This kind of deficiency can be sorted out by complementing environmental management systems by other kinds of systems and approaches that favour new discoveries of alternative approaches and nonstop searching for more radical, "step change" solutions to sustainability challenges. Step change solutions contain "as a series of waves or types of innovation that can deliver increasing levels of eco-efficiency until a sustainable global economy can be established". Each wave is I shown as an S-curve in this model and these S-curves are similar to the conventional product life cycles depicted in conventional models. It shows that over time the eco-efficiency or environmental benefits of products actually decreases over time. Thus moving along in time, the new curves and their very radical new approaches over ride the ones of the older curves. The model follows four steps of sustainable design innovation and change. Following are the four steps: Whereas classical marketing is characterized by a uni-directional, sender – receiver relationship, in present times, marketing has changed |
486 | Einstellung effect Luchins and Luchins looked at the relationship between the intelligence quotient (IQ) and the Einstellung effects for the children in their original experiment. They found that there was a statistically insignificant negative relationship between the Einstellung Effect and Intelligence. In general, large Einstellung effects were observed for all subject groups regardless of IQ score. When Luchins and Luchins looked at the IQ range for children who did and did not demonstrate Einstellung effects, they spanned from 51 to 160 and from 75 to 155 respectively. These ranges show a slight negative correlation between intelligence and Einstellung effects. |
487 | Thomas S. Hinde Hinde wrote and published religious articles in many leading publications. Francis Asbury, one of the first two bishops of the Methodist Episcopal Church in the United States, considered Hinde important to the church. He frequently met with him and mentioned him in his journals. Historian Lyman Draper spent more than twenty years collecting documents by and about the Hinde family, along with papers of other important figures of the Trans-Allegheny West. The Draper Manuscript Collection at the Wisconsin Historical Society holds 47 volumes of Hinde's personal papers, donated by his family after his death. was born April 19, 1785 in Hanover County, Virginia, to Thomas Hinde (1737–1828) and Mary Todd Hubbard (1734–1830), as the seventh of eight children. His father was an English doctor who served as a physician to Patrick Henry and General James Wolfe. Little is known about Hinde's early years except that the family moved from Virginia to Newport, Kentucky, in 1797 when his father was awarded a land grant of for his services in the American Revolutionary War. In a letter to President James Madison many years later, Hinde related that while walking to school in the wilderness of Kentucky, he once successfully fought off a wolf and a panther. Daniel Boone and Simon Kenton were neighbors of the Hinde family while they lived in Kentucky, and the three men grew up as colleagues |
488 | Infrastructure policy of Donald Trump The solar industry is currently one of the fastest growing in the United States, employing more than 250,000 people as of 2018. On one hand, these tariffs forced the cancellation or scaling down of many projects and restrict the ability of companies to recruit more workers. On the other hand, they have the intended effect of incentivizing domestic manufacturing. Many solar power companies are transitioning towards automation and consequently will become less dependent on imports, especially from China. Analysts believe Trump's tariffs have made a clear impact. Without them, the manufacturing capacity for solar cells in the United States would likely not have increased significantly, from 1.8 gigawatts in 2017 to at least 3.4 gigawatts in 2018, they argue. However, because of the increasing reliance on automation, not that many new jobs will be created, while profits will flow to other countries, as many firms are foreign. By 2019, the solar power industry has recovered from the initial setbacks due to Trump's tariffs, thanks to initiatives from various states, such as California. Moreover, it is receiving considerable support from the Department of Energy. The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) launched the "American-made Solar Prize" competition in June 2018 and has handed out tens to hundreds of thousand of dollars in cash prizes for the most promising solar cell designs. Prices of solar cells continue to decline. At the same time, the cost of installation has fallen by 70% between 2009 and 2019 |
489 | Disk loading If the homogeneous slipstream far downstream of the disk has velocity formula_6, by conservation of momentum the total thrust formula_7 developed over the disk is equal to the rate of change of momentum, which assuming zero starting velocity is: By conservation of energy, the work done by the rotor must equal the energy change in the slipstream: Substituting for formula_7 and eliminating terms, we get: So the velocity of the wake far downstream is twice the velocity at the disk, which is the same result for an elliptically loaded fixed wing predicted by lifting-line theory. To compute the disk loading using Bernoulli's principle, we assume the pressure in the slipstream far downstream is equal to the starting pressure formula_12, which is equal to the atmospheric pressure. From the starting point to the disk we have: Between the disk and the distant wake, we have: Combining equations, the disk loading formula_15 is: The total pressure in the distant wake is: So the pressure change across the disk is equal to the disk loading. Above the disk the pressure change is: Below the disk, the pressure change is: The pressure along the slipstream is always falling downstream, except for the positive pressure jump across the disk |
490 | Science fiction Wells's "The Time Machine" and Aldous Huxley's "Brave New World", warn about possible negative consequences. In 2001 the National Science Foundation conducted a survey on "Public Attitudes and Public Understanding: Science Fiction and Pseudoscience." It found that people who read or prefer science fiction may think about or relate to science differently than other people. They also tend to support the space program and the idea of contacting extraterrestrial civilizations. Carl Sagan wrote: "Many scientists deeply involved in the exploration of the solar system (myself among them) were first turned in that direction by science fiction." Brian Aldiss described science fiction as "cultural wallpaper." Evidence for this widespread influence can be found in trends for writers to employ science fiction as a tool for advocacy and generating cultural insights, as well as for educators when teaching across a range of academic disciplines not limited to the natural sciences. Scholar and science fiction critic George Edgar Slusser said that science fiction "is the one real international literary form we have today, and as such has branched out to visual media, interactive media and on to whatever new media the world will invent in the 21st century. Crossover issues between the sciences and the humanities are crucial for the century to come." has sometimes been used as a means of social protest. George Orwell's "Nineteen Eighty-Four" (1949) is an important work of dystopian science fiction |
491 | Branch migration It is during this state that resolution will be optimal, allowing RuvC to bind to the junction. |
492 | Mobile phone features For a GSM phone, dual-band usually means 850 / 1900 MHz in the United States and Canada, 900 / 1800 MHz in Europe and most other countries. Tri-band means 850 / 1800 / 1900 MHz or 900 / 1800 / 1900 MHz. Quad-band means 850 / 900 / 1800 / 1900 MHz, also called a world phone, since it can work on any GSM network. Multi-band phones have been valuable to enable roaming whereas multi-mode phones helped to introduce WCDMA features without customers having to give up the wide coverage of GSM. Almost every single true 3G phone sold is actually a WCDMA/GSM "dual-mode" mobile. This is also true of 2.75G phones such as those based on CDMA-2000 or EDGE. The special challenge involved in producing a multi-mode mobile is in finding ways to share the components between the different standards. Obviously, the phone keypad and display should be shared, otherwise it would be hard to treat as one phone. Beyond that, though, there are challenges at each level of integration. How difficult these challenges are depends on the differences between systems. When talking about IS-95/GSM multi-mode phones, for example, or AMPS/IS-95 phones, the base band processing is very different from system to system. This leads to real difficulties in component integration and so to larger phones. An interesting special case of multi-mode phones is the WCDMA/GSM phone. The radio interfaces are very different from each other, but mobile to core network messaging has strong similarities, meaning that software sharing is quite easy |
493 | Margaret the Virgin One of these involved being swallowed by Satan in the shape of a dragon, from which she escaped alive when the cross she carried irritated the dragon's innards. The "Golden Legend" describes this last incident as "apocryphal and not to be taken seriously" (trans. Ryan, 1.369). As Saint Marina, she is associated with the sea, which "may in turn point to an older goddess tradition", reflecting the pagan divinity, Aphrodite. The Eastern Orthodox Church knows Margaret as Saint Marina, and celebrates her feast day on 17 July. She has been identified with Saint Pelagia, "Marina" being the Latin equivalent of the Greek "Pelagia" who—according to her hagiography by James, the deacon of Heliopolis—had been known as "Margarita" ("Pearl"). We possess no historical documents on Saint Margaret as distinct from Saint Pelagia. The Greek Marina came from Antioch in Pisidia (as opposed to Antioch of Syria), but this distinction was lost in the West. The story was summarized in the 9th-century martyrology of Rabanus Maurus, even if it was too fantastic for many clergy (it went too far even for Jacobus de Voragine, who remarks that the part where she is eaten by the dragon is to be considered apocryphal). In 1222, the Council of Oxford added her to the list of feast days, and so her cult acquired great popularity |
494 | Legal Act of the European Union Legal Acts of the European Union are laws which are adopted by the Institutions of the European Union in order to exercise the powers given to them by the EU Treaties. They come in five forms: regulations, directives, decisions, recommendations and opinions. Regulations and directives can be either legislative or non-legislative acts. Legislative acts are normally adopted by the Council of the European Union and the European Parliament acting together, and have their legal basis in the treaties. Non-legislative acts are adopted by the European Commission in pursuance with powers given to it by legislative acts. Their function is to fill in the detail omitted by legislative acts. |
495 | Patera In the material culture of classical antiquity, a phiale ( ) or patera () is a shallow ceramic or metal libation bowl. It often has a bulbous indentation ("omphalos", "bellybutton") in the center underside to facilitate holding it, in which case it is sometimes called a mesomphalic phiale. It typically has no handles, and no feet. (A drinking cup with handles is a "kylix". A circular platter with a pair of C-handles is not a "patera", but a few "paterae" have single long straight handles.) Although the two terms may be used interchangeably, particularly in the context of Etruscan culture, "phiale" is more common in reference to Greek forms, and "patera" in Roman settings, not to be confused with the Greek () or Father. Libation was a central and vital aspect of ancient Greek religion, and one of the simplest and most common forms of religious practice. It is one of the basic religious acts that define piety in ancient Greece, dating back to the Bronze Age and even prehistoric Greece. Libations were a part of daily life, and the pious might perform them every day in the morning and evening, as well as to begin meals. A libation most often consisted of mixed wine and water, but could also be unmixed wine, honey, oil, water, or milk. The form of libation called "spondē" is typically the ritualized pouring of wine from a jug or bowl held in the hand. The most common ritual was to pour the liquid from an "oinochoē" (wine jug) into a "phiale". Libation generally accompanied prayer |
496 | Apophatic theology According to Carabine, there are two major points in the development of apophatic theology, namely the fusion of the Jewish tradition with Platonic philosophy in the writings of Philo, and the works of Dionysius the Pseudo-Areopagite, who infused Christian thought with Neo-Platonic ideas. The Early Church Fathers were influenced by Philo, and Meredith even states that Philo "is the real founder of the apophatic tradition." Yet, it was with Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite and Maximus the Confessor, whose writings shaped both Hesychasm, the contemplative tradition of the Eastern Orthodox Churches, and the mystical traditions of western Europe, that apophatic theology became a central element of Christian theology and contemplative practice. For the ancient Greeks, knowledge of the gods was essential for proper worship. Poets had an important responsibility in this regard, and a central question was how knowledge of the Divine forms can be attained. Epiphany played an essential role in attaining this knowledge. Xenophanes (c. 570 – c. 475 BC) noted that the knowledge of the Divine forms is restrained by the human imagination, and Greek philosophers realized that this knowledge can only be mediated through myth and visual representations, which are culture-dependent. According to Herodotus (484–425 BC), Homer and Hesiod (between 750 and 650 BC) taught the Greek the knowledge of the Divine bodies of the Gods |
497 | Epidemiology of typhoid fever The board promoted sanitary measures including latrine policy, disinfection, camp relocation, and water sterilization, but by far the most successful antityphoid method was vaccination, which became compulsory in June 1911 for all federal troops. In 1902, guests at mayoral banquets in Southampton and Winchester, England, became ill and four died, including the Dean of Winchester, after consuming oysters. The infection was due to oysters sourced from Emsworth, where the oyster beds had been contaminated with raw sewage. The most notorious carrier of typhoid fever, but by no means the most destructive, was Mary Mallon, also known as Typhoid Mary. In 1907, she became the first carrier in the United States to be identified and traced. She was a cook in New York, who was closely associated with 53 cases and three deaths. Public-health authorities told Mary to give up working as a cook or have her gall bladder removed, as she had a chronic infection that kept her active as a carrier of the disease. Mary quit her job, but returned later under a false name. She was detained and quarantined after another typhoid outbreak. She died of pneumonia after 26 years in quarantine. A notable outbreak occurred in Aberdeen, Scotland, in 1964, due to contaminated tinned meat sold at the city's branch of the William Low chain of stores. No fatalities resulted. In 2004–05 an outbreak in the Democratic Republic of Congo resulted in more than 42,000 cases and 214 deaths |
498 | Subordination (finance) Subordination in banking and finance refers to the order of priorities in claims for ownership or interest in various assets. Subordination is the process by which a creditor is placed in a lower priority for the collection of its debt from its debtor's assets than the priority the creditor previously had, In common parlance, the debt is said to be subordinated but in reality, it is the right of the creditor to collect the debt that has been reduced in priority. The priority of right to collect the debt is important when a debtor owes more than one creditor but has assets of insufficient value to pay them all in full at the time of a default. Except in bankruptcy proceedings, the creditor with the first priority for collection will generally have the first claim on the debtor's assets for its debt and the creditors whose rights are subordinate will thus have fewer assets to satisfy their claims. Subordination can take place by operation of law or by agreement among the creditors. Subordination is also an issue in the priority of security interests in the ownership of property. For example, in real estate, mortgages and other liens on the title to secure the payment or repayment of money usually take their priority from the time they attach to the title. The purpose of this ordering of priority is to determine, in a foreclosure resulting from a default, who gets paid first with the sale proceeds from the foreclosure proceeding |
499 | Safety of journalists As of May 2017, the helpline handled a total of 563 cases since its launch six months earlier, with 63 per cent of calls received from women and 37 per cent from men. Research undertaken by Pew Research Center indicated that 73 per cent of adult internet users in the United States had seen someone be harassed in some way online and 40 per cent had personally experienced it, with young women being particularly vulnerable to sexual harassment and stalking. Similar to their male counterparts, women journalists, whether they are working in an insecure context, or in a newsroom, face risks of attacks while exercising their profession but are also particularly vulnerable to attacks of a sexual nature such as, sexual harassment, sexual assault, or even rape. Such attacks can come from those attempting to silence their coverage but also from sources, colleagues and others. A 2014 global survey of nearly 1,000 women journalists, initiated by the International News Safety Institute (INSI) in partnership with the International Women's Media Foundation (IWMF) and with the support of UNESCO, found that nearly two-thirds of women who took part in the survey had experienced intimidation, threats or abuse in the workplace. In the period from 2012 through 2016, UNESCO's Director-General denounced the killing of 38 women journalists, representing 7 per cent of all journalists killed. The percentage of journalists killed who are women is significantly lower than their overall representation in the media workforce |
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