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Shinzwani Basics
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Basic Greetings/Leave Takings
|
Like in any language, there are various types of greetings. In general, we believe it is better not to learn greetings from a book as so often the intonation or "music of the language" is significant for greetings. Greetings and leavetakings are also often accompanied by gestures that can be important for communicating respect and meaning.
| **GREETINGS** | **RESPONSES** |
| --- | --- |
| Habari za… asbwihi? mtsana? jio? uku? (etc) | Salama. / Ndjema. |
| Wa fetre? (Are you well?) | Tsa fetre. (I'm well.) |
| Mwa fetre? (Are y'all well?) | Ra fetre. (We're well.) |
| Jeje? (How is it?) | Ndjema. (Good.) |
| Mungu nahunusuru. (to older person) | Sontsi (To all of us.) |
| Mungu namunusuruni.<br><br>(to older people) |
| Wawe urongolwa ɗeni?<br><br>Wawe uhiriwa ɗeni? (What's your name?) | Wami urongolwa…<br><br>Wami uhiriwa…(My name is…) |
| **LEAVE TAKINGS** | **RESPONSES** |
| Kwaheri. (Goodbye.) | Kwaheri. |
| Mtsana mwema. (Have a good day.) | Sontsi. |
| Uku wema. (Goodnight.) | Sontsi. |
| Ritsoonana. (See you.) | Ritsoonana. |
| Marahaba. (Thank you.) | Kapvasi taabu. (No problem.) |
This list is not exhaustive by any means. It is just a way to get you started.
Tips: Practice greetings repeatedly until they just roll off your tongue. Make recordings and practice. And don't be afraid to greet people you don't know.
Islanders are very friendly.
|
Shinzwani Basics
|
Numbers
|
Numbers in Shinzwani are a mix of the Bantu and Arabic number systems. If you already know your numbers in either Swahili or Arabic, you will be able to recognize how they are mixed.
<div class="joplin-table-wrapper"><table><tbody><tr><th><ol><li>Hata/Kapvu</li><li>Moja/Montsi</li><li>Mbili</li><li>Ntraru</li><li>Nne</li><li>Ntsanu</li><li>Sita</li><li>Saba</li><li>Nane</li><li>Shendra</li><li>Kumi</li><li>Kumi na moja</li></ol></th><th><ol><li>Kumi na mbili</li><li>Kumi na ntraru</li><li>Kumi na nne</li><li>Kumi na ntsanu</li></ol><p>20 Shirini (<em>ishirini</em>)</p><p>25 Shirini na ntsanu</p><p>30 Thalathini (<em>talatini</em>)</p><p>40 Arubaini (<em>Arbaini</em>)</p><p>50 Hamsini</p><p>60 Sitini</p><p>70 Sabuini (<em>sabwini</em>)</p><p>80 Thamanini</p></th><th><p>90 Tusuwini (<em>tuswini</em>)</p><p>100 Mia</p><p>200 Miateni</p><p>300 Thalathamia</p><p>400 Arbamia</p><p>500 Hamsumia</p><p>600 Sitamia</p><p>700 Sabamia</p><p>800 Thamanimia</p><p>900 Tusmia (<em>tisamia</em>)</p><p>1000 Alfu (moja)</p><p>2000 Alfu mbili
</p></th></tr></tbody></table></div>
You will see that there are some variant pronunciations for some of the numbers.
When the number is multiple words, the words will usually be connected with "na" but bigger numbers will sometimes be "wa". 150 is "mia wa hamsini".
Beginners should focus on counting until the numbers come quickly and smoothly.
Warnings:
- The numbers for money are more complicated (see next lesson, **_1.3- Money_**).
- Listed above are the "counting" numbers. The number words will change when applied to different words (to understand why, see lesson **_3.1_**
**_Introduction to Noun Classes_**), but each number will have a constant root. For example, two will always end in -ili in Shinzwani, but depending on the noun it will be waili, mili, maili, mbili, zili. For the beginner, this is just something to be aware of. If you use mbili all the time, people will still understand you (though they may correct you). For a full explanation of how numbers change with different nouns, see lesson **_3.5- Adjectives/Numbers_**.
|
Shinzwani Basics
|
Money
|
One of the first key questions for shopping in Anjouan is asking the price. In Shinzwani, the question is:
_Kisaje?_ (the most common) OR _Riali ngapvi?_
[image]But then the challenge really begins, because you have to be able to understand the answer! In Comoros, the currency is the Comorian Franc (CF or KMF). When the French introduced the franc, the smallest coin was the 5 franc coin. So in the island money system, 5 francs
was known as 1 riali. **Ntsanu Kumi Shirini**
So whenever you ask "kisaje?" the answer will be in riali if they are speaking in Shinzwani and in francs if they are speaking French.
[image]
**Mia**
[image]
Riali ntsanu 25 F
Riali kumi 50 CF
Riali kumi na ntsanu 75 CF
Riali (i)shirini 100 CF **Hamsini**
| Riali sitini<br><br>Riali sabuini<br><br>Riali thamanini | | | 300 CF 350 CF 400 CF | **Miaten** | **Arbamia** |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
Riali (i)shirini na ntsanu 125 CF Riali thalathini 150 CF Riali arubaini 200 CF
[image][image]
Riali hamsini 250 CF
Riali tusuwini 450 CF Riali mia 500 CF
[image][image]
Riali mia wa hamsini 750 CF
Riali miateni 1000 CF Riali alfu (_alf_) 5000 CF
Riali alfu mbili 10000 CF **Alfu Alfu Mbili**
Tip: Rather than always dividing by 5 in your head, we recommend memorizing the names of the coins and bills.
Note: For expensive items, they will often use French numbers. So if you don't know your French numbers, it is worth being familiar with them. They also use French numbers consistently when sharing phone numbers.
|
Shinzwani Basics
|
Question Words
|
| **_Ntrini?_** | What? |
| --- | --- |
| **Ɗ_eni?_** | Who? |
| **_Hapvi?_** | Where? |
| **_Lini?_** | When? |
| **_Lera ntrini?_** | What time? |
| **_Jeje?_** | How? |
| **_Mana ntrini?_** | Why? |
These question words are most often placed at the end of the sentence in Shinzwani.
Tip: When you are first beginning to learn a language, each interaction can feel like a puzzle. Perhaps you are only catching 2 words out of 5, but if you know that they are asking a "when" question then you might be able to piece together what they are asking from the context. So listen hard for the last word of the question! Also, it is often through asking simple one word questions that we can continue a conversation- so use these question words to get islanders talking, so you can listen and learn more!
|
Shinzwani Basics
|
Pronunciation Tips
|
We aren't taking the time to fully explain the pronunciation of Shinzwani, partially because we believe that you should learn pronunciation from islanders, not from a book, and partially because we don't have the linguistic training to do it well. We encourage you to record islanders saying phrases so you can practice mimicking their sounds and cadence. Here are some of the tricky sounds in Shinzwani that an English speaker may not hear and/or say properly at first.
•The implosive letters: ɓ and ɗ. The sound will be made deeper in your throat than the normal b and d.
•The pv. This may sometimes sound like an English v or b or p, but it is somewhere in the middle of them.
•The tr/dr. Sometimes there will be a tr/dr that doesn't fully pronounce the r sound. So you may think that it is just a plain t or d.
•Dj and dz. Sometimes the difference between dz and z, or dj and j can change the meaning of the word. Listen to see if the harder d sound is present.
•Initial n and m. English speakers aren't used to combining m and n with another consonant at the beginning of words, so they don't always hear/pronounce the n and m in words like ntrongo, nkuhu, nguo, mbili,mhogo, mkandra, etc.
Stress: In Shinzwani the stress is usually on the second to last syllable. Make sure to listen and imitate their intonation.
|
Shinzwani Basics
|
Power Phrases
|
Power Phrases are the phrases that allow you to learn more language. You may not be able to understand what you are saying, but these phrases will unlock the door to more language, especially vocabulary. This book does not try to teach vocabulary, but these phrases will allow you to learn vocabulary from your neighbors and improve your language.
**For learning more nouns:**
| **_Ini ntrini?_** | What is this? |
| --- | --- |
| **_Ile ntrini?_** | What is that? |
**For learning more verbs:**
| **_Nisifanya ntrini?_** | What am I doing? |
| --- | --- |
| **_Usifanya ntrini?_** | What are you doing? |
**For clarifying:**
| **_Nisisoma Shinzwani._** | I'm studying Shinzwani. |
| --- | --- |
| **_Nisitsaha nisome Shinzwani._** | I want to study Shinzwani. |
| **_Tsaelewa._** | I didn't understand. |
| **_Rongoa tsena._** | Say it again. |
| **_Rongoa mpole mpole._** | Say it slowly. |
| **_Tsirongoa fetre?_** | Did I say it well? |
| **_Ewa.\*_** | Yes. |
| **_Anha._** | No. |
\* Many islanders will not use the full "yes" of ewa (sometimes yewa). They will say uhhn ("êê"). The proper intonation is essential for this response. Beginners may confuse this positive response with the negative Anha ("ââ"). Also watch for the nonverbal signals for "yes" and "no". Remember that people can use their hands, heads, eyebrows, etc to communicate, too.
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Shinzwani Basics
|
To be/To have (Hu-ka)
|
In Shinzwani the infinitive of the verb "to be" is hu-ka (or hu-kaya). This verb is usually used to express states of being or locations. Like many other languages the verb "to be" is irregular in the present.
| | **TO BE- Present Tense** | |
| --- | --- | --- |
| | **Positive** | **Negative** |
| Wami (I) | Tsa (I am) | Tsisi (I'm not) |
| Wawe (you) | Wa (you are) | Kusi (you're not) |
| Waye (he/she) | A (he/she is) | Kasi (he/she's not) |
| Wasi (we) | Ra (we are) | Karisi (we're not) |
| Wanyu (y'all) | Mwa (y'all are) | Kamusi (y'all are not) |
| Wawo (they) | Wa (they are) | Kawasi (they're not) |
Hu-ka in the simple past and future is regular (see lessons **_2.3- Simple Future_** and **_2.4- Simple Past_** to see these conjugations explained).
| **TO BE- Past Tense** | | **TO BE- Future Tense** | |
| --- | | --- | | --- | --- |
| **Positive** | **Negative** | **Positive** | **Negative** |
| Tsika (I was) | Tsaka | Nitsoka (I will be) | Tsitsoka |
| Uka (you were) | Kwaka | Utsoka (You will be) | Kutsoka |
| Aka (he/she was) | Kaka | Atsoka (He/she will be) | Katsoka |
| Rika (we were) | Karaka | Ritsoka (We will be) | Karitsoka |
| Muka (y'all were) | Kamwaka | Mutsoka (Y'all will be) | Kamutsoka |
| Waka (they were) | Kawaka | Watsoka (they will be ) | Kawatsoka |
The verb hu-ka is generally used to express temporary states of being or locations.
Examples:
Tsa fetre I am well
Ra dagoni. We're at home.
Fatima a (ɗe) hapvi? Where is Fatima?
Kawasi pvani. They aren't here.
Tsisi Mirontsy. I'm not in Mirontsy.
To express permanent states of being there is usually no verb used, and instead only the subject pronoun is used.
Waye mwema. --> He/she is good. (i.e. a good person)
Wasi mafundi. ---> We are teachers. (used with occupations)
**TO HAVE**
To express the sense of "to have" you add the word "na" to the end of the verb "to be".
So in the past and future tenses it is as easy as adding -na to the above forms. (Make sure you keep the stress on the second to last syllable though.)
I had = Tsika + na = Tsikana
They will not have = Kawatsoka + na = Kawatsokana
The positive present tense is an exception. The subject prefixes go back to their normal vowels with the addition of "na" (instead of the "a" they all had for "to be"). For example, tsa (I am) goes to tsina (I have).
| **TO HAVE- Present** | | **TO HAVE- Past Tense** | | | **TO BE- Future Tense** | |
| --- | | --- | | | --- | | --- | --- | --- |
| **Positive** | **Negative** | **Positive** | | **Negative** | **Positive** | **Negative** |
| Tsina | Tsisina | Tsikana | | Tsakana | Nitsokana | Tsitsokana |
| Una | Kusina | Ukana | | Kwakana | Utsokana | Kutsokana |
| Ana | Kasina | Akana | | Kakana | Atsokana | Katsokana |
| Rina | Karisina | Rikana | | Karakana | Ritsokana | Karitsokana |
| Muna | Kamusina | Mukana | | Kamwakana | Mutsokana | Kamutsokana |
| Wana | Kawasina | Wakana | | Kawakana | Watsokana | Kawatsokana |
| Examples: | | | | | | | | |
| Tsina furaha. | | | | I'm happy. (literally: I have happiness.) | | | | |
| Kakana nafassi. | | | | She didn't have time. | | | | |
| Wana ntrontro. | | | | They are dirty. (literally: They have dirt.) | | | | |
| Karisina hamu. | | | | We're not sad. (literally: We don't have sadness.) | | | | |
| Salim ana ankili. | | | | Salim is smart. (literally: Salim has brains.) | | | | |
| Ana maha saba. | | | | He is 7 years old. (literally: He has 7 years.) | | | | |
Note: English speakers sometimes want to use hu-ka to express emotions and sensations (like we use "to be" in English). But in Shinzwani they often use other verbs. For example, there are several expressions using hu-ona (to see): haya (shame), ndza (hunger), nyora (thirst), hari (hot). baridi (cold). Other emotions can use other verbs like hu-jaya (to fill), hu-ngia (to enter) or huheya (to rise). So listen carefully!
|
Shinzwani Basics
|
"There is…" (Pvwa)
|
"There is.." is a common expression in Shinzwani and very helpful for the beginner. We recommend beginners memorize the present tense right away and come back to the other forms as you have need for them.
| | **Positive** | **Negative** |
| --- | --- | --- |
| **Present** | Pvwa<br><br>_(There is)_ | Kapvwasi/ Kapvu _(There isn't)_ |
| **Past** | Pvuka<br><br>_(There was)_ | Kapvwaka<br><br>_(There wasn't)_ |
| **Future** | Pvutsoka<br><br>_(There will be)_ | Kapvutsoka<br><br>(There will not be) |
Pronunciation: Remember the "pv" is often hard to distinguish from "v". The "w" is also sometimes not used. So for example, you may hear both kapvaka and kapvwaka for "there wasn't".
Variant: Some towns may put an additional -ya in the past and future. So you could hear pvukaya, kapvwakaya, pvutsokaya, kapvutsokaya. It does not change the meaning.
Examples:
Kapvasi maji hata. There isn't any water at all.
Kapvutsoka hazi meso . There will not be work tomorrow.
Pvwa koka dukani? Kavu. Is there coke at the shop? There isn't any. Kapvwakaya matra. There wasn't power/oil.
Pvojana pvuka taabu Mironsty. Yesterday there was a problem in Mirontsy. Meso pvwutsoka vuwa. Tomorrow there will be rain.
In expressing the idea of "there is" in Shinzwani, you are actually using the verb "to be" (hu-ka) conjugated for the locational noun classes 16/17/18. (See lessons **_1.7- To be/To have (Hu-ka)_** and **_3.1- Introduction to Noun Classes_** to understand more about these noun classes.)
Remember though, it isn't necessary to completely understand something to use it!
|
Shinzwani Basics
|
Comparisons
|
Comparisons are expressed in Shinzwani by using the word _rahana_ (perhaps written as two words, _raha na_). Some even add a second "na" (_rahana na_). Where in English we often add an -er to the end of an adjective, in Shinzwani the adjective does not change and instead the adjective is followed by the word _rahana_ and the second person or object that is being compared.
For example:
Salim ana ankili.
_Salim is smart._
Salim ana ankili rahana (na) wami.
_He is smarter than me._
Lisaluva lile la dzuzuri.
_That saluva is beautiful._
Lisaluva lile la dzuzuri rahana lini.
_That saluva is more beautiful than this one._
Shinzwani sha shangu?
_Is Shinzwani easy?_
Shinzwani sha shangu rahana (na) iShingzidja? _Is Shinzwani easier than Shingazidja?_
You can also use _rahana_ with adverbs.
Fatima asifundriha haraka rahana (na) Ali.
_Fatima is learning faster than Ali._
Abdallah atsosoma fetre rahana wanyu.
_Abdallah will study/read better than y'all._
You can also use _rahana_ directly with verbs (without an expressed adverb), giving the sense that someone does something either more often or better than someone else.
Waye ujua rahana wawe.
_He/she knows it better/more than you do._
Wawo ufua nguo rahana wasi.
_They wash clothes more than we do._
|
Basic Verb Tenses
|
Introduction to Shinzwani Verbs
|
You can dissect a conjugated Shinzwani verb into various components. The most important is the verb stem. We'll use the simple verb "to do" as an example. The infinitive is hu-fanya (the infinitive form always has hu or u at the beginning). The verb stem is -fanya.
In general to conjugate verbs in Shinzwani, you will add subject prefixes and various infixes in front of the verb stem.
**Conjugated Verb = Subject Prefix + Infix + Verb Stem**
**SUBJECT PREFIXES:**
| | **Positive** | **Negative (ka +)** |
| --- | --- | --- |
| I | ni- (tsi-) | tsi- |
| You | u- | ku- |
| He/She | a- | ka- |
| We | ri- | kari- |
| Y'all | m-/mu- | kamu- |
| They | wa- | kawa- |
In this chapter we are focusing on conjugations when a person or people are the subject of the sentence. (To learn more about subject prefixes when objects are the subject of a sentence, see lesson **_3.7 Noun Class Verb Conjugations_**.)
**INFIXES:**
Most tenses will have a distinctive infix to mark the tense. There are also verb infixes that change the meaning of the root verb (see **_Chapter 5: Verb Infixes_**). There are also object infixes expressing a direct or indirect object (see lesson **_3.2- Object Infixes_**).
From our experience, object infixes stay right next to the verb root, whereas tense infixes stay next to the subject prefix with the verb infix going between (assuming all three are used at one time).
**Infix = tense infix + (verb infix) + (object infix)**
Infixes are not a mandatory component of a conjugated verb unless the tense requires a tense infix.
|
Basic Verb Tenses
|
Present Continuous
|
The present continuous is the tense that expresses an unfinished present action.
**Present Continuous Infix: -si- or -ku-**
(In the Mutsamudu area they use -si-, but in the Domoni area we're told that ku- is used.)
For present continuous you have the subject prefix + si/ku + verb stem. Since we are based in Mutsamudu, we will use the -si- infix.
| Ni + si + fanya | **Nisifanya** | _I am doing_ |
| --- | --- | --- |
| U + si + fanya | **Usifanya** | _You are doing_ |
| A + si + fanya | **Asifanya** | _He/she is doing_ |
| Ri + si + fanya | **Risifanya** | _We are doing_ |
| Mu + si + fanya | **Musifanya** | _Y'all are doing_ |
| Wa + si + fanya | **Wasifanya** | _They are doing_ |
In Shinzwani when two vowel sounds meet, they will often contract. So when the verb stem begins with the vowels a, e or o, it will usually contract with the
\-si- infix. So with the verb "to go" (-endra) we see…
Nisi+endra will become "nisendra" Usi+endra will become "usendra" etc...
**Negative Present Continuous**
To form the negative, you add ka- to the subject prefix (as seen in the table in lesson **_2.1- Introduction to Shinzwani Verbs_**). Note that the ka- contracts with the u- in the 2nd person singular.
The one exception is first person singular ("I"). Rather than the expected kani- prefix, the negative prefix is tsi-.
| Tsi + si + fanya | **Tsisifanya** | _I am not doing_ |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Ku + si + fanya | **Kusifanya** | _You are not doing_ |
| Ka + si + fanya | **Kasifanya** | _He/she is not doing_ |
| Kari + si + fanya | **Karisifanya** | _We are not doing_ |
| Kamu + si + fanya | **Kamusifanya** | _Y'all are not doing_ |
| Kawa + si + fanya | **Kawasifanya** | _They are not doing_ |
|
Basic Verb Tenses
|
Simple Future
|
The next tense follows the same simple pattern:
Verb = subject prefix + tense infix + verb stem
So it will look just like the present continuous except that the tense infix will change.
**Simple Future Infix: -TSO-**
| Ni + tso + fanya | **Nitsofanya** | _I will do_ |
| --- | --- | --- |
| U + tso + fanya | **Utsofanya** | _You will do_ |
| A + tso + fanya | **Atsofanya** | _He/she will do_ |
| Ri + tso + fanya | **Ritsofanya** | _We will do_ |
| Mu\* + tso + fanya | **Mutsofanya** | _Y'all will do_ |
| Wa + tso + fanya | **Watsofanya** | _They will do_ |
One difference is that the -tso- infix does not usually contract with vowels. It remains fully pronounced.
Negative Verb = (Ka + Subject Prefix) + Tense Infix + Stem
| Tsi + tso + fanya | **Tsitsofanya** | _I will not do_ |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Ku + tso + fanya | **Kutsofanya** | _You will not do_ |
| Ka + tso + fanya | **Katsofanya** | _He/she will not do_ |
| Kari + tso + fanya | **Karitsofanya** | _We will not do_ |
| Kamu\* + tso + fanya | **Kamutsofanya** | _Y'all will not do_ |
| Kawa + tso + fanya | **Kawatsofanya** | _They will not do_ |
In Shinzwani some use m- and some use mu- for the 2nd person plural (y'all) subject prefix. So in many of the tenses there is a variant. For example you may hear mtsofanya instead of mutsofanya and kamtsofanya instead of kamutsofanya.
|
Basic Verb Tenses
|
Simple Past
|
The simple past expresses a completed past action. It is an irregular verb tense that doesn't follow the normal pattern.
Here's how the simple past positive is irregular:
- The simple past does not have a tense infix that identifies the tense. In the positive there is no required infix at all.
- The positive 1st person singular prefix is tsi- instead of ni-. In almost all other situations the tsi- prefix is negative, but in the simple past it is positive. (This can be frustrating and confusing for beginning learners.)
- In the positive simple past, the last vowel of the verb stem will sometimes change (in one and two syllable words). This is a phenomenon we will call vowel harmony (see below for further explanation).
So the irregular formula for the simple past positive is:
Simple Past Positive Verb = Subject Prefix + Stem (w/ possible vowel harmony)
Let us first look at verbs that don't have vowel harmony. Three types of verbs don't change their last vowel for vowel harmony:
•verbs with three or more syllables (like -_somesa_, -_andrisa_, etc)
•verbs with two syllables where both vowels are "a" (like _fanya_, -_para_, etc) These verbs actually already have vowel harmony.
•verbs that end in _i_ or _u (like -kentsi, -baki, -shukuru, etc.)_ These are Arabic origin verbs.
For these three types of verbs, the positive simple past will just be the subject prefix with the verb stem.
| Tsi + fanya | **Tsifanya** | _I did_ |
| --- | --- | --- |
| U + fanya | **Ufanya** | _You did_ |
| A + fanya | **Afanya** | _He/she did_ |
| Ri + fanya | **Rifanya** | _We did_ |
| Mu + fanya | **Mufanya** | _Y'all did_ |
| Wa + fanya | **Wafanya** | _They did_ |
**_Vowel harmony_** is seen in many two syllable verbs. This is where the final "_a"_ of the verb stem will change to match the first vowel of the verb stem. For example, with the verb -_endra_ the _a_ will change to _e_ to match the first vowel, making the positive simple past ending -endre. Or in -_hima_, the _a_ will change to _i_ to match the first vowel, making the ending -himi.
Remember that when vowels meet, they often contract. In this case, subject prefix will contract into the verb stem. So tsi +endre will be _tsendre_. Ri + angalia will be _rangalia_.
| **Stem** | **Simple Past Example** | **Stem** | **Simple Past Example** |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| \-endra | Aendre (He/she went) | \-hima | Tsihimi (I got up) |
| \-renga | Rirenge (We took) | \-zina | Wazini (They danced) |
| \-ona | Muono (Y'all saw) | \-shuka | Ushuku (You went down) |
| \-soma | Tsisomo (I studied/read) | \-funga | Afungu (He/she tied) |
A few verbs are acceptable with or without vowel harmony like -_piha_ (to cook). So _tsipiha_ and _tsipihi_ are both used for _I cooked_. There are also some two syllable verbs that don't follow vowel harmony, like for -_lola_ (to be married) they say _tsilola_, not tsilolo.
Note: Many of the verb family derivatives will not do vowel harmony (even if they are two syllable verbs and their root verb did vowel harmony). See **_Chapter 4: Verb Families_** to learn more about verb derivatives.
**One Syllable Verbs:** Otherwise known as monosyllabics, these short verbs often change vowels in the simple past. They don't follow a pattern and will just have to be memorized. The most prominent exception is -_ja_, which does not change vowel.
| **Verb Stem** | **Vowel Change** | **Simple Past Example** |
| --- | --- | --- |
| \-ja (to come) | no change | Aja. (He/she came.) |
| \-la (to eat) | to "i" = -li | Tsili. (I ate.) |
| \-tra (to knock over) | to "i" = -tri | Mutri. (Y'all knocked over.) |
| \-fa (to die) | to "u" = -fu | Wafu. (They died.) |
| \-wa (to fall) | to "u" = -wu | Uwu. (You fell.) |
| \-nwa (to drink) | to "o" = -no | Wano. (They drank.) |
| \-nya (to pee/poo) | to "e" = -nye | Anye. (He/she peed.) |
**Simple Past Negative = Negative Subject Prefix + "A" + Verb stem**
By contrast, the simple past negative is wonderfully regular. It has an infix and no changes to the verb stem. The infix is "a" which does cause some contractions as you can see:
| Tsi + a + fanya | **Tsafanya** | _I did not do_ |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Ku + a + fanya | **Kwafanya** | _You did not do_ |
| Ka + a + fanya | **Kafanya** | _He/she did not do_ |
| Kari + a + fanya | **Karafanya** | _We did not do_ |
| Kamu + a + fanya | **Kamwafanya** | _Y'all did not do_ |
| Kawa + a + fanya | **Kawafanya** | _They did not do_ |
|
Basic Verb Tenses
|
Simple Present (Habitual)
|
The simple present describes actions that happen on a regular or habitual basis. For example, things that you do everyday or every week.
The simple present does not follow the normal pattern for forming a verb. It is formed using the subject pronouns with the infinitive of the verb.
**Simple Present = Subject Pronoun + Infinitive of Verb**
| **SUBJECT PRONOUNS** | |
| --- | | --- |
| **Wami** | I |
| **Wawe** | You (singular) |
| **Waye** | He/She |
| **Wasi** | We |
| **Wanyu** | Y'all |
| **Wawo** | They |
The table to the right shows the pronouns. The infinitive is just the verb stem with a "u" at the beginning.
Examples:
Wami ufanya _I do_
Wawe ula _You eat_
Waye upiha _She cooks_
Wasi usoma _We read_
Wanyu usomesa _Y'all teach_
Wawo uhima _They get up_
**Neg. Simple Present = Neg. subject prefix + Verb stem (w/ harmony)**
In the negative simple present, we use the normal negative subject prefixes without a verb infix but with vowel harmony (see lesson **_2.4- Simple Past_** to learn more about vowel harmony). The negative simple present will follow the same vowel harmony patterns as the simple past tense, including the vowel changes to the monosyllabic verbs. Sometimes the subject pronoun is used for emphasis in the negative simple present, but it isn't necessary.
| Examples: | |
| --- | --- |
| Wami tsifanya | _I don't do_ |
| Wawe kuli | _You don't eat_ |
| Waye kapihi | _She doesn't cook_ |
| Wasi karisomo | _We don't read_ |
| Wanyu kamusomesa | _Y'all don't teach_ |
| Wawo kawahimi | _They don't get up_ |
Note: The 1st person singular is technically the same as the simple past positive. Listen to see if there is a slight difference in intonation.
**Exception:** The verb "to know" (ujua) does not change in the simple past but changes in the simple present negative. The verb stem changes to -ji.
Wami tsiji _I don't know_
Wawe kuji _You don't know_
Waye kaji _He doesn't know_ Wasi kariji _We don't know_ Wanyu kamuji _Y'all don't know_
Wawo kawaji _They don't know_
|
Basic Verb Tenses
|
Imperative (Commands)
|
This is the tense for giving commands. There are just two positive forms, depending on if you are commanding one person or many people. For the singular, you just use the verb stem by itself.
For the plural (y'all), the prefix (Na-) is added to the normal second person plural prefix (m-/mu-) making a new prefix of Nam-. To this prefix is added the verb stem, but the final vowel of the verb will change to "e" for all verb stems that end in "a".
**Plural Commands = NAM + verb stem with a final E**
Note: A majority of verbs in Shinzwani end with the vowel "a". But the verbs that end in "i" and "u" which will not change their final vowel. You'll remember that these are the verbs with Arabic origins.
The only significant exception is the verb hu-ja (to come). The singular ("Come!") is Ko!, while the plural remains regular, Namje!
Negative commands are formed with the infix -si- :
**Negative Command= Subject prefix + SI + verb stem with final E**
The "si" infix will contract with verbs that begin with a vowel (as seen before).
| **Positive** | | | **Negative** | | |
| --- | | --- | --- | | --- | --- | --- |
| **Singular** | **Plural** | | **Singular** | **Plural** | |
| Endra! | Namwendre! | _Go!_ | Usendre! | Musendre! | _Don't go!_ |
| Soma! | Namsome! | _Read!_ | Usisome! | Musisome! | _Don't read!_ |
| La! | Namle! | _Eat!_ | Usile! | Musile! | _Don't eat!_ |
| Kentsi! | Namkentsi! | _Sit!_ | Usikentsi! | Musikentsi! | _Don't sit!_ |
| Eledza! | Namweledze! | _Explain!_ | Useledze! | Museledze! | _Don't explain!_ |
| Lawa! | Namlawe! | _Leave!_ | Usilawe! | Musilawe! | _Don't leave!_ |
| Ka …! | Namke…! | _Be…!_ | Usike…! | Musike…! | _Don't be…!_ |
| Fikiri! | Usifikiri! | _Think!_ | Namfikiri! | Musifikiri! | _Don't think!_ |
Object infixes can be added to commands, in which case even the positive singular commands will change their final vowel to "e" (for more information, see lesson **_3.2- Object Infixes_**). The imperative is related to a fuller tense (see lesson **_6.4- "Let's…" (NA + subjunctive)_** for more information).
|
Basic Verb Tenses
|
Imperfect (Past Continuous)
|
The imperfect tense is an important tense for story-telling. In English we use past tense of the verb "to be" with a present participle (verb with -ing) to communicate this tense. So whereas the simple past is, "I ate", the imperfect is, "I was eating."
The imperfect infix is -ako- (some people like to think of it as a -ko- infix and the subject prefix vowel changing to an "a"). Ultimately it is perhaps easier to memorize the prefix and infix together as the tense's complete prefix.
| **_Prefix + infix =_** | **Complete prefix** | **Example** |
| --- | --- | --- |
| _Ni + ako-_ | **NAKO-** | Nakofanya _(I was doing)_ |
| _U + ako_ | **WAKO-** | Wakofanya _(You were doing)_ |
| _A + ako_ | **AKO-** | Akofanya _(He/she was doing)_ |
| _Ri + ako_ | **RAKO** | Rakofanya _(We were doing)_ |
| _Mu + ako_ | **MWAKO-** | Mwakofanya _(Y'all were doing)_ |
| _Wa + ako_ | **WAKO-** | Wakofanya. _(They were doing)_ |
The same will work for the negative:
| **_Prefix + infix =_** | **Complete prefix** | **Example** |
| --- | --- | --- |
| _Tsi + ako-_ | **TSAKO-** | Tsakofanya _(I wasn't doing)_ |
| _Ku + ako_ | **KWAKO-** | Kwakofanya _(You weren't doing)_ |
| _Ka + ako_ | **KAKO-** | Kakofanya _(He/she wasn't doing)_ |
| _Kari + ako_ | **KARAKO** | Karakofanya _(We weren't doing)_ |
| _Kamu + ako_ | **KAMWAKO-** | Kamwakofanya _(Y'all weren't doing)_ |
| _Kawa + ako_ | **KAWAKO-** | Kawakofanya. _(They weren't doing.)_ |
| Examples: | |
| --- | --- |
| Nakofanya | _I was doing_ |
| Wakola | _You were eating_ |
| Akofikiri | _He was thinking_ |
| Rakoendra | _We were going_ |
| Mwakoswali | _Y'all were praying_ |
| Wakopiha | _They were cooking_ |
Tsakofanya _I wasn't doing_
Kwakola _You weren't eating_
Kakofikiri _He wasn't thinking_
Karakoendra _We weren't going_
Kamwakoswali _Y'all weren't praying_
Kawakopiha _They weren't cooking_
|
Basic Verb Tenses
|
Past Perfect
|
The past perfect tense is used to describe actions that were fully completed in the past. In Shinzwani, this is a
composite tense using the **To be Prefix Past Perfect Example** verb"to be" (see lesson **_1.7- To be/To have (Hu-ka)_**). TSIKA TSI- Tsika tsifanya (_I had done)_
UKA U- Uka ufanya _(You had done)_ In the positive past perfect we AKA A- Aka afanya _(He/she had done)_ use the simple past tense of the
verb "to be" followed by the RIKA RI- Rika rifanya _(We had done)_
<sup>simple past form of the verb</sup> MUKA MU- Muka mufanya _(Y'all had done)_ (see lesson **_2.4- Simple Past_**).
WAKA WA- Waka wafanya _(They had done)_
In the negative, we use the verb
"to be" in the negative simple past **To be Prefix Negative Past**
**(Neg) Perfect Example** followed by a second verb formed
with the normal positive subject TSAKA NA- Tsaka nafanya prefixes and an "a" infix. This form is (_I hadn't done)_
found in many negative constructions KWAKA WA- Kwaka wafanya
using 2 verbs (see lesson **_7.8-_** _(You hadn't done)_
**_Negative Two Verb Phrases_**).
KAKA A- Kaka afanya
_Tsika tsifanya_ I had done _(He/she hadn't done)_
_Uka uli_ You had eaten
_Aka afikiri_ He had thought KARAKA RA- Karaka rafanya_(We hadn't done_ _)_
_Rika rendre_ We had gone
_Muka muswali_ Y'all had prayed KAMWAKA MWA- Kamwaka mwafanya _Waka wapihi_ They had cooked _(Y'all hadn't done)_
KAWAKA WA- Kawaka wafanya
_Tsaka nafanya_ I hadn't done _(They hadn't done)_
_Kwaka wala_ You hadn't eaten
_Kaka afikiri_ He hadn't thought
_Karaka raendra_ We hadn't gone
_Kamwaka mwaswali_ Y'all hadn't prayed
_Kawaka wapiha_ They hadn't cooked
Some verbs use the simple past tense to express something that applies to the present. For these verbs, the past perfect is necessary to communicate a past significance (that no longer applies).
For example:
| **_Simple Past Meaning_** | | **_Past Perfect Meaning_** | |
| --- | | --- | | --- | --- |
| _He's hurt._ | **Akodzo.** | _He was hurt (and he's better now)._ | **Aka akodzo.** |
| _He left._ | **Alawa.** | _He had left (but he's back now)._ | **Aka alawa.** |
| _He traveled._ | **Apashia.** | _He had traveled (and is back now)._ | **Aka apashia.** |
|
Basic Verb Tenses
|
Soft Commands
|
In Shinzwani there is a soft command form that is less forceful than the normal command. In English we can soften commands by making them questions so they sound more like suggestions and are therefore more polite.
So for example, in English, instead of telling someone "Go!", we might say, "Why don't you go?"
In Shinzwani, this kind of soft command is formed with the negative subject prefix and the same vowel harmony and vowel changes we saw in the simple past tense (see lesson **_2.4-Simple Past_**).
| **SINGULAR** | | | **PLURAL** | |
| --- | | | --- | |
| KU-\* | | | KAM-\* | |
| Kuendre! | _Why don't you go?!_ | |
| Kamendre! | _Why don't y'all go?!_ | |
| Kuli! | _Why don't you eat?!_ | |
| Kamli! | _Why don't y'all eat?!_ | |
Parents often use it as a warning command, but follow it with the normal command form.
Kuzia! _Why don't you stop?!_ Zia! _Stop!_
Kulishi! _Why don't you leave it?!_ Lisha! _Leave it!_
Kukentsi! _Why don't you sit?!_
Kentsi! _Sit!_
|
Noun Classes
|
Introduction to Noun Classes
|
Shinzwani (as a Bantu language) contains a system of noun classes. Every noun in the language belongs to a group or class. Anything that modifies or refers to a noun will change depending on the group/class of that noun. For example, look at the following simple phrases:
| Ligari lini la djema. | "This car is good." |
| --- | --- |
| Yamagari yani ya mema. | "These cars are good." |
| Umwiri unu wa mwema. | "This tree is good." |
| Ishiri shini sha shema. | "This chair is good." |
| Izia zini za zema. | "These dishes are good. |
As you may see, the article, the demonstrative, the verb and adjective all change based upon the verb. All adjectives (including numbers), possessives, and verbs will change depending on the noun being described. As you can see this ends up having a huge impact on the language and any communication. There are officially 15 different classes/groups, but some are little used.
The best way to know the noun class to which a word belongs is to look at the singular and plural. (The numbers below refer to classes used in other Bantu languages.) You'll notice that the singular and plural are listed as separate noun classes. So _mwana (child)_ is in noun class 1, but _wana (children)_ is in noun class 2.
**M-WA (1-2)** In the singular these nouns start with m-, mu- or mw- and in the plural they all begin with wa-. Examples: mwana/wana (child/children), mlozi/ walozi (fisherman/fishermen), muntru/wantru (person/people). This group is comprised of nouns that refer to people.
**M-MI (3-4)** In this group, the singulars start with m-, mu- or mw- and in the plural they all begin with mi-. Examples: mwiri/miri (tree/trees), mundru/mindru (leg/legs), mhono/mihono (arm/arms). This group contains a variety of nouns, including most trees.
**DZI- MA (5-6)** In this group, the singulars can start with many different letters (dzi- being one of many beginnings), but in the plural they all start with ma-. Many times the beginning letter in the singular will change (in predictable ways) when the ma- is added in the plural. For example, "d" can change to "l", "p" can change to "pv" and "tr" can change to "r". Examples: gari/magari, (car/cars), dzitso/matso (eye/eyes), ɗuja/maluja (wave/waves), paja/mapvaja (thigh/thighs), trundra/marundra (orange/oranges). This group contains many different types of nouns.
**SHI-ZI (7-8)** In this group all the singulars start with shi- or sh- and all the plurals begin with zi- or z-. Examples: sha/za (finger/fingers), shiri/ziri (chair/ chairs), shisiwa/zisiwa (island/islands).
| **OBJECT INFIXES (people)** |
| --- |
| **\-ni-** (me) |
| **\-hu-** (you) |
| **\-m/mu-** (him/ her) |
| **\-ri-** (us) |
| **\-m/mu-ni**<br><br>**\***(y'all) |
| **\-wa-** (them) |
**N-N (9-10)** In this group you find words that begin with many different letters but which don't change between singular and plural. Examples: nyombe (cow(s)), likoli (school(s)), stilo (pen(s)). Most foreign words that are adopted into Shinzwani end up in this class, as well as many animals.
**If you are a beginner, we recommend focusing on the above noun classes. The remaining noun classes have far fewer nouns and/or are less used, so it is less important to master them right away.**
Class 11 (U-) This is a noun class with singular nouns that start with u-. The plural for class 11 can either be noun class 10 (where the noun itself wouldn't change from the singular form) or noun class 6 (where it would begin with ma-). Many abstract nouns are in this noun class and don't have a plural at all. For example, -libwavu is the root for the adjective "big", but ulibwavu is the abstract noun "bigness/grandeur".
| **OBJECT INFIXES (noun classes)** | |
| --- | | --- |
| 1 | \-m/mu- |
| 2 | −wa− |
| 3 | \-u- |
| 4 | \-i- |
| 5 | \-li- |
| 6 | \-ya- |
| 7 | \-shi- |
| 8 | \-zi- |
| 9 | \-i- |
| 10 | \-zi- |
| 11 | \-u- |
Class 15 (Hu-) This noun class includes the infinitive form of verbs, which would be the equivalent to the gerund in English (ie. when a verb is used as a noun). So with the article, an example would be: _ihula mataba_ (the eating of mataba).
Classes 16, 17 & 18 These are all locational nouns. Class 16 has only one noun that we know of- _pvwahanu_. See lesson **_1.8- "There is.." (Pvwa)_** to learn about one common usage of class 16. Classes 17 & 18 don't have their own nouns, but see lesson **_3.12- Locative Suffixes (-ni & -juu)_** to see how various nouns can be changed into class 17/18 nouns.
Note: Shinzwani does not use noun classes 12, 13, 14. Other Bantu languages do and the numbering is for the sake of understanding Shinzwani in the context of other Bantu languages.
STUDY TIP: Noun classes don't come naturally to English speakers. Make flash cards. Drill simple phrases with different nouns. Practice a lot and eventually it will start coming more naturally.
|
Noun Classes
|
Object Infixes
|
English expresses its object pronouns using distinct words: me, her/him, you, us, y'all, them and it. In Shinzwani, object pronouns as expressed using object infixes which are inserted into the verb. See **_2.1- Introduction to Shinzwani Verbs_** to learn about how the conjugated verb is formed.
There is a different infix for each noun class. We recommend that beginners focus first on the object infixes for people, as these are very common.
The object infixes can be either direct or indirect objects (it depends on the verb), but you can only have one object infix at a time.
\*The 2nd person plural is an exception in that it has a combined infix and suffix. The suffix (-ni) will go at the very end of the conjugated verb.
Some verbs almost always have an object and so are rarely seen without an object infix. For example, the verb hu-ambia (to tell) or the verb hu-va (to give). Note that infix will often contract with verbs that begin with a vowel.
| Ri**mu**saidia | We helped her/him |
| --- | --- |
| Mutso**ri**va | Y'all will give us |
| A**n**ambia | He told me |
| Nisi**w**ambia | I am telling them |
| Tsi**shi**somo | I read it (the book) |
| Waye u**zi**renga | He takes them (things) |
Watso**mu**somesa**ni** They will teach y'all
Object Infixes with Commands (see lesson **_2.6- Imperative (Commands)_**) With a singular command (a command given to one person), the object infix goes at the beginning and the ending vowel changes to "-e". For all other command forms the infix is added before the verb stem with no additional changes.
| **Ni**saidie! | Help me! |
| --- | --- |
| Usi**m**tambishe! | Don't bother him/her! |
| **Wa**ve! | Give to them! |
| Nam**ya**hentsi! | Put them down! (cars) |
| **Zi**lishe! | Leave them! (things) |
| \*\***Ni**mba! | Give me! (\*\*Does not follow the normal pattern.) |
|
Noun Classes
|
Articles
|
There is no indefinite article in Shinzwani ("a" in English) but the definite article ("the") does exist for each noun class. The article is written as a prefix attached to the noun (as seen in the examples below).
The omission of the definite article gives the indefinite meaning. mwana a child umwana the child
Noun classes 17 and 18 do not take a definite article.
| **Noun Class** | **Definite Article** | **Example** |
| --- | --- | --- |
| M (1) | u- | umwana<br><br>_the child_ |
| WA (2) | u- | uwantru _the people_ |
| M (3) | u- | umwiri _the tree_ |
| MI (3) | i- | imihono _the arms/hands_ |
| DZI (5) | li- | lidzitso _the eye_ |
| MA- (6) | ya- | yamagari _the cars_ |
| SHI (7) | i- | ishiri<br><br>_the chair_ |
| ZI (8) | i- | iza _the fingers_ |
| N (9) | i- | inyombe _the cow_ |
| N (10) | zi- | zinyombe _the cows_ |
| U- (11) | u- | uuhura _the wall_ |
| Hu- (15) | i- | ihuja _the coming_ |
| Pvwa- (16) | u- | upvwahanu _the place_ |
|
Noun Classes
|
Demonstratives
|
There are two sets of demonstratives in English: this/these and that/those. In Shinzwani there are three sets. The near demonstrative (this/these) ends in -ni or -nu. The far demonstrative (that/those) ends in -le. The middle demonstrative is used to refer to an unseen objects or abstract concepts previously mentioned and/or objects at a middle distance. It doubles the noun class prefix and ends in an -o. It can be translated "that/those".
The demonstrative is placed after the noun it is modifying. Often the noun will also have the definite article prefix.
| **DEMONSTRATIVES** | | | | |
| --- | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **Noun Class** | **Near** | **Middle** | **Far** | **Example** |
| M (1) | unu | uwo | ule | umwana unu _this child_ |
| WA (2) | wanu | wawo | wale | uwantru wale<br><br>_those people_ |
| M (3) | unu | uwo | ule | umwiri uwo<br><br>_that tree_ |
| MI (4) | ini | iyo | ile | imihono ini<br><br>_these hands_ |
| DZI (5) | lini | lilo | lile | lidzitso lile _that eye_ |
| MA- (6) | yani | yayo | yale | yamagari yayo _those cars_ |
| SHI (7) | shini | shisho | shile | ishiri shini<br><br>_this chair_ |
| ZI (8) | zini | zizo | zile | iza zile<br><br>_those fingers_ |
| N (9) | ini | iyo | ile | inyombe iyo<br><br>_that cow_ |
| N (10) | zini | zizo | zile | zinyombe zini<br><br>_these cows_ |
| U- (11) | unu | uwo | ule | uuhura ule<br><br>_that wall_ |
| Pvwa-(16) | pvani | pvapvo | pvale | upvwahanu pvapvo _that place_ |
| \-ni/-ju (17) | hunu | hoho | hule | dagoni hunu _in this home_ |
| \-ni/-ju (18) | munu | momo | mule | malagoni mule<br><br>_in those homes_ |
|
Noun Classes
|
Adjectives/Numbers
|
Any description of a noun has to agree with the noun class-this is true for adjectives and numbers.
There are a handful of invariable adjectives and numbers that are the same for all noun classes. Some examples are the adjective _muhimu_ ("important") and the numbers: _sita, saba, shendra_ and _kumi_. But otherwise the adjective or number will change.
In general adjectives are placed after the noun that they are describing.
For example:
muntru mwema _a good person_ magari mararu _three cars_ shiri shizuri _a beautiful chair_ wantru shendra _nine people_
An adjective can be used as a noun but will still agree with the noun class of the object it is referring to.
ishema = _the good one_ (referring to a book) umwema = _the good one_ (referring to a child)
indjema = _the good one_ (referring to a school)
Here you will see some basic adjectives and numbers: -ema (good), -i (bad/ wicked), -titi (small), -libwavu (big), and -zuri (beautiful/nice).
| Exc | eptions |
| --- | --- |
| _first_ | \-a handra |
| _second_ | \-a pvili |
| _third_ | \-a raru |
| _fifth_ | \-a tsanu |
| **CONNECTORS (noun classes)** | | | | | | | | | | | |
| --- | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| M (1) | | | wa | | | ZI (8) | | | za | | |
| WA (2) | | | wa | | | N (9) | | | ya | | |
| M (3) | | | wa | | | N (10) | | | za | | |
| MI (4) | | | ya | | | U- (11) | | | wa | | |
| DZI (5) | | | la | | | Pvwa-(16) | | | pvwa | | |
| MA- (6) | | | ya | | | \-ni/-ju (17) | | | ha | | |
| SHI (7) | | | sha | | | \-ni/-ju (18) | | | mwa | | |
| **Possessive Suffixes (People are the possessors)** | | | | | | | | | | | |
| my | | | | \-ngu | | | our | | | \-tru | |
| your | | | | \-ho | | | y'all's | | | \-nyu | |
| his/her | | | | \-he | | | their | | | \-wo | |
| **Possessive Suffixes (Objects are the possessors)** | | | | | | | |
| M (3) | | \-wo | ZI (8) | | \-zo | | |
| MI (4) | | \-yo | N (9) | | \-yo | | |
| DZI (5) | | \-lo | N (10) | | \-zo | | |
| MA- (6) | | \-yo | U- (11) | | \-wo | | |
| SHI (7) | | \-sho | Pvwa-(16) | | \-pvo | | |
| **Noun Class** | | | **\-ema** | | **\-i** | | | **\-titi** | | | **\-libwavu** | | | **\-zuri** | | |
| 1- mwana | | | mwema | | mwi | | | mtiti | | | mlibwavu | | | mzuri | | |
| **Noun Class** | | | **\-ema** | | **\-i** | | | **\-titi** | | | **\-libwavu** | | | **\-zuri** | | |
| 2- wana | | | wema | | wii | | | watiti | | | walibwavu | | | wazuri | | |
| 3- mwiri | | | mwema | | mwi | | | mtiti | | | mlibwavu | | | mzuri | | |
| 4- miri | | | mema | | mii | | | mititi | | | milibwavu | | | mizuri | | |
| 5- gari | | | djema | | mbi | | | gatiti | | | dribwavu | | | dzuzuri | | |
| 6- magari | | | mema | | mii | | | matiti | | | malibwavu | | | mazuri | | |
| 7- shiri | | | shema | | shii | | | shititi | | | shilibwavu | | | shizuri | | |
| 8- ziri | | | zema | | zii | | | zititi | | | zilibwavu | | | zizuri | | |
| 9- nyumba | | | ndjema | | mbi | | | ngatiti | | | ndribwavu | | | ndzuzuri | | |
| 10- nyumba | | | ndjema | | mbi | | | ngatiti | | | ndribwavu | | | ndzuzuri | | |
You'll notice patterns that will help you predict how adjectives will change for other adjectives and numbers. In general the DZI (5) and N (9/10) classes tend to be the most difficult to guess unless you learn them first.
Here are some numbers/quantity for the different noun classes.
| **Noun Class** | **\-moja** | **\-engi** | **\-ili** | **\-raru** | **\-tsanu** |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1- mwana | umoja | (mwengi)\* | \------- | \------- | \------- |
| 2- wana | \------- | wengi | waili | wararu | watsanu |
| 3- mwiri | umoja | (mwengi)\* | \------- | \------- | \------- |
| 4- miri | \------- | mengi | mili | miraru | mitsanu |
| 5- gari | moja | (djengi)\* | \------- | \------- | \------- |
| 6- magari | \------- | mengi | maili | mararu | matsanu |
| 7- shiri | shimoja | (shengi)\* | \------- | \------- | \------- |
| 8- ziri | \------- | zengi | zili | ziraru | zitsanu |
| 9- nyumba | moja | (nyengi)\* | \------- | \------- | \------- |
| 10- nyumba | \------- | nyengi | mbili | ntraru | ntsanu |
| 16- pvwahanu | pvwamoja | pvwengi | pvwaili | pvwararu | pvwatsanu |
\*You'll notice that "one" only exists for the singular noun classes and likewise all the others only exist in the plural. The one exception is the word -engi (a lot of)- this mainly exists for the plural noun classes but is also used with uncountable nouns (that are sometimes in "singular" noun classes. For example: _shahula shengi_ (a lot of food).
Don't forget to drill noun classes with a person who can correct you.
**ORDINAL NUMBERS**
To express ordinal numbers you use the noun class connector (see chart in lesson **_3.6- Possessives_** for these connectors). Usually the connector is followed by the base number (see lesson **_1.2- Numbers_**), but the exceptions are listed here. For example, _umwana wa saba_ (the seventh child).
Just to clarify the difference: uwana waili the two children umwana wa pvili the second child
yamagari mararu the three cars ligari la raru the third car
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Noun Classes
|
Possessives
|
There are two ways to communicate possession of an object. The first way is by connecting an object with the possessor (the person's name if it is a person) using the Shinzwani equivalent of "of". These same connectors can also be combined with the appropriate possessive pronoun suffixes to communicate possession.
Examples with a connector and a name:
Megan's child umwana wa Megan
Tom's car ligari la Tom
Salim's chairs Iziri za Salim
David's book Ishio sha David
Examples with a connector and possessive suffix:
My child umwana wangu
His car ligari lahe
Their chairs I ziri zawo
Our book Ishio shatru
The locational connector "ha" can be used without a preceding noun with the assumed meaning of someone's home or place. hangu my home haho your home
**For beginners we recommend just focusing on the possessive pronouns where people are the possessors since these are by far the most common.**
But there are situations that you may want to use a possessive pronoun for an object, the equivalent of "its".
umlongo wa ligari _the door of the car_ umlongo walo _its door_
imindru ya imbuzi _the legs of the goat_
imindru yayo _its legs_
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Noun Classes
|
Verb Conjugations
|
Now we will look at using the different noun classes as the subject of sentences. The first two classes are review from **_Chapter 2: Basic Verb Tenses_**.
| **NC** | **How many?** |
| --- | --- |
| 2 | wangapvi? |
| 4 | mingapvi? |
| 6 | yangapvi? |
| 8 | zingapvi? |
| 10 | ngapvi? |
| 16 | pvwangapvi? |
The basic rules for forming the different verb tenses still hold. The only real change is a new group of subject prefixes to learn and new subject pronouns for use especially in the Simple Present (see lesson **_2.5- Simple Present_**). The subject prefix is what is added to the verb to make a noun from that class the subject. (See lesson **_2.1- Introduction to Shinzwani_** **_Verbs_** to review the basic structure of verbs.) The subject pronoun for the object is expressed by "it" or "they" in English.
| | **Subject Prefix** | | **Subject Pronoun** |
| --- | --- | | --- | --- |
| **Noun Class** | **Positive** | **Negative** | |
| M- (1) | a- | ka- | waye |
| WA- (2) | wa- | kawa- | wawo |
| M- (3) | u | kau- | uwo |
| MI- (4) | i | kai- | uyo |
| DZI- (5) | li- | kali- | ulo |
| MA- (6) | ya- | kaya- | uyo |
| SHI- (7) | shi- | kashi- | usho |
| ZI- (8) | zi- | kazi- | uzo |
| N- (sing) (9) | i- | kai- | uyo |
| N- (plural) (10) | zi- | kazi- | uzo |
| U- (11) | u- | kau- | uwo |
We recommend that you choose a tense from chapter 2 and practice creating the tense with the subject prefixes for the different noun classes.
Here is a reminder of how each tense is formed and two examples of phrases in all the tenses:
Present Continuous= Subject Prefix + SI + verb stem
- The car is going. **Ligari lisendra.** (li + si + endra)
- The car isn't going. **Ligari kalisendra**. (kali + si + endra)
- The books are being read. **Izio zisisomwa**. (zi + si + somwa)
- The books aren't being read. **Izio kazisisomwa**. (kazi + si + somwa)
| **NC** | **Which?** |
| --- | --- |
| 1 | upvi? |
| 2 | wapvi? |
| 3 | upvi? |
| 4 | ipvi? |
| 5 | lipvi? |
| 6 | yapvi? |
| 7 | shipvi? |
| 8 | zipvi? |
| 9 | ipvi? |
| 10 | zipvi? |
| 11 | upvi? |
| 16,17,18 | hapvi? |
Simple Future= Subject Prefix + TSO + verb stem
- The car will go. Ligari litsoendra. (li + tso + endra)
- The car will not go. Ligari kalitsoendra. (kali + tso + endra)
- The books will be read. Izio zitsosomwa. (zi + tso + somwa)
- The books will not be read. Izio kazitsosomwa. (kazi + tso + somwa)
Imperfect = Subject Prefix + AKO + verb stem
- The car was going. Ligari lakoendra. (li + ako
\+ endra)
- The car was not going. Ligari kalakoendra. (kali + ako + endra)
- The books were being read. Izio zakosomwa.
(zi + ako + somwa)
- The books were not being read. Izio kazakosomwa. (kazi + ako + somwa)
For the remaining tenses, the positive and negative are formed differently from each other so the positive and negative are listed separately.
Simple Past Positive= Positive Subject Prefix + verb stem (with vowel harmony)
- The car went. Ligari lendre. (li + endr + e)
- The books were read. Izio zisomwa. (zi + somwa\*)
\*verb family derivatives usually don't do vowel harmony. This is the passive of _usoma_, to read.
Simple Past Negative= Negative Subject Prefix + A + verb stem
- The car did not go. Ligari kalaendra. (kali + a+ endra)
- The books were not read. Izio kazasomwa. (kazi + a + somwa)
Simple Present Positive= Subject Pronoun + Infinitive verb - The car goes. (Ligari) ulo uendra.
- The books are read. Izio uzo usomwa.
Simple Present Neg.= Neg. prefix + verb stem (w/ vowel harmony)
- The car does not go. Ligari kalendre. (kali + endr + e) - The books are not read. Izio kazisomwa.
**NOUN CLASSES & THE VERB "TO-BE"**
The following table shows the conjugations for the verb hu-ka ("to be") in present, past and future in both positive and negative for the various noun classes. (See lesson **_1.7- To Be/To have (hu-ka)_** for an introduction to the verb "to be".)
| **Person\*** | **\-ontsi** |
| --- | --- |
| 1st Plural | sontsi<br><br>"all of us" |
| 2nd plural | montsi<br><br>"all y'all" |
Remember you need the past form of "to be" to form the past perfect (see lesson **_2.8- Past Perfect_**).
| **NC** | | **\-ontsi** | |
| --- | | --- | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | | wontsi | |
| 2 | | wontsi | |
| 3 | | wontsi | |
| 4 | | yontsi | |
| 5 | | lontsi | |
| 6 | | yontsi | |
| 7 | | shontsi | |
| 8 | | zontsi | |
| 9 | | yontsi | |
| 10 | | zontsi | |
| 11 | | wontsi | |
| 16 | | pvontsi | |
| **Noun Class** | **Present** | | **Past** | | | **Future** | | |
| M- (1) | a | kasi | aka | kaka | | atsoka | | katsoka |
| WA- (2) | wa | kawasi | waka | kawaka | | watsoka | | kawatsoka |
| M- (3) | wa | kausi | uka | kawaka | | utsoka | | kautsoka |
| MI- (4) | ya | kaisi | ika | kayaka | | itsoka | | kaitsoka |
| DZI- (5) | la | kalisi | lika | kalaka | | litsoka | | kalitsoka |
| MA- (6) | ya | kayasi | yaka | kayaka | | yatsoka | | kayatsoka |
| SHI- (7) | sha | kashisi | shika | kashaka | | shitsoka | | kashitsoka |
| ZI- (8) | za | kazisi | zika | kazaka | | zitsoka | | kazitsoka |
| N- (sing) (9) | ya | kaisi | ika | kayaka | | itsoka | | kaitsoka |
| N- (plural) (10) | za | kazisi | zika | kazaka | | zitsoka | | kazitsoka |
| U- (11) | wa | kausi | uka | kawaka | | utsoka | | kautsoka |
Past Perfect Positive = Past "to be" + Simple Past Positive Verb - The car had gone. Ligari lika lendre.
- The books had been read. Izio zika zisomwa.
Past Perfect Negative = Neg. Past "to be" + Pos. subj. prefix + A + verb stem - The car had not gone. Ligari kalaka laendra.
- The books had not been read. Izio kazaka zasomwa.
Note: When different noun classes are the subject of verbs you may often use the passive derivative. (See lesson **_4.6- Passive_**)
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Noun Classes
|
How many? (-ngapvi?)
|
In Shinzwani, the question word for asking "how many?" is noun class specific.
The root is -ngapvi. (For the rest of the question words, see lesson **_1.4- Question Words_** and lesson **_3.9- Which one? (-pvi?)_**)
The construction takes the expected noun class prefixes and will change with whatever object is being counted. This only exists for the plural noun classes as they are the only ones that require counting.
We have heard some variants, including mengapvi, mangapvi, and zangapvi. Fortunately the ending is distinct so that the meaning is always clear.
These questions can stand by themselves with just a single noun, or with a phrase. Depending on how you phrase the question it may take the relative (see **_Chapter Eight: Relatives_**).
Wana wangapvi? _How many children?_
Una wana wangapvi? _How many children do you have?_
Mutsosoma zio zingapvi? _How many books will y'all read?_
Usitsaha kilo ngapvi ya sukari? _How many kilos of sugar do you want?_ Kilo ngapvi ɗe utsahao? _How may kilos do you want?_
Remember that to answer these questions correctly you will need to use the correct forms of the numbers (to see how to conjugate the numbers for the noun classes see lesson **_3.5- Adjectives/Numbers_**).
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Noun Classes
|
Which One? (-pvi?)
|
In Shinzwani, the question word for asking "which one?" is noun class specific. The root is -pvi. For the rest of the question words, see lesson **_1.4- Question Words_** and the previous lesson **_3.8- How many? (-ngapvi?)_**.
The construction takes the expected noun class prefixes.
| **NC** | **Object Suffix** |
| --- | --- |
| 1 | \-ye |
| 2 | \-wo |
| 3 | \-wo |
| 4 | \-yo |
| 5 | \-lo |
| 6 | \-yo |
| 7 | \-sho |
| 8 | \-zo |
| 9 | \-yo |
| 10 | \-zo |
| 11 | \-wo |
| 16,17,18 | \-pvo |
You'll notice that for the locational noun classes (16,17,18) the question is "hapvi?", meaning literally "which place?" or "where?".
In context, the question can stand by itself or with a single noun.
_Upvi? Which one?_
_Umwana upvi? Which child?_
But when forming complete sentences, people often use ɗe. (For more on ɗe and its uses see lesson **_8.9- Relatives & Emphasis with_ ɗe**_)_ _Umwana waho_ ɗ_e upvi? Which child is yours?_
_Uwana waho_ ɗ_e wapvi?_
_Which children are yours?_
This is also chance to use relatives. For more about relatives see **_Chapter Eight: Relatives_**.
_Shio wasoma_ ɗ_e shipvi? Which one is the book you read?_
_Shio shipvi_ ɗ_e wasoma? Which book did you read?_
_Mhare mwafanya_ ɗ_e upvi? Which treat did y'all make?_
_Mhare upvi_ ɗ_e mwafanya? Which is the treat that y'all made?_
Often people answer to -pvi questions by using the presentative (see lesson **_3.11- Presentative (Here it is!)_**).
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Noun Classes
|
All of Them, Any of Them (-ontsi)
|
There is an adjective in Shinzwani that can be translated either "all of them",
"any of them", "whichever", or "whoever" (depending on the context). The root of this adjective is -ontsi and it will match with whichever noun class it is used. Knowing the intended meaning will usually be obvious from context.
Uwana wontsi walawa. _All of the children left._
Zinyombe zontsi zendre malavuni_. All of the cows went to the fields._
For singular nouns the sense can be "all of it" or "the entirety".
Lidzia lontsi litria mezaju.
_All the milk spilled on the table._
Ritsosoma ishio shontsi.
_We will read the whole book._
Watembea mujini pvontsi.
_They walked in the whole town._
But generally the singular will be used to express "any" or "whichever", or "no matter which".
Nitsorenga yontsi watsonimbao.
_I will take whichever you give me._
Itsokao yontsi.
_Whichever it will be._
This adjective is sometimes used in combination with _pia_ (all) to really emphasize the sense of "all of them/it".
Ali shahula shontsi pia. _He ate ALL the food._
Sontsi pia ritsoja.
_ALL of us will come._
\* Remember that the 3rd person will be noun classes 1 and 2.
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Noun Classes
|
Presentative ("Here it is!")
|
In Shinzwani, there is a special phrase for saying: "Here it is!" It is used for both objects and people and will change with the different noun classes. In general this is formed with the prefix tsa- followed by the pronoun.
In 1<sup>st</sup> and 2<sup>nd</sup> person there are only the singular and plural forms:
| | **Singular** | **Plural** |
| --- | --- | --- |
| **1<sup>st</sup> person** | **Tsami!** _(Here I am!)_ | **Tsasi!** _(Here we are!)_ |
| **2<sup>nd</sup> person** | **Tsawe!** _(Here you are!/ There you are!)_ | **Tsanyu!** _(Here y'all are! There y'all are!)_ |
With 3<sup>rd</sup> person and the other noun classes (NC), you can add tsa- to any of the three demonstrative pronouns: near, middle, far distances (see lesson **_3.4-Demonstratives_**).
| **NC** | **Near** | **Middle** | **Far** |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | tsuwani | tsuwo/tsiwo | tsule |
| 2 | tsawani | tsawo | tsawale |
| 3 | tsuwani | tsuwo/tsiwo | tsule |
| 4 | tsiyani | tsiyo | tsiile |
| 5 | tsilani | tsilo | tsilile |
| 6 | tsayani | tsayo | tsayale |
| 7 | tsishani | tsisho | tsishile |
| 8 | tsizani | tsizo | tsizile |
| 9 | tsiyani | tsuwo/tsiwo | tsiile |
| 10 | tsizani | tsizo | tsizile |
| 11 | tsuwani | tsawo | tsule |
You will notice that there are contractions with the _tsa_ and those demonstratives that begin with a vowel (tsa + ule = tsule). There is also vowel switching in the near pronouns, where the "a" of _tsa_ will switch places with the vowel of the pronoun (tsa + zini = tsizani), so that all the near presentatives end in -ani.
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Noun Classes
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Locative Suffixes (-ni & -juu)
|
There are two suffixes that can be added to nouns to make them "locational". Once these suffixes are added the noun will no longer be in its original noun class but will be part of the locational noun classes 17 (singular) and 18 (plural). See lesson **_3.1- Introduction to Noun Classes_**.
The first is -**NI**. Your house as a thing is dago, but your home as a location or place is dagoni "in/at home".
The second suffix is **\-JUU**. It is more prepositional and can mean "above", "on top of", "on", "in" or even just "near". In some cases it can mean the "upper one".
With the verb "to be" (_hu-ka_) and "to go" (_hu-endra_) we use these locational nouns. So you do not say, _T~~sa dago~~_ but you say _Tsa dagoni_- "I'm home". You don't say, _~~Nisendra hazi~~_ but _Nisendra hazini_- "I'm going to work or the workplace."
Here are some examples: mwiri "_tree_" --> mwirini "_in a tree_" bazari "_market_" --> bazarini "_at the market_" mimba "_stomach_" --> mimbani "_in the stomach/womb_" meza "_table_" --> mezajuu "_on the table_" mwiri "_tree_" --> mwirijuu "_on the tree or upper tree_"
Wasendra arusini. _They are going to a wedding. ("wedding place")_ Asikodza mimbani. _He's sick in his stomach._
Kadza kofia shitswani. _Put a kofia on your head._
Wahentsi izio mezajuu. _They put the books on the table._
Tsina taabu mengoni. _I have a problem in my back._
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Noun Classes
|
Second Object Suffix
|
In lesson **_3.2- Object Infixes_** we learned about how object pronouns are communicated in Shinzwani using infixes. Only one object infix is allowed at a time, but a few verbs can take more than one object. In this case, the second object can be expressed with an object suffix. This suffix is noun class specific.
Remember that object infixes are for both indirect and direct objects. If you have a verb with two objects and one is a person, then the person will always get the infix slot and the other noun will use the suffix.
The most common verb for taking two objects is _hu-pva_ (to give) because you always give **something** to **someone**. So the someone will be the object infix and the something will be the suffix.
Wakana zio zengi. Wa**ri**pva**zo**.
_They had lots of books. They gave them to us._
The -ri- infix is the "to us" and the -zo suffix is the "them" referring to the books.
Ligari la hapvi? Ahmed a**wa**pvalo.
_Where is the car? Ahmed gave it to them._
The -wa- infix is the "to them" and the -lo suffix is "it" referring to the car.
Remember that the suffix is only used if both objects are using pronouns. If either are stated then the suffix is not necessary.
Wa**m**pva izio. _They gave her the books._
Wa**zi**va Fatima. _They gave them to Fatima._ Wa**m**pva**zo**. _They gave them to her._
Prepositional verbs can often take two objects (see lesson **_4.2-Prepositional_**).
Zio za hapvi? Tsizani! Utso**ri**somea**zo**.
_Where are the books? Here they are. You will read them to us._
Yamagari yaho yahibwa. Muntru a**hu**hibia**yo**.
_Your cars were stolen. Someone stole them from you._
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Verb Families
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Introduction to Verb Families
|
Various verbs can be derived from a single root verb. These verbs form a family of verbs with a common root meaning. By learning how to form and recognize the different members of the verb families, you will quickly multiply your verb vocabulary. The few Shinzwani dictionaries in existence will usually list all the derived verbs under the one root verb. Hopefully, these following lessons will allow you to take a derived verb and figure out what the root is (so you can look it up in the dictionary).
Here are two examples of a verb families:
| | **U-FANYA Family of Verbs** | |
| --- | --- | | --- |
| Root Verb | u-fanya | _to do_ |
| Prepositional | u-fanyia | _to do for someone_ |
| Causative | u-fanyisa | _to cause to do_ |
| Stative | u-fanyishiha | _to be doable_ |
| Passive | u-fanyiwa | _to be done_ |
| Causative & Passive | u-fanyisiwa | _to be caused/made to do_ |
| | **U-SOMA Family of Verbs** | |
| Root Verb | u-soma | _to read_ |
| Prepositional | u-somea | _to read to someone_ |
| Causative | u-somesa | _to teach_ |
| Reciprocal | u-somesana | _to teach each other_ |
| Stative | u-someha | _to be readable/legible_ |
| Passive | u-somwa | _to be read/studied_ |
| Causative & Passive | u-somesewa | _to be taught_ |
In the following lessons, we will look at one derivative at a time. But it is possible to combine more than one derivative in one verb, though dictionaries don't tend to list all the combinations. For example, the "u-soma" family could also include _u-someana_ ("to read to each other", prepositional and reciprocal) or _u-somewa_ ("to be read to", prepositional and passive).
Caution: Knowing about verb families is most helpful for recognizing verbs and understanding their meanings. Not every root verb will exist in all the derivatives, some derivatives or combinations will not make sense and/or just aren't used.
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Verb Families
|
Prepositional
|
The first member of the verb families that we will look at is the prepositional form. In English, this derivative is usually formed with a connecting preposition. In Shinzwani, the verb itself is changed to make it prepositional. These verbs generally take an object infix (see lesson **_3.2- Object Infixes_**).
FORMING THE PREPOSITIONAL: The most common way that a root verb is made prepositional is by inserting an "i" or "e" before the final vowel, but there are variations depending on the verb in question. Here are some general rules:
A.If the previous vowel is "a", "i", or "u" then add "i" :
hu-fanya (_to do_) hu-fanyia mntru (_to do for someone_) hu-lipva (_to pay_) hu-lipvia mntru (_to pay for someone_) hu-iba (_to steal_) hu-hibia mntru (_to steal from someone_) hu-hundza (_to sweep_) hu-hundzia mntru (_to sweep for someone_)
hu-lala (_to sleep_) hu-lalia mntru/pvwahanu (_to sleep with someone/_ _to sleep somewhere_)
- If the previous vowel is "o" or "e" then add "e":
hu-soma (_to read_) hu-somea mntru (_to read to someone_) hu-renga (_to take_) hu-rengea mntru (_to take for someone_) hu-shona (_to sow_) hu-shonea mntru (_to sow for someone_)
- If the verb ends in double vowels (-ua, -ia, -oa, -ea, -aya, -awa) then add "-li-" or "-le-" between the vowels:
| hu-fua (_to wash_) | hu-fulia mntru (_to wash clothes for someone_) |
| --- | --- |
| hu-mia (_to pray_) | hu-milia mntru (_to pray for someone_) |
| hu-rongoa (_to speak_) | hu-rongolea mntru (_to speak for someone_) |
| hu-baya (_to close_) | hu-balia mntru (_to close for someone_) |
| hu-nunua (_to buy_) | hu-nunulia mntru (_to buy for someone_) |
- If the verb ends in "-ha" change the ending to "-shea" or -shia":
hu-piha (_to cook_) hu-pishia mntru (_to cook for someone_) hu-pveleha (_to send_) hu-pveleshea mntru (_to send to someone_) hu-tseha (_to laugh_) hu-tseshea mntru (_to laugh at someone_)
- Monosyllabic verbs always need special attention. Look at the following:
hu-la (_to eat_) hu-lia mntru (_to eat for someone_) hu-nwa (_to drink_) - hu-nwea mntru (_to drink for someone_)
hu-fa _(to die_) hu-fia pvwahanu/muntru (_to die somewhere /_
_to die to someone ("leave someone behind")_)
- For verbs ending in -i or -u (from the Arabic), end with -ia:
hu-adjiri (_to rent_) - hu-adjiria (_to rent for someone_) hu-djibu (_to respond_) hu-djibia (_to respond for someone_) hu-salimu (_to greet_) hu-salimia (_to greet for someone_)
- Some verbs are permanently prepositional or we do not see them in their base form.
| hu-angalia | _to look at someone / something_ |
| --- | --- |
| hu-laulia | _to taste / to visit someone_ |
| hu-saidia | _to help someone_ |
| hu-ambia | _to tell someone_ (other dialects use _hu-amba_ to speak) |
| hu-ria | _to be afraid of something_ (other dialects use root form _hu-ra_) |
WARNING: There may be exceptions and sometimes a derivative form (like the prepositional) can have a very different meaning or connotation from the base verb, so be careful.
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Verb Families
|
Causative
|
The next derivative is the causative. Most of the time, the causative expresses the idea of causing or making an action happen. There are fewer clear cut rules for forming the causative, but there are patterns. In general an "s", "sh" or "z/dz" is added to the end of the verb.
- Many verbs will end with -dza or -za in the causative. The "dz/z" is either inserted between vowels or actually replaces the last consonant.
| hu-loa | _to be wet_ | hu-lodza | _to make wet_ |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| hu-lia | _to cry_ | hu-lidza | _to make cry_ |
| hu-lala | _to lie down_ | hu-ladza | _to lay someone down_ |
| hu-elewa | _to understand_ | hu-eledza | _to explain_ |
| hu-jaya | _to be filled_ | hu-jadza | _to fill / cause to fill_ |
| hu-lemewa | _to be tired_ | hu-lemedza | _to tire / bother / bore_ |
| hu-rongoa | _to speak_ | hu-rongodza | _to talk to/address_ |
| hu-hea | _to climb_ | hu-hedza | _to raise/lift; to sing_ |
| hu-jipviwa | _to be pleased_ | hu-jipvidza | _to please someone_ |
| hu-tembea | _to walk around_ | hu-tembeza | _to take something around_ |
| hu-lola | _to marry_ | hu-lodza | _to give in marriage_ |
| hu-ela | _to swim/bathe_ | hu-edza | _to give a bath / bathe_ |
| hu-hima | _to get up_ | hu-midza | _to awaken / to lift_ |
- A few verbs insert -idz- instead of just -dz-.
hu-jua _to know_ hu-jidza _to inform_
hu-shanga _to be surprised_ hu-shangidza _to surprise / startle_ hu-nahana _to remember_ hu-nahanidza _to remind_
- Some verbs end with -esa or -isa in the causative.
| hu-soma _to read/study_ hu-somesa | _to teach_ |
| --- | --- |
| hu-endra _to go_ hu-endresa | _to drive_ |
| hu-ona _to see_ hu-onesa | _to show_ |
| hu-uma _to be dry_ hu-umisa | _to make dry_ |
| hu-homa _to be late_ hu-homesa | _to make late_ |
| hu-tseha _to laugh_ hu-tsesa | _to make laugh/ be funny_ |
| hu-fanya _to do_ hu-fanyisa | _to cause to do_ |
| hu-mira _to be pregnant_ hu-mirisa | _to make pregnant_ |
| hu-pindra _to get dressed_ hu-pindrisa D. Monosyllabic verbs are unique: | _to dress someone_ |
| hu-la _to eat_ hu-lisa | _to feed_ |
| hu-nwa _to drink_ hu-nosa | _to cause to drink_ |
| hu-wa _to fall_ hu-usa | _to make fall_ |
- Several verbs ending change to -isha in the causative (mostly Arabic origin nouns or verbs):
| Fahamu! | _Be careful!_ | hu-fahamisha | _to warn_ |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| bahati | _luck_ | hu-bahatisha | _to try your luck/risk_ |
| hakika | _certainty_ | hu-hakikisha | _to prove_ |
| taâbu | _trouble_ | hu-taâbisha | _to trouble / bother_ |
| karibu | _welcome_ | hu-karibisha | _to welcome someone_ |
| hu-twali | _to study_ | hu-twalisha | _to tutor_ |
| hu-lazimu | _obligation_ | hu-lazimisha | _to compel / command_ |
- Then of course, there are the verbs that don't fit into the previous groups. These are a few examples:
| hu-amwa | _to suckle_ | hu-amusa | _to breast-feed_ (mother) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| hu-rahara | _to be clean_ | hu-rahatsa | _to clean_ |
| hu-shuka | _to go down_ | hu-shusha | _to make go down_ |
|
Verb Families
|
Reciprocal
|
The reciprocal derivative refers to an action done reciprocally, or done "to one another". It is formed by adding an "-ana" suffix to the end of the verb. This usually does not require a change to the rest of the verb. While often not listed in dictionaries, it is often easily formed for any action that people can conceivably do to one another.
| Here are various examples: | |
| --- | | --- |
| hu-pvendza (_to love_) | hu-pvendzana (_to love each other_) |
| hu-rema (_to hit_) | hu-remana (_to criticize/hit each other_) |
| hu-ona (_to see_) | hu-onana (_to see each other_) |
| hu-lawa (_to leave_) | hu-lawana (_to leave each other/divorce_) |
| hu-pva (_to give_) | hu-pvana (_to give each other_) |
| hu-lindra (_to wait_) | hu-lindrana (_to wait for each other_) |
| hu-dunga (_to follow_) | hu-dungana/dungamana (_to go together_) |
| hu-vulishia (_to listen_) | hu-vulishiana (_to listen to each other_) |
| hu-rongodza (_to talk to_) | hu-rongodzana (_to address each other_) |
| hu-somesa (_to teach_) | hu-somesana (_to teach each other_) |
| hu-saidia (_to help_) | hu-saidiana (_to help each other_) |
hu-amini (_to trust/believe_) hu-aminiana (_to trust each other_)
| hu-ɓusu (_to kiss_) | hu-ɓusana (_to kiss each other_) |
| --- | --- |
| hu-djibu (_to answer_) | hu-djibiana (_to answer each other_) |
| hu-kiri (_to function_) | hu-kiriana (_to get along_) |
| hu-fikiri (_to think_) | hu-fikiriana (_to be considerate to each other_) |
|
Verb Families
|
Stative
|
The stative derivative refers to the state of being. It can sometimes be similar in meaning to the passive but without indicating how it got into that state.
While other verbs can have a stative meaning, the classic stative form ends in -ha. Most often this form is used in the simple past tense to refer to the current state of being. It could be translated in English various ways: _The window is broken. The window has become broken. The window is in a state of brokenness._ For example, "ligari limenyeha" means "the car is broken/run down". The verb (limenyeha) is in the simple past but it represents a present tense reality (the car's brokenness).
Stative verbs can also be used in the simple present tense, in which case the meaning is that they are able to be in that state. Example: _Zinguo uzo ufuliha_ (the clothes are washable). This is contrast with _Zinguo zifuliha_ (the clothes are washed).
- Often the ending is -iha:
| hu fanya (_to do_) | hu-fanyiha/fanyishiha (_to be done_) |
| --- | --- |
| hu-funga (_to tie_) | hu-fungiha (_to be tied/attached_) |
| hu-piha (_to cook_) | hu-pishiha (_to be cooked/prepared/cookable_) |
| hu-baya (_to close_) | hu-baliha (_to be closed/closable_) |
| hu-fua (_to wash clothes_) | hu-fuliha (_to be washed/washable_) |
| hu-bua (_to open_) | hu-buliha (_to be open/openable_) |
| hu-la (_to eat_) | hu-liha (_to be eaten/edible_) |
| hu-tra (_to tip/spill_) | hu-triha (_to be spilled/tipped over/spillable_) |
| hu-pvundza (_to break_) | hu-pvundziha (_to be broken/breakable_) |
| hu-danganya (_to trick_) | hu-danganyiha (_to be mistaken_) |
| hu-kantra (_to cut/divide_) | hu-kantriha (_to be cut/slaughtered_) |
| hu-taâmbisha (_to bother_) | hu-taâmbiha (_to be bothered_) |
- Sometimes the ending is -eha:
hu-pvera (_to fold_) hu-pvereha (_to be folded/foldable_) hu-soma(_to read/study_) hu-someha (_to be legible/readable_) hu-osa (_to clean_) hu-oseha (_to be clean/cleanable_) hu-menya (_to ruin/break_) hu-menyeha (_to be ruined_) hu-ona (_to see_) hu-oneha (_to be seen/visible_) C. Sometimes it will be -oha or -uha:
| hu-okoa (_to save_) | hu-okoha (_to be saved/saveable_) |
| --- | --- |
| hu-pvungua (_to reduce_) | hu-pvunguha (_to be reduced/reducible_) |
| hu-randrua (_to tear/rip_) | hu-randruha (_to be ripped/torn_) |
| hu-pasua (_to break_) | hu-pasuha (_to be broken/burst/breakable_) |
|
Verb Families
|
Passive
|
The passive derivative of the verb is used to describe action done to the subject by someone/something else. For example: "_I was hit by him"_ is an example of a passive statement. In Shinzwani, passive verbs end in -wa and are formed in different ways. Here are some basic patterns: (though there are sure to be exceptions)
- Many verbs insert a "w" before the final "a". While a few verbs add an extra "i" giving an -iwa ending, this appears to be less common in Shinzwani than in other dialects.
| hu-rema | _to hit_ | | hu-remwa | _to be hit_ |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| hu-angiha | _to write_ | | hu-angihwa | _to be written_ |
| hu-funga | _to tie_ | | hu-fungwa | _to be tied/in prison_ |
| hu-soma | _to read_ | | hu-somwa | _to be read_ |
| hu-piha | _to cook_ | | hu-pihwa | _to be cooked_ |
| hu-ira | _to call_ | | hu-iriwa | _to be called_ |
- Verbs that end in a double vowel will usually end in -lwa.
hu-jua _to know_ hu-julwa _to be known_ hu-fua _to wash clothes_ hu-fulwa _to be washed_ hu-toa _to take away_ hu-tolwa _to be taken away_
- Verbs that end in -i or -u (usually of Arabic origin) are different. The -i verbs will add the -wa, giving a -iwa ending. The -u verbs will add a -lwa, giving a -ulwa ending.
| hu-badili | _to change_ | hu-badiliwa | _to be changed_ |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| hu-adjiri | _to rent_ | hu-adjiriwa | _to be rented_ |
| hu-djibu | _to answer_ | hu-djibulwa | _to be answered_ |
| hu-hukumu | _to judge_ | hu-hukumulwa | _to be judged_ |
Expressing the Agent
In Shinzwani, it is not required to say who did the action when you use a passive, but it can be expressed after the verb with the connector "na".
Na in this context means "by".
Tsiremwa na gari. _I was hit by a car._
Ishio shangihwa na Ibrahim_. The book was written by Ibrahim_
|
Verb Infixes
|
Introduction to Verb Infixes
|
Please see lesson **_2.1- Introduction to Shinzwani Verbs_** to get an overview of how verbs are formed in Shinzwani. Infixes play a major role in this language. There are the tense infixes that help mark what tense is being used. There are also object infixes (see lesson **_3.2-Object infixes_**) that communicate both direct and indirect objects.
Then there are verb infixes. Verb infixes go directly before the object infix (if there is one) but after the tense infix.
Verb infixes affect the meaning of the root verb (like the verb derivatives do, see **_Chapter Four: Verb Families_**). Verbs will still take tense infixes. Most often these verb infixes change the frequency or nature of the action, as you will see in the following lessons.
A verb can take more than one verb infix at a time. The order of the two infixes will depend on the situation.
|
Verb Infixes
|
Reflexive Infix (-dji-)
|
This first verb infix makes the meaning of the verb reflexive, that means the action is being done by the subject, to the subject. You simply add the infix, **\-dji-**.
Tsisomesa. I taught.
Tsidjisomesa. I taught myself.
Asirema. He is hitting.
Asidjirema. He is hitting himself.
Note: In order to use the -dji- infix, the verb needs to being able to accept as the object and still make sense. This may mean that the verb needs to be in the prepositional form (see lesson **_4.2-Prepositional_**).
For example, "you read a book" but you don't "read yourself", so you wouldn't want to use -dji- with the verb hu-soma (to read). Instead you would want to use the prepositional verb hu-somea (to read to). This same principle can be seen with other verbs.
Watsodjisomea. They will read to themselves.
Mwadjipishia. Y'all cooked for yourselves.
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Verb Infixes
|
Ever/Never Infix (-paro-)
|
The -**paro**\- infix gives the sense of having done something at least one time. In English this is usually translated as "ever" (in the positive) or "never" (in the negative). It is most consistently used with the past relative form (see **_lesson 8.2- Simple Past Relatives_**), but we have heard it used with other tenses as well.
Mwaparosoma ishio shini? Have y'all ever read this book?
Aparoheya mnadzi He has climbed a palm tree before.
Tsaparoendra Mwali. I have never gone to Moheli.
Karaparopiha mataba. We have never cooked cassava leaves.
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Verb Infixes
|
Other Verb Infixes (-jo-, -mo-, -lo-, -ndro, -ondro)
|
| **Verb Infix** | **Meaning** | **When Used** | **Example** |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **\-jo-** | "coming to"/<br><br>"about to" | With present continuous and imperfect tenses | _Asijofanya_<br><br>He is coming to do |
| **\-hi-** | "if/when" | Known as conditional infix\* | Ahija….<br><br>If/when he comes… |
| **\-himo-** | "each/every time" | A variant of the -hi- (conditional infix)\* | _Wahimoendra_…<br><br>Every time you go… |
| **\-lo-** | "to have gone with the intention to" | With simple past | _Rilofanya_<br><br>We went to do. |
| **\-ndro-** | "to beginning to" | Often with the exclamation "Fahamu" followed by past relative | _Fahamu wandropuha!_<br><br>Careful, you are beginning to fall! |
| **\-ondro-** | "going to do" | With present continuous, imperfect and future | _Nakondrofanya_.<br><br>We were going to do. |
\* To learn more about -hi- infix see lesson **_9.3- Conditional Phrases with -hi- verb infix_**
This is a very brief treatment of these infixes. There is more to learn about them. We know that many of them can be used in combination together. They may be used in more ways than we've listed. Have fun learning more from your Anjouani friends and neighbors.
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Subjunctive
|
Introduction to Subjunctive
|
The subjunctive can be used to express desire, suggestion, purpose, obligation, preference, indirect commands and reported speech. The subjunctive is most often used in conjunction with another verb or connector, but on certain occasions it can be used by itself.
In the following lessons we will look at some of the constructions that use subjunctive. In **_Chapter Seven: Two-Verb Phrases,_** we will explain several two-verb constructions, where many times the second verb is in the subjunctive.
The subjunctive is formed with the normal subject prefixes, but for verbs that ends in "a" this final vowel will change to "e". This will apply to a majority of verbs, but verbs that end in "i" or "u" won't usually change their last letter.
The negative subjunctive is formed like the positive subjunctive but with an added infix of "-si-". You will notice that the second person negative subjunctive is the same as negative commands. See lesson **_2.6- Imperative (Commands)_**. These two forms are clearly related.
| **Positive Subjunctive** | | **Negative Subjunctive** | |
| --- | | --- | | --- | --- |
| **Prefix** | **Example** | **Prefix** | **Example** |
| **NI-E** | nifanye | **TSISI-E** | tsisifanye |
| **U-E** | ufanye | **USI-E** | usifanye |
| **A-E** | afanye | **ASI-E** | asifanye |
| **RI-E** | rifanye | **RISI-E** | risifanye |
| **MU-E** | mufanye | **MUSI-E** | musifanye |
| **WA-E** | wafanye | **WASI-E** | wasifanye |
The subjunctive used by itself often gives the sense of "should" and is most often used as a question asking/clarifying what should be done. This is a good form for checking to see if you understood someone's instructions.
Nije? _Should I come? I should come?_
Rilindre? _Should we wait? We should wait?_
Tsisendre? _I shouldn't go?_
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Subjunctive
|
Expressing Purpose with Subjunctive
|
Subjunctive can be used in phrases to express the purpose or intention behind an action. Often this is expressed using the conjunction "_ile pare" ("ile"_ and _"pare"_ are also used). All of these can be translated "in order that" or "so that". This conjunction can also sometimes be omitted with the same implied meaning.
Risisomesa ile wantru wanfundrihe fetre.
_We are teaching so that people will learn well._
Alawa ile mahe asimpare.
_He left so that his mother wouldn't find him._
Tsipashia ile niendre laptali.
_I traveled in order to go to the hospital._
Atsovinga nganu ile pare mufanye madipe.
_He will bring flour in order for y'all to make bread._
Note: Remember that even though the first verb in the phrase can be various tenses, the verb after the conjunction "ile pare" will always be subjunctive.
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Subjunctive
|
Expressing Advice with Subjunctive
|
Subjunctive is very useful in giving advice. Using the subjunctive alone gives the sense of "should" or "shouldn't". But there are also two other words that (like "ile") must be followed by a verb in the subjunctive. These words are _borwa_ and _hairi_. These can both be translated as "It is better/good…"
| Examples: | | |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Borwa alale. | | _It's better that she sleeps._ |
| Hairi rendre meso. | | _Better if we go tomorrow_. |
| Borwa musibaki. | | _It's better if you don't stay._ |
| Hairi wasimvinge. | | _It's better that they don't bring him_. |
_Borwa_ and _hairi_ are often heard at the beginning of proverbs (which are pieces of advice in themselves).
To state something in a stronger way, with the sense that someone MUST do something, you will need to use the verb hu-lazimu followed by the subjunctive (see lesson **_7.4- Hu-lazimu + Subjunctive_**).
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Subjunctive
|
"Let's…" (NA + Subjunctive)
|
This conjugation in Shinzwani doesn't have a clear parallel in English. Some of the forms are frequently used, but it is hard to find a simple translation to give to all its forms. We have labeled this lesson "Let's…" after it's most frequent form (the 1st person plural).
This tense is used to express a wish, desire, command or blessing. It is formed by adding a NA- to the subjunctive.
| | **Singular** | **Plural** |
| --- | --- | --- |
| **1<sup>st</sup> person** | **NANI--E** | **NARI---E** |
| **2<sup>nd</sup> person** | | **NAM---E** |
| **3<sup>rd</sup> person** | **NA---E** | **NAWA---E** |
You'll notice that this is where the 2<sup>nd</sup> person plural command form comes from. (See lesson **_2.6- Imperative (Commands)_**.)You'll also notice that this form does not exist in the 2<sup>nd</sup> person singular. This is because islanders would just use the command form.
| Most frequent uses:<br><br>1<sup>st</sup> person plural- "Let's…" | | |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Narile! | | _Let's eat!_ |
| Narisome! | | _Let's read!_ |
| Narendre!<br><br>2<sup>nd</sup> person plural- command | | _Let's go!_ |
| Namhime! | | _Stand up (y'all)!_ |
| Namziye! | | _Stop (y'all)!_ |
3<sup>rd</sup> person singular- prayers and blessings
Mngu nahu(nu)suru _God preserve you!_
Mngu namubarikini _May God bless y'all!_
Fundi nahusome fetre. _May the teacher teach you well!_
In the other forms, there is some overlap between the subjunctive and this form. So for example, "_Alale"_ (he should lay down), "_Nalale"_ (may he sleep) can be used in the same situation and with a similar idea, expressing what you want/wish to happen.
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Two-Verb Phrases
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Introduction to Two-Verb Phrases
|
It is very common to have an initial verb (V1) followed by a second verb (V2) in a single phrase or sentence. In Shinzwani, often the first verb will dictate what form the second verb takes.
When the two verbs have the same subject, generally the choice is between the second verb being in the infinitive or in the subjunctive. For the one notable exception see lesson **_7.2- Hu-endra + V2_**.
There are several verbs that require a second verb in order to complete the thought- many times these will be in subjunctive. That is to say that the second verb must be subjunctive when the first verb is positive. This is not true if the first verb is negative, see lesson **_7.8- Negative Two-Verb Phrases_**.
In a few cases the first verb can be followed by a V2 in various forms depending on the meaning. For an overview, look at the chart in lesson **_7.7- Other Two-Verb Constructions_**.
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Two-Verb Phrases
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Hu-endra + V2
|
When islanders ask you, "Usendra hapvi?", you can answer with a location or an activity. For an activity, you will use hu-endra with a second verb giving the sense that you are moving toward doing something.
The second verb takes a unique form. The prefix has an "a" infix and the verb will end with -e.
| **V2 after hu-endra** | **Example** | **Translation** |
| --- | --- | --- |
| NA-E | Nisendra nafanye | _I going to do_ |
| WA-E | Usendra wafanye | _You are going to do_ |
| A-E | Asendra afanye | _He/She is going to do_ |
| RA-E | Risendra rafanye | _We are going to do_ |
| MWA-E | Musendra mwafanye | _Y'all are going to do_ |
| WA-E | Wasendra wafanye | _They are going to do_ |
In English we can use the construction "going to do something" to express an undefined future, but in Shinzwani, there is the actual sense of movement, you are on your way to do that thing or at least will be moving that way very soon.
This construction seems to be unique to the continuous tenses. Mainly present continuous, but it can be used with the past continuous with the sense being, "was on their way to do".
Nisendra nafue zinguo zangu. _I'm on my way to wash my clothes._
Asendra arenge mwana wahe. _He's going to get his child._
Musendra mwaivinge. _Y'all are going to bring it._
Akoendra asomese. _He was on his way to teach_.
Rakoendra ranunue shintru. _We were on our way to buy something_.
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Two-Verb Phrases
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Hu-tsaha + Subjunctive
|
One of the most common two verb constructions is with hu-tsaha (to want). If the verb "hu-tsaha" is followed by a second verb then that second verb must be in subjunctive. This is true whether there is a shared subject for both verbs or there are different subjects.
In Shinzwani, they prefer to use hu-tsaha in the continuous tenses. So literal translation would be "I am wanting", "I was wanting", but in English we usually use the simple tenses "I want", "I wanted".
Examples where both verbs have the same subject:
Nakotsaha nipashie, ɓe… I wanted to travel, but…
Risitsaha risome shinzwani. We want to study shinzwani.
Asitsaha aje leo. He wants to come today. Wakotsaha waone. They wanted to see.
Examples where the two verbs have different subjects:
Nisitsaha usome shinzwani. I want you to study shinzwani.
Akotsaha nije leo. He wanted me to come today.
Asitsaha Ahmed afanye hazi. He wants Ahmed to do work.
Manyu asitsaha muziye. Y'all's mom wants y'all to stop.
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Two-Verb Phrases
|
Hu-lazimu + Subjunctive
|
Another common V1 in two-verb constructions is _hu-lazimu_. But _hu-lazimu_ is different in that it is conjugated impersonally, communicating the sense of "must" or "It is necessary…" .
Ilazimu nilawe. _I must leave_.
Ilazimu usibambe. _You must not touch._
To communicate something that is applicable in the present, they will use a simple past conjugation of _hu-lazimu._ For a truly past tense meaning, they will use the past perfect.
Ilazimu rihadisi _It is necessary we discuss._
Ika ilazimu rihadisi. _It was necessary we discuss._
While _hu-lazimu_ is traditionally used in the above forms. You may hear other forms, including the from _lazmwani_, the adverb _lazima_ and _hu-lazimu_ conjugated for different people (in which case the subject would match the subject of the second verb). Listen well.
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Two-Verb Phrases
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Hu-ambia + V2
|
The Shinzwani verb -ambia (to tell) is often followed by a second verb. There are two different constructions.
REPORTED SPEECH
If you are merely reporting information someone has told you then you can use the verb hu-ambia often with the connector amba (used like the English word "that") followed by normal conjugations of the subsequent verb(s). (You can also use -rongoa to express reported speech.)
Amambia (amba) pvwa fidjo. _He told him that there is fidjo._
Tsiwambia amba tsitsoja. _I told them that I will not come._ Wambie amba nisikodza. _Tell them that I'm sick!_
INDIRECT COMMANDS
If you are expressing indirect commands then the second verb (after _huambia_) will be in the subjunctive (either negative or positive).
| Anambia nifanye hazi leo. | She told me to work today. |
| --- | --- |
| Wahwambia usendre. | They told you not to go. |
| Tsimwambia afue. | I told him/her to do the laundry. |
| Mwambie Fatima asome. | Tell Fatima to read! |
Note: _Hu-ambia_ always has an object (you have to tell _someone_) and so it almost always has an object infix (see lesson **_3.2- Object Infixes_**).
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Two-Verb Phrases
|
Hu-jua + V2
|
Often we translate _hu-jua_ simply as "to know" but depending on the context it will have the sense of "to be able to/to know how to".
TO KNOW HOW
When using _hu-jua_ to express "to know how to do something", the second verb will be in the infinitive form.
Wami ujua upiha. _I know how to cook._
Kasijua usoma. _He doesn't know how to read._ Wawe ujua uloa zifi. You _know how to fish._
TO ASK PERMISSION/MAKE A REQUEST
When _hu-jua_ is used in the future tense and the following verb is in the subjunctive, then the sense becomes that someones is able or allowed to do something. This form can be used to ask permission to do something or to politely request if someone else is able to do something.
Nitsojua nikentsi pvani? _Can I sit here?_
Utsojua unisaidie? _Are you able to help me?_
Atsojua aje. _She will be able to come._
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Two-Verb Phrases
|
Other Two-Verb Constructions
|
Here is a summary chart of some of the verbs that are often followed by a second verb.
| **V1** | **V2 Form** | **Expresses** | **V1 Tenses Used** | **Example** |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| hu-ambia | subjunctive | indirect command | various | Tsimwambia afanye. |
| hu-ambia | w/ "amba" | reported speech | various | Arambia amba atsoja. |
| hu-andrisa | infinitive | "to begin" | various | Wandrisa ufanya. |
| hu-djerebu | infinitive | "to try/attempt" | various | Adjerebu ufanya. |
| hu-endrelea | infinitive | "to continue" | various | Utsoendrelea ufanya. |
| hu-jua | infinitive | "to know how to" | various | Waye ujua ufanya. |
| hu-jua | subjunctive | "to be allowed to" | Future | Atsojua afanye. |
| hu-kiri | subjunctive | "It works…"<br><br>"It is possible…" | impersonal | Itsokiri afanye. |
| hu-kubali | subjunctive | "to accept/agree" | various | Akubali afanye. |
| hu-lazimu | subjunctive | "must"<br><br>"It is necessary" | impersonal conjugation | Ilazimu afanye. |
| hu-malidza | infinitive | "to finish" | various | Rimalidza ufanya. |
| hu-para | subjunctive | "to succeed" | future\* | Nitsopara nendre. |
| hu-shindra | subjunctive | "to be able" | various | Musishindra mufanye. |
| hu-subutu | subjunctive | "to dare to do" | various | Nitsosubutu nifanye. |
| hu-tsaha | subjunctive | "to want" | various | Asitsaha afanye. |
| hu-vendza | subjunctive | "to want" | various | Wasivendza wafanye. |
| hu-vendza | infinitive | "to like" | Simple Present | Wami uvendza ufanya. |
| hu-ziya | infinitive | "to stop" | various | Riziya ufanya. |
\*_Hu-para_ can be used in the past tense, followed by a second past tense verb. _Tsipara tsifanya_. (Literally: I succeeded. I did it.) In this case it is two verbs in succession and perhaps not technically a two-verb constructions.
There are more verbs that can be followed by a second verb. This is just a sampling. As you understand the nature of the subjunctive (in expressing desires, hopes, commands, etc), you will become better able to predict what form the second verb will take.
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Two-Verb Phrases
|
Negative Two Verb Phrases
|
There are several two-verb constructions where the second verb (V2) is subjunctive. The negative sense for these constructions can sometimes be expressed in two ways.
The first way is to make the second verb (V2) negative, using the negative subjunctive by adding the -si- infix. See lesson **_6.1- Introduction to Subjunctive_**.
The second way is to make the the first verb negative (V1) in which case the second verb will no longer be subjunctive. The second verb (following a negative V1) will have an "a" infix and its ending vowel will not change
| **SECOND VERB (V2) FORM following a Negative First Verb** | | | |
| --- | | | | --- | --- | --- |
| I | **NA-** | Tsisitsaha **nafanya**. | I don't want to do it. |
| You | **WA-** | Kusitsaha **wafanya**. | You don't want to do ti. |
| He/She | **A-** | Kasitsaha **afanya**. | He/She doesn't want to do it. |
| We | **RA-** | Karisitsaha **rafanya** | We don't want to do it. |
| Y'all | **MWA-** | Kamusitsaha **mwafanya**. | Y'all don't want to do it. |
| They | **WA-** | Kawasitsaha **wafanya**. | They don't want to do it. |
Here are some different examples of two verb constructions in the negative.
| Nisitsaha ufanye. | Tsisitsaha wafanya. _I don't want you to do it._ |
| --- | --- |
| _I want you to do it._ | Nisitsaha usifanye _I want you not do it._ |
| Ilazimu nifanye | Kailazimu nafanya. _I must not do it_. |
| _I must do it._ | Ilazimu nisifanye. _I must not do it._ |
| Nisishindra nifanye… | Tsisishindra nafanya _I can't do it_ |
| _I can do it_ | (2<sup>nd</sup> construction is not used.) |
| Nitsojua nifanye.. | Tsitsojua nafanya _I can't do it_ |
| _I can do it._ | Nitsojua nisifanye _I am able to not do it._ |
| Nitsosubutu nifanye. | Tsitsosubutu nafanya. _I won't dare do it_. |
_I will dare to do it._
Note: _Hu-shindra_ and _hu-jua_ (though translated the same here) do not always have the same meaning. _Hu-shindra_ (in the negative) is often used when people are sick or tired or lack motivation to do something. _Hu-jua_ (in the negative future tense) is used to express incapability/lack of knowledge for doing something and/or not having the permission to do something.
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Relatives
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Introduction to Relatives
|
Relatives are a common part of language. A relative is a verb that describes a noun. In English, we create relatives by connecting a verb with the words "who", "whom", "which", "where", or "that". (Examples: The man **_who_** ate the apple, the dog **_that_** barked yesterday, the restaurant **_where_** I waited, the book **_which_** I read, the girl **_whom_** I saw, etc.)
In Shinzwani, we don't see these same connector words but instead the verb itself takes a new form, a new conjugation. There are conjugations for relatives in the past, present and future.
Different constructions trigger the use of a relative in Shinzwani.
In Shinzwani relatives are used:
\-To describe a noun using a verb (as in English)
\-After "wakati" to express the sense of _when_ or _while_ -With ɗe to help identify a person/thing -In questions using mana ntrini (why?). -In questions using ɗeni (who?).
The following lessons will look at the different relative conjugations and some of the various constructions that use relatives.
|
Relatives
|
Simple Past Relatives
|
We'll begin by looking at how we form the simple past relative. Both the positive and negative is formed by adding an "a" to the subject prefix. This gives the following complete prefixes:
| **Positive Simple Past Relative** | | **Negative Simple Past Relative** | |
| --- | | --- | | --- | --- |
| **Prefix** | **Example** | **Prefix** | **Example** |
| **NA-** | nafanya | **TSA-** | tsafanya |
| **WA-** | wafanya | **KWA-** | kwafanya |
| **A-** | afanya | **KA-** | kafanya |
| **RA-** | rafanya | **KARA-** | karafanya |
| **MWA-** | mwafanya | **KAMWA-** | kamwafanya |
| **WA-** | wafanya | **KAWA-** | kawafanya |
The negative is the same as the normal simple past negative. Also note that there is no change to the end vowels, even with monosyllabic verbs, the final vowel will not change.
The verb "to be" (_hu-ka_) in the simple past relative is regular: I was (_naka_), You were (_waka_), He/she was (_aka_), we were (_raka_), y'all were (_mwaka_), they were (_waka_).
Basic Use of Relatives:
To use the relative to describe a noun, the relative is placed after the noun being described (just like the adjectives, see lesson **_3.5- Adjectives/ Numbers_**). The noun can be either the object or the subject of the noun.
For example:
Basic phrase: Tsiono muntru. _I saw a person._ Relative phrase: Umuntru namwona aja. _The person I saw came_. ("the person" is the object of the relative _namwona_)
Basic phrase: Muntru alawa. _The person left._
Relative phrase: Umuntru alawa airenge. _The person who left took it._
("the person" is the subject of the relative _alawa_)
If the subject of the relative is a person, then you will use the above conjugations, even if the noun being modified is from a different noun class.
| ishio nashisoma | _the book that I read_ |
| --- | --- |
| yamasindza wayala | _the bananas that you ate_ |
| umuntru afa | _the person who died_ |
| ishahula rashipiha | _the food that we cooked_ |
| ubweni mwamwona | _the lady that y'all saw_ |
| liduka walipvira | _the shop where they passed_ |
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Relatives
|
Imperfect Relative
|
The relative imperfect is identical to the normal form of the imperfect (see lesson **_2.7- Imperfect (Past Continuous)_**).
| **Positive Imperfect Relative** | | **Negative Imperfect Relative** | |
| --- | | --- | | --- | --- |
| **Prefix** | **Example** | **Prefix** | **Example** |
| **NAKO-** | nakofanya | **TSAKO-** | tsakofanya |
| **WAKO-** | wakofanya | **KWAKO-** | kwakofanya |
| **AKO-** | akofanya | **KAKO-** | kakofanya |
| **RAKO-** | rakofanya | **KARAKO-** | karakofanya |
| **MWAKO-** | mwakofanya | **KAMWAKO-** | kamwakofanya |
| **WAKO-** | wakofanya | **KAWAKO-** | kawakofanya |
The uses of the relative (listed in lesson **_8.1- Introduction to Relatives_**) apply to all the relative tenses. Likewise the relative will be the same position (after the noun) in all the tenses.
So the same phrases we used with the simple past relative in the previous lesson, we can change to the imperfect relative.
| ishio nakoshisoma | | _the book I was reading_ |
| --- | --- | --- |
| yamasindza wakoyala | | _the bananas you were eating_ |
| umuntru akofa | | _the person who was dying_ |
| ishahula rakoshipiha | | _the food that we were cooking_ |
| liduka wakolipvira | | _the shop where they were passing_ |
|
Relatives
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Present Relatives
|
The relative in the present is used in the same contexts as the past relatives. It is formed with the normal subject prefixes and with the addition of "o" at the end of the verb. The "o" does not replace the normal ending, it is added to it. So most verbs in Shinzwani will end in -ao in the present relative (because most verbs normally end in -a).
The negative present relative is the same as the normal negative present tense. The relative form is usually accented a little differently when it is pronounced. Listen and see if you can hear it!
| **Positive Present Relative** | | **Negative Present Relative** | |
| --- | | --- | | --- | --- |
| **Prefix/Suffix** | **Example** | **Prefix** | **Example** |
| **NI-O** | nifanyao | **TSISI-** | tsisifanya |
| **U-O** | ufanyao | **KUSI-** | kusifanya |
| **A-O** | afanyao | **KASI-** | kasifanya |
| **RI-O** | rifanyao | **KARISI-** | karisifanya |
| **MU-O** | mufanyao | **KAMUSI-** | kamusifanya |
| **WA-O** | wafanyao | **KAWASI-** | kawasifanya |
Examples:
Fatima ɗe asomao Shingereza. _Fatima is the one studying English._
Mana ntrini rilindrao? _Why are we waiting?_
Waliao ɗeni? _Who all is crying?_
Nampihe wakati nivumwao. _Y'all cook while I'm resting._
If the noun is the object of the relative verb, then the relative verb will usually have the object infix.
ishio nishisomao _the book I am reading_ ishio kasishisoma _the book she isn't reading_
imihare riilao _the treats we are eating_ imihare karisiila _the treats we aren't eating_
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Relatives
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Future Relatives
|
The future relative is very similar to the present relative. Again the "o" is added to the end of the verb. The only difference is that the future tense marker -tso- is placed after the subject prefix.
The negative future relative is identical to the normal negative future tense. Again the relative form is accented a little differently when it is pronounced.
Listen and see if you can hear it!
| **Positive Future Relative** | | **Negative Future Relative** | | | |
| --- | | --- | | | | --- | --- |
| **Prefix/Suffix** | **Example** | **Prefix** | | **Example** | |
| **NITSO-O** | nitsofanyao | **TSITSO-** | | tsitsofanya | |
| **UTSO-O** | utsofanyao | **KUTSO-** | | kutsofanya | |
| **ATSO-O** | atsofanyao | **KATSO-** | | katsofanya | |
| **RITSO-O** | ritsofanyao | **KARITSO-** | | karitsofanya | |
| **MUTSO-O** | mutsofanyao | **KAMTSO-** | | kamtsofanya | |
| **WATSO-O** | watsofanyao | **KAWATSO-** | | kawatsofanya | |
| Examples: | | | | | |
| Ali ɗe atsobakio ɗagoni. | | | | _Ali is the one who will stay home._ | |
| Mana ntrini ritsolindrao? | | | | _Why will we wait?_ | |
| Watsopihao ɗeni? | | | | _Who is going to cook?_ | |
| Mutsotwali wakati nitsovumwao. | | | | _Y'all will study while I'm resting._ | |
| Wasi ɗe ritsoendrao Sima. | | | | _We're the ones that will go to Sima._ | |
| Asisoma ishio nitsoshisomao. | | | | _She is reading the book I will read._ | |
| Hunu ɗe wadjeni watsokentsio. | | | | _Here is where the guests will sits._ | |
| Mana ntrini kamtsoja? | | | | _Why won't y'all come?_ | |
| Mana ntrini mutsojao? | | | | _Why are you all going to come?_ | |
| Ligari lipvi ɗe utsolivingao? | | | | _Which car are you going to drive?_ | |
| Ini ɗe itaxi itsoendrao Paje? | | | | I_s this the taxi that will go to Paje?_ | |
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Relatives
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"To be"/"to have" Relatives
|
**"To Be":** "To be" is an irregular verb in the present relative.There is the added infix of -li- combining with the -o ending to give an -lio ending.
| | **Singular** | **Plural** |
| --- | --- | --- |
| **1<sup>st</sup> person** | nilio | rilio |
| **2<sup>nd</sup> person** | ulio | mulio |
| **3<sup>rd</sup> person** | alio | walio |
Remember that relatives are not just for people, but can be applied to all the noun classes.
| **NC** | **Singular** | **NC** | **Plural** |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | alio | 2 | walio |
| 3 | ulio | 4 | ilio |
| 5 | lilio | 6 | yalio |
| 7 | shilio | 8 | zilio |
| 9 | ilio | 10 | zilio |
| 16 | pvwalio/pvulio | | |
Shini ɗe shio (shilio) shilibwavu. _This is the book that is big._
Hunu ɗe pvulio monano. _Here is where the meeting is._ Tsijiviwa pvo rilio pvamoja. _I am happy we are together._
**"To Have"** The sense of "to have" is created by simply adding -na. So "the one who has" is aliona.
Hadija ɗe aliona wana wanne. _Hadija is the one who has 4 kids._
Mana ntrini muliona hamu? _Why are y'all sad?_
Aliona maha shirini ɗeni? _Who is 20 years old?_
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Relatives
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Relatives in "When…" phrases
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A common construction that uses relatives is phrases that begin with _wakati_ which is _when/while_ in English. You may possibly hear _pvo_ or _sa_ used in the place of wakati, but these are less common. These phrases are used all the time in storytelling as they allow you to set the scene. "When I was little," "while I was reading", "when I arrived"... These phrases always take the relative form.
| Examples: | | |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Wakati naka mtiti... | | _When I was little…_ |
| Wakati aniona… | | _When he saw me…_ |
| Wakati wakopiha… | | _While they were cooking..._ |
| Wakati mwakosoma… | | _When y'all were reading…_ |
| Wakati riwaswilio… | | _When we are arriving…_ |
| Wakati nisomao… | | _While I'm studying…_ |
| Wakati nitsoendrao… | | _When she goes (in the future)…_ |
| Wakati watsojao… | | _When they come (in the future)…_ |
The last two examples use the future tense. In English we often don't use the future tense after the words "when/while" so using the future relative with _wakati_ may not seem natural.
_Note: Wakati and sa have other meanings outside these constructions (wakati is "a time", sa is "an hour/watch"). The relatives are used when these words are used with the meaning of "when/while"._
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Relatives
|
Relatives in Questions
|
Two more constructions that use relatives are "who" and "why" questions (questions with ɗ_eni_ and _mana ntrini_).
| Apiha ishahula ɗeni? | | _Who cooked the food?_ |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Mana ntrini wafanyao hazi? | | _Why are they working?_ |
| Watsohusomesao ɗeni? | | _Who all will teach you?_ |
| Mana ntrini karaendra? | | _Why didn't we go?_ |
| Kasila ɗeni? | | _Who isn't eating?_ |
| Waka na ɗeni? | | _Who were they with?_ |
Mana ntrini mwakosoma ishiyo shile? _Why were y'all reading that book?_
In Shinzwani, the question words usually go at the end of the sentence, but there are certain constructions where they might put the question word at the beginning. When ɗ_eni_ is at the beginning of the sentence it is usually used with ɗ_e_. (Ɗ_eni_ ɗ_e apiha ishahula?_ Who cooked the food?)
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Relatives
|
Relatives & Emphasis with ɗe
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The little word "ɗe" (sometimes spelled _nde_) is often used to add emphasis or for giving descriptions. Here are three constructions using ɗ_e_, but there are more! Any verb that follows ɗ_e_ will be a relative.
**"...the one who/that…"**
Wawe ɗe wahiba izintru. You are the one that stole the things.
Wami ɗe nafanya ihazi piya. I am the one that did all the work.
Fatima ɗe kala ishahula shahe. Fatima is the one that didn't eat her food.
| Uwana ɗe wakohedza. | The kids are the ones that were singing. |
| --- | --- |
| Ishiyo shini ɗe rasoma.<br><br>**"This is the reason why…"** | This book is the one that we read. |
| Iyo ɗe imana wakolindra. | This is the reason why they were waiting. |
| Iyo ɗe imana tsaja.<br><br>**"This is the way that…."** | This is the reason why I didn't come. |
| Iyo ɗe inamna napiha. | This is the way I cooked. |
Iyo ɗe inamna rakohadissi. This is the way we were discussing.
These phrases can also have ɗe repeated at the beginning with essentially the same meaning but just more emphasis. This form may be just as common or even more common.
Ɗe wami ɗe nafanya ihazi. It's me who did the work.
Ɗe ishio shini ɗe rasoma. It's this book that we read.
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Conditional Phrases
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Introduction to Conditional Statements
|
Conditional statements are statements that have a condition or an "if" placed on them. Sometimes we talk about them as "if-then" statements.
Listed below are the different types of conditional statements that we have in English. This can help us understand and categorize the different constructions in Shinzwani.
There are three different types of conditional statements. They each have two parts- the "if phrase" which includes the condition and the "then phrase" that expresses the result (if the condition is met).
| **TYPES OF CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS IN ENGLISH** | | | |
| --- | | | | --- | --- | --- |
| **Type** | **IF phrase** | **THEN phrase** | **Examples** |
| **1** | **a present or future possibility** | **simple present or simple future statement** | _\-If I eat eggs, I feel sick._<br><br>_\-If I eat those eggs, I will feel sick._ |
| **2** | **contrary to fact in present/future** | **conditional tense** | _\-If I went to Mars, I would be happy. -If I were a monkey, I could sleep in trees._ |
| **3** | **contrary to fact in the past** | **past conditional tense** | _\-If I had been there, I would have danced. -If I had known, I would have come._ |
Remember this table is the classification in English, not Shinzwani. So be careful, these three different types of conditional statements will be formed with different constructions and with different tenses in Shinzwani.
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Conditional Phrases
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Simple Conditional Phrases with Nahika
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We will start with a common way of expressing simple conditional phrases (otherwise type 1 phrases, see previous lesson to learn about the different types of conditional phrases). This uses the Shinzwani word _nahika,_ which means "if". The if-phrase will have _nahika_ followed by a verb in the simple past. The meaning isn't past, it is being used to express a present or future possibility. The _nahika_\-phrase can be followed by a future tense phrase or by a command, depending on what you are hoping to communicate.
**\- Expressing a possibility and the consequent future outcome**
IF phrase: **Nahika + simple past tense** THEN phrase: **Future tense**
Nahika tsipara mapessa, nitsoendra. _If I find some money, I will go._
Nahika tsapara mapesa, tsitsoendra. _If I don't find money, I won't go._
Nahika usomo, utsopara examen. _If you study, you will pass the exam._
| Nahika kwasoma, kutsopara. | _If you don't study, you won't pass._ |
| --- | --- |
| Nahika wanahana, watsoja. | _If they remember, they will come._ |
| Nahika kawanahana, kawatsoja. | _If they don't remember, they won't come._ |
| Nahika rili putu, litsoriwawa. | _If we eat putu, it will burn (our mouths)._ |
There is one exception. The verb "to be" and consequently the verb "to have" will not be in the past tense. They will be in the present tense (though with potentially a future meaning).
Nahika tsina nafasi, nitsoja. _If I have time, I will come._
Nahika ra Kenya, ritsohununulia zintru. _If we are in Kenya, we will buy you things._
**\- Expressing a possibility and commanding a reaction**
IF phrase: **Nahika + simple past tense** THEN phrase: **command**
Nahika aja hunu, mwambie anihire. _If he comes here, tell him to call me_.
Nahika Ahmed a hazini, muve izio. _If Ahmed is at work, give him the books_.
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Conditional Phrases
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Conditional Phrases with -hi
|
Another way to express these simple (type 1) conditional statements is using the verb infix -hi-. This construction can be used to express the same ideas as using _nahika_.
There is one difference with the -hi- infix. The possibility of the if-phrase is so strong that it can be seen as more of an eventuality ("when" rather than an "if"). Because of this, it is helpful to think of the translation as being "if/when". So while _nahika_ can sometimes be used to express strong possibilities, the -hi- infix seems to almost always be an if/when situation.
This construction will have an "a" infix and then the verbal infix -hi-.
| **Complete Prefix** | **Example** | **Translation** |
| --- | --- | --- |
| **NAHI-** | nahija… | _If/when I come…_ |
| **WAHI-** | wahija… | _If/when you come…_ |
| **AHI-** | ahija… | _If/when he comes…_ |
| **RAHI-** | rahija… | _If/when we come…_ |
| **MWAHI-** | mwahija… | _If/when y'all come…_ |
| **WAHI-** | wahija… | _If/when they come…_ |
**Type 1: expressing a possibility/eventuality and the subsequent future outcome/command**
IF phrase: **Verb with -Hi- infix;**
THEN phrase: **future tense or command**
Ahija, mwambie amba tsika tsija. _If/when he comes, tell him that I came._
Nahisoma, nitsofundriha haraka. _If/when I study, I'll learn fast._
Wahilawa, utsoregea lini? _If/when you leave, when will you return?_ Rahipashia, ritsobaki Maore. _If/when we travel, we'll stay in Mayotte._
Islanders don't seem to use the -hi- infix with the negative. In these cases they appear to prefer to use the full "nahika" + negative past tense.
_Where does "nahika" come from? Nahika is a contraction of "na yahika", which would literally mean "and if/when it is…". So even nahika is actually a use of the -hi- infix._
_._
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Conditional Phrases
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Conditional Phrases with Present Conditional Tense
|
Now we will look at the conditional phrases that use the present conditional tense. These are the statements in English where we would use the word "would" or type 2 conditional phrases (see lesson **_9.1- Introduction to Conditional Statements_**).
In Shinzwani, the present conditional tense is formed with the subject prefix with an "a" infix and the -tso- infix. It exists in positive and negative.
| **Positive Prefix** | **Example** | **Translation** | |
| --- | --- | --- | |
| **NATSO-** | natsoja… | _I would come…_ | |
| **WATSO-** | watsoja… | _You would come…_ | |
| **ATSO-** | atsoja… | _He/she would come…_ | |
| **RATSO-** | ratsoja… | _We would come…_ | |
| **MWATSO-** | mwatsoja… | _Y'all would come…_ | |
| **WATSO-** | watsoja… | _They would come…_ | |
| **Negative Prefix** | **Example** | | **Translation** |
| **TSATSO-** | tsatsoja… | | _I would not come…_ |
| **KWATSO-** | kwatsoja… | | _You would not come…_ |
| **KATSO-** | katsoja… | | _He/she would not come…_ |
| **KARATSO-** | karatsoja… | | _We would not come…_ |
| **KAMWATSO-** | kamwatsoja… | | _Y'all would not come…_ |
| **KAWATSO-** | kawatsoja… | | _They would not come…_ |
The conditional tense can be used on its own (with an implied "if" phrase) or with a full "if" phrase using either _nahika_ or _djeli_.
**Type 2: expressing the impossible/improbable and what would be** IF phrase: **Nahika/Djeli with a past tense (not just simple past)** THEN phrase: **present conditional**
Nahika tsika mKomori, natsoka mlozi. _If I were Comorian, I'd be a fisherman._ Djeli kafanya taharaki, ratsokubali. _If he didn't make trouble, we'd accept._
Often the same idea can be expressed with a "be" phrase, instead of nahika.
Nahika tsikana mapesa, natsoendra Sima. _If I had money, I would go to Sima._
Natsoendra Sima, be tsitsina mapesa. _I'd go to Sima, but I don't have money._
Karatsopiha, be wadjeni wasija. _We wouldn't cook, but guests are coming._
Nahika wadjeni kawakoja, karatsopiha.
_If guests weren't coming, we wouldn't cook._
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Conditional Phrases
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Conditional Phrases with Past Conditional Tense
|
The past conditional expresses a conditional thought that is completely in the past (type 3 conditional statements, see lesson **_9.1- Introduction to Conditional Statements_**). For example, if I said, "I would come…" (present conditional) then the idea is that I would come now or sometime in the future. But if I say, "I would have come.." (past conditional) then the opportunity "to come" has already passed.
The past conditional exists in positive and negative and is formed with the subject prefix with an "a" infix and the -pvendzo- or -ndzo- infix. We will use the -pvendzo-.
| **Positive Prefix** | **Example** | **Translation** |
| --- | --- | --- |
| **NAPVENDZO-** | napvendzoja… | _I would have come…_ |
| **WAPVENDZO-** | wapvendzoja… | _You would have come…_ |
| **APVENDZO-** | apvendzoja… | _He/she would have come…_ |
| **RAPVENDZO-** | rapvendzoja… | _We would have come…_ |
| **MWAPVENDZO-** | mwapvendzoja… | _Y'all would have come…_ |
| **WAPVENDZO-** | wapvendzoja… | _They would have come…_ |
| **Negative Prefix** | **Example** | **Translation** |
| **TSAPVENDZO-** | tsapvendzoja… | _I wouldn't have come…_ |
| **KWAPVENDZO-** | kwapvendzoja… | _You wouldn't have come…_ |
| **KAPVENDZO-** | kapvendzoja… | _He/She wouldn't have come…_ |
| **KARAPVENDZO-** | karapvendzoja… | _We wouldn't have come…_ |
| **KAMWAPVENDZO-** | kamwapvendzoja… | _Y'all wouldn't have come…_ |
| **KAWAPVENDZO-** | kawapvendzoja… | _They wouldn't have come…_ |
We're not sure when people use the -ndzo- versus -pvendzo- infix. Most likely
\-ndzo- is just a shortening of -pvendzo-. It is also unclear how much young Anjouanis use the past conditional. They still recognize it, but some prefer to use the present conditional tense where you would expect the past conditional.
**Type 3: expressing something untrue and what would have been**
IF phrase: **Nahika/Djeli with past perfect tense**
THEN phrase: **past conditional**
Nahika tsika tsipara, napvendzoendra. _If I had succeeded, I would have gone._
Djeli rika rijua, rapvendzoja. _If we had known, we would have come._
Nahika kaka aheya, kapvendzopuha.
_If he hadn't climbed up, he wouldn't have fallen._
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