text stringlengths 343 5.85k | source stringclasses 1
value |
|---|---|
i Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Ministry of Science and Higher Education General Psycholo gy (Psyc 1011) Contributors Koye Kassa, Bahir Dar University Chapter One, Chapter Five, and Chapter Six Belay Tefera, Addis Ababa Unive rsity Chapter Two Aemero Asmamaw, University of Gondar Chapter Three, Chapter Four, ... | General psychology.pdf |
ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Module Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 5 Module Objectives .................................................................................................................................... | General psychology.pdf |
iii 5. 2. 1 Meaning and Concepts of Forgetting .................................................................................... 64 5. 2. 2. Theories of Forgetting .......................................................................................................... 65 5. 3. Improving Memor y....................... | General psychology.pdf |
iv CHAPTER TEN ................................................................................................................................... 121 ACADEMIC SKILLS .......................................................................................................................... 121 10. 1. Time Management ...... | General psychology.pdf |
5 Module Introduction You migh t have heard or used the term psychology before you start reading this module. Psychology is a science of human cognitive processes and behaviors. This module focuses on acquaintin g you with this science of mind and behavior. Chapter one introduces the field of psychology as a study of m... | General psychology.pdf |
6 and social inclusion, interpersonal communication skills, social influences and peer pressure, assertiveness, conflict and conflict resolution, team work and overcoming risky behavior Module Objectives Up on the completion of this course, st udents will be able to: Describe basic psychological concepts; Compare and c... | General psychology.pdf |
7 CHAPTER ONE ESSENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY Chapter Overview This chapter tries to acquaint students with the concept of psychology. The specific contents addressed in the chapter are definition of psychology and related concepts, goals of psychology, historical background and major perspectives in psychology, branches/subfiel... | General psychology.pdf |
8 The word "psychology" is derived from two Greek words 'psyche' and ‗ logos ‟. Psyche refers to mind, soul or sprit while logos means study, knowledge or dis course. Therefore, by combining the two Greek words the term "psychology" epistemologically refers to the study of the mind, soul, or sprit and it is often repre... | General psychology.pdf |
9 example, a teacher might notice that a young freshman girl in his/her general psychology classroom is behaving oddly. She is not turning to her homework, her results are slipping badly, and she seems to have a very negative attitude toward the course. Explanation : Why is it happening ? Explanation is about trying to... | General psychology.pdf |
10 Psychology is a relatively new field in the realm of the sciences, only about 125 years old. It began as a science of its own in 1879 in Leipzig, Germany, with the establishment of a psychology laboratory in the University of Leipzig by Wilhelm Wundt. Wundt developed the technique of objective introspection to scien... | General psychology.pdf |
11 Analyzing mental structure alone was found to serve little purpose in helping humans deal with the environment. Hence, a new school of thought emerged to study th is functional value of human mind-functionalism. Functionalism-functionalism views psychology as a study of function of the mind. The founder of this scho... | General psychology.pdf |
12 Behaviorism: behaviorists view psychology as a study of observable and measurable behaviors. John B. Watson is the founder of behaviorism. Other proponents include E. Thorndike and F. Skinner. For Watson, psychology was the study of observable and measurable behavior and nothing more about hidden mental processes. A... | General psychology.pdf |
13 and they make themselves known in dreams, slip of the tongue, appare nt accidents and even jokes. He used clinical case studies (hypnosis and Dream analysis) as a method. Reflection Dear student, can you briefly discuss how the old schools of psychology differ in terms of their object of study, their goal, and metho... | General psychology.pdf |
14 how the mind works, and different k inds of explanations why people do and what they do. The schools are presented below. Psychodynamic perspective-It has its origins in Freud's theory of psychoanalysis, but many other psychodynamic theories exist. This perspective emphasizes the uncons cious dynamics within the ind... | General psychology.pdf |
15 Biological Perspective-it focuses on studying how bodily events or functioning of the body affect s behavior, feelings, and thoughts. It holds that the brain and the various brain chemicals affect psychological processes such as learn ing, performance, perception of reality, the experience of emotions, etc. This per... | General psychology.pdf |
16 Developmental psychology-It studies the physical, cognitive and psychological changes across the life span. It attempts to examine the major developmental milestones that o ccur at different stages of development. Personality Psychology-it focuses on the relatively enduring traits and characteristics of individuals.... | General psychology.pdf |
17 Before getting into research methods, it is important to start with discussion of scientific method. At the beginning of this chapter, we said that psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. This means, in psychology, researchers want to see only what is there, not what their biases might w... | General psychology.pdf |
18 The disadvantage of case study is that the researchers can't apply the results to other similar people, which means what researchers find in one case can't necessarily apply or generalize to others. iii. Survey: is a descriptive research method used to collect data from a very large group of people. It is useful to ... | General psychology.pdf |
19 experimental group is students who are assigned in small class sizes. A control group is a comparison that is treated in every way like the experim ental group except for the manipulated factor (class size). The control group serves as a baseline against which the effects of the manipulated condition can be compared... | General psychology.pdf |
20 Step four-Drawing Conclusions-this is the step in which the researcher attempts to make generalizations or draw implications from tested relationship Step five-Reporting Result s-at this point, the researcher would want to write up exactly what she/he did, why she/he did, and what sh e/he found. So that, others can ... | General psychology.pdf |
21 5. A psychologist is interested in exploring the effect of tutorial support on students' academic performance and assign students into two groups. Students in group one get the tutorial support and th ose in group two do not. In this example, what is the a) Dependent variable b) Independent variable c) Control group... | General psychology.pdf |
22 CHAPTER TWO SENSATION AND PERCEPTION Chapter Overview Before anything else, psychological life begins wit h the activity of knowing what is happening around. Sensation and perception are the first important dimensions of this intelligent life. That is, they are starting points for all of you r other psychological pr... | General psychology.pdf |
23 principles of sensation and perception, and reasons for sensory and percep tual differences amount individuals. 2. 1. The meanings of sensation and perception Psychologists have traditionally differentiated between sensation and perception Brainstorming questions Have you heard of sayings like „you watch but you don... | General psychology.pdf |
24 Consider, for example, the blac k marks and letters in this page. Visual sensation lets you detect the black marks. Visual perception lets you organize the black marks into letters and works. For a real life example of the difference between sensation and perception consider a case study presented by neurologist Oli... | General psychology.pdf |
25 The absolute threshold is also affected by factors other than the intensity of the stimulus; Researchers assume that the de tection of a stimulus depends on both its intensity and the physical and psychological state of the individual. One of the most important psychological factors is the response bias-how ready th... | General psychology.pdf |
26 One possible reason is that if a stimulus remains constant in intensity, you will gradually stop noticing it. For example, after diving into a swimming pool, you might shiver. Yet a few minutes later you might invite someone to join you saying, ―The water is fine‖ on entering a friend's dormitory room, you might be ... | General psychology.pdf |
27 You have seen earlier that perception is a meaning making process. Now you study more about this meaning making process of the human intelligent life. It helps you understand the major characteristics of the perceptual process : selectivity of perception, from perception, depth perception, perceptua l constancy, and... | General psychology.pdf |
28 Brainstorming questions What factors do you think determine your attention? Why do you pay, in the above example, attention to the ball carrier ignoring others and why, at the end of the game, your attention shifted to the cold feeling you are experiencing in your feet ? What aspects of the environment get your atte... | General psychology.pdf |
29 moving objects are instinctually felt dangerous or threatening and you are reflexively responding to them to defend yourself. Moreover, moving objects bring with them changes in stimulation o r newness in their presentation. In general, stimuli in the environment that, are bigger and brighter, or more frequently occ... | General psychology.pdf |
30 Reflection Dear student, reflect on the following ques tions ? 1. You just give examples showing how motives and needs in the example mentioned previously about perceptions of a football game affect your attention. 2. Assume that you are in your room with your friend listening to music. But your friend is rather li ... | General psychology.pdf |
31 musical background (ground), the pictures, words, and the melody are perceived as the figure, while the wall, the page, and the chords are the ground. The ability to distinguis h an object from its general background is basic to all form perception. And gestalt psychologists stress that form perception in an active,... | General psychology.pdf |
32 Organization in form Perception When several objects are present in the visual field, we tend to perceive them as organized into patterns or groupings. The Gestalt psychologists studied such organization intensively in the early part of t his century. They emphasized that organized perceptual experience has properti... | General psychology.pdf |
33 achieved on ly by using all the dots and rings to perceive a six pointed star the law of good figure wins out over the law of similarity because the rings by themselves or the dots by themselves do not form symmetrical goods figures. Still another principle or organ ization is continuation, the tendency to perceive ... | General psychology.pdf |
34 your eyes. Look at the finger with one eye closed. Then look at it with the other closed. You will notice that the background shifts as you view the scene with different views of the same stimulus. The ―view master‖ device you might have used as a child creates the impression of visual depth by presenting slightly d... | General psychology.pdf |
35 The remaining monocular cues are called pictorial cues because artists use them to create depth in their drawings and paintings. Leonardo da Vinci formali zed pictorial cues 500 year ago in teaching his art students how to use them to make their paintings look more realistic. He noted that an object that overlaps an... | General psychology.pdf |
36 2. 3. 4. Perceptual Constancies The image of a given object fo cused on your retina may vary in size, shape, and brightness. Yet you will continue to perceive the object as stable in size, shape, and brightness because of perceptual constancy. This is adaptive, because it provides you with a more visually stable wor... | General psychology.pdf |
37 away, he assumed it was relatively large. And because he never had seen su ch a creature, he assumed that it was a monster. This shows how the misapplication of a visual cue, in this case perceived size constancy, can produce a visual illusion. Visual illusions provide clues to the processes involved in normal visua... | General psychology.pdf |
38 Psycho logists have long studied sensation and discovered the intensity of a stimulation receptor cells can detect (absolute threshold), the intensity of changes in stimulation required for receptors to notice it (difference threshold), and the conditions under which receptor cells may respond to one kind of stimula... | General psychology.pdf |
39 Perception of depth depends on binocular cues (or information from both eyes). While binocular cues rely inertial disparity and convergence, monocular cues involve accommodation. Motion parallax, and such pictorial cues as interposition, aerial perspective, linear perspective, texture gradient, elevation, and shadin... | General psychology.pdf |
40 Discuss the applications of theories of learning State techniques used to motivate and reinforce behavior. 3. 1. Definition, Characteristi cs and Principles of Learning 3. 1. 1. Definitions of learning Brainstorming questions What is the meaning of learning to you ? What are the elements of learning? There are many ... | General psychology.pdf |
41 be quite complex because, among other things, an individual's bac kground strongly influences the way that person learns. Yoakman and Simpson (???) have described the following major important characteristics of learning : 1. Learning is continuous modification of behavior throughout life 2. Learning is pervasive, i... | General psychology.pdf |
42 Things freely learned are best learned-the greater the freedom enjoyed by individuals, the higher the intellectual and moral advancement. Reflection Do you feel that th e principles make a difference in learning? If so, how? 3. 2. Factors Influencing Learning Brainstorming question Dear student, what do you think ar... | General psychology.pdf |
43 Reflection Do learning materials, teaching styles, teaching methods, and medium of instruction affects learning l ike the factors listed above ? 3. 3. Theories of Learning and their Applications Brainstorming Question What is theory and how it is related with learning? Here in this section, you will learn about theo... | General psychology.pdf |
44 elicit, modify the behavior of the learners in such a way as the responses originally connected with a particular stimulus comes to be aroused by a different stimulus. Classical conditioning involves what are known as conditioned reflexes. An example of t his is a ‗knee-jerk' reflex. This reflex isn't controlled by ... | General psychology.pdf |
45 Figure. Pavlov‟s classical conditioning experiment In the above experiment the food wa s an unconditioned stimulus (UCS)-stimulus that automatically produces an emotional or physiological response-because no prior training or ―conditioning ― was needed to establish the natural connection between food and salvation. ... | General psychology.pdf |
46 produce the same responses. For example, a dog conditioned to salivate to a dinner bell (CS) might also salivate to a door bell, a telephone bell. Stimulus discrimination is the process of distinguishing two similar stimuli; the ability to differentiate between stimuli. Example, the dog salivates only in response to... | General psychology.pdf |
47 Operant conditioning is learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened, depending on its favorable or unfavorable consequences. When we say that a response has been strengthened or weakened, we mean that it has been made more or less likely to recur regularly. An emphasis on environmental consequ... | General psychology.pdf |
48 Both primary and secondary reinforcers can be positive or negative. Positive reinforcement is the process whereby presentation of a stimulus makes behavior more likely to occur again. Negative reinforcement is the process whereby termination of an aversive stimulus makes behavior more likely to occur. The ba sic pri... | General psychology.pdf |
49 soon stop responding. But if you have been giving the reinforcement only every so often, the change will not be dramatic and the animal/ person will keep responding for a w hile. c) Punishment-is a stimulus that weakens the response or makes it less likely to recur. Punishers can be any aversive (unpleasant) stimuli... | General psychology.pdf |
50 1. People often administer punishment inappropriately or mindlessly. They swing in a blind rag or shout things they do not mean applying. Punishment is so broad that it covers all sorts of irrelevant behaviors. 2. The recipient of punishment ofte n responds with anxiety, fear or rage. Through a process of classical ... | General psychology.pdf |
51 effective contingencies of reinforcement. Example: For Self-learning of a student teacher should reinforce student behavior through variety of incentives such as prize, medal, smile, praise, affectionate patting on the back or by giving higher marks. 2. Conditioning and classroom behavior : During a learning process... | General psychology.pdf |
52 7. Shaping Complex Behavior : Complex behavior exists in the form of a chain of small behavior. Control is required for such kind of behavior. This extended form of learning is shaping technique. 3. 3. 2. Soc ial Learning Theory (observational learning) theory Brainstorming Question Who is the person that you admire... | General psychology.pdf |
53 2. Retention : the observer must be able to remember the behavior that has been observed. One way of increasing this is using the technique of rehearsal. 3. Motor reproduction : the third condition is the ability to replicate the behavior that the model has just demonstrated. This means that the observer has to be a... | General psychology.pdf |
54 8. Self-regulation techn iques provide an effective method for improving student behavior. Reflection Does explain how the social learning theory can be applicable in a classroom setting with examples. 3. 3. 3. Cognitive Learning Theory Both classical and operant conditionings h ave traditionally been explained by t... | General psychology.pdf |
55 The rats in Group 1 always found food at the end of the maze. Group 2 never found food. Group 3 found no food for ten days but then received food on the eleventh. The Group 1 rats quickly learned to head straight the end of the maze without going blind alleys, whereas Group 2 rats did not lear n to go to the end. Bu... | General psychology.pdf |
56 Factors that affect learning of individuals include motivation, intelligence, maturation, physical condition of the learner, good working conditions, psychol ogical well being, background experience and length of the working period. In this unit, you have learned the viewpoints of different theories of learning that... | General psychology.pdf |
57 With a suitable reminder, you will find that you remember some events quite distinctly, even after a long delay. Other memories, however, are lost or distorted. Think back to your childhood and recall your earliest memory. Describe this memory in your own words. Memory is not like a tape recorder or a video camera: ... | General psychology.pdf |
58 Brain storming Questions What is memory? Are there different kinds of memory? What are the biological bases of memory? 5. 1. 1 Mean ing and Processes of Memory Memory is the retention of information/what is learned earlier over time. It is the way in which we record the past for later use in the present. Memory is a... | General psychology.pdf |
59 c) Retrieval: is the point at which one tries to remember to dredge up a particular memory trace from among all the others we have stored. In retrieval, material in memory storage is located, brought into awareness and used. Failure to remember can result from problems during any of the three phases of the memory pr... | General psychology.pdf |
60 Models of memory based on this idea are Information processing theories. Like computer, we also store vast amounts of information in our memory storehouse. From this storehouse, we can retrieve some information onto a limited capacity of working memory, which also receives information from our current experience. Pa... | General psychology.pdf |
61 It is active-information remains in STM only so long as the person is consciously processing, examining, or manipulating it. People use STM as a ―workspace‖ to process new information and to call up relevant information from LTM. Rapid accessibility-Information in STM is readily available for use. In this r espect, ... | General psychology.pdf |
62 stored in LT M enables us to learn, get around in the environment, and build a sense of identity and personal history. LTM stores information for indefinite periods. It may last for days, months, years, or even a lifetime. Reflection Attempt to describe each type of information, its capacity and characteristics in t... | General psychology.pdf |
63 A serial position effect occurs when you are introduced to a lot of people at a party an d find you can recall the names of the first few people you met and the last, but almost no one in between. According to the three-box model, the first few items on a list are remembered well because short-term memory was relati... | General psychology.pdf |
64 k. Sleep or rest: Sleep or rest immediately after learning strengthens connections in the brain and helps for clear memory. 5. 2 Forgetting Brainstorming Questions What is forgetting? How forgetting occur or what causes forgetting? Why do human beings forget information? In what way and how do we forgot that informa... | General psychology.pdf |
65 material is almost alwa ys faster than starting from a scratch, whether the material is academic information or a motor skill such as serving a tennis ball. 5. 2. 2. Theories of Forgetting Psychologists have proposed five mechanisms to account for forgetting: decay, replacement of old memories by new ones, interfere... | General psychology.pdf |
66 This theory holds that new information entering memory can wipe out old information, just as recording on an audio or videotape will obliterate/wipe out the original material. This theory is mostly associated with the STM, where the capacity for information is limited to seven plus or minus chunks. It cannot be asso... | General psychology.pdf |
67 What environmental factors are important in loosing information from memory? 5. 3. Improvi ng Memory Brainstorming Question What causes difficulties and failures in remembering? Someday in the near future, drugs may be available to help people with memory deficiencies to increase normal memory performance. For the t... | General psychology.pdf |
68 This unit was concerne d with the actual processes of memory and forgetting. In memory part of the lesson, you have learned: 1) meaning of memory; 2) stage model of memory that describes how the learned materials are processed and retained for later use; 3) the stages of memory involved in information processing (in... | General psychology.pdf |
69 CHAPTER FIVE MOTIVATION AND EMOTION S Chapter Overview This chapter introduces the concepts of motivation and emotion. In so doing, the chapter focuses on the definition and types of motivation, theories of motivation, conflict of motives, definition,and elements of emotion, and theories of emotion. Learner appetize... | General psychology.pdf |
70 Motivation is a factor by which activities are started, directed and continued so that physical or psychological needs or wants are met. The word itself comes from the Latin word ‗Mover ', which means ―to move‖. Motivation is what ―moves‖ people to do the things they do. For example, when a person is r elaxing in fr... | General psychology.pdf |
71 responsible for sexual behavior, and the instinct for territorial protection may be related to aggressive behavior. The early theorists and psychologists listed thousands of instincts in humans including curiosity, flight (running away), pugnacity (aggressiveness), and acquisition (gathering possessions). However, n... | General psychology.pdf |
72 Increased hunger Eat Raised glucose Lowered glucose Don‟t eat Diminished hunger Figure 1. Drive-reduction and homeostasis Although the d rive-reduction theory works well to explain the actions people take to reduce tension created by needs, it does not explain all human motivation. Why do people eat when they are no... | General psychology.pdf |
73 study for a test is based on their expectation of how well studying will pay off in terms of a good gra de. Cognitive theories of motivation draw a key difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation causes us to participate in an activity for our enjoyment rather than for any actual or c... | General psychology.pdf |
74 Self-actualization needs-realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences. A desire ―to become everything one is capable of becoming‖. The followi ng figure shows how our motivation progresses up the pyramid from the broadest, most fundamental biological needs to higher-or... | General psychology.pdf |
75 Approach-avoidance conflicts-happen when a particular event or activity has both attractive and unattractive features, for example, a freshman student wants to start dating but she, at the same time, is worried that this may unduly consume her study time. Multiple approach-avoidance conflicts-exist when two or more ... | General psychology.pdf |
76 aroused if the person's face is not visible, which can lead to much miscommunic ation and misunderstanding. The behavior of emotion-tells us how people behave in the grip of an emotion. There are facial expressions, body movements, and actions that indicate to others how a person feels. Frowns, smiles, and sad expre... | General psychology.pdf |
77 Figure 2. James Lang Theory of Emotion II. Cannon-Bard theory of emotion Physiologists Walter Cannon and (1927) and Philip Bard (1934) theorized that t he emotion and the physiological arousal occur more or less at the same time. Cannon, an expert in sympathetic arousal mechanisms, did not feel that the physical cha... | General psychology.pdf |
78 Reflection Dear student, among the three theories, which one explains your emotion? How? Summary Motivation refers to factors that influ ence the initiation, direction, intensity, an d persistence of behavior. Motivation is of two types intrinsic, and extrinsic. There are different approaches/theories of motivation ... | General psychology.pdf |
79 CHAPTER SIX PERSONALITY Chapter Overview In the previous chapter, we have seen. This chapter focuses on the concept of personality and theories of personality. Among the different t heories of personality, this chapter addresses on the psychoanalytic, trait and humanistic ones. Learning Appetizer “One of the greates... | General psychology.pdf |
80 different ways, but psychologists generally view personality as the unique pattern of enduring thoughts, feelings, and actions that characterize a per son. Personality should not be confused with character, which refers to value judgments made about a person's morals or ethical behavior; nor should it be confused wi... | General psychology.pdf |
81 the pleasure principle, which can be defined as the desire for immediate satisfaction of needs with no regard for the consequences. The pleasure principle can be summed up simply as ―if it feels good, do it. ‖ Ego: The Executive Director-According to Freud, to deal with reality, the second part of personality develo... | General psychology.pdf |
82 For Freud, our personality is the outcome of the continual battle for dominance among the id, the ego, and the superego. This constant conflict between them is managed by psychological defense mechanisms. Defense mechanisms are unconscious tactics that either prevent threatening material from surfacing or disguise i... | General psychology.pdf |
83 Reflection 6. 2. 2. The trait theory of personality Brainstorming Questions Dear student, do you think your personality is inherited or learned? Psychologists who t ake the trait approach see personality as a combination of stable internal characteristics that people display consistently over time and across situati... | General psychology.pdf |
84 Extraversion is a term first used by Carl Jung, who believed that all people could be divided into two personality types: extraverts and introverts. Extraverts are outgoing and sociabl e, whereas introverts are more solitary and dislike being the center of attention. Agreeableness refers to the basic emotional style... | General psychology.pdf |
85 Carl Rogers and Self-Cconcept Like Maslow, Rogers believed that human beings are always striving to fulfill their innate capacities and capabilities and to become everything that their genetic potential will allow them to become. This striving for fulfillment is called self-actualizing tendency. An important tool in... | General psychology.pdf |
86 Here is an example: as a freshman Tirhas was thinking about becoming a math teacher, a computer programmer. Chalet, also a freshman, already knew t hat she was going to be a doctor. While Tirhas ‟ parents had told her that what she wanted to become was up to her and that they would love her no matter what, Chaltu ‟s... | General psychology.pdf |
87 The specific questions psychologists ask and t he methods they use to investigate personality often depend on the types of personality theories they take. According to the psychoanalytic theory of Freud, personality is formed within ourselves, arising from basic inborn needs, drives, and characteristi cs. The trait ... | General psychology.pdf |
End of preview. Expand in Data Studio
README.md exists but content is empty.
- Downloads last month
- 5