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In this region we find the ionosphere, the aurora borealis and the ISS.
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And the outermost layer is the exosphere, stretching up to 10,000 km.
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It merges fluently with outer space, where there's no atmosphere at all.
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The atoms and molecules in this area are so far apart that they can travel hundreds of km without colliding with each other.
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Okay, humans in their present form have only been around for 200,000 years.
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That's 0.004% of Earth's history.
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And here we are now, living in a thin, moist layer on a small, wet rock.
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We call this rock Earth.
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It is the product of the Universe's deepest workings, the result of a constant process of creation and destruction,
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We are really lucky.
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What is hydraulic fracturing or fracking?
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Since the Industrial Revolution, our energy consumption has risen unceasingly.
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The majority of this energy consumption is supplied by fossil fuels, like coal or natural gas.
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Recently, there's been a lot of talk about a controversial method of extracting natural gas, hydraulic fracturing or fracking.
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Put simply, fracking describes the recovery of natural gas from deep layers inside the earth.
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In this method, porous rock is fractured by the use of water, sand and chemicals in order to release the enclosed natural gas.
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The technique of fracking has been known since the 1940s.
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Nonetheless, only in the last 10 years has there been quite a fracking boom, especially in the USA.
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This is because most conventional natural gas sources in America and on the European continent have been exhausted.
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Thus, prices for natural gas and other fuels are rising steadily.
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Significantly more complicated and expensive methods, like fracking, have now become attractive and profitable.
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In the meantime, fracking has already been used more than a million times in the USA alone.
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Over 60% of all new oil and gas wells are drilled by using fracking.
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First, a shaft is drilled several hundred meters into the earth.
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From there, a horizontal hole is drilled into the gas-bearing layer of rock.
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On average, the fluid consists of 8 million liters of water, which amounts to about the daily consumption of 65,000 people,
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The mixture penetrates into the rock layer and produces innumerable tiny cracks.
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The sand prevents the cracks from closing again.
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The chemicals perform various tasks.
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Among other things, they compress the water, kill off bacteria or dissolve minerals.
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Next, the majority of the fracking fluid is pumped out again.
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And now the natural gas can be recovered.
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As soon as the gas source is exhausted, the drill hole is sealed.
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As a rule, the fracking fluid is pumped back into deep underground layers and sealed in there.
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The primary risk consists in the contamination of drinking water sources.
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The contamination is so severe that the water cannot even be cleaned in a treatment plant.
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Even though the danger is known and, theoretically, could be managed, in the USA already sources have been contaminated due to negligence.
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No one yet knows how the enclosed water will behave in the future, since there have not yet been any long-term studies on the subject.
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The chemicals used in fracking vary from the hazardous to the extremely toxic and carcinogenic, such as benzoyl or formic acid.
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Another risk is the release of greenhouse gases.
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The natural gas recovered by fracking consists largely of methane, a greenhouse gas which is 25 times more potent than carbon dioxide.
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When properly employed, this technique offers one way in the short to medium term to meet our demand for lower cost energy.
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The fundamental currency of our universe is energy.
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It lights our homes, grows our food, powers our computers.
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We can get it lots of ways, burning fossil fuels, splitting atoms or sunlight striking photovoltaics.
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But there's a downside to everything.
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Fossil fuels are extremely toxic, nuclear waste is, well, nuclear waste, and there are not enough batteries to store sunlight for cloudy days yet.
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And yet, the sun seems to have virtually limitless free energy.
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Is there a way we could build a sun on Earth?
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Can we bottle a star?
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The sun shines because of nuclear fusion.
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In a nutshell, fusion is a thermonuclear process, meaning that the ingredients have to be incredibly hot,
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Stars cheat to reach these temperatures.
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They are so massive that the pressure in their cores generates the heat to squeeze the nuclei together until they merge and fuse,
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It is this energy release that scientists hope to harness in a new generation of power plant, the fusion reactor.
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On Earth, it's not feasible to use this brute force method to create fusion,
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so if we wanted to build a reactor that generates energy from fusion, we have to get clever.
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To date, scientists have invented two ways of making plasmas hot enough to fuse.
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These magnetic confinement reactors, such as the ITER reactor in France, use superconducting electromagnets cooled with liquid helium
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The second type, called inertial confinement, uses pulses from super-powered lasers to heat the surface of a pellet of fuel,
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In fact, one of the most powerful lasers in the world is used for fusion experiments at the National Ignition Facility in the US.
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These experiments, and others like them around the world, are today just experiments.
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Scientists are still developing the technology.
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And although they can achieve fusion right now, it costs more energy to do the experiment than they produce in fusion.
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The technology has a long way to go before it's commercially viable.
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It might just be impossible to make a viable fusion reactor on Earth.
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But if it gets there, it would be so efficient that a single glass of seawater could be used to produce as much energy as burning a barrel of oil, with no waste to speak of.
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This is because fusion reactors would use hydrogen or helium as fuel, and seawater is loaded with hydrogen.
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But not just any hydrogen will do.
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Specific isotopes with extra neutrons, called deuterium and tritium, are needed to make the right reactions.
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Deuterium is stable and can be found in abundance in seawater, though tritium is a bit trickier.
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It's radioactive, and there may only be 20 kilograms of it in the world, mostly in nuclear warheads, which makes it incredibly expensive.
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So we may need another fusion buddy for deuterium instead of tritium.
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Helium-3, an isotope of helium, might be a great substitute.
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Unfortunately, it's also incredibly rare on Earth.
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But here, the Moon might have the answer.
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Over billions of years, the solar wind may have built up huge deposits of helium-3 on the Moon.
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Instead of making helium-3, we can mine it.
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If we could sift the lunar dust for helium, we'd have enough fuel to power the entire world for thousands of years.
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Okay, maybe you think building a mini-Sun still sounds kind of dangerous.
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But they'd actually be much safer than most other types of power plant.
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A fusion reactor is not like a nuclear plant, which can melt down catastrophically.
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If the confinement failed, then the plasma would expand and cool, and the reaction would stop.
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Put simply, it's not a bomb.
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The release of radioactive fuel like tritium could pose a threat to the environment.
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"token_end": 8,
"token_start": 8
},
{
"end": 82,
"label": "宾语",
"start": 56,
"token_end": 13,
"token_start": 9
}
] |
[
"The",
"release",
"of",
"radioactive",
"fuel",
"like",
"tritium",
"could",
"pose",
"a",
"threat",
"to",
"the",
"environment",
"."
] |
[
1,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
15,
19,
5,
6,
6,
6,
6,
0
] |
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