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775,250 | Smallpox in Angola was likely introduced shortly after Portuguese settlement of the area in 1484. The 1864 epidemic killed 25,000 inhabitants, one third of the total population in that same area. In 1713, an outbreak occurred in South Africa after a ship from India docked at Cape Town, bringing infected laundry ashore. Many of the settler European population suffered, and whole clans of the Khoisan people were wiped out. A second outbreak occurred in 1755, again affecting both the white population and the Khoisan. The disease spread further, completely eradicating several Khosian clans, all the way to the Kalahari desert. A third outbreak in 1767 similarly affected the Khoisan and Bantu peoples. But the European colonial settlers were not affected nearly to the extent that they were in the first two outbreaks, it has been speculated this is because of variolation. Continued enslavement operations brought smallpox to Cape Town again in 1840, taking the lives of 2500 people, and then to Uganda in the 1840s. It is estimated that up to eighty percent of the Griqua tribe was exterminated by smallpox in 1831, and whole tribes were being wiped out in Kenya up until 1899. Along the Zaire river basin were areas where no one survived the epidemics, leaving the land devoid of human life. In Ethiopia and the Sudan, six epidemics are recorded for the 19th century: 1811–1813, 1838–1839, 1865–1866, 1878–1879, 1885–1887, and 1889–1890. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20790125 | 774,834 |
312,110 | In 1961, Bull resigned from CARDE and McGill University hired him as a professor. Working together with Donald Mordell, the university's Dean of Engineering, Bull moved forward with his space gun project and requested funding from various sources. He received a $200,000 loan from McGill University's board of governors. He was given a verbal promise for a $500,000 grant from the Canadian Department of Defence Production (CDDP), which was later reportedly denied due to bureaucratic opposition. In October 1961, Bull met with Charles Murphy, the head of the Ballistic Research Laboratory, to pitch his project for a supergun and was met with overwhelming support. The U.S. Army provided Bull with substantial financial backing and two 16-inch naval gun barrels complete with a land mount and surplus powder charges, a heavy-duty crane, and a $750,000 radar tracking system. Bull and Mordell officially announced the HARP project as a program under McGill University's Space Research Institute at a press conference in March 1962. HARP was presented as a research initiative dedicated to "developing low-orbital capacity for geodetic and atmospheric objectives". However, the project's long-term goal was to place satellites into orbit economically. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=292089 | 311,942 |
2,110,369 | Osprey 1 performed well beyond the original expectation in that it has surpassed all design standards. During the trial in May 1988, it has successfully salvaged a BL-1 (BL = Ba Lei, 靶雷) training torpedo at the depth of 145 meters. In November of the same year, Osprey 1 successfully salvaged a Yu-4B torpedo used for evaluation from the depth of 143 meters. Both tasks were completed near the maximum working depth, and the submersible entered service in 1989. In addition to support naval weaponry tests, Osprey 1 was also used extensively used in underwater archeology, when its existence was revealed for the very first time when Chinese television broadcast the footage of such archeological activities in 2001. However, with the exception of brief appearance in the news footage, nothing else was released and Osprey 1 remained a mystery in the eyes of military enthusiasts, and it was not until half a decade later in 2006 when the details finally emerged, when the deputy general designer gave an interview to Chinese magazine Naval & Merchant Ships, providing a more detailed info. Osprey 1 had won several awards, including a 1st place in the National Scientific and Technological Advance Award, and a 1st place in the CSIC Scientific and Technological Advance Award. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=24285736 | 2,109,155 |
615,629 | In the Victorian era many aspects of life were succumbing to quantification. The theory of utility soon began to be applied to moral-philosophy discussions. The essential idea in utilitarianism is to judge people's decisions by looking at their change in utils and measure whether they are better off. The main forerunner of the utilitarian principles since the end of the 18th century was Jeremy Bentham, who believed utility could be measured by some complex introspective examination and that it should guide the design of social policies and laws. For Bentham a scale of pleasure has as a unit of intensity "the degree of intensity possessed by that pleasure which is the faintest of any that can be distinguished to be pleasure"; he also stated that, as these pleasures increase in intensity higher and higher numbers could represent them. In the 18th and 19th centuries utility's measurability received plenty of attention from European schools of political economy, most notably through the work of marginalists (e.g., William Stanley Jevons, Léon Walras, Alfred Marshall). However, neither of them offered solid arguments to support the assumption of measurability. In Jevon's case he added to the later editions of his work a note on the difficulty of estimating utility with accuracy. Walras, too, struggled for many years before he could even attempt to formalize the assumption of measurability. Marshall was ambiguous about the measurability of hedonism because he adhered to its psychological-hedonistic properties but he also argued that it was "unrealistical" to do so. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1448833 | 615,315 |
162,207 | Economists provided four overlapping explanations. The "early start" theory said that Britain's rivals were doing so well relatively because they were still moving large numbers of farm workers into more lucrative employment, structural change achieved in the UK in the 19th century. A second theory emphasised the "rejuvenation by defeat", whereby Germans and Japanese managers and politicians had been forced to reequip, rethink and restructure their economies. The third approach emphasised the drag of "Imperial distractions", whereby Britain's responsibilities to its extensive, though rapidly declining empire handicapped the domestic economy, especially through defence spending, and economic aid. Finally, the theory of "institutional failure" stressed the negative roles of discontinuity, unpredictability, and class envy. The last theory blamed public schools, and universities perpetuating an elitist anti-industrial attitude while trade unions were regarded as traditionalist and conservative. An additional factor, perhaps a feature of the social traditionalism, was the alleged disappointing performance of British management. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=33643110 | 162,122 |
1,490,429 | David Lack observed a direct relationship between latitude and avian clutch size. Comparable bird species near the equator laid approximately half as many eggs as those that resided in northern temperate habitats. He observed an increasing clutch-size from the equator towards the poles (something he referred to as the “latitude trend”) for many passerine (perching) birds, near-passerine (tree-dwelling) birds and in various other groups: Strigiformes, Falconiformes, Ciconiiformes, Laridae, Ralliformes, Galliformes, Podicipedifomes, and Glareolidae, and in some Limicolae. He proposed the Food Limitation Hypothesis in an attempt to explain this unique pattern. The hypothesis states that avian clutch size differences arise from differences in food availability. Nature favours clutch sizes that correspond to the average maximum number of offspring that the parent can sustain given a limited food supply. Thus, the shortage of food supply in tropical habitats (near the equator) limits avian clutch size. Furthermore, the higher abundance of predators near the equator as compared to regions near the poles gave rise to the Nest Predation Hypothesis. High rates of nest predation may select for smaller clutches to reduce the parental investment in a single nesting attempt. Moreover, larger clutches are more likely to be spotted by predators due to an increased rate of food delivery by the parent. This increase in parental activity will increase the probability that predators will locate nests. Various studies have been performed to find supporting evidence for these two hypotheses. One theoretical research study suggested that the latitudinal gradient in clutch size can be explained by the increasing seasonality of resources from the tropics to the poles by itself or in conjunction with a decreasing rate of predation and breeding season. However, field studies have provided little support for either of these hypotheses. It is clear that Lack's Food Limitation Hypothesis and the Nest Predation Hypothesis are plausible explanations for explaining the latitudinal variation in avian clutch size. However, further analysis is required as field studies have provided little support for these hypotheses. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38947002 | 1,489,590 |
622,591 | While both APDs and SPADs are semiconductor p-n junctions that are heavily reverse biased, the principle difference in their properties is derived from their different biasing points upon the reverse I-V characteristic, i.e. the reverse voltage applied to their junction. An APD, in comparison to a SPAD, is not biased above its breakdown voltage. This is because the multiplication of charge carriers is known to occur prior to the breakdown of the device with this being utilised to achieve a stable gain that varies with the applied voltage. For optical detection applications, the resulting avalanche and subsequent current in its biasing circuit is linearly related to the optical signal intensity. The APD is therefore useful to achieve moderate up-front amplification of low-intensity optical signals but is often combined with a trans-impedance amplifier (TIA) as the APD's output is a current rather than the voltage of a typical amplifier. The resultant signal is a non-distorted, amplified version of the input, allowing for the measurement of complex processes that modulate the amplitude of the incident light. The internal multiplication gain factors for APDs vary by application, however typical values are of the order of few hundreds. The avalanche of carriers is not divergent in this operating region, while the avalanche present in SPADs quickly builds into a run-away (divergent) condition. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=972711 | 622,259 |
663,185 | Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are naturally released from volcanoes, organic compounds in the soil, wetlands, and marine systems, but the majority of these compounds come from the combustion of coal, oil, gasoline, and the smelting of ores containing sulfur. These substances dissolve in atmospheric moisture and enter lentic systems as acid rain. Lakes and ponds that contain bedrock that is rich in carbonates have a natural buffer, resulting in no alteration of pH. Systems without this bedrock, however, are very sensitive to acid inputs because they have a low neutralizing capacity, resulting in pH declines even with only small inputs of acid. At a pH of 5–6 algal species diversity and biomass decrease considerably, leading to an increase in water transparency – a characteristic feature of acidified lakes. As the pH continues lower, all fauna becomes less diverse. The most significant feature is the disruption of fish reproduction. Thus, the population is eventually composed of few, old individuals that eventually die and leave the systems without fishes. Acid rain has been especially harmful to lakes in Scandinavia, western Scotland, west Wales and the north eastern United States. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4479734 | 662,840 |
1,533,606 | Durkheim also borrows from Darwinian theory, and specifically from Darwin's The Origin of Species, for his explanation.(Rueschemeyer, 1982) In the animal kingdom, a single species of animal, like sheep, cannot survive in very high volumes on a given stretch of land because each animal makes exactly the same demands on that land. (Gibbs, 2003) They need to exist in symbiosis with other species, like the bees that fertilize the plants they consume, in order to thrive in greater numbers. (Gibbs, 2003) The same holds true within a human population. Had primitive societies increased in population density for many generations without an eventual specialization of tasks, competition for resources among the increasing number of people would have become so fierce that humans would have started dying off. (Merton, 1994) However, a growing population alone is not sufficient to spark a change in the division of labor, because individuals and small groups of people can live in relative isolation from one another and still perform most of the tasks necessary for survival themselves, no matter how big the overall population gets. (Ritzer, 2007) A growing population must also increase the frequency with which people interact within and between social groups; this increase in dynamic density is likely to spark a division of labor and the transformation of social solidarity. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7751001 | 1,532,738 |
1,289,249 | The RAAF's Phantoms suffered several accidents. The first occurred on 19 October 1970 when the systems needed to power the brake skid and nosewheel steering on board Phantom A69-7234 failed during flight. It was decided to use Amberley's arresting equipment to slow the aircraft as it landed, but this system failed after A69-7234's tail hook engaged the wires, causing the Phantom to slide off the runway. The pilot only suffered minor injuries and the navigator was unhurt, but A69-7234 was badly damaged. The aircraft was subsequently rebuilt by No. 3 Aircraft Depot and returned to service on 30 September 1971; at the time this was the most complex Phantom repair task to have been undertaken by military personnel in any of the countries operating the aircraft. The next serious accident occurred on the night of 16 June 1971 when A69-7203 crashed into the sea during an exercise near Evans Head, New South Wales, resulting in the death of the aircraft's pilot and navigator. The cost of this aircraft was written off against that of an Australian Lockheed P-3B Orion that had crashed in the United States during 1968 before being delivered to the RAAF. Other accidents involving the Phantom included A67-7220 being over-stressed in flight during February 1971 (which led to its engines being sent back to the United States for repairs) and A69-7206's nosewheel collapsing during takeoff in January 1972. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=36437816 | 1,288,540 |
394,767 | Food webs are complex networks. As networks, they exhibit similar structural properties and mathematical laws that have been used to describe other complex systems, such as small world and scale free properties. The small world attribute refers to the many loosely connected nodes, non-random dense clustering of a few nodes (i.e., trophic or keystone species in ecology), and small path length compared to a regular lattice. "Ecological networks, especially mutualistic networks, are generally very heterogeneous, consisting of areas with sparse links among species and distinct areas of tightly linked species. These regions of high link density are often referred to as cliques, hubs, compartments, cohesive sub-groups, or modules...Within food webs, especially in aquatic systems, nestedness appears to be related to body size because the diets of smaller predators tend to be nested subsets of those of larger predators (Woodward & Warren 2007; YvonDurocher et al. 2008), and phylogenetic constraints, whereby related taxa are nested based on their common evolutionary history, are also evident (Cattin et al. 2004)." "Compartments in food webs are subgroups of taxa in which many strong interactions occur within the subgroups and few weak interactions occur between the subgroups. Theoretically, compartments increase the stability in networks, such as food webs." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=145772 | 394,572 |
1,159,327 | For the plutonium-producing production reactors, the same reasons mandated the use of natural uranium fuel and graphite as a moderator; but it was originally assumed that they would be water-cooled like the American reactors at the Hanford Site. A water-cooled reactor of the required size would require about of water per day, preferably very pure so as to avoid corroding the metal pipes. Moreover, there were concerns about safety. Water absorbs neutrons, so if there is a sudden loss of cooling water this will result in an increase in the neutron flux and the reactor temperature, and possibly a catastrophic nuclear meltdown. Such an event did indeed occur in the Chernobyl disaster in 1986. The American solution was to locate the facility in a remote location, but in the densely-populated British Isles the only such locations were in the north and west of Scotland. By April 1947, Hinton had convinced Portal of the advantages of a gas-cooled system. Helium was at first the preferred choice as a coolant gas, but the main source of it was the United States, and under the McMahon Act, the United States would not supply it for nuclear weapons production, so, in the end, air cooling was chosen. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=52573493 | 1,158,712 |
766,238 | It was originally thought that "Microraptor" was a glider, and probably lived mainly in trees, because the hindwings anchored to the feet of "Microraptor" would have hindered their ability to run on the ground. Some paleontologists have suggested that feathered dinosaurs used their wings to parachute from trees, possibly to attack or ambush prey on the ground, as a precursor to gliding or true flight. In their 2007 study, Chatterjee and Templin tested this hypothesis as well, and found that the combined wing surface of "Microraptor" was too narrow to successfully parachute to the ground without injury from any significant height. However, the authors did leave open the possibility that "Microraptor" could have parachuted short distances, as between closely spaced tree branches. Wind tunnel experiments have demonstrated that sustaining a high-lift coefficient at the expense of high drag was likely the most efficient strategy for "Microraptor" when gliding between low elevations. "Microraptor" did not require a sophisticated, 'modern' wing morphology to be an effective glider. However, the idea that "Microraptor" was an arboreal glider relies on it to have regularly climbed or even lived in trees, when study of its anatomy have shown that its limb proportions fall in line with modern ground birds rather than climbers, and its skeleton shows none of the expected adaptations in animals specialized for climbing trees. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1025693 | 765,828 |
2,190,686 | Parker earned a bachelor's degree from Allegheny College in 1963. He obtained MS and PhD degrees from the University of Pennsylvania. He then joined the faculty of the Department of Physics and Astronomy at UCI in 1967 and he has remained there for his entire career. He was a Sloan Research Fellow from 1968 to 1970. In collaboration with Donald N. Langenberg and Barry N. Taylor, Parker used the alternating current Josephson effect to precisely measure "e"/"h", the ratio of the elementary charge ("e") to Planck's constant ("h"). This ratio could then also be used to refine the value of other fundamental constants such as the fine-structure constant ("α"). The new measurement of "α" removed a discrepancy between the theoretical and experimental values of the hyperfine splitting in the ground state of atomic hydrogen, one of the major unsolved problems of quantum electrodynamics at time. For this research, Parker received the John Price Wetherill Medal from the Franklin Institute in 1975. Parker's other research examined Josephson junctions and other aspects of low temperature physics including quasiparticle and phonon lifetimes, quasiparticle energy distribution in superconducting films, surface impedance, and thermal fluctuations in superconducting materials. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=65445164 | 2,189,437 |
1,695,053 | Treatment of AIT involves antibiotic treatment. Based on the offending organism found on microscopic examination of the stained fine needle aspirate, the appropriate antibiotic treatment is determined. In the case of a severe infection, systemic antibiotics are necessary. Empirical broad spectrum antimicrobial treatment provides preliminary coverage for a variety of bacteria, including "S. aureus" and "S. pyogenes." Antimicrobial options include penicillinase-resistant penicillins (ex: cloxacillin, dicloxacillin) or a combination of a penicillin and a beta-lactamase inhibitor. However, in patients with a penicillin allergy, clindamycin or a macrolide can be prescribed. The majority of anaerobic organisms involved with AIT are susceptible to penicillin. Certain Gram-negative bacilli (ex: "Prevotella", "Fusobacteriota", and "Porphyromonas") are exhibiting an increased resistance based on the production of beta-lactamase. Patients who have undergone recent penicillin therapy have demonstrated an increase in beta-lactamase-producing (anaerobic and aerobic) bacteria. Clindamycin, or a combination of metronidazole and a macrolide, or a penicillin combined with a beta-lactamase inhibitor is recommended in these cases. Fungal thyroiditis can be treated with amphotericin B and fluconazole. Early treatment of AIT prevents further complications. However, if antibiotic treatment does not manage the infection, surgical drainage is required. Symptoms or indications requiring drainage include continued fever, high white blood cell count, and continuing signs of localized inflammation. The draining procedure is also based on clinical examination or ultrasound/CT scan results that indicate an abscess or gas formation. Another treatment of AIT involves surgically removing the fistula. This treatment is often the option recommended for children. However, in cases of an antibiotic resistant infection or necrotic tissue, a lobectomy is recommended. If diagnosis and/or treatment is delayed, the disease could prove fatal. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22170852 | 1,694,102 |
94,209 | Subsequent to the discovery of the CMB, hundreds of cosmic microwave background experiments have been conducted to measure and characterize the signatures of the radiation. The most famous experiment is probably the NASA Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) satellite that orbited in 1989–1996 and which detected and quantified the large scale anisotropies at the limit of its detection capabilities. Inspired by the initial COBE results of an extremely isotropic and homogeneous background, a series of ground- and balloon-based experiments quantified CMB anisotropies on smaller angular scales over the next decade. The primary goal of these experiments was to measure the angular scale of the first acoustic peak, for which COBE did not have sufficient resolution. These measurements were able to rule out cosmic strings as the leading theory of cosmic structure formation, and suggested cosmic inflation was the right theory. During the 1990s, the first peak was measured with increasing sensitivity and by 2000 the BOOMERanG experiment reported that the highest power fluctuations occur at scales of approximately one degree. Together with other cosmological data, these results implied that the geometry of the universe is flat. A number of ground-based interferometers provided measurements of the fluctuations with higher accuracy over the next three years, including the Very Small Array, Degree Angular Scale Interferometer (DASI), and the Cosmic Background Imager (CBI). DASI made the first detection of the polarization of the CMB and the CBI provided the first E-mode polarization spectrum with compelling evidence that it is out of phase with the T-mode spectrum. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7376 | 94,168 |
205,943 | Until recently it was thought that self-recognition was absent from animals without a neocortex, and was restricted to mammals with large brains and well developed social cognition. However, in 2008 a study of self-recognition in corvids reported significant results for magpies. Mammals and birds inherited the same brain components from their last common ancestor nearly 300 million years ago, and have since independently evolved and formed significantly different brain types. The results of the mirror and mark tests showed that neocortex-less magpies are capable of understanding that a mirror image belongs to their own body. The findings show that magpies respond in the mirror and mark test in a manner similar to apes, dolphins and elephants. This is a remarkable capability that, although not fully concrete in its determination of self-recognition, is at least a prerequisite of self-recognition. This is not only of interest regarding the convergent evolution of social intelligence; it is also valuable for an understanding of the general principles that govern cognitive evolution and their underlying neural mechanisms. The magpies were chosen to study based on their empathy/lifestyle, a possible precursor for their ability of self-awareness. However even in the chimpanzee, the species most studied and with the most convincing findings, clear-cut evidence of self-recognition is not obtained in all individuals tested. Occurrence is about 75% in young adults and considerably less in young and old individuals. For monkeys, non-primate mammals, and in a number of bird species, exploration of the mirror and social displays were observed. However, hints at mirror-induced self-directed behavior have been obtained. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13001588 | 205,837 |
2,200,197 | "Prostylotermes" is known from only two fossils, the holotype female and a single paratype male, both of which are inclusions in a transparent chunk of amber. The amber, number "Tad-321C" is housed in the fossil collection of the Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany in Lucknow, India. Both the holotype and paratype are composed of mostly complete adult termites though some areas of the female were lost on the surface of the amber specimen. Cambay amber dates to between fifty and fifty-two million years old, placing it in the Early to Mid Ypresian age of the Eocene, and was preserved in a brackish shore environment. The amber formed from a dammar type resin which is produced mainly by trees in the family Dipterocarpaceae. The "Prostylotermes" type specimen was recovered from the Tadkeshwar lignite mine, located in Gujarat State, during a collecting trip during January 2010. The fossil was first studied by paleoentomologists Michael S. Engel and David Grimaldi, both of the American Museum of Natural History. Engel and Grimaldi's 2011 type description of the new genus and species was published in the online journal "ZooKeys". The genus name "Prostylotermes" was coined as a combination of the Greek word "pro" meaning "before" and "Stylotermes", the type genus of Stylotermitidae. The specific epithet "kamboja" is in reference to the Kamboja tribe of ancient India literature who settled the area now called Khambat and formerly called Cambay. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=37188163 | 2,198,945 |
1,550,852 | Measuring clumped populations of organisms in nature can prove challenging at times for researchers. Quadrat sampling, a favored method by ecologists to study the density of populations, is not as effective with criteria such as those groups that are clumped. Other methods instead can be utilized to measure clumped populations, such as the line-intercept method which is more popular with organisms that can be studied and identified before they move. The reasoning behind organisms clumping revolve around resources being restrained in smaller regions within larger ones and select organisms forming social groups. The funnel-web spider ("Agelenopsis aperta") at smaller scales are evenly distributed in their habitats, but are a clumped species on larger scales. The reasoning for this is two-fold. Firstly, these types of spiders prefer environments with the ability to attract insect prey and have favorable thermal properties. Secondly, there is a limited space for spiders to establish their websites, and competition for these spaces is substantial. However, on a macro scale, most organisms actually have clumped distributions due to their habitats not being eventually distributed over extensive areas. Similar trends are seen with other species of spiders. "Stegodyphus lineatus" sees disadvantages no matter what other parameters exist when feeding in large groups. Otherwise, these types of spiders were able to survive in close proximity most effectively when they were of approximate equal size. The size of groups also played a role in the ability of these spiders to live. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=660213 | 1,549,971 |
1,964,192 | MinXSS launched on 2015 December 6 to the International Space Station as part of the Orbital ATK Cygnus CRS OA-4 cargo resupply mission. The launch vehicle was a United Launch Alliance Atlas V rocket in the 401 configuration. CubeSat ridesharing was organized as part of NASA ELaNa-IX. Deployment from the International Space Station was achieved with a NanoRacks CubeSat Deployer on 2016 May 16. Spacecraft beacons were picked up soon after by amateur radio operators around the world. Commissioning of the spacecraft was completed on 2016 June 14 and observations of solar flares captured nearly continuously since then. The altitude rapidly decayed in the last week of the mission as atmospheric drag increased exponentially with altitude. The last contact from MinXSS came on 2017-05-06 at 02:37:26 UTC from a HAM operator in Australia. At that time, some temperatures on the spacecraft were already in excess of 100 °C. (One temperature of >300 °C indicated that the solar panel had disconnected, suggesting this contact was only moments before disintegration.) Science data spanning the entire mission are publicly available. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50993511 | 1,963,064 |
8,204 | Some psychologists study motivation or the subject of why people or lower animals initiate a behavior at a particular time. It also involves the study of why humans and lower animals continue or terminate a behavior. Psychologists such as William James initially used the term "motivation" to refer to intention, in a sense similar to the concept of "will" in European philosophy. With the steady rise of Darwinian and Freudian thinking, instinct also came to be seen as a primary source of motivation. According to drive theory, the forces of instinct combine into a single source of energy which exerts a constant influence. Psychoanalysis, like biology, regarded these forces as demands originating in the nervous system. Psychoanalysts believed that these forces, especially the sexual instincts, could become entangled and transmuted within the psyche. Classical psychoanalysis conceives of a struggle between the pleasure principle and the reality principle, roughly corresponding to id and ego. Later, in "Beyond the Pleasure Principle", Freud introduced the concept of the "death drive", a compulsion towards aggression, destruction, and psychic repetition of traumatic events. Meanwhile, behaviorist researchers used simple dichotomous models (pleasure/pain, reward/punishment) and well-established principles such as the idea that a thirsty creature will take pleasure in drinking. Clark Hull formalized the latter idea with his drive reduction model. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 | 8,201 |
2,056,900 | After the war a vast majority of the PSM graduates decided not to return to Poland. In the years that followed the 209 alumni encountered several difficulties in finding suitable medical vacancies in the UK. With the big numbers of UK doctors coming back to the country, Polish doctors were in a difficult position. The situation was even more challenging because initially the Polish School of Medicine degrees were not recognised by the General Medical Council. The situation changed on 18 December 1947, when the British parliament passed (approved?) the "Medical Practitioners and Pharmacists Act, 1947" which allowed PSM alumni to register and work as doctors in the UK. With the limited possibilities for satisfactory positions in Great Britain many PSM graduates ended up working outside Europe within the commonwealth (i.e. Henryk Podlewski, Lukasz Kulczycki, Jean Kryszek). Overall eventually 128 doctors settled in Great Britain. Some of them were very successful in their medical careers. Professor Henryk Urich became the head of the department of Neuropathology within the London Hospital Medical School. Henryk Maslowski was the head of Neurosurgery in Manchester. At least 11 graduates remained or returned to Edinburgh after a period in the British Colonial Service – Józef Goldberg, Kazimierz Durkacz, Stefan Adamczewski, Dawid Becher, Władysław Kluger, Maria Dobroszycka, Janina Ciekałowska, Władysław Koźmiński, Kazimierz Kuczyński, Krystyna Munk, Tadeusz Michał Kraszewski (after returning from Borneo) and Wiktor Tomaszewski. Many of the graduates stayed in the Far East and Africa (Jean Kryszek), a big number of alumni settled in the United States and Canada. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=53285977 | 2,055,716 |
1,902,885 | The college began formally enrolling students in January 1873. In its first year, the school enrolled 98 males and 79 females, making it the first college in the state to offer co-educational enrollment. Shortly thereafter in 1878, it became the first co-ed college in the state to graduate a female student. The school's first president was David W. Lewis. Lewis was fervently devoted to the development of the institution. Upon his arrival he donated his personal library to the school. In addition to serving as the school's president, he also served as one of the two professors at the school- teaching Greek and English literature. For about the first thirty years of North Georgia Agricultural College's history it was mostly an agricultural college in name alone. It was only in 1902 that the college established its first and only agricultural chair. In essence NGAC was a liberal arts college, focusing more on courses such as law, Latin, Greek, English literature, theoretical mathematics, natural sciences, history, and philosophy. In addition to its liberal arts curriculum the college also made military training compulsory- as was stipulated by the Morrill Land Act to all land-grant colleges. This requirement marked the beginning of the University of North Georgia's enduring military identity. This military program's cadet corps eventually became involved in the newly established Reserve Officers' Training Corps(ROTC) in 1916. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38647111 | 1,901,794 |
1,243,093 | Fishery products are a source of wide variety of valuable nutrients such as proteins, vitamins, minerals, omega-3 fatty acids, taurine, etc. Fishery products, however, are also associated with human intoxication and infection. Approximately 10 to 20% of food-borne illnesses are attributed to fish consumption. Changing consumer demand has driven the appeal of traditional processes applied to seafood (e.g. salting, smoking and canning) lower compared to mild technologies involving lower salt content, lower cooking temperature and vacuum packing (VP)/modified atmosphere packing (MAP). These products, designed as lightly preserved fish products (LPFP), are usually produced from fresh seafood and further processing increases risk of cross contamination. These milder treatments are usually not sufficient to destroy microorganisms, and in some cases psychrotolerant pathogenic and spoilage bacteria can develop during the extended shelf-life of LPFP. Many of these products are also eaten raw, so minimizing the presence and preventing growth of microorganisms is essential for the food quality and safety. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31196402 | 1,242,420 |
620,671 | The clutch size is typically 3-4 (rarely from as few as 1 to as many as 6), with the eggs being pure white and quite rounded. The mean egg laying dates in Fennoscandia are between mid-March and late April. In montane Slovenia, somewhat surprisingly, it is slightly later at late March into early June. Mean clutch size was found to be 2.93 in Sweden. Mean clutch size in Finland was 2.24 but could range from 2.08 to 3.98 on average in poor and good years for vole prey. Mean clutch size in Slovenia is about 3.3. Another Slovenian study showed a fairly lower mean clutch size of 2.4 with evidence that clutch was reduced by low food access in the early part of the breeding season. Clutch size in a small sample from Nizhny Novgorod Russia was found to average 3.6. The clutch size average in nest boxes of Samara Oblast was 2.4. Egg sizes are usually between in height by in diameter, and the eggs weighing on average about when fresh. Based on studies in southern Finland, amongst 59 studied females, egg size varies by 22.4% through the cycle years and the largest eggs are roughly twice the mass of the smallest, a very considerable variation. The eggs are laid directly to bottom of nesting surface in roughly 2 day intervals. Females alone incubate usually beginning with the first egg, and is fed by her mate throughout. In 108 female Ural owls from Finland the start of incubation varied individually, with synchronous hatching shown to be disadvantageous to overall productivity. Evidence was found that females repeated their incubation start time annually was moderately strong (26% repeatability) so it may be an evolved trait. Incubation lasts for 28 to 35 days and averages about 6 days longer than the incubation period of the tawny owl. The hatchlings break at concurrent time lapses as the eggs are laid (about 2 days), the females staying by until fledging. The downy chick is white; at the stage when they typically leave the nest (or mesoptile stage) the downy is pale dirty whitish and barred with greyish-brown on head, nape, mantle and underparts. Nestlings leave the nest at about 35 days old and can fly at 45 days. They are fed and cared for over an additional 2 months or so after leaving the nests. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=815909 | 620,343 |
841,121 | These factors cause an attenuated receiver signal and lead to higher bit error ratio (BER). To overcome these issues, vendors found some solutions, like multi-beam or multi-path architectures, which use more than one sender and more than one receiver. Some state-of-the-art devices also have larger fade margin (extra power, reserved for rain, smog, fog). To keep an eye-safe environment, good FSO systems have a limited laser power density and support laser classes 1 or 1M. Atmospheric and fog attenuation, which are exponential in nature, limit practical range of FSO devices to several kilometres. However, free-space optics based on 1550 nm wavelength, have considerably lower optical loss than free-space optics using 830 nm wavelength, in dense fog conditions. FSO using wavelength 1550 nm system are capable of transmitting several times higher power than systems with 850 nm and are safe to the human eye (1M class). Additionally, some free-space optics, such as EC SYSTEM, ensure higher connection reliability in bad weather conditions by constantly monitoring link quality to regulate laser diode transmission power with built-in automatic gain control. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=71575 | 840,671 |
1,648,900 | Because polarization appears similar in 16 European countries as well as the U.S. it seems likely that similar forces affect these shared economic developments. Loss of American manufacturing jobs to overseas global competitors has removed many middle skill jobs. Structural changes with more investment in robotics has removed other middle skill jobs globally, but not the lowest skill or the highest skill. As computers become more competent, this may change. Changes in education in the Third World, with increased education levels in the rest of the world compared to levels in industrial nations, has affected highly industrial economies. Unionization has mixed effects on polarization, since it tends to raise wages at all levels, but reduces the differences between managerial and other employees. The decline in unionization in America may increase polarization slightly. Globalization also lowers wages across the board.The most powerful causes are the redistributive effects of government, through laws such as those that discourage unionization, determine corporate governance, and limit the extent of monopoly rents. These laws generally are plutocratic and accrue benefit to those at the top, at the expense of those in the middle, driving many of the latter into the bottom. As an example of how polarization is affected by labor demand, rather than skill distributions, changing patterns of employment and earnings show strong correlations between wages and the proportion of a skill group employed. When fewer are employed, the wages go down rather than up as simple supply and demand would predict. Another factor is the levelling off of the supply of college graduates after the 1970s in the US and the consequent increase in the wage gap between college graduates and high school graduates. Whether this is also occurring in other industrial countries is not so clear. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=37509351 | 1,647,968 |
2,038,753 | For 15 years of the journal's existence, the main place belonged to research articles, which occupied from one third to half of the total page. Here the most frequent topics were: the history of the three Russian revolutions, the revolutionary movement in Russia in the 19th century, the history of the peoples of the Soviet Union, and in the 1930s – the socio–economic history of Russia and the history of the All–Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks). The main topics of world history in the magazine were: the history of the French Revolution, Western European revolutions in the 19th century, the Paris Commune, the international workers', socialist and communist movement, the national liberation war of the colonies and dependent countries. Ancient and medieval history was developed mainly by representatives of the old historical school and did not fit into the new conditions. The main place was occupied by articles on modern history. This was due to the fact that there were still few specialists in contemporary history. Nevertheless, the authors turned to the recent history of England, France and Germany. The first articles on Soviet American studies were written, which examined the rise of the revolutionary movement and the national liberation struggle in Latin American countries. Since the mid–1930s, the first studies on the history of the Middle Ages, the Ancient World began to appear, issues of ethnography, archaeology, auxiliary historical disciplines were covered. At the same time, the magazine began to publish articles on the history of feudalism. Oriental studies in the journal were poorly developed, since there was no strong enough team of authors and there was strong competition from other journals – "New East", "Problems of China", "Pacific Ocean" and "World Economy and World Politics". Despite this, the journal published works devoted to the national liberation struggle of the peoples of the East in modern and modern times, and from the mid–1930s, articles on the ancient history of the East and the Middle Ages began to appear. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=68425126 | 2,037,576 |
1,622,406 | where "L" is the number of unlinked markers. The denominator is derived from the gamma distribution as a robust estimator of formula_5. Other estimators have been suggested, for example, Reich and Goldstein suggested using the mean of the statistics instead. This is not the only way to estimate formula_5 but according to Bacanu et al. it is an appropriate estimate even if some of the unlinked markers are actually in disequilibrium with a disease causing locus or are themselves associated with the disease. Under the null hypothesis and when correcting for stratification using "L" unlinked genes, formula_13 is approximately formula_14 distributed. With this correction the overall type I error rate should be approximately equal to formula_15 even when the population is stratified. Devlin and Roeder (1999) mostly considered the situation where formula_16 gives a 95% confidence level and not smaller p-values. Marchini et al. (2004) demonstrates by simulation that genomic control can lead to an anti-conservative p-value if this value is very small and the two populations (case and control) are extremely distinct. This was especially a problem if the number of unlinked markers were in the order 50−100. This can result in false positives (at that significance level). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=59659427 | 1,621,490 |
1,231,902 | As described in the "Book of the Later Han", the frame of the seismometer was a domed bronze vessel in the shape of a wine jar, although it was in diameter and decorated with scenes of mountains and animals. The trigger mechanism was an inverted pendulum (which the "Book of the Later Han" calls the "central column") that, if disturbed by the ground tremors of earthquakes located near or far away, would swing and strike one of eight mobile arms (representing the eight directions), each with a crank and catch mechanism. The crank and a right angle lever would raise one of eight metal dragon heads located on the exterior, dislodging a metal ball from its mouth that dropped into the mouth of one of eight metal toads below arranged like the points on a compass rose, thus indicating the direction of the earthquake. The "Book of the Later Han" states that when the ball fell into any one of eight toad mouths, it produced a loud noise which gained the attention of those observing the device. While Wang Zhenduo (王振铎) accepted the idea that Zhang's seismometer had cranks and levers which were disturbed by the inverted pendulum, his contemporary Akitsune Imamura (1870–1948) argued that the inverted pendulum could have had a pin at the top which, upon moving by force of the ground vibrations, would enter one of eight slots and expel the ball by pushing a slider. Since the "Book of the Later Han" states that the other seven dragon heads would not subsequently release the balls lodged up into their jaws after the first one had dropped, Imamura asserted that the pin of the pendulum would have been locked into the slot it had entered and thus immobilized the instrument until it was reset. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21620577 | 1,231,240 |
955,107 | She was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1989. McClintock received the Benjamin Franklin Medal for Distinguished Achievement in the Sciences of the American Philosophical Society in 1993. She had been previously elected to the APS in 1946. She was awarded 14 Honorary Doctor of Science degrees and an Honorary Doctor of Humane Letters. In 1986 she was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame. During her final years, McClintock led a more public life, especially after Evelyn Fox Keller's 1983 biography of her, "A Feeling for the Organism," brought McClintock's story to the public. She remained a regular presence in the Cold Spring Harbor community, and gave talks on mobile genetic elements and the history of genetics research for the benefit of junior scientists. An anthology of her 43 publications "The Discovery and Characterization of Transposable Elements: The Collected Papers of Barbara McClintock" was published in 1987. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=55188 | 954,602 |
1,539,948 | Gordon's last five years were devoted also to completing an analysis of the top-heavy bureaucratic structure of U.S. corporations and its relationship to the decline in the real wages of U.S. workers since the mid-1970s—two phenomena on which he had focused attention in his earlier work. This effort culminated in the publication two months after his death of "Fat and Mean: The Corporate Squeeze of Working Americans and the Myth of Managerial 'Downsizing"' (1996). In this book, Gordon refutes with an impressive array of quantitative evidence much of the conventional wisdom about U.S. corporate management and its relations with workers. He argues that U.S. corporations have gone "mean" rather than "lean", employing more managers and supervisors per worker than ever before. He attributes the long-term squeeze on U.S. workers' real wages not so much to increasing international economic integration and increasingly complex technology as to corporate executives' choice of a "low-road" business strategy, involving the use of discipline and negative sanctions, rather than a "high-road" strategy, emphasizing positive incentives to motivate work. Always concerned to use understanding of the world in order to change it for the better, Gordon concluded the book with a chapter devoted to policy recommendations designed to promote more democratic and cooperative high-road approaches to labor management. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=26644045 | 1,539,075 |
1,108,695 | His investigations on the synthesis of organic compounds were published in numerous papers and books, including "Chimie organique fondée sur la synthèse" (1860) and "Les Carbures d'hydrogène" (1901). He stated that chemical phenomena are not governed by any peculiar laws special to themselves, but are explicable in terms of the general laws of mechanics that are in operation throughout the universe; and this view he developed, with the aid of thousands of experiments, in his "Mécanique chimique" (1878) and his "Thermochimie" (1897). This branch of study naturally conducted him to the investigation of explosives, and on the theoretical side led to the results published in his work "Sur la force de la poudre et des matières explosives" (1872), while in practical terms it enabled him to render important services to his country as president of the scientific defence committee during the siege of Paris (1870–1871) and subsequently as chief of the French explosives committee. He performed experiments to determine gas pressures during hydrogen explosions using a special chamber fitted with a piston, and was able to distinguish burning of mixtures of hydrogen and oxygen from true explosions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=191836 | 1,108,130 |
1,000,342 | The process of comparing 3D data against a CAD model is referred to as CAD-Compare, and can be a useful technique for applications such as determining wear patterns on moulds and tooling, determining accuracy of final build, analysing gap and flush, or analysing highly complex sculpted surfaces. At present, laser triangulation scanners, structured light and contact scanning are the predominant technologies employed for industrial purposes, with contact scanning remaining the slowest, but overall most accurate option. Nevertheless, 3D scanning technology offers distinct advantages compared to traditional touch probe measurements. White-light or laser scanners accurately digitize objects all around, capturing fine details and freeform surfaces without reference points or spray. The entire surface is covered at record speed without the risk of damaging the part. Graphic comparison charts illustrate geometric deviations of full object level, providing deeper insights into potential causes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2714255 | 999,824 |
1,188,110 | A block diagram of a modern Josephson voltage standard system is shown in Fig. 7. The Josephson array chip is mounted inside a high-permeability magnetic shield at the end of a cryoprobe that makes the transition between a liquid helium Dewar and the room temperature environment. Some systems use a cryocooler to cool the chip and eliminate the need for liquid helium. Three pairs of copper wires are connected to the array. One pair supplies bias current, a second monitors the array voltage with an oscilloscope, and the third pair delivers the array voltage to the calibration system. All of the wires pass through multiple levels of RFI filtering in a box at the top of the Dewar. The box, the filters, and the Dewar itself form a shield that protects the Josephson array from electromagnetic interference that could cause step transitions. Microwave power is delivered through a waveguide consisting of a 12 mm diameter tube with WR-12 launching horns on each end. Tubes of solid German silver or stainless steel plated internally with silver or gold are commonly used. This waveguide simultaneously achieves low thermal loss (<0.5 L liquid He per day) and low microwave loss (as low as 0.7 dB at 75 GHz). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=47967448 | 1,187,478 |
1,886,166 | Alameda Science and Technology has defined an "ASTI Course of Study" that aligns Alameda Unified School District and State of California graduation requirements with the requirements of the College of Alameda required for transfer to four-year universities. ASTI emphasizes a freshman and sophomore core curriculum that supports student preparation for college preparation through enrollment in courses that concentrate on transfer of skills in reading, writing, speaking and critical thinking. ASTI ensures all students are involved in challenging learning experiences through its deliberate focus on rigorous and accelerated instruction in a well-defined academic course of study. The ASTI curriculum explicitly provides for reinforcement of literacy in areas that are crucial to college success. Through its concentration on writing and speaking, ASTI prepares its students with the skills necessary to promote college-level language production and content presentation. Students are involved in a strand of interdisciplinary projects that align disparate subject areas: in this manner, ASTI teachers scaffold and structure student learning experiences to consciously aim at individual assignments and group projects of increasing difficulty and progressing complexity. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=16449928 | 1,885,084 |
65,837 | As a side effect of the electrochemical processes used by neurons for signaling, brain tissue generates electric fields when it is active. When large numbers of neurons show synchronized activity, the electric fields that they generate can be large enough to detect outside the skull, using electroencephalography (EEG) or magnetoencephalography (MEG). EEG recordings, along with recordings made from electrodes implanted inside the brains of animals such as rats, show that the brain of a living animal is constantly active, even during sleep. Each part of the brain shows a mixture of rhythmic and nonrhythmic activity, which may vary according to behavioral state. In mammals, the cerebral cortex tends to show large slow delta waves during sleep, faster alpha waves when the animal is awake but inattentive, and chaotic-looking irregular activity when the animal is actively engaged in a task, called beta and gamma waves. During an epileptic seizure, the brain's inhibitory control mechanisms fail to function and electrical activity rises to pathological levels, producing EEG traces that show large wave and spike patterns not seen in a healthy brain. Relating these population-level patterns to the computational functions of individual neurons is a major focus of current research in neurophysiology. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3717 | 65,812 |
1,237,652 | Despite this fragmentation, operational space systems were being developed and deployed at an ever expansive rate. In February 1977, the Defense Communications System authorized the Space and Missile Systems Organization to begin development on the Defense Satellite Communications System Phase III (DSCS III), with an expected operational date of 1981 to 1984. The Navstar Global Positioning System (GPS) development also was accelerating, and by 1981 five test satellites were on-orbit and supporting Navy requirements. Aerospace Defense Command's Defense Support Program was providing constant surveillance of Soviet Strategic Missile Forces and Chinese People's Liberation Second Artillery Corps rocket launches. The Aerospace Defense Command's Space Detection and Tracking System (SPADATS) continued to expand, adding the AN/FPS-108 Cobra Dane radar at Shemya Air Force Base in 1977 and in 1982 incorporating the AN/FPS-115 PAVE PAWS radars operated by the 7th Missile Warning Squadron at Beale Air Force Base and the 6th Missile Warning Squadron at Cape Cod Air Force Station into SPADATS. In the early 1980s, the Ground-based Electro-Optical Deep Space Surveillance System began to fully replace the Baker-Nunn telescopes. The space surveillance system highlighted the divide between the space communities, with Aerospace Defense Command's Space Detection and Tracking System focused almost entirely on fulfilling NORAD requirements, while Air Force Systems Command's satellite infrastructure focused on research and development. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66185637 | 1,236,987 |
19,012 | In 2015, a systematic review and a meta-analysis of high quality clinical trials found that, when used at low (therapeutic) doses, amphetamine produces modest yet unambiguous improvements in cognition, including working memory, long-term episodic memory, inhibitory control, and some aspects of attention, in normal healthy adults; these cognition-enhancing effects of amphetamine are known to be partially mediated through the indirect activation of both dopamine receptor D and adrenoceptor α in the prefrontal cortex. A systematic review from 2014 found that low doses of amphetamine also improve memory consolidation, in turn leading to improved recall of information. Therapeutic doses of amphetamine also enhance cortical network efficiency, an effect which mediates improvements in working memory in all individuals. Amphetamine and other ADHD stimulants also improve task saliency (motivation to perform a task) and increase arousal (wakefulness), in turn promoting goal-directed behavior. Stimulants such as amphetamine can improve performance on difficult and boring tasks and are used by some students as a study and test-taking aid. Based upon studies of self-reported illicit stimulant use, of college students use diverted ADHD stimulants, which are primarily used for enhancement of academic performance rather than as recreational drugs. However, high amphetamine doses that are above the therapeutic range can interfere with working memory and other aspects of cognitive control. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2504 | 19,004 |
489,029 | In the first round of the 2017 Maui Invitational Tournament (its fifth) on November 20, against Louisiana State, Michigan overcame an eight-point deficit with 12 minutes remaining to take a nine-point lead with five minutes remaining only to lose 75–77. In the consolation bracket, Michigan defeated the next day on the strength of Matthews' first career double-double (22 points and 10 rebounds). Michigan set or tied school single-game tournament records in scoring margin (38), field-goal percentage (64.9), assists (22), three-pointers made (15), three-point attempts (28), three-point percentage (53.6), steals (nine), turnover low (eight) and blocks (six). On November 22, Michigan defeated Virginia Commonwealth (VCU) 68–60, earning a fifth-place finish in the Maui Invitational Tournament. Michigan was led by Robinson with a game-high 18 points. Michigan trailed by three points with two minutes remaining, before the Wolverines outscored VCU 11–0 down the stretch. On November 26, Michigan defeated UC Riverside 87–42 on the strength of double-doubles by Wagner (21 points, 10 rebounds) and Matthews (17 points, 12 assists). It was the team's first pair of double-doubles in a game since Glenn Robinson III and Trey Burke did so for the 2012–13 National Runner-up Wolverines on January 6, 2013. On November 29, Michigan lost to (#13 AP Poll/#11 Coaches Poll) North Carolina 71–86 in the ACC–Big Ten Challenge. Michigan was led by Wagner with a team-high 20 points. This was the first meeting between the two teams since the 1993 NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Championship Game. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=53688572 | 488,778 |
1,683,859 | SIMUL8 simulation software is a product of the SIMUL8 Corporation used for simulating systems that involve processing of discrete entities at discrete times. This program is a tool for planning, design, optimization and reengineering of real production, manufacturing, logistic or service provision systems. SIMUL8 allows its user to create a computer model, which takes into account real life constraints, capacities, failure rates, shift patterns, and other factors affecting the total performance and efficiency of production. Through this model it is possible to test real scenarios in a virtual environment, for example simulate planned function and load of the system, change parameters affecting system performance, carry out extreme-load tests, verify by experiments the proposed solutions and select the optimal solution. A common feature of problems solved in SIMUL8 is that they are concerned with cost, time and inventory. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21225939 | 1,682,916 |
1,056,526 | Biological weighting factors have been used in all of the more recent clinical trials in patients with high-grade gliomas, using boronophenylalanine (BPA) in combination with an epithermal neutron beam. The B(n,α)Li part of the radiation dose to the scalp has been based on the measured boron concentration in the blood at the time of BNCT, assuming a blood: scalp boron concentration ratio of 1.5:1 and a compound biological effectiveness (CBE) factor for BPA in skin of 2.5. A relative biological effectiveness (RBE) or CBE factor of 3.2 has been used in all tissues for the high-LET components of the beam, such as alpha particles. The RBE factor is used to compare the biologic effectiveness of different types of ionizing radiation. The high-LET components include protons resulting from the capture reaction with normal tissue nitrogen, and recoil protons resulting from the collision of fast neutrons with hydrogen. It must be emphasized that the tissue distribution of the boron delivery agent in humans should be similar to that in the experimental animal model in order to use the experimentally derived values for estimation of the radiation doses for clinical radiations. For more detailed information relating to computational dosimetry and treatment planning, interested readers are referred to a comprehensive review on this subject. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=32637211 | 1,055,978 |
1,261,481 | The simplest realization of a static jammed system is a random sphere packing of frictionless soft spheres that are jammed together upon applying an external hydrostatic pressure to the packing. Right at the jamming transition, the applied pressure is zero and the shear modulus is also zero, which coincides with the loss of rigidity and the unjamming of the system. Also, at the jamming point the system is isostatic. Above the jamming point, the applied pressure causes an increase of volume fraction by squeezing the soft spheres closer together, and thus creates additional contacts between neighboring spheres. This leads to an increase of the average number of contacts formula_1. As shown in numerical simulations by Corey O'Hern and collaborators, the shear modulus increases with increasing formula_1 following the law: formula_3, where is the dimension of space. A first-principles microscopic theory of elasticity developed by Alessio Zaccone and E. Scossa-Romano quantitatively explains this law in terms of two contributions: the first term is a bonding-type contribution, thus proportional to formula_1, and related to particle displacements which exactly follow the applied shear deformation; the second (negative) term is due to internal relaxations needed to keep local mechanical equilibrium in a strained disordered environment, and thus proportional to the total number of degrees of freedom, hence the dependence on space dimension . This model is relevant for compressed emulsions, where the friction between particles is negligible. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=16500423 | 1,260,794 |
1,539,652 | Torrey's earliest publications in the "American Journal of Science" are on mineralogy. In 1820, he undertook the examination of the plants that had been collected around the headwaters of the Mississippi by David B. Douglass. During the same year, he received the collections made by Edwin James while with the expedition that was sent out to the Rocky Mountains under Major Stephen H. Long. His report was the earliest treatise of its kind in the United States that was arranged on the natural system. Torrey, in the meantime, had planned "A Flora of the Northern and Middle United States, or a Systematic Arrangement and Description of all the Plants heretofore discovered in the United States North of Virginia", and in 1824 began its publication in parts, but it was soon suspended owing to the general adoption of the natural system of Antoine Laurent de Jussieu in place of that of Carl Linnaeus. In 1836, on the organization of the geological survey of New York, he was appointed botanist, and required to prepare a flora of the state. His report, consisting of two quarto volumes, was issued in 1843, and was for a long time the most comprehensive for any state in the United States. In 1838, he began with Asa Gray "The Flora of North America", which was issued in numbers irregularly until 1843, when they had completed the "Compositae", but new botanical material accumulated at such a rapid rate that it was deemed best to discontinue it. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=386449 | 1,538,779 |
1,346,230 | The test series was given the secret codename "Operation Grapple". Air Commodore Wilfrid Oulton was appointed task force commander, with the acting rank of air vice marshal from 1 March 1956. He had a formidable task ahead of him. Nearby Christmas Island was chosen as a base. It was claimed by both Britain and the United States, but the Americans were willing to let the British use it for the tests. With pressure mounting at home and abroad for a moratorium on testing, 1 April 1957 was set as the target date. Oulton held the first meeting of the Grapple Executive Committee on New Oxford Street in London on 21 February 1956. The RAF and Royal Engineers would improve the airfield to enable it to operate large, heavily loaded aircraft, and the port and facilities would be improved to enable Christmas Island to operate as a base by 1 December 1956. It was estimated that of stores would be required for the construction effort alone. The tank landing ship HMS "Narvik" would reprise the role of control ship it had for Operation Hurricane; but as it was also required for Operation Mosaic, it had very little time to return to the Chatham Dockyard for a refit before heading out to Christmas Island for Operation Grapple. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=52018264 | 1,345,489 |
742,911 | Each storage node drive set consists of 6 SSD drives directly connected to a dedicated storage node and installed in front of the blade chassis. Each storage and compute blade nodes have 25 Gigabit Ethernet ports which could be used as 10Gbit/s ports as well as dedicated 1Gb ports for management purposes. Network switches were not included, and in NetApp HCI with Element software release 11 NetApp announced H-Series Switch as part of HCI, so all hardware components must be bought from NetApp. ONTAP Select available as SDS on NetApp HCI for customers interested in NAS protocols. The self-service portal allows automating common provisioning and management tasks without involving the IT team. NetApp Kuberneties Service will support NetApp HCI with the acquisition of Stackpoint. NetApp SolidFire storage and NetApp HCI can be expanded & mixed in a single cluster. At the NetApp Insight 2018 conference in Las Vegas NetApp presented two new compute nodes: H410C and H610C, where H610C includes additional GPU cards which can be used in VDI environments. Starting with Element OS version 11, automatically detected and enabled by default with the upgrade, HCI has "Protection Domains" functionality to provide resiliency into HCI chassis. In the case of maintenance or chassis failure, helix algorithm spans data blocks workload will automatically fail-over to another operational chassis. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=855623 | 742,517 |
897,338 | In September 2006, the school began construction of a new Digital Learning Center to replace the Losee Resource Center (library). The "DLC" is and is located northeast of the Liberal Arts building. It opened on July 1, 2008. UVU President William A. Sederburg hired Cooper, Roberts, Simonsen and Associates, and Layton Construction as the design/build team for the new Digital Learning Center, with acclaimed New York architect Jacob Alspector as lead architect. "We chose the design we’re going with because it was an exceptional design that still kept a lot of the same features of our current campus. So it looks like it’s supposed to be there yet it stands out," said Jim Michaelis, associate vice president of Facilities Planning. The $48 million project includes networked computers, computer labs, a computer reference area (Information Commons), a media center, 31 study rooms, and wireless internet throughout the building. In 2016 money was donated to the Library by Ira A. Fulton and Mary Lou Fulton, and it was renamed Fulton Library. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=819227 | 896,865 |
939,760 | Indoor workplaces are found in many working environments such as offices, sales areas, hospitals, libraries, schools and preschool childcare facilities. At such workplaces, no tasks involving hazardous substances are performed, and they do not include high-noise areas. Nevertheless, employees may feature symptoms belonging to the sick building syndrome such as burning of the eyes, scratchy throat, blocked nose, and headaches. These afflictions often cannot be attributed to a single cause, and require a comprehensive analysis besides the testing of the air quality. Factors such as the workplace design, lighting, noise, thermal environment, ionising radiation and psychological and mental aspects have as well to be allowed for. A report assisted by the Institute for Occupational Safety and Health of the German Social Accident Insurance can support in the systematic investigation of individual health problems arising at indoor workplaces, and in the identification of practical solutions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=219736 | 939,259 |
1,293,298 | However, by the end of the 1930s the spread of synthetic indigo and caustic soda and an influx of new less skilled entrants caused quality problems and a still-present collapse in demand. Though the more complex and beautiful starch resist designs continued to be produced until the early 1970s, and despite a revival prompted largely by the interest of US Peace Corps workers in the 1960s, never regained their earlier popularity. In the present day, simplified stenciled designs and some better quality oniko and alabere designs are still produced, but local taste favours "kampala" (multi-coloured wax resist cloth, sometimes also known as adire by a few people). However, there has been a recent revival of the Adire art by Nigerian Professionals in diaspora such as Dr Toyosi Craig, an innovator and energy expert and other Nigerian artisans such as Nike Davies-Okundaye, who has inspired a younger generation of designers including Amaka Osakwe (and her label Maki-Oh) and Duro Olowu. Political figures and celebrities such as Michelle Obama and Lupita Nyong'o have worn adire-inspired clothes recently. Also, Bamidele Abiodun, the wife of the governor of Ogun State, launched Adire Market Week in 2022 as an initiative meant to promote adire and protect local textile manufacturers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10928027 | 1,292,587 |
2,041,428 | Moore has conducted field research in Asia and Africa, particularly Sri Lanka, India, and Taiwan, and has taught at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He was previously the director of the Centre for the Future State, and is a member of the OECD Task Force on Tax and Development. His main research interests are the domestic and international dimensions of good and bad governance in developing countries, particularly those relating to taxation. He focuses on the process by which widening the tax base in low-income countries can help foster a social contract between citizens and the government through associated demands for public services. In contrast to receiving revenue from foreign aid or natural resources, governments who rely on taxes have to bargain with their citizens, and have incentives to promote their prosperity, thereby enhancing good governance. As an expert on these issues, he has been called several times to speak as a witness for the UK Parliament International Development Committee. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=47429921 | 2,040,248 |
1,097,835 | Many of Coles' works draw heavily on quoted conversations with ordinary people, as well as insights from prominent thinkers and leaders — often people Coles has encountered personally in his career — such as William Carlos Williams, Dorothy Day, Walker Percy, William Shawn, Anna Freud, Paul Tillich, Erik Erikson, and Robert F. Kennedy. Starting with the "Children of Crisis" series, Coles's approach to his subjects involves a difficult balancing act at the heart of the documentary enterprise. His methods combine techniques of participant observation (tape recordings, field notes, drawings, etc.), clinical interpretation, academic social research, and literary narrative. Coles has never been diffident about the economic, social, and racial injustices he has observed in the field. He is a spokesperson for his subjects, a sounding board for their public voices. Coles describes his own literary methods and goals as an effort "to blend poetic insight with a craft and unite ultimately the rational and the intuitive, the aloof stance of the scholar with the passion and affection of the friend who cares and is moved." ("The Mind's Fate", p. 10) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7518081 | 1,097,275 |
309,563 | In the US, NDRC focused on radio fuzes for use with anti-aircraft artillery, where acceleration was up to 20,000 as opposed to about 100 for rockets and much less for dropped bombs. In addition to extreme acceleration, artillery shells were spun by the rifling of the gun barrels to close to 30,000 rpm, creating immense centrifugal force. Working with Western Electric Company and Raytheon Company, miniature hearing-aid tubes were modified to withstand this extreme stress. The T-3 fuze had a 52% success against a water target when tested in January, 1942. The United States Navy accepted that failure rate. A simulated battle conditions test was started on 12 August 1942. Gun batteries aboard cruiser tested proximity-fuzed ammunition against radio-controlled drone aircraft targets over Chesapeake Bay. The tests were to be conducted over two days, but the testing stopped when drones were destroyed early on the first day. The three drones were destroyed with just four projectiles. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=225127 | 309,398 |
1,926,969 | Several of the plant's workers were severely injured or killed by the disaster conditions resulting from the earthquake. There were no immediate deaths due to direct radiation exposures, but at least six workers have exceeded lifetime legal limits for radiation and more than 300 have received significant radiation doses. Predicted future cancer deaths due to accumulated radiation exposures in the population living near Fukushima have ranged from none to 100 to a non-peer-reviewed "guesstimate" of 1,000. On 16 December 2011, Japanese authorities declared the plant to be stable, although it would take decades to decontaminate the surrounding areas and to decommission the plant altogether. On 5 July 2012, the parliament appointed The Fukushima Nuclear Accident Independent Investigation Commission (NAIIC) submitted its inquiry report to the Japanese parliament, while the government appointed Investigation Committee on the Accident at the Fukushima Nuclear Power Stations of Tokyo Electric Power Company submitted its final report to the Japanese government on 23 July 2012. Tepco admitted for the first time on 12 October 2012 that it had failed to take stronger measures to prevent disasters for fear of causing lawsuits or protests against its nuclear plants. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38378316 | 1,925,865 |
202,446 | In 1902 Bohuslav Brauner suggested that there was a then-unknown element with properties intermediate between those of the known elements neodymium (60) and samarium (62); this was confirmed in 1914 by Henry Moseley, who, having measured the atomic numbers of all the elements then known, found that atomic number 61 was missing. In 1926, two groups (one Italian and one American) claimed to have isolated a sample of element 61; both "discoveries" were soon proven to be false. In 1938, during a nuclear experiment conducted at Ohio State University, a few radioactive nuclides were produced that certainly were not radioisotopes of neodymium or samarium, but there was a lack of chemical proof that element 61 was produced, and the discovery was not generally recognized. Promethium was first produced and characterized at Oak Ridge National Laboratory in 1945 by the separation and analysis of the fission products of uranium fuel irradiated in a graphite reactor. The discoverers proposed the name "prometheum" (the spelling was subsequently changed), derived from Prometheus, the Titan in Greek mythology who stole fire from Mount Olympus and brought it down to humans, to symbolize "both the daring and the possible misuse of mankind's intellect". However, a sample of the metal was made only in 1963. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23321 | 202,342 |
649,746 | Damage to the area postrema, caused primarily by lesioning or ablation, prevents the normal functions of the area postrema from taking place. This ablation is usually done surgically and for the purpose of discovering the exact effect of the area postrema on the rest of the body. Since the area postrema acts as an entry point to the brain for information from the sensory neurons of the stomach, intestines, liver, kidneys, heart, and other internal organs, a variety of physiological reflexes rely on the area postrema to transfer information. The area postrema acts to directly monitor the chemical status of the organism. Lesions of the area postrema are sometimes referred to as 'central vagotomy' because they eliminate the brain’s ability to monitor the physiological status of the body through its vagus nerve. These lesions thus serve to prevent the detection of poisons and consequently prevent the body’s natural defenses from kicking in. In one example, experiments done by Bernstein et al. on rats indicated that the area postrema lesions prevented the detection of lithium chloride, which can become toxic at high concentrations. Since the rats could not detect the chemical, they were not able to employ a psychological procedure known as taste aversion conditioning, causing the rat to continuously ingest the lithium-paired saccharin solution. These findings indicate that rats with area postrema lesions do not acquire the normal conditioned taste aversions when lithium chloride is used as the unconditioned stimulus. In addition to simple taste aversions, rats with the area postrema lesions failed to perform other behavioral and physiological responses associated with the introduction of the toxin and present in the control group, such as lying down on their bellies, delayed stomach emptying, and hypothermia. Such experimentation emphasizes the significance of the area postrema not only in the identification of toxic substances in the body but also in the many physical responses to the toxin. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5035843 | 649,405 |
121,783 | The Army released the final JLTV RFP for low rate initial production (LRIP) and full rate production (FRP) on 12 December 2014, clearing the way for AM General, Lockheed Martin, and Oshkosh Defense to submit their vehicle proposals. The Army gave competitors until 10 February 2015, to refine and submit their bids. The Army, on behalf of itself and the Marines, stated plans to select a winner and issue a single contract award in the late summer of 2015. The winning contractor would build approximately 17,000 JLTVs for the Army and Marine Corps during three years of LRIP, followed by five years of FRP. The first Army unit would be equipped with JLTVs in FY 2018, and the Army's complete acquisition of 49,099 JLTVs would be completed in 2040, with 2,200 JLTVs delivered each year between 2020 and 2036. The Marine Corps would begin acquiring their 5,500 JLTVs at the beginning of production and would be completed by FY 2022. FY 2015 budget requests included 176 JLTV for the Army and 7 JLTV for the Marine Corps in various configurations. The total procurement cost of the JLTV program was quoted as US$30.04 billion and US$0.98 billion in research and development funds, giving a total estimated program cost of US$31.03 billion (figures are aggregated annual funds spent over the life of the program with no price/inflation adjustment). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9398801 | 121,734 |
851,396 | HB11 Energy is an Australian spin-off company created in September 2017. HB11 holds the patents of UNSW's theoretical physicist Heinrich Hora. Its device uses two petawatt-class, chirped pulse lasers to drive low-temperature proton-boron fusion using an "in-target" approach. One laser drives hydrogen atoms via target normal sheath acceleration towards a boron plasma confined by a kilotesla magnetic field powered by the other laser. The resulting He ions are converted to electricity without a thermal conversion step with its associated thermal losses. The pico-second laser produces an avalanche reaction that offers a billion time increased fusion yield improvement compared to other ICF systems. In 2022, they claimed to be the first commercial company to demonstrate fusion. It demonstrated fusion, yielding an alpha particle flux of 10/sr, one order of magnitude higher than its earlier results, but still 4 orders of magnitude away from net energy gain. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1631015 | 850,943 |
1,375,649 | Dessler has been consulted by newspapers and has given talks on climate change and government policy. On January 16, 2014 he testified before the US Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works. He stated that with almost 200 years of study by the scientific community of the climate system a robust understanding has emerged. He continued stating, the climate is warming and "humans are now in the driver's seat". He concluded, "We know that, over the next century, if nothing is done to rein in emissions, temperatures will likely increase enough to profoundly change the planet." He gave a talk at the Goddard Space Flight Center in 2013 titled, "The Alternate Reality of Climate Skeptics" in which he explained how "climate skeptics have constructed an alternate reality to believe it ["sic"]. In this way, the debate over climate change turns into a debate over which reality should be believed." In 2010 when US Senator James Inhofe attempted to block the US Environmental Protection Agency from regulating greenhouse gases under the Clean Air Act, Dessler told reporters he was confident that individual errors don't invalidate the scientific consensus that global temperature is rising stating, "That's not how science works." He asserted his confidence that the climate is warming due to human activity and that this will have "catastrophic impacts" stating, "The evidence includes a mountain of data." Dessler cited replication by multiple institutions as support. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13725293 | 1,374,888 |
1,029,944 | SGCs have the ability to release cytokines and other bioactive molecules that transmit pain neuronally. Neurotrophins and tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) are other cellular factors that work to sensitize neurons to pain. SGCs are present in the PNS in fewer numbers than other more well-known types of glial cells, like astrocytes, but have been determined to affect nociception because of some of their physiological and pharmacological properties. In fact, just like astrocytes, SGCs have the ability to sense and regulate neighboring neuronal activity. First, after a period of nerve cell injury, SGCs are known to up-regulate GFAP and to undergo cell division. They have the ability to release chemoattractants, which are analogous to those released by Schwann cells and contribute to the recruitment and proliferation of macrophages. Additionally, several research groups have found that SGC coupling increases after nerve damage, which has an effect on the perception of pain, likely for several reasons. Normally, the gap junctions between SGCs are used in order to redistribute potassium ions between adjacent cells. However, in coupling of SGCs, the number of gap junctions greatly increases. This may possibly be to deal with larger amounts of ATP and glutamate, which eventually leads to increased recycling of the glutamate. The increased levels of glutamate lead to over excitation and an increase in nociception. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8132566 | 1,029,410 |
728,223 | While the choice of appropriate norms of ethical conduct is rarely an either/or question, PAR implies a different understanding of what consent, welfare and justice entail. For one thing the people involved are not mere 'subjects' or 'participants'. They act instead as key partners in an inquiry process that may take place outside the walls of academic or corporate science. As Canada's Tri-Council Policy Statement: Ethical Conduct for Research Involving Humans suggests, PAR requires that the terms and conditions of the collaborative process be set out in a research agreement or protocol based on mutual understanding of the project goals and objectives between the parties, subject to preliminary discussions and negotiations. Unlike individual consent forms, these terms of reference (ToR) may acknowledge collective rights, interests and mutual obligations. While they are legalistic in their genesis, they are usually based on interpersonal relationships and a history of trust rather than the language of legal forms and contracts. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2819542 | 727,839 |
1,182,213 | Back at Cambridge, Charles studied hard for his "Little Go" preliminary exam, as a fail would mean a re-sit the following year. He dropped his drinking companions and resumed attending Henslow's Friday evening soirées. For the exam he slogged away at Greek and Latin, and studied William Paley's "Evidences of Christianity", becoming so delighted with Paley's logic that he learnt it well. This was a text he also had to study for his finals, and he was "convinced that I could have written out the whole of the "Evidences" with perfect correctness, but not of course in the clear language of Paley." Later, on the "Beagle" expedition, he saw evidence which challenged Paley's rose-tinted view, but at this time he was convinced that the Christian revelation established "a future state of reward and punishment" which "gives order for confusion: makes the moral world of a piece with the natural". As with Cambridge University, God gave authority and assigned stations in life, misconduct was penalised and excellence bountifully rewarded. Charles took the one-day verbal examination on 24 March 1830. There were three hours in the morning on the classics and three in the afternoon on the New Testament and Paley. The next day he was delighted to be informed that he had passed. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2087722 | 1,181,588 |
1,531,070 | After 2000, international organizations, like the OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development), have played an instrumental role in devising generic and transdisciplinary definitions of scientific data, as open data policies have to be implemented beyond the specific scale of a discipline of a country. One of the first influential definition of scientific data was coined in 1999 by a report of the National Academies of Science: "Data are facts, numbers, letters, and symbols that describe an object, idea, condition, situation, or other factors". In 2004, the Science Ministers of all nations of the OECD signed a declaration which essentially states that all publicly funded archive data should be made publicly available. In 2007 the OECD "codified the principles for access to research data from public funding" through the "Principles and Guidelines for Access to Research Data from Public Funding" which defined scientific data as "factual records (numerical scores, textual records, images and sounds) used as primary sources for scientific research, and that are commonly accepted in the scientific community as necessary to validate research findings." The "Principles" acted as "soft-law" recommendation and affirmed that "access to research data increases the returns from public investment in this area; reinforces open scientific inquiry; encourages diversity of studies and opinion; promotes new areas of work and enables the exploration of topics not envisioned by the initial investigators." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31915311 | 1,530,204 |
249,965 | There is extensive interest in possible integration of green hydrogen with existing forms of renewable energy. Particularly, there are current interests focused on using green hydrogen as a carbon-neutral solution to address the difficulties of integrating renewable energy resources into the electrical grid. One of the biggest issues with direct integration of solar and wind energy into the grid is the risk of unbalanced supply or demand in the electric grid from the intermittent behavior of the renewable energy resources. During peak wind or daylight periods, oversupply of energy into the grid can be equally as damaging as not being able to supply enough electricity to match the usage demands. Green hydrogen can act as a stabilizing energy storage device. Existing water electrolysis methods such as alkaline water electrolysis are vulnerable to risks that can arise if the source of energy for the electrolysis is unable to be maintained at the peak capacity and can cause evolved hydrogen to encounter evolved oxygen, running the risk of explosion at the electrolyzer and requiring the disabling of the electrolysis system to flush out the hydrogen. One proposed solution is to use chitin, which is produced at over 100 billion tons a year from nature in forms such as crude shrimp shell waste, as a potentially scalable biomass resource to act as an alternative to oxygen evolution in the hydrogen generation process. This would lead to the consumption of chitin and water to produce hydrogen and acetic acid, which avoids the risk of hydrogen-oxygen reaction and maintains scalability. By running this process using the solar energy from photovoltaic solar panels, hydrogen gas can be generated that falls under the category of green hydrogen. This also has an economic incentive of being able to produce acetic acid at yields of between 73.7 to 77.5% as a byproduct that could be used or sold. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=62943310 | 249,833 |
339,903 | Many paleontologists accept "Allosaurus" as an active predator of large animals. There is dramatic evidence for allosaur attacks on "Stegosaurus", including an "Allosaurus" tail vertebra with a partially healed puncture wound that fits a "Stegosaurus" tail spike, and a "Stegosaurus" neck plate with a U-shaped wound that correlates well with an "Allosaurus" snout. Sauropods seem to be likely candidates as both live prey and as objects of scavenging, based on the presence of scrapings on sauropod bones fitting allosaur teeth well and the presence of shed allosaur teeth with sauropod bones. However, as Gregory Paul noted in 1988, "Allosaurus" was probably not a predator of fully grown sauropods, unless it hunted in packs, as it had a modestly sized skull and relatively small teeth, and was greatly outweighed by contemporaneous sauropods. Another possibility is that it preferred to hunt juveniles instead of fully grown adults. Research in the 1990s and the first decade of the 21st century may have found other solutions to this question. Robert T. Bakker, comparing "Allosaurus" to Cenozoic saber-toothed carnivorous mammals, found similar adaptations, such as a reduction of jaw muscles and increase in neck muscles, and the ability to open the jaws extremely wide. Although "Allosaurus" did not have saber teeth, Bakker suggested another mode of attack that would have used such neck and jaw adaptations: the short teeth in effect became small serrations on a saw-like cutting edge running the length of the upper jaw, which would have been driven into prey. This type of jaw would permit slashing attacks against much larger prey, with the goal of weakening the victim. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1347 | 339,723 |
1,281,104 | Almost immediately after the end of the race, the Serbian team filed a protest claiming that Čavić touched the wall first but did not use enough force to trigger the timing sensor. Officials of the International Swimming Federation (FINA) watched the video in slow motion, and announced that Phelps' victory would be upheld. Ben Ekumbo, a FINA referee announced that "It's very clear that the Serbian swimmer touched second after Michael Phelps." Although Serbia conceded their protest, not everyone was convinced that Phelps had won the gold medal; Branislav Jevtić, Serbia's deputy "chef de mission" for all sports, was quoted as saying "in my opinion, it's not right, but we must follow the rules. Everybody saw what happened." In one interview following the race, Čavić said "I am completely happy with where I am", while in another he revealed that he expects that "people will be bringing this up for years and saying you (Čavić) won that race. If we got to do this again, I would win it". While the result is still controversial, a high speed photograph shows Phelps touching the wall, while Čavić is still a short distance away. In April 2015, Spitz said that he had been sent an email posted by Omega which stated that Phelps had lost the 100m butterfly final. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18624808 | 1,280,408 |
1,781,303 | The DFW Metroplex sprawls across a wide N-S trending belt of outcropping Cretaceous sediments. Fort Worth in the west is neatly built on Early Cretaceous (Comanche Series) and Dallas in the east is built on Late Cretaceous (Gulf Series) sediments. The Cretaceous rocks of the Comanche Series were deposited over a 20 million year interval. The sediments deposited during these 20 million years are bound within a sequence boundary, and are defined by a major regression at the end. The time frame of the Comanche Series span between ≈118-98mya, and are responsible for the deposition of the Trinity, Fredsrickberg, and Washita Groups. These three Groups all lie west of the Balcones Fault Zone, and span from slightly west of Weatherford to the east side of Fort Worth. The Trinity Group is best known for the Glen Rose Formation that lies within it. The 40–200 ft thick beds of the Glen Rose formation are composed of a limestone with alternating units consisting of clay, marl, and sand. The depositional environment of the Glen Rose was a shallow marine to shoreline environment. This shoreline environment would eventually bring notoriety to the Glen Rose since it would eventually preserve dinosaur tracks. This process would occur when living terrestrial creatures would roam about and look for food near the shoreline. As they would do this, they would leave footprints and trackways that would eventually be preserved by mud depositing in and on top of the footprints. Eventually more formations would be deposited on top of the mud layers, and build essentially a 100 million year time capsule of the trace fossil. As time passed, weathering from water and wind caused the overlying sediments to erode and expose the footprints, and hence the reason why dinosaur tracks are present in the Glen Rose Dinosaur Valley State Park. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4384917 | 1,780,299 |
665,181 | The "Skate" class were designed under project SCB 121 as economical production nuclear-powered submarines (SSNs), and thus were smaller and more austere than their ground-breaking predecessor , whose high cost had raised concerns. They were designed before "Nautilus" demonstrated the advantages of sustained high underwater speed, thus their designed speed was about the maximum speed of the conventional "Tang" class, which had a similar displacement to the "Skate"s. Their S3W reactor was a scaled-down version of "Nautilus" S2W reactor with about half the power output; it was known as SFR (Submarine Fleet Reactor) during development. A slightly modified version known as S4W powered the second pair of "Skate"-class boats. Unfortunately, scaling down the reactor did not reduce the weight of reactor shielding proportionally, and it was eventually realized that further downsizing was impractical. In the late 1950s it was hoped that the nuclear-powered aircraft program would develop reactors suitable for very small SSNs, but the program was unsuccessful. Their armament was the same as the "Tang"s, six bow and two stern 21 inch (533 mm) torpedo tubes. Like the "Tang"s, the stern tubes had no ejection pump, and could only be used for swim-out weapons such as the Mark 37 ASW homing torpedo. The quest for a high submerged speed and improved sonar led to the subsequent and es becoming the model for further development. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=478654 | 664,834 |
763,021 | In the ten-year development phase that led to the realization of "Sojourner", alternative solutions that could take advantage of the long experience gained at JPL in the development of vehicles for the Moon and Mars were examined. The use of four or more legs was excluded for three reasons: a low number of legs would limit the rover's movements and the freedom of action, and increasing the number would lead to a significant increase in complexity. Proceeding in this configuration would also require knowledge of the space in front—the ground corresponding to the next step—leading to further difficulties. The choice of a wheeled vehicle solved most of the stability problems, led to a reduction in weight, and improved efficiency and control compared to the previous solution. The simplest configuration was a four-wheel system that, however, encounters difficulties in overcoming obstacles. Better solutions were the use of six or eight wheels with the rear ones able to push, allowing the obstacle to be overcome. The lighter, simpler, six-wheeled option was preferred. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=36694809 | 762,613 |
788,737 | Proton started its life as a "super heavy ICBM". It was designed to launch a 100-megaton (or larger) thermonuclear weapon over a distance of 13,000 km. It was hugely oversized for an ICBM and was never deployed in such a capacity. It was eventually used as a space launch vehicle. It was the brainchild of Vladimir Chelomei's design bureau as a foil to Sergei Korolev's N1 rocket, whose purpose was to send a two-man Zond spacecraft around the Moon; Korolev openly opposed Proton and Chelomei's other designs for their use of toxic propellants. The unusual appearance of the first stage results from the need to transport components by rail. The central oxidizer tank is the maximum width for the loading gauge of the track. The six tanks surrounding it carry fuel and serve as the attachment points for the engines. Despite resembling strap-on boosters, they are not designed to separate from the central oxidizer tank. The first and second stages are connected by a lattice structure. The second stage engine ignites shortly before separation of the first stage and the lattice allows the exhaust to escape. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=176536 | 788,313 |
440,343 | Because of the incomplete understanding of hadrosaurids at the time, following Marsh's death in 1899 "Claosaurus annectens" was variously classified as a species of "Claosaurus", "Thespesius" or "Trachodon". Opinions varied greatly; textbooks and encyclopedias drew a distinction between the ""Iguanodon"-like" "Claosaurus annectens" and the "duck-billed" "Hadrosaurus" (based on Cope's "Diclonius mirabilis"), while Hatcher explicitly identified "C. annectens" as synonymous with the hadrosaurid represented by those same duck-billed skulls, the two differentiated only by individual variation or distortion from pressure. Hatcher's revision, published in 1902, was sweeping: he considered almost all hadrosaurid genera then known as synonyms of "Trachodon". This included "Cionodon", "Diclonius", "Hadrosaurus", "Ornithotarsus", "Pteropelyx", and "Thespesius", as well as "Claorhynchus" and "Polyonax", fragmentary genera now thought to be horned dinosaurs. Hatcher's work led to a brief consensus until about 1910, when new material from Canada and Montana showed a greater diversity of hadrosaurids than previously suspected. Charles W. Gilmore in 1915 reassessed hadrosaurids and recommended that "Thespesius" be reintroduced for hadrosaurids from the Lance Formation and rock units of equivalent age, and that "Trachodon", based on inadequate material, should be restricted to a hadrosaurid from the older Judith River Formation and its equivalents. In regards to "Claosaurus annectens", he recommended that it be considered the same as "Thespesius occidentalis". A multiplicity of names resumed, with the American Museum duckbills being known as "Diclonius mirabilis", "Trachodon mirabilis", "Trachodon annectens", "Claosaurus", or "Thespesius". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13078611 | 440,129 |
1,908,972 | Initially, focusing on bone growth, subcutaneous pockets were used for bone prefabrication as a simple "in vivo" bioreactor model. The pocket is an artificially created space between varying levels of subcutaneous fascia. The location provides regenerative ques to the bioreactor implant but does not rely on pre-existing bone tissue as a substrate. Furthermore, these bioreactors may be wrapped with muscle tissue to encourage vascularization and bone growth. Another strategy is through the use of a periosteal flap wrapped around the bioreactor, or the scaffold itself to create an "in vivo" bioreactor. This strategy utilizes the guided bone regeneration treatment scheme, and is a safe method for bone prefabrication. These ‘flap’ methods of packing the bioreactor within fascia, or wrapping it in tissue is effective, though somewhat random due to the non-directed vascularization these methods incur. The axial vascular bundle (AVB) strategy requires that an artery and vein are inserted in an "in vitro" bioreactor to transport growth factors, cells, and remove waste. This ultimately results in extensive vascularization of the bioreactor space and a vast improvement in growth capability. This vascularization, though effective, is limited by the surface contact that it can achieve between the scaffold and the capillaries filling the bioreactor space. Thus, a combination of the flap and AVB techniques can maximize the growth rate and vascular contact of the bioreactor as suggested by Han and Dai, by inserting a vascular bundle into a scaffold wrapped in either musculature or periosteum. If inadequate pre-existing vasculature is present in the growth site due to damage or disease, an arteriovenous loop (AVL) can be used. The AVL strategy requires a surgical connection be made between an artery of vein to form an arteriovenous fistula which is then placed within an "in vitro" bioreactor space containing a scaffold. A capillary network will form from this loop and accelerate the vascularization of new tissue. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41989305 | 1,907,874 |
391,391 | In the early 2000s, the university benefited from an investment program worth more than £235 million. New student accommodation was constructed, including Holland Hall, named after the former vice-chancellor of the same name. Sports facilities, including a professional-standard tennis centre, have been completed in addition to an upgrade of the Students' Guild building.After a donation from the ruler of the Sharjah emirate, Sultan bin Muhammad Al-Qasimi, an alumnus of the university, an extension was added to the Institute of Arab and Islamic Studies building. He has donated more than £5m since 2001. In 2006, the Department of Drama completed a major renovation with the construction of the state of the art Alexander Building, named after the university's former Chancellor Lord Alexander. The Department of Biosciences is based in three buildings on the Streatham Campus: Geoffrey Pope, the Henry Wellcome building for Biocatalysis and the Hatherly Laboratories. The department has recently received significant investment to further develop its facilities, particularly with improvements to the Geoffrey Pope building.On the Streatham Campus, the Business School is spread over three buildings, located in close proximity to each other: Building:One, Xfi Building and Streatham Court. Building:One houses the Business School's MBA suite, La Touche café and several modern lecture theatres and seminar rooms. The Xfi Building is home to the school’s Bloomberg Suite, a specialist IT room for detailed financial market data, and next to this is the Student IT Suite, also equipped with specialist software. Streatham Court is where you will find the Business School's Career Zone and Study Abroad Team, as well as the specialist Finance and Economics Experimental Laboratory at Exeter (FEELE), and high capacity, recently refurbished teaching rooms. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=33719893 | 391,196 |
626,860 | One study used diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) in two case studies. They found that there were widespread cerebral atrophy in both patients. The lateral ventricles were increased in size, and the corpus callosum and the periventricular white matter were diminished. The DTI maps showed that there was significant reduction of volume in the medial corpus callosum and other parts of the brain compared to normal subjects. They also found markedly lower diffusion values in white matter and increased cerebral spinal fluid compartments. Cortical injuries at this level provides a particular favorable environment for sprouting of new axons to occur in the intact areas of the cortex, which may explain some of the greater recovery rates in minimally conscious state patients. The axonal regrowth has been correlated with functional motor recovery. The regrowth and rerouting of the axons may explain some of the changes to brain structure. These findings support the efforts to prospectively and longitudinally characterize neuroplasticity in both brain structure and function following severe injuries. Utilizing DTI and other neuroimaging techniques may further shed light on the debates on long-distance cortical rewiring and may lead to better rehabilitation strategies. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2213172 | 626,527 |
1,029,935 | Despite their flattened shape, satellite glial cells contain all common organelles necessary to make cellular products and to maintain the homeostatic environment of the cell. The plasma membrane of SGCs is thin and not very dense, and it is associated with adhesion molecules, receptors for neurotransmitters and other molecules, and ion channels, specifically potassium ion channels. Within individual SGCs, there is both rough endoplasmic reticulum and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, but the latter is much less abundant. Most often the Golgi apparatus and the centrioles in an SGC are found in a region very close to the cell's nucleus. On the other hand, mitochondria are found throughout the cytoplasm along with the organelles involved in autophagy and other forms of catabolic degradation, such as lysosomes, lipofuscin granules, and peroxisomes. Both microtubules and intermediate filaments can be seen throughout the cytoplasm, and most often they lie parallel to the SGC sheath. These filaments are found in greater concentrations at the axon hillock and at the beginning portion of an axon in an SGC of the sympathetic ganglia. In some SGCs of the sensory ganglia researchers have seen a single cilium that extends outward from the cell surface near the nucleus and into the extracellular space of a deep indentation in the plasma membrane. The cilium, however, only has the nine pairs of peripheral microtubules while it lacks the axial pair of microtubules, making its structure very similar to the cilia of neurons, Schwann cells, and astrocytes of the CNS. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8132566 | 1,029,401 |
1,000,717 | 'Patient Surveys' in the U.S. by the national Acoustic Neuroma Association showed an increase in "Wait-and-Watch" from 4% of respondents in 1998 to 20% in 2012. An important study in 2015 entitled "The Changing Landscape of Vestibular Schwannoma Management in the United States – A Shift Toward Conservatism," predicted that half of all cases of VS would be managed initially with observation by 2026. Stangerup et al. have urged caution (2019): "Most studies show that if tumor growth occurs, it is usually detected within the first few years of diagnosis. However, long-term observational studies are desperately needed to guide the development of evidence-based surveillance algorithms designed to detect late tumor progression." Also (see Medical and Gene Therapies, above): "Basic science and identification of genes, molecular pathways, and networks related to tumor growth are likely to change our approach to treatment including conservative management." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1002770 | 1,000,199 |
1,968,245 | Donald Delbert Clayton (born March 18, 1935) is an American astrophysicist whose most visible achievement was the prediction from nucleosynthesis theory that supernovae are intensely radioactive. That earned Clayton the NASA Exceptional Scientific Achievement Medal (1992) for “theoretical astrophysics related to the formation of (chemical) elements in the explosions of stars and to the observable products of these explosions”. Supernovae thereafter became the most important stellar events in astronomy owing to their profoundly radioactive nature. Not only did Clayton discover radioactive nucleosynthesis during explosive silicon burning in stars but he also predicted a new type of astronomy based on it, namely the associated gamma-ray line radiation emitted by matter ejected from supernovae. That paper was selected as one of the fifty most influential papers in astronomy during the twentieth century for the Centennial Volume of the American Astronomical Society. He gathered support from influential astronomers and physicists for a new NASA budget item for a gamma-ray-observatory satellite, achieving successful funding for Compton Gamma Ray Observatory. With his focus on radioactive supernova gas Clayton discovered a new chemical pathway causing carbon dust to condense there by a process that is activated by the radioactivity. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=36061850 | 1,967,115 |
883,619 | In 1958, the Detroit Diesel Allison division of General Motors was chosen by the US Army to develop a new light turbine engine to power a "Light Observation Aircraft" (LOA), to replace the Cessna O-1A Bird Dog. At this stage the US Army was unsure whether to have a fixed- or rotary-wing aircraft, so Allison was instructed to consider both applications. Design studies undertaken considered a wide range of possible mechanical configurations for the turboprop/turboshaft. These studies culminated in the testing of the first prototype engine, designated YT63-A-3, in April 1959. In 1960, the US Army settled for a rotary wing platform. The YT63-A-3 first flew in a variant of the Bell 47 helicopter in 1961. A modified version of the engine (YT63-A-5) with the exhaust pointing upwards (to avoid grass fires) soon followed. This version, rated at 250 hp, passed the Model Qualification Test in September 1962. The Hughes OH-6 design, powered by the T63, was selected for the US Army LOH in May 1965. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6866853 | 883,155 |
840,065 | A series of significant transports followed under Oleg Antonov's direction. Antonov aircraft (design office prefix An-) range from a rugged An-2 (which itself is comparatively large for a biplane) through the An-28 reconnaissance aircraft to the massive An-124 Ruslan strategic airlifter. The quad-turboprop An-12 and its derivatives became the primary Soviet military transport from 1959 onward. While less well known, the An-24, An-26, An-30 and An-32 family of twin-turboprop, high winged, passenger/cargo/troops aircraft predominate in domestic/short-haul air services in the former Soviet Union and parts of the world formerly under Soviet influence. Antonov also oversaw development of the mid-range An-72/An-74 jet airplanes family. The world's largest production aircraft, the An-124 Ruslan, flew for the first time in 1982, and its specialised shuttle-carrying/extra-heavy cargo derivative, the An-225 Mriya entered development, still under Antonov's guidance, but did not make its maiden flight until 1989 after his death. In November 2004, FAI placed the An-225 in the Guinness Book of Records for its 240 records. Some of Antonov's designs are also built abroad, such as the Shaanxi Y-8. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1150263 | 839,615 |
2,066,909 | On 18 April 1968 a meeting of individuals interested in OR was held at the Gatehouse at the Sunnyside Hotel in Johannesburg, as a result of initiatives taken by Dave Masterson, Jonathan Miller, Alan H. Munro and John C. Joslin with the support of Dr. H.S. Sichel. The attendance at this multi-disciplinary meeting was in excess of 180. The guest speaker was Prof. B.H. Patrick Rivett of England, an excellent speaker and at that time one of the best known operations researchers in the world. Out of this meeting a National Steering Committee was formed which would be responsible for the organisation of the possible establishment of an Operations Research Society in South Africa. The committee consisted of Dr. H.S. Sichel (Chairman), Profs. G.J. Rudolph of Rhodes University, H.J. Venter of the University of Potchefstroom and C. Jacobs of the CSIR, and Messrs. H.I.D. du Plessis and J.W. Grobbelaar of Unisa, and Peter C. Pirow, R.T. Rozwadowski and J.C. Joslin of Johannesburg. ORSSA was then founded in Johannesburg on Thursday, 20 November 1969. About 150 individuals were present, coming from all parts of South Africa and the Rhodesia of that time (Zimbabwe). The following office bearers were elected in terms of the newly adopted constitution: Dr. H.S. Sichel (President), Mr. J.W. Grobbelaar (Vice-President), Mr. J.C. Joslin (Secretary), Mr. D.D. Masterson (Treasurer), Mr. M.C.F. (Mike) King (Editor), and Profs. G.J. Rudolph and C.G. Troskie (Additional Members). The new society was privileged to get an excellent management team under the leadership of Dr. Sichel, who was known internationally for his work in mining statistics. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=51119517 | 2,065,718 |
1,407,145 | The foundation of this response and the data to guide it was testing. Yet while the official testing effort was prompt and energetic, it was focused on those who were either symptomatic or at high risk due to having likely been in contact with infected people. In early March, deCODE's CEO Kari Stefansson became concerned that without also screening the population at large there was no way to understand the virus' spread or its fatality rate, crucial information for holistically addressing the epidemic. In this "all-hands-on-deck" moment, and with the know-how, people and equipment to rapidly turn the company's genetics research lab into a PCR diagnostic testing facility, he offered to put the company's capabilities to work to screen the general population under the auspices of the Directorate of Health. deCODE staff worked swiftly to put together workflows for everything from sample collection to running the tests to privacy-protected reporting, and to get the swabs and reagents ready to begin large-scale testing. On Thursday 12 March 2020, the company opened its website to book appointments for testing and within hours 12,000 people had signed up. Testing began the following morning, free of charge. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1494572 | 1,406,355 |
2,117,852 | Arbib puts forth a hypothesis that mirror neurons in the primate brain were a precursor to language abilities in humans. Without these neurons in Broca's area in humans (which is analogous to F5 in monkeys), Arbib claims, we could not have evolved a specialization for language—which is used to explain why non-human animals do not have linguistic capabilities. In addition, Meguerditchian and Vauclair have argued that our evolutionary ancestors' communicative gestures (such as threat gestures and "food begs" among baboons) established a foundation on which to build human language skills. This behavior was selected for, built upon, and modified, leading to the capabilities humans have today. Early theories explained early language as an adaptive way to communicate during a hunt, but recent research has focused on ecological theories that incorporate social demands; or, as Flinn et al. put it, a "social arms race" against non-human primates. As a behavior selected for over the long term, with many successful "intermediary stages," human language differs from all other social behaviors among chimpanzees, which are thought to be more gradual in their evolutionary development. Further evidence for language as a cognitive specialization includes Ferreira et al.'s finding that some parts of language (for instance, syntax) can be spared in amnesia, while other abilities (like memory retention) are drastically reduced. This and similar dissociations support the theory that specific neural architecture, which has evolved over time, supports language function. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3286366 | 2,116,634 |
448,954 | Exopolysaccharides (also sometimes abbreviated EPSs; EPS sugars thereafter) are the sugar-based parts of EPS. Microorganisms synthesize a wide spectrum of multifunctional polysaccharides including intracellular polysaccharides, structural polysaccharides and extracellular polysaccharides or exopolysaccharides. Exopolysaccharides generally consist of monosaccharides and some non-carbohydrate substituents (such as acetate, pyruvate, succinate, and phosphate). Owing to the wide diversity in composition, exopolysaccharides have found diverse applications in various food and pharmaceutical industries. Many microbial EPS sugars provide properties that are almost identical to the gums currently in use. With innovative approaches, efforts are underway to supersede the traditionally used plant and algal gums by their microbial counterparts. Moreover, considerable progress has been made in discovering and developing new microbial EPS sugars that possess novel industrial applications. Levan produced by "Pantoea agglomerans" ZMR7 was reported to decrease the viability of rhabdomyosarcoma (RD) and breast cancer (MDA) cells compared with untreated cancer cells. In addition, it has high antiparasitic activity against the promastigote of "Leishmania tropica." In the1960s and 1970s, the presence of exopolysaccharides in the matrix of plaques associated with tooth decay was investigated. In the field of paleomicrobiology, dental biofilms and their EPS components provide scientists with information about the composition of ancient microbial and host biomolecules as well as the diet of the host. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13575891 | 448,736 |
149,869 | The United States Environmental Protection Agency studied 1,065 chemical and drug substances in their ToxCast program (part of the CompTox Chemicals Dashboard) using "in silica" modelling and a human pluripotent stem cell-based assay to predict "in vivo" developmental intoxicants based on changes in cellular metabolism following chemical exposure. Major findings from the analysis of this ToxCast_STM dataset published in 2020 include: (1) 19% of 1065 chemicals yielded a prediction of developmental toxicity, (2) assay performance reached 79%–82% accuracy with high specificity (> 84%) but modest sensitivity (< 67%) when compared with "in vivo" animal models of human prenatal developmental toxicity, (3) sensitivity improved as more stringent weights of evidence requirements were applied to the animal studies, and (4) statistical analysis of the most potent chemical hits on specific biochemical targets in ToxCast revealed positive and negative associations with the STM response, providing insights into the mechanistic underpinnings of the targeted endpoint and its biological domain. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30531 | 149,801 |
1,709,031 | The United States Environmental Protection Agency studied 1,065 chemical and drug substances in their ToxCast program (part of the CompTox Chemicals Dashboard) using "in silica" modelling and a human pluripotent stem cell-based assay to predict "in vivo" developmental intoxicants based on changes in cellular metabolism following chemical exposure. Major findings from the analysis of this ToxCast_STM dataset published in 2020 include: (1) 19% of 1065 chemicals yielded a prediction of developmental toxicity, (2) assay performance reached 79%–82% accuracy with high specificity (> 84%) but modest sensitivity (< 67%) when compared with "in vivo" animal models of human prenatal developmental toxicity, (3) sensitivity improved as more stringent weights of evidence requirements were applied to the animal studies, and (4) statistical analysis of the most potent chemical hits on specific biochemical targets in ToxCast revealed positive and negative associations with the STM response, providing insights into the mechanistic underpinnings of the targeted endpoint and its biological domain. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=314798 | 1,708,072 |
2,019,702 | The multi-disciplinary nature of the IPCMS is expressed by leading activities in spin electronics, magnetism, ultra-fast optics, electron microscopy and local probes, biomaterials as well as in the synthesis and characterization of functional organic, inorganic or hybrid materials. All scales are considered from the isolated molecule to organized nanostructures on surfaces and single or two-dimensional objects, up to nano-devices. To carry out these studies, the institute has an important instrumental park for the fabrication and characterization of materials at all scales. The developments are also based on recognized theoretical skills. The projects LabEX NIE and EquipEX UNION and UTEM that the IPCMS directs reflect the recognized position of the laboratory. Located on the Campus of Cronenbourg, IPCMS is affiliated with the institutes of physics and chemistry of the CNRS as well as the Faculty of Physics and Engineering, it is also affiliated with the European School of Chemistry, Polymers and Materials (ECPM), Télécom Physique Strasbourg, and the Faculty of Chemistry of the University of Strasbourg. The IPCMS is very attached to maintain strong links with the industrial laboratories carrying out research in its fields of competence. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=62015338 | 2,018,539 |
699,329 | Perinatal asphyxia (also known as neonatal asphyxia or birth asphyxia) is the medical condition resulting from deprivation of oxygen to a newborn infant that lasts long enough during the birth process to cause physical harm, usually to the brain. It is also the inability to establish and sustain adequate or spontaneous respiration upon delivery of the newborn. It remains a serious condition which causes significant mortality and morbidity. It is an emergency condition and requires adequate and quick resuscitation measures. Perinatal asphyxia is also an oxygen deficit from the 28th week of gestation to the first seven days following delivery. It is also an insult to the fetus or newborn due to lack of oxygen or lack of perfusion to various organs and may be associated with a lack of ventilation. In accordance with WHO, perinatal asphyxia is characterised by: profound metabolic acidosis, with a PH < 7.20 on umbilical cord arterial blood sample, persistence of an APGAR score of 3 at the 5th minute, clinical neurologic sequelae in the immediate neonatal period, or evidence of multiorgan system dysfunction in the immediate neonatal period. Hypoxic damage can occur to most of the infant's organs (heart, lungs, liver, gut, kidneys), but brain damage is of most concern and perhaps the least likely to quickly or completely heal. In more pronounced cases, an infant will survive, but with damage to the brain manifested as either mental, such as developmental delay or intellectual disability, or physical, such as spasticity. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1467035 | 698,965 |
1,566,830 | As EVTs are a critical cellular subtype of the placenta and their dysfunction is associated with a myriad of gestational illnesses, they are an attractive topic for research. Acquisition of this primary cell type from sensitive tissues can be difficult and inconsistent. First and second trimester placental tissue must usually be obtained from elective abortions, a designation requiring more NIH documentation and oversight. Tissue from term placentas is more readily available but cannot be used to address questions related to early development and dynamics. Dissociation of trophoblasts from other cell types in placental tissue can be procedurally difficult and pure trophoblast subtype populations take great lengths to obtain. Then, the resulting primary trophoblast cells can then only be kept in culture for a few days. Thus, there is a high demand for accurate cell lines to model primary placental trophoblasts. The immortalized cell line HTR-8/SVneo is commonly used to model EVTs. Newer multipotent trophoblast stem cell systems can be induced to differentiate into HLA-G+ EVT from CYT. Systems of placental organoids can also grow invasive EVT when cultured in Matrigel. Each of these options varies in their utility and accuracy to primary EVTs. As research groups continue to develop better techniques of recapitulating primary cells "in vitro," proper modeling of placental EVTs remains a goal of the field. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=67193725 | 1,565,943 |
982,936 | The subsequent nucleosynthesis of heavier elements ("Z" ≥ 6, carbon and heavier elements) requires the extreme temperatures and pressures found within stars and supernovae. These processes began as hydrogen and helium from the Big Bang collapsed into the first stars after about 500 million years. Star formation has been occurring continuously in galaxies since that time. The primordial nuclides were created by Big Bang nucleosynthesis, stellar nucleosynthesis, supernova nucleosynthesis, and by nucleosynthesis in exotic events such as neutron star collisions. Other nuclides, such as Ar, formed later through radioactive decay. On Earth, mixing and evaporation has altered the primordial composition to what is called the natural terrestrial composition. The heavier elements produced after the Big Bang range in atomic numbers from "Z" = 6 (carbon) to "Z" = 94 (plutonium). Synthesis of these elements occurred through nuclear reactions involving the strong and weak interactions among nuclei, and called nuclear fusion (including both rapid and slow multiple neutron capture), and include also nuclear fission and radioactive decays such as beta decay. The stability of atomic nuclei of different sizes and composition (i.e. numbers of neutrons and protons) plays an important role in the possible reactions among nuclei. Cosmic nucleosynthesis, therefore, is studied among researchers of astrophysics and nuclear physics ("nuclear astrophysics"). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=48903 | 982,423 |
1,440,982 | It is recommended that discs be cleaned before—and after—each playback, carbon-fibre brushes are quite effective. Records should be cleaned in a circular motion, in the direction of the grooves. Distilled water (not tap water as it will leave behind mineral deposits) and a soft, lint-free cloth are a common method of cleaning. Another method is to clean the LP on the turntable with a disc cleaning brush (the Discwasher system is frequently recommended by the audio press). A simple "cleaning bath" device called the Spin Clean gives good results, and there are also vacuum machines on the market such as the Nitty Gritty, Keith Monks, Clearaudio, and VPI, which are recommended for more a thorough cleaning. In recent years, ultrasonic cleaning machines from manufacturers such as Klaudio (Korea) and Audio Desk Systeme (Germany) have also been used with great success. The effectiveness of the ultrasonic machines coupled with their premium price tags (both $4,000 US in January 2015) has opened the door for companies to offer professional ultrasonic cleaning at an affordable cost of just a few dollars per record. Another cleaning product recently released called Record Revirginizer uses a polymer that is applied to record surface then left to dry; the polymer is then peeled from the surface taking the microscopic contaminants with it. Though in the past, using alcohol on vinyl LPs was considered safe, experts now caution against it unless absolutely necessary, as alcohol threatens the loss of the plasticizer or stabilizer. As vinyl is often prone to electrostatic charges that cause dust and debris to be attracted to its surface, anti-static products can be used if needed. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10993007 | 1,440,172 |
581,993 | Moreover, such methods are completely blind to molecules that have no dipole. For example, by far the most common molecule in the universe is H (hydrogen gas), but it does not have a dipole moment, so it is invisible to radio telescopes. Moreover, such methods cannot detect species that are not in the gas-phase. Since dense molecular clouds are very cold (), most molecules in them (other than hydrogen) are frozen, i.e. solid. Instead, hydrogen and these other molecules are detected using other wavelengths of light. Hydrogen is easily detected in the ultraviolet (UV) and visible ranges from its absorption and emission of light (the hydrogen line). Moreover, most organic compounds absorb and emit light in the infrared (IR) so, for example, the detection of methane in the atmosphere of Mars was achieved using an IR ground-based telescope, NASA's 3-meter Infrared Telescope Facility atop Mauna Kea, Hawaii. NASA's researchers use airborne IR telescope SOFIA and space telescope Spitzer for their observations, researches and scientific operations. Somewhat related to the recent detection of methane in the atmosphere of Mars. Christopher Oze, of the University of Canterbury in New Zealand and his colleagues reported, in June 2012, that measuring the ratio of hydrogen and methane levels on Mars may help determine the likelihood of life on Mars. According to the scientists, "...low H/CH ratios (less than approximately 40) indicate that life is likely present and active." Other scientists have recently reported methods of detecting hydrogen and methane in extraterrestrial atmospheres. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=71268 | 581,695 |
650,948 | Electrical fields can be represented mathematically in many different ways. In the Huygens–Fresnel or Stratton-Chu viewpoints, the electric field is represented as a superposition of point sources, each one of which gives rise to a Green's function field. The total field is then the weighted sum of all of the individual Green's function fields. That seems to be the most natural way of viewing the electric field for most people - no doubt because most of us have, at one time or another, drawn out the circles with protractor and paper, much the same way Thomas Young did in his classic paper on the double-slit experiment. However, it is by no means the only way to represent the electric field, which may also be represented as a spectrum of sinusoidally varying plane waves. In addition, Frits Zernike proposed still another functional decomposition based on his Zernike polynomials, defined on the unit disc. The third-order (and lower) Zernike polynomials correspond to the normal lens aberrations. And still another functional decomposition could be made in terms of Sinc functions and Airy functions, as in the Whittaker–Shannon interpolation formula and the Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem. All of these functional decompositions have utility in different circumstances. The optical scientist having access to these various representational forms has available a richer insight to the nature of these marvelous fields and their properties. These different ways of looking at the field are not conflicting or contradictory, rather, by exploring their connections, one can often gain deeper insight into the nature of wave fields. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=312008 | 650,607 |
1,311,171 | The game's "1999 Mode" was a result of a conversation that Levine had with a college student after speaking at a college during the latter stages of "Infinite"s development; the student explained his disappointment with "BioShock" in that none of the choices the player makes in that game has long-lasting impact. Levine agreed with this statement and realized that giving permanence to the player's choices would make the game more interesting. Design director Bill Gardener also acknowledged that their approach within "BioShock" was part of the general trend in gaming over the last decade due to streamlining of games. Irrational Games validated the inclusion using an informal survey from fans of the studio, with 57% responding positively towards the idea. Levine compared the 1999 Mode similar to the idea of selecting a character class, and specializations would be a mutually exclusive choice; opting to be proficient in pistols would leave the character struggling to use any other weapon type. Elements of resource management were also critical to Levine; while the player can revive Booker upon death within the game, this will cost resources, and potentially lead to a case where the player can no longer afford the revitalization, forcing the player to load a save game. Levine wanted to also capture the flavor of games like "Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six", where turning a corner carelessly could result in the character's death by a single bullet, creating a certain tension while traversing the level. The addition of the mode was late in the development cycle, requiring the Irrational Team to re-balance parts of the game for it, having to recall the design of "hard-core" games like "System Shock 2" where the failure of the player would often lead to the game being over prematurely. The studio recognized that the average gamer would likely quit playing the game in such circumstances, and plan to hide access to the 1999 Mode in the game's menus, such as by using the Konami Code, as to prevent such gamers from accidentally stumbling upon it. The game was ultimately released with a variation on the Konami Code as the means to unlock 1999 Mode from the start, though the mode also becomes available after the player completes the game the first time. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38977195 | 1,310,452 |
327,605 | The Cleveland plant failed on October 20, 1944, when the cylindrical tank ruptured, spilling thousands of gallons of LNG over the plant and nearby neighborhood. The gas evaporated and caught fire, which caused 130 fatalities. The fire delayed further implementation of LNG facilities for several years. However, over the next 15 years new research on low-temperature alloys, and better insulation materials, set the stage for a revival of the industry. It restarted in 1959 when a U.S. World War II Liberty ship, the "Methane Pioneer", converted to carry LNG, made a delivery of LNG from the U.S. Gulf Coast to energy-starved Great Britain. In June 1964, the world's first purpose-built LNG carrier, the "Methane Princess", entered service. Soon after that a large natural gas field was discovered in Algeria. International trade in LNG quickly followed as LNG was shipped to France and Great Britain from the Algerian fields. One more important attribute of LNG had now been exploited. Once natural gas was liquefied it could not only be stored more easily, but it could be transported. Thus energy could now be shipped over the oceans via LNG the same way it was shipped in the form of oil. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=832128 | 327,431 |
931,614 | There is a diverse classification scheme for the various genomic changes that may contribute to the generation of cancer cells. Many of these changes are mutations, or changes in the nucleotide sequence of genomic DNA. There are also many epigenetic changes that alter whether genes are expressed or not expressed. Aneuploidy, the presence of an abnormal number of chromosomes, is one genomic change that is not a mutation, and may involve either gain or loss of one or more chromosomes through errors in mitosis. Large-scale mutations involve either the deletion or duplication of a portion of a chromosome. Genomic amplification occurs when a cell gains many copies (often 20 or more) of a small chromosomal region, usually containing one or more oncogenes and adjacent genetic material. Translocation occurs when two separate chromosomal regions become abnormally fused, often at a characteristic location. A well-known example of this is the Philadelphia chromosome, or translocation of chromosomes 9 and 22, which occurs in chronic myelogenous leukemia, and results in production of the BCR-abl fusion protein, an oncogenic tyrosine kinase. Small-scale mutations include point mutations, deletions, and insertions, which may occur in the promoter of a gene and affect its expression, or may occur in the gene's coding sequence and alter the function or stability of its protein product. Disruption of a single gene may also result from integration of genomic material from a DNA virus or retrovirus, and such an event may also result in the expression of viral oncogenes in the affected cell and its descendants. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2332422 | 931,122 |
2,153,506 | Goodman grew up in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, and spent many years in Detroit, Michigan as the only Wayne State University faculty member appointed to the National Academy of Science until his death on November 14, 2010. After high school, he attended the University of Wisconsin-Madison for one year, then in 1943 entered the Army Air Forces, where he served as a navigator for the remainder of World War II. He was married in 1946, shortly after returning to college. He became interested in science after a comparative anatomy course; the professor, Harold Wolfe, recruited him as a teaching assistant. Goodman graduated with a degree in zoology and a minor in biochemistry, and continued on at Wisconsin for his master's and Ph.D. degrees under Wolfe (a former student of Alan Boyden). Upon finishing a dissertation on the antigen-antibody precipitin reaction, he went to Caltech for post-doctoral work, supported by an NIH fellowship. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12841674 | 2,152,275 |
322,712 | Dvořák's Stabat Mater (1880) was performed and very well received at the Royal Albert Hall in London on 10 March 1883, conducted by Joseph Barnby. The success "sparked off a whole series of performances in England and the United States", a year ahead of appreciation in Germany and Austria. Dvořák was invited to visit Britain where he appeared to great acclaim in 1884. The London Philharmonic Society commissioned Dvořák to conduct concerts in London, and his performances were well received there. In response to the commission, Dvořák wrote his Symphony No. 7 and conducted its premiere at St. James's Hall on 22 April 1885. On a visit later in 1885, Dvořák presented his cantata The Spectre's Bride, in a concert on 27 August. He had arrived a week early to conduct rehearsals of the chorus of 500 voices and orchestra of 150. The performance was "a greater triumph than any" Dvořák "had had in his life up to that time...following this phenomenal success, choral societies in the English-speaking countries hastened to prepare and present the new work." Dvořák visited Britain at least eight times in total, conducting his own works there. In 1887, Richter conducted the "Symphonic Variations" in London and Vienna to great acclaim (they had been written ten years earlier and Dvořák had allowed them to languish after initial lack of interest from his publishers). Richter wrote to Dvořák of the London performance, "at the hundreds of concerts I have conducted during my life, no new work has been as successful as yours." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=76572 | 322,540 |
993,393 | In the 1980s early molecular work in the field was conducted by Norman R. Pace and colleagues, who used PCR to explore the diversity of ribosomal RNA sequences. The insights gained from these breakthrough studies led Pace to propose the idea of cloning DNA directly from environmental samples as early as 1985. This led to the first report of isolating and cloning bulk DNA from an environmental sample, published by Pace and colleagues in 1991 while Pace was in the Department of Biology at Indiana University. Considerable efforts ensured that these were not PCR false positives and supported the existence of a complex community of unexplored species. Although this methodology was limited to exploring highly conserved, non-protein coding genes, it did support early microbial morphology-based observations that diversity was far more complex than was known by culturing methods. Soon after that in 1995, Healy reported the metagenomic isolation of functional genes from "zoolibraries" constructed from a complex culture of environmental organisms grown in the laboratory on dried grasses. After leaving the Pace laboratory, Edward DeLong continued in the field and has published work that has largely laid the groundwork for environmental phylogenies based on signature 16S sequences, beginning with his group's construction of libraries from marine samples. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1408929 | 992,876 |
1,304,452 | The primary ethical dilemma that is brought up in stem cell research is concerning the source of embryonic stem cells (hESCs). As the name states, hESCs come from embryos. To be more specific, they come from the inner cell mass of a blastophere, which is the beginning stage of an embryo. However, that mass of cells could have the potential to give rise to human life, and there in lies the problem. Often, this argument leads back to a similar moral debate held around abortion. The question is: when does a mass of cells gain personhood and autonomy? Some individuals believe that an embryo is in fact a person at the moment of conception and that using an embryo for anything other than creating a baby would essentially be killing a baby. On the other end of the spectrum, people argue that the small ball of cells at that point only has the potential to become a fetus, and that potentiality, even in natural conception, is far from guaranteed. According to a study done by developmental biologists, between 75–80% of embryos created through intercourse are naturally lost before they can become fetuses. This debate is not one that has a right or wrong answer, nor can it be clearly settled. Much of the ethical dilemma surrounding hESCs relies on individual beliefs about life and the potential for scientific advancement versus creating new human life. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=703002 | 1,303,736 |
760,913 | The A-36A was the first aircraft based on the 'Mustang' airframe ordered by the U.S. Government specifically for use by the USAAF. NAA found an unfilled 'Dive Bomber' USAAF contract, which they got mainly by their own initiative. In so doing, NAA was able to keep the production bays open with the hope the USAAF would place orders for it as a fighter. On 16 April 1942, Fighter Project Officer Benjamin S. Kelsey ordered 500 A-36 Apaches, a redesign that included six .50 in (12.7 mm) M2 Browning machine guns, dive brakes, and the ability to carry two 500 lb (230 kg) bombs. Kelsey would rather have bought more fighters but was willing instead to initiate a higher level of Mustang production at North American by using USAAF funds earmarked for ground-attack aircraft when pursuit aircraft funding had already been allocated. It was the first airframe of the Mustang "family" (Apache, Invader, or Mustang) to be drop-tank capable. (A 1939 USAAC prohibition prevented manufacturers from making fighters capable of carrying external fuel stores; the Navy had no such restriction.) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18854620 | 760,507 |
1,202,476 | Since at least the mid-2000s, there has been intensifying interest in developing short interfering RNAs for biomedical and therapeutic applications. Bolstering this interest is a growing number of experiments which have successfully demonstrated the clinical potential and safety of small RNAs for combatting diseases ranging from viral infections to cancer as well as neurodegenerative disorders. In 2004, the first Investigational New Drug applications for siRNA were filed in the United States with the Food and Drug Administration; it was intended as a therapy for age-related macular degeneration. RNA silencing in vitro and in vivo has been accomplished by creating triggers (nucleic acids that induce RNAi) either via expression in viruses or synthesis of oligonucleotides. Optimistically many studies indicate that small RNA-based therapies may offer novel and potent weapons against pathogens and diseases where small molecule/pharmacologic and vaccine/biologic treatments have failed or proved less effective in the past. However, it is also warned that the design and delivery of small RNA effector molecules should be carefully considered in order to ensure safety and efficacy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9458068 | 1,201,833 |
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