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875,001 | The mechanism of aspirin's analgesic, anti-inflammatory and antipyretic properties was unknown through the drug's heyday in the early- to mid-twentieth century; Heinrich Dreser's explanation, widely accepted since the drug was first brought to market, was that aspirin relieved pain by acting on the central nervous system. In 1958 Harry Collier, a biochemist in the London laboratory of pharmaceutical company Parke-Davis, began investigating the relationship between kinins and the effects of aspirin. In tests on guinea pigs, Collier found that aspirin, if given beforehand, inhibited the bronchoconstriction effects of bradykinin. He found that cutting the guinea pigs' vagus nerve did not affect the action of bradykinin "or" the inhibitory effect of aspirin—evidence that aspirin worked locally to combat pain and inflammation, rather than on the central nervous system. In 1963, Collier began working with University of London pharmacology graduate student Priscilla Piper to determine the precise mechanism of aspirin's effects. However, it was difficult to pin down the precise biochemical goings-on in live research animals, and "in vitro" tests on removed animal tissues did not behave like "in vivo" tests. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=16283254 | 874,539 |
2,157,301 | Type 645 was an experimental program of the Fourth five-year plan of China and designed by the 2nd Directorate of 708th Institute of China State Shipbuilding Corporation, which is also more commonly known as China Shipbuilding and Oceanic Engineering Design Academy (中国船舶及海洋工程设计研究) nowadays. Construction begun in October 1977 and the ship was launched in October 1978, entering service with PLAN in December 1978. There are a total of twelve laboratories on board totaling 257 square meters. Deployment proved that the design was successful, and three more units were built for civilian use, named as Xiangyanghong (向阳红, meaning facing the sun in red in Chinese) 9, Xiangyanghong 14 and Xiangyanghong 16 respectively. However, on May 2, 1993, Xiangyanghong 16 was rammed and sunk by a Cypriot LNG carrier more than nine time of its size (38000 ton) in the East China Sea near Jeju Island, with the loss of three crew members. The sister ships in civilian service are often tasked with military and paramilitary missions and thus frequently come under PLAN and Chinese Coast Guard control. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42759544 | 2,156,070 |
337,716 | After graduation, Eiffel had hoped to find work in his uncle's workshop in Dijon, but a family dispute made this impossible. After a few months working as an unpaid assistant to his brother-in-law, who managed a foundry, Eiffel approached the railway engineer Charles Nepveu, who gave Eiffel his first paid job as his private secretary. However, shortly afterwards Nepveu's company went bankrupt, Nepveu found Eiffel a job designing a sheet iron bridge for the Saint Germaine railway. Some of Nepveu's businesses were then acquired by the Compagnie Belge de Matériels de Chemin de Fer: Nepveu was appointed the managing director of the two factories in Paris, and offered Eiffel a job as head of the research department. In 1857 Nepveu negotiated a contract to build a railway bridge over the river Garonne at Bordeaux, connecting the Paris-Bordeaux line to the lines running to Sète and Bayonne, which involved the construction of a iron girder bridge supported by six pairs of masonry piers on the river bed. These were constructed with the aid of compressed air caissons and hydraulic rams, both innovative techniques at the time. Eiffel was initially given the responsibility of assembling the metalwork and eventually took over the management of the entire project from Nepveu, who resigned in March 1860. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12232 | 337,537 |
2,073,830 | Microfluidic modulation spectroscopy features a tunable mid-infrared quantum cascade laser to generate an optical beam that is 1000 times brighter than those used in conventional FTIR. This enables the measurement of samples that are substantially more concentrated than possible with other techniques, and the use of simpler detectors with no requirement for nitrogen cooling. The laser is run in continuous wave mode to generate a very high resolution (< 0.001 cm-1 linewidth), low noise beam with minimal stray light that is focused through a microfluidic transmission cell with a short (25 µm) optical path length onto a thermo-electrically cooled mercury cadmium tellurium (MCT) detector. This optical configuration delivers high sensitivity measurement over a concentration range of 0.1 – 200 mg/mL for structural characterization and down to 0.01 mg/mL for protein quantitation giving microfluidic modulation spectroscopy a far wider dynamic range than alternative protein characterization techniques. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=65444294 | 2,072,638 |
925,644 | Researchers at Northwestern University led by Drs. Diane Wayne, Jeff Barsuk and William McGaghie pioneered the use of mastery learning in the health professions. In 2006 they investigated mastery learning vs. traditional medical education in advanced cardiac life support techniques and showed that internal medicine resident trainees significantly improved adherence to American Heart Association protocols after mastery training. Subsequent investigations showed improved patient care practices as a result of this rigorous education including reduced patient complications and healthcare costs. These effects on patient care were seen in operating rooms, cardiac catheterization lab, intensive care units and patient floors at a large urban teaching hospital in Chicago. Further study also involved communication skills such as breaking bad news and end of life discussions, and patient self-management skills. In 2020 the Northwestern group published an important textbook entitled Mastery Learning in Health Professions Education. The approach designed by Northwestern investigators is currently in use at other health care institutions and medical schools throughout the US and the world. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3389587 | 925,158 |
2,116,386 | In 2015, the elucidation of the full-length structures of CDH from "Crassicarpon hotsonii" (syn. "Myriococcum thermophilum") (PDB ID: 4QI6) and "Neurospora crassa" (PDB ID: 4QI7) increased the understanding of the domain mobility for the role of CYT as built-in redox mediator. Tan and Kracher et al. showed that CDH exists in a closed-state and an open-state conformation. In the closed-state the haem b accepts an electron from the FAD after substrate oxidation and it donates the electron to an external electron acceptor in the open-state. It was found that IET does not depend on the prominent Trp residue positioned directly between the FAD and the haem cofactor, but on a surface exposed Arg in the substrate channel, which stabilises the interaction with CYT through a haem propionate group. The heme b propionate-D is folded away, and a hydrogen bond to Tyr99 in the CYT domain prevents it from interacting directly with the DH active site. The closest edge-to-edge distance between heme b and FAD is 9 Å, which is well within the 14-Å limit for efficient electron transfer. The mobile CYT domain of CDH is a unique feature among GMC-oxidoreductases and acquired at a later stage of evolution. The CYT domain mobility is regulated by a flexible peptide linker of varying length and composition ("e.g.", "N. crassa" CDH IIA = 17 amino acids, "N. crassa" CDH IIB = 33 amino acids), which connects both domains. The movement of CYT has been observed by AFM and SAXS studies. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14130647 | 2,115,169 |
1,309,088 | McMillan's abrupt departure was caused by the outbreak of World War II in Europe. In November 1940, he began working at the MIT Radiation Laboratory in Cambridge, Massachusetts, where he participated in the development and testing of airborne microwave radar during World War II. He conducted tests in April 1941 with the radar operating from an old Douglas B-18 Bolo medium bomber. Flying over the Naval Submarine Base New London with Luis Walter Alvarez and Air Chief Marshal Hugh Dowding, they showed that the radar was able to detect the conning tower of a partly submerged submarine. McMillan married Elsie Walford Blumer in New Haven, Connecticut, on June 7, 1941. Her father was George Blumer, Dean Emeritus of the Yale Medical School. Her sister Mary was Lawrence's wife. The McMillans had three children: Ann Bradford, David Mattison and Stephen Walker. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=157241 | 1,308,372 |
2,044,545 | Research at CeSOS focuses on the creation of fundamental knowledge about the design and operation of future ships and ocean structures, using analytical, numerical and experimental studies. The centre has furthermore made it its responsibility to integrate marine hydrodynamics, structural mechanics and automatic control in its research. The knowledge that is being produced by this kind of research is vital, both now and in the future, for the design of safe, cost effective and environmentally friendly structures as well as in the planning and execution of marine operations. The importance of such work cannot be over-emphasised: In tonnage terms, 95 per cent of all international transport is by sea, and 20 per cent of the world’s oil and gas is produced from subsea reservoirs via offshore structures and pipelines. In the future, food production in aquacultural plants and the exploitation of renewable energy from the oceans is expected to play a growing role. The scientific and engineering research carried out in the centre takes account of such future needs, and extends current knowledge in relevant disciplines. The emphasis is on the synergy between hydrodynamics, structural mechanics and automatic control. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=33603101 | 2,043,364 |
1,126,054 | Genes encoding three-finger toxins are thought to have evolved through gene duplication. Traditionally, this has been conceptualized as repeated events of duplication followed by neofunctionalization and recruitment to gene expression patterns restricted to venom glands. However, it has been argued that this process should be extremely rare and that subfunctionalization better explains the observed distribution. More recently, non-toxic 3FP proteins have been found to be widely expressed in many different tissues in snakes, prompting the alternative hypothesis that proteins of restricted expression in saliva were selectively recruited for toxic functionality. There is evidence that most types of 3FTx proteins have been subject to positive selection (that is, diversifying selection) in their recent evolutionary history, possibly due to an evolutionary arms race with prey species. Notable exceptions are the dimeric kappa-bungarotoxin family, likely as a result of evolutionary constraints on the dimer interface, and the cardiotoxin/cytotoxin family, in which a larger fraction of the protein's residues are believed to have functional roles. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=53872747 | 1,125,477 |
955,097 | Between 1948 and 1950, she developed a theory by which these mobile elements regulated the genes by inhibiting or modulating their action. She referred to "Dissociation" and "Activator" as "controlling units"—later, as "controlling elements"—to distinguish them from genes. She hypothesized that gene regulation could explain how complex multicellular organisms made of cells with identical genomes have cells of different function. McClintock's discovery challenged the concept of the genome as a static set of instructions passed between generations. In 1950, she reported her work on "Ac/Ds" and her ideas about gene regulation in a paper entitled "The origin and behavior of mutable loci in maize" published in the journal "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences". In summer 1951, she reported her work on the origin and behavior of mutable loci in maize at the annual symposium at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, presenting a paper of the same name. The paper delved into the instability caused by "Ds" and "Ac" or just "Ac" in four genes, along with the tendency of those genes to unpredictably revert to the wild phenotype. She also identified "families" of transposons, which did not interact with one another. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=55188 | 954,592 |
873,468 | Nest cavities have to be quite large in order to accommodate these birds. Clutch size is 1 to 3, usually 2. In Russia, clutches are usually just one egg. Eggs are long and wide and are thus similar in size to Siberian eagle-owl eggs. The males provide food for the incubating female and later the nestlings. The incubation period is about 35 days and young leave the nest within 35–40 days but are often fed and cared for by their parents for several more months. Data on breeding success are scant: on Kunashir Island during a six-year period breeding success was 24%; with six fledglings resulting from 25 eggs. The average weight of fledgling owls was about 40% lighter than adult size, averaging in females and in males. Juveniles linger on their parents' territory for up to two years before dispersing to find their own. A study in Hokkaido found that male fledglings were about 10% more numerous than females but had a higher mortality rate post-fledgling. Blakiston's fish owls can form pair bonds as early as their second year and reach sexual maturity by age three. This unusually long pre-dispersal period may be why this owl is occasionally reported as gregarious, as sets of parents and juveniles will congregate but not unrelated owls. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=764546 | 873,007 |
89,181 | On October 27, 1895, the Rotunda burned to a shell because of an electrical fire that started in the Rotunda Annex, a long multi-story structure built in 1853 to house additional classrooms. The electrical fire was no doubt assisted by the help of overzealous faculty member William "Reddy" Echols, who attempted to save it by throwing roughly of dynamite into the main fire in the hopes the blast would separate the burning Annex from Jefferson's own Rotunda. His last-ditch effort ultimately failed. Perhaps ironically, one of the university's main honors student programs is named for him. University officials swiftly approached celebrity architect Stanford White to rebuild the Rotunda. White took the charge further, disregarding Jefferson's design and redesigning the Rotunda interior—making it two floors instead of three, adding three buildings to the foot of the Lawn, and designing a president's house. He did omit rebuilding the Rotunda Annex, the remnants of which were used as fill and to create part of the modern-day Rotunda's northern-facing plaza. The classes formerly occupying the Annex were moved to the South Lawn in White's new buildings. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=59801 | 89,144 |
158,454 | Smart Grid Energy Research Center (SMERC) - Located at University of California, Los Angeles dedicated its efforts to large-scale testing of its smart EV charging network technology. It created another platform for bidirectional flow of information between a utility and consumer end-devices. SMERC also developed a demand response (DR) test bed that comprises a Control Center, Demand Response Automation Server (DRAS), Home-Area-Network (HAN), Battery Energy Storage System (BESS), and photovoltaic (PV) panels. These technologies are installed within the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power and Southern California Edison territory as a network of EV chargers, battery energy storage systems, solar panels, DC fast charger, and Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) units. These platforms, communications and control networks enables UCLA-led projects within the area to be tested in partnership with two local utilities, SCE and LADWP. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13201685 | 158,373 |
1,271,940 | Viruses have been explored as a means to treat infections caused by protozoa. One such protozoa that potential virotherapy treatments have explored is "Naegleria fowleri", which causes primary amebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). With a mortality rate of 95%, this disease-causing eukaryote has one of the highest pathogenic fatality rates known. Chemotherapeutic agents that target this amoeba for treating PAM have difficulty crossing blood-brain barriers. However, the driven evolution of virulent viruses of protozoal pathogens (VVPPs) may be able to develop viral therapies that can more easily access this eukaryotic disease organism by crossing the blood-brain barrier in a process analogous to bacteriophages. These VVPPs would also be self-replicating and therefore require infrequent administration, with lower doses, thus potentially reducing toxicity. While these treatment methods for protozoal disease may show great promise in a manner similar to bacteriophage viral therapy, a notable hazard is the evolutionary consequence of using viruses capable of eukaryotic pathogenicity. VVPPs will have evolved mechanisms of DNA insertion and replication that manipulate eukaryotic surface proteins and DNA editing proteins. VVPP engineering must therefore control for viruses that may be able to mutate and thereby bind to surface proteins and manipulate the DNA of the infected host. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1873971 | 1,271,249 |
196,619 | The latest proposed extremely large astronomical telescopes, such as the Thirty Meter Telescope and the Extremely Large Telescope, will be of segmented design. Their primary mirrors will be built from hundreds of hexagonal mirror segments. Polishing and figuring these highly aspheric and non-rotationally symmetric mirror segments presents a major challenge. Traditional means of optical testing compares a surface against a spherical reference with the aid of a null corrector. In recent years, computer-generated holograms (CGHs) have begun to supplement null correctors in test setups for complex aspheric surfaces. Fig. 15 illustrates how this is done. Unlike the figure, actual CGHs have line spacing on the order of 1 to 10 µm. When laser light is passed through the CGH, the zero-order diffracted beam experiences no wavefront modification. The wavefront of the first-order diffracted beam, however, is modified to match the desired shape of the test surface. In the illustrated Fizeau interferometer test setup, the zero-order diffracted beam is directed towards the spherical reference surface, and the first-order diffracted beam is directed towards the test surface in such a way that the two reflected beams combine to form interference fringes. The same test setup can be used for the innermost mirrors as for the outermost, with only the CGH needing to be exchanged. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=166689 | 196,519 |
679,020 | By 1966, the design took on its final form as the L-2000-7A and L-2000-7B. The L-2000-7A featured a re-designed wing and fuselage lengthened to 273 ft (83 m). The longer fuselage allows for a mixed-class seating of 230 passengers. The new wing featured a proportionately larger forward delta, with greater refinement to the wing's twist and curvature. Despite having the same wingspan, the wing-area was increased to 9,424 ft² (875 m²), with a slightly reduced 84° sweepback, and an increased 65° main delta wing, with reduced forward sweep along the trailing edge. Unlike previous versions, this aircraft featured a leading-edge flap to increase lift at low speeds, and to allow a slight down-elevon deflection. The fuselage, as a result of greater length, changes to the wing design, and attempts to further reduce drag, featured a slight vertical thinning in the fuselage where the wings were, a more prominent wing/body "belly" to carry fuel and cargo, a longer nose, and a refined tail. Since the airplane was not as directionally stable as before, the plane featured a ventral fin, located on the underside of the trailing fuselage. The L-2000-7B was extended to 293 ft (89 m), utilizing a lengthened cabin and a more pronounced upward-curving tail to reduce the chance of the tail striking the runway during over-rotation. Both designs had the same maximum weight of 590,000 lb (267,600 kg), and the aerodynamic lift-to-drag ratio was increased to 8:1. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=265811 | 678,666 |
326,344 | The fifth-generation 4A-GE engine produced from 1995 to 2000 is the final version of the 4A-GE engine and has black cam covers. It uses Toyota Variable Valve Timing (VVT) system on the intake cam. This engine is commonly known as the "black top" due to the color of the valve cover, and yet again features an even higher compression ratio (11:1). The air flow sensor was replaced by a MAP sensor, the diameter of the four individual throttle bodies was increased from , the exhaust ports diameter were increased by 3 mm, the intake cam lift was increased from , and the intake ports were significantly improved in shape and contour, with the width of the opening at the head increased as well. Additionally, the black top had a lighter flywheel, a larger plenum, lighter connecting rods and revised rubber velocity stacks, and was also offered in 1997 with a six-speed C160 transaxle. This revision increased the power to at 7,800 rpm with of torque at 5,600 rpm. The 'Blacktop' has become a favorite among enthusiasts and is used as an easy power upgrade for the early Toyota Corolla models, especially for use in the drift scene. Due to the relatively high state of tuning of the stock engine, most power/torque gains come from higher lift cams and engine management. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=903321 | 326,170 |
387,170 | The monocots or monocotyledons have, as the name implies, a single (mono-) cotyledon, or embryonic leaf, in their seeds. Historically, this feature was used to contrast the monocots with the dicotyledons or dicots which typically have two cotyledons; however, modern research has shown that the dicots are not a natural group, and the term can only be used to indicate all angiosperms that are not monocots and is used in that respect here. From a diagnostic point of view the number of cotyledons is neither a particularly useful characteristic (as they are only present for a very short period in a plant's life), nor is it completely reliable. The single cotyledon is only one of a number of modifications of the body plan of the ancestral monocotyledons, whose adaptive advantages are poorly understood, but may have been related to adaption to aquatic habitats, prior to radiation to terrestrial habitats. Nevertheless, monocots are sufficiently distinctive that there has rarely been disagreement as to membership of this group, despite considerable diversity in terms of external morphology. However, morphological features that reliably characterise major clades are rare. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=55625 | 386,975 |
344,853 | There were two variations of the EJ25D sold in the US market. The engine was introduced in 1996 in the Legacy 2.5GT, LSi, and Legacy Outback. That version of the engine used Hydraulic Lash Adjuster (HLA) heads, was recommended to be run on 91 octane fuel, had lower power and torque ratings than the later '97-99 EJ25D, and was only offered with an automatic transmission. In 1997 a revised engine was introduced that used heads with shimmed bucket lifters (versus the HLAs), was designed to run on 87 octane fuel, and was available with either a manual or automatic transmission. Because of the DOHC valve architecture, the spark plugs are more difficult to service in comparison to SOHC variations. The DOHC engines are therefore installed with platinum spark plugs and an extended spark plug service life of . The EJ25D uses smaller rod journals due to the phase 1 EJ25 offset grind crankshaft design, compared to the EJ22 of the same year, and the engines which use a rod journal. As well, the EJ25D from the 1999 Outback is a one-year only factory hybrid, which uses the phase 2 case halves with an 8 bolt bell housing (as opposed to the 4 bolt bell housing used until 1998), uses a phase 2 crankshaft and rods with rod journals, but retains the same pistons as the 1997-1998 variant to maintain the same compression ratio. The 1996 EJ25D uses different pistons than what was used for 1997–1999, which will increase the compression ratio significantly if combined with 1997-1999 EJ25D heads. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4222124 | 344,672 |
1,057,680 | Milstein's early work on antibodies focused on their diversity at the amino acid level, as well as on the disulfide bonds by which they were held together. Part of this work was done in collaboration with his wife, Celia. The emphasis of his research then shifted towards the mRNA encoding antibodies, where he was able to provide the first evidence for the existence of a precursor for these secreted polypeptides that contained a signal sequence. The development of the hybridoma technology coupled to advances in nucleic acid sequencing allowed Milstein to chart the changes that occurred in antibodies following antigen encounter. He demonstrated the importance of somatic hypermutation of immunoglobulin V genes in antibody affinity maturation. In this process, localized mutation of the immunoglobulin genes allows the production of improved antibodies, which make a major contribution to protective immunity and immunological memory. Much of his work in recent years was devoted to characterizing this mutational process with a view to understanding its mechanism. He contributed a manuscript for publication on this topic less than a week before he died. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1297458 | 1,057,131 |
588,165 | Grosseteste continued to keep a watchful eye on ecclesiastical events. In 1251 he protested against a papal mandate enjoining the English clergy to pay Henry III one-tenth of their revenues for a crusade; and called attention to the fact that, under the system of provisions, a sum of 70,000 marks was annually drawn from England by the alien nominees of Rome. In 1253, upon being commanded to provide in his own diocese for a papal nephew, he wrote a letter of expostulation and refusal, not to the pope himself but to the commissioner, Master Innocent, through whom he received the mandate. The text of the remonstrance, as given in the Burton Annals and in Matthew Paris, has possibly been altered by a forger who had less respect than Grosseteste for the papacy. The language is more violent than that which the bishop elsewhere employs. But the general argument, that the papacy may command obedience only so far as its commands are consonant with the teaching of Christ and the apostles, is only what should be expected from an ecclesiastical reformer of Grosseteste's time. There is much more reason for suspecting the letter addressed "to the nobles of England, the citizens of London, and the community of the whole realm", in which Grosseteste is represented as denouncing in unmeasured terms papal finance in all its branches. But even in this case allowance must be made for the difference between modern and medieval standards of decorum. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=94721 | 587,863 |
972,211 | A Calabi–Yau manifold is a compact Kähler manifold which is Ricci-flat; as a special case of Yau's verification of the Calabi conjecture, such manifolds are known to exist. Mirror symmetry, which is a proposal developed by theoretical physicists dating from the late 1980s, postulates that Calabi−Yau manifolds of complex dimension three can be grouped into pairs which share certain characteristics, such as Euler and Hodge numbers. Based on this conjectural picture, the physicists Philip Candelas, Xenia de la Ossa, Paul Green, and Linda Parkes proposed a formula of enumerative geometry which encodes the number of rational curves of any fixed degree in a general quintic hypersurface of four-dimensional complex projective space. Bong Lian, Kefeng Liu, and Yau gave a rigorous proof that this formula holds. A year earlier, Alexander Givental had published a proof of the mirror formulas; according to Lian, Liu, and Yau, the details of his proof were only successfully filled in following their own publication. The proofs of Givental and Lian–Liu–Yau have some overlap but are distinct approaches to the problem, and each have since been given textbook expositions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=303137 | 971,701 |
209,676 | "H. erectus" seems to have typically favoured open environments. It is debated if Peking Man occupied the region during colder glacial periods or only took residence during warmer interglacials, tied to the uncertain chronology of the Zhoukoudian, as well as arguments regarding fire usage, clothing technology, and hunting ability. Given the abundance of deer remains, it was quite early on assumed Peking Man was a prolific deer hunter, but since the establishment of non-human carnivores as a major depositional agent, the dependence on hunting has become a controversial topic. Indeed, most of the Peking Man fossils were at least fed upon by likely hyenas. Nonetheless, some of the animal fossils seem to have been modified by humans. In 1986, Binford and colleagues reported a few horse fossils with cutmarks left by stone tools, and two upper premolars from Layer 4 appearing to him to have been burned while still fresh, which he ascribed to horse-head roasting (but he believed Peking Man was simply scavenging from hyenas because all tool cuts he analysed were always overlapping hyena gnaw marks instead of vice versa.) The Zhoukoudian also preserves the remains of edible plants, nuts, and seeds which Peking Man may have been eating: Chinese hackberry, walnut, hazelnut, pine, elm, and rambler rose. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=253340 | 209,569 |
1,657,747 | While attending GWU, Alpher met Louise Ellen Simons, who was majoring in psychology at night school and working as a day secretary with the State Department. Nearly two months after the attack on Pearl Harbor, Alpher and Louise were married. At this time he had already done classified work for the U.S. Navy through the Carnegie Institution for nearly one and a half years. During a hiatus in his scientific work in early 1944, he did apply to the Navy for a commission, for which he was eligible. By this time he had done so much classified and secret work he was no longer subject to the draft (along with about 7,000 others), and prohibited from enlistment. That summer, he signed on to the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory to work on another classified project—a new magnetic-influence torpedo exploder. This was badly needed since the Mark 14 torpedo, which had a poorly tested exploder that had its magnetic component turned off by order of the Chief of Naval Operations in late 1943, was badly in need of replacement (V.S. Alpher, The Submarine Review, October, 2009). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1273628 | 1,656,814 |
1,321,521 | DTT is carried out in a one-on-one therapist to student ratio at the table. Intervention can start when a child is as young as two years old and can last from two to six years. Progression through goals of the program are determined individually and are not determined by which year the client has been in the program. The first year seeks to reduce self-stimulating ("stimming") behavior, teach listener responding, eye contact, and fine and gross motor imitation, as well as to establish playing with toys in their intended manner, and integrate the family into the treatment protocol. The second year teaches early expressive language and abstract linguistic skills. The third year strives to include the individual's community in the treatment to optimize "mainstreaming" by focusing on peer interaction, basic socializing skills, emotional expression and variation, in addition to observational learning and pre-academic skills, such as reading, writing, and arithmetic. Rarely is the technique implemented for the first time with adults. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1559185 | 1,320,795 |
1,320,048 | After 23 years in Southeast Asia, Manson had amassed considerable wealth from his medical practices. He returned to London in 1889, and settled at 21 Queen Anne Street, W1. In 1890 he qualified the Membership of the Royal College of Physicians. He became Physician at the Seamen's Hospital Society in 1892 and also Lecturer on Tropical Diseases in St George's Hospital. In July 1897 was appointed Chief Medical Officer to the Colonial Office. It was here that he used his influence to push for the foundation of a School of Tropical Medicine at the Albert Dock Seamen's Hospital. In a speech in 1897, he endorsed a call by fellow Scottish physician Andrew Davidson for courses in tropical medicine at every British medical school. The London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine was opened on 2 October 1899. He was appointed a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George (CMG) in the 1900 New Year Honours list on 1 January 1900, and was invested by Queen Victoria at Windsor Castle on 1 March 1900. Manson was awarded the Cameron Prize for Therapeutics of the University of Edinburgh in this year. He retired from the Colonial Office in 1912. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2995870 | 1,319,322 |
961,560 | Remoras are a family ("Echeneidae") of ray-finned fish. They grow to long, and their distinctive first dorsal fins take the form of a modified oval, sucker-like organ with slat-like structures that open and close to create suction and take a firm hold against the skin of larger marine animals. By sliding backward, the remora can increase the suction, or it can release itself by swimming forward. Remoras sometimes attach to small boats. They swim well on their own, with a sinuous, or curved, motion. When the remora reaches about , the disc is fully formed and the remora can then attach to other animals. The remora's lower jaw projects beyond the upper, and the animal lacks a swim bladder. Some remoras associate primarily with specific host species. They are commonly found attached to sharks, manta rays, whales, turtles, and dugongs. Smaller remoras also fasten onto fish such as tuna and swordfish, and some small remoras travel in the mouths or gills of large manta rays, ocean sunfish, swordfish, and sailfish. The remora benefits by using the host as transport and protection, and also feeds on materials dropped by the host. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1132756 | 961,051 |
212,744 | Legends of magnetic levitation were common in ancient and medieval times, and their spread from the Roman world to the Middle East and later to India has been documented by the classical scholar Dunstan Lowe. The earliest known source is Pliny the Elder (first century AD), who described architectural plans for an iron statue that was to be suspended by lodestone from the vault of a temple in Alexandria. Many subsequent reports described levitating statues, relics or other objects of symbolic importance, and versions of the legend have appeared in diverse religious traditions, including Christianity, Islam, Buddhism and Hinduism. In some cases they were interpreted as divine miracles, while in others they were described as natural phenomena falsely purported to be miraculous; one example of the latter comes from St Augustine, who refers to a magnetically suspended statue in his book The City of God (c. 410 AD). Another common feature of these legends, according to Lowe, is an explanation of the object's disappearance, often involving its destruction by non-believers in acts of impiety. Although the phenomenon itself is now understood to be physically impossible, as was first recognized by Samuel Earnshaw in 1842, stories of magnetic levitation have persisted to modern times, one prominent example being the legend of the suspended monument in the Konark Sun Temple in Eastern India. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=33565171 | 212,636 |
184,356 | After leaving the Bay of Whales on 15 February 1911, "Fram" sailed for Buenos Aires where she arrived on 17 April. Here, Nilsen learned that the expedition's funds were exhausted; a sum supposedly set aside for the ship's needs had not materialised. Fortunately, Amundsen's friend Don Pedro Christopherson was at hand to fulfil his earlier promises to provide supplies and fuel. "Fram" departed in June for an oceanographic cruise between South America and Africa, which occupied the next three months. The ship returned to Buenos Aires in September for final refitting and re-provisioning, before sailing south on 5 October. Strong winds and stormy seas prolonged the voyage, but the ship arrived at the Bay of Whales on 9 January 1912. On 17 January the men in Framheim were surprised by the appearance of a second ship; it was the "Kainan Maru", carrying the Japanese Antarctic Expedition led by Nobu Shirase. Communication between the two expeditions was limited by language difficulties, though the Norwegians gathered that the Japanese were heading for King Edward VII Land. "Kainan Maru" departed the next day, and on 26 January she landed a party on King Edward VII Land. This was the first landing on this shore from the sea; attempts by "Discovery" (1902), "Nimrod" (1908) and "Terra Nova" (1911) had all failed. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15021680 | 184,259 |
417,890 | Britain contributed to the Manhattan Project by helping initiate the effort to build the first atomic bombs in the United States during World War II, and helped carry it through to completion in August 1945 by supplying crucial expertise. Following the discovery of nuclear fission in uranium, scientists Rudolf Peierls and Otto Frisch at the University of Birmingham calculated, in March 1940, that the critical mass of a metallic sphere of pure uranium-235 was as little as , and would explode with the power of thousands of tons of dynamite. The Frisch–Peierls memorandum prompted Britain to create an atomic bomb project, known as Tube Alloys. Mark Oliphant, an Australian physicist working in Britain, was instrumental in making the results of the British MAUD Report known in the United States in 1941 by a visit in person. Initially the British project was larger and more advanced, but after the United States entered the war, the American project soon outstripped and dwarfed its British counterpart. The British government then decided to shelve its own nuclear ambitions, and participate in the American project. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41957579 | 417,686 |
417,637 | Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are lipid bilayer-delimited particles that are naturally released from almost all types of cell but, unlike a cell, cannot replicate. EVs range in diameter from near the size of the smallest physically possible unilamellar liposome (around 20-30 nanometers) to as large as 10 microns or more, although the vast majority of EVs are smaller than 200 nm. EVs can be divided according to size and synthesis route into Exosomes, microvesicles and apoptotic bodies. They carry a cargo of proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, metabolites, and even organelles from the parent cell. Most cells that have been studied to date are thought to release EVs, including some archaeal, bacterial, fungal, and plant cells that are surrounded by cell walls. A wide variety of EV subtypes have been proposed, defined variously by size, biogenesis pathway, cargo, cellular source, and function, leading to a historically heterogenous nomenclature including terms like exosomes and ectosomes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=43476921 | 417,433 |
331,462 | Additional risks posed by increased availability of inorganic nitrogen in aquatic ecosystems include water acidification; eutrophication of fresh and saltwater systems; and toxicity issues for animals, including humans. Eutrophication often leads to lower dissolved oxygen levels in the water column, including hypoxic and anoxic conditions, which can cause death of aquatic fauna. Relatively sessile benthos, or bottom-dwelling creatures, are particularly vulnerable because of their lack of mobility, though large fish kills are not uncommon. Oceanic dead zones near the mouth of the Mississippi in the Gulf of Mexico are a well-known example of algal bloom-induced hypoxia. The New York Adirondack Lakes, Catskills, Hudson Highlands, Rensselaer Plateau and parts of Long Island display the impact of nitric acid rain deposition, resulting in the killing of fish and many other aquatic species. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=59414 | 331,285 |
208,523 | In 2015, the US National Academy of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine concluded a 21-month project to study the potential impacts, benefits, and costs of climate engineering. The differences between these two classes of climate engineering "led the committee to evaluate the two types of approaches separately in companion reports, a distinction it hopes carries over to future scientific and policy discussions." The resulting study titled "Climate Intervention" was released in February 2015 and consists of two volumes: "Reflecting Sunlight to Cool Earth" and "Carbon Dioxide Removal and Reliable Sequestration". According to their brief about the study:Climate intervention is no substitute for reductions in carbon dioxide emissions and adaptation efforts aimed at reducing the negative consequences of climate change. However, as our planet enters a period of changing climate never before experienced in recorded human history, interest is growing in the potential for deliberate intervention in the climate system to counter climate change... Carbon dioxide removal strategies address a key driver of climate change, but research is needed to fully assess if any of these technologies could be appropriate for large-scale deployment. Albedo modification strategies could rapidly cool the planet's surface but pose environmental and other risks that are not well understood and therefore should not be deployed at climate-altering scales; more research is needed to determine if albedo modification approaches could be viable in the future. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1038280 | 208,416 |
1,399,634 | In December 1951 Hafler and Keroes began promoting the ultralinear stage - a method of distributing load between anode and screen grid of a pentode or tetrode, invented by Alan Blumlein in the 1930s. An ultralinear stage delivered 50% to 100% more output power than the same stage in triode connection, at roughly the same distortion, and cost less than a pure pentode or tetrode stage (the latter required a separate screen grid supply, the ultralinear did not need it). The first "Ultralinear Williamson", employing a pair of 6L6 in a Williamson-like topology, delivered ; their second model, built around more powerful 807 tetrodes, delivered . Very soon the American public acquired taste to high-power amplification, and the industry launched the "race for Watts". By 1955 Hafler and Keroes, now working separately, were offering 60-Watt models employing pairs of 6550 tetrodes or quartets of KT66s. Thus in less than a decade, step by step, the industry abandoned the principles set by Williamson, but continued to use his name as a convenient free trademark. In the 21st century it is even used for amplifiers without global negative feedback; the only thing they have in common with the true Williamson amplifier is the four-stage topology. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1019188 | 1,398,859 |
638,964 | An advantage of using Gaussians as interpolation functions is that they yield linear operators, including Laplacians, that are free from rotational artifacts of the coordinate frame in which formula_64 is represented via formula_81, in formula_73-dimensions, and are frequency aware by definition. A linear operator has not only a limited range in the formula_83 domain but also an effective range in the frequency domain (alternatively Gaussian scale space) which can be controlled explicitly via the variance of the Gaussian in a principled manner. The resulting filtering can be implemented by separable filters and decimation (signal processing)/pyramid (image processing) representations for further computational efficiency in formula_73-dimensions. In other words, the discrete Laplacian filter of any size can be generated conveniently as the sampled Laplacian of Gaussian with spatial size befitting the needs of a particular application as controlled by its variance. Monomials which are non-linear operators can also be implemented using a similar reconstruction and approximation approach provided that the signal is sufficiently over-sampled. Thereby, such non-linear operators e.g. Structure Tensor, and Generalized Structure Tensor which are used in pattern recognition for their total least-square optimality in orientation estimation, can be realized. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1394358 | 638,625 |
503,749 | Pneumoencephalography makes use of plain X-ray images. These are very poor at resolving soft tissues, such as the brain. Moreover, all the structures captured in the image are superimposed on top of each other, which makes it difficult to pick out individual items of interest (unlike modern scanners which are able to produce fine virtual slices of the body, including of soft tissues). Therefore, pneumoencephalography did not usually image abnormalities directly, rather their secondary effects. The overall structure of the brain contains crevices and cavities which are filled by the CSF. Both the brain and the CSF produce similar signals on an X-ray image. However, draining the CSF allows for greater contrast between the brain matter and the (now drained) crevices in and around it, which then show up as dark shadows on the X-ray image. The aim of pneumoencephalography is to outline these shadow-forming air-filled structures so that their shape and anatomical location can be examined. Following the procedure, an experienced radiologist reviews the X-ray films to see if the shape or location of these structures have been distorted or shifted by the presence of certain kinds of lesions. This also means that in order to show up on the images, lesions have to either be located right on the edge of the structures or if located elsewhere in the brain, be large enough to push on surrounding healthy tissues to an extent necessary to cause a distortion in the shape of the more distant air-filled cavities (and hence more-distant tumors detected this way tended to be fairly large). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=499118 | 503,490 |
391,596 | Genetically engineered M13 bacteriophage viruses allow preparation of quantum dot biocomposite structures. It had previously been shown that genetically engineered viruses can recognize specific semiconductor surfaces through the method of selection by combinatorial phage display. Additionally, it is known that liquid crystalline structures of wild-type viruses (Fd, M13, and TMV) are adjustable by controlling the solution concentrations, solution ionic strength, and the external magnetic field applied to the solutions. Consequently, the specific recognition properties of the virus can be used to organize inorganic nanocrystals, forming ordered arrays over the length scale defined by liquid crystal formation. Using this information, Lee et al. (2000) were able to create self-assembled, highly oriented, self-supporting films from a phage and ZnS precursor solution. This system allowed them to vary both the length of bacteriophage and the type of inorganic material through genetic modification and selection. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=511547 | 391,401 |
1,062,675 | A 2021 update to the 2019 climate emergency declaration focuses on 31 planetary vital signs (including greenhouse gases and temperature, rising sea levels, energy use, ice mass, ocean heat content, Amazon rainforest loss rate, etc), and recent changes to them. Of these, 18 are reaching critical levels. The COVID-19 lockdowns, which reduced transportation and consumption levels, had very little impact on mitigating or reversing these trends. The authors say only profound changes in human behavior can meet these challenges and emphasize the need to move beyond the idea that global heating is a stand alone emergency, and is one facet of the worsening environmental crisis. This necessitates the need for transformational system changes and to focus on the root cause of these crises, the vast human overexploitation of the earth, rather than just addressing symptom relief. They point to six areas where fundamental changes need to be made: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2016744 | 1,062,121 |
1,148,646 | Behavioral neurobiologists in the field of neuroethology have researched this behavior extensively for over fifty years in the crayfish species "Procambarus clarkii". Based on studies of "P. clarkii" it was discovered that the tail- flip mechanism is characterized by a decisive, all-or-nothing quality that inhibits all unnecessary behaviors while generating a fixed action pattern for escape swimming. The type of escape response depends on the region of the crayfish that is stimulated but all forms require abdominal contractions. When a strong, unpleasant tactile stimulus is presented, such as a burst of water or the prod of a probe, a stereotyped behavior occurs in which the muscular tail and wide tail fan region of the telson are used like a paddle to propel the crustacean away from harm using a powerful abdominal flexions. The entire process occurs in a fraction of a second as movements are generated within two hundredths of a second (20 milliseconds) from the original trigger stimulus and the period of latency after a flexion is a hundredth of a second (10 milliseconds). Finally, the caridoid escape reflex requires that neurons be able to complete the arduous task of synchronizing the flexion of several abdominal segments. The speed, coordination, and decisiveness of the process seem to be the main attributes to its success. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1108892 | 1,148,039 |
692,791 | By the early years of the 20th century, the white blood cell differential had become a common practice in the United States, but difficulties in interpreting the results cast doubt on the test's utility. In 1906, Charles Langdon Gibson introduced the Gibson chart, which compared the total white blood cell count against the neutrophil count to distinguish between "pyogenic" and "non-pyogenic" conditions and to predict the severity of infections. Around the same time, Josef Arneth proposed a system of classifying neutrophils by their number of nuclear lobes – termed the "lobe index" or Arneth count – and established a set of reference ranges for neutrophil lobularity. Arneth's analysis of neutrophil segmentation was later found to have limited clinical significance, but the association of hypersegmented neutrophils with vitamin B12 and folate deficiency remains accepted. in 1912 proposed a different classification of neutrophils, separating them into ""myelozyten", "jugendliche", "stabkernige" and "segmentkernige"" – that is, myelocytes, "juveniles" (metamyelocytes), band neutrophils (sometimes called "stabs"), and mature, fully segmented neutrophils – and remarked on the clinical significance of the neutrophilic left shift in conjunction with the white blood cell count and the presence of toxic changes. Schilling's monograph, "Das Blutbild und seine klinische Verwertung" ("The Blood Picture and its Clinical Significance"), was translated into English in 1926, and his neutrophil classification system quickly found acceptance in American laboratories. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=61239754 | 692,428 |
413,452 | The longest living person whose dates of birth and death were verified according to the modern norms of "Guinness World Records" and the Gerontology Research Group was Jeanne Calment (1875–1997), a French woman who is verified to have lived to 122. Reduction of infant mortality has accounted for most of the increased average life span longevity, but since the 1960s mortality rates among those over 80 years have decreased by about 1.5% per year. "The progress being made in lengthening lifespans and postponing senescence is entirely due to medical and public-health efforts, rising standards of living, better education, healthier nutrition and more salubrious lifestyles." Animal studies suggest that further lengthening of median human lifespan as well as maximum lifespan could be achieved through "calorie restriction mimetic" drugs or by directly reducing food consumption. Although calorie restriction has not been proven to extend the maximum human life span , results in ongoing primate studies have demonstrated that the assumptions derived from rodents are valid in primates. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=232786 | 413,250 |
882,012 | The theory (for which empirical support has yet to be developed) states that in each functional module of the visual cortex, Fourier analysis is performed on the receptive field and the neurons in each module are thought to respond selectively to various orientations and frequencies of sine wave gratings. When all of the visual cortex neurons that are influenced by a specific scene respond together, the perception of the scene is created by the summation of the various sine-wave gratings. (This procedure, however, does not address the problem of the organization of the products of the summation into figures, grounds, and so on. It effectively recovers the original (pre-Fourier analysis) distribution of photon intensity and wavelengths across the retinal projection, but does not add information to this original distribution. So the functional value of such a hypothesized procedure is unclear. Some other objections to the "Fourier theory" are discussed by Westheimer (2001) ). One is generally not aware of the individual spatial frequency components since all of the elements are essentially blended together into one smooth representation. However, computer-based filtering procedures can be used to deconstruct an image into its individual spatial frequency components. Research on spatial frequency detection by visual neurons complements and extends previous research using straight edges rather than refuting it. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3037867 | 881,548 |
1,540,131 | Thus, while more complex models have value in studying fire behavior and testing fire spread in a range of scenarios, from the application point of view, FARSITE and Palm-based applications of BEHAVE have shown great utility as practical in-the-field tools because of their ability to provide estimates of fire behavior in real time. While the coupled fire-atmosphere models have the ability to incorporate the ability of the fire to affect its own local weather, and model many aspects of the explosive, unsteady nature of fires that cannot be incorporated in current tools, it remains a challenge to apply these more complex models in a faster-than-real-time operational environment. Also, although they have reached a certain degree of realism when simulating specific natural fires, they must yet address issues such as identifying what specific, relevant operational information they could provide beyond current tools, how the simulation time could fit the operational time frame for decisions (therefore, the simulation must run substantially faster than real time), what temporal and spatial resolution must be used by the model, and how they estimate the inherent uncertainty in numerical weather prediction in their forecast. These operational constraints must be used to steer model development. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20115268 | 1,539,258 |
280,268 | There were years of delays in the subatomic particle research during World War II (1939–1945), with most physicists working in applied projects for wartime necessities. When the war ended in August 1945, many physicists gradually returned to peacetime research. The first true meson to be discovered was what would later be called the "pi meson" (or pion). This discovery was made in 1947, by Cecil Powell, Hugh Muirhead, César Lattes, and Giuseppe Occhialini, who were investigating cosmic ray products at the University of Bristol in England, based on photographic films placed in the Andes mountains. Some of those mesons had about the same mass as the already-known mu "meson", yet seemed to decay into it, leading physicist Robert Marshak to hypothesize in 1947 that it was actually a new and different meson. Over the next few years, more experiments showed that the pion was indeed involved in strong interactions. The pion (as a virtual particle) is also believed to be the primary force carrier for the nuclear force in atomic nuclei. Other mesons, such as the virtual rho mesons are involved in mediating this force as well, but to a lesser extent. Following the discovery of the pion, Yukawa was awarded the 1949 Nobel Prize in Physics for his predictions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19870 | 280,117 |
1,690,027 | The SpaceLiner concept consists of a two-stage, vertical takeoff, horizontal landing configuration with a large uncrewed booster and a crewed stage designed for 50 passengers and 2 crew members. The fully reusable system is accelerated by a total of eleven liquid rocket engines (9 for the booster stage, 2 for the passenger stage), which are to be operated using cryogenic liquid oxygen (LOX) and hydrogen (LH2). After engine cut-off, the passenger stage will enter a high-speed gliding flight phase and shall be capable of travelling long intercontinental distances within a very short time. Altitudes of 80 kilometers and speed beyond Mach 20 are projected, depending on the mission and the associated trajectory flown. SpaceLiner flight times from Australia to Europe, the chosen reference mission, should take 90 minutes. Shorter distances, such as Europe to California for example, would then be achievable in no more than 60 minutes. Acceleration loads for the passengers, and only during the propelled section of the flight, are designed to remain below 2.5 g, and well below those experienced by the Space Shuttle astronauts. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27118109 | 1,689,081 |
1,030,167 | Education and awareness in the area of resource recovery is increasingly important from a global perspective of resource management. The Talloires Declaration is a declaration for sustainability concerned about the unprecedented scale and speed of environmental pollution and degradation, and the depletion of natural resources. Local, regional, and global air pollution; accumulation and distribution of toxic wastes; destruction and depletion of forests, soil, and water; depletion of the ozone layer and emission of "green house" gases threaten the survival of humans and thousands of other living species, the integrity of the earth and its biodiversity, the security of nations, and the heritage of future generations. Several universities have implemented the Talloires Declaration by establishing environmental management and resource recovery programs. University and vocational education are promoted by various organizations, e.g., WAMITAB and Chartered Institution of Wastes Management. Many supermarkets encourage customers to use their reverse vending machines to deposit used purchased containers and receive a refund from the recycling fees. Brands that manufacture such machines include Tomra and Envipco. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=32845594 | 1,029,633 |
391,466 | In the 19th and 20th century, new technologies and scientific innovations allowed scientists to greatly expand their understanding of astronomy and astronomical objects. Larger telescopes and observatories began to be built and scientists began to print images of the moon and other celestial bodies on photographic plates. New wavelengths of light unseen by the human eye were discovered, and new telescopes were made that made it possible to see astronomical objects in other wavelengths of light. Joseph von Fraunhofer and Angelo Secchi pioneered the field of spectroscopy, which allowed them to observe the composition of stars and nebulae, and many astronomers were able to determine the masses of binary stars based on their orbital elements. Computers began to be used to observe and study massive amounts of astronomical data on stars, and new technologies such as the photoelectric photometer allowed astronomers to accurately measure the color and luminosity of stars, which allowed them to predict their temperature and mass. In 1913, the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram was developed by astronomers Ejnar Hertzsprung and Henry Norris Russell independently of each other, which plotted stars based on their luminosity and color and allowed astronomers to easily examine stars. It was found that stars commonly fell on a band of stars called the main-sequence stars on the diagram. A refined scheme for stellar classification was published in 1943 by William Wilson Morgan and Philip Childs Keenan based on the Hertzsprung-Russel Diagram. Astronomers also began debating whether other galaxies existed beyond the Milky Way, these debates ended when Edwin Hubble identified the Andromeda nebula as a different galaxy, along with many others far from the Milky Way. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=206542 | 391,271 |
183,289 | Formed by the Idaho Territory legislature on January 30, 1889, the university opened its doors in 1892 on October 3, with an initial class of 40 students. The first graduating class in 1896 contained two men and two women. It has an enrollment exceeding 12,000, with over 11,000 on the Moscow campus. The university offers 142 degree programs, from accountancy to wildlife resources, including bachelor's, master's, doctoral, and specialists' degrees, and accompanying honors programs. Certificates of completion are offered in 30 areas of study. At 25% and 53%, its 4 and 6 year graduation rates are the highest of any public university in Idaho, and it generates 74 percent of all research money in the state, with research expenditures of $100 million in 2010 alone. It is classified among "R2: Doctoral Universities – High research activity". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=53545 | 183,192 |
1,591,299 | With a No. 1 seed in the Big East tournament for the second year in a row and a No.9 national ranking, Georgetown had a bye in the first round. In the quarterfinals, the Hoyas faced eighth seed Villanova, also for the second year in a row. Villanova, a heavy underdog, fell behind 34-19 with 3:58 left in the first half, but over the rest of the first half and into the second half the Wildcats went on a 28-9 run to that gave them the lead, 47-43, with 13:06 left in the game. Georgetown took the lead back at 51-50 with 12:04 left in the game and pulled away to an 82-63 victory. Although Villanova shot 23-for-28 (82.1 percent) from the free-throw line and Roy Hibbert did not score during the game and had only four rebounds before fouling out with 5:09 to play, Georgetown made up for it by setting both a Big East tournament record and a school record by connecting on 17 three-point shots during the game, shooting 17-for-28 (60.7 percent) from three-point range. Jessie Sapp hit on six three-point shots and scored a career-high 23 points, Jonathan Wallace had five three-pointers and 20 points, and DaJuan Summers had 19 points and three three-pointers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14518554 | 1,590,404 |
1,655,016 | Because of the misinformation and easy access to processed and prepackaged foods, people are more likely to choose them over fresh food or healthier packaged foods. That can lead to health-related diseases and obesity. Those that are uneducated on the topic of nutrition and how to read nutrition labels are the most at risk for this. When informed on nutrition labeling, there is an impact on one's health, body weight, and overall energy intake. Many food companies market their food products to make them seem more nutritious than they actually are, falsely leading people to believe that they are a healthy option. That can link to obesity because some may be intaking a large amount of a product they think is a healthy option. They can do that by making the product packaging look a certain way, or putting misleading words on them. For example, people may have more incentive to buy a product if the packaging looks nicer and is colorful or has pictures on it. Also, false claims can be made on the packaging such as made with real ingredients, boosts immunity, no high-fructose corn syrup, or lowers cholesterol. In reality, the food items have processed ingredients, these claims are not true, and it does not mean the other ingredients are healthy. Food companies will also say their product has nutritional benefits that others do not, just to get consumers to buy theirs. Many people would like to be more knowledgeable about nutrition labeling. However, it is hard for some when they have to compare many different components they don't want like sugar, cholesterol, sodium, or fat. It is easier for those with background knowledge or interest in nutrition to determine labels. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=37161190 | 1,654,084 |
440,085 | In March 2009 Growth Energy, a lobbying group for the ethanol industry, formally requested the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to allow the ethanol content in gasoline to be increased to 15%, from 10%. In October 2010, the EPA granted a waiver to allow up to 15% blends to be sold for cars and trucks with a model year of 2007 or later, representing about 15% of vehicles on the roads. In January 2011 the waiver was expanded to authorize use of E15 to include model year 2001 through 2006 passenger vehicles. The EPA also decided not to grant any waiver for E15 use in any motorcycles, heavy-duty vehicles, or non-road engines because current testing data does not support such a waiver. According to the Renewable Fuels Association the E15 waivers now cover 62% of vehicles on the road in the country. In December 2010 several groups, including the Alliance of Automobile Manufacturers, the American Petroleum Institute, the Association of International Automobile Manufacturers, the National Marine Manufacturers Association, the Outdoor Power Equipment Institute, and the Grocery Manufacturers Association, filed suit against the EPA. In August 2012 the federal appeals court rejected the suit against the EPA ruling that the groups did not have legal standing to challenge EPA's decision to issue the waiver for E15. In June 2013 the U.S. Supreme Court declined to hear an appeal from industry groups opposed to the EPA ruling about E15 and let the 2012 federal appeals court ruling stand. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5029525 | 439,871 |
50,591 | The first jets developed during World War II and saw combat in the last two years of the war. Messerschmitt developed the first operational jet fighter, the Me 262A, primarily serving with the Luftwaffe's JG 7, the world's first jet-fighter wing. It was considerably faster than contemporary piston-driven aircraft, and in the hands of a competent pilot, proved quite difficult for Allied pilots to defeat. The Luftwaffe never deployed the design in numbers sufficient to stop the Allied air campaign, and a combination of fuel shortages, pilot losses, and technical difficulties with the engines kept the number of sorties low. Nevertheless, the Me 262 indicated the obsolescence of piston-driven aircraft. Spurred by reports of the German jets, Britain's Gloster Meteor entered production soon after, and the two entered service around the same time in 1944. Meteors commonly served to intercept the V-1 flying bomb, as they were faster than available piston-engined fighters at the low altitudes used by the flying bombs. Nearer the end of World War II, the first military jet-powered light-fighter design, the Luftwaffe intended the Heinkel He 162A "Spatz" (sparrow) to serve as a simple jet fighter for German home defense, with a few examples seeing squadron service with JG 1 by April 1945. By the end of the war almost all work on piston-powered fighters had ended. A few designs combining piston- and jet-engines for propulsion – such as the Ryan FR Fireball – saw brief use, but by the end of the 1940s virtually all new fighters were jet-powered. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10929 | 50,571 |
384,152 | On 7 December 2009, SpaceShipTwo was unveiled at the Mojave Spaceport. Branson told the 300 people attending, each of whom had booked rides at $200,000 each, that flights would begin "in 2011". However, in April 2011, Branson announced further delays, saying "I hope 18 months from now, we’ll be sitting in our spaceship and heading off into space". By February 2012, SpaceShipTwo had completed 15 test flights attached to White Knight Two, and an additional 16 glide tests, the last of which took place in September 2011. A rocket-powered test flight of SpaceShipTwo took place on 29 April 2013, with an engine burn of 16 seconds duration. The brief flight began at an altitude of 47,000 feet, and reached a maximum altitude of 55,000 feet. While the SS2 achieved a speed of Mach 1.2 (920 mph), this was less than half the 2,000 mph speed predicted by Richard Branson. SpaceShipTwo's second supersonic flight achieved a speed of 1,100 mph for 20 seconds; while this was an improvement, it fell far short of the 2,500 mph for 70 seconds required to carry six passengers into space. However, Branson still announced his spaceship would be capable of "launching 100 satellites every day". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1021879 | 383,957 |
1,400,037 | His findings also led him to oppose the fluoridation of drinking water based on his understanding of the biochemical impact of fluoride on tissue. He challenged the fluoridation of drinking water by public health programs. Reporting in 1967 the "Increased death rate in Chile associated with artificial fluoridation of drinking water, with implications for other Latin American countries and for the United States," he further claimed that in Chile, water fluoridation not only failed to prevent tooth decay, but instead caused increased cancer that led to increased death among people with malnutrition. He also criticized a scientific paper published in 1966 that presented the advantages of water fluoridation in the Curico province of Chile, arguing that the data was incomplete. In 1978, the US Department of Health Center for Disease Control in Atlanta issued a public statement that Schatz's data was improperly analyzed and did not present the true relationship between water fluoridation and cancer and mortality with the conclusion: "Water fluoridation for the purpose of dental caries prophylaxis poses no hazard relevant to cancer causation." In 1992, he was severely criticized in "The" "New Zealand Medical Journal" for bias and publication in an obscure journal. He responded by claiming that the publication was in a legitimate journal, and that the critics had overlooked a separate publication in "The Journal of Nihon University School of Dentistry." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1990488 | 1,399,250 |
1,864,240 | Breakup of the super-continent Gondwana started in the early Jurassic around 184 million years ago (Ma), but Antarctica did not break up from Australia until the late Cretaceous (80 Ma). Just before the breakaway in the Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous, rifting began to occur near the soon-to-be Transantarctic Mountains. It is uncertain whether this first episode of rifting caused any uplift of the mountain range. Some researchers say this episode is a reactivation of rift that was formed during the Gondwanide Orogeny, but it has never been proven. This event was followed by low-angle extensional faulting along the East Antarctic plate. No uplift occurred during this initial phase of faulting due to counteracting erosional events. Shortly after, during the Mid Cretaceous (100 Ma), the West Antarctic Rift System began to form. Certain models show that the rapid rifting and intense thermal forces are due to a shallow (50 km depth) lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary under the Transantarctic Mountains. Rifting in this area is still going on today. Such a long period of rifting leads to uplift due to prolonged lateral heat conduction in the mountain belt. This is backed by seismic evidence. Initial surface uplift began approximately 55 Ma during the Early Cenozoic era. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=37577368 | 1,863,168 |
1,096,442 | The main symptom of "O. tsutsugamushi" infection is high (febrile) fever; however, the symptom is similar to other vector-borne tropical diseases such as malaria, leptospirosis, typhoid, murine typhus, chikungunya, and dengue fever. This makes precise clinical diagnosis difficult, which often leads to misdiagnosis. The initial indications are fever with chills, associated with headache, muscle pain (myalgia), sweating and vomiting. The appearance of symptoms (the incubation period) takes between 6 and 21 days. A simple visual diagnosis is the presence of an inflamed scar-like scab called eschar, which is regarded as "the most useful diagnostic clue in patients with acute febrile illness". Eschar is formed on the skin where an infected mite bit, usually seen in the armpit, groin or any abdominal area (Figure 7). In rare cases, it can be seen on the cheek, ear lobe and dorsum of the feet. But, the problem is that eschar is not always present; at the highest record, only 55% of scrub typhus patients had eschar during an outbreak in south India. Also, eschar is not specific to scrub typhus, occurring in other rickettsial diseases such as Rocky Mountain spotted fever, Brazilian spotted fever, and Indian tick typhus. Using DNA analysis by advanced polymerase chain reaction, different rickettsial infections can be identified from eschars. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12300557 | 1,095,882 |
468,127 | Chowdhury and Roy noted several drawbacks of using the Hunsdiecker reaction, namely that some reagents, such as molecular bromine and salts of mercury, thallium, lead, and silver, are inherently toxic and that reactions with α,β-unsaturated carboxylic acids result in low yield. Regarding reactions using α,β-unsaturated carboxylic acids, Kuang et al. modified the reaction with using a new halogenating agent, N-halosuccinimide, and lithium acetate as the catalyst, which resulted in higher yield of β-halostyrenes. They found that using microwave irradiation could synthesize ("E")-β-arylvinyl halide much quicker with higher yields. This is useful because synthesizing ("E")-vinyl bromide in general is not very practical due to the complexity of alternative reagents (e.g. organometallic compounds), longer reaction times, and lower yields. Using microwave irradiation also allows the synthesized arylvinyl halide to carry electron-donating groups (in addition to electron-withdrawing groups), which is not possible with alternative synthetic methods. While tetrabutylammonium trifluoroacetate (TBATFA) could be used as an alternative catalyst for a metal-free reaction, it was noted that lithium acetate resulted in higher yields compared to other relatively complex catalysts, including tetrabutylammonium trifluoroacetate. An alternative method using micelles was found, with green characteristics. Micelles generally facilitate reactions thanks to their solublization capability and here, it was found that a reaction with α,β-unsaturated aromatic carboxylic acids and N-halosuccinimide catalyzed by cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB), sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), and Triton X-100 in dichloroethane (DCE) carried out under reflux conditions of 20–60 minutes formed β-halostyrenes in excellent yields with high regioselectivity. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4039848 | 467,892 |
313,497 | The primary form of fMRI uses the blood-oxygen-level dependent (BOLD) contrast, discovered by Seiji Ogawa in 1990. This is a type of specialized brain and body scan used to map neural activity in the brain or spinal cord of humans or other animals by imaging the change in blood flow (hemodynamic response) related to energy use by brain cells. Since the early 1990s, fMRI has come to dominate brain mapping research because it does not involve the use of injections, surgery, the ingestion of substances, or exposure to ionizing radiation. This measure is frequently corrupted by noise from various sources; hence, statistical procedures are used to extract the underlying signal. The resulting brain activation can be graphically represented by color-coding the strength of activation across the brain or the specific region studied. The technique can localize activity to within millimeters but, using standard techniques, no better than within a window of a few seconds. Other methods of obtaining contrast are arterial spin labeling and diffusion MRI. Diffusion MRI is similar to BOLD fMRI but provides contrast based on the magnitude of diffusion of water molecules in the brain. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=226722 | 313,328 |
1,789,180 | However, after India tested a nuclear device in 1974, the U.S. slowed down and eventually halted nuclear cooperation with Brazil. Also, in the aftermath of the 1973 energy crisis, USAEC made its provision of fuel to third countries subject to availability. This in turn pushed Brazil to accelerate talks with West Germany and France, eventually signing an agreement with the former on 27 June 1975, that established the transfer of operational know-how regarding reactors. The deal represented the largest technology transfer agreement ever signed between an industrialized country and an industrializing one. Bonn committed to export four to eight reactors over a span of 15 years. Likewise, West German firms agreed to construct a complete nuclear fuel cycle in Brazil: uranium prospecting and mining; uranium enrichment (using the jet-nozzle process); manufacturing fuel rods; and reprocessing spent fuel rods. For West Germany's nuclear industry, this was the most significant contract ever to be established, at an anticipated value of 10 billion marks (roughly US$4 billion). Also, this was the largest single export order in German history. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31197926 | 1,788,174 |
383,439 | A turbocharged direct injected (redubbed "Spark Ignition Direct Injection") Ecotec was introduced in the 2007 Pontiac Solstice GXP and Saturn Sky Red Line. In these applications, the engine is mounted longitudinally. Displacement is with a square bore and stroke. Compression is 9.2:1 and maximum boost is , delivering at 5300 rpm and of torque from 2500 to 5250 rpm. Engine redline is at 6300 rpm and premium fuel is recommended. The sodium filled exhaust valves were based on technology developed for the Corvette V8 powertrains. The sodium fuses and becomes a liquid at idle, which improves conductivity and draws heat away from the valve face and valve guide towards the stem to be cooled by the engine oil circulating in this area. The camshaft-driven direct injection systems pressurizes the fuel to at idle, and up to at wide-open throttle. The "Gen II" block is similar to the 2.4 L and also features VVT technology. The Gen II block was developed using data from racing programs and computer simulations. The bore walls and bulkheads were strengthened with a weight increase of . The coolant jackets were expanded to improve heat transfer, resulting in a coolant capacity increase of 0.5 liters. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=859278 | 383,244 |
1,551,718 | 2. Alivecor heart monitors are currently available in the United States, the UK, and Ireland. The device is a small handheld single-channel ECG recording device that immediately sends information to a smartphone. Recordings can then be sent to a cardiac technician or a certified cardiologist for a small cost. AliveCor obtains ECG traces through sensing plates, which can also be purchased through AliveCor. The plates are placed on fingers or the chest and the scan takes 30 seconds to complete. One of the benefits of AliveCor is the ability to record notes of how the patient was feeling prior to taking the ECG so that the physician has a clear picture of what the patterns indicate. Studies on the algorithm used in the technology have indicated that the device provides sufficiently accurate data to be able to diagnose atrial fibrillations. The accuracy has been found to be similar to Lead 1 data of a regular 12-lead ECG. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42241914 | 1,550,837 |
2,024,101 | Paleomaps are maps of continents and mountain ranges in the past based on plate reconstructions. Until the 1960s, paleomaps were not very satisfactory, since it was difficult to understand many quite distinctive features. For example, huge river deltas seemed to be associated with what must have been rather small drainage basins. With the discovery of plate tectonics, it became apparent that land masses move relative to one another over time. Ancient geologic features started to make far more sense. It is now possible to construct maps that are probably fairly accurate for continental positions over several hundred million years. Before the Cambrian Period, it becomes much more difficult since there are fewer rock exposures preserved. The state of large regions of the Earth becomes unknowable in the distant past. Where rocks are exposed, latitudes can often be determined from the orientation of preserved magnetic fields (see paleomagnetism) but longitudes are based on projections that are increasingly uncertain as one gets further from the present. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23473 | 2,022,937 |
226,042 | In early 1979, before giving a speech at the Chicago chapter of the Air Force Association, General Stafford met with the Chairman of Northrop whose company had started a low-speed experimental stealth reconnaissance program for DARPA and the U.S. Army using smooth surfaces. On a piece of hotel stationery, General Stafford wrote specs for range, payload, radar cross-section, and gross take-off weight for an advanced stealth technology bomber, which later became designated as the B-2. To further enhance his emphasis on stealth, he started a competition between the firms of Boeing, General Dynamics, and also included Lockheed because of their stealth technology, to develop a stealth supercruise missile. Out of that came the AGM-129 Stealth Cruise missile developed by General Dynamics. It was a 2,000 nautical mile super stealth nuclear-armed cruise missile with a W-80-1 warhead and 130 Kilotons yield. He then started the Advanced Tactical Fighter (ATF) program to replace the F-15 (now the F-22) as an air superiority fighter. Stafford retired to Norman, Oklahoma, on November 1, 1979. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=638571 | 225,926 |
1,618,670 | Condensation particle counters are able to detect particles with dimensions from 2 nm and larger. This is of special importance because particles sized down from 50 nm are generally undetectable with conventional optical techniques. Usually the supersaturation is ca. 100…200 % in condensation chamber, despite the fact that heterogeneous nucleation (droplet growth on surface of a suspended solid particle) can occur at supersaturation as small as 1 %. The greater vapour content is needed because, according to surface science laws, the vapour pressure over a convex surface is less than over a plane, thus greater content of vapor in air is required to meet "actual" supersaturation criteria. This amount grows (vapor pressure decreases) along with decrease in particle size, the critical diameter for which condensation can occur at the present saturation level is called "Kelvin diameter". The supersaturation level must, however, be small enough to prevent homogeneous nucleation (when liquid molecules collide so often that they form clusters – stable enough to ensure further growth is possible), which will produce false counts. This usually starts at ca. 300 % supersaturation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=35830148 | 1,617,755 |
779,602 | Within weeks of the fire, a national fundraising campaign was launched, enticing donations from President Thomas Jefferson, Secretary of State James Madison, Chief Justice John Marshall, and many others. Benjamin Latrobe, already noted for his design work on the Bank of Pennsylvania and Princeton University's Nassau Hall, and soon-to-be named as Architect of the Capitol, was chosen to design the new structure. Latrobe's design for the building, now known as "West College" or "Old West," featured monumental and classical elements within a simple and subdued academic style. The building was to be capped with a classically inspired cupola graced by a figure of Triton. The local craftsman instead created a mermaid, which has since been a symbol of the college. Latrobe, who donated his services to the college, visited the building for the first time in 1813. The total cost of West College topped $22,000 and, although classes began in 1805, work was not finished until 1822. More than 200 years after its doors opened for the first time, Old West is today the ceremonial heart of the college, as all students march through the open doors during convocation at the beginning of their freshman year, and march out the same doors to receive their degrees and graduate. Old West, which is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, also houses the college administration, several classrooms, a computer lab, and the college chapel. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=164636 | 779,185 |
1,242,831 | Between 1907 and 1908, Romania assembled and launched four river monitors at the Galați shipyard. The monitors were built in sections by STT in Austria-Hungary, then transported to Galați and assembled there. The four vessels were named "Ion C. Brătianu", "Lascăr Catargiu", "Mihail Kogălniceanu" and "Alexandru Lahovary". Each vessel displaced 680 tons, had a top speed of 13 knots and a crew of 110. Armament consisted of three 120 mm (4.7 inches) L/35 naval guns, two 120 mm (4.7 inches) L/10 naval howitzers, four 47 mm guns and two 6.5 mm machine-guns. Armor thickness amounted to 75 mm (almost 3 inches) on the sides, deck and turrets and 50 mm (almost two inches) on the conning tower. All but "Alexandru Lahovary" were launched in 1907, the latter being launched in 1908. The first monitor to be launched at Galați was "Lascăr Catargiu". The four monitors first saw action during the Battle of Turtucaia. On 2 September 1916, after the German formation known as "Abteilung Kaufmann" penetrated into the western edge of the defences of Turtucaia, the artillery fire of the Romanian monitors brought the Germans to a halt. The "Abteilung" attempted again on the following day, 3 September. It divided into three columns and attempted to seize high ground which dominated the Romanian defences. All three columns were brought to a halt by defensive fire, however, and then forced to withdraw, leaving behind around 300 dead and wounded. The third and final attack of "Abteilung Kaufmann", on 4 September, was successful, the valuable high ground being captured. Subsequently, the monitors proceeded to evacuate Turtucaia. "Alexandru Lahovary" evacuated General Teodorescu and his staff, while the other three monitors - organised as the 2nd Monitor Division - safely evacuated the 9th Romanian Infantry Division. During the following year, the monitors joined the army artillery in holding the line against the Germans in Moldavia throughout the summer and autumn of 1917. In early 1918, the monitors were primarily engaged in sweeping mines from channels, rivers and ports. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=62027085 | 1,242,159 |
1,104,358 | Transmission line loudspeakers designs are more complex to implement, making mass production difficult, but their advantages have led to acclaim for a number of manufacturers such as IMF, TDL, PMC. As a rule, transmission line speakers tend to have exceptionally high fidelity low frequency response far below that of a typical speaker or subwoofer, reaching into the infrasonic range (British company TDL's studio monitor range from the 1990s quoted their frequency responses as starting from as low as 17 Hz depending upon model with a sensitivity of 87 dB for 1 W @ 1 metre), without the need for a separate enclosure or driver. Acoustically, TL speakers roll off more slowly (less steeply) at low frequencies, and they are thought to provide better driver control than standard reflex cabinet designs, are less sensitive to positioning, and tend to create a very spacious soundstage. Modern TL speakers were described in a 2000 review as "match[ing] reflex cabinet designs in every respect, but with an extra octave of bass, lower LF distortion and a frequency balance which is more independent of listening level". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44224558 | 1,103,795 |
1,774,265 | The growing popularity of the engineering curricula also required physical growth of the campus. In 1891, $100,000 was allotted to construct a building devoted entirely to engineering. This building, named Main Engineering, was dedicated on February 22, 1893, with most of the dedication speech focused on the importance of an engineering education to national prosperity and progress. Additional machinery, including Allis-Chalmers triple-expansion steam engine (extensively modified for laboratory instruction and experimentation), was purchased and installed. The engineering program continued to expand its offerings: in 1893, the trustees approved the addition of a course in mining engineering, with Magnus C. Ihlseng (formerly of the Colorado School of Mines) named professor and department head. Electrical engineering fully split from Physics and Electrotechnics, becoming its own department headed by John Price Jackson –who, at age 24, is easily the youngest department head on campus. By 1890, Main Engineering housed four engineering departments (civil, mechanical, mining, and electrical) in space originally intended for two. Increases in enrollment remained unceasing: in the 1890-91 academic year there were 127 undergraduates, 73 of which are in engineering (37 civil, 19 mechanical, 17 electrotechnical); by 1893, this had increased to 181 students, 128 in engineering (57 electrical, 44 mechanical, 18 civil, 9 mining). Needless to say, the overcrowding became problematic. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31430357 | 1,773,268 |
820,456 | ImageJ can display, edit, analyze, process, save, and print 8-bit color and grayscale, 16-bit integer, and 32-bit floating point images. It can read many image file formats, including TIFF, PNG, GIF, JPEG, BMP, DICOM, and FITS, as well as raw formats. ImageJ supports image "stacks", a series of images that share a single window, and it is multithreaded, so time-consuming operations can be performed in parallel on multi-CPU hardware. ImageJ can calculate area and pixel value statistics of user-defined selections and intensity-thresholded objects. It can measure distances and angles. It can create density histograms and line profile plots. It supports standard image processing functions such as logical and arithmetical operations between images, contrast manipulation, convolution, Fourier analysis, sharpening, smoothing, edge detection, and median filtering. It does geometric transformations such as scaling, rotation, and flips. The program supports any number of images simultaneously, limited only by available memory. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3793613 | 820,015 |
1,052,544 | Zener was born in Indianapolis, Indiana and earned his PhD in physics under Edwin Kemble at Harvard in 1929. His thesis was titled "Quantum Mechanics of the Formation of Certain Types of Diatomic Molecules". In 1957 he received the Bingham Medal for his work in rheology, in 1959 the John Price Wetherill Medal from The Franklin Institute, in 1965 the Albert Souveur Achievement Award, in 1974 the Gold Medal from American Society for Metals, in 1982 the Von Hippel Award from the Materials Research Society, and in 1985 received the ICIFUAS (International Conference on Internal Friction and Ultrasonic Attenuation in Solids) Prize for the discovery of the Zener effect, pioneering studies of anelasticity in metals and prediction and observation of thermoelastic damping. ICIFUAS Prize was later renamed after Zener, following his death in 1993. A notable doctoral student of Zener's was John B. Goodenough and Arthur S. Nowick held a postdoctoral appointment under Zener. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=415428 | 1,051,998 |
1,294,543 | The primary payload, the unpiloted prototype for the country's next-generation crewed spacecraft, continuously raised its orbit before its landing on 8 May 2020. On 8 May, China's spacecraft successfully returned to the Dongfeng landing site in north China's Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region at 05:49 UTC, on 8 May 2020, according to the China Manned Space Agency. During the preparation of re-entry, the uncrewed spacecraft performed seven orbit-raising maneuvers to reach a final apogee of around . The test vehicle finished de-orbit burn at 05:21 UTC, followed by the separation of service and crew module at 05:33 UTC. Before re-entering into the atmosphere, the capsule executed a skip maneuver employing aerodynamic lift in the high upper atmosphere, which extended the re-entry time for vehicles. This technique was used to prevent high rate of peak heating forming in short span of time when the vehicle conducted high speed re-entry such as from the Moon to Earth. After re-entering the atmosphere, the crew module deployed three parachutes to slow its descent (whereas the Shenzhou has one parachute) and airbags to cushion the landing. According to CASC, The re-entry velocity was higher than 9 kilometers per second. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=63696796 | 1,293,832 |
2,149,539 | "Conway" was commissioned in 1832 for the North Sea, Lisbon, and South America. She recommissioned in 1835 for the Pacific, and during this time she carried some of Charles Darwin's letters and specimens back to the United Kingdom. She paid off in 1835, recommissioning the next year for the East Indies. This commission saw her travel as far as Australia and New Zealand, and during this time she saw action in the First Opium War, including the capture of Chusan. In 1842 she carried home the United Kingdom's share of the $6,000,000 indemnity paid by the Chinese at the end of the war. From 1843 to 1847 she served on the Cape of Good Hope Station. There was a long break until her next commission, which was from 1854 to 1858 at Queenstown, Ireland (now Cobh in County Cork). She was lent to the Mercantile Marine Association of Liverpool in February 1859 to act as a training ship for boys, and gave her name to , a series of ships and a shore-based school. When "Winchester" took her place as the training ship in 1861, the two ships swapped names. Under her new name of "Winchester" she became the Aberdeen Royal Naval Reserve ship on 28 August 1861. She was broken up in 1871. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30035238 | 2,148,308 |
46,872 | There has been a growing interest in the role of long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids to reduce inflammation and alleviate the symptoms of RA. Metabolism of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids produces docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), which inhibits pro-inflammatory eicosanoids and cytokines (TNF-a, IL-1b and IL-6), decreasing both lymphocyte proliferation and reactive oxygen species. These studies showed evidence for significant clinical improvements on RA in inflammatory status and articular index. Gamma-linolenic acid, an omega-6 fatty acid, may reduce pain, tender joint count and stiffness, and is generally safe. For omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (found in fish oil, flax oil and hemp oil), a meta-analysis reported a favorable effect on pain, although confidence in the effect was considered moderate. The same review reported less inflammation but no difference in joint function. A review examined the effect of marine oil omega-3 fatty acids on pro-inflammatory eicosanoid concentrations; leukotriene (LTB) was lowered in people with rheumatoid arthritis but not in those with non-autoimmune chronic diseases. (LTB) increases vascular permeabiltity and stimulates other inflammatory substances. A third meta-analysis looked at fish consumption. The result was a weak, non-statistically significant inverse association between fish consumption and RA. A fourth review limited inclusion to trials in which people eat ≥2.7 g/day for more than three months. Use of pain relief medication was decreased, but improvements in tender or swollen joints, morning stiffness and physical function were not changed. Collectively, the current evidence is not strong enough to determine that supplementation with omega-3 fatty acids or regular consumption of fish are effective treatments for rheumatoid arthritis. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25875 | 46,854 |
711,144 | MsbA (3.A.1.106.1) is a multi-drug resistant (MDR) ABC transporter and possibly a lipid flippase. It is an ATPase that transports lipid A, the hydrophobic moiety of lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a glucosamine-based saccharolipid that makes up the outer monolayer of the outer membranes of most gram-negative bacteria. Lipid A is an endotoxin and so loss of MsbA from the cell membrane or mutations that disrupt transport results in the accumulation of lipid A in the inner cell membrane resulting to cell death. It is a close bacterial homolog of P-glycoprotein (Pgp) by protein sequence homology and has overlapping substrate specificities with the MDR-ABC transporter LmrA from "Lactococcus lactis". MsbA from "E. coli" is 36% identical to the NH-terminal half of human MDR1, suggesting a common mechanism for transport of amphiphatic and hydrophobic substrates. The MsbA gene encodes a half transporter that contains a transmembrane domain (TMD) fused with a nucleotide-binding domain (NBD). It is assembled as a homodimer with a total molecular mass of 129.2 kD. MsbA contains 6 TMDs on the periplasmic side, an NBD located on the cytoplasmic side of the cell membrane, and an intracellular domain (ICD), bridging the TMD and NBD. This conserved helix extending from the TMD segments into or near the active site of the NBD is largely responsible for crosstalk between TMD and NBD. In particular, ICD1 serves as a conserved pivot about which the NBD can rotate, therefore allowing the NBD to disassociate and dimerize during ATP binding and hydrolysis. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1551873 | 710,773 |
206,627 | The level-set method was initially proposed to track moving interfaces by Dervieux and Thomasset in 1979 and 1981 and was later reinvented by Osher and Sethian in 1988. This has spread across various imaging domains in the late 1990s. It can be used to efficiently address the problem of curve/surface/etc. propagation in an implicit manner. The central idea is to represent the evolving contour using a signed function whose zero corresponds to the actual contour. Then, according to the motion equation of the contour, one can easily derive a similar flow for the implicit surface that when applied to the zero level will reflect the propagation of the contour. The level-set method affords numerous advantages: it is implicit, is parameter-free, provides a direct way to estimate the geometric properties of the evolving structure, allows for change of topology, and is intrinsic. It can be used to define an optimization framework, as proposed by Zhao, Merriman and Osher in 1996. One can conclude that it is a very convenient framework for addressing numerous applications of computer vision and medical image analysis. Research into various level-set data structures has led to very efficient implementations of this method. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=505717 | 206,520 |
1,148,413 | In addition to the illustrations of the text, the manuscript contains several frontispieces in the form of a series of full-page miniatures. Of special note is the dedication miniature portrait of Anicia Juliana on folio 6 verso. The manuscript was presented to Anicia out of gratitude for her funding the construction of a church in the suburbs of Constantinople. This portrait is the oldest extant dedication portrait. The portrait has Anicia seated in a ceremonial pose distributing alms. She is flanked by personifications of "Megalopsychia" (magnanimity) and "Phronesis" (prudence). At her feet, another personification, labeled "Gratitude of the Arts", kneels. A putto holds a dedication copy up to Anicia. Anicia and her attendants are enclosed within an eight-point star within a circle all formed of intertwined rope. Within the outer spandrels of the star are putti, done in grisaille, working as masons and carpenters. This miniature is an altogether original creation and, with the inclusion of the personifications and the putti, shows the endurance of the classical tradition in Constantinople, despite the fact that Anicia herself was a pious Christian.The series of frontispieces in the manuscript begins with two full-page miniatures, each having a group of seven noted pharmacologists. In the second picture (folio 3 verso, see ), the most prominent and only one sitting on a chair is Galen. He is flanked by three pairs of other physicians, seated on stones or the ground. Closest to Galen are Crateuas and Dioscurides. The second pair are Apollonius Mys and Nicander. Farthest from Galen are Andreas and Rufus of Ephesus. Each of the figures is a self-contained portrait and was probably modeled on authors' portraits from the various authors' treatises. The seven figures are contained within an elaborate decorated frame. The background is solid gold, which places the figures in an abstract space. This is the earliest known manuscript to use a solid gold background. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1366582 | 1,147,807 |
1,237,616 | With Project Advent's failure, the Defense Department turned to the Air Force-aligned the Aerospace Corporation, which had been developing two alternatives. In Summer 1962, the Space Systems Division got authorization to proceed with the development of the Initial Defense Communication Satellite Program (IDCSP) to provided communications in the super high frequency (SHF) bandwidth. Unlike in Project Advent, the Space Systems Division would have complete control over the spacecraft and booster, with the Army Satellite Communications Agency only had authority over the ground segment, with the Defense Communications Agency responsible for unify the Army and Air Force Space Systems Division efforts. The Space Systems Division also received authorization to develop a second system, the Advanced Defense Communications Satellite Program (ADCSP), at the same time. IDCSP development proved difficult, intended to be launched on Atlas-Agena boosters, due to intensive studies by the Defense Department and Secretary McNamara question if the military needed to operate its own communications satellites, rather than lease bandwidth from the COMSAT corporation. On 15 July 1964, after failed negations with COMSAT and concerns about hosting military payloads on civil satellites that could be used by foreign countries, Secretary McNamara opted to push forward with the more secure and reliable military satellite communications system. The development of the Titan IIIC prompted a change from medium earth orbits to near-synchronous orbits for the IDCSP. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66185637 | 1,236,951 |
171,863 | Apollo 9 was to remain in space for about ten days to check how the CSM would perform over the period of time required for a lunar mission. Most major events had been scheduled for the first days so that they would be accomplished if the flight needed to be ended early. The remaining days in orbit were to be conducted at a more leisurely pace. With the main goals of the mission accomplished, the hatch window was used for special photography of Earth, using four identical Hasselblad cameras, coupled together and using film sensitive to different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. Such photography allowed different features of the Earth's surface to appear, for example, tracking of water pollution as it exits mouths of rivers into the sea, and the highlighting of agricultural areas using infrared. The camera system was a prototype, and would pave the way for the Earth Resources Technology Satellite, predecessor to the Landsat series. The photography was successful, as the ample time in orbit meant the crew could wait to allow cloud cover to pass, and would inform Skylab's mission planning. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1774 | 171,772 |
1,199,933 | Referred to as the "Hermit Kingdom," the DPRK has been nearly totally isolated from the world since the negotiated ceasefire in 1953. Requests for entry by US organizations were rebuffed. Working through the DPRK Ambassador to the UN, an invitation was issued to the Nobel Laureate-led AAAS team in partnership with CRDF Global for a visit hosted by the DPRK State Academy of Sciences in December 2009. Avoiding issues related to weapons development, requests to visit 15 research institutes, universities, the Grand People's Study House, and a hospital were all granted. In most cases, the leadership of these institutions had never seen or met an American previously. Potential future scientific collaboration in the life sciences such as medicine development and agricultural research received extensive and enthusiastic discussion. A follow up visits by DPRK scientific leadership to the AAAS – CRDF team occurred 15 months later at the Carter Center in Atlanta. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1044010 | 1,199,292 |
1,778,037 | As a direct consequence of being quantitative technique (i.e. capable of highly reproducible detection of both near-field amplitude & phase and well understood near-field interaction models), nano-FTIR also provides means for the quantitative studies of the sample interior (within the probing range of the tip near field, of course). This is often achieved by a simple method of utilizing signals recorded at multiple demodulation orders naturally returned by nano-FTIR in the process of background suppression. It has been shown that higher harmonics probe smaller volumes below the tip, thus encoding the volumetric structure of a sample. This way, nano-FTIR has a demonstrated capability for the recovery of thickness and permittivity of layered films and nanostructures, which has been utilized for the nanoscale depth profiling of multiphase materials and high-Tc cuprate nanoconstriction devices patterned by focused ion beams. In other words, nano-FTIR has a unique capability of recovering the same information about thin-film samples that is typically returned by ellipsometry or impedance spectroscopy, yet with nanoscale spatial resolution. This capability proved crucial for disentangling different surface states in topological insulators. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=52973193 | 1,777,035 |
246,315 | Increases in atmospheric concentrations of and other long-lived greenhouse gases such as methane, nitrous oxide and ozone increase the absorption and emission of infrared radiation by the atmosphere, causing the observed rise in average global temperature and ocean acidification. Another direct effect is the CO fertilization effect. These changes cause a range of indirect effects of climate change on the physical environment, ecosystems and human societies. Carbon dioxide exerts a larger overall warming influence than all of the other greenhouse gases combined. It has an atmospheric lifetime that increases with the cumulative amount of fossil carbon extracted and burned, due to the imbalance that this activity has imposed on Earth's fast carbon cycle. This means that some fraction (a projected 20-35%) of the fossil carbon transferred thus far will persist in the atmosphere as elevated levels for many thousands of years after these carbon transfer activities begin to subside. The carbon cycle is a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth's oceans, soil, rocks and the biosphere. Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis. Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11251601 | 246,188 |
810,739 | A crucial part of this curve comes from the net load ("the difference between expected load and anticipated electricity production from the range of renewable energy sources"). In certain times of the year (namely Spring and Summer), the curves create a "belly" appearance in the midday that then drastically increases portraying an "arch" similar to the neck of a duck, consequently the name "The Duck Chart." This "neck" represents a ramp speed of between 10 and 17 GW in 3 hours (afternoon) in 2020 which has to be supplied by flexible generation. During the midday, large amounts of solar energy are created, which partially contributes to lower demand for additional electricity. Curtailment impacts the curve. Increasing battery storage can mitigate the issues of solar abundance during the day. When excess solar energy is stored during the day and used in the evening, the price disparity between inexpensive midday and expensive evening energy can be reduced. Enough total solar technology exists to power the world, but there is a current lack of infrastructure to store solar energy for later use. An oversupply of energy during low demand coupled with a lack of supply during high demand explains the large disparity between midday and evening energy prices. , up to 6 GWh is shifted per day from low price to high price periods. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=52077192 | 810,307 |
1,835,754 | CBM began in the mid-1970s with research headed by Stan Deno at the University of Minnesota. Over the course of 10 years, this work led to the establishment of measurement systems in reading, writing, and spelling that were: (a) easy to construct, (b) brief in administration and scoring, (c) had technical adequacy (reliability and various types of validity evidence for use in making educational decisions), and (d) provided alternate forms to allow time series data to be collected on student progress. This focus in the three language arts areas eventually was expanded to include mathematics, though the technical research in this area continues to lag that published in the language arts areas. An even later development was the application of CBM to middle-secondary areas: Espin and colleagues at the University of Minnesota developed a line of research addressing vocabulary and comprehension (with the maze) and by Tindal and colleagues at the University of Oregon developed a line of research on concept-based teaching and learning. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13240808 | 1,834,705 |
2,058,335 | Mubarak Al-Besher was aged 24 and competing in his first Olympic Games. FINA granted the nation a universality place, after Al-Besher's personal best of 1 minute, 4.60 seconds recorded at the 2011 Arab Games was 1.68 seconds slower than the FINA/Olympic Invitation qualifying standard for the men's 100 metre breaststroke. He trained in Málaga and swam the first leg of the Mare Nostrum meets as preparation for the Games. Al-Besher said he would perform to the best of his ability. He added, "My first goal is to break an Arab record and accomplish something no other Arab has done. So God willing, if I clock 1min 3sec or 1min 2sec, I will be very happy in London." On 28 July, he competed in the first heat of the contest at the London Aquatics Centre, finishing second out of four swimmers, with a time of 1 minute, 5.26 seconds. Al-Besher came 42nd out of 44 swimmers overall and failed to advance to the semi-finals since the quickest 16 competitors could enter the semi-finals. After he was eliminated, he commented on his result, "I was very nervous today because it was my first time at the Olympics but still I’m happy I got the chance to compete against the best in the world." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=34456801 | 2,057,150 |
1,242,268 | Until 1956, the mine product totaled almost a million dollars in several minerals, including copper, silver, and gold; In 1977, the United States Bureau of Mines valued the output of Groom mine products at $3.75 million. It was the most productive mine in the Groom Mining District and had been worked on by three generations of the Sheahan family. Based on panning samples near Groom Mine, the area may also contain deposits of antimony, barium, lead, mercury, and zinc. By 1959, the Sheahan family moved away from the mine but visited their property regularly. In 1984, the Sheahan family, who still owned the Groom Mine, also had the legal rights to most of the other 22 patented mining claims nearby. According to the Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology, it was estimated in 1963 that there is of material that can be mined at Groom Mine. A 1990 Bureau of Land Management report stated that due to restricted access to the mine, it would lead to "potential loss of income through inability to expand or further develop the claims". Until late 2015, the Sheahan family periodically blasted for minerals at the mine; by this time the family had owned the mine for 130 years. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=56836491 | 1,241,596 |
1,668,468 | Allergies can be caused by genetic and environmental factors. Some theories support the view that allergies enter as protection against environmental substances that can disrupt the body, such as insect venom. Another possibility of activating an allergic reaction is the similarity of some allergens to the molecular patterns of parasites against which the immune system also uses a type 2 immune response. The hygiene hypothesis then relates to changes in lifetime exposure to pathogens in developed countries. In the case of insufficient exposure to pathogens and insufficient stimulation of the Th1 response during an individual's development, the balance between Th1 and Th2 type responses may predominate to proallergic Th2. The theory is supported by the more frequent occurrence of allergies in developed countries compared to developing countries, but also by the higher incidence of allergies in cities compared to villages, where individuals can meet with pathogens of farm animals. Children from small families are also more likely to have allergies than children from families with more children, where there is more frequent contact with pathogens from siblings. Another environmental factor that may promote the predisposition to allergies is a reduction in the diversity of the microbiome - this affects the diet of individuals, but also the diet of the mother during pregnancy, method of delivery, breastfeeding, antibiotics, and the presence of domestic or farm animals in the normal life of individuals. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6865131 | 1,667,528 |
86,101 | Sometimes a gene, after being turned on, transcribes a product that (directly or indirectly) maintains the activity of that gene. For example, Hnf4 and MyoD enhance the transcription of many liver-specific and muscle-specific genes, respectively, including their own, through the transcription factor activity of the proteins they encode. RNA signalling includes differential recruitment of a hierarchy of generic chromatin modifying complexes and DNA methyltransferases to specific loci by RNAs during differentiation and development. Other epigenetic changes are mediated by the production of different splice forms of RNA, or by formation of double-stranded RNA (RNAi). Descendants of the cell in which the gene was turned on will inherit this activity, even if the original stimulus for gene-activation is no longer present. These genes are often turned on or off by signal transduction, although in some systems where syncytia or gap junctions are important, RNA may spread directly to other cells or nuclei by diffusion. A large amount of RNA and protein is contributed to the zygote by the mother during oogenesis or via nurse cells, resulting in maternal effect phenotypes. A smaller quantity of sperm RNA is transmitted from the father, but there is recent evidence that this epigenetic information can lead to visible changes in several generations of offspring. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=49033 | 86,067 |
1,981,081 | Following infection and establishment of an endosymbiotic relationship, the new cyanobionts will no longer be free living and autonomous, but rather begin to dedicate their physiological activities in tandem with their hosts'. Over time and evolution, the cyanobiont will begin to lose portions of their genome in a process known as genome erosion. As the relationship between the cyanobacteria and host evolves, the cyanobiont genome will develop signs of degradation, particularly in the form of pseudogenes. A genome undergoing reduction will typically have a large proportion of pseudogenes and transposable elements dispersed throughout the genome. Furthermore, cyanobacteria involved in symbiosis will begin to accumulate these mutations in specific genes, particularly those involved in DNA repair, glycolysis, and nutrient uptake. These gene sets are critical for organisms that live independently, however as cyanobionts living in symbiosis with their hosts, there may not be any evolutionary need to continue maintaining the integrity of these genes. As the major function of a cyanobiont is to provide their host with fixed nitrogen, genes involved in nitrogen fixation or cell differentiation are observed to remain relatively untouched. This may suggest that cyanobacteria involved in symbiotic relationships can selectively stream line their genetic information in order to best perform their functions as cyanobiont-host relationships continue to evolve over time. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19806269 | 1,979,943 |
2,072,193 | Born in Saginaw, Michigan, Serrin graduated from Central Michigan University in 1961. He began working for Booth Newspapers in 1964, and joined the "Detroit Free Press" staff two years later. In 1967, the "Free Press" won a Pulitzer Prize for Local General or Spot News Reporting for its coverage of the Detroit riot to which Serrin contributed. Serrin's reporting on the Kent State shooting of 1970 was honored with a George Polk Award. In 1971, he shared The Hillman Prize with Carolyn See, Kenneth Lasson, Robert Coles, and Richard Todd. In 1973, Serrin published his first book, The Company and the Union, which detailed the relationship between General Motors and the United Auto Workers. Serrin worked for the "New York Times" from 1979 to 1986, when he left to begin work on his second book. Prior to publication in 1993, "Homestead: The Glory and Tragedy of An American Steel Town" was reviewed by Robert Reich in the "New York Times" and Samuel G. Freedman in the "Los Angeles Times". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=56762662 | 2,071,002 |
1,403,423 | The heliospheric boundary of the Solar System is being imaged by measuring the location and magnitude of charge-exchange collisions occurring in all directions. The satellite's payload consists of two energetic neutral atom (ENA) imagers, IBEX-Hi and IBEX-Lo. Each consists of a collimator that limits their fields of view (FoV) a conversion surface to convert neutral hydrogen and oxygen into ions, an electrostatic analyzer (ESA) to suppress ultraviolet light and to select ions of a specific energy range, and a detector to count particles and identify the type of each ion. Both of these sensors are a single-pixel camera with a field of view of roughly 7° x 7°. The IBEX-Hi instrument is recording particle counts in a higher energy band (300 eV to 6 keV) than the IBEX-Lo energy band (10 eV to 2 keV). The scientific payload also includes a Combined Electronics Unit (CEU) that controls the voltages on the collimator and the ESA, and it reads and records data from the particle detectors of each sensor. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4142398 | 1,402,633 |
1,149,187 | Things are never that simple, however. Pipelining requires that the unit's internals can be effectively separated to the point where each step of the operation is running on completely separate circuitry. This is rarely achievable in the real world. Nevertheless, the use of pipelining on the 7600 improved performance over the 6600 by a factor of about 3. To achieve the rest of the goal, the machine would have to run at a faster speed, now possible using new transistor designs. However, there is a physical limit to performance because of the time it takes signals to move between parts of the machine, which in turn is defined by its physical size. As always, Cray's design work spent considerable effort on this problem and thus allow higher operating frequencies. For the 7600, each circuit module actually consisted of up to six printed circuit boards, each one stuffed with subminiature resistors, diodes, and transistors. The six boards were stacked up and then interconnected along their edges, making a very compact, but basically unrepairable module. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=655742 | 1,148,580 |
330,282 | A Stuka repair centre was set up at Wels-Lichtenegg. From May 1940 to November 1944, 746 were repaired and flight-tested there. In the winter 1943/44, the "Metal Works Lower Saxony Brinckmann und Mergell" company (Menibum) converted approximately 300 Ju 87D-3 and 5s to night versions. Dive-brakes were removed there, while gun muzzles and dampers were installed to eliminate exhaust and muzzle flash. The Jumo 211P engine was installed in some cases. It took 2,170 technicians and workers to carry out the conversions. Total figures for conversions to night flying operations are unknown. The company's equipment was seized by the Soviet Union at the end of the war, and the records were lost or destroyed. A main piece of equipment, hereto not installed in the Ju 87, was the FuG 101 Electronic Radio Altimeter. This was used to measure height. Some Ju 87s also used FuG 16Z transmitter/receiver set to augment the FuG 25 IFF (Identification Friend or Foe). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=16590 | 330,107 |
833,582 | Frisch normally celebrated Christmas with Meitner in Berlin, but in 1938 she accepted an invitation from Eva von Bahr to spend it with her family at Kungälv, and Meitner asked Frisch to join her there. Meitner received the letter from Hahn describing his chemical proof that some of the product of the bombardment of uranium with neutrons was barium. Barium had an atomic mass 40% less than uranium, and no previously known methods of radioactive decay could account for such a large difference in the mass of the nucleus. Nonetheless, she had immediately written back to Hahn to say: "At the moment the assumption of such a thoroughgoing breakup seems very difficult to me, but in nuclear physics we have experienced so many surprises, that one cannot unconditionally say: 'It is impossible.'" Meitner felt that Hahn was too careful a chemist to make an elementary blunder, but found the results difficult to explain. All the nuclear reactions that had been documented involved chipping protons or alpha particles from the nucleus. Breaking it up seemed far more difficult. However the liquid drop model that Gamow had postulated suggested the possibility that an atomic nucleus could become elongated and overcome the surface tension that held it together. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=64011351 | 833,133 |
2,066,350 | Following the Partition of India in 1947, she became concerned about the status of the Bengali language in East Pakistan, and joined the campaign to have it recognised as an official language, which in 1952 was successful. As head of Cox's Bazar Girls' High school, she came into conflict with vested interests and resigned in protest. In her new position at Joydevpur Govt. Girls' High School, she continued to face difficulties from bureaucracy and in 1963 she became an economics lecturer at Bharateswari Homes. R. P. Shaha, the founder of the institution, promoted her to manager and finally to Principal. She also became an administrator at Kumuduni Welfare Trust, in which she continued to be involved after her retirement from teaching. In 2011, she was guest of honour at an event to recognise women's contributions to Dhaka University. In 2016, she was one of 27 prominent Bangladeshi citizens to receive a special award from Amin Jewellers on the occasion of the company's golden anniversary. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50801646 | 2,065,159 |
1,284,878 | One of Lotka's earliest publications, in 1912, proposed a solution to Ronald Ross's second malaria model. In 1923, he published a thorough five-part analysis and extension of both Ross's malaria models. The fourth part in the series, co-authored by F. R. Sharpe, modeled the time lag for pathogen incubation. Lotka published "Elements of Physical Biology" in 1925, one of the first books on mathematical biology after D'Arcy Thompson's "On Growth and Form". He is also known for his energetics perspective on evolution. Lotka proposed that natural selection was, at its root, a struggle among organisms for available energy; Lotka's principle states that organisms that survive and prosper are those that capture and use energy more efficiently than their competitors. Lotka extended his energetics framework to human society. In particular, he suggested that the shift in reliance from solar energy to nonrenewable energy would pose unique and fundamental challenges to society. These theories made Lotka an important forerunner to the development of biophysical economics and ecological economics, advanced by Frederick Soddy, Howard Odum and others. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=484120 | 1,284,179 |
552,272 | In 1996, an international group of 30 clinical epidemiologists, clinicians, statisticians, editors, and researchers convened The Quality of Reporting of Meta-analyses (QUOROM) conference to address standards for improving the quality of reporting of meta-analyses of clinical randomized controlled trials (RCTs). This conference resulted in the QUOROM checklist and a flow diagram that described the preferred way to present the abstract, introduction, methods, results, and discussion sections of a report of a systematic review or a meta-analysis. Eight of the original 18 items formed the basis of the QUOROM reporting. Evaluation of reporting was organized into headings and subheadings regarding searches, selection, validity assessment, data abstraction, study characteristics, and quantitative data synthesis. The rationale behind the inclusion of such a diagram is to increase the transparency of decisions made by the researcher for including or excluding certain studies, which may subsequently introduce biases in the overall measure of effect. It subsequently became a required element in a number of medical and life science journals when submitting review papers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=35028896 | 551,983 |
224,438 | The Arab physician, Ibn al-Nafis, wrote the "Commentary on Anatomy in" "Avicenna's" "Canon" in 1242 in which he provided possibly the first known description of the system that remains substantially congruent with modern understandings, in spite of its flaws. Ibn al-Nafis made two key improvements on Galen's ideas. First, he disproved the existence of the pores in the interventricular septum that Galen had believed allowed blood to flow between the left and right ventricles. Second, he surmised that the only way for blood to get from the right to the left ventricle in the absence of interventricular pores was a system like pulmonary circulation. He also described the anatomy of the lungs in clear and basically correct detail, which his predecessors had not. However, like Aristotle and Galen, al-Nafis still believed in the quasi-mythical concept of vital spirit and that it was formed in the left ventricle from a mixture of blood and air. Despite the enormity of Ibn al-Nafis's improvements on the theories that preceded him, his commentary on "The Canon" was not widely known to Western scholars until the manuscript was discovered in Berlin, Germany, in 1924. As a result, the ongoing debate among Western scholars as to how credit for the discovery should be apportioned failed to include Ibn al-Nafis until, at earliest, the mid-20th century (shortly after which he came to enjoy a share of this credit). In 2021, several researchers described a text predating the work of al-Nafis, "fargh- beyn-roh va nafs", in which there is a comparable report on pulmonary circulation. The researchers argue that its author, Qusta ibn Luqa, is the best candidate for the discoverer of pulmonary circulation on a similar basis to arguments in favour of al-Nafis generally. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=598465 | 224,324 |
29,519 | Soon after Bacon, the influential work of Pseudo-Geber (sometimes identified as Paul of Taranto) appeared. His "Summa Perfectionis" remained a staple summary of alchemical practice and theory through the medieval and renaissance periods. It was notable for its inclusion of practical chemical operations alongside sulphur-mercury theory, and the unusual clarity with which they were described. By the end of the 13th century, alchemy had developed into a fairly structured system of belief. Adepts believed in the macrocosm-microcosm theories of Hermes, that is to say, they believed that processes that affect minerals and other substances could have an effect on the human body (for example, if one could learn the secret of purifying gold, one could use the technique to purify the human soul). They believed in the four elements and the four qualities as described above, and they had a strong tradition of cloaking their written ideas in a labyrinth of coded jargon set with traps to mislead the uninitiated. Finally, the alchemists practiced their art: they actively experimented with chemicals and made observations and theories about how the universe operated. Their entire philosophy revolved around their belief that man's soul was divided within himself after the fall of Adam. By purifying the two parts of man's soul, man could be reunited with God. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=573 | 29,509 |
897,898 | It was one of the smallest, if not the smallest among the heavy machine guns of that conflict, with a weight of 16.6 kilograms (37 lb,) less than 60% of the M2 Browning or the Breda-SAFAT machine gun. Despite this, the MG 131 was a rapid fire weapon with an elevated firepower for its mass. It was equipped with HEI ammunition. Its nearest contemporary equivalent may have been the Japanese Ho-103, itself based on the earlier American M1921 Browning machine gun. The other main Axis automatic weapon of similar caliber, the Italian Breda 12.7 mm was around 13 kg heavier and bigger, while slower by at least 150 rpm. This small size allowed them to be mounted in the restricted space available in the nose of Luftwaffe fighters, originally designed to house the lighter caliber 7.92 mm machine guns. This became the common configuration from 1943 onwards, as the increasing armour protection of most Allied aircraft, and the burgeoning challenge of daylight raids by heavy American bombers as the war progressed rendered the smaller caliber guns obsolescent in this role. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1461119 | 897,424 |
10,874 | In 2003, the U.S. Army contended that the lack of lethality of the 5.56×45 mm was more a matter of perception than fact. With good shot placement to the head and chest, the target was usually defeated without issue. The majority of failures were the result of hitting the target in non-vital areas such as extremities. However, a minority of failures occurred in spite of multiple hits to the chest. In 2006, a study found that 20% of soldiers using the M4 Carbine wanted more lethality or stopping power. In June 2010, the U.S. Army announced it began shipping its new 5.56 mm, lead-free, M855A1 Enhanced Performance Round to active combat zones. This upgrade is designed to maximize performance of the 5.56×45 mm round, to extend range, improve accuracy, increase penetration and to consistently fragment in soft-tissue when fired from not only standard length M16s, but also the short-barreled M4 carbines. The U.S. Army has been impressed with the new M855A1 EPR round. A 7.62 NATO M80A1 EPR variant was also developed. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19901 | 10,869 |
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