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87,411 | The existence of a limiting mass that no white dwarf can exceed without collapsing to a neutron star is another consequence of being supported by electron degeneracy pressure. Such limiting masses were calculated for cases of an idealized, constant density star in 1929 by Wilhelm Anderson and in 1930 by Edmund C. Stoner. This value was corrected by considering hydrostatic equilibrium for the density profile, and the presently known value of the limit was first published in 1931 by Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar in his paper "The Maximum Mass of Ideal White Dwarfs". For a non-rotating white dwarf, it is equal to approximately , where is the average molecular weight per electron of the star. As the carbon-12 and oxygen-16 which predominantly compose a carbon–oxygen white dwarf both have atomic number equal to half their atomic weight, one should take equal to 2 for such a star, leading to the commonly quoted value of 1.4 . (Near the beginning of the 20th century, there was reason to believe that stars were composed chiefly of heavy elements, so, in his 1931 paper, Chandrasekhar set the average molecular weight per electron, , equal to 2.5, giving a limit of 0.91 .) Together with William Alfred Fowler, Chandrasekhar received the Nobel prize for this and other work in 1983. The limiting mass is now called the "Chandrasekhar limit". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=33501 | 87,376 |
1,782,208 | Phlebovirus is derived from Phlebotominae, which is the taxon of vectors of member species "sandfly fever Naples phlebovirus." The name comes from the Greek root phlebos, which means "vein". Serological cross reactivity previosuls defined species in the genus. A change in classification rules was prompted due to the difficulty in detecting new phlebovirus in serological assays. As a result, viral species are now defined by 95% or greater identity in the amino acid sequences of their respective RNA-dependent RNA plymerase (RdRp). Currently, the genus consists of 67 species. Some of the viruses have other hematophagous arthropods as their main vectors. Examples of this include mosquitos for the Rift Valley fever virus, and the Mukawa virus, which has been isolated from ticks, but remains in Phlebovirus despite the common shift of tick-borne viruses from Phlebovirus to Uukuvirus. In addition to ticks and mosquitos, some Phleboviruses have been isolated from vertebrates like rodents in America and opossums or sloths in Africa. This wide variety of sources shows the possible presence of diversified epidemiological cycles. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4321583 | 1,781,204 |
1,788,181 | In the years following the Civil War, American naval power declined precipitously, shrinking from nearly 700 vessels to just 52, most of which were obsolete. Garfield's Secretary of the Navy, William H. Hunt, had advocated reform of the Navy and his successor, William E. Chandler, appointed an advisory board to prepare a report on modernization. Based on the suggestions in the report, Congress appropriated funds for the construction of three steel protected cruisers ("Atlanta", "Boston", and "Chicago") and an armed dispatch-steamer ("Dolphin"), collectively known as the "ABCD Ships" or the "Squadron of Evolution". Congress also approved funds to rebuild four monitors ("Puritan", "Amphitrite", "Monadnock", and "Terror"), which had lain uncompleted since 1877. Arthur strongly supported these efforts, believing that a strengthened navy would not only increase the country's security but also enhance U.S. prestige. The contracts to build the ABCD ships were all awarded to the low bidder, John Roach & Sons of Chester, Pennsylvania, even though Roach once employed Secretary Chandler as a lobbyist. Democrats turned against the "New Navy" projects and, when they won control of the 48th Congress, refused to appropriate funds for seven more steel warships. Even without the additional ships, the state of the Navy improved when, after several construction delays, the last of the new ships entered service in 1889. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=61305749 | 1,787,175 |
1,955,947 | A lot of creatures have camouflage incorporated into their bodies — take the fish in the figure on the right for example. In this hypothetical, the animal can appear in two different ways depending on their surroundings: in the middle of the ocean away from all solid objects, it can appear near-translucent; near the sea floor where potential predators will only sense it from above, it can turn darker to naturally blend in with the rocky bottom. Many fish, such as the marine hatchetfish, use a combination of camouflage techniques to achieve these appearances. Silvering, a common tactic, utilizes highly reflective scales to reflect the surrounding light effectively enough to make the scales appear invisible from the side. Counterillumination, a tactic used more by deep-sea dwellers, uses a luminous organ located in the bottom of the body to emit light in order to appear brighter from underneath. At this angle, the light emitted is at an intensity meant to replicate the sunlight as it appears on the surface of the water. Thus, from below the creature is essentially invisible to many predators. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58581845 | 1,954,825 |
1,963,449 | Starting with ICCIT 2008, a selected number of manuscripts after further enhancement and extensive review process are being included in one of several journal special issues. ICCIT doesn't end with just conference proceedings but with those that are indexed worldwide and takes many of its better papers to its next logical level to the journals. To date, 14 journal special issues have been produced by ICCIT IPC featuring works of Bangladesh-based researchers in the fields of communications, computing, multimedia, networks, and software. This is a serious feat for Bangladesh its many researchers; the outcome from this single conference is allowing for about 30–35 team of researchers each year to be able to showcase their research through archival and indexed journals that really matter. It is a major scholarly milestone which makes ICCIT series different from all other technical conferences held in Bangladesh. In its latest iteration, 32 selected enhanced ICCIT 2011 manuscripts after having gone through extensive reviews have been accepted now for inclusion in the following international journals. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12066155 | 1,962,321 |
722,466 | Samuel Clemens (1835–1910), better known by his pen name of Mark Twain, grew up in the frontier town of Hannibal, Missouri. Early 19th-century American writers tended to be flowery, sentimental, or ostentatious—partially because they were still trying to prove that they could write as elegantly as the English. Ernest Hemingway in "Green Hills of Africa" wrote that many Romantics "wrote like exiled English colonials from an England of which they were never a part to a newer England that they were making...They did not use the words that people have always used in speech, the words that survive in language." In the same essay, Hemingway stated that all American fiction comes from Mark Twain's novel "The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn". Twain's style, based on vigorous, realistic, colloquial American speech, gave American writers a new appreciation of their national voice. Twain was the first major author to come from the interior of the country, and he captured its distinctive, humorous slang and iconoclasm. For Twain and other American writers of the late 19th century, realism was not merely a literary technique: It was a way of speaking truth and exploding outworn conventions. Twain is best known for his works "Tom Sawyer" and "The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11382737 | 722,086 |
980,803 | During World War II, military radar operators noticed noise in returned echoes due to weather elements like rain, snow, and sleet. Just after the war, military scientists returned to civilian life or continued in the Armed Forces and pursued their work in developing a use for those echoes. In the United States, David Atlas, for the Air Force group at first, and later for MIT, developed the first operational weather radars. In Canada, J.S. Marshall and R.H. Douglas formed the "Stormy Weather Group " in Montreal. Marshall and his doctoral student Walter Palmer are well known for their work on the drop size distribution in mid-latitude rain that led to understanding of the Z-R relation, which correlates a given radar reflectivity with the rate at which water is falling on the ground. In the United Kingdom, research continued to study the radar echo patterns and weather elements such as stratiform rain and convective clouds, and experiments were done to evaluate the potential of different wavelengths from 1 to 10 centimetres. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1280053 | 980,291 |
816,905 | Larval fishes start feeding at 5–7 days post fertilization (d.p.f.). And they experience extreme mortality rate (≈99%) in the few days after feeding starts. The reason for this 'Critical Period' (Hjort-1914) is mainly hydrodynamic constraints. Larval fish fail to eat even if there are enough prey encounters. One of the primary determinants of feeding success is the size of larval body. The smaller larvae function in a lower Reynolds number (Re) regime. As the age increases, the size of the larvae increases, which leads to higher swimming speed and increased Reynolds number. It has been observed through many experiments that the Reynolds number of successful strikes (Re~200) is much higher than the Reynolds number of failed strikes (Re~20). Numerical analysis of suction feeding at a low Reynolds number (Re) concluded that around 40% energy invested in mouth opening is lost to frictional forces rather than contributing to accelerating the fluid towards mouth. Ontogenetic improvement in the sensory system, coordination and experiences are non-significant relationship while determining feeding success of larvae A successful strike positively depends upon the peak flow speed or the speed of larvae at the time of strike. The peak flow speed is also dependent on the gape speed or the speed of opening the buccal cavity to capture food. As the larva ages, its body size increase and its gape speed also increase, which cumulatively increase the successful strike outcomes. Hence larger larvae can capture faster escaping prey and exert sufficient force to suck heavier prey into their mouths. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1284761 | 816,469 |
1,082,656 | Xiu (in his PhD under Karniadakis at Brown University) generalized the result of Cameron–Martin to various continuous and discrete distributions using orthogonal polynomials from the so-called Askey-scheme and demonstrated formula_16 convergence in the corresponding Hilbert functional space. This is popularly known as the generalized polynomial chaos (gPC) framework. The gPC framework has been applied to applications including stochastic fluid dynamics, stochastic finite elements, solid mechanics, nonlinear estimation, the evaluation of finite word-length effects in non-linear fixed-point digital systems and probabilistic robust control. It has been demonstrated that gPC based methods are computationally superior to Monte-Carlo based methods in a number of applications. However, the method has a notable limitation. For large numbers of random variables, polynomial chaos becomes very computationally expensive and Monte-Carlo methods are typically more feasible . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11938767 | 1,082,099 |
1,742,901 | Darwin noted that the essential nectar, secreted to attract insects, seemed also in some cases to act as an excretion: "It is in perfect accordance with the scheme of nature, as worked out by natural selection, that matter excreted to free the system from superfluous or injuring substances should be utilised for purposes of the highest importance." Homologies of the flowers of orchids showed them all to be based on "fifteen groups of vessels, arranged three within three, in alternating order". He disparaged the idea that this was an "ideal type" fixed by the Omnipotent Creator, but attributed it instead to its "descent from some monocotyledonous plant, which, like so many other plants of the same division, possessed fifteen organs, arranged alternately three within three in five whorls; and that the now wonderfully changed structure of the flower is due to a long course of slow modification,—each modification having been preserved which was useful to each plant, during the incessant changes to which the organic and the inorganic world has been exposed". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21436165 | 1,741,917 |
1,506,478 | Dr Oliver, I was told, … had a liking and a ′flair′ for the invention of simple appliances, with which observations and experiments could be made on the human subject. Dr Oliver had invented a small instrument with which he claimed to be able to measure, through the unbroken skin, the diameter of a living artery, such as the radial artery at the wrist. He appears to have used his family in his experiments, and a young son was the subject of a series, in which Dr Oliver measured the diameter of the radial artery, and observed the effect upon it of injecting extracts of various animal glands under the skin. … We may picture, then, Professor Schafer, in the old physiological laboratory at University College, … finishing an experiment of some kind, in which he was recording the arterial blood pressure of an anaesthetized dog. … To him enters Dr Oliver, with the story of the experiments on his boy, and, in particular, with the statement that injection under the skin of a glycerin extract from calf’s suprarenal gland was followed by a definite narrowing of the radial artery. Professor Schafer is said to have been entirely skeptical, and to have attributed the observation to self-delusion. … He can hardly be blamed, I think; knowing even what we now know about the action of this extract, which of us would be prepared to believe that injecting it under a boy’s skin would cause his radial artery to become measurably more slender? Dr Oliver, however, is persistent; he … suggests that, at least, it will do no harm to inject into the circulation, through a vein, a little of the suprarenal extract, which he produces from his pocket. So Professor Schafer makes the injection, expecting a triumphant demonstration of nothing, and finds himself standing ′like some watcher of the skies, when a new planet swims into his ken,′ watching the mercury rise in the manometer with amazing rapidity and to an astounding height. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38791208 | 1,505,632 |
1,275,676 | On 21 July a flight of six Martins and two Handley Pages, each carrying a 2,000-pound bomb. As the pilots stood by waiting to take off, Johnson called with a change in rules. The bombers could bring no more than three of their biggest bombs to the target area. The written agreement had been that the Air Service would be allowed two direct hits with their biggest bombs. One of the Handley Pages had to drop out of the formation, but the other seven airplanes went on to the target. They had no intention of making two direct hits and stopping the test. Their orders were to aim for near misses to create water hammer shock waves against the hull. The first bomb fell at 12:18 p.m. It was a near miss, as planned. The other airplanes swept in at spaced intervals and delivered their ordnance. "We could see her rise eight or 10 feet between the terrific blows from under water," Mitchell said. The sixth bomb, at 12:31, sealed "Ostfriesland"'s doom. Twenty-two minutes after the first bomb fell, the old battleship sank at 12:40. The seventh airplane, a Handley Page, dropped its unneeded bomb as a final salute at the point where the battleship had gone down. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=16109754 | 1,274,983 |
143,957 | The next day, 2 December 1942, everybody assembled for the experiment. There were 49 scientists present. Although most of the S-1 Executive Committee was in Chicago, only Crawford Greenewalt was present, at Compton's invitation. Other dignitaries present included Szilard, Wigner and Spedding. Fermi, Compton, Anderson and Zinn gathered around the controls on the balcony, which was originally intended as a viewing platform. Samuel Allison stood ready with a bucket of concentrated cadmium nitrate, which he was to throw over the pile in the event of an emergency. The startup began at 09:54. Walter Zinn removed the zip, the emergency control rod, and secured it. Norman Hilberry stood ready with an axe to cut the scram line, which would allow the zip to fall under the influence of gravity. While Leona Woods called out the count from the boron trifluoride detector in a loud voice, George Weil, the only one on the floor, withdrew all but one of the control rods. At 10:37 Fermi ordered Weil to remove all but of the last control rod. Weil withdrew it at a time, with measurements being taken at each step. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1118396 | 143,899 |
1,686,828 | A common trend in modern technology is the push to create lightweight devices. A 1981 collection of studies on amputees showed a 30% increase in metabolic cost of walking for an able-bodied subject with 2-kg weights fixed to each foot. Correspondingly, transfemoral prostheses are on average only about one third of the weight of the limb they are replacing. However, the effect of added mass appears to be less significant for amputees. Small increases in mass (4-oz and 8-oz) of a prosthetic foot had no significant effect and, similarly, adding 0.68-kg and 1.34-kg masses to the center of the shank of transfemoral prostheses did not alter metabolic cost at any of the tested walking speeds (0.6, 1.0, and 1.5 m/s). In another study, muscular efforts were significantly increased with added mass, yet there was no significant impact on walking speeds and over half of the subjects preferred a prosthetic that was loaded to match 75% weight of the sound leg. In fact, it has been reported in several articles that test subjects actually prefer heavier prostheses, even when the load is completely superficial. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=53661259 | 1,685,882 |
620,513 | An electrothermal-chemical gun uses a plasma cartridge to ignite and control the ammunition's propellant, using electrical energy as a catalyst to begin the process. Originally researched by Dr. Jon Parmentola for the U.S. Army, it has grown into a very plausible successor to a standard solid propellant tank gun. Since the beginning of research the United States has funded the XM291 gun project with USD 4,000,000, basic research with USD 300,000, and applied research with USD 600,000. Since then it has been proven to work, although efficiency to the level required has not yet been accomplished. ETC increases the performance of conventional solid propellants, reduces the effect of temperature on propellant expansion and allows for more advanced, higher density propellants to be used. It will also reduce pressure placed on the barrel in comparison to alternative technologies that offer the same muzzle energy given the fact that it helps spread the propellant's gas much more smoothly during ignition. Currently, there are two principal methods of plasma initiation: the flashboard large area emitter (FLARE) and the triple coaxial plasma igniter (TCPI). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10382 | 620,198 |
1,851,143 | According to a report in New Scientist many researchers are in consensus that Rossby waves are acting against the jet stream's usual pattern and holding it in place. Upper atmospheric studies using National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) data indicates that during July 2010 these upper air stream patterns were most frequently observed in the Northern Hemisphere. Examination of the climatology data over the same period of time indicates that these wild planetary wave meanderings are not a normal aspect of our regional climate patterns. Meanwhile, ongoing research studies at the University of Reading show that unusual patterns in the polar jet stream are more common during a period of low activity in the solar cycle when the observed sunspot activity and their associated solar flares are at their minimum. The link between low solar activity and enhanced blocking patterns is associated with an increase in the prevalence of cold weather patterns during the European Winter. Another possible explanation for the observed increase in blocking patterns is natural variability, through the chaotic character of the large-scale ocean currents that flow across the surface of the tropical Pacific. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6187453 | 1,850,082 |
172,278 | Since Johnston's death, his field of volcanic eruption prediction has advanced significantly, and volcanologists are now able to predict eruptions based on a number of precursors that become apparent between days and months in advance. Geologists can now identify characteristic patterns in seismic waves that indicate particular magmatic activity. In particular, volcanologists have used deep, long-period earthquakes that indicate that magma is rising through the crust. They can also use carbon dioxide emission as a proxy for magma supply rate. Measurements of surface deformation due to magmatic intrusions, like those that were conducted by Johnston and the other USGS scientists at the Coldwater I and II outposts, have advanced in scale and precision. Ground deformation monitoring networks around volcanoes now consist of InSAR (interferometry), surveys of networks of GPS monuments, microgravity surveys in which scientists measure the change in gravitational potential or acceleration because of the intruding magma and resulting deformation, strain meters, and tiltmeters. Though there is still work to be done, this combination of approaches has greatly improved scientists' abilities to forecast volcanic eruptions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=981085 | 172,187 |
447,101 | It is generally acknowledged that codon biases reflect a balance between mutational biases and natural selection (mutation–selection balance) for translational optimization. Optimal codons in fast-growing microorganisms, like "Escherichia coli" or "Saccharomyces cerevisiae" (baker's yeast), reflect the composition of their respective genomic transfer RNA (tRNA) pool. It is thought that optimal codons help to achieve faster translation rates and high accuracy. As a result of these factors, translational selection is expected to be stronger in highly expressed genes, as is indeed the case for the above-mentioned organisms. In other organisms that do not show high growing rates or that present small genomes, codon usage optimization is normally absent, and codon preferences are determined by the characteristic mutational biases seen in that particular genome. Examples of this are "Homo sapiens" (human) and "Helicobacter pylori." Organisms that show an intermediate level of codon usage optimization include "Drosophila melanogaster" (fruit fly), "Caenorhabditis elegans" (nematode worm), "Strongylocentrotus purpuratus" (sea urchin), and "Arabidopsis thaliana" (thale cress). Several viral families (herpesvirus, lentivirus, papillomavirus, polyomavirus, adenovirus, and parvovirus) are known to encode structural proteins that display heavily skewed codon usage compared to the host cell. The suggestion has been made that these codon biases play a role in the temporal regulation of their late proteins. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=219277 | 446,884 |
1,343,588 | Before the 17th century, with difficult terrain, poor roads and methods of transport there was little trade between different areas of the country and most settlements depended on what was produced locally, often with little in reserve in bad years. Most farming was based on the lowland fermtoun or highland baile, settlements of a handful of families that jointly farmed an area notionally suitable for two or three plough teams, allocated in run rigs, of "runs" (furrows) and "rigs" (ridges), to tenant farmers. Most ploughing was done with a heavy wooden plough with an iron coulter, pulled by oxen, which were more effective in the heavy Scottish soil, and cheaper to feed than horses. Those with property rights included husbandmen, lesser landholders and free tenants. Below them were the cottars, who often shared rights to common pasture, occupied small portions of land and participated in joint farming as hired labour. Farms also might have grassmen, who had rights only to grazing. Three acts of parliament passed in 1695 allowed the consolidation of runrigs and the division of common land. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=462729 | 1,342,852 |
1,375,367 | Bacteria of the genera "Chromobacterium", "Janthinobacterium", and "Pseudoalteromonas" produce a toxic secondary metabolite, violacein, to deter protozoan predation. Violacein is released when bacteria are consumed, killing the protozoan. Another bacteria, "Pseudomonas aeruginosa", aggregates into quorum sensing biofilms which may aid the coordinated release of toxins to protect against predation by protozoans. Flagellates were allowed to grow and were present in a biofilm of "P. aeruginosa" grown for three days, but no flagellates were detected after seven days. This suggests that concentrated and coordinated release of extracellular toxins by biofilms has a greater effect than unicellular excretions. Bacterial growth is inhibited not only by bacterial toxins, but also by secondary metabolites produced by fungi as well. The most well-known of these, first discovered and published by Alexander Fleming in 1929, described the antibacterial properties of a "mould juice" isolated from "Penicillium notatum". He named the substance penicillin, and it became the world's first broad-spectrum antibiotic. Many fungi are either pathogenic saprophytic, or live within plants without harming them as endophytes, and many of these have been documented to produce chemicals with antagonistic effects against a variety of organisms, including fungi, bacteria, and protozoa. Studies of coprophilous fungi have found antifungal agents which reduce the fitness of competing fungi. In addition, sclerotia of "Aspergillus flavus" contained a number of previously unknown aflavinines which were much more effective at reducing predation by the fungivorous beetle, "Carpophilus hemipterus", than aflatoxins which "A. flavus" also produced and it has been hypothesized that ergot alkaloids, mycotoxins produced by "Claviceps purpurea", may have evolved to discourage herbivory of the host plant. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30856926 | 1,374,608 |
273,283 | The study of differential geometry, or at least the study of the geometry of smooth shapes, can be traced back at least to classical antiquity. In particular, much was known about the geometry of the Earth, a spherical geometry, in the time of the ancient Greek mathematicians. Famously, Eratosthenes calculated the circumference of the Earth around 200 BC, and around 150 AD Ptolemy in his "Geography" introduced the stereographic projection for the purposes of mapping the shape of the Earth. Implicitly throughout this time principles that form the foundation of differential geometry and calculus were used in geodesy, although in a much simplified form. Namely, as far back as Euclid's "Elements" it was understood that a straight line could be defined by its property of providing the shortest distance between two points, and applying this same principle to the surface of the Earth leads to the conclusion that great circles, which are only locally similar to straight lines in a flat plane, provide the shortest path between two points on the Earth's surface. Indeed the measurements of distance along such geodesic paths by Eratosthenes and others can be considered a rudimentary measure of arclength of curves, a concept which did not see a rigorous definition in terms of calculus until the 1600s. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8625 | 273,135 |
710,171 | Launch pad fires due to spilled kerosene are more damaging than hydrogen fires, primarily for two reasons. First, kerosene burns about 20% hotter in absolute temperature than hydrogen. The second reason is its buoyancy. Since hydrogen is a deep cryogen it boils quickly and rises due to its very low density as a gas. Even when hydrogen burns, the gaseous that is formed has a molecular weight of only 18 u compared to 29.9 u for air, so it rises quickly as well. Kerosene on the other hand falls to the ground and burns for hours when spilled in large quantities, unavoidably causing extensive heat damage that requires time-consuming repairs and rebuilding. This is a lesson most frequently experienced by test stand crews involved with firings of large, unproven rocket engines. Hydrogen-fuelled engines have special design requirements such as running propellant lines horizontally, so traps do not form in the lines and cause ruptures due to boiling in confined spaces. These considerations apply to all cryogens, such as liquid oxygen and liquid natural gas (LNG) as well. Use of liquid hydrogen fuel has an excellent safety record and superb performance that is well above that of all other practical chemical rocket propellants. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1078982 | 709,800 |
303,579 | The government exploited the resident registration number (RRN) system. Authorities mobilized young men who were eligible for military service as social service agents, security and public health doctors. Public health doctors were mainly dispatched to public health centers and life treatment centers where mildly ill patients were accommodated. They performed PCR tests and managed mild patients. Social service agents worked in pharmacies to fill staff shortages. Korea's 10k PCR tests per million residents was the world's highest as of 13 April rising to 20k by mid-June. Twenty-seven Korean companies exported test kits worth $48.6 million in March, and were asked to provide test kits or humanitarian assistance by more than 120 countries. Korean authorities set up a treatment center to isolate and manage patients with asymptomatic and minor illnesses in one facility in order to vacate hospital beds for the more severely ill. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=63204759 | 303,417 |
1,134,766 | As the Earth Observing System becomes more crucial in studying the Earth's climate and changes, the program will continue to evolve. NASA along with other government agencies such as the European Space Agency and NASDA (Japan), have planned many future missions. Sentinel 6B is one such mission with the aim of continued water and ocean observations. A key objective of the sentinel missions is to monitor sea level rise, a primary indicator of climate change and global warming. As Paris Agreement policy and more countries aim for a carbon neutral world, the data collected by Sentinel missions will assist in the continued understanding of the Earth's changing climate. It is also expected that one of the sentinel satellites will test a new experiment with regards to weather prediction. As a part of its payload, it will use Global Navigation Satellite System Radio Occultation (GNSS-RO), a method to detail changes and information of different layers in the atmosphere. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=471278 | 1,134,173 |
1,504,101 | Scholars generally support the rights of Indigenous peoples to the sites and materials created and used by their ancestors. Canadian First Nations, and others in like circumstances, "hold better jurisdictional title", thus legislative authority, to heritage resources than either Canada or the provinces (Asch 1997: 66). Yet the disposition of these areas continues to challenge governments: “given the intellectual and political traditions of historically and colonially established behaviour still influential in nominally post-colonial societies, any change becomes an issue of national and inherently contested politics” (Boyd et al. 2005: 92). So while the care and management of heritage materials and sites is often among those areas first offered up by colonial governments at modern negotiating tables, few accommodations are made for the attendant financial demands and regulative license required for these transfers of responsibility (Mohs 1994). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21924068 | 1,503,255 |
1,357,936 | One example leading the regulatory sustainability measures is the Space Sustainability Rating (SSR), which is an instigator for industry competitors to incorporate sustainability into spacecraft design. The Space Sustainability Rating was first conceptualized at the World Economic Forum Global Future Council on Space Technologies designed by international and transdisciplinary consortia. The four leading organizations are the European Space Agency, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, University of Texas at Austin, and BryceTech with the goal to define the technical and programmatic aspects of the SSR. The SSR represents an innovative approach to combating orbital debris through incentivizing the industry to prioritize sustainable and responsible operations. This response entails the consideration of potential harm to the space environment and other spacecraft, all while maintaining mission objectives and high-quality service. The rating takes inspiration from other standards, like leadership in energy and environmental design (LEED) for the building sector. Several of the factors emphasized in the rating were extracted from LEED design considerations like the incorporation of feedback and public comments, or the rating’s advocacy to influence policy, such as orbit fragmentation risks, collision avoidance capabilities, trackability, and adoption of international standards. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=67129473 | 1,357,186 |
7,835 | The tube technology of the ANITA was superseded in June 1963 by the U.S. manufactured Friden EC-130, which had an all-transistor design, a stack of four 13-digit numbers displayed on a cathode ray tube (CRT), and introduced Reverse Polish Notation (RPN) to the calculator market for a price of $2200, which was about three times the cost of an electromechanical calculator of the time. Like Bell Punch, Friden was a manufacturer of mechanical calculators that had decided that the future lay in electronics. In 1964 more all-transistor electronic calculators were introduced: Sharp introduced the CS-10A, which weighed and cost 500,000 yen ($), and Industria Macchine Elettroniche of Italy introduced the IME 84, to which several extra keyboard and display units could be connected so that several people could make use of it (but apparently not at the same time). The Victor 3900 was the first to use integrated circuits in place of individual transistors, but production problems delayed sales until 1966. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7593 | 7,832 |
784,005 | In one series of tests conducted by Santa Cruz Bicycles, it was shown that for a frame design with identical shape and nearly similar weight, the carbon frame is considerably stronger than aluminum, when subjected to an overall force load (subjecting the frame to both tension and compression), and impact strength. While carbon frames can be lightweight and strong, they may have lower impact resistance compared to other materials, and can be prone to damage if crashed or mishandled. Cracking and failure can result from a collision, but also from over tightening or improperly installing components. It has been suggested that these materials may be vulnerable to fatigue failure, a process which occurs with use over a long period of time, though this is often limited to interlaminar cracks or cracks in adhesive at joints, where stresses can be well controlled with good design practices. It is possible for broken carbon frames to be repaired, but because of safety concerns it should be done only by professional firms to the highest possible standards. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=195134 | 783,586 |
663,970 | The first industrial research organisation in India was created as an Industrial Intelligence and Research Bureau, which came into operation in April 1935 under the Indian Stores Department. With its limited budget of Rs. 1.2 lakhs per year, the bureau was virtually inactive. In 1939 there was a strong movement to abolish the bureau, and to replace it with a Board of Scientific and Industrial Research, similar to the British BSIR. Under the persuasive pressure of Arcot Ramaswamy Mudaliar, the Board of Scientific and Industrial Research (BSIR) was formed on 1 April 1940 for a period of two years. Shanti Swaroop Bhatnagar, as a leading scientist of the time, was appointed as the Director, and Mudaliar became the Chairman. The BSIR had an annual budget of Rs. 5 lakhs which was placed under the Department of Commerce. Shanti Swaroop Bhatnagar persuaded the government to set up an Industrial Research Utilisation Committee (IRUC) in early 1941 for further investment into industrial research. Mudaliar also won the demand for an establishment of Industrial Research Fund, and that it should have an annual grant of Rs 1 million for a period of five years, at the Central Assembly in Delhi at its session on 14 November 1941. These finally led to the constitution of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) as an autonomous body, which came into operation on 28 September 1942. The BSIR and IRUC became the advisory bodies to the governing body of the CSIR. In 1943 the governing body approved the proposal mooted by Shanti Swaroop Bhatnagar to establish five national laboratories – the National Chemical Laboratory, the National Physical Laboratory, the Fuel Research Station, and the Glass and Ceramics Research Institute. This was the beginning of scientific laboratories in India. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3945409 | 663,624 |
91,315 | Thales used geometry to solve problems such as calculating the height of pyramids and the distance of ships from the shore. He is credited with the first use of deductive reasoning applied to geometry, by deriving four corollaries to Thales' Theorem. As a result, he has been hailed as the first true mathematician and the first known individual to whom a mathematical discovery has been attributed. Pythagoras established the Pythagorean School, whose doctrine it was that mathematics ruled the universe and whose motto was "All is number". It was the Pythagoreans who coined the term "mathematics", and with whom the study of mathematics for its own sake begins. The Pythagoreans are credited with the first proof of the Pythagorean theorem, though the statement of the theorem has a long history, and with the proof of the existence of irrational numbers. Although he was preceded by the Babylonians, Indians and the Chinese, the Neopythagorean mathematician Nicomachus (60–120 AD) provided one of the earliest Greco-Roman multiplication tables, whereas the oldest extant Greek multiplication table is found on a wax tablet dated to the 1st century AD (now found in the British Museum). The association of the Neopythagoreans with the Western invention of the multiplication table is evident in its later Medieval name: the "mensa Pythagorica". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14220 | 91,275 |
1,712,413 | One method of introducing pores in silicon is through the use of an anodization cell. A possible anodization cell is made of Teflon and employs a platinum cathode and a crystalline Si wafer anode immersed in hydrogen fluoride (HF) electrolyte. Recently, inert diamond cathodes were used to avoid metallic impurities in the electrolyte and inert diamond anodes form an improved electrical back plate contact to the silicon wafers. Corrosion of the anode is produced by running electric current through the cell. It is noted that etching with constant DC is usually implemented to ensure steady tip-concentration of HF resulting in a more homogeneous porous layer, while pulsed current is more appropriate for the formation of thick PS layers with thickness greater than 50 µm. Pore direction is governed by crystal orientation. In (100)-cut Si the pores are oriented perpendicular to the wafer's surface. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2713504 | 1,711,448 |
1,297,805 | The institute collects Marine Fisheries Statistics for estimating species-wise landings from all along the coast which is released every year as a booklet. CMFRI has coordinated the Marine Fisheries Census of India by Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Fisheries (DADF) during the years 2005, 2010 and 2016. The latest marine fisheries census data (2016) collected by CMFRI contains information from 882263 fisher households in 4057 villages. Details of marine fisherfolk residing in the marine fishing villages of all the 9 maritime states and 2 union territories of India, information regarding the fishing craft and fishing gears from 50 fishing harbours and 1281 fish landing centers in the country and the socio-economics were collected. Software for enabling the data entry into a database was developed in-house. The innovative and time relevant way of data entry of marine fish landings data using electronic tablets at landings centres with web based computer application in the IBM server with Oracle RDBMS for online data entry support has been developed, tested and implemented enabling swift collation and dissemination of vital fish landings statistics on a national basis. The spatial mapping of fishing grounds on a continuous basis, which will help in identifying the seasons of high abundance of spawners/juveniles and in identification of critical fishing grounds where seasonal and spatial closure of trawl fishery can be implemented is facilitated under the various projects operated by the institute. Multi-species biomass dynamic models are being developed to address the multi-species and multi-gear fisheries assessments in India. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5116330 | 1,297,093 |
419,832 | Rosberg, who drove onto the run-off area on lap 25, stated his belief that the regulations on minor driver errors needed to be clarified to stop automatic steward investigations on such incidents, "It is worth discussing, because it going to the stewards is a bit strange. It is something that we all agreed among ourselves, and especially that the first time you can maybe get a warning, but you cannot do it three times in a row." "Sky Sports F1" pundits Johnny Herbert and Martin Brundle believed Rosberg was fortunate not to receive a penalty. Their colleague Damon Hill said a warning was justified. After his retirement from the race, Hamilton admitted he required a form similar to his four wins in a row earlier in the season to retake the lead in the Drivers' Championship, "It is going to take a lot, four wins. I just can't believe that my car stops and the other doesn't. Two DNFs is not easy but I have caught up before and I will catch up again." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38847346 | 419,627 |
336,518 | The THAAD missile defense concept was proposed in 1987, with a formal request for proposals submitted to industry in 1991. The THAAD program benefited from results of previous missile defense efforts like High Endoatmospheric Defense Interceptor (HEDI) and the Kinetic Kill Vehicle Integrated Technology Experiment (KITE). In September 1992, the US Army selected Lockheed (now Lockheed Martin) as prime contractor for THAAD development. Prior to development of a physical prototype, the Aero-Optical Effect (AOE) software code was developed to validate the intended operational profile of Lockheed's proposed design. The first THAAD flight test occurred in April 1995, with all flight tests in the demonstration-validation (DEM-VAL) program phase occurring at White Sands Missile Range. The first six intercept attempts missed the target (Flights 4–9). The first successful intercepts were conducted on 10 June 1999 and 2 August 1999, against Hera missiles. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1034696 | 336,339 |
2,201,596 | His research addresses the chemistry and dynamics of Earth's atmosphere, with particular emphasis on observations of trace gases and aerosols and their impact on stratospheric ozone, the oxidative capacity of the atmosphere, and radiation balance. His group studies stratospheric ozone depletion over the Arctic, the impact of rockets on stratospheric chemistry, long-range transport of pollutants, and the role of aerosols in modification of cloud properties. He has participated in over forty field campaigns, most involving research aircraft and scientific balloons. They have conducted work in Antarctica, Spitsbergen, New Zealand, Sweden, Nepal, the Virgin Islands, Alaska, Hawaii, and throughout the continental United States. He develops instruments for fast-response "in situ" measurements from the ground, balloons, and aircraft. His work helped demonstrate the link between chlorine-containing and bromine-containing compounds on the destruction of ozone over the Arctic and Antarctic. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44290386 | 2,200,343 |
2,096,053 | Following the parenthesis of the tragic Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) and its dire consequences, which included the removal of many professorships and forced exiles of scientists (for instance, Cabrera went to Mexico), the Society had to follow a path of recovery, especially after the 1960s. The number of Territorial (Local) Sections increased, and the first Specialised Groups were formed. Toward the end of the decade the decision was taken to split the Society into two fully independent Societies, the Spanish Royal Physics Society (RSEF) and the Spanish Royal Chemistry Society (RSEQ), giving continuity to the work of the parent Society whose final Biennial Meeting was held in Burgos from 29 September to 3 October 1980. The first president of the RSEF was , a Professor of Nuclear Physics at the Faculty of Physical Sciences of the Universidad Central de Madrid (today's Universidad Complutense de Madrid, UCM). Over the following years, more specialised groups were created which became increasingly active within the RSEF, while the Biennial Meetings remain a fixture to this day; the 2019 XXXVII Biennial Meeting of the RSEF took place in Zaragoza Univ. in July. The first Divisions in the RSEF were created in 2017. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=60132162 | 2,094,845 |
1,208,595 | Epidemiology is the study of the distribution and determinants of disease frequency in the human population and the study of how to control health problems. Internationally, the greatest variation in childhood cancer incidence occurs when comparing high-income countries to low-income ones. This may result from differences in being able to diagnose cancer, differences in risk among different ethnic or racial population subgroups, as well as differences in risk factors. An example of differing risk factors is in cases of pediatric Burkitt lymphoma, a form of non-Hodgkin lymphoma that sickens 6 to 7 children out of every 100,000 annually in parts of sub-Saharan Africa, where it is associated with a history of infection by both Epstein-Barr virus and malaria. In industrialized countries, Burkitt lymphoma is not associated with these infectious diseases. Non-Hispanic white children often have a better chance of survival compared to other racial and ethnic groups. Where an individual lives is one of the biggest determinants of health in the world, as illness and healthcare options can vary by an individual's postal code. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=37938321 | 1,207,949 |
617,449 | Having bowled Australia out for 215, England decided not to enforce the follow on. In England's 2nd Innings, openers Strauss and Cook started brightly as they looked to score quick runs to increase their lead in the match. After reaching 32 in 42 balls, Cook was trapped LBW by spinner Nathan Hauritz while England were on 61. Strauss fared little better against Hauritz and was out against him shortly afterwards by a catch from Michael Clarke. These two wickets brought Bopara and Pietersen to the crease and also signalled a slowing of the run rate. This partnership lasted 28 overs when Hauritz, showing few ill-effects from his dislocated middle finger on Day 1, got another England wicket. Simon Katich caught Bopara for 27 from 93 balls. When Pietersen fell 7 overs later, caught behind to Siddle, the score 174 for 4. It was left to Collingwood and wicketkeeper Prior to accelerate the run-rate for England. Matt Prior in particular enjoyed success hitting a quick-fire 61 off 42 balls (an innings which included 9 boundaries) until he was dismissed run out by a quick piece of fielding from Marcus North. Upon Prior's dismissal came Andrew Flintoff, playing in his last test for England at Lord's. Flintoff with Collingwood made a fifty partnership in 8 overs with Collingwood reaching his half-century. When Collingwood was dismissed caught behind off Siddle, Stuart Broad came on as next batsman but failed to face a ball as the umpires stopped play due to rain. Almost immediately afterwards, heavy showers meant that play was abandoned for the day with England 311 for 6, a lead over Australia of 521. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8708994 | 617,135 |
895,385 | Thermal batteries originated during World War II when German scientist Georg Otto Erb developed the first practical cells using a salt mixture as an electrolyte. Erb developed batteries for military applications, including the V-1 flying bomb and the V-2 rocket, and artillery fuzing systems. None of these batteries entered field use during the war. Afterwards, Erb was interrogated by British intelligence. His work was reported in "The Theory and Practice of Thermal Cells". This information was subsequently passed on to the United States Ordnance Development Division of the National Bureau of Standards. When the technology reached the United States in 1946, it was immediately applied to replacing the troublesome liquid-based systems that had previously been used to power artillery proximity fuzes. They were used for ordnance applications (e.g., proximity fuzes) since WWII and later in nuclear weapons. The same technology was studied by Argonne National Laboratories and other researchers in the 1980s for use in electric vehicles. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5054933 | 894,914 |
693,939 | A standard WSR-88D operates in the S band, at a frequency of around 2800 MHz, with a typical gain around 53 dB using a center-fed parabolic antenna. The pulse repetition frequency (PRF) varies from 318 to 1300 Hz with a maximum power output of 700 kW at Klystron output, although dependent on the volume coverage pattern (VCP) selected by the operator. All NEXRADs have a dish diameter of 9.1 m (30 ft) and an aperture diameter of 8.5 m (28 ft). Using the predetermined VCPs, NEXRADs have a traditional elevation minimum and maximum ranging from 0.1 to 19.5 degrees, although the non-operational minimum and maximum spans from −1 to +45 degrees. Unlike its predecessor, the WSR-74, the antenna can not be manually steered by the operator. WSR-88D Level I data is the recorded output of the digital receiver. Spatial resolution varies with data type and scan angle – level III data has a resolution of 1 km x 1 degree in azimuth, while super-res level II, (implemented in 2008 nationwide), has a resolution of 250m by 0.5 degrees in azimuth below 2.4 degrees in elevation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=314409 | 693,576 |
653,607 | Myozyme (alglucosidase alfa) is a recombinant form of the human enzyme acid alpha-glucosidase, and is also currently being used to replace the missing enzyme. In a study which included the largest cohort of patients with Pompe disease treated with enzyme replacement therapy (ERT) to date findings showed that Myozyme treatment clearly prolongs ventilator-free survival and overall survival in patients with infantile-onset Pompe disease as compared to an untreated historical control population. Furthermore, the study demonstrated that initiation of ERT prior to 6 months of age, which could be facilitated by newborn screening, shows great promise to reduce the mortality and disability associated with this devastating disorder. Taiwan and several states in the United States have started the newborn screening and results of such regimen in early diagnosis and early initiation of the therapy have dramatically improved the outcome of the disease; many of these babies have reached the normal motor developmental milestones. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1010229 | 653,263 |
122,711 | Russell Barkley proposed a widely known model of executive functioning that is based on self-regulation. Primarily derived from work examining behavioral inhibition, it views executive functions as composed of four main abilities. One element is working memory that allows individuals to resist interfering information. A second component is the management of emotional responses in order to achieve goal-directed behaviors. Thirdly, internalization of self-directed speech is used to control and sustain rule-governed behavior and to generate plans for problem-solving. Lastly, information is analyzed and synthesized into new behavioral responses to meet one's goals. Changing one's behavioral response to meet a new goal or modify an objective is a higher level skill that requires a fusion of executive functions including self-regulation, and accessing prior knowledge and experiences. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3704475 | 122,662 |
708,094 | Systematic studies of anterograde amnesia started to emerge in the 1960s and 1970s. The case of Henry Molaison, formerly known as patient H.M., became a landmark in studies of memory as it relates to amnesia and the removal of the hippocampal zone and sparked massive interest in the study of brain lesions and their effect on memory. After Molaison underwent a bilateral medial temporal lobe resection to alleviate epileptic symptoms the patient began to suffer from memory impairments. Molaison lost the ability to encode and consolidate newly learned information leading researchers to conclude the medial temporal lobe (MTL) was an important structure involved in this process. Molaison also showed signs of retrograde amnesia spanning a period of about 3 years prior to the surgery suggesting that recently acquired memories of as long as a couple years could remain in the MTL prior to consolidation into other brain areas. Research into other patients with resections of the MTL have shown a positive relationship between the degree of memory impairment and the extent of MTL removal which points to a temporal gradient in the consolidating nature of the MTL. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21312297 | 707,725 |
1,876,930 | The application of her work in PCET has elucidated the nature of various chemical mechanisms and led to her temperature dependence model of PCET rates. One such process, Quinol Oxidation, studied the Kinetic isotope effect on Ubiquinol and Plastoquinol with regards to temperature, finding that the free energy of activation is greater for hydrogen than for deuterium, meaning the reaction is slower for hydrogen and therefore irreversible, if specific conditions are satisfied. This finding has since been used by other investigators to reinforce the notion that reactions may or may not be unidirectional by influencing reaction rates with the kinetic isotope effect. Additionally, her study of PCET in Iron Bi-imidazoline complexes has refined common comprehension of PCET, having proven her theory that electron transfer rate increases under the kinetic isotope effect as "the proton transfer distance increases and the electron transfer distance decreases." These mechanisms have helped support the research of other PCET studies, with her main PCET paper, "Theoretical Studies of Proton-Coupled Electron Transfer Reactions", having been cited over 90 times by papers ranging from studying protein motion to enzyme dynamics. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39734872 | 1,875,852 |
1,537,131 | North American and European strains of " Anabaena circinalis " produce anatoxin-a, one of the first cyanobacterial neurotoxins identified. In the late 1950s, research began in earnest following several cattle deaths attributed to contaminated drinking water. Due in part to the relatively short time from ingestion to death, the toxin was ominously coined Very Fast Death Factor (VFDF). Anatoxin-a functions as a postsynaptic nicotinic agonist, binding to acetylcholine receptors at the neuromuscular junctions. However, unlike acetylcholine, anatoxin-a is not degradable by cholinesterase, resulting in a persistent muscle contraction. This disruption presents as coordination loss, paralysis, muscle twitching, shortness of breath, and possibly death. Biological toxicity aside, " Anabaena circinalis " blooms have the potential to disrupt commercial fishing areas, water-treatment facilities, and recreational waterways. Add to this the high cost of toxicity monitoring, and it's apparent that " Anabaena circinalis " can have a detrimental economic impact as well. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10292616 | 1,536,260 |
910,628 | The binding abilities of different soil types have been shown to enhance disease penetrance into a population. Soil containing the common clay mineral montmorillonite (Mte) and kaolinite (Kte) binds more effectively with the prions than soil containing quartz. Enhanced transmissibility of soil-bound prions may explain the environmental spread of scrapie despite low levels shed into the environment. The mechanism by which Mte or other soil components enhances the transmissibility of particle bound prions remains to be clarified. Prion binding to Mte or other soil components may partially protect PrP from denaturation or proteolysis in the digestive tract, allowing more disease agent to be taken up from the gut. Adsorption of PrP soil may alter the aggregation state of the protein, shifting the size distribution toward more infectious prion protein particles, thereby increasing the infectious units. For prion disease to be transmitted via ingestion of prion contaminated soil, prions must also remain infectious by the oral route of exposure. Researchers at the University of Wisconsin investigated the oral infectivity of Mte-bound and soil-bound prions. The effects of prion source (via infected brain homogenate and purified PrP) and dose on penetrance (proportion of animals eventually exhibiting clinical signs of scrapie) and incubation period (time to onset of clinical symptoms) was evaluated. About 38% of animals receiving orally 200 ng of unbound, clarified PrP derived from soil exhibited clinical symptoms, with an incubation period for infected animals of 203 to 633 days. All animals orally dosed with an equivalent amount of Mte-bound PrP manifested disease symptoms in 195 to 637 days. By contrast, animals orally receiving Mte soil alone or one-tenth as much unbound clarified PrP (20 ng) remained asymptomatic throughout the course of the experiment. These data established that Mte-bound prions remain infectious via the oral route of exposure, and that the binding agent Mte increases disease penetrance, enhancing the efficiency of oral transmission. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=221689 | 910,149 |
1,137,713 | HCS instruments on the market today can be separated based on an array of specifications that significantly influence the instruments versatility and overall cost. These include speed, a live cell chamber that includes temperature and control (some also have humidity control for longer term live cell imaging), a built in pipettor or injector for fast kinetic assays, and additional imaging modes such as confocal, bright field, phase contrast and FRET. One of the most incisive difference is whether the instruments are optical confocal or not. Confocal microscopy summarizes as imaging/resolving a thin slice through an object and rejecting out of focus light that comes from outside this slice. Confocal imaging enables higher image signal to noise and higher resolution than the more commonly applied epi-fluorescence microscopy. Depending on the instrument confocality is achieved via laser scanning, a single spinning disk with pinholes or slits, a dual spinning disk, or a virtual slit. There are trade offs of sensitivity, resolution, speed, photo-toxicity, photo-bleaching, instrument complexity, and price between these various confocal techniques. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5824073 | 1,137,120 |
1,031,302 | When evaluating the prognosis of a patient, the main contributing participant factors that influence the extent of neuroplasticity, or the brain's ability to change are: age, lesion location, pre-existing cognitive status, motivation, overall health, and interaction amongst these. After brain damage, initial signs of global aphasia may appear within the first two days due to brain swelling (cerebral edema). With some time and natural recovery, impairment presentation may progress into expressive aphasia (most commonly) or receptive aphasia. Due to the size and location of the lesion associated with global aphasia, the prognosis for language abilities is poor. Research has shown that the prognosis of long-term language abilities is determined by the initial severity level of aphasia within the first four weeks after a stroke. As a result, there is a poor prognosis for persons who retain a diagnosis of aphasia after one month due to limited initial language abilities. Nonetheless, in the first year post-stroke, patients with global aphasia showed improvement in their Western Aphasia Battery (WAB) scores from baseline. When compared to individuals with Broca’s, Wernicke’s, anomic, and conduction types of aphasia, those with Broca’s aphasia showed the best rate and extent of improvement followed by global aphasia. The rate of improvement in language function was highest in the first four weeks after stroke. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=970950 | 1,030,766 |
560,501 | Flight planning requires accurate weather forecasts so that fuel consumption calculations can account for the fuel consumption effects of head or tail winds and air temperature. Safety regulations require aircraft to carry fuel beyond the minimum needed to fly from origin to destination, allowing for unforeseen circumstances or for diversion to another airport if the planned destination becomes unavailable. Furthermore, under the supervision of air traffic control, aircraft flying in controlled airspace must follow predetermined routes known as airways (at least where they have been defined), even if such routes are not as economical as a more direct flight. Within these airways, aircraft must maintain flight levels, specified altitudes usually separated vertically by , depending on the route being flown and the direction of travel. When aircraft with only two engines are flying long distances across oceans, deserts, or other areas with no airports, they have to satisfy additional ETOPS safety rules to ensure they can reach an emergency airport if one engine fails. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2227870 | 560,212 |
1,207,759 | Boerhaave's teaching of his knowledge and philosophy drew many students to the University of Leiden. He emphasised the importance of anatomical research based on practical observation and scientific experiment. His concept of the bodily system took hold throughout Europe, and helped to transform medical education in the European schools. His insights aroused great interest among other critical medical thinkers, not least in Friedrich Hoffmann, who strongly advocated the importance of physico-mechanical principles for the preservation or indeed the restoration of health. As a professor at Leiden, Boerhaave influenced many students. Some in their experiments upheld and furthered his philosophy, while others rejected it and proposed alternative theories of human physiology. He produced a great many textbooks and writings through which the digested brilliance of his lectures at Leiden was circulated widely in Europe. In 1708 his publication of the "Institutiones Medicae" was issued in over five languages, and went into approximately ten editions. His "Elementa Chemia", a world-renowned chemistry textbook, was published in 1732. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3874 | 1,207,113 |
1,635,687 | Beginning in the late 1980s, Felder shifted his career focus from disciplinary engineering research to education, including educational research. With Rebecca Brent, he coauthored "Teaching and Learning STEM: A Practical Guide", a guidebook for instructors of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics courses, and he has authored or coauthored three education-related book chapters and over 120 education related articles and over 100 "Random Thoughts" columns in the quarterly journal "Chemical Engineering Education". His research and publications deal with many aspects of teaching and learning, with his primary emphasis being on student-centered instructional methods including "active learning" (involving students in course-relevant activities during classes rather than relying entirely on lecturing as the medium of instruction) and "cooperative learning" (getting students to complete assignments and projects in teams under conditions that include holding all team members individually accountable for all of the work done). Felder discussed his teaching philosophy in an interview in the "Journal of Science Education" in 2002. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11088950 | 1,634,764 |
1,599,397 | "Aspergillus candidus" is exclusively an asexually reproducing species. It is closely related to the darkly pigmented group of aspergilli that includes "A. niger", and is in the clade of aspergilli that includes the sexually-reproducing genus, "Sterigmatocystis". "A. candidus" forms typical branching, septate hyphae, which produce conidial heads at maturity. Conidiogenesis is favoured in reduced oxygen atmospheres. Optimal growth of "A. candidus" occurs at 25-28 °C at 0.016 atm partial pressure of oxygen. Growth of this species has been reported at temperatures as low as 11-13 °C and as high as 41-42 °C. "A. candidus" is xerophilic, meaning it can grow in low water availability. When grown on stored grains in 15% moisture content, it has the ability to increase the moisture level (up to 18%) and elevate the temperature to as high as 55 °C In the laboratory, ' was observed on media containing substances like p-hydroxy-benzoic aldehyde, lignin sulphonate, and tannin (which contains substances that "A. candidus" uses and degrades). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42062495 | 1,598,497 |
1,402,192 | Basophilia can be detected through a complete blood count (CBC). The root cause of basophilia can be determined through a bone marrow biopsy, genetic testing to look for genetic mutations, or ultrasound to determine enlargement of the spleen. A bone marrow aspirate may be utilized to confirm an increase in basophils or significantly high numbers of precursors to the granulocytes. Since basophilia is present in a vast range of clinical conditions, depending on a variety of underlying causes, supplemental signs and symptoms must be investigated for a diagnosis. If splenomegaly is detected, a myeloproliferative syndrome may be suspected. Intrinsically related symptoms such as fever, malaise, pruritus (itching) due to the release of histamine, fatigue, and right upper quadrant pain may be present in the afflicted patient. With some conditions, such as polycythemia vera, erythromelalgia, or burning of the palms and soles, coupled with thrombocytosis is common. This severe symptomatology may require urgent attention. If basophilia and the aforementioned symptoms are present with concurrent eosinophilia greater than 1500 cells/μL, hypereosinophilic syndrome may be considered. In cases of underlying allergic reactions or adverse sensitivity, skin rashes may be present. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15375808 | 1,401,405 |
1,722,509 | The Scout is controlled with a Tablet PC-based interface. This system differs from the customary method of joystick control in allowing users to operate the vehicle with minimal training. The Scout is piloted by pointing to an area on the map. Height is controlled using a scroll on the touch screen interface. The system operates using custom or commercially available map data in several formats including MrSID. Real-time maps can also be used during flight and the Scout can be flown real-time by the operator or pre-programmed to fly a series of GPS waypoints. The Scout constantly monitors external conditions such as wind speed, as well as internal functions, such as battery level, allowing it to make an automated decisions en route to return home, land immediately or hover and wait. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=26867540 | 1,721,539 |
1,309,924 | As in other Neolithic communities, life at Banpo was synchronized to the agricultural year, which was timed by the movement of the Big Dipper, which functioned as a celestial clock. The "Classic of Poetry" describes this annual cycle. Beginning in spring, adolescents swam through the flood waters at the triangular confluence of two rivers. They emerged shivering, and in this state they were infused with the souls of ancestors buried in the earth who had reemerged at the springs of the Yellow River. In this energized state they procreated in a location deemed to possess magical earth energy. These locations were unsuitable for agriculture, usually a hill, and therefore were uncleared primeval forests. Consecrated procreation was essential to maintaining the cycle of life. When the flood waters receded, the triangle was divided into fields between the families. In autumn there was a large festival at the completion of the harvest. In winter, the men left their homes and retired to the Great Hall, where they were led by the village elders in drinking and singing to repel the cold. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23945936 | 1,309,206 |
1,048,254 | Lorentz's initial theory was created between 1892 and 1895 and was based on a completely motionless aether. It explained the failure of the negative aether drift experiments to first order in "v"/"c" by introducing an auxiliary variable called "local time" for connecting systems at rest and in motion in the aether. In addition, the negative result of the Michelson–Morley experiment led to the introduction of the hypothesis of length contraction in 1892. However, other experiments also produced negative results and (guided by Henri Poincaré's principle of relativity) Lorentz tried in 1899 and 1904 to expand his theory to all orders in "v"/"c" by introducing the Lorentz transformation. In addition, he assumed that also non-electromagnetic forces (if they exist) transform like electric forces. However, Lorentz's expression for charge density and current were incorrect, so his theory did not fully exclude the possibility of detecting the aether. Eventually, it was Henri Poincaré who in 1905 corrected the errors in Lorentz's paper and actually incorporated non-electromagnetic forces (including gravitation) within the theory, which he called "The New Mechanics". Many aspects of Lorentz's theory were incorporated into special relativity (SR) with the works of Albert Einstein and Hermann Minkowski. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2299454 | 1,047,709 |
210,362 | This is often the fuel of choice for reactor designs that NASA produces, one advantage is that UN has a better thermal conductivity than UO. Uranium nitride has a very high melting point. This fuel has the disadvantage that unless N was used (in place of the more common N) that a large amount of C would be generated from the nitrogen by the (n,p) reaction. As the nitrogen required for such a fuel would be so expensive it is likely that the fuel would have to be reprocessed by pyroprocessing to enable the N to be recovered. It is likely that if the fuel was processed and dissolved in nitric acid that the nitrogen enriched with N would be diluted with the common N. Fluoride volatility is a method of reprocessing that does not rely on nitric acid, but it has only been demonstrated in relatively small scale installations whereas the established PUREX process is used commercially for about a third of all spent nuclear fuel (the rest being largely subject to a "once through fuel cycle"). All nitrogen-fluoride compounds are volatile or gaseous at room temperature and could be fractionally distilled from the other gaseous products (including recovered uranium hexafluoride) to recover the initially used nitrogen. If the fuel could be processed in such a way as to ensure low contamination with non-radioactive carbon (not a common fission product and absent in nuclear reactors that don't use it as a moderator) then Fluoride volatility could be used to separate the produced by producing carbon tetrafluoride. is proposed for use in particularly long lived low power nuclear batteries called diamond battery. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2046416 | 210,255 |
366,191 | In his work "Von den Krankeiten" Paracelsus writes: "Thus, the cause of the disease chorea lasciva [Sydenham's chorea, or St. Vitus' Dance] is a mere opinion and idea, assumed by imagination, affecting those who believe in such a thing. This opinion and idea are the origin of the disease both in children and adults. In children the case is also imagination, based not on thinking but on perceiving, because they have heard or seen something. The reason is this: their sight and hearing are so strong that unconsciously they have fantasies about what they have seen or heard." Paracelsus called for the humane treatment of the mentally ill as he saw them not to be possessed by evil spirits, but merely 'brothers' ensnared in a treatable malady." Paracelsus is one of the first physicians to suggest that mental well-being and a moral conscience had a direct effect on physical health. He proposed that the state of a person's psyche could cure and cause disease. Theoretically, a person could maintain good health through sheer will. He also stated that whether or not a person could succeed in their craft depended on their character. For example, if a physician had shrewd and immoral intentions then they would eventually fail in their career because evil could not lead to success. When it came to mental illness, Paracelsus stressed the importance of sleep and sedation as he believed sedation (with sulphur preparations) could catalyse healing and cure mental illness. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=152487 | 365,999 |
2,190,626 | Rose was born in Greasbrough, Rotherham, Yorkshire on 2 January 1911 and was educated at Rotherham Grammar School before matriculating at Jesus College, Oxford in 1929 to study chemistry. He graduated with a BA degree in 1932, and spent a further year in study with Robert Robinson to obtain a post-graduate BSc degree in 1933. A two-year fellowship awarded by the Salters' Company allowed him to continue his research with Robinson in Oxford and to spend a year at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zürich with Leopold Ružička on the structure of abietic acid. In 1935, Rose started work as a research chemist for Imperial Chemical Industries in Blackley, Manchester, where his work included evaluating a new polymer called nylon. During the Second World War, Rose was part of a research group considering the possibilities for new business after the war, although plans to use acetylene as an intermediary for making organic chemicals were not pursued when it became clear that it was uneconomic to do so. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21176658 | 2,189,377 |
189,206 | An early example is the Link Celestial Navigation Trainer, used in the Second World War. Housed in a high building, it featured a cockpit accommodating a whole bomber crew (pilot, navigator, and bombardier). The cockpit offered a full array of instruments which the pilot used to fly the simulated airplane. Fixed to a dome above the cockpit was an arrangement of lights, some collimated, simulating constellations from which the navigator determined the plane's position. The dome's movement simulated the changing positions of the stars with the passage of time and the movement of the plane around the earth. The navigator also received simulated radio signals from various positions on the ground. Below the cockpit moved "terrain plates" – large, movable aerial photographs of the land below – which gave the crew the impression of flight and enabled the bomber to practice lining up bombing targets. A team of operators sat at a control booth on the ground below the machine, from which they could simulate weather conditions such as wind or cloud. This team also tracked the airplane's position by moving a "crab" (a marker) on a paper map. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=143335 | 189,109 |
737,716 | The discovery of the role of DNA in heredity, and observations by Frederick Sanger of variation between animal insulins in 1949, prompted early molecular biologists to study taxonomy from a molecular perspective. Studies in the 1960s used DNA hybridization and protein cross-reactivity techniques to measure similarity between known orthologous proteins, such as hemoglobin and cytochrome c. In 1965, Émile Zuckerkandl and Linus Pauling introduced the concept of the molecular clock, proposing that steady rates of amino acid replacement could be used to estimate the time since two organisms diverged. While initial phylogenies closely matched the fossil record, observations that some genes appeared to evolve at different rates led to the development of theories of molecular evolution. Margaret Dayhoff's 1966 comparison of ferrodoxin sequences showed that natural selection would act to conserve and optimise protein sequences essential to life. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2578582 | 737,326 |
448,421 | The distinction between two approaches has important consequences regarding the relative independence of the OS behavior, from the application process behavior, and the resulting performance. As a rule of thumb, operating system based on a system call interface can be made more efficient than those requiring messages to be exchanged between distinct processes. This is the case, even though the system call must be implemented with a trap instruction; that is, even though the trap is relatively expensive to perform, it is more efficient than the message passing approach, where there are generally higher costs associated with process multiplexing, message formation and message copying. The system call approach has the interesting property that there is not necessarily any OS process. Instead, a process executing in user mode changes to kernel mode when it is executing kernel code, and switches back to user mode when it returns from the OS call. If, on the other hand, the OS is designed as a set of separate processes, it is usually easier to design it so that it gets control of the machine in special situations, than if the kernel is simply a collection of functions executed by users processes in kernel mode. Even procedure-based operating system usually find it necessary to include at least a few system processes (called daemons in UNIX) to handle situation whereby the machine is otherwise idle such as scheduling and handling the network. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15395806 | 448,203 |
1,880,347 | In 1991, Chisholm was asked by the UK Ministry of Defence to organize a number of their research organisations into a single entity, which eventually became the Defence Evaluation and Research Agency (DERA) - the largest science and technology organisation in the UK. In July 2001, three quarters of DERA was spun off to form a new private company called QinetiQ. In late 2005 Chisholm became Executive Chairman of QinetiQ, being replaced as CEO by Graham Love. According to "The Sunday Times" his annual pay was £467,000 in 2004. His £129,000 investment in the company was later worth £23m (a 17,829.5% return on investment, almost 180 times the initial value of the investment, which led to suggestions the company was undervalued). In 2008, the chairman of the House of Commons Public Accounts Committee accused Chisholm of "profiteering at the expense of the taxpayer". In response, Chisholm stated that the criticisms were “grossly unfair”, and that "the reshaping of QinetiQ had been the greatest achievement of my working life”. At that time, his stake was worth just over £21m. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2441079 | 1,879,266 |
2,140,370 | as well as toxicology consultants, timely, peer-reviewed, multidisciplinary articles and incisive reviews on contemporary issue in toxicology, plus safety assessments, novel approaches to toxicological testing, mechanisms of toxicity, biomarkers, and risk assessment. Each of the six annual issues provides an important forum for articles that promote basic toxicology research as well as those that facilitate and improve toxicology practice. The Journal also publishes invited reviews, articles based on symposia, book and media reviews, and editorials. Three supplemental issues each year are devoted to contributions from the Cosmetic Ingredient Review Expert Panel of the Personal Care Products Council (formerly the Cosmetic, Toiletry, and Fragrance Association [CTFA]). Each year, ACT recognizes the authors of one manuscript published in the journal with the ACT President’s Award for Best Paper. The award consists of a cash prize and a citation certificate. The award is announced and presented at the Annual Meeting during the Awards Luncheon Ceremony. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=48010779 | 2,139,140 |
272,738 | In January 1933, the Nazis came to power in Germany and suppressed Jewish scientists. Like many others Leó Szilárd fled to London where in 1934, he patented the idea of a nuclear chain reaction via neutrons. The patent also introduced the term critical mass to describe the minimum amount of material required to sustain the chain reaction and its potential to cause an explosion (British patent 630,726). The patent was not about an atomic bomb "per se", as the possibility of chain reaction was still very speculative. Szilard subsequently assigned the patent to the British Admiralty so that it could be covered by the Official Secrets Act. In a very real sense, Szilard was the father of the atomic bomb academically. The 1934 military secret patent of Szilard was clearly ahead of the time. The neutron inducted nuclear chain reactions and power from that reactions, and the possibility of the nuclear explosion from these reactions, and the rudimentary mechanics of such a power plant was five years before the public discovery of nuclear fission, and 8 years before Szilard and his friend Enrico Fermi demonstrated a working reactor with uranium at the university of Chicago in 1942. When he coined the neutron inducted chain reaction, he was not sure about the usage of the perfect element or isotope yet, despite he mentioned correctly the uranium and thorium too, finally he stressed mistakenly the idea of beryllium. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=242883 | 272,590 |
849,600 | Initial evidence for a chemoautotrophic symbiosis in "R. pachyptila" came from microscopic and biochemical analyses showing Gram-negative bacteria packed within a highly vascularized organ in the tubeworm trunk called the trophosome. Additional analyses involving stable isotope, enzymatic, and physiological characterizations confirmed that the end symbionts of "R. pachyptila" oxidize reduced-sulfur compounds to synthesize ATP for use in autotrophic carbon fixation through the Calvin cycle. The host tubeworm enables the uptake and transport of the substrates required for thioautotrophy, which are HS, O, and CO, receiving back a portion of the organic matter synthesized by the symbiont population. The adult tubeworm, given its inability to feed on particulate matter and its entire dependency on its symbionts for nutrition, the bacterial population is then the primary source of carbon acquisition for the symbiosis. Discovery of bacterial–invertebrate chemoautotrophic symbioses, initially in vestimentiferan tubeworms and then in vesicomyid clams and mytilid mussels, pointed to an even more remarkable source of nutrition sustaining the invertebrates at vents. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=550334 | 849,148 |
732,847 | The types of applications most suited to the selective laser melting process are complex geometries and structures with thin walls and hidden voids or channels on the one hand or low lot sizes on the other hand. Advantage can be gained when producing hybrid forms where solid and partially formed or lattice type geometries can be produced together to create a single object, such as a hip stem or acetabular cup or other orthopedic implant where osseointegration is enhanced by the surface geometry. Much of the pioneering work with selective laser melting technologies is on lightweight parts for aerospace where traditional manufacturing constraints, such as tooling and physical access to surfaces for machining, restrict the design of components. SLM allows parts to be built additively to form near net shape components rather than by removing waste material. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29017963 | 732,460 |
2,151,930 | In addition to the land-grant process, the advent of agricultural research in Alaska contributed significantly to the development of Extension services. Starting at the turn of the century and continuing through 1915, seven federal agriculture experiment stations were established in Alaska. The agriculturalists from the experiment stations established the viability of farm and garden programs in Alaska. Their work was augmented by the addition of Extension agents with funding stemming from the Smith-Lever Act of 1914, fully extended to Alaska in 1929. The Alaska legislature designated the Alaska Agricultural College and School of Mines, which eventually became the University of Alaska, as administrator of the Cooperative Extension Service work that would be provided by experts in agriculture and home economics. Charles E. Bunnell, college president at the time, worked with USDA to organize the fledgling service in June 1930. Lydia Fohn-Hansen was made assistant director for home economics, and George W. Gasser became assistant director for agriculture. Starting in July 1930, the new appointees began working with Alaskans. They helped organize nine 4-H clubs and 12 home economics clubs. Travel was completed by whatever means necessary, which sometimes meant dogsled. Fohn-Hansen was on the road for months at a time as she "toured the state carrying teaching supplies, clothing, bulletins, pressure canner, can sealer, patterns, garden seeds, needles, yarn and probably a loom..." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=36201569 | 2,150,699 |
1,543,999 | Although some of the properties of PfEMP1 were firmly established, the protein was difficult to isolate due to its low occurrence. Five years after its discovery, one of the original researchers Irwin Sherman began to doubt the existence of PfEMP1 as a unique protein. He argued that the antigen could be merely a surface protein of RBCs that changes upon infection with malarial parasites. A consensus was achieved in 1995 following the identification (by cloning) of the gene for PfEMP1. The discovery of the genes was independently reported by Howard's team and two other teams at NIH. Howard's team identified two genes for PfEMP1, and recombinant protein products of these genes were shown to have antigenic and adhesive properties. They further affirmed that PfEMP1 is the key molecule in the ability of "P. falciparum" to evade the host's immune system. Joseph D. Smith and others showed that PfEMP1 is actually a large family of proteins encoded by a multigene family called "var". The gene products can bind to a variety of receptors including those on endothelial cells. Xin-Zhuan Su and others showed that there could be more than 50 "var" genes which are distributed on different chromosomes of the malarial parasite. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=53450372 | 1,543,126 |
789,957 | Following its defeat in World War II, Japan was occupied by America and saw an expanded use of US customary units. Gasoline was sold by the gallon and cloth by the yard. The Diet revisited the nation's measurements and, with the occupation's approval, promulgated a Measurements Law in June 1951 that reaffirmed its intention to continue Japan's metrication, effective on the first day of 1959. An unofficial and "ad hoc" Metric System Promotion Committee was established by interested scholars, public servants, and businessmen in August 1955, undertaking a public awareness campaign and seeking to accomplish as much of the conversion ahead of schedule as possible. Its first success was the conversion of candy sales in Tokyo department stores from the "momme" to the gram in September 1956; others followed, with NHK taking the lead in media use. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2985420 | 789,532 |
1,489,901 | Behavioral theory of depression was outlined by Charles Ferster. A later revision was provided by Peter Lewisohn and Hyman Hops. Hops continued the work on the role of negative reinforcement in maintaining depression with Anthony Biglan. Additional factors such as the role of loss of contingent relations through extinction and punishment were taken from early work of Martin Seligman. The most recent summary and conceptual revisions of the behavioral model was provided by Johnathan Kanter. The standard model is that depression has multiple paths to develop. It can be generated by five basic processes, including: lack or loss of positive reinforcement, direct positive or negative reinforcement for depressive behavior, lack of rule-governed behavior or too much rule-governed behavior, and/or too much environmental punishment. For children, some of these variables could set the pattern for lifelong problems. For example, a child whose depressive behavior functions for negative reinforcement by stopping fighting between parents could develop a lifelong pattern of depressive behavior in the case of conflicts. Two paths that are particularly important are (1) lack or loss of reinforcement because of missing necessary skills at a developmental cusp point or (2) the failure to develop adequate rule-governed behavior. For the latter, the child could develop a pattern of always choosing the short-term small immediate reward (i.e., escaping studying for a test) at the expense of the long-term larger reward (passing courses in middle school). The treatment approach that emerged from this research is called behavioral activation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=16196899 | 1,489,062 |
934,236 | On their rediscovery, at the end the 1990s, phage preparations were logically classified as medicines, i.e. "medicinal products" in the EU or "drugs" in the US. However, the pharmaceutical legislation that had been implemented since their disappearance from Western medicine was mainly designed to cater for industrially-made pharmaceuticals, devoid of any customization and intended for large-scale distribution, and it was not deemed necessary to provide phage-specific requirements or concessions. Today's phage therapy products need to comply with the entire battery of medicinal product licensing requirements: manufacturing according to GMP, preclinical studies, phase I, II and III clinical trials and marketing authorization. Technically, industrially produced predefined phage preparations could make it through the conventional pharmaceutical processes, minding some adaptations. However, phage specificity and resistance issues are likely to cause that these defined preparations will have a relatively short useful lifespan. In addition, it appeared that the pharmaceutical industry, the stakeholder which is foreseen to develop and market industrially-made medicines, is currently not considering phage therapy products. Yet, a handful of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) picked up the gauntlet, with the help of risk capital and/or public funding. The reality today is that decades after the renewed interest in the Western world, not one defined therapeutic phage product has made it to the EU or US markets, despite the fact that clinicians are under increasing pressure to use phages in the emergency treatment of multidrug-resistant bacterial infections. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=682382 | 933,744 |
369,466 | All the geysers observed were located between 50° and 57°S, the part of Triton's surface close to the subsolar point. This indicates that solar heating, although very weak at Triton's great distance from the Sun, plays a crucial role. It is thought that the surface of Triton probably consists of a translucent layer of frozen nitrogen overlying a darker substrate, which creates a kind of "solid greenhouse effect". Solar radiation passes through the thin surface ice sheet, slowly heating and vaporizing subsurface nitrogen until enough gas pressure accumulates for it to erupt through the crust. A temperature increase of just 4 K above the ambient surface temperature of 37 K could drive eruptions to the heights observed. Although commonly termed "cryovolcanic", this nitrogen plume activity is distinct from Triton's larger scale cryovolcanic eruptions, as well as volcanic processes on other worlds, which are powered by internal heat. CO geysers on Mars are thought to erupt from its south polar cap each spring in the same way as Triton's geysers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44371 | 369,273 |
65,718 | In the U.S., William Stanley, Jr. designed one of the first practical devices to transfer AC power efficiently between isolated circuits. Using pairs of coils wound on a common iron core, his design, called an induction coil, was an early transformer. Stanley also worked on engineering and adapting European designs such as the Gaulard and Gibbs transformer for US entrepreneur George Westinghouse who started building AC systems in 1886. The spread of Westinghouse and other AC systems triggered a push back in late 1887 by Thomas Edison (a proponent of direct current) who attempted to discredit alternating current as too dangerous in a public campaign called the "war of the currents". In 1888, alternating current systems gained further viability with introduction of a functional AC motor, something these systems had lacked up till then. The design, an induction motor, was independently invented by Galileo Ferraris and Nikola Tesla (with Tesla's design being licensed by Westinghouse in the US). This design was further developed into the modern practical three-phase form by Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky, Charles Eugene Lancelot Brown, and Jonas Wenström. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42986 | 65,693 |
1,896,956 | In parallel to the work by Witham and Sánchez, a proof of concept machine named the scanning helium microscope (SHeM) was being developed in Cambridge in collaboration with Dastoor's group from the University of Newcastle. The approach that was adopted was to simplify previous attempts that involved an atom mirror by using a pinhole, but to still use a conventional helium source to produce a high quality beam. Other differences from the Witham and Sánchez design include using a larger sample to pinhole distance, so that a larger variety of samples can be used and to use a smaller collection solid angle, so that it may be possible to observe more subtle contrast. These changes also reduced the total flux in the detector meaning that higher efficiency detectors are required (which in itself is an active area of research | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=60944280 | 1,895,872 |
673,163 | The term Ancient North Eurasian (ANE) has been given in genetic literature to an ancestral component that represents descent from the people similar to the Mal'ta–Buret' culture or a population closely related to them. The ANE population is considered to have been "basal to modern day western Eurasians" but not especially related to east Asians, and suggested to have perhaps originally lived in Europe or Western Asia. According to Lazaridis et al. 2014, the common ancestor of ANEs and WHGs (western European hunter-gatherers) separated from eastern Eurasians around 40,000 BC, and ANEs split from WHGs around 22,000 BC (ANE is also described as a lineage "which is deeply related to Paleolithic/Mesolithic hunter-gatherers in Europe..."). Genomic studies by Raghavan et al. (2014) and Fu et al. (2016) suggested that Mal'ta boy may have had brown eyes, and relatively dark hair and dark skin, while cautioning that this analysis was based on an extremely low coverage of DNA, that might not give an accurate prediction of pigmentation. Mathieson, et al. (2018) could not determine if Mal'ta 1 boy had the derived allele associated with blond hair in ANE descendants, as they could obtain no coverage for this SNP. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=24630919 | 672,811 |
942,944 | Eculizumab is controversial due to its high cost, as it is among the most expensive pharmaceuticals in the world, with a price of US$440,000 per person per year. Eculizumab is a humanized monoclonal antibody that acts as a terminal complement inhibitor. The drug interferes with the formation of the membrane attack complex in erythrocytes by binding to C5, compensating for the loss of protective function that results from CD59 deficiency. This alleviates the primary source of intravascular hemolysis, but it does not reduce the opsonization of erythrocytes caused by CD55 deficiency, so patients who receive this medication often still experience mild to moderate hemolysis. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has issued a black-box warning as those who take the medication have a 1,000 to 2,000-fold greater risk of invasive meningococcal disease. People on eculizumab are strongly advised to receive meningococcal vaccination at least two weeks prior to starting therapy and to consider preventative antibiotics for the duration of treatment. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=513180 | 942,442 |
513,680 | Air pollution is caused by many things. In urban environments, it can contain many components, notably solid and liquid particulates (such as soot from engines and fly ash escaping from incinerators), and numerous different gases (most commonly sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and carbon monoxide, all related to fuel combustion). These different forms of pollution have different effects on people's health, on the natural world (water, soil, crops, trees, and other vegetation), and on the built environment. Measuring air pollution is the first step in identifying its causes and then reducing or regulating them to keep the quality of the air inside legal limits (mandated by regulators such as the Environmental Protection Agency in the United States) or advisory guidelines suggested by bodies such as the World Health Organization (WHO). According to the WHO, over 6000 cities in 117 countries now routinely monitor the quality of their air. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=46840722 | 513,414 |
780,070 | Copernicium should be a dense metal, with a density of 14.0 g/cm in the liquid state at 300 K; this is similar to the known density of mercury, which is 13.534 g/cm. (Solid copernicium at the same temperature should have a higher density of 14.7 g/cm.) This results from the effects of copernicium's higher atomic weight being cancelled out by its larger interatomic distances compared to mercury. Some calculations predicted copernicium to be a gas at room temperature due to its closed-shell electron configuration, which would make it the first gaseous metal in the periodic table. A 2019 calculation agrees with these predictions on the role of relativistic effects, suggesting that copernicium will be a volatile liquid bound by dispersion forces under standard conditions. Its melting point is estimated at and its boiling point at , the latter in agreement with the experimentally estimated value of . The atomic radius of copernicium is expected to be around 147 pm. Due to the relativistic stabilization of the 7s orbital and destabilization of the 6d orbital, the Cn and Cn ions are predicted to give up 6d electrons instead of 7s electrons, which is the opposite of the behavior of its lighter homologues. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=67958 | 779,653 |
1,177,109 | OSeMOSYS has been used to construct wide-area electricity models for Africa, comprising 45countries and South America, comprising 13countries. It has also been used to support United Nations' regional climate, land, energy, and water strategies (CLEWS) for the Sava river basin, central Europe, the Syr Darya river basin, eastern Europe, and Mauritius. Models have previously been built for the Baltic States, Bolivia, Nicaragua, Sweden, and Tanzania. A2021 paper summarizes recent applications and also details various versions, forks, and local enhancements related to the OSeMOSYS codebase. Anelectricity sector analysis for Bangladesh completed in2021 concluded that solar power is economically competitive under every investigated scenario. A2022 study looked at the effects of a changing climate on the Ethiopian power system. OSeMOSYS has also been applied variously in Zimbabwe and Ecuador. Another 2022 study examined water usage, split by withdraws and consumption, for several low carbon energy strategies for Africa. Another study that year examined renewable energy in Egypt. And another the Dominican Republic. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38803848 | 1,176,486 |
47,903 | Under the direction of Malcolm Stitch, the Hughes Aircraft Company introduced the first lidar-like system in 1961, shortly after the invention of the laser. Intended for satellite tracking, this system combined laser-focused imaging with the ability to calculate distances by measuring the time for a signal to return using appropriate sensors and data acquisition electronics. It was originally called "Colidar" an acronym for "coherent light detecting and ranging," derived from the term "radar", itself an acronym for "radio detection and ranging". All laser rangefinders, laser altimeters and lidar units are derived from the early colidar systems. The first practical terrestrial application of a colidar system was the "Colidar Mark II", a large rifle-like laser rangefinder produced in 1963 which had a range of 7 miles and an accuracy of 15 feet, to be used for military targeting. The first mention of lidar as a stand-alone word in 1963 suggests it originated as a portmanteau of "light" and "radar": "Eventually the laser may provide an extremely sensitive detector of particular wavelengths from distant objects. Meanwhile, it is being used to study the moon by 'lidar' (light radar) ..." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41958 | 47,883 |
1,964,413 | As an integral part of its mission, the School of Dentistry has developed a significant work in research at all levels. The generation of new knowledge is critical because it results in improved oral health and general health of the population. Research Center, School of Dentistry has led efforts to address inequalities in oral health in Puerto Rico, and other Hispanic communities in the United States in aspects of oral cancer, dental caries and periodontal disease. The latter by their particular relationship with cardiovascular disease, diabetes, pregnant women and their relationship to low birth weight and prematurity. The Research Center has been diligent in seeking funds to support research and has received an endowment fund of $15 million and has signed cooperation agreements with prestigious universities such as, for example, NYU, Columbia University, Seattle University, University of Minnesota, University of Michigan and Indiana University. Concurrently, has made efforts to develop future researchers to coordinate research experiences during the summers at various universities and research intensive, like the National Institutes of Health. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22281259 | 1,963,285 |
1,737,789 | In the 2020–21 season, Atalanta was drawn into Champions League Group D with English champion Liverpool, Dutch champion Ajax, and Danish champion Midtjylland; the stadium in Bergamo also passed inspection from UEFA, permitting it to host Champions League matches. Atalanta defeated Midtjylland and drew against Ajax, but then succumbed to a 5–0 home defeat against Liverpool. Despite this setback, Atalanta won the reverse fixture at Anfield 2–0. Following a 1–1 home draw against Midtjylland—a match rumored to have catalyzed the mid-season departure of captain Alejandro (Papu) Gómez from the club—Atalanta secured qualification to the knockout phase with a 1–0 away win against Ajax. However, the club was eliminated in the round of 16 by Spanish club Real Madrid, losing 4–1 on aggregate. On 15 May 2021, Atalanta secured qualification to its third consecutive Champions League with a 4–3 victory against Genoa. The club also reached the Coppa Italia final for the second time in three years after defeating Cagliari (3–1), Lazio (3–2), and Napoli (3–1 over two legs), though lost the final against Juventus 2–1 amid controversy. The club finished the season in third place, matching its record of 78 points from the previous season. As a result of Atalanta's performances, a total of 12 players were summoned to their national teams for UEFA Euro 2020 and the 2021 Copa América. Five different Atalanta players contributed a total of seven goals at Euro 2020, the joint-most different goalscorers from one club in any edition of the tournament. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66131596 | 1,736,812 |
1,914,603 | Part I of the book has been said to give a "state-of-the-art introduction to the principles of dynamics as they were understood in the first years of the twentieth century". The first chapter, on kinematic preliminaries, discusses the mathematical formalism required for describing the motion of rigid bodies. The second chapter begins the advanced study of mechanics, with topics beginning with relatively simple concepts such as motion and rest, frame of reference, mass, force, and work before discussing kinetic energy, introducing Lagrangian mechanics, and discussing impulsive motions. Chapter three discusses the integration of equations of motion at length, the conservation of energy and its role in reducing degrees of freedom, and separation of variables. Chapters one through three focus only on systems of point masses. The first concrete examples of dynamic systems, including the pendulum, central forces, and motion on a surface, are introduced in chapter four, where the methods of the previous chapters are employed in solving problems. Chapter five introduces the moment of inertia and angular momentum to prepare for the study of the dynamics of rigid bodies. Chapter six focuses on the solutions of problems in rigid body dynamics, with exercises including "motion of a rod on which an insect is crawling" and the motion of a spinning top. Chapter seven covers the theory of vibrations, a standard component of mechanics textbooks. Chapter eight introduces dissipative and nonholonomic systems, up to which point all the systems discussed were holonomic and conservative. Chapter nine discusses action principles, such as the principle of least action and the principle of least curvature. Chapters ten through twelve, the final three chapters of part one, discuss Hamiltonian dynamics at length. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=65496619 | 1,913,504 |
721,708 | Radiotherapy is a valid first option for "MALT lymphoma". It provides local control and potential cure in localized gastric stage IE and II 1E disease with 5-year EFS of 85-100% reported in retrospective studies. However, the irradiation field is potentially large as it must include the whole stomach, which can vary greatly in size and shape. Irradiation techniques have improved considerably in the last 20 years, including treating the patient in a fasting state, decreasing the irradiated field and required dose. The moderate dose of 30 Gray (Gy) of involved-field radiotherapy administered in 15 fractions (doses) can be associated with tolerable toxicity and excellent outcomes. Hence, radiotherapy is the preferred approach for local disease where antibiotic therapy has failed, or is not indicated. Evidence also suggests that radiotherapy can be utilized to control localized relapses outside the original radiation field. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3394594 | 721,328 |
1,026,854 | Amy was married the same year (1885) to Dr. Henry Harris Aubrey Beach (1843–1910)), a Boston surgeon twenty-four years her senior (she was eighteen at the time). Her name would subsequently be listed on concert programs and published compositions as "Mrs. H. H. A. Beach." The marriage was conditioned upon her willingness "to live according to his status, that is, function as a society matron and patron of the arts. She agreed never to teach piano, an activity widely associated with women" and regarded as providing "pin money." She further agreed to limit performances to two public recitals per year, with profits donated to charity, and to devote herself more to composition than to performance (although, as she wrote, "I thought I was a pianist first and foremost.") Her self-guided education in composition was also necessitated by Dr. Beach, who disapproved of his wife studying with a tutor. Restrictions like these were typical for middle- and upper-class women of the time: as it was explained to a European counterpart, Fanny Mendelssohn, "Music will perhaps become his [Fanny's brother Felix Mendelssohn's] profession, while for "you" it can and must be only an ornament.". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=410203 | 1,026,320 |
164,697 | In a number of enzymes, the moiety that acts as a cofactor is formed by post-translational modification of a part of the protein sequence. This often replaces the need for an external binding factor, such as a metal ion, for protein function. Potential modifications could be oxidation of aromatic residues, binding between residues, cleavage or ring-forming. These alterations are distinct from other post-translation protein modifications, such as phosphorylation, methylation, or glycosylation in that the amino acids typically acquire new functions. This increases the functionality of the protein; unmodified amino acids are typically limited to acid-base reactions, and the alteration of resides can give the protein electrophilic sites or the ability to stabilize free radicals. Examples of cofactor production include tryptophan tryptophylquinone (TTQ), derived from two tryptophan side chains, and 4-methylidene-imidazole-5-one (MIO), derived from an Ala-Ser-Gly motif. Characterization of protein-derived cofactors is conducted using X-ray crystallography and mass spectroscopy; structural data is necessary because sequencing does not readily identify the altered sites. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=543048 | 164,612 |
413,489 | Massive volcanic eruptions, specifically the flood basalts of the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province (CAMP), would release carbon dioxide or sulfur dioxide and aerosols, which would cause either intense global warming (from the former) or cooling (from the latter). It is estimated that a single volcanic pulse from the large igneous province would have emitted an amount of carbon dioxide roughly equivalent to projected anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions for the 21st century. The catastrophic dissociation of gas hydrates (suggested as one possible cause of the largest mass extinction of all time, the so-called "Great Dying" at the end of the Permian period) may have exacerbated greenhouse conditions. In addition, the flood basalts intruded through sediments rich in volatiles and organics, which led to their degassing that further enhanced volcanic warming of the climate. Besides the carbon dioxide-driven long-term global warming, CAMP volcanism had shorter term cooling effects resulting from sulphur dioxide emissions. A 2022 study shows that high latitudes had colder climates with evidence of mild glaciation. The authors propose that cold periods ("ice ages") induced by volcanic ejecta clouding the atmosphere might have favoured endothermic animals, with dinosaurs, pterosaurs, and mammals being more capable at enduring these conditions than large pseudosuchians due to insulation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31188 | 413,287 |
638,069 | In 1970, Günter Blobel conducted experiments on protein translocation across membranes. Blobel, then an assistant professor at Rockefeller University, built upon the work of his colleague George Palade. Palade had previously demonstrated that non-secreted proteins were translated by free ribosomes in the cytosol, while secreted proteins (and target proteins, in general) were translated by ribosomes bound to the endoplasmic reticulum. Candidate explanations at the time postulated a processing difference between free and ER-bound ribosomes, but Blobel hypothesized that protein targeting relied on characteristics inherent to the proteins, rather than a difference in ribosomes. Supporting his hypothesis, Blobel discovered that many proteins have a short amino acid sequence at one end that functions like a postal code specifying an intracellular or extracellular destination. He described these short sequences (generally 13 to 36 amino acids residues) as signal peptides or signal sequences and was awarded the 1999 Nobel prize in Physiology for the same. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=24834 | 637,730 |
79,243 | Organic small-molecule electroluminescent materials have the advantages of a wide variety, easy to purify, and strong chemical modifications. In order to make the luminescent materials to emit light as required, some chromophores or unsaturated groups such as alkene bonds and benzene rings will usually be introduced in the molecular structure design to change the size of the conjugation range of the material, so that the photophysical properties of the material changes. In general, the larger the range of π-electron conjugation system, the longer the wavelength of light emitted by the material. For instance, with the increase of the number of benzene rings, the fluorescence emission peak of benzene, naphthalene, anthracene, and butyl gradually red-shifted from 283 nm to 480 nm. Common organic small molecule electroluminescent materials include aluminum complexes, anthracenes, biphenyl acetylene aryl derivatives, coumarin derivatives, and various fluorochromes. Efficient OLEDs using small molecules were first developed by Ching W. Tang "et al." at Eastman Kodak. The term OLED traditionally refers specifically to this type of device, though the term SM-OLED is also in use. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=191646 | 79,210 |
61,941 | The earliest felids are known from the Oligocene of Europe, such as "Proailurus", and the earliest one with saber-tooth features is the Miocene genus "Pseudaelurus". The skull and mandible morphology of the earliest saber-toothed cats was similar to that of the modern clouded leopards ("Neofelis"). The lineage further adapted to the precision killing of large animals by developing elongated canine teeth and wider gapes, in the process sacrificing high bite force. As their canines became longer, the bodies of the cats became more robust for immobilizing prey. In derived smilodontins and homotherins, the lumbar region of the spine and the tail became shortened, as did the hind limbs. Based on mitochondrial DNA sequences extracted from fossils, the lineages of "Homotherium" and "Smilodon" are estimated to have diverged about 18 Ma ago. The earliest species of "Smilodon" is "S. gracilis", which existed from 2.5 million to 500,000 years ago (early Blancan to Irvingtonian ages) and was the successor in North America of "Megantereon", from which it probably evolved. "Megantereon" itself had entered North America from Eurasia during the Pliocene, along with "Homotherium". "S. gracilis" reached the northern regions of South America in the Early Pleistocene as part of the Great American Interchange. "S. fatalis" existed 1.6 million–10,000 years ago (late Irvingtonian to Rancholabrean ages), and replaced "S. gracilis" in North America. "S. populator" existed 1 million–10,000 years ago (Ensenadan to Lujanian ages); it occurred in the eastern parts of South America. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=169071 | 61,916 |
2,188,619 | The CHIMERE model is under continuous development and a new version of the code is made available to users about once a year. If the regional modeling of gaseous species is relatively well represented at this point, there are still great uncertainties in the simulation of aerosols. Aerosols have different origins (anthropogenic and urban, fire combustion aerosols, or mineral aerosols) and different lifetimes, making modeling them correctly complex. Current research is revolving around impact of air quality on health, including design of models that can compute the exposure of the population to different pollutants but also to around the consideration of new species to monitor (such as pollen, which are highly allergenic). The latest version of the model includes so-called "on-line" effects. Until recently, this type of model was always in "off-line" mode; i.e. the meteorology was pre-calculated and then used to calculate the chemistry and transport of pollutants. In the latest v2020 version, feedback between meteorology and atmospheric chemistry have been implemented, making it possible to calculate the radiative impact of aerosols (direct effects) and cloud formation (indirect effects) more realistically. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=71754236 | 2,187,370 |
293,481 | Centimetric radar, made possible by the cavity magnetron, allowed for the detection of much smaller objects and the use of much smaller antennas. The combination of small-cavity magnetrons, small antennas, and high resolution allowed small, high quality radars to be installed in aircraft. They could be used by maritime patrol aircraft to detect objects as small as a submarine periscope, which allowed aircraft to attack and destroy submerged submarines which had previously been undetectable from the air. Centimetric contour mapping radars like H2S improved the accuracy of Allied bombers used in the strategic bombing campaign, despite the existence of the German FuG 350 "Naxos" device to specifically detect it. Centimetric gun-laying radars were likewise far more accurate than the older technology. They made the big-gunned Allied battleships more deadly and, along with the newly developed proximity fuze, made anti-aircraft guns much more dangerous to attacking aircraft. The two coupled together and used by anti-aircraft batteries, placed along the flight path of German V-1 flying bombs on their way to London, are credited with destroying many of the flying bombs before they reached their target. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20861 | 293,323 |
1,353,407 | Primarily, thalamocortical somatosensory radiation from the VPL, VPM and LP nuclei extends to the primary and secondary somatosensory areas, terminating in cortical layers of the lateral postcentral gyrus. S1 receives parallel thalamocortical radiations from the posterior medial nucleus and the VPN. Projections from the VPN to the postcentral gyrus account for the transfer of sensory information concerning touch and pain. Several studies indicate that parallel innervations to S1 and also S2 via thalamocortical pathways result in the processing of nociceptive and non-nociceptive information. Non-specific projections to sensori-motor areas of the cortex may in part have to do with the relationship between non-noci-receptive processing and motor functions. Past research shows a link between S1 and M1, creating a thalamocortical sensori-motor circuit. When this circuit becomes disrupted symptoms are produced similar to those that accompany Multiple sclerosis, suggesting thalamocortical rhythms are involved in regulating sensori-motor pathways in a highly specialized manner. TC-CT rhythms evident during sleep act to inhibit these thalamocortical fibers so as to maintain the tonic cycling of low frequency waves and the subsequent suppression of motor activity. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2483527 | 1,352,660 |
801,271 | Despite the initial lukewarm reception when first released, 3D XPoint – particularly in the form of Intel's Optane range – has been highly acclaimed and widely recommended for tasks where its specific features are of value, with reviewers such as "Storage Review" concluding in August 2018 that for low-latency workloads, 3D XPoint was producing 500,000 4K sustained IOPS for both reads and writes, with 3–15 microsecond latencies, and that at present "there is currently nothing [else] that comes close", while Tom's Hardware described the Optane 900p in December 2017 as being like a "mythical creature" that must be seen to be believed, and which doubled the speed of the best previous consumer devices. ServeTheHome concluded in 2017 that in read, write and mixed tests, Optane SSDs were consistently around 2.5× as fast as the best Intel datacentre SSDs which had preceded them, the P3700 NVMe. AnandTech noted that consumer Optane-based SSDs were similar in performance to the best non-3D-XPoint SSDs for large transfers, with both being "blown away" by the large transfer performance of enterprise Optane SSDs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=47371808 | 800,843 |
448,454 | Zeise's salt was one of the first organometallic compounds to be reported. It was discovered by William Christopher Zeise, a professor at the University of Copenhagen, who prepared this compound in 1830 while investigating the reaction of PtCl with boiling ethanol. Following careful analysis he proposed that the resulting compound contained ethylene. Justus von Liebig, a highly influential chemist of that era, often criticised Zeise's proposal, but Zeise's proposal was decisively supported in 1868 when Birnbaum prepared the complex using ethylene. Zeise's salt received a great deal of attention during the second half of the 19th century because chemists could not explain its molecular structure. This question remained unanswered until the determination of its X-ray crystal structure in the 20th century. Zeise's salt stimulated much scientific research in the field of organometallic chemistry and would be key in defining new concepts in chemistry. The Dewar–Chatt–Duncanson model explains how the metal is coordinated to the C=C double bond. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5244393 | 448,236 |
1,049,325 | The role of incentives and consequences in decision-making is interesting to behavioral game theorists because it affects rational behavior. Post (2008) analyzed Deal or no Deal contestant behavior in order to reach conclusions about decision-making when stakes are high. Studying the contestant's choices formed the conclusion that in a sequential game with high stakes decisions were based on previous outcomes rather than rationality. Players who face a succession of good outcomes, in this case they eliminate the low-value cases from play, or players who face a succession of poor outcomes become less risk averse. This means that players who are having exceptionally good or exceptionally bad outcomes are more likely to gamble and continue playing than average players. The lucky or unlucky players were willing to reject offers of over one hundred percent of the expected value of their case in order to continue playing. This shows a shift from risk avoiding behavior to risk seeking behavior. This study highlights behavioral biases that are not accounted for by traditional game theory. Riskier behavior in unlucky contestants can be attributed to the break-even effect, which states that gamblers will continue to make risky decisions in order to win back money. On the other hand, riskier behavior in lucky contestants can be explained by the house-money effect, which states that winning gamblers are more likely to make risky decisions because they perceive that they are not gambling with their own money. This analysis shows that incentives influence rational choice, especially when players make a series of decisions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=45222866 | 1,048,779 |
1,726,445 | Phylogenetic comparative methods (inferences drawn through comparison of related taxa) are often used to identify biological characteristics that do not evolve independently, which can reveal an underlying dependence. For example, the evolution of the shape of a finch's beak may be associated with its foraging behaviour. However, it is not advisable to search for these associations by the direct comparison of measurements or genetic sequences because these observations are not independent because of their descent from common ancestors. For discrete characters, this problem was first addressed in the framework of maximum parsimony by evaluating whether two characters tended to undergo a change on the same branches of the tree. Felsenstein identified this problem for continuous character evolution and proposed a solution similar to ancestral reconstruction, in which the phylogenetic structure of the data was accommodated statistically by directing the analysis through computation of "independent contrasts" between nodes of the tree related by non-overlapping branches. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6383817 | 1,725,474 |
1,540,697 | In his work, Stanhope Smith expressed progressive views on marriage and egalitarian ideas about race and slavery. The second edition of his "Essay on the Causes of Variety of Complexion and Figure in the Human Species" (1810) became important as a powerful argument against the increasing racism of 19th-century ethnology. He opposed the racial classifications of naturalists such as Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, and Carl Linnaeus. In this text, his attempt to explain the variety of physical appearances among humans involved a strongly environmental outlook. An example he provides involves "the blacks in the southern states." Smith noted that field slaves had darker skin pigmentation and other "African" features than did domestic slaves, and claimed that exposure to white, European culture through their "civilized" masters had changed their anatomy as well. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5046870 | 1,539,824 |
173,450 | Even though half-lives of hundreds or thousands of years would be relatively long for superheavy elements, they are far too short for any such nuclides to exist primordially on Earth. Additionally, instability of nuclei intermediate between primordial actinides (Th, U, and U) and the island of stability may inhibit production of nuclei within the island in "r"-process nucleosynthesis. Various models suggest that spontaneous fission will be the dominant decay mode of nuclei with "A" > 280, and that neutron-induced or beta-delayed fission—respectively neutron capture and beta decay immediately followed by fission—will become the primary reaction channels. As a result, beta decay towards the island of stability may only occur within a very narrow path or may be entirely blocked by fission, thus precluding the synthesis of nuclides within the island. The non-observation of superheavy nuclides such as Hs and Fl in nature is thought to be a consequence of a low yield in the "r"-process resulting from this mechanism, as well as half-lives too short to allow measurable quantities to persist in nature. Various studies utilizing accelerator mass spectroscopy and crystal scintillators have reported upper limits of the natural abundance of such long-lived superheavy nuclei on the order of relative to their stable homologs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66394 | 173,359 |
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