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1,384,232 | There is an ongoing debate about how to judge the results of these methods, as Biclustering allows overlap between clusters and some algorithms allow the exclusion of hard-to-reconcile columns/conditions. Not all of the available algorithms are deterministic and the analyst must pay attention to the degree to which results represent stable minima. Because this is an unsupervised classification problem, the lack of a gold standard makes it difficult to spot errors in the results. One approach is to utilize multiple Biclustering algorithms, with the majority or super-majority voting amongst them to decide the best result. Another way is to analyze the quality of shifting and scaling patterns in Biclusters. Biclustering has been used in the domain of text mining (or classification) which is popularly known as co-clustering. Text corpora are represented in a vectoral form as a matrix D whose rows denote the documents and whose columns denote the words in the dictionary. Matrix elements D denote occurrence of word j in document i. Co-clustering algorithms are then applied to discover blocks in D that correspond to a group of documents (rows) characterized by a group of words(columns). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1810201 | 1,383,465 |
1,408,415 | New Zealand is quite unique as it uses sustainable management within legislation, with a high level of importance placed on to the coastal environment. The Resource Management Act (RMA) (1991) promoted sustainable development and mandated the preparation of a New Zealand Coastal Policy Statement (NZCPS), a national framework for coastal planning. It is the only national policy statement that was mandatory. All subsequent planning must not be inconsistent with the NZCPS, making it a very important document. Regional authorities are required to produce Regional coastal policy plans under the RMA (1991) but strangely enough, they only need to include the marine environment seaward of the mean high water mark. But many regional councils have chosen to integrate the ‘dry’ landward area within their plans, breaking down the artificial barriers. This attempt at ICZM is still in its early days running into many legislative hurdles and is yet to achieve a fully ecosystems-based approach. But as part of ICZM, evaluation and adoption of changes is important and ongoing changes to the NZCPS in the form of reviews is currently happening. This will provide an excellent stepping stone for future initiatives and the development of a fully integrated form of coastal management. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3607137 | 1,407,624 |
270,666 | As long as photographic materials were usefully sensitive only to blue-green, blue, violet and ultraviolet, three-color photography could never be practical. In 1873 German chemist Hermann Wilhelm Vogel discovered that the addition of small amounts of certain aniline dyes to a photographic emulsion could add sensitivity to colors which the dyes absorbed. He identified dyes which variously sensitized for all the previously ineffective colors except true red, to which only a marginal trace of sensitivity could be added. In the following year, Edmond Becquerel discovered that chlorophyll was a good sensitizer for red. Although it would be many more years before these sensitizers (and better ones developed later) found much use beyond scientific applications such as spectrography, they were quickly and eagerly adopted by Louis Ducos du Hauron, Charles Cros and other color photography pioneers. Exposure times for the "problem" colors could now be reduced from hours to minutes. As ever-more-sensitive gelatin emulsions replaced the old wet and dry collodion processes, the minutes became seconds. New sensitizing dyes introduced early in the 20th century eventually made so-called "instantaneous" color exposures possible. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=444758 | 270,519 |
911,452 | Shortly after the release of the Warrior, the SWORDS robot was designed and deployed. It is a Talon robot with an attached weapon system. SWORDS is capable of mounting any weapon weighing less than 300 pounds. In a matter of seconds, the user can fit weapons such as a grenade launcher, rocket launcher, or 0.50 inch (12.7 mm) machine gun. Moreover, the SWORDS can use their weapons with extreme precision, hitting the bull's-eye of a target 70/70 times. These robots are capable of withstanding a lot of damage, including multiple 0.50 inch bullets, or a fall from a helicopter onto concrete. In addition, the SWORDS robot is even capable of making its way through virtually any terrain, including underwater. In 2004, only four SWORDS units were in existence although 18 were requested for service overseas. It was named as one of the world's most amazing inventions by "Time Magazine" in 2004. The US Army deployed three to Iraq in 2007 but then cancelled support of the project. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2253116 | 910,973 |
745,476 | During the 1980s, SAS was one of Inc. Magazine's fastest growing companies in America from 1979 and 1985. It grew more than ten percent per year from $10 million in revenues in 1980 to $1.1 billion by 2000. In 2007, SAS revenue was $2.15 billion, and in 2013 its revenue was $3.02 billion. By the late 1990s, SAS was the largest privately held software company. The Associated Press reported that analysts attributed the growth to aggressive R&D spending. It had the highest ratio of its revenues spent on R&D in the industry for eight years, setting a record of 34 percent of its revenues in 1993, as it was working on a new menu-based interface. The company began its relationship with Microsoft and development for Windows operating systems in 1989. Shortly afterwards it established partnerships with database companies like Oracle, Sybase and Informix. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=194872 | 745,082 |
613,228 | The next stage of muon − 2 research was conducted at the Brookhaven National Laboratory Alternating Gradient Synchrotron. The experiment was done similarly to the last of the CERN experiments with the goal of having 20 times better precision. The technique involved storing 3.094 GeV muons in a uniform measured magnetic field and observing the difference of the muon spin precession and rotation frequency via detection of the muon decay electrons. The advance in precision relied crucially on a much more intense beam than was available at CERN and the injection of muons into the storage ring, whereas the previous CERN experiments had injected pions into the storage ring, of which only a small fraction decay into muons that are stored. The experiment used a much more uniform magnetic field using a superferric superconducting storage ring magnet, a passive superconducting inflector magnet, fast muon kickers to deflect the injected muons onto stored orbits, a beam tube NMR trolley that could map the magnetic field in the storage region, and numerous other experimental advances. The experiment took data with positive and negative muons between 1997 and 2001. Its final result is obtained by combination of consistent results with similar precision from positive and negative muons. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=53887100 | 612,917 |
916,619 | General George Washington (1732–1799) proved an excellent organizer and administrator, who worked successfully with the Continental Congress and the state governors, selecting and mentoring his senior officers, supporting and training his troops, and maintaining an idealistic Republican Army. His biggest challenge was logistics, since neither Congress nor the states had the funding to provide adequately for the equipment, munitions, clothing, paychecks, or even the food supply of the soldiers. As a battlefield tactician Washington was often outmaneuvered by his British counterparts. As a strategist, however, he had a better idea of how to win the war than they did. The British sent four invasion armies. Washington's strategy forced the first army out of Boston in 1776, and was responsible for the surrender of the second and third armies at Saratoga (1777) and Yorktown (1781). He limited the British control to New York and a few places while keeping Patriot control of the great majority of the population. The Loyalists, on whom the British had relied too heavily, comprised about 20% of the population but were never well organized. As the war ended, Washington watched proudly as the final British army quietly sailed out of New York City in November 1783, taking the Loyalist leadership with them. Washington astonished the world when, instead of seizing power, he retired quietly to his farm in Virginia. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=161323 | 916,136 |
1,488,247 | The submarine uses composite technology to create a lightweight sub with great depth capabilities. The viewdome is made from quartz, while the rest of the pressure hull uses carbon/epoxy composites. The interface between dome and hull is by bonded titanium rings. The sub has a 24hour endurance, 3kt bottom speed, and 350 ft/min dive rate. Without ballast attached, the sub is positively buoyant, it uses syntactic foam for buoyancy. The submarine does not have a temperature control system for the cabin, so will tend towards ambient temperature. The sub weighs 8000 lbs, and does not need a dedicated mothership. It has a 15 mi range, 6kt maximum speed, and 3-axis freedom of motion. It uses LED lighting instead of arc lights, and has a laser navigation system. The sub can dive to the bottom of the ocean and get back to the surface in 5 hours. The design draw from DeepFlight II, another Hawkes Ocean Technologies full depth submarine. The pressure hull is rated to withstand 20,000PSI (more than the 16,000PSI at the bottom of the Mariana Trench). The sub is smaller than James Cameron's Deepsea Challenger. Challenger represents the third generation of DeepFlight technology, one generation behind the DeepFlight Super Falcon. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=35258869 | 1,487,408 |
71,222 | Loaded with more aerodynamic very-low-drag bullets such as the traditionally lead-cored 19.44 g (300 gr) Lapua Scenar GB528 VLD bullet (G1 BC = 0.736) or the Lost River Ballistics J40 .338 17.5 gram (270 gr) CNC manufactured mono-metal bullet (G1 BC = 0.871) the long-range performance and supersonic range of .338 Lapua Magnum rifles can be improved. These longer very-low-drag bullets require a 254 mm (1 in 10 inch) twist rate to stabilize them. Due to the lower practically possible muzzle velocities for a relative heavy bullet like the 19.44 g (300 gr) Lapua Scenar GB528 VLD bullet it gains about extra supersonic range under International Standard Atmosphere sea level conditions (air density ρ = 1.225 kg/m) at a muzzle velocity of 837 m/s (2750 ft/s) when compared to the standard 16.2 g (250 gr) Lapua Scenar GB488 VLD at a muzzle velocity of 915 m/s (3002 ft/s). For significant supersonic range improvement, the aerodynamic efficiency of the employed bullets has to be significantly improved without sacrificing a lot of practically achievable muzzle velocity - meaning that besides the coefficient of drag of the projectile weight is also an important parameter for its actual downrange flight behavior. The .338 17.5 gram (270 gr) Lost River Ballistic Technologies J40 match bullet made out of a copper-nickel alloy is one of the most aerodynamic .338 calibre bullets available. It has an supersonic range under optimal warm summer conditions at a muzzle velocity of . This makes engaging static targets up to feasible. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=689792 | 71,195 |
512,699 | Since 2005, annual International Hydrail Conferences have been held. Organised by Appalachian State University and the Mooresville South Iredell Chamber of Commerce in conjunction with universities and other entities, the Conferences have the aim of bringing together scientists, engineers, business leaders, industrial experts, and operators working or using the technology around the world in order to expedite deployment of the technology for environmental, climate, energy security and economic development reasons. Presenters at these conferences have included national and state/provincial agencies from the US, Austria, Canada, China, Denmark, the EU, Germany, France, Italy, Japan, Korea, Russia, Turkey, the United Kingdom and the United Nations (UNIDO-ICHET). In its early years, these conferences were largely dominated by academic fields; however, by 2013, an increasing number of businesses and industrial figures have reportedly been in attendance. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18511733 | 512,433 |
475,721 | In 1974 Beatrice Mintz and Rudolf Jaenisch created the first genetically modified animal by inserting a DNA virus into an early-stage mouse embryo and showing that the inserted genes were present in every cell. However, the mice did not pass the transgene to their offspring, and the impact and applicability of this experiment were, therefore, limited. In 1981 the laboratories of Frank Ruddle from Yale University, Frank Costantini and Elizabeth Lacy from Oxford, and Ralph L. Brinster and Richard Palmiter in collaboration from the University of Pennsylvania and the University of Washington injected purified DNA into a single-cell mouse embryo utilizing techniques developed by Brinster in the 1960s and 1970s, showing transmission of the genetic material to subsequent generations for the first time. During the 1980s, Palmiter and Brinster developed and led the field of transgenesis, refining methods of germline modification and using these techniques to elucidate the activity and function of genes in a way not possible before their unique approach. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18293050 | 475,484 |
600,256 | The introduction of a steel frame structural system in the late 19th century eliminated the need for structural setbacks. The use of a frame building technology combined with conveniences such as elevators and motorized water pumps influenced the physical growth and density of buildings in large cities. Driven by the desire to maximize the usable floor area, some developers avoided the use of setbacks, creating in many instances a range of fire safety and health hazards. Thus, the 38-story Equitable Building, constructed in New York in 1915, produced a huge shadow, said to "cast a noonday shadow four blocks long", which effectively deprived neighboring properties of sunlight. It resulted in the 1916 Zoning Resolution, which gave New York City's skyscrapers their typical setbacks and soaring designs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2667192 | 599,950 |
2,172,321 | Experimental investigation of PICT is perform to eliminate factors other than pollution that may affect community structure and ecophysiology, or on the contrary to study them (by controlling them). Much work has been done in controlled systems (see reviews by Blanck, 2002 and Tlili et al. 2016). They can be conducted in conjunction with field work, as in the study by Blanck and Dahl (1996). In this study, the results from laboratory acute toxicity tests of TBT on periphyton corroborated the results from the field study, supporting the conclusion that toxicity to periphyton resulted from TBT pollution at the site under investigation. The results from acute toxicity tests can thus help determine whether the effect identified is due to a specific contaminant. Bérard et al. (2003) used experimental systems of increasing complexity associated with monitoring of sites in Lake Geneva more or less contaminated by Irgarol (antifouling inhibitor of photosynthesis), and crossed the results of ecotoxicity of strains isolated from these sites and from non-contaminated control sites with experiments in nanocosms and PICT measurements. This work highlighted the high toxicity of Irgarol (compared to atrazine having the same site of action, and presenting a co-tolerance) on periphyton and phytoplankton and its potential for selection pressure at existing concentrations in the lake. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=36065288 | 2,171,080 |
14,887 | The concerns prompted U.S. Secretary of Commerce Wilbur Ross and NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine in February 2019 to urge the FCC to delay some spectrum auction proposals, which was rejected. The chairs of the House Appropriations Committee and House Science Committee wrote separate letters to FCC chairman Ajit Pai asking for further review and consultation with NOAA, NASA, and DoD, and warning of harmful impacts to national security. Acting NOAA director Neil Jacobs testified before the House Committee in May 2019 that 5G out-of-band emissions could produce a 30% reduction in weather forecast accuracy and that the resulting degradation in ECMWF model performance would have resulted in failure to predict the track and thus the impact of Superstorm Sandy in 2012. The United States Navy in March 2019 wrote a memorandum warning of deterioration and made technical suggestions to control band bleed-over limits, for testing and fielding, and for coordination of the wireless industry and regulators with weather forecasting organizations. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23475353 | 14,882 |
238,152 | Summer lasts from June to August and is the warmest and usually the sunniest season. There can be wide local variations in rainfall totals due to localised thundershowers. These thundershowers mainly occur in southern, eastern, and central England and are less frequent and severe in the north and west. Greater London, Kent, Sussex, Surrey, Essex, Hertfordshire, Cambridgeshire, Suffolk and Norfolk see the most thunderstorms during the summer. The South West, the Midlands and Northern England get thunderstorms too, but they are less frequent and severe. Wales and Scotland also gets the occasional thunderstorm. On rare occasions, a type of supercell thunderstorm called the Spanish Plume forms over the country after very hot weather. These storms are severe in the South West and South East and get weaker as they go north. Climatic differences at this time of year are more influenced by latitude and proximity to the ocean. Temperatures are the highest in southern and central areas and lowest in the north. Hot weather above in most places and in most years occurs on multiple days per year, but more frequently in London and south-east England where temperatures can exceed and less so in parts of Scotland. The record maximum is , recorded in Charlwood on 19 July 2022. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=84358 | 238,033 |
1,152,512 | Geminivirus genomes encode only a few proteins; thus, they are dependent on host cell factors for replication: these include factors such as DNA polymerase—and probably repair polymerases—in order to amplify their genomes, as well as transcription factors. Geminiviruses replicate via a rolling circle mechanism like bacteriophages such as M13, and many plasmids. Replication occurs within the nucleus of an infected plant cell. First the single-stranded circular DNA is converted to a double-stranded circular intermediate. This step involves the use of cellular DNA repair enzymes to produce a complementary negative-sense strand, using the viral genomic or plus-sense DNA strand as a template. The next step is the rolling circle phase, where the viral strand is cleaved at a specific site situated within the origin of replication by the viral Rep protein in order to initiate replication. This process in a eukaryotic nucleus can give rise to concatemeric double-stranded forms of replicative intermediate genomes, although double-stranded unit circles can be isolated from infected plants and cells. New single-stranded DNA forms of the virus genome (plus-sense) are probably formed by interaction of the coat protein with replicating DNA intermediates, as genomes lacking a CP gene do not form ssDNA. The ssDNA is packaged into germinate particles in the nucleus. It is not clear if these particles can then leave the nucleus and be transmitted to surrounding cells as virions, or whether ssDNA associated with coat protein and a movement protein is the form of the genome that gets trafficked from cell to cell via the plasmodesmata. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1582347 | 1,151,902 |
1,750,714 | The modern SRP has two tungsten carbide probe tips placed about 20 um apart. Each tip is mounted on a kinematic bearing to minimize "scrubbing". The probes are lowered very gently onto a beveled piece of silicon or germanium. Although the loading of the probe tips may be as little as 2 g., the pressure is in excess of one million pounds per sq inch (or ~ 10G pascals) causing a localized phase transformation in the silicon to "beta-tin" producing a nearly ohmic contact. Between each measurement, the probes are raised and indexed a pre-determined distance down the bevel. Bevels are produced by mounting the sample on an angle block and grinding the bevel with typically a 0.1- or 0.05-micrometre diamond paste. Bevel angles, chosen to fit the depth of interest, can range from ~ 0.001 to 0.2 radians. Care must be used to produce a smooth, flat bevel with minimum rounding of the bevel edge. (See Figure 1.) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20738649 | 1,749,728 |
1,341,874 | Cervical (neck) vertebrae are known from "Mymoorapelta", though many of them have not been fully researched or excavated. In the cervicals, the faces (ends) of the centra are wider than tall and display a "heart-shaped" morphology. The centra overall are short anteroposteriorly with lengths that are around equal to the centra's widths. The neural spines are short and thick with round, circular neural canals. A deep, tear-shaped fossa (or small opening in bone) is present between the postzygapophyses. Several dorsal (back, sometimes referred to as thoracic) vertebrae are known from "Mymoorapelta" and are unique when compared to those of Cretaceous nodosaurids. The centra are cylindircal, more elongate posteriorly, and less compressed laterally compared to those of other nodosaurids like "Sauropelta" and "Dracopelta". The anterior dorsals are unique in that they bear a triangular pit between the prezygapophyses. The prezygapophyses are also much more elongate at the anterior end of the vertebra, while the postzygapophyses are truncated at the posterior end. The left and right postzygapophyses are divided by a large groove. The mid dorsal vertebrae differ in that they are rounded ventrally and have a weak keel at the bottom. All of the dorsal vertebrae'ds transverse processes do not ascend steeply and are instead gradually heightened, as in basal ankylosaurs but not nodosaurids. "Mymoorapelta" has 13 ribs, all of which have triangular cross-sections and a weak T-shape, in contrast to other ankylosaurs. "Mymoorapelta" is also one of the few ankylosaurs with 4 sacral ribs, a trait shared with only 3 other taxa. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4347315 | 1,341,140 |
1,554,717 | Amongst the various contemporary agricultural practices mentioned in the Nong Shu, Wang listed and described the use of ploughing, sowing, irrigation, cultivation of mulberries, etc. It listed and described many of the various foodstuffs and products of the many regions of China. The book outlined the use of not only agricultural tools, but food-processing, irrigation equipment, different types of fields, ceremonial vessels, various types of grain storage, carts, boats, mechanical devices, and textile machinery used in many applications. For example, one of the many devices described and illustrated in drawing is a large mechanical milling plant operated by the motive power of oxen, with an enormous rotating geared wheel engaging the toothed gears of eight different mills surrounding it. Of great interest to sinologist historians, Wang also outlined the difference between the agricultural technology of Northern China and that of Southern China. The main characteristic of agricultural technology of the north was technical applications fit for predominantly dryland cultivation, while intensified irrigation cultivation was more suitable for southern China. Furthermore, Wang used his treatise as a means to spread knowledge in support of certain agricultural practices or technologies found exclusively in either South or North that could benefit the other, if only they were more widely known, such as the southern hand-harrow used for weeding in the south, yet virtually unknown in the north. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9680966 | 1,553,836 |
973,668 | Buildings built in the high-tech style often share a number of characteristic layout elements. These include an open floor plan, a large central area serviced by many smaller maintenance spaces, and repeated elements which either can be or appear to be able to be detached and replaced as needed. Spaces or elements dedicated to service and mechanical components like air conditioners, water processors, and electrical equipment are left exposed and visible to the viewer. Often these spaces are placed in large service towers external to the building, as in the Lloyd's building in London by Richard Rogers. The Lloyd's building also has offices designed to be changed and configured as needed by the shifting and removal of partitions - creating a flexible and adaptable interior environment that can be changed to meet the needs of the building's occupants. This theme of reconfigurable spaces is an important component of high-tech buildings. The HSBC Building in Hong Kong, designed by Norman Foster, is another excellent example of a high-tech building designed to be changed over time according to the needs of its users. Its use of suspended floor panels and the design of its social spaces as individual towers both place emphasis on the new approach to creating and servicing an office building. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4460840 | 973,158 |
421,771 | Actively developing, the Kyiv Polytechnic Institute became the basis for expanding and strengthening the network of Vishivs Kyiv, Ukraine. In 1923–1933, and in recent years, several institutions, universities, academies were created on the basis of departments and individual specialties of the KPI. On the other hand, the famous educational institutions of Ukraine entered the current composition of the university. Thus in the Military Institute of Telecommunications and Informatization of NTUU "KPI" by the official date of the creation is considered March 1, 1919 - the Day of Approval of the Rev-wake of the Republic of the Republic of Projects of Engineering Courses for the preparation of the team of the Worker-Peasant Red Army, which in 1937 became the basis for the Kyiv military school of ZV The tap them. M. I. Kalinina. Publishing-Polygraphic Institute Since September 6, 2004, which included in the KPI in 1989, was founded on January 1, 1954, in Kyiv on the basis of the artistic-craft school of printers No 18, as an educational and consultative point (UCP) of the Moscow printing institute. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3048933 | 421,565 |
1,194,220 | On 13 December 2021, a Dunedin nurse named Lauren Bransgrove was referred by the Nursing Council of New Zealand to a professional conduct committee after making violent threats on the social media app Telegram against COVID-19 vaccinators and medical professionals prior to the Government's planned vaccination of children between the ages of 5 and 11 years. Bransgrove had also participated in anti-lockdown protests organised by anti-vaccination group Voices for Freedom in Dunedin. Following media coverage, Bransgrove apologised for her post and promised not to harass vaccinators. In addition, the Medical Council of New Zealand, the Accident Compensation Corporation (ACC), Health Ministry, and Police confirmed that they were aware of her posts and conducting their own separate investigations. In January 2021, Radio New Zealand reported that Bransgrove had been removed from the Nursing Council's public register, preventing her from practising medicine. In addition, she was dismissed from her job as a clinical advisor at ACC. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=67067814 | 1,193,580 |
1,521,666 | The data clearly indicated that the mechanistic preferences of the rearrangements are system dependent. Whereas "trans"-vinylcyclopropanes tend to form more of the symmetry-allowed "ar"- and "si"-cyclopentenes supportive of a concerted mechanism, the "cis"-vinylcyclopropanes preferentially yield the symmetry-forbidden "ai"- and "sr"- products suggesting a more stepwise, diradical mechanism. The influence of substituent effects on the reaction stereochemistry also becomes apparent from the data. Substituents with increased radical stabilizing ability not only lower the rearrangements activation energy but also reclosure of the initially formed diradical species becomes slower relative to the rate of cyclopentene formation resulting in an overall more concerted mechanism with less stereomutation (e.g. entry 6 & 7). In all cases though all the four products were formed indicating that both orbital-symmetry controlled pericyclic, as well as diradical-mediated two-step mechanisms are operative either way. The data is consistent with the formation of biradical species on a relatively flat potential energy surface allowing for restricted conformational flexibility before the products are formed. The amount of conformational flexibility and therefore conformational evolution accessible to the diradical species before forming product depends on the constitution of the potential energy surface. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=17926212 | 1,520,805 |
1,431,004 | Originally an analogue video play-back system, the Philips laserdisc format was adapted to digital in the late 1970s and was the forerunner of the CD and DVD. The digital data is encoded as a series of depressions in a reflective disc. They are arranged along a spiral path such that a laser can read them in sequence (in similar fashion to a stylus following the groove on a vinyl record). The laser must be focused onto and track this path and in addition, the reflected beam must be collected, diverted and measured. The prototype optics to achieve this was an expensive glass-lens arrangement. Hopkins was able to show, through a complete mathematical analysis of the system, that with a carefully calculated geometry, it was possible to use a single piece of transparent moulded-plastic instead. This continues to be a major factor in the low cost of laser disc-readers (such as CD players). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18770211 | 1,430,200 |
396,549 | Some of the awards have been controversial. The person who was deserving of the 1923 prize for the discovery of insulin as a central hormone for controlling diabetes (awarded only a year after its discovery) has been heatedly debated. It was shared between Frederick Banting and John Macleod; this infuriated Banting who regarded Macleod's involvement as minimal. Macleod was the department head at the University of Toronto but otherwise was not directly involved in the findings. Banting thought his laboratory partner Charles Best, who had shared in the laboratory work of discovery, should have shared the prize with him as well. In fairness, he decided to give half of his prize money to Best. Macleod on his part felt the biochemist James Collip, who joined the laboratory team later, deserved to be included in the award and shared his prize money with him. Some maintain that Nicolae Paulescu, a Romanian professor of physiology at the University of Medicine and Pharmacy in Bucharest, was the first to isolate insulin, in 1916, although his pancrein was an impure aqueous extract unfit for human treatment similar to the one used previously by Israel Kleiner. When Banting published the paper that brought him the Nobel, Paulescu already held a patent for his discovery (10 April 1922, patent no. 6254 (8322) "Pancreina şi procedeul fabricaţiei ei"/"Pancrein and the process of making it", from the Romanian Ministry of Industry and Trade). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=52502 | 396,353 |
1,979,535 | There is no way to cure a plant that has the virus. The only thing to do once a plant is infected is to destroy it. The best management solution is to prevent the spread of disease. This is accomplished through effective disinfection of tools used in cultivation, including any plastic containers and razor blades. Autoclaving, flaming, and chemical treatment with trisodium phosphate and bleach solution are traditional methods for disinfection. The use of "Streptomyces" culture filtrate, which has also been shown to disinfect mad cow disease-causing prions, is another promising disinfectant. This method is shown to be effective in removing the virus from various tools, human nails, and orchid seeds. Another possible management strategy is development of plant resistance. An attempt to transform a mutant CymMV movement protein gene into "Dendrobium" orchids was slightly successful (9 of 259 plants were resistant and expressed the marker gene); the success of transformations actually conferring resistance appears to be related to a post-transcriptional gene silencing mechanism. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12353728 | 1,978,397 |
7,578 | While webtoons have caught on in popularity as a new medium for comics in Asia, Japan has been slow to adopt webtoons as the traditional format and print publication still dominate the way manga is created and consumed(although this is beginning to change). Despite this, one of the biggest webtoon publishers in the world, Comico, has had success in the traditional Japanese manga market. Comico was launched by NHN Japan, the Japanese subsidiary of Korean company, NHN Entertainment. As of now, there are only two webtoon publishers that publish Japanese webtoons: Comico and Naver Webtoon (under the name XOY in Japan). Kakao has also had success by offering licensed manga and translated Korean webtoons with their service Piccoma. All three companies credit their success to the webtoon pay model where users can purchase each chapter individually instead of having to buy the whole book while also offering some chapters for free for a period of time allowing anyone to read a whole series for free if they wait long enough. The added benefit of having all of their titles in color and some with special animations and effects have also helped them succeed. Some popular Japanese webtoons have also gotten anime adaptations and print releases, the most notable being "ReLIFE" and "Recovery of an MMO Junkie". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18985 | 7,575 |
751,652 | A variety of conceptions on embryology appeared in ancient Asia. A more advanced understanding of the embryological process was known from ancient India. Descriptions of the amniotic sac appear in the "Bhagavad Gita, Bhagavata Purana", and the "Sushruta Samhita". For example, the Sushruta Samhita claims that an embryo emerges from semen and blood, both of which in turn find their origins in chyle. In the third month, differentiation of body parts such as arms, leg, and head occurs, and this is followed in the fourth month by the development of the heart, thorax, and abdomen. In the sixth month, the hair, bones, sinews, nails, and veins develop, and in the eighth month the vital force (the "ojas") is drawn from the mother and to the developing child. The father donates the hard parts of the body to the developing fetus whereas the soft parts come from the mother. Just as with Aristotle, the Sushruta Samhita compares the developing embryo to the clotting of milk into cheese. It claims that conditions of heat result in seven layers of skin being formed around the fetus, just as the creamy layers in cheese form from milk. One of the Upanishads known as the "Garbhopanisaḍ" states that the embryo is "like water in the first night, in seven nights it is like a bubble, at the end of half a month it becomes a ball. At the end of a month it is hardened, in two months the head is formed". The Indian medical tradition in the Ayurveda also has conceptions of embryology from antiquity. Then Dalhana, a medieval commentator on the Sushruta Samhita, also describes embryological development. Dalhana claims that in the first month, the fetus has a jelly-like form, whereas cold and heat cause a change to hardness during the second month. Limb differentiation occurs in the third to four months and intelligence even later. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=162717 | 751,254 |
1,493,296 | The history of chemical sensor arrays is closely linked with the development of other chemical sensor technologies, with research in the area of electronic chemical sensors picking up in the 1960s with the demonstration of metal-oxide semiconductor sensors capable of sensing analyses such as oxygen. Humans are capable of identifying and discerning between an estimated 10,000 scents or more, while only possessing 400 olfactory receptors. Signal processing in the brain of individual array component responses of olfactory receptors results in pattern recognition for discrimination of a particular scent. One of the design aims of many chemical sensor arrays is to mimic the performance of olfaction to design an electronic nose integrated with a variety of materials. Combining chemical sensor arrays with pattern recognition methods mimics biological sensory recognition methods. See Figure 1. Commercially available electronic nose systems exist and are used in the food industry for quality control. Current research efforts demonstrate the introduction of the electronic nose principle into environmental monitoring and medicine both as commercial instruments as well as in consumer-grade wearable electronic devices. At the center of chemical sensor arrays is the principle that different analytes will interact differently with a variety of materials. As such, any sort of material may be used in a sensor array, so long as it responds differently to different analytes or mixtures. From this idea, cross-reactive sensor arrays have been the focus of chemical sensor array development for their broad compatibility with the compounds as components of mixtures. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66888952 | 1,492,456 |
980,611 | The development of systems able to produce short pulses of radio energy was the key advance that allowed modern radar systems to come into existence. By timing the pulses on an oscilloscope, the range could be determined and the direction of the antenna revealed the angular location of the targets. The two, combined, produced a "fix", locating the target relative to the antenna. In the 1934–1939 period, eight nations developed independently, and in great secrecy, systems of this type: the United Kingdom, Germany, the United States, the USSR, Japan, the Netherlands, France, and Italy. In addition, Britain shared their information with the United States and four Commonwealth countries: Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and South Africa, and these countries also developed their own radar systems. During the war, Hungary was added to this list. The term "RADAR" was coined in 1939 by the United States Signal Corps as it worked on these systems for the Navy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1280053 | 980,099 |
535,519 | Virus quantification involves counting the number of viruses in a specific volume to determine the virus concentration. It is used in both research and development (R&D) in commercial and academic laboratories as well as production situations where the quantity of virus at various steps is an important variable. For example, the production of viral vaccines, recombinant proteins using viral vectors and viral antigens all require virus quantification to continually adapt and monitor the process in order to optimize production yields and respond to ever changing demands and applications. Examples of specific instances where known viruses need to be quantified include clone screening, multiplicity of infection (MOI) optimization and adaptation of methods to cell culture. This page discusses various techniques currently used to quantify viruses in liquid samples. These methods are separated into two categories, traditional vs. modern methods. Traditional methods are industry-standard methods that have been used for decades but are generally slow and labor-intensive. Modern methods are relatively new commercially available products and kits that greatly reduce quantification time. This is not meant to be an exhaustive review of all potential methods, but rather a representative cross-section of traditional methods and new, commercially available methods. While other published methods may exist for virus quantification, non-commercial methods are not discussed here. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=26069912 | 535,240 |
1,815,056 | In a conventional analog optical link, dispersion causes the upper and lower modulation sidebands, "f" ± "f", to slip in relative phase. At certain frequencies, their beats with the optical carrier interfere destructively, creating nulls in the frequency response of the system. For practical systems the first null is at tens of GHz, which is sufficient for handling most electrical signals of interest. Although it may seem that the dispersion penalty places a fundamental limit on the impulse response (or the bandwidth) of the time-stretch system, it can be eliminated. The dispersion penalty vanishes with single-sideband modulation. Alternatively, one can use the modulator's secondary (inverse) output port to eliminate the dispersion penalty, in much the same way as two antennas can eliminate spatial nulls in wireless communication (hence the two antennas on top of a WiFi access point). This configuration is termed phase-diversity. Combining the complementary outputs using a maximal ratio combining (MRC) algorithm results in a transfer function with a flat response in the frequency domain. Thus, the impulse response (bandwidth) of a time-stretch system is limited only by the bandwidth of the electro-optic modulator, which is about 120 GHz—a value that is adequate for capturing most electrical waveforms of interest. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20101779 | 1,814,022 |
1,335,358 | Despite the termination of the tether deployment before full extension, the extension achieved was long enough to verify numerous scientific speculations. These findings included the measurements of the motional EMF, the satellite potential, the orbiter potential, the current in the tether, the changing resistance in the tether, the charged particle distributions around a highly charged spherical satellite, and the ambient electric field. In addition, a significant finding concerns the current collection at different potentials on a spherical endmass. Measured currents on the tether far exceeded predictions of previous numerical models by up to a factor of three. A more descriptive explanation of these results can be found in Thompson, "et al." Improvements have been made in modeling the electron charging of the shuttle and how it affects current collection, and in the interaction of bodies with surrounding plasma, as well as the production of electrical power. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31386739 | 1,334,628 |
1,274,222 | Besides his contributions to the field of social psychology, Gilovich's research in cognitive psychology has influenced the field of behavioral economics. Gilovich has written a popular book condensing his academic research in the field, and which touches on many of the topics in "How We Know What Isn't So", "The Wisest One in the Room: How You Can Benefit from Social Psychology's Most Powerful Insights". In an interview with Brian Lehrer, Gilovich discussed the book and the subjects it touches on, such as the difference between intelligence and wisdom, the latter being knowledge of other people and how to connect with them, the negative impact of income inequality on happiness, motivation, and what can create "virtuous cycles" in a university environment. "Kirkus Reviews" gave it a positive review, writing, "The authors leap from personal behavior and motivation in the first half into societal, cultural, and even international change in the second, offering suggestions, if not necessarily a working blueprint, for how to achieve goals such as global environmental responsibility. None of this is riveting reading, but it rarely lapses into academic jargon." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=881902 | 1,273,530 |
1,554,482 | Paecilomyces variotii is a common environmental mold that is widespread in composts, soils and food products. It is known from substrates including food, indoor air, wood, soil and carpet dust. "Paecilomyces variotii" is the asexual state of "Byssochlamys spectabilis", a member of the Phylum Ascomycota (Family Trichocomaceae). However, the "Byssochlamys" state is rarely observed in culture due to the heterothallic nature of this species (i.e., it requires culturing of positive and negative strains in co-culture to produce the teleomorph). "Paecilomyces variotii" is fast growing, producing powdery to suede-like colonies that are yellow-brown or sand-colored. It is distinguishable from microscopically similar microfungi, such as the biverticillate members of the genus "Penicillium" (affiliated with the genus "Talaromyces") by its broadly ellipsoidal to lemon-shaped conidia, loosely branched conidiophores and phialides with pointed tips. Ascospores of the sexual state, "B. spectabilis", are strongly heat-resistant. As such, the fungus is a common contaminant of heat-treated foods and juices. It is also known from decaying wood and creosote-treated wood utility poles. "Paecilomyces variotii" has been associated with a number of infective diseases of humans and animals. It is also an important indoor environmental contaminant. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=40820052 | 1,553,601 |
1,700,407 | A central calorimeter outside and two end calorimeters capping the solenoid contained separate sections for measuring electromagnetic particles and hadrons. Uranium was chosen for the inert absorber plates owing to its very high density. The active gaps contained liquid argon with a strong electric field applied to collect the ionization of traversing particles on finely segmented planes of copper electrodes. These signals were ganged into 50,000 signals that measured the particle energies and the transverse and longitudinal shower shapes which helped identify the particle type. Each calorimeter contained about sixty uranium-liquid argon modules with a total weight of 240 to 300 metric tons. The total thickness of a calorimeter was about 175 cm so as to fully absorb the showers of the most energetic particles from a collision. The stainless steel vessels needed to contain the modules at liquid argon temperature (-190 C) were relatively thick, so scintillation detectors were inserted between central and end calorimeters to correct for energy lost in the cryostat walls. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3091589 | 1,699,453 |
419,816 | Saturday afternoon's qualifying session was divided into three parts. The first part ran for 18 minutes, eliminating cars that finished the session 17th or below. The 107% rule was in effect, requiring drivers to reach a time within 107 per cent of the quickest lap to qualify. The second session lasted 15 minutes, eliminating cars that finished 11th to 16th. The final session ran for 12 minutes and determined pole position to tenth. Cars who progressed to the final session were not allowed to change tyres for the race's start, using the tyres with which they set their quickest lap times in the second session. The weather was sunny with the asphalt temperature . Rosberg led the third session to take his second consecutive pole position, his third of the season, and the seventh of his career with a 1-minute and 14.874 seconds lap. He was joined on the grid's front row by his teammate Hamilton who was 0.079 seconds slower after driver errors at turns six and eight and slower traffic delayed him. Vettel took more risks in his driving and placed third in the final seconds of qualifying. Traffic affected Bottas' front tyre warming and left him in fourth. His teammate Massa in fifth had a front-left brake temperature issue that locked his front wheel at turn one. Ricciardo in sixth was beaten in qualifying by his teammate Vettel for the second time in 2014. The Ferrari cars of Alonso and Räikkönen lacked grip and took seventh and tenth; they were separated by Vergne and Button after the latter altered his car's balance. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38847346 | 419,611 |
1,622,204 | Synaptic tagging is likely to involve the acquisition of molecular maintenance mechanisms by a synapse that would then allow for the conservation of synaptic changes. There are several proposed processes through which synaptic tagging functions. One model suggests that the tag allows for local protein synthesis at the specified synapse that then leads to modifications in synaptic strength. One example of this suggested mechanism involves the anchoring of PKMzeta mRNA to the tagged synapse. This anchor would then restrict the activity of translated PKMzeta, an important plasticity related protein, to this location. A different model proposes that short-term synaptic changes induced by the stimulus are themselves the tag; subsequently delivered or translated protein products act to strengthen this change. For example, the removal of AMPA receptors due to low-frequency stimulation leading to LTD is stabilized by a new protein product that would be inactive at synapses where internalization had not occurred. The tag could also be a latent memory trace, as another model suggests. The activity of proteins would then be required for the memory trace to lead to sustained changes in synaptic strength. According to this model, changes induced by the latent memory trace, such as the growth of new filipodia, are themselves the tag. These tags require protein products for stabilization, synapse formation, and synapse stabilization. Finally, another model proposes that the required molecular products get directed into the appropriate dendritic branches and then find the specific synapses under efficacy modification, by following Ca++ microconcentration gradients through voltage-gated Ca++ channels. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27122321 | 1,621,288 |
460,772 | Further testing was implemented by the Center for Urban and Structural Entomology at Texas A&M University in September 2007 where they tested the two species through an ethological, morphological and genetic approach in order to confirm the presence of the Asian cockroach in Harris County, Texas. Evaluations of DNA gene sequences showed similarities to the German. It was found that environmental factors play a significant role in differentiating the two species although there are slight morphological differences. It was confirmed that Asian Cockroaches were discovered in Harris County, Texas in May 2006 around the Barker Reservoir, in both urban and undeveloped areas. These cockroaches were later also found in the Hunter’s Creek subdivision in greater Houston. The Asian cockroach has since expanded throughout much of Florida and is spreading into other southern states. In addition to Florida, it is reported in Alabama, Georgia, South Carolina, and Texas. In Dothan, Alabama in 2003, there were several reports that stated there were "flying German cockroaches" from Alabama Cooperative Extension System agents, where specimens were obtained for identification. Using a male specimen and comparing it to the description of Dr. Mizukubo and Dr. Roth, they confirmed that the specimens were in fact Asians. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1906379 | 460,546 |
54,407 | On 12 June 1943, a P-38G, while flying a special mission between Gibraltar and Malta, or perhaps, just after strafing the radar station of Capo Pula, landed on the airfield of Capoterra (Cagliari), in Sardinia, from navigation error due to a compass failure. "Regia Aeronautica" chief test pilot "Colonnello" (Lieutenant Colonel) Angelo Tondi flew the captured aircraft to Guidonia airfield, where the P-38G was evaluated. On 11 August 1943, Tondi took off to intercept a formation of about 50 bombers, returning from the bombing of Terni (Umbria). Tondi attacked B-17G "Bonny Sue", 42–30307, that fell off the shore of Torvaianica, near Rome, while six airmen parachuted out. According to US sources, he also damaged three more bombers on that occasion. On 4 September, the 301st BG reported the loss of B-17 "The Lady Evelyn," 42–30344, downed by "an enemy P-38". War missions for that plane were limited, as the Italian petrol was too corrosive for the Lockheed's tanks. Other Lightnings were eventually acquired by Italy for postwar service. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25041 | 54,385 |
81,453 | In another episode that focused on myths surrounding electronic security devices, a segment was aired on defeating biometric fingerprint readers using various methods. One of these techniques involved creating a fake 3D fingerprint from a 2D image of the authorized print. After some trial and error, the team successfully cast a viable ballistics gel reproduction using a copper-coated circuit board, a picture of the fingerprint printed on acetate, and a photochemical acid etching process. After the reproduction was shown to defeat both fingerprint scanners, and although the chemicals used during the etching process are never identified, the narrator still hints at an important step having been edited out and discourages viewers from trying it themselves. None of the other techniques that successfully defeated the fingerprint scanners or the other security devices tested in the episode was censored or obfuscated, perhaps because the rest were all fairly simple and straightforward methods, such as holding up a bedsheet or moving extremely slowly to hide from ultrasonic motion detectors or holding up a pane of glass to defeat thermal motion detectors. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=627304 | 81,420 |
614,725 | The primary advantages of Fischer esterification compared to other esterification processes are based on its relative simplicity. Straightforward acidic conditions can be used if acid-sensitive functional groups are not an issue; sulfuric acid can be used; weaker acids can be used with a tradeoff of longer reaction times. Because the reagents used are "direct," there is less environmental impact in terms of waste products and harmfulness of the reagents. Alkyl halides are potential greenhouse gases or ozone depletors, carcinogens, and possible ecological poisons. Acid chlorides evolve hydrogen chloride gas upon contact with atmospheric moisture, are corrosive, react vigorously with water and other nucleophiles (sometimes dangerously); they are easily quenched by other nucleophiles besides the desired alcohol; their most common synthesis routes involve the evolution of toxic carbon monoxide or sulfur dioxide gases (depending on the synthesis process used). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=530887 | 614,411 |
57,391 | In January 2013, it was reported that some of Canada's CC-130J transports had counterfeit Chinese microchips in their cockpit displays that were made by an American Lockheed contractor L3 Communications. These parts are more likely to fail and result in failures such as blank instrument screens during flight. A 14-month investigation by the U.S. Senate Armed Services Committee concluded that counterfeit parts in the Hercules and other American-made military equipment are prone to failure with potentially "catastrophic consequences." The U.S. congressional investigation reported the fake Hercules microchips were originally made by the Korean electronics giant Samsung in the 1990s, and more than a decade later, had been recycled, refurbished and remarked to appear genuine by a different supplier from China. Samsung later stated that "it is not possible to project the reliability" of the altered parts. The U.S. investigation reported that the problems on the Hercules first came to light in 2010 when the instrument panel failed on a U.S. Air Force aircraft during active duty. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=16172717 | 57,367 |
1,628,057 | The uniqueness of the Heisenberg commutation relations, as formulated in the Stone–von Neumann theorem, was later interpreted within group representation theory, in particular the theory of induced representations initiated by George Mackey. The quadratic operators were understood in terms of a projective unitary representation of the group SU(1,1) and its Lie algebra. Irving Segal and David Shale generalized this construction to the symplectic group in finite and infinite dimensions—in physics, this is often referred to as bosonic quantization: it is constructed as the symmetric algebra of an infinite-dimensional space. Segal and Shale have also treated the case of fermionic quantization, which is constructed as the exterior algebra of an infinite-dimensional Hilbert space. In the special case of conformal field theory in 1+1 dimensions, the two versions become equivalent via the so-called "boson-fermion correspondence." Not only does this apply in analysis where there are unitary operators between bosonic and fermionic Hilbert spaces, but also in the mathematical theory of vertex operator algebras. Vertex operators themselves originally arose in the late 1960s in theoretical physics, particularly in string theory. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=34205013 | 1,627,138 |
1,161,224 | Environmental archaeology often involves studying plant and animal remains in order to investigate which plant and animal species were present at the time of prehistoric habitations, and how past societies managed them. It may also involve studying the physical environment and how similar or different it was in the past compared to the present day. An important component of such analyses represents the study of site formation processes. This field is particularly useful when artifacts may be absent from an excavated or surveyed site, or in cases of earth movement, such as erosion, which may have buried artifacts and archaeological features. While specialist sub-fields, for example bioarchaeology or geomorphology, are defined by the materials they study, the term "environmental" is used as a general template in order to denote a general field of scientific inquiry that is applicable across time periods and geographical regions studied by archaeology as a whole. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=982249 | 1,160,608 |
173,544 | According to Frank and Schmidt, since fossilization is relatively rare and little of Earth's exposed surface is from before the Quaternary time period (~2.5 million years ago), there is low probability of finding direct evidence of such a civilization, such as technological artifacts. After a great time span, the researchers concluded, contemporary humans would be more likely to find indirect evidence such as rapid changes in temperature or climate (as occurred during the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum ~55 million years ago); evidence of tapping geothermal power sources; or anomalies in sediment such as their chemical composition ("e.g.", evidence of artificial fertilizers) or isotope ratios ("e.g.", there is no naturally occurring plutonium-244 outside a supernova, so evidence of this isotope could indicate a technologically advanced civilization). Objects that could indicate possible evidence of past civilizations include plastics and nuclear wastes residues buried deep underground or on the ocean floor. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=57174311 | 173,453 |
1,138,934 | Due to the lack of proper infrastructure and seismic engineering knowledge during this time casualties were originally thought to be very high with some contemporary sources believing the death toll to be around 20,000. However, modern scholars believe this might be an exaggeration due to the fact that at the time the city was relatively small and spread out, with most buildings being one floor and constructed from wood or sun-baked brick making it hard to believe that casualties could have been so high. The lack of detailed population records, coupled with flight of survivors to other areas, may have contributed to the uncertainty, as it can today. In such a catastrophic earthquake, it is also unlikely that a number of the anecdotal tales from the time could be true, such as the Spartan king Archidamus leading the Spartan army out of the city to safety. Regardless of the exact death toll, there was some destruction, and the helots, the slave class in Spartan society, took advantage of this moment to rise in rebellion. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=61826772 | 1,138,341 |
1,650,478 | Chamberlain regularly gives public lectures, discussing the significance of mathematics in human achievements and debating its relevance in everyday life. In 2016 he ran a one-day workshop at the London International Youth Science Forum, Imperial College London. He was a keynote speaker at the 2017 "New Scientist" workshop "The Mathematical World". In 2018 he was awarded the title of "World's Most Interesting Mathematician" from the Big Internet Math Off run by the Aperiodical website. In 2019, he gave a Maxwell Lecture at Maxwell Society titled "The Mathematics that can stop an AI apocalypse". He makes regular appearances in UK media and is a BBC expert voice, as well as a speaker for the UK charity, Speakers for Schools. In 2021 he was a guest on the BBC Radio 4 programme The Life Scientific. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=55829794 | 1,649,546 |
67,911 | The main goal of treatment is to treat shock and preserve kidney function. Initially this is done through the administration of generous amounts of intravenous fluids, usually isotonic saline (0.9% weight per volume sodium chloride solution). In victims of crush syndrome, it is recommended to administer intravenous fluids even before they are extracted from collapsed structures. This will ensure sufficient circulating volume to deal with the muscle cell swelling (which typically commences when blood supply is restored), and to prevent the deposition of myoglobin in the kidneys. Amounts of 6 to 12 liters over 24 hours are recommended. The rate of fluid administration may be altered to achieve a high urine output (200–300 mL/h in adults), unless there are other reasons why this might lead to complications, such as a history of heart failure. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=236354 | 67,885 |
816,527 | Assessment can be difficult because much of the damage is often internal and not visible. The patient is thoroughly examined. X-ray and CT scanning may be used to identify the type and location of potentially lethal injuries. Sometimes before an X-ray is performed on a person with penetrating trauma from a projectile, a paper clip is taped over entry and exit wounds to show their location on the film. The patient is given intravenous fluids to replace lost blood. Surgery may be required; impaled objects are secured into place so that they do not move and cause further injury, and they are removed in an operating room. If the location of the injury is not obvious, a surgical operation called an exploratory laparotomy may be required to look for internal damage to the organs in the abdomen. Foreign bodies such as bullets may be removed, but they may also be left in place if the surgery necessary to get them out would cause more damage than would leaving them. Wounds are debrided to remove tissue that cannot survive and other material that presents risk for infection. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11005224 | 816,091 |
1,082,640 | To mitigate the possible consequences of induced seismicity, hazard and risk assessment is essential. A Traffic Light System (TLS), also referred to as Traffic Light Protocol (TLP), is a calibrated control system served as a direct mitigation method for induced seismicity. Its merits consist of providing continuous and real-time monitoring and management of ground shaking of induced seismicity for specific sites. TLS was first implemented in 2005 in an enhanced geothermal plant in Central America. For oil and gas operations, the most widely implemented one is modified by the system used in the UK. Normally there are two types of TLS – the first one sets different thresholds, usually earthquake local magnitudes (ML) or ground motion (PGV) from small to large. If the induced seismicity reaches the smaller thresholds, modifications of the operations should be implemented by the operators themselves and the regulators should be informed. If the induced seismicity reaches the larger thresholds, operations should be shut down immediately. The second type of traffic light system sets only one threshold. If this threshold is reached, the operations are halted. This is also called a "stop light system". Thresholds for the traffic light system vary between and within countries, depending on the area. Risk assessment and tolerance for induced seismicity, however, is subjective and shaped by different factors like politics, economics, and understanding from the public. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1016556 | 1,082,083 |
900,455 | Despite these issues, many ecologists and conservation biologists are pursuing ecosystem valuation. Biodiversity measures in particular appear to be the most promising way to reconcile financial and ecological values, and there are many active efforts in this regard. The growing field of biodiversity finance began to emerge in 2008 in response to many specific proposals such as the Ecuadoran Yasuni proposal or similar ones in the Congo. US news outlets treated the stories as a "threat" to "drill a park" reflecting a previously dominant view that NGOs and governments had the primary responsibility to protect ecosystems. However Peter Barnes and other commentators have recently argued that a guardianship/trustee/commons model is far more effective and takes the decisions out of the political realm. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=177694 | 899,980 |
909,167 | The method of incineration to convert municipal solid waste (MSW) is a relatively old method of WtE generation. Incineration generally entails burning waste (residual MSW, commercial, industrial and RDF) to boil water which powers steam generators that generate electric energy and heat to be used in homes, businesses, institutions and industries. One problem associated is the potential for pollutants to enter the atmosphere with the flue gases from the boiler. These pollutants can be acidic and in the 1980s were reported to cause environmental degradation by turning rain into acid rain. Modern incinerators incorporate carefully engineered primary and secondary burn chambers, and controlled burners designed to burn completely with the lowest possible emissions, eliminating, in some cases, the need for lime scrubbers and electro-static precipitators on smokestacks. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4564818 | 908,688 |
952,163 | Following the withdrawal to Singapore the 8th Division was deployed to defend the island's north-west coast. Due to the casualties suffered in Johore most of the division's units were at half-strength. The commander of the Singapore fortress, Lieutenant General Arthur Ernest Percival, believed that the Japanese would land on the north-east coast of the island and deployed the near full-strength British 18th Division to defend this sector. The Japanese landing on 8 February took part in the Australian sector, however, and the 8th Division was forced from its positions after just two days of heavy fighting. The division was also unable to turn back the Japanese landing at Kranji and withdrew to the centre of the island. After further fighting in which the Commonwealth forces were pushed into a narrow perimeter around the urban area of Singapore, Percival surrendered his forces on 15 February. Following the surrender 14,972 Australians were taken prisoner, though some escaped on ships. These escapees included Major General Bennett, who was found by two post-war inquiries to have been unjustified in leaving his command. The loss of almost a quarter of Australia's overseas soldiers, and the failure of the Singapore Strategy that had permitted it to accept the sending of the AIF to aid Britain, stunned the country. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4578255 | 951,658 |
12,636 | In Germany, the national government funded the universities and the research programs of the leading professors. It was impossible for professors who were not approved by Berlin to train graduate students. In the United States, by contrast, private universities and state universities alike were independent of the federal government. Independence was high, but funding was low. The breakthrough came from private foundations, which began regularly supporting research in science and history; large corporations sometimes supported engineering programs. The postdoctoral fellowship was established by the Rockefeller Foundation in 1919. Meanwhile, the leading universities, in cooperation with the learned societies, set up a network of scholarly journals. "Publish or perish" became the formula for faculty advancement in the research universities. After World War II, state universities across the country expanded greatly in undergraduate enrollment, and eagerly added research programs leading to masters or doctorate degrees. Their graduate faculties had to have a suitable record of publication and research grants. Late in the 20th century, "publish or perish" became increasingly important in colleges and smaller universities. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21031297 | 12,631 |
1,574,335 | Like all "Tuber" species, "T. oregonense" is mycorrhizal. The fungus grows west of the Cascade Mountains from the southern Puget Sound region of Washington, south to southwestern Oregon at elevations from near sea level up to in pure stands of "Pseudotsuga menziesii" forests up to 100 years old, or "Pseudotsuga" mixed with "Tsuga heterophylla", "Picea sitchensis", or "Alnus" species. The species has been commercially harvested in the Pacific Northwest since the 1980s. and is often found in Christmas tree plantations as young as five years. The Oregon Truffle Festival, held in Eugene yearly since 2006 to coincide with the maturing of the truffle in late January, features activities such as cultivation seminars and truffle hunting excursions. Fruit bodies are produced from September through the middle of March. The fungus is an important component of the diet of northern flying squirrels, and comprises the majority of their diet at certain times of the year. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=32292450 | 1,573,446 |
787,174 | The Morrison Formation is a sequence of shallow marine and alluvial sediments which, according to radiometric dating, ranges between 156.3 million years old (Ma) at its base, to 146.8 million years old at the top, which places it in the late Oxfordian, Kimmeridgian, and early Tithonian stages of the Late Jurassic period. This formation is interpreted as a semiarid environment with distinct wet and dry seasons. The Morrison Basin where dinosaurs lived, stretched from New Mexico to Alberta and Saskatchewan, and was formed when the precursors to the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains started pushing up to the west. The deposits from their east-facing drainage basins were carried by streams and rivers and deposited in swampy lowlands, lakes, river channels and floodplains. This formation is similar in age to the Solnhofen Limestone Formation in Germany and the Tendaguru Formation in Tanzania. In 1877, this formation became the center of the Bone Wars, a fossil-collecting rivalry between early paleontologists Othniel Charles Marsh and Edward Drinker Cope. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3553065 | 786,751 |
1,341,885 | The Morrison Formation is a sequence of shallow marine and alluvial sediments which, according to radiometric dating, ranges between 156.3 million years old (Ma) at its base, to 146.8 million years old at the top, which places it in the late Oxfordian, Kimmeridgian, and early Tithonian stages of the Late Jurassic period. This formation is interpreted as a semiarid environment with distinct wet and dry seasons. The Morrison Basin where dinosaurs lived, stretched from New Mexico to Alberta and Saskatchewan, and was formed when the precursors to the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains started pushing up to the west. The deposits from their east-facing drainage basins were carried by streams and rivers and deposited in swampy lowlands, lakes, river channels and floodplains. This formation is similar in age to the Solnhofen Limestone Formation in Germany and the Tendaguru Formation in Tanzania. In 1877, this formation became the center of the Bone Wars, a fossil-collecting rivalry between early paleontologists Othniel Charles Marsh and Edward Drinker Cope. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4347315 | 1,341,151 |
1,172,494 | The Morrison Formation is a sequence of shallow marine and alluvial sediments which, according to radiometric dating, ranges between 156.3 million years old (Ma) at its base, to 146.8 million years old at the top, which places it in the late Oxfordian, Kimmeridgian, and early Tithonian stages of the Late Jurassic period. This formation is interpreted as a semiarid environment with distinct wet and dry seasons. The Morrison Basin where dinosaurs lived, stretched from New Mexico to Alberta and Saskatchewan, and was formed when the precursors to the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains started pushing up to the west. The deposits from their east-facing drainage basins were carried by streams and rivers and deposited in swampy lowlands, lakes, river channels and floodplains. This formation is similar in age to the Solnhofen Limestone Formation in Germany and the Tendaguru Formation in Tanzania. In 1877 this formation became the center of the Bone Wars, a fossil-collecting rivalry between early paleontologists Othniel Charles Marsh and Edward Drinker Cope. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3579152 | 1,171,875 |
1,752,234 | The plans were taken up to political level in 1987, when they were launched by the Standing Committee on Transport and Communications of the Norwegian Parliament. Due to the possibility of covering the investment costs through savings on operations, the committee asked the Norwegian Ministry of Transport and Communications to prioritize the tunnel on their budget proposals. At the political level, the Finse Tunnel had to compete with upgrades in Eastern Norway, where NSB was planning to launch the InterCity Express service. The government chose to try to delay the decision to build the Finse Tunnel until after 1990 so it could be considered along with other railway projects in a central plan. Calculations showed a benefit-cost ratio of 1.93, making it a highly profitable venture for the government. The Minister of Transport and Communications, Kjell Borgen, wanted to give priority to the new line from Ski to Moss. It was not until after the 1989 election that Parliament managed to pass the necessary priorities to start construction, which started in 1990. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9326625 | 1,751,247 |
1,575,620 | These types of polymers have played a role in biomedical and robotic applications and liquid crystalline polymers. In 1974, R.B. Meyer predicted ferroelectricity in chiral smectic liquid crystals by pure symmetry conditions. Shortly after, Clark and Lagerwall had done work on the fast electrooptic effect in a surface-stabilized ferroelectric liquid crystal (SSFLC) structure. This opened up promising possibility of technical applications of ferroelectric liquid crystals in high-information display devices. Through applied research, it was shown that SSFLC structure has faster switching times and bistability behavior in comparison with commonly used nematic liquid crystal displays. In the same time period, the first side-chain liquid crystalline polymers (SCLCP) were synthesized. These comb-like polymers has mesogenic side chains that are covalently bonded (via flexible spacer units) to the polymer backbone. The most important feature of the SCLCP's is their glassy state. In other words, these polymers have a "frozen" ordered state along one axis when cooled below their glass transition temperature. This is advantageous for research in the area of nonlinear optical and optical data storage devices. The disadvantage is that these SCLCP's suffered from their slow switching times due to their high rotational viscosity. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=24261417 | 1,574,731 |
46,074 | Although Ceres is not as actively discussed as a potential home for microbial extraterrestrial life as Mars, Europa, Enceladus, or Titan are, it has the most water of any body in the inner Solar System after Earth, and the likely brine pockets under its surface could provide habitats for life. It does not experience tidal heating, like Europa or Enceladus, but it is close enough to the Sun, and contains enough long-lived radioactive isotopes, to preserve liquid water in its subsurface for extended periods. The remote detection of organic compounds and the presence of water mixed with 20% carbon by mass in its near surface could provide conditions favourable to organic chemistry. Of the biochemical elements, Ceres is rich in carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, but phosphorus has yet to be detected, and sulfur, despite being suggested by Hubble UV observations, was not detected by "Dawn". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5595163 | 46,056 |
1,568,936 | Radiotherapy for the treatment of several tumors with protons and other charged particle beams provides ancillary data for considering radiation effects for the CNS. NCRP Report No. 153 notes charge particle usage “for treatment of pituitary tumors, hormone-responsive metastatic mammary carcinoma, brain tumors, and intracranial arteriovenous malformations and other cerebrovascular diseases.” In these studies are found associations with neurological complications such as impairments in cognitive functioning, language acquisition, visual spatial ability, and memory and executive functioning, as well as changes in social behaviors. Similar effects did not appear in patients who were treated with chemotherapy. In all of these examples, the patients were treated with extremely high doses that were below the threshold for necrosis. Since cognitive functioning and memory are closely associated with the cerebral white volume of the prefrontal/frontal lobe and cingulate gyrus, defects in neurogenesis may play a critical role in neurocognitive problems in irradiated patients. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39761773 | 1,568,049 |
1,727,754 | Daniel Kleppner, born 1932, is the Lester Wolfe Professor Emeritus of Physics at MIT and co-director of the MIT-Harvard Center for Ultracold Atoms. His areas of science include Atomic, Molecular, and Optical Physics, and his research interests include Experimental Atomic Physics, Laser Spectroscopy, and High Precision Measurements. He is the winner of the 2005 Wolf Prize in Physics, the 2007 Frederic Ives Medal, and the 2014 Benjamin Franklin Medal. Prof. Kleppner has also been awarded the National Medal of Science (2006). He was elected the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1986, the French Academy of Sciences in 2004, and the American Philosophical Society in 2007. Together with Robert J. Kolenkow, he authored a popular introductory mechanics textbook for advanced students. Kleppner graduated from Williams College with a B.A. in 1953, Cambridge University with a B.A. in 1955, and Harvard University with a Ph.D. in 1959. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5601920 | 1,726,780 |
1,792,430 | HMU was founded in 1926 and boasts of a history of glory and rich traditions. It originated from the merger of the old Harbin Medical University (a.k.a. Harbin Special Medical School, founded by a pioneer medical doctor in China, Dr. Lien-teh Wu) and the former first and second branch schools of Xingshan Chinese Medical University (a.k.a. Chinese Red Army Health School founded in 1931 in Ruijin, Jiangxi). In the 80 years of its history, HMU has inherited Dr. Lien-teh Wu’s spirit to "love the motherland wholeheartedly and to succeed through self-help," and has carried forward Chinese Red Army Health School's traditions of firm political belief and excellent medical expertise. The motto of today's HMU encourages "integrity with principles and constant learning to advance medical practice." HMU has been fast growing in terms of clinical and academic strength and has become a top ranking medical school with a large training capacity and distinctly characteristic training programs and curriculum design. HMU is appointed as a national education and training base for biomedical scientists and teaching talents by the National Bureau of Advanced Health Care Education, and a key university of Heilongjiang Province in the national "211 Project." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20868542 | 1,791,423 |
2,076,374 | In the Spain of the first decades, apart from the work of great artists such as Picasso, Dalí and Miró, it is worth remembering: Carlos Verger, painter, poster artist and engraver, author of reproductions and original works, such as "Beethoven", "Carmen", "Lavanderas" and "Foro Romano"; Ricardo Baroja practiced etching and aquatint with Goyaesque influence, author of landscapes and popular themes; Francisco Iturrino, Fauvist style, focused on images of nudes, horses and gardens, with some influence of Regoyos; Xavier Nogués, in the novecentista style, was a notable watercolorist, with a certain satirical and caricatured vein, with the illustration of "El sombrero de tres picos" by Pedro Antonio de Alarcón standing out among his works; Daniel Vázquez Díaz, somewhere between realism and cubism, produced etchings and lithographs on World War I, as well as landscapes and social scenes; José Gutiérrez-Solana, linked to expressionism, combined traditional and contemporary art, with a rough and dramatic style, focusing on sordid and gloomy themes inspired by España negra (popular characters, processions, bullfights); Antoni Clavé was a painter, sculptor, engraver and set designer, and practiced lithography, etching and aquatint equally, generally in book illustration ("Lettres d'Espagne" by Prosper Mérimée, 1943; "Candide" by Voltaire, 1948; "Gargantua"by François Rabelais, 1950). In 1910 the Society of Spanish Engravers was founded. Some artists of this society created in 1928 the group Los Veinticuatro, which three years later was renamed Agrupación Española de Artistas Grabadores. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=72166508 | 2,075,175 |
2,087,257 | Ortiz was born and raised in north Argentina, Tucumán, and when she finished high school, she moved with her family to Buenos Aires where she graduated in chemistry. According to Ortiz herself,: ... I reconciled with chemistry when I saw that I could develop my social side, to deal with the unhealthy environments of the workers, for instance. There I started to like it much more and it opened me up to the whole issue of pollution, of the wrong production model that had been followed, which was proving its failure because it destroyed nature and the social fabric.Her first job was at the Shell company and then she worked at the State Customs Directorate to control the products that left and arrived in the country. During the 1960s, she studied toxicology at the Faculty of Exact and Natural Sciences at the University of Buenos Aires and soon, in that same decade, she obtained a scholarship to attend the Sorbonne, in France, where she remained until the end of the decade. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=67779892 | 2,086,055 |
2,028,559 | Evidence of paleosols on Mars is derived from both in-situ and orbital remote sensing investigations of the Martian surface. In-situ chemical / mineralogical analyses (Mars Science Laboratory) and images (Mastcam, MAHLI) from the Curiosity rover in Gale Crater on Mars have shown similarities with soil horizons and soil structures found on Earth. Morphological evidence includes soil features such as gradational alteration and bedding disruption by dilational cracks and veins, consistent with soluans of desert soils, blocky angular ped structures, sand wedges, a shallow gypsic (By) horizon, and vesicular structure. Structures like those found in Earth's desert soils caused by microbial gas production after rains (vesicular structure) have been recognized on Mars, but definitive evidence of life on Mars has yet to be obtained. Mineral abundances within the paleosols show olivine weathering to smectite and a modest depletion of phosphorus. Such hydrolytic weathering is comparable to weathering found on Earth. The chemical and morphological features of the Yellowknife Bay paleosols are a new line of evidence for late Noachian (3.7 ± 0.3 Ga) paleoclimate on Mars, and are interpreted as forming under a hyperarid frigid paleoclimate. Radiometric dating suggests the paleosols at Yellowknife Bay are 3.7 billion years old (± 0.3 billion years) and reveal a change from possible "warm and wet" conditions of the Early Noachian (~4.1-3.9 Ga) to an extreme arid and cold climate with limited soil formation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=60527646 | 2,027,391 |
1,592,529 | Enhancements of more than two orders of magnitude have been observed in the photocurrent from adding SWCNTs to the P3OT matrix. Improvements were speculated to be due to charge separation at polymer–SWCNT connections and more efficient electron transport through the SWCNTs. However, a rather low power conversion efficiency of 0.04% under 100 mW/cm white illumination was observed for the device suggesting incomplete exciton dissociation at low CNT concentrations of 1.0% wt. Because the lengths of the SWCNTs were similar to the thickness of photovoltaic films, doping a higher percentage of SWCNTs into the polymer matrix was believed to cause short circuits. To supply additional dissociation sites, other researchers have physically blended functionalized MWCNTs into P3HT polymer to create a P3HT-MWCNT with fullerene C double-layered device. However, the power efficiency was still relatively low at 0.01% under 100 mW/cm white illumination. Weak exciton diffusion toward the donor–acceptor interface in the bilayer structure may have been the cause in addition to the fullerene C layer possibly experiencing poor electron transport. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=17279558 | 1,591,632 |
715,112 | Including the second term yields a realistic model that also predicts a transition from conductor to insulator as the ratio of interaction to hopping, formula_13, is varied. This ratio can be modified by, for example, increasing the inter-atomic spacing, which would decrease the magnitude of formula_3 without affecting formula_4. In the limit where formula_16, the chain simply resolves into a set of isolated magnetic moments. If formula_13 is not too large, the overlap integral provides for superexchange interactions between neighboring magnetic moments, which may lead to a variety of interesting magnetic correlations, such as ferromagnetic, antiferromagnetic, etc. depending on the model parameters. The one-dimensional Hubbard model was solved by Lieb and Wu using the Bethe ansatz. Essential progress was achieved in the 1990s: a hidden symmetry was discovered, and the scattering matrix, correlation functions, thermodynamic and quantum entanglement were evaluated. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1702398 | 714,738 |
236,537 | Most viruses produce long dsRNA helices during transcription and replication. In contrast, uninfected mammalian cells generally produce dsRNA helices of fewer than 24 base pairs during transcription. DRACO (double-stranded RNA activated caspase oligomerizer) is a group of experimental antiviral drugs initially developed at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. In cell culture, DRACO was reported to have broad-spectrum efficacy against many infectious viruses, including dengue flavivirus, Amapari and Tacaribe arenavirus, Guama bunyavirus, H1N1 influenza and rhinovirus, and was additionally found effective against influenza "in vivo" in weanling mice. It was reported to induce rapid apoptosis selectively in virus-infected mammalian cells, while leaving uninfected cells unharmed. DRACO effects cell death via one of the last steps in the apoptosis pathway in which complexes containing intracellular apoptosis signalling molecules simultaneously bind multiple procaspases. The procaspases transactivate via cleavage, activate additional caspases in the cascade, and cleave a variety of cellular proteins, thereby killing the cell. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=49197 | 236,418 |
1,660,717 | In 1698 Böhm succeeded Christian Flor as organist of the principal church of Lüneburg, the Church of St. John ("Johanniskirche"). Soon after Flor died in 1697, Böhm applied for an audition for the post, mentioning that he had no regular employment at the time. He was promptly accepted by the town council, settled in Lüneburg and held the position until his death. He married and had five sons. From 1700 to 1702 he must have met and possibly tutored the young Johann Sebastian Bach, who arrived in Lüneburg in 1700 and studied at the Michaelisschule, a school associated with the Church of St. Michael ("Michaeliskirche"). Practically no direct evidence exists to prove that Bach studied under Böhm, and indeed studying with the organist of the Johanniskirche would have been difficult for a pupil of the Michaelisschule, since the two choirs were not on good terms. Yet this apprenticeship is extremely likely. Carl Philip Emmanuel Bach, writing to Johann Nikolaus Forkel in 1775, claimed his father loved and studied Böhm's music, and a correction in his note shows that his first thought was to say that Böhm was Johann Sebastian's teacher. On 31 August 2006 the discovery of the earliest known Bach autographs was announced, one of them (a copy of Reincken's famous chorale fantasia on "An Wasserflüssen Babylon") signed "Il Fine â Dom. Georg: Böhme descriptum ao. 1700 Lunaburgi". The "Dom." bit may suggest either "domus" (house) or "Dominus" (master), but in any case it proves that Bach knew Böhm personally. This connection must have become a close friendship that lasted for many years, for in 1727 Bach named none other than Böhm as his northern agent for the sale of keyboard partitas nos. 2 and 3. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1649949 | 1,659,783 |
798,799 | ERPs are used extensively in neuroscience, cognitive psychology, cognitive science, and psycho-physiological research. Experimental psychologists and neuroscientists have discovered many different stimuli that elicit reliable ERPs from participants. The timing of these responses is thought to provide a measure of the timing of the brain's communication or timing of information processing. For example, in the checkerboard paradigm described above, healthy participants' first response of the visual cortex is around 50–70 ms. This would seem to indicate that this is the amount of time it takes for the transduced visual stimulus to reach the cortex after light first enters the eye. Alternatively, the P300 response occurs at around 300ms in the oddball paradigm, for example, regardless of the type of stimulus presented: visual, tactile, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, etc. Because of this general invariance with regard to stimulus type, the P300 component is understood to reflect a higher cognitive response to unexpected and/or cognitively salient stimuli. The P300 response has also been studied in the context of information and memory detection. In addition, there are studies on abnormalities of P300 in depression. Depressed patients tend to have a reduced P200 and P300 amplitude and a prolonged P300 latency. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=614230 | 798,374 |
2,035,058 | The International Reporting Program was created by professor Peter W. Klein with a $1 million donation from philanthropist Alison Lawton’s Mindset Foundation. Students research under-reported global stories and then travel abroad and report in the field alongside industry veterans. Previous projects include "Ghana: Digital Dumping Ground", the Emmy Award-winning collaboration with Frontline World, and "Freedom from Pain", a documentary airing on Al Jazeera English and awarded second place in the 2011 Awards for Excellence in Health Care Journalism. The school also collaborated with "The New York Times" in 2012 to produce two web documentaries exploring development pressures and land disputes in Brazil. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=37687367 | 2,033,885 |
535,141 | The advance entered Palestine and an initial, unsuccessful attempt was made to capture Gaza on 26 March 1917, while a second and equally unsuccessful attempt was launched on 19 April. A third assault occurred between 31 October and 7 November and this time both the Anzac Mounted Division and the Australian Mounted Division took part. The battle was a complete success for the British, over-running the Gaza-Beersheba line and capturing 12,000 Turkish soldiers. The critical moment was the capture of Beersheba on the first day, after the Australian 4th Light Horse Brigade charged more than . The Turkish trenches were overrun, with the Australians capturing the wells at Beersheeba and securing the valuable water they contained along with over 700 prisoners for the loss of 31 killed and 36 wounded. Later, Australian troops assisted in pushing the Turkish forces out of Palestine and took part in actions at Mughar Ridge, Jerusalem and the Megiddo. The Turkish government surrendered on 30 October 1918. Units of the Light Horse were subsequently used to help put down a nationalist revolt in Egypt in 1919 and did so with efficiency and brutality, although they suffered a number of fatalities in the process. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1323516 | 534,862 |
587,255 | The Second Viennese School () was the group of composers that comprised Arnold Schoenberg and his pupils, particularly Alban Berg and Anton Webern, and close associates in early 20th-century Vienna. Their music was initially characterized by late-Romantic expanded tonality and later, a totally chromatic expressionism without firm tonal centre, often referred to as atonality; and later still, Schoenberg's serial twelve-tone technique. Adorno said that the twelve-tone method, when it had evolved into maturity, was a "veritable message in a bottle", addressed to an unknown and uncertain future. Though this common development took place, it neither followed a common time-line nor a cooperative path. Likewise, it was not a direct result of Schoenberg's teaching—which, as his various published textbooks demonstrate, was highly traditional and conservative. Schoenberg's textbooks also reveal that the Second Viennese School spawned not from the development of his serial method, but rather from the influence of his creative example. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=67457 | 586,955 |
357,630 | During her African safari, Fossey met Alexie Forrester, the brother of a Rhodesian she had been dating in Louisville; Fossey and Forrester later became engaged. In her later years, Fossey became involved with "National Geographic" photographer Bob Campbell after a year of working together at Karisoke, with Campbell promising to leave his wife. Eventually the pair grew apart through her dedication to the gorillas and Karisoke, along with his need to work further afield and on his marriage. In 1970, studying for her Ph.D. at Darwin College, University of Cambridge, she discovered she was pregnant and had an abortion, later commenting that "you can't be a cover girl for "National Geographic" magazine and be pregnant." She graduated with a Doctor of Philosophy in Zoology in 1976. Fossey had other relationships throughout the years and always had a love for children. Since Fossey would rescue any abused or abandoned animal she saw in Africa or near Karisoke, she acquired a menagerie in the camp, including a monkey who lived in her cabin, Kima, and a dog, Cindy. Fossey held Christmas parties every year for her researchers, staffers, and their families, and she developed a genuine friendship with Jane Goodall. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=168280 | 357,444 |
1,253,990 | Because of its small size and well-defined structure, the WW domain was developed by the Gruebele and Kelly groups into a favorite subject of protein folding studies. Among these studies, the work of Rama Ranganathan and David E. Shaw are also notable. Ranganathan’s team has shown that a simple statistical energy function, which identifies co-evolution between amino acid residues within the WW domain, is necessary and sufficient to specify sequence that folds into native structure. Using such an algorithm, he and his team synthesized libraries of artificial WW domains that functioned in a very similar manner to their natural counterparts, recognizing class-specific proline-rich ligand peptides, The Shaw laboratory developed a specialized machine that allowed elucidation of the atomic level behavior of the WW domain on a biologically relevant time scale. He and his team employed equilibrium simulations of a WW domain and identified seven unfolding and eight folding events. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=26055024 | 1,253,310 |
281,468 | On their honeymoon, the couple spent a month at Upton and the Lake District, followed by three months on a tour of the leading medical institutes in France, Germany, Switzerland, and Italy. The couple returned in October 1856. By this time, Agnes was enamoured of medical research and became Lister's partner in the laboratory for the rest of her life. When they returned to Edinburgh, the couple moved into a rented house at 11 Rutland Street in Edinburgh. The house was situated over three floors with a study on the first floor, that was converting into a consulting room for patients and a room with hot and cold taps on the second floor that became his laboratory. The Scottish surgeon Watson Cheyne, who was almost a surrogate son to Lister, stated after his death that Agnes had entered into her work wholeheartedly, had been his only secretary, and that they discussed his work "on an almost equal footing". Lister's books are full of Agnes' careful handwriting. Agnes would take dictation from Lister, taken at hours at a stretch. Spaces would be left blank amongst the reams of Agnes' handwriting for small diagrams, that Lister would create using the camera lucida technique and Agnes would later paste in. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=16535 | 281,315 |
1,447,224 | A nuclear engine was considered for some time as a replacement for the J-2 used on the S-II and S-IVB stages on the Saturn V and Saturn I rockets. Originally "drop-in" replacements were considered for higher performance, but a larger replacement for the S-IVB stage was later studied for missions to Mars and other high-load profiles, known as the S-N. Nuclear thermal translunar or interplanetary space "shuttles" were planned as part of the Space Transportation System to take payloads from a propellant depot in low Earth orbit to the Moon and other planets. Robert Bussard proposed the Single-Stage-To-Orbit "Aspen" vehicle using a nuclear thermal rocket for propulsion and liquid hydrogen propellant for partial shielding against neutron back scattering in the lower atmosphere. The Soviets studied nuclear engines for their own moon rockets, notably upper stages of the N-1, although they never entered an extensive testing program like the one the U.S. conducted throughout the 1960s at the Nevada Test Site. Despite many successful firings, American nuclear rockets did not fly before the space race ended. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31137564 | 1,446,408 |
1,631,478 | He was born in West Punjab, British India in 1939, and is of Kashmiri descent. He received his bachelor's degree in Science at the University of Delhi in 1958, and his Ph.D. degree from Stanford University in 1964. He taught at the University of California, Riverside 1964-65, and was Andrew Mellon Fellow at the University of Pittsburgh from 1965-66. Since 1966 he has been at Northeastern University. He has held visiting positions at TIFR, Mumbai under the United Nations Development Program, at the University of California, Santa Barbara, at Bonn, CERN, Heidelberg and Munich. He was co-chair of the conference "Gauge Theories and Modern Field Theory", in 1975, and founding chair in 1990 of the annual PASCOS symposium (Particle physics, String theory and Cosmology), and also the founding chair in 1993 of the annual conference SUSY. In 2004 PASCOS symposium held a special Pran Nath Festschrift honouring his "pioneering contributions over four decades in the fields of high energy theory, supersymmetry, supergravity, and unification". A full list of his publications can be seen here | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2946949 | 1,630,556 |
680,264 | In the early 20th century, the Dolly Varden (still including bull trout, and often confused with Arctic char) suffered from a reputation as an undesirable predator of fish such as salmon, steelhead and cutthroat trout. Despite co-evolving with these other species for thousands of years, Dolly Varden were accused of indiscriminately feeding on eggs and fry of other species to their detriment. Between 1921 and 1941, the Territory of Alaska, supported by the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries, had an official extermination program that paid bounties on Dolly Varden. In the Iliamna Lake/Kvichak River region in southwest Alaska, the bounty was 2.5 cents per Dolly Varden tail turned into the territorial tax collector. Locals would trap Dolly Varden in nets and weirs, string 40 tails on a hoop of bailing wire and smoke them over a wood fire. One hoop would be worth one dollar. The fish carcasses would be used for dog food. The hoops of fishtails were then used as currency to pay for supplies, or in some reports, airfare with local bush pilots. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1880489 | 679,910 |
15,872 | The chemical structure of penicillin is triggered with a very precise, pH-dependent directed mechanism, affected by a unique spatial assembly of molecular components, which can activate by protonation. It can travel through bodily fluids, targeting and inactivating enzymes responsible for cell-wall synthesis in gram-positive bacteria, meanwhile avoiding the surrounding non-targets. Penicillin can protect itself from spontaneous hydrolysis in the body in its anionic form while storing its potential as a strong acylating agent, activated only upon approach to the target transpeptidase enzyme and protonated in the active centre. This targeted protonation neutralizes the carboxylic acid moiety, which is weakening of the β-lactam ring N–C(=O) bond, resulting in a self-activation. Specific structural requirements are equated to constructing the perfect mousetrap for catching targeted prey. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 | 15,867 |
1,468,782 | One of the issues involved in machine monitoring is whether or not it can be accomplished automatically in a practical way. In the 1980s monitoring was typically done by having a menu on the DNC terminal where the operator had to manually indicate what was being done by selecting from a menu, which has obvious drawbacks. There have been advances in passive monitoring systems where the machine condition can be determined by hardware attached in such a way as not to interfere with machine operations (and potentially void warranties). Many modern controls allow external applications to query their status using a special protocol. MTConnect is one prominent attempt to augment the existing world of proprietary systems with some open-source, industry-standard protocols and XML schemas and an ecosystem of massively multiplayer app development and mashups (analogous to that with smartphones) so that these long-sought higher levels of manufacturing business intelligence and workflow automation can be realized. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2998794 | 1,467,958 |
70,837 | Trace elements involved in GSH-Px and superoxide dismutase enzymes activities, i.e. selenium, vanadium, magnesium, copper, and zinc, may have been lacking in some terrestrial mineral-deficient areas. Marine organisms retained and sometimes expanded their selenoproteomes, whereas the selenoproteomes of some terrestrial organisms were reduced or completely lost. These findings suggest that, with the exception of vertebrates, aquatic life supports selenium use, whereas terrestrial habitats lead to reduced use of this trace element. Marine fishes and vertebrate thyroid glands have the highest concentration of selenium and iodine. From about 500 million years ago, freshwater and terrestrial plants slowly optimized the production of "new" endogenous antioxidants such as ascorbic acid (vitamin C), polyphenols (including flavonoids), tocopherols, etc. A few of these appeared more recently, in the last 50–200 million years, in fruits and flowers of angiosperm plants. In fact, the angiosperms (the dominant type of plant today) and most of their antioxidant pigments evolved during the late Jurassic period. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27117 | 70,810 |
1,003,929 | Despite the attractiveness of the aldol manifold, there are several problems that need to be addressed to render the process catalytic and effective. The first problem is a thermodynamic one: most aldol reactions are reversible. Furthermore, the equilibrium is also just barely on the side of the products in the case of simple aldehyde–ketone aldol reactions. If the conditions are particularly harsh (e.g.: NaOMe/MeOH/reflux), condensation may occur, but this can usually be avoided with mild reagents and low temperatures (e.g., LDA (a strong base), THF, −78 °C). Although the aldol addition usually proceeds to near completion under irreversible conditions, the isolated aldol adducts are sensitive to base-induced retro-aldol cleavage to return starting materials. In contrast, retro-aldol condensations are rare, but possible. This is the basis of the catalytic strategy of class I aldolases in nature, as well as numerous small-molecule amine catalysts. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=498127 | 1,003,411 |
1,086,633 | New Zealand Institute of Economic Research judged that assembly was not capital-intensive and that most of the work required unskilled labour. In 1971 they estimated that including freight but without duty fully imported vehicles would cost around 3% less than locally assembled cars. At the same time the costs of local assembly and local components were around double the costs if carried out by the overseas manufacturer. The report of the Institute's study claimed that limiting the then-current production levels to one or two models assembled by one or two plants would bring significant savings from economies of scale. It was also claimed that production of 200,000 units a year would be needed to give major economies of scale. In summary, forcing local manufacture was not difficult but the results were not fully satisfactory. It was suggested that the protection afforded British and Australian vehicles be dropped as low as permitted by treaties with those countries. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=34570831 | 1,086,075 |
1,294,329 | In 1756, Pott sustained a broken leg after a fall from his horse. It is often assumed that his injury was the same one that later came to be known as Pott's fracture, but in reality, Pott's broken leg was a much more serious compound fracture of the tibia. As he lay in the muck, he sent a servant to buy a door from a nearby construction site, then had himself placed on the door and taken home. Surgeons cleaned the wound and discussed amputation, an operation which at the time had a very high rate of failure, as it often led to sepsis and death, but Pott prevailed on them to splint the leg, and he ultimately recovered completely. In 1769 Pott published "Some Few Remarks upon Fractures and Dislocations". The book was translated into French and Italian and had a far-reaching influence in Britain and France. His name was written in the annals of medicine, by first describing arthritic tuberculosis of the spine (Pott's disease). He gave an excellent clinical description in his "Remarks on that Kind of Palsy of the Lower Limbs". Among his other writings the most noteworthy are "A Treatise on Ruptures" (1756), and "Chirurgical Observations". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=189427 | 1,293,618 |
1,182,610 | In March, No. 2 Commando plus demolition experts from Numbers 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9 and 12 Commandos took part in Operation Chariot the St Nazaire Raid. The destroyer HMS "Campbeltown" had 24 Mark VII depth-charges (4 tons) cemented below decks behind the forward gun support. Accompanied by 18 smaller ships, the "Campbeltown" sailed into port where she was rammed directly into the "Normandie dock" gates. The commandos engaged the German forces and destroyed the dock facilities. Eight hours later, delayed-action fuses set off the explosives in the "Campbeltown" which wrecked the dock gates and killed some 360 Germans and French. A total of 611 soldiers and sailors took part in Chariot; 169 were killed and 200 (most wounded) taken prisoner. Only 242 returned immediately. Of the 241 commandos who took part 64 were posted as killed or missing and 109 captured. Among participants in the raid two commandos Lieutenant Colonel Augustus Charles Newman and Sergeant Thomas Durrant together with three members of the Royal Navy were awarded the Victoria Cross, while 80 others received decorations for gallantry. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27342087 | 1,181,985 |
317,944 | Tokay geckos are generally aggressive, territorial, and can inflict a strong bite. Females lay clutches of one or two hard-shelled eggs and guard them until they hatch. The tokay gecko feeds on insects and small vertebrates. In a study conducted in Thailand, researchers noticed that there was little variation in the diets males, females, and juveniles, which was likely due to low insect availability in this area. It is a strong climber with foot pads that can support the entire weight of the body on a vertical surface for a long period of time. Compared to other gecko species, the tokay gecko has a robust build, with a tail, a large head and muscular jaws. Though common in the pet trade, the strong bite of the tokay gecko makes it ill-suited for inexperienced keepers. In addition, the strength of the bite depending on the gecko's size; larger (usually male) tokay geckos are capable of piercing skin, which often results in immediate bleeding. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1457471 | 317,774 |
499,195 | "Ophthalmosaurus" was a medium-sized ichthyosaur, measuring long and weighing . It had a robust, streamlined body that was nearly as wide as it was tall in frontal view. Like other derived ichthyosaurs "Ophthalmosaurus" had a powerful tail ending in a pronounced bi-lobed caudal fluke whose lower half was formed around the caudal spine whereas the upper lobe was made up entirely from soft tissue. The limbs of "Ophthalmosaurus" were short and rounded with the forelimbs being noticeably larger than the hind limbs. The combination of rather inflexible trunk, powerful caudal fluke and reduced limbs suggests a tail-propelled mode of locomotion with the limbs helping with steering, differing from the anguilliform (eel-like) way more basal ichthyosaurs swam. The skull of "Ophthalmosaurus" was long with a slender, toothed rostrum and an enlarged posterior portion of the cranium. The dentition was relatively small with robust tooth crowns and the lateral area of the cranium was almost entirely occupied by the animal's massive eyes that gave the genus its name. The proportionally large eyes of "Ophthalmosaurus" measured in diameter at the outer margin of the bony sclerotic ring, while the sclerotic aperture itself measured in diameter. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3361149 | 498,938 |
1,885,089 | In the spring of 2002, the first collegiate chapters were formed at Cornell and Pennsylvania State University. By December 2002, chapters had formed at other universities across the United States, including Stanford, Northwestern, Caltech, and UC-Berkeley. In March 2004, EWF-USA changed its name to Engineers for a Sustainable World following a dispute with Engineers Without Borders - USA over the similarity between the two names and to broaden its vision to include sustainability in development. In October 2006, the current world-in-gear logo was adopted. In 2007, the ESW national office relocated from Ithaca, New York, to the San Francisco Bay Area. In September 2008, Regina Clewlow stepped down as executive director to pursue a doctoral degree in engineering at MIT. She was replaced by Julie Chow. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3375714 | 1,884,008 |
1,411,131 | The surface of Venus is dominated by geologic features that include volcanoes, large impact craters, and aeolian erosion and sedimentation landforms. Venus has a topography reflecting its single, strong crustal plate, with a unimodal elevation distribution (over 90% of the surface lies within an elevation of -1.0 and 2.5 km) that preserves geologic structures for long periods of time. Studies of the Venusian surface are based on imaging, radar, and altimetry data collected from several exploratory space probes, particularly "Magellan", since 1961 (see Venus Exploration). Despite its similarities to Earth in size, mass, density, and possibly composition, Venus has a unique geology that is unlike Earth's. Although much older than Earth's, the surface of Venus is relatively young compared to other terrestrial planets (<500 million years old), possibly due to a global-scale resurfacing event that buried much of the previous rock record. Venus is believed to have approximately the same bulk elemental composition as Earth, due to the physical similarities, but the exact composition is unknown. The surface conditions on Venus are more extreme than on Earth, with temperatures ranging from 453 to 473 °C and pressures of 95 bar. Venus lacks water, which makes crustal rock stronger and helps preserve surface features. The features observed provide evidence for the geological processes at work. Twenty feature types have been categorized thus far. These classes include local features, such as craters, coronae, and undae, as well as regional-scale features, such as planitiae, plana, and tesserae. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=46265008 | 1,410,338 |
1,921,763 | Perturbation series in quantum field theory are usually divergent as was firstly indicated by Freeman Dyson. According to the Lipatov method, formula_5-th order contribution of perturbation theory into any quantity can be evaluated at large formula_5 in the saddle-point approximation for functional integrals and is determined by instanton configurations. This contribution behaves usually as formula_7 in dependence on formula_5 and is frequently associated with approximately the same (formula_7) number of Feynman diagrams. Lautrup has noted that there exist individual diagrams giving approximately the same contribution. In principle, it is possible that such diagrams are automatically taken into account in Lipatov's calculation, because its interpretation in terms of diagrammatic technique is problematic. However, 't Hooft put forward a conjecture that Lipatov's and Lautrup's contributions are related with different types of singularities in the Borel plane, the former with instanton ones and the latter with renormalon ones. Existence of instanton singularities is beyond any doubt, while existence of renormalon ones was never proved rigorously in spite of numerous efforts. Among the essential contributions one should mention the application of the operator product expansion, as was suggested by Parisi. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8324507 | 1,920,660 |
2,093,010 | John H. Reynolds was born in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States. He studied first at Harvard University and, after serving in the Navy during World War II, at the University of Chicago. There, he was influenced by his Ph.D. thesis advisor Mark Inghram and by two other famous physicists, Harold Urey and Enrico Fermi. He specialized in mass spectrometry and utilized this method to determine isotope ratios needed for the radiometric dating of geologically and cosmologically relevant samples. In 1950 he was appointed as professor to the University of California, Berkeley where he continued his research on isotope ratios in meteorites, leading to the discovery in 1960 that the Richardton meteorite and other meteorites had an excess of xenon-129, thought to be a result of the beta decay of iodine-129 in the early Solar System. His improvement of potassium-argon dating was adopted by several institutions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13891795 | 2,091,805 |
691,369 | Numerous scientists have debunked the work, pointing out that not only has it been shown that a supposedly irreducibly complex structure can evolve, but that it can do so within a reasonable time even subject to unrealistically harsh restrictions, and noting that Behe and Snoke's paper does not properly include natural selection and genetic redundancy. When the issue raised by Behe and Snoke is tested in the modern framework of evolutionary biology, numerous simple pathways to complexity have been shown. In their response, Behe and Snoke assumed that intermediate mutations are always damaging, where modern science allows for neutral or positive mutations. Some of the critics have also noted that the Discovery Institute continues to claim the paper as 'published evidence for design,' despite its offering no design theory nor attempting to model the design process, and therefore not providing an alternative to random chance. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=186205 | 691,006 |
161,527 | The primary sense organs of chitons are the subradular organ and a large number of unique organs called aesthetes. The aesthetes consist of light-sensitive cells just below the surface of the shell, although they are not capable of true vision. In some cases, however, they are modified to form ocelli, with a cluster of individual photoreceptor cells lying beneath a small aragonite-based lens. Each lens can form clear images, and is composed of relatively large, highly crystallographically-aligned grains to minimize light scattering. An individual chiton may have thousands of such ocelli. These aragonite-based eyes make them capable of true vision; though research continues as to the extent of their visual acuity. It is known that they can differentiate between a predator's shadow and changes in light caused by clouds. An evolutionary trade-off has led to a compromise between the eyes and the shell; as the size and complexity of the eyes increase, the mechanical performance of their shells decrease, and vice versa. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=233656 | 161,442 |
863,443 | June 18th 2020, Exscalate4CoV, the private-public consortium supported by the EU’s Horizon 2020 programme for research and innovation, led by Dompé farmaceutici and currently representing 18 partners (including Fraunhofer Institute, CINECA, Chelonia Applied Science, Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics and others) has requested access to clinical trials for the use of Raloxifene in COVID-19 patients. Raloxifene, already proven effective against Mers and Sars in preclinical tests, has been indicated as effective against SARS-CoV-2 by the “in-silico” research conducted by the consortium which has shown efficacy in countering the replication of the virus in cells. The IP for its use against SARS-CoV-2 has already been protected on May 6 2020 in the name Dompé farmaceutici, Fraunhofer Institute and KU Leuven, to facilitate the largest possible access. Raloxifene would be used in mildly symptomatic COVID-19 patients to halt the spread of infection. This result emerged from the first virtual (in silico) screening conducted on the Consortium’s supercomputers of more than 400.000 molecules (safe-in-man drugs and natural products) made available by Dompé farmaceutici and the partner Fraunhofer (IME) to the Consortium. The molecules were prioritized if in clinical stage or already on the market. 7.000 molecules with certain promising characteristics were tested. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1845623 | 862,983 |
1,072,577 | Roy Jay Glauber (September 1, 1925 – December 26, 2018) was an American theoretical physicist. He was the Mallinckrodt Professor of Physics at Harvard University and Adjunct Professor of Optical Sciences at the University of Arizona. Born in New York City, he was awarded one half of the 2005 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his contribution to the quantum theory of optical coherence", with the other half shared by John L. Hall and Theodor W. Hänsch. In this work, published in 1963, he created a model for photodetection and explained the fundamental characteristics of different types of light, such as laser light (see coherent state) and light from light bulbs (see blackbody). His theories are widely used in the field of quantum optics. In statistical physics he pioneered the study of the dynamics of first-order phase transitions, since he first defined and investigated the stochastic dynamics of an Ising model in a largely influential paper published in 1963. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2830958 | 1,072,023 |
487,924 | Although PRAM has not yet reached the commercialization stage for consumer electronic devices, nearly all prototype devices make use of a chalcogenide alloy of germanium (Ge), antimony (Sb) and tellurium (Te) called GeSbTe (GST). The stoichiometry, or Ge:Sb:Te element ratio, is 2:2:5 in GST. When GST is heated to a high temperature (over 600 °C), its chalcogenide crystallinity is lost. Once cooled, it is frozen into an amorphous glass-like state and its electrical resistance is high. By heating the chalcogenide to a temperature above its crystallization point, but below the melting point, it will transform into a crystalline state with a much lower resistance. The time to complete this phase transition is temperature-dependent. Cooler portions of the chalcogenide take longer to crystallize, and overheated portions may be remelted. A crystallization time scale on the order of 100 ns is commonly used. This is longer than conventional volatile memory devices like modern DRAM, which have a switching time on the order of two nanoseconds. However, a January 2006 Samsung Electronics patent application indicates PRAM may achieve switching times as fast as five nanoseconds. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=850973 | 487,674 |
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