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1,570,343 | In recent years, Brinster has continued to advance the field of stem cell biology by making a series of catalyzing, transformational discoveries utilizing male germline stem cells, called spermatogonial stem cells (SSCs). Spermatogonial stem cells in the testes are the only cells in the adult body that divide throughout life and transmit genes to the next generation, establishing them as a powerful resource to modify genes of any mammalian species. In elegant experiments published in 1994, Brinster demonstrated that these stem cells can be transplanted from the testis of a fertile male to the testis of an infertile male where they establish spermatogenesis and produce spermatozoa of donor haplotype (Fig. 5). He further demonstrated that the technique is applicable to all mammalian species examined, including humans. Currently, scientists are extending spermatogonial stem cell culture and transplantation to prepubertal boys being treated for cancer to preserve their fertility (Fig. 6). The ability to harvest, culture, genetically modify, freeze and transplant spermatogonial stem cells will not only allow sophisticated genetic modification but will make individual males biologically immortal. Moreover, current studies indicate that it soon will be possible to convert a somatic cell to a germ cell, particularly to the SSC, which will have enormous implications scientifically and in the treatment of clinically important fertility problems. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13365910 | 1,569,455 |
2,012,716 | After the season, Jason Clark and Henry Sims graduated. Clark had played in all 130 games of his collegiate career, starting every game in his sophomore, junior, and senior years; he averaged 10.5 points per game on 48.0 percent field-goal shooting over his four-year career. He went on to play professional basketball in Europe. Sims played as a reserve in his first three seasons, skewing his overall career statistics, but he started every game in his senior year, and it was far and away his best season. Over his 121-game college career, he averaged 4.9 points per game on 47.9 percent shooting from the field, and he pulled down an average of 3.2 rebounds per game. He went undrafted in the 2012 NBA draft, but later signed with several National Basketball Association teams, beginning with the New York Knicks. Hollis Thompson announced on March 27, 2012, that he would not return to Georgetown for his senior year the following season and would enter the 2012 NBA draft; he left Georgetown having played 99 games, 57 as a starter, with a career average of 8.7 points, 4.1 rebounds, 1.1 assists, and 24.6 minutes per game, shooting 47.8 percent overall from the field, and his three-point shooting percentage of 44 percent was the best in school history. He went undrafted in the NBA draft, but signed with the Oklahoma City Thunder in July 2012 and with the Philadelphia 76ers in September 2013. He was the twelfth Hoya player in seven seasons to leave the team prior to the end of his college eligibility. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=33673923 | 2,011,559 |
1,393,097 | Rimland linked the increase of late-onset autism during the 1980s with the introduction of the MMR vaccine, a correlation the Center for Disease Control, the American Academy of Pediatrics, and the American Medical Association did not support. He rejected the idea that a diagnosis of autism at or around 18 months, the same time the vaccinations were administered, was coincidental. When the California Department of Health Services, along with studies from England and Finland, reported that the vaccine "plays little or no role in the disease," Rimland stated that it was "much too early to dismiss the [vaccine] hypothesis". He remained undeterred when a study by Robert L. Davis, published in the "Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine", found no association between MMR and inflammatory bowel disease, discussed in the Wakefield report, "nor any evidence that the vaccine triggered acute onset of symptoms." In 2004, 10 of the 13 co-authors of the Wakefield study withdrew the original interpretation. The United States Institute of Medicine (IOM) in its 2004 report found that, "the body of epidemiological evidence favors rejection of a causal relationship between thimerosal-containing vaccines and autism." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1802608 | 1,392,326 |
2,615 | As the program moved to full-scale development, or Engineering & Manufacturing Development (EMD), the production F-22 design had notable differences from the YF-22, despite having a similar configuration. The wing’s leading edge sweep angle was decreased from 48° to 42°, while the vertical stabilizers were shifted rearward and decreased in area by 20%. The radome shape was changed for better radar performance and the wingtips were clipped for antennas. To improve pilot visibility and aerodynamics, the canopy was moved forward and the engine inlets moved rearward . The shapes of the fuselage, wing, and stabilator trailing edges were refined to improve aerodynamics, strength, and stealth characteristics. The production airframe was designed with a service life of 8,000 hours. Increasing weight during EMD caused slight reductions in projected range and maneuver performance. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299 | 2,615 |
1,003,906 | As an example, the Texas Legislature appropriated US$1 million for a pilot study of statewide athlete screening in 2007. The study employed a combination of questionnaire, examination and electrocardiography for 2,506 student athletes, followed by echocardiography for 2,051 of them, including any students with abnormal findings from the first three steps. The questionnaire alone flagged 35% of the students as potentially at risk, but there were many false positive results, with actual disease being confirmed in less than 2%. Further, a substantial number of screen-positive students declined repeated recommendations for follow-up evaluation. (Individuals who are conclusively diagnosed with cardiac disease are usually told to avoid competitive sports.) It should be stressed that this was a single pilot program, but it was indicative of the problems associated with large-scale screening, and consistent with experience in other locations with low prevalence of sudden death in athletes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=37416497 | 1,003,388 |
1,640,355 | In change detection, scene changes are identified, and new, moved or departed targets are highlighted for evaluation. In spectral signature matching, the system can be programmed with the parameters of a missing aircraft, such as paint colors, to alert the operators of possible wreckage. It can also be used to look for specific materials, such as petroleum products or other chemicals released into the environment, or even ordinary items like commonly available blue polyethylene tarpaulins. In an impact assessment role, information on the location of blue tarps used to temporarily repair buildings damaged in a storm can help direct disaster relief efforts; in a counterdrug role, a blue tarp located in a remote area could be associated with illegal activity. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13160311 | 1,639,428 |
522,871 | It has been inferred that "Acanthostega" probably lived in shallow, weed-choked swamps, its legs apparently being adapted for these specific ecosystems. Apart from the presence of limbs, it was not adapted in any way for walking on land. Jennifer A. Clack interprets this as showing that "Acanthostega" was primarily an aquatic animal descended from fish that never left the sea, and that the specializations of the tetrapod lineage were exaptations: features which would later be useful for terrestrial life, even if they originated for a different purpose. At that period, deciduous plants were flourishing and annually shedding leaves into the water, attracting small prey into warm oxygen-poor shallows that were difficult for larger fish to swim in; Clack remarks on how the lower jaw of "Acanthostega" shows a change from those of fish that have two rows of teeth, with a large number of small teeth in the outer row, and two large fangs and some smaller teeth in the inner row. This difference likely corresponds to a shift in stem-tetrapods from feeding exclusively in the water to feeding with the head above water or on land. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1539814 | 522,599 |
1,953,444 | The rapid decline of the Aral Sea is an example how local-scale land use and land change can have compounded impacts on regional climate systems, particularly when human activities heavily disrupt natural climatic cycles, how land change science can be used to map and study such changes. In 1960, the Aral Sea, located in Central Asia, was the world's fourth largest lake. However, a water diversion project, undertaken by the Soviet Union to irrigate arid plains in what is now Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan, resulted in the Aral Sea losing 85% of its land cover and 90% of its volume. The loss of the Aral Sea has had a significant effect on human-environment interactions in the region, including the decimation of the sea's fishing industry and the salinization of agricultural lands by the wind-spread of dried sea salt beds. Additionally, scientists have been able to use technology such as NASA's Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) to track changes to the Aral Sea and its surrounding climate over time. This use of modeling and satellite imagery to track human-caused land cover change is characteristic of the scope of land change science. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66693032 | 1,952,323 |
902,822 | There are numerous sets of instructions for making lemon batteries and for obtaining components such as light-emitting diodes (LEDs), electrical meters (multimeters), and zinc-coated (galvanized) nails and screws. Commercial "potato clock" science kits include electrodes and a low-voltage digital clock. After one cell is assembled, a multimeter can be used to measure the voltage or the electric current from the voltaic cell; a typical voltage is 0.9 V with lemons. Currents are more variable, but range up to about 1 mA (the larger the electrode surfaces, the bigger the current). For a more visible effect, lemon cells can be connected in series to power an LED (see illustration) or other devices. The series connection increases the voltage available to devices. Swartling and Morgan have published a list of low-voltage devices along with the corresponding number of lemon cells that were needed to power them; they included LEDs, piezoelectric buzzers, and small digital clocks. With the zinc/copper electrodes, at least two lemon cells were needed for any of these devices. Substituting a magnesium electrode for the zinc electrode makes a cell with a larger voltage (1.5−1.6 V), and a single magnesium/copper cell will power some devices. Note that incandescent light bulbs from flashlights are not used because the lemon battery is not designed to produce enough electric current to light them. By multiplying the average current of a lemon (0.001A/ 1mA) by the average (lowest) voltage (potential difference) of a lemon (0.7V) we can conclude that it would take more than 6 million lemons to give us the power of an average 4320W car battery. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=217946 | 902,346 |
883,251 | RMS can occur in almost any soft-tissue site in the body; the most common primary sites are genitourinary (24%), parameningeal (16%), extremity (19%), orbit (9%), other head and neck (10%), and miscellaneous other sites (22%). RMS often presents as a mass, but signs and symptoms can vary widely depending on the site of the primary tumor. Genitourinary tumors may present with hematuria, urinary tract obstruction, and/or a scrotal or vaginal mass. Tumors that arise in the retroperitoneum and mediastinum can become quite large before producing signs and symptoms. Parameningeal tumors may present with cranial nerve dysfunction, symptoms of sinusitis, ear discharge, headaches, and facial pain. Orbital tumors often present with orbital swelling and proptosis. Extremity tumors generally present as a rapidly enlarging, firm mass in the relevant tissue. The cancer's prevalence in the head, face, and neck will often allow for earlier signs of the disease simply due to the obvious nature of tumors in these locations. Despite the varying presentation and typically aggressive nature of the disease, RMS has the potential to be diagnosed and treated early. The fourth IRSG study found that 23% of patients were diagnosed in time for a complete resection of their cancer, and 15% had resection with only minimal remnants of the diseased cells. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=549895 | 882,787 |
1,605,795 | The SNFG consists of a table that provides color coded symbols for various monosaccharides that are commonly found in nature. It also includes a set of footnotes that describe rules for rendering glycans, including guidelines on how to modify the base set of symbols depicted in the table. These footnotes are organized into 10 themes that provide streamlined recommendations for: i. general usage of the SNFG; ii. CMYK / RGB color codes; iii. symbol colors and shapes; iv. ring configurations; v. bond linkage presentation; vi. sialic acids; vii. glycan modifications; viii. amino substitutions; ix. handling ambiguous or partially defined glycans; and x. depicting non-glycan entities using SNFG renderings. More details are available at the main SNFG webpage, which is periodically updated with additional directions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=60745023 | 1,604,891 |
484,174 | "Xylella fastidiosa" is rod-shaped, and at least one subspecies has two types of pili on only one pole; longer, type IV pili are used for locomotion, while shorter, type I pili assist in biofilm formation inside their hosts. As demonstrated using a PD-related strain, the bacterium has a characteristic twitching motion that enables groups of bacteria to travel upstream against heavy flow, such as that found in xylem vessels. It is obligately insect-vector transmitted from xylem-feeding insects directly into xylem, but infected plant material for vegetative propagation (e.g. grafting) can produce mature plants that also have an "X. fastidiosa" disease. In the wild, infections tend to occur during warmer seasons, when insect vector populations peak. The bacterium is not seed transmitted, but instead is transmitted through "xylem feed-ing, suctorial homopteran insects such as sharpshooter leafhoppers and spittle bugs" and has been historically difficult to culture (fastidious), as its specific epithet, "fastidiosa", reflects. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5073625 | 483,925 |
157,514 | The oldest species with a mineralized skeleton occurs in the Lower Ordovician. It is likely that the first bryozoans appeared much earlier and were entirely soft-bodied, and the Ordovician fossils record the appearance of mineralized skeletons in this phylum. By the Arenigian stage of the Early Ordovician period, about , all the modern orders of stenolaemates were present, and the ctenostome order of gymnolaemates had appeared by the Middle Ordovician, about . The Early Ordovician fossils may also represent forms that had already become significantly different from the original members of the phylum. Ctenostomes with phosphatized soft tissue are known from the Devonian. Other types of filter feeders appeared around the same time, which suggests that some change made the environment more favorable for this lifestyle. Fossils of cheilostomates, another order of gymnolaemates, first appear in the Mid Jurassic, about , and these have been the most abundant and diverse bryozoans from the Cretaceous to the present. Evidence compiled from the last 100 million years show that cheilostomates consistently grew over cyclostomates in territorial struggles, which may help to explain how cheilostomates replaced cyclostomates as the dominant marine bryozoans. Marine fossils from the Paleozoic era, which ended , are mainly of erect forms, those from the Mesozoic are fairly equally divided by erect and encrusting forms, and more recent ones are predominantly encrusting. Fossils of the soft, freshwater phylactolaemates are very rare, appear in and after the Late Permian (which began about ) and consist entirely of their durable statoblasts. There are no known fossils of freshwater members of other classes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3416 | 157,442 |
620,644 | The Ural owl is a fairly distinctive looking bird but can be confused for other owls, especially with others in the "Strix" genus. The tawny owl is much smaller with a conspicuously shorter tail and a relatively larger head. The tawny species, which occurs variously in grey, brown and red morphs, has underparts with dark shaft-streaks and crossbars, as opposed to the heavy but straight streaking of the Ural owl. The great grey owl is larger than the Ural owl with a huge head and relatively even smaller yellow eyes while their facial disc has strong concentric lines. In colour, the great grey is distinctly more solidly uniform and somewhat dark greyish than the Ural owl. An unlikely species to mistake a Ural owl is the Eurasian eagle-owl ("Bubo bubo") which is much larger (by a considerable margin the heaviest and longest winged owl in Europe) with prominent ear tufts, a squarish (not rounded) head shape and orange eyes as well as with distinctly different markings. Long-eared owls ("Asio otus") are much smaller and slimmer, with prominent ear-tufts, orange eyes and more prominent dark markings. More similar than any in Europe, the closely related Père David's owl does not occur in the same range as (other?) Ural owls but is darker in plumage, also with a facial disc marked with darker concentric lines. Due to its partially diurnal behaviour during warmer months, some authors consider it confusable with the very different looking (but similarly largish and long-tailed) northern goshawk ("Accipiter gentilis"). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=815909 | 620,329 |
1,626,627 | Not far from Grand Junction is a tall cottonwood tree called the Ute Council Tree. Close by is an obvious dinosaur track site. The Ute had a myth regarding these tracks that justified the tree as a significant meeting place, although the contents of the tale are now lost. Oglala Lakota historian Johnson Holy Rock has described an old story about a Lakota hunting party traveling through northeastern Colorado who were caught during an exceptionally violent thunderstorm while camping. They thought the violence of the storm was due to the Thunder Birds being angry and trying to kill something with their lightning. When morning came, the Lakota hunters went down onto the plain where the storm was most intense. There they found the carcass of an animal with an unusual long nose who was "so strange that they wondered how it managed to eat." This story may be based on the region's abundant fossils. Candidates for the unusual remains found after the storm include brontotheres, entelodonts, or proboscidean remains. Johnson Holy Rock, who told the story, was inclined to think of the animal as a proboscidean or giant tapir. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=37799146 | 1,625,709 |
1,734,151 | Much in the same way as his collaborations in dance, Reynolds has narrowed in on two consistent key partners in theatre. While his theatre work began with lighting in high school, and expanded into various work throughout Austin, his first collaboration with Rude Mechanicals (Rude Mechs) was In The House of Moles (2000), a relationship which blossomed into his current company membership with them, since 2003. He composed the original score and designed sound for the Creative Capital Award Winning The Method Gun (2007), The Lincoln Center commission Stop Hitting Yourself (2014), and the Yale Repertory commission Field Guide (2017). In total, the relationship has resulted in ten complete works. Simultaneously, his relationship with Salvage Vanguard Theater also developed, from Cry Pitch Carrolls (1999), the first in a series of collaborations with Ruth Margraff, and The Intergalactic Nemesis (2000), which split off from the company and had nearly a decade of international touring, deepening the network and connections with presenters. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5875842 | 1,733,174 |
1,660,668 | The charge-coupled devices (CCDs) in the WFPC2 (designed at JPL and manufactured by Loral) detected electromagnetic radiation in a range from 120 nm to 1000 nm. This included the 380 nm to 780 nm of the visible spectrum, all of the near ultraviolet (and a small part of the extreme ultraviolet band) and most of the near-infrared band. The sensitivity distribution of these CCDs is roughly normal, with a peak around 700 nm and concomitantly very poor sensitivity at the extremes of the CCDs' operating range. WFPC2 featured four identical CCD detectors, each 800x800 pixels. Three of these, arranged in an L-formation, comprise Hubble's Wide Field Camera (WFC). Adjacent to them is the Planetary Camera (PC), a fourth CCD with different (narrower-focused) optics. This afforded a more detailed view over a smaller region of the visual field. WFC and PC images are typically combined, producing the WFPC2's characteristic stairstep image. When distributed as non-scientific JPEG files the PC portion of the image is shown with the same resolution as the WFC portions, but astronomers receive a raw scientific image package which presents the PC image in its native, higher detail. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=884109 | 1,659,734 |
345,813 | Additional game elements not featured in the original "Portal" include Thermal Discouragement Beams (lasers), Excursion Funnels (tractor beams), and Hard Light Bridges, all of which can be transmitted through portals. Aerial Faith Plates catapult the player and objects through the air. The player must disable sentient, lethal turrets or avoid their line of sight. The Weighted Storage Cube has been redesigned, and there are new types: Redirection Cubes, which have prismatic lenses that redirect laser beams, spherical Edgeless Safety Cubes, an antique version of the Weighted Storage Cube used in the underground levels, and a cube-turret hybrid created by Wheatley after taking control of Aperture. The heart-decorated Weighted Companion Cube reappears briefly. Early demonstrations included Pneumatic Diversity Vents, shown to transport objects and transfer suction power through portals, but these do not appear in the final game. The typical objective of a test chamber or level is to use the portal gun and provided gameplay elements to open a locked exit door and progress to the next chamber. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15888290 | 345,632 |
1,760,181 | The Explorers' Science and Engineering Cluster (headed by Brian Archimbaud) was impressed by this event and it was decided to ensure it would continue in some form. Dr. Peter Mason and the Space Exploration Post at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California, agreed to try the format at a local level. The first "SpaceSet" (name proposed by Nathan Hawkins from the Space Exploration Post) was held in 1986. Eighteen SpaceSet competitions were conducted at JPL, with continuing participation by Anita Gale, Dick Edwards, Rob Kolstad, and Dr. Mason. As many as 160 young people participated each year, with a different design challenge set at each event. The competition's organizers requested space settlement designs in Earth orbit, on the Moon, on and in orbit around Mars, and on and in orbit around Venus (some limited atmospheric alterations were included to make it habitable). One Earth-orbiting settlement was required to be capable of moving to another solar system. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3518678 | 1,759,188 |
1,991,337 | During its reentry into the atmosphere, the ARD's heat shield is exposed to temperatures reaching as high as 2000 °C and a heat flux peaking at 1000 kW/m2, resulting from the ionisation of the atmosphere, which is in turn caused by the vehicle travelling at hypersonic speeds, in excess of 27,000 km/h during parts of its reentry descent. While the conical area of the vehicle may reach 1000 °C, with a heat flux of 90–125 kW/m2, the interior temperature will not rise above 40 °C. The thermal protection measures used were a combination of pre-existing materials that Aerospatiale had already developed under French military programmes along with multiple new-generation materials, the latter of which had been principally included for testing purposes. During reentry, the ARD's head shield loses only 0.5 mm of its thickness, keeping its aerodynamic shape relatively constant, which in turn simplifies the flight control algorithms. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2459800 | 1,990,194 |
129,747 | Because of the very faint luminosity of this galaxy, its exact distance was not measured for several years. Well after then, another major breakthrough occurred with the next event registered by BeppoSAX, GRB 970508. This event was localized within four hours of its discovery, allowing research teams to begin making observations much sooner than any previous burst. The spectrum of the object revealed a redshift of "z" = 0.835, placing the burst at a distance of roughly 6 billion light years from Earth. This was the first accurate determination of the distance to a GRB, and together with the discovery of the host galaxy of 970228 proved that GRBs occur in extremely distant galaxies. Within a few months, the controversy about the distance scale ended: GRBs were extragalactic events originating within faint galaxies at enormous distances. The following year, GRB 980425 was followed within a day by a bright supernova (SN 1998bw), coincident in location, indicating a clear connection between GRBs and the deaths of very massive stars. This burst provided the first strong clue about the nature of the systems that produce GRBs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=48803 | 129,695 |
1,938,519 | Despite this somewhat overwhelming diversity in Africa, the need for self-determination by Africans as fought for example by the Nigerian's five Ogoni clans during the 1990s over oil rights is paramount. The "bare necessities of life – water, electricity, roads, education and a right to self-determination so that we can be responsible for our resources and our environment" must be respected. Technology such as computers is considered by some to be important in obtaining such self-determination for Africa especially in the area of education. While it has already had an extreme boost through the independence of many of the African countries, more education can lead to water, electricity, roads and more self-determination. Bill Clinton supports the use of technology in education stating, "[s]o, I think that the potential of information technology to empower individuals, promote growth, reduce inequality, increase government capacity, and make citizen interaction with government work better is enormous" And at the same forum, Bill Gates further states, "Out of 6 billion people, somewhat less than 1 billion are using this technology. ... Part of how to do that is by having community access, getting it into schools and libraries, and many of the projects we've done, both here in Africa and around the world have that theme that, although it won't be in the home at first, it will be accessible." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30256549 | 1,937,409 |
474,681 | Classical astrometry concerns only motions in the plane of the sky and ignores the star's radial velocity, i.e. its space motion along the line-of-sight. Whilst critical for an understanding of stellar kinematics, and hence population dynamics, its effect is generally imperceptible to astrometric measurements (in the plane of the sky), and therefore it is generally ignored in large-scale astrometric surveys. In practice, it can be measured as a Doppler shift of the spectral lines. More strictly, however, the radial velocity does enter a rigorous astrometric formulation. Specifically, a space velocity along the line-of-sight means that the transformation from tangential linear velocity to (angular) proper motion is a function of time. The resulting effect of secular or perspective acceleration is the interpretation of a transverse acceleration actually arising from a purely linear space velocity with a significant radial component, with the positional effect proportional to the product of the parallax, the proper motion, and the radial velocity. At the accuracy levels of "Hipparcos" it is of (marginal) importance only for the nearest stars with the largest radial velocities and proper motions, but was accounted for in the 21 cases for which the accumulated positional effect over two years exceeds 0.1 milliarc-sec. Radial velocities for "Hipparcos Catalogue" stars, to the extent that they are presently known from independent ground-based surveys, can be found from the astronomical database of the Centre de données astronomiques de Strasbourg. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=207964 | 474,445 |
1,195,949 | Force-sensing resistors consist of a conductive polymer, which changes resistance in a predictable manner following application of force to its surface. They are normally supplied as a polymer sheet or ink that can be applied by screen printing. The sensing film consists of both electrically conducting and non-conducting particles suspended in matrix. The particles are sub-micrometre sizes, and are formulated to reduce the temperature dependence, improve mechanical properties and increase surface durability. Applying a force to the surface of the sensing film causes particles to touch the conducting electrodes, changing the resistance of the film. As with all resistive based sensors, force-sensing resistors require a relatively simple interface and can operate satisfactorily in moderately hostile environments. Compared to other force sensors, the advantages of FSRs are their size (thickness typically less than 0.5 mm), low cost and good shock resistance. A disadvantage is their low precision: measurement results may differ 10% and more. Force-sensing capacitors offer superior sensitivity and long term stability, but require more complicated drive electronics. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22801904 | 1,195,309 |
507,262 | Microfiltration usually serves as a pre-treatment for other separation processes such as ultrafiltration, and a post-treatment for granular media filtration. The typical particle size used for microfiltration ranges from about 0.1 to 10 μm. In terms of approximate molecular weight these membranes can separate macromolecules of molecular weights generally less than 100,000 g/mol. The filters used in the microfiltration process are specially designed to prevent particles such as, sediment, algae, protozoa or large bacteria from passing through a specially designed filter. More microscopic, atomic or ionic materials such as water (HO), monovalent species such as Sodium (Na) or Chloride (Cl) ions, dissolved or natural organic matter, and small colloids and viruses will still be able to pass through the filter. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=368390 | 506,998 |
978,182 | The "Sverdlov"-class cruisers, Soviet designation Project 68bis, were the last conventional gun cruisers built for the Soviet Navy. They were built in the 1950s and were based on Soviet, German, and Italian designs and concepts developed prior to the Second World War. They were modified to improve their sea keeping capabilities, allowing them to run at high speed in the rough waters of the North Atlantic. The basic hull was more modern and had better armor protection than the vast majority of the post World War II gun cruiser designs built and deployed by peer nations. They also carried an extensive suite of modern radar equipment and anti-aircraft artillery. The Soviets originally planned to build 40 ships in the class, which would be supported by the s and aircraft carriers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5195389 | 977,671 |
716,590 | Zhang applied his extensive knowledge of mechanics and gears in several of his inventions. He invented the world's first water-powered armillary sphere to assist astronomical observation; improved the inflow water clock by adding another tank; and invented the world's first seismoscope, which discerned the cardinal direction of an earthquake away. He improved previous Chinese calculations for pi. In addition to documenting about 2,500 stars in his extensive star catalog, Zhang also posited theories about the Moon and its relationship to the Sun: specifically, he discussed the Moon's sphericity, its illumination by reflected sunlight on one side and the hidden nature of the other, and the nature of solar and lunar eclipses. His "fu" (rhapsody) and "shi" poetry were renowned in his time and studied and analyzed by later Chinese writers. Zhang received many posthumous honors for his scholarship and ingenuity; some modern scholars have compared his work in astronomy to that of the Greco-Roman Ptolemy (AD 86–161). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=34542 | 716,213 |
202,017 | In 1903, Mikhail Tsvet invented chromatography, an important analytic technique. In 1904, Hantaro Nagaoka proposed an early nuclear model of the atom, where electrons orbit a dense massive nucleus. In 1905, Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch developed the Haber process for making ammonia, a milestone in industrial chemistry with deep consequences in agriculture. The Haber process, or Haber-Bosch process, combined nitrogen and hydrogen to form ammonia in industrial quantities for the production of fertilizer and munitions. The food production for half the world's current population depends on this method for producing fertilizer. Haber, along with Max Born, proposed the Born–Haber cycle as a method for evaluating the lattice energy of an ionic solid. Haber has also been described as the "father of chemical warfare" for his work developing and deploying chlorine and other poisonous gases during World War I. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1416046 | 201,914 |
535,343 | In 1903, Mikhail Tsvet invented chromatography, an important analytic technique. In 1904, Hantaro Nagaoka proposed an early nuclear model of the atom, where electrons orbit a dense massive nucleus. In 1905, Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch developed the Haber process for making ammonia, a milestone in industrial chemistry with deep consequences in agriculture. The Haber process, or Haber-Bosch process, combined nitrogen and hydrogen to form ammonia in industrial quantities for production of fertilizer and munitions. The food production for half the world's current population depends on this method for producing fertilizer. Haber, along with Max Born, proposed the Born–Haber cycle as a method for evaluating the lattice energy of an ionic solid. Haber has also been described as the "father of chemical warfare" for his work developing and deploying chlorine and other poisonous gases during World War I. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=56516812 | 535,064 |
439,221 | In Berlin from the late nineteenth century until his death, Blossfeldt's works were primarily used as teaching tools and were brought to public attention in 1929 by his first publication "Urformen der Kunst" (Art Forms in Nature). Published in 1929 when Blossfeldt was 63 and a professor of applied art at the Vereinigte Staatsschulen für freie und angewandte Kunst, "Urformen der Kunst" quickly became an international bestseller and in turn, made Blossfeldt famous almost overnight. The abstract shapes and structures in nature that he revealed impressed his contemporaries. Swiftly regarded as a seminal book on photography, Blossfeldt's objective and finely detailed imagery was praised by Walter Benjamin, who declared that Blossfeldt "has played his part in that great examination of the inventory of perception, which will have an unforeseeable effect on our conception of the world". He compared him to Moholy-Nagy and the pioneers of New Objectivity, and ranked his achievements alongside the great photographers August Sander and Eugène Atget. The Surrealists also championed him, and Georges Bataille included his images in the periodical "Documents" in 1929. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=899360 | 439,007 |
308,673 | Lipid A may cause uncontrolled activation of mammalian immune systems with production of inflammatory mediators that may lead to septic shock. This inflammatory reaction is mediated by Toll-like receptor 4 which is responsible for immune system cell activation. Damage to the endothelial layer of blood vessels caused by these inflammatory mediators can lead to capillary leak syndrome, dilation of blood vessels and a decrease in cardiac function and can lead to septic shock. Pronounced complement activation can also be observed later in the course as the bacteria multiply in the blood. High bacterial proliferation triggering destructive endothelial damage can also lead to disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) with loss of function of certain internal organs such as the kidneys, adrenal glands and lungs due to compromised blood supply. The skin can show the effects of vascular damage often coupled with depletion of coagulation factors in the form of petechiae, purpura and ecchymoses. The limbs can also be affected, sometimes with devastating consequences such as the development of gangrene, requiring subsequent amputation. Loss of function of the adrenal glands can cause adrenal insufficiency and additional hemorrhage into the adrenals causes Waterhouse-Friderichsen syndrome, both of which can be life-threatening. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=412942 | 308,508 |
1,288,941 | The AI approach to music perception and cognition based on finding structures in data without knowing the structures — similarly to segregating objects in abstract painting without assigning meaningful labels to them — was pioneered by Andranik Tangian. The idea is to find the least complex data representations in the sense of Kolmogorov, i.e. requiring the least memory storage, which can be regarded as saving the brain energy. The illustration that perception is data representation rather than “physical” recognition is the effect of polyphonic voices produced by a loudspeaker — a single physical body, and the effect of a single tone produced by several physical bodies — organ register pipes tuned as a chord and activated by a single key. This data representation approach enables to recognize interval relations in chords and tracing polyphonic voices with no reference to pitch (thereby explaining the predominance of interval hearing over absolute hearing) and to break the rhythm-tempo vicious circle while rhythm recognition under variable tempo. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25136770 | 1,288,232 |
1,103,077 | Until 2007, the Ministry of Human Resources and Development (MHRD) of the Government of India had set up several premier technical institutes, across the country that produce India's world class talent pool in science, engineering, and management, and contribute strongly to the economic development of the state where they are located as well as the nation. These institutions included the original seven IITs, the Indian Institute of Science, the original five IIMs, the Indian Statistical Institute, several earlier central universities, and a few other smaller institutions, all of which receive direct funding from the center. There were reports of large scale discrimination in setting up these institutions of higher learning against a few states, especially Odisha. It was observed within scholarly circles that Odisha was routinely discriminated against by the Indian government, which had caused the state to lag behind the rest of the nation in terms of infrastructure, poverty reduction, literacy, education, and health until very recently. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11608671 | 1,102,515 |
555,398 | In 1899 Plumer returned to Southern Rhodesia where he raised a force of mounted infantry and, having been promoted to the substantive rank of lieutenant-colonel on 17 October 1900, he led them at the Relief of Mafeking during the Second Boer War. He was promoted to colonel on 29 November 1900 and was then given command of a mixed force which captured General Christiaan de Wet's wagon train at Hamelfontein in February 1901. Plumer arrived back in the United Kingdom in April 1902, and two months later was received in audience by King Edward VII on his return. In a despatch dated 23 June 1902, Lord Kitchener, Commander-in-Chief in South Africa during the latter part of the war, wrote how Plumer had "invariable displayed military qualifications of a very high order. Few officers have rendered better service." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1126070 | 555,109 |
990,982 | Eysenck was Professor of Psychology at the Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, from 1955 to 1983. He was a major contributor to the modern scientific theory of personality and a brilliant teacher who helped find treatment for mental illnesses. Eysenck also created and developed a distinctive dimensional model of personality structure based on empirical factor-analytic research, attempting to anchor these factors in biogenetic variation. In 1981, Eysenck became a founding member of the World Cultural Council. He was the founding editor of the international journal "Personality and Individual Differences", and wrote about 80 books and more than 1,600 journal articles. With his first wife, Hans Eysenck had a son Michael Eysenck, who is also a psychology professor. He had four children with his second wife, Sybil Eysenck: Gary, Connie, Kevin, and Darrin. Hans and Sybil Eysenck collaborated as psychologists for many years at the Institute of Psychiatry, University of London, as co-authors and researchers. Sybil Eysenck died in December 2020, and Hans Eysenck died of a brain tumour in a London hospice in 1997. He was an atheist. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=177650 | 990,465 |
1,520,934 | Human serum albumin (HSA) and chitosan are also materials of interest for the generation of nanoparticle delivery systems. Using albumin nanoparticles for stroke therapy can overcome numerous limitations. For instance, albumin nanoparticles can enhance BBB permeability, increase solubility, and increase half-life in circulation. Patients who have brain cancer overexpress albumin-binding proteins, such as SPARC and gp60, in their BBB and tumor cells, naturally increasing the uptake of albumin into the brain. Using this relationship, researches have formed albumin nanoparticles that co-encapsulate two anticancer drugs, paclitaxel and fenretinide, modified with low weight molecular protamine (LMWP), a type of cell-penetrating protein, for anti-glioma therapy. Once injected into the patient's body, the albumin nanoparticles can cross the BBB more easily, bind to the proteins and penetrate glioma cells, and then release the contained drugs. This nanoparticle formulation enhances tumor-targeting delivery efficiency and improves the solubility issue of hydrophobic drugs. Specifically, cationic bovine serum albumin-conjugated tanshinone IIA PEGylated nanoparticles injected into a MCAO rat model decreased the volume of infarction and neuronal apoptosis. Chitosan, a naturally abundant polysaccharide, is particularly useful due to its biocompability and lack of toxicity. With its adsorptive and mucoadhesive properties, chitosan can overcome limitations of internasal administration to the brain. It has been shown that cationic chitosan nanoparticles interact with the negatively charged brain endothelium. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41086554 | 1,520,073 |
985,002 | The Allen and Eggers discovery, initially treated as a military secret, was eventually published in 1958. Blunt body theory made possible the heat shield designs that were embodied in the Mercury, Gemini, Apollo, and Soyuz space capsules, enabling astronauts and cosmonauts to survive the fiery re-entry into Earth's atmosphere. Some spaceplanes such as the Space Shuttle made use of the same theory. At the time the STS was being conceived, Maxime Faget, the Director of Engineering and Development at the Manned Spacecraft Center, was not satisfied with the purely "lifting re-entry" method (as proposed for the cancelled X-20 "Dyna-Soar"). He designed a space shuttle which operated as a blunt body by entering the atmosphere at an extremely high angle of attack of 40° with the underside facing the direction of flight, creating a large shock wave that would deflect most of the heat around the vehicle instead of into it. The Space Shuttle used a combination of a "ballistic entry" (blunt body theory) and aerodynamic re-entry; at an altitude of about , the atmosphere becomes dense enough for the aerodynamic re-entry phase to begin. Throughout re-entry, the Shuttle rolled to change lift direction in a prescribed way, keeping maximum deceleration well below 2 gs. These roll maneuvers allowed the Shuttle to use its lift to steer toward the runway. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20895829 | 984,488 |
1,995,945 | Numerous putative chimeric transcripts have been identified among the expressed sequence tags using high throughput RNA sequencing technology. In humans, chimeric transcripts can be generated in several ways such as trans-splicing of pre-mRNAs, RNA transcription runoff, from other errors in RNA transcription or they can also be the result of gene fusion following inter-chromosomal translocations or rearrangements. Among the few corresponding protein products that have been characterized so far, most result from chromosomal translocations and are associated with cancer. For instance, gene fusion in chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) leads to an mRNA transcript that encompasses the 5′ end of the breakpoint cluster region protein (BCR) gene and the 3′ end of the Abelson murine leukemia viral oncogene homolog 1 (ABL) gene. Translation of this transcript results in a chimeric BCR–ABL protein that possesses increased tyrosine kinase activity. Chimeric transcripts characterize specific cellular phenotypes and are suspected to function not only in cancer, but also in normal cells. One example of a chimera in normal human cells is generated by trans-splicing of the 5′ exons of the JAZF1 gene on chromosome 7p15 and the 3′ exons of JJAZ1 (SUZ12) on chromosome 17q1. This chimeric RNA is translated in endometrial stroma cells and encodes an anti-apoptotic protein. Notable examples of chimeric genes in cancer are the fused BCR-ABL, FUS-ERG, MLL-AF6, and MOZ-CBP genes expressed in acute myeloid leukemia (AML), and the TMPRSS2-ETS chimera associated with overexpression of the oncogene in prostate cancer. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=40328701 | 1,994,802 |
2,222,633 | In the 1920s and 1930s, there was concern regarding the high and rising maternal mortality rates, and Douglas made a significant contribution to their reduction. As a Medical Officer, she monitored maternity services and child welfare in Scotland, making reports to the Chief Medical Officer, which contributed to an improvement in maternity services and provision. In 1935, she and her colleague Dr Peter L. McKinlay published the "Report on Maternal Mortality and Morbidity in Scotland", a comprehensive investigation into maternal death in Scotland. The report found that 60% of all deaths attributed to childbirth were regarded as avoidable caused by inadequate or intrusive medical care and a lack of medical support. The recommendations from the Douglas and McKinlay's report ultimately lead to the Maternity Services Scotland (1937) Act after they were endorsed in the Scottish Health Services Committee Report (Cathcart Report) of 1936, a report on Scotland's health services which informed the development of the Scottish National Health Service. The Act required that any women could make application for the joint services of a physician and midwife throughout her pregnancy, labour, and the post-natal period, with the advice or help of an expert obstetrician. As a result, there was a 1,000% increase in the number of hospital beds available to pregnant women, increasing from 300 in 1926 to 3,000 in 1948. A drop in maternal mortality was recorded from 4.8 per 1,000 births in 1937 to 3.0 per 1,000 births in 1944. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=52729364 | 2,221,371 |
1,138,598 | Goldfarb studied biochemistry at Moscow State University and graduated in 1969. After graduation, he worked at the Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy in Moscow. He emigrated from the USSR in 1975. He received a Ph.D. in 1980 from the Weizmann Institute in Israel. Back in the west, he continued his research with a post-doctoral program at the Max Planck Institute for Biochemistry in Martinsried, Germany. From 1982 to 1991 he was an assistant professor at Columbia University in New York. From 1992 to 2006 he was a faculty member at the Public Health Research Institute in New York where he led a U.S. government-funded study "Structure and Function of RNA Polymerase in "E. coli"" with a total budget of $7 million. He also directed the project "Treating Multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis in Siberian Prisons" funded by a $13 million grant from philanthropist George Soros. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8597384 | 1,138,005 |
45,455 | Nevertheless, MOSFETs are widely used in many types of analog circuits because of their own advantages (zero gate current, high and adjustable output impedance and improved robustness vs. BJTs which can be permanently degraded by even lightly breaking down the emitter-base). The characteristics and performance of many analog circuits can be scaled up or down by changing the sizes (length and width) of the MOSFETs used. By comparison, in bipolar transistors follow a different scaling law. MOSFETs' ideal characteristics regarding gate current (zero) and drain-source offset voltage (zero) also make them nearly ideal switch elements, and also make switched capacitor analog circuits practical. In their linear region, MOSFETs can be used as precision resistors, which can have a much higher controlled resistance than BJTs. In high power circuits, MOSFETs sometimes have the advantage of not suffering from thermal runaway as BJTs do. This means that complete analog circuits can be made on a silicon chip in a much smaller space and with simpler fabrication techniques. MOSFETS are ideally suited to switch inductive loads because of tolerance to inductive kickback. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=40345 | 45,438 |
133,323 | In 1938 Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann discovered nuclear fission with radiochemical methods, and in 1939 Lise Meitner and Otto Robert Frisch wrote the first theoretical interpretation of the fission process, which was later improved by Niels Bohr and John A. Wheeler. Further developments took place during World War II, which led to the practical application of radar and the development and use of the atomic bomb. Around this time, Chien-Shiung Wu was recruited by the Manhattan Project to help develop a process for separating uranium metal into U-235 and U-238 isotopes by Gaseous diffusion. She was an expert experimentalist in beta decay and weak interaction physics. Wu designed an experiment (see Wu experiment) that enabled theoretical physicists Tsung-Dao Lee and Chen-Ning Yang to disprove the law of parity experimentally, winning them a Nobel Prize in 1957. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14400 | 133,270 |
1,136,342 | Ironically, it was not a purchasing agent but a salesman working for the Thomas Publishing Company by the name of Elwood B. Hendricks who realized the full potential of the buying function and was the driving force behind forming a national purchasing association. In 1913, Hendricks's plan began to bear fruit when he helped form the Purchasing Agents Association of New York that was to become the nucleus of the national organization. The New York group applied for and received a charter for N.A.P.A. in 1915. The first local groups to affiliate with the new national association were New York City and Pittsburgh in 1915 and Columbus in 1916. South Bend, Cleveland, Chicago, St. Louis, Philadelphia, Detroit and Los Angeles followed them in 1917. Buffalo later affiliated with N.A.P.A. in 1918 and by 1920 there were over 30 affiliates and that number continued to skyrocket. Hendricks efforts were so instrumental in the organization's success that it gave him an honorary lifetime membership. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=68036 | 1,135,749 |
189,188 | Presently, lay-person calculations of longitude can be made by noting the exact local time (leaving out any reference for daylight saving time) when the Sun is at its highest point in the sky. The calculation of noon can be made more easily and accurately with a small, exactly vertical rod driven into level ground—take the time reading when the shadow is pointing due north (in the northern hemisphere). Then take your local time reading and subtract it from GMT (Greenwich Mean Time) or the time in London, England. For example, a noon reading (12:00) near central Canada or the US would occur at approximately 6 pm (18:00) in London. The 6-hour difference is one quarter of a 24-hour day, or 90 degrees of a 360-degree circle (the Earth). The calculation can also be made by taking the number of hours (use decimals for fractions of an hour) multiplied by 15, the number of degrees in one hour. Either way, it can be demonstrated that much of central North America is at or near 90 degrees west longitude. Eastern longitudes can be determined by adding the local time to GMT, with similar calculations. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=143335 | 189,091 |
1,246,118 | The term “black” bilayer refers to the fact that they are dark in reflected light because the thickness of the membrane is only a few nanometers, so light reflecting off the back face destructively interferes with light reflecting off the front face. Indeed, this was one of the first clues that this technique produced a membrane of molecular-scale thickness. Black lipid membranes are also well suited to electrical characterization because the two chambers separated by the bilayer are both accessible, allowing simple placement of large electrodes. For this reason, electrical characterization is one of the most important methods used in conjunction with painted lipid bilayers. Simple measurements indicate when a bilayer forms and when it breaks, as an intact bilayer has a large resistance (>GΩ) and a large capacitance (~2 µF/cm). More advanced electrical characterization has been particularly important in the study of voltage gated ion channels. Membrane proteins such as ion channels typically cannot be incorporated directly into the painted bilayer during formation because immersion in an organic solvent would denature the protein. Instead, the protein is solubilized with a detergent and added to the aqueous solution after the bilayer is formed. The detergent coating allows these proteins to spontaneously insert into the bilayer over a period of minutes. Additionally, initial experiments have been performed which combine electrophysiological and structural investigations of black lipid membranes. In another variation of the BLM technique, termed the bilayer punch, a glass pipet (inner diameter ~10-40 µm) is used as the electrode on one side of the bilayer in order to isolate a small patch of membrane. This modification of the patch clamp technique enables low noise recording, even at high potentials (up to 600 mV), at the expense of additional preparation time. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21530463 | 1,245,443 |
1,728 | In Indonesia, the hardline anti-communist General Suharto wrested control of the state from his predecessor Sukarno in an attempt to establish a "New Order". From 1965 to 1966, with the aid of the United States and other Western governments, the military led the mass killing of more than 500,000 members and sympathizers of the Indonesian Communist Party and other leftist organizations, and detained hundreds of thousands more in prison camps around the country under extremely inhumane conditions. A top-secret CIA report stated that the massacres "rank as one of the worst mass murders of the 20th century, along with the Soviet purges of the 1930s, the Nazi mass murders during the Second World War, and the Maoist bloodbath of the early 1950s." These killings served US strategic interests and constitute a major turning point in the Cold War as the balance of power shifted in Southeast Asia. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325329 | 1,728 |
1,290,263 | In 1998, about 50 students and faculties from 12 universities from the United States and Japan met at a symposium held in Hawaii. It was the first "University Space Systems Symposium". Here, Bob Twiggs, professor emeritus at the Stanford University, proposed the initial idea of what later would become the nanosatellite projects. That idea was to launch a structure of the size of a soda can into space. Its volume should be around 350 milliliters and the mass, about 500 grams. This led to a project that began in 1999 called ARLISS, involving mostly American and Japanese Universities, carrying out the first launch on September, 11th of that year and continuing each year without interruption. The initial idea, still prevalent today, was to launch 3 satellites of 350 milliliters, or a satellite of greater volume. The means would be a rocket capable of moving 1.8 kilos and of ascending to 4000 meters, opening the door to low cost space flights -about $400. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=33410235 | 1,289,553 |
2,147,157 | The editorial board of the nineteenth volume of the Monthly took an unexpected step by beginning to record the affairs of Sheff students, sports, and societies, as well as printing lengthy student editorials. The move was disastrous. While the publication remained of interest to its writers and readers within the Sheff, its contents were fluff to everyone else. The Board of the twentieth volume changed the name to Yale Sheffield Monthly, solidifying the magazine’s altered focus. The arrogance and self-interest of the staff was clearly reflected in the contents of the magazine over the next few years. It all came to a self-defeating end, however, when the Monthly shut down after its twenty-fourth volume in 1918, due to lack of support from the student body. On its demise, a writer for the Yale Daily News wrote that “the purpose and scope of the Sheffield Monthly was never fully understood” and its “quality was never what it should have been.” The editors of the Monthly realized their error in documenting collegiate opinions and social activities in a publication intended for scientific writing. They aligned their stated editorial focus with the material they printed and joined forces with the beleaguered Yale Courant, the school’s first illustrated periodical (1865). By February 1919, the Yale Graphic was being published from the basement of Sheffield’s Byers Hall by former staff of the Sheffield Monthly and of the Courant. In its first issue, Chairman L. Staples explained: “With this issue, the Yale Sheffield Monthly and The Yale Courant erstwhile rivals, unite to publish The Graphic a fortnightly magazine which, we trust, will adequately fill the obvious place in the undergraduate world for an illustrated that will portray campus life as the camera records it.” | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8744690 | 2,145,926 |
1,043,103 | Superlattices can be produced using various techniques, but the most common are molecular-beam epitaxy (MBE) and sputtering. With these methods, layers can be produced with thicknesses of only a few atomic spacings. An example of specifying a superlattice is []. It describes a bi-layer of 20Å of Iron (Fe) and 30Å of Vanadium (V) repeated 20 times, thus yielding a total thickness of 1000Å or 100 nm. The MBE technology as a means of fabricating semiconductor superlattices is of primary importance. In addition to the MBE technology, metal-organic chemical vapor deposition (MO-CVD) has contributed to the development of superconductor superlattices, which are composed of quaternary III-V compound semiconductors like InGaAsP alloys. Newer techniques include a combination of gas source handling with ultrahigh vacuum (UHV) technologies such as metal-organic molecules as source materials and gas-source MBE using hybrid gases such as arsine () and phosphine () have been developed. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1381368 | 1,042,559 |
305,910 | During the middle of the twentieth century, Watson's "rowing model" remained the dominant hypothesis regarding the plesiosaur swimming stroke. In 1957, Lambert Beverly Halstead, at the time using the family name Tarlo, proposed a variant: the hindlimbs would have rowed in the horizontal plane but the forelimbs would have paddled, moved to below and to the rear. In 1975, the traditional model was challenged by Jane Ann Robinson, who revived the "flying" hypothesis. She argued that the main muscle groups were optimally placed for a vertical flipper movement, not for pulling the limbs horizontally, and that the form of the shoulder and hip joints would have precluded the vertical rotation needed for rowing. In a subsequent article, Robinson proposed that the kinetic energy generated by the forces exerted on the trunk by the strokes, would have been stored and released as elastic energy in the ribcage, allowing for an especially efficient and dynamic propulsion system. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1398078 | 305,746 |
1,912,648 | The journal was established in 1877 by Paul von Groth as a German-language publication under the title "Zeitschrift für Krystallographie und Mineralogie", and he served as its editor until the end of 1920. Groth was appointed as the inaugural Professor of Mineralogy at the University of Strasbourg in 1872 and made great contributions to the disciplines of mineralogy and crystallography both there and, from 1883, as the curator at the Deutsches Museum in Munich. Groth was the first to classify minerals according to their chemical composition and contributed to the understanding of isomorphism and morphotropy in crystalline systems. Using the data from 55 volumes of the journal covering 39 years of publications (1877–1915) plus other sources, Groth produced the five volume work "Chemische Krystallographie" between 1906 and 1919. This work catalogued the chemical and physical properties of the between 9,000 and 10,000 crystalline substances known at the time. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=52570425 | 1,911,549 |
1,111,130 | The major function of JA and its various metabolites is regulating plant responses to abiotic and biotic stresses as well as plant growth and development. Regulated plant growth and development processes include growth inhibition, senescence, tendril coiling, flower development and leaf abscission. JA is also responsible for tuber formation in potatoes and yams. It has an important role in response to wounding of plants and systemic acquired resistance. The Dgl gene is responsible for maintaining levels of JA during usual conditions in "Zea mays" as well as the preliminary release of jasmonic acid shortly after being fed upon. When plants are attacked by insects, they respond by releasing JA, which activates the expression of protease inhibitors, among many other anti-herbivore defense compounds. These protease inhibitors prevent proteolytic activity of the insects' digestive proteases or "salivary proteins", thereby stopping them from acquiring the needed nitrogen in the protein for their own growth. JA also activates the expression of Polyphenol oxidase which promotes the production of quinolines. These can interfere with the insect's enzyme production and decrease the nutrition content of the ingested plant. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3293979 | 1,110,564 |
182,427 | It was not until the upheavals that coincided with the formation of the supercontinent Pangea began about 250 million years ago that deposits of marine sediment waned and terrestrial deposits dominate. In late Paleozoic and much of the Mesozoic era the region was affected by a series of orogenies (mountain-building events) that deformed western North America and caused a great deal of uplift. Eruptions from volcanic mountain ranges to the west buried vast regions beneath ashy debris. Short-lived rivers, lakes, and inland seas left sedimentary records of their passage. Streams, ponds and lakes created formations such as the Chinle, Moenave, and Kayenta in the Mesozoic era. Later a vast desert formed the Navajo and Temple Cap formations and dry near-shore environment formed the Carmel (see geology of the Zion and Kolob canyons area for details). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=649020 | 182,331 |
124,161 | Different ways are used by statisticians to draw conclusions about hypotheses on the basis of available evidence. Fisher, Neyman and Pearson proposed approaches that require no prior probabilities on the hypotheses that are being studied. In contrast, Bayesian inference emphasizes the importance of prior probabilities. But, as far as falsification as a yes/no procedure in Popper's methodology is concerned, any approach that provides a way to accept or not a potential falsifier can be used, including approaches that use Bayes' theorem and estimations of prior probabilities that are made using critical discussions and reasonable assumptions taken from the background knowledge. There is no general rule that considers has falsified an hypothesis with small Bayesian revised probability, because as pointed out by Mayo and argued before by Popper, the individual outcomes described in detail will easily have very small probabilities under available evidence without being genuine anomalies. Nevertheless, Mayo adds, "they can indirectly falsify hypotheses by adding a methodological falsification rule". In general, Bayesian statistic can play a role in critical rationalism in the context of inductive logic, which is said to be inductive because implications are generalized to conditional probabilities. According to Popper and other philosophers such as Colin Howson, Hume's argument precludes inductive logic, but only when the logic makes no use "of additional assumptions: in particular, about what is to be assigned positive prior probability". Inductive logic itself is not precluded, especially not when it is a deductively valid application of Bayes' theorem that is used to evaluate the probabilities of the hypotheses using the observed data and what is assumed about the priors. Gelman and Shalizi mentioned that Bayes' statisticians do not have to disagree with the non-inductivists. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11283 | 124,110 |
780,302 | Statistical machine translation tries to generate translations using statistical methods based on bilingual text corpora, such as the Canadian Hansard corpus, the English-French record of the Canadian parliament and EUROPARL, the record of the European Parliament. Where such corpora are available, good results can be achieved translating similar texts, but such corpora are still rare for many language pairs. The first statistical machine translation software was CANDIDE from IBM. Google used SYSTRAN for several years, but switched to a statistical translation method in October 2007. In 2005, Google improved its internal translation capabilities by using approximately 200 billion words from United Nations materials to train their system; translation accuracy improved. Google Translate and similar statistical translation programs work by detecting patterns in hundreds of millions of documents that have previously been translated by humans and making intelligent guesses based on the findings. Generally, the more human-translated documents available in a given language, the more likely it is that the translation will be of good quality. Newer approaches into Statistical Machine translation such as METIS II and PRESEMT use minimal corpus size and instead focus on derivation of syntactic structure through pattern recognition. With further development, this may allow statistical machine translation to operate off of a monolingual text corpus. SMT's biggest downfall includes it being dependent upon huge amounts of parallel texts, its problems with morphology-rich languages (especially with translating "into" such languages), and its inability to correct singleton errors. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19980 | 779,885 |
1,267,070 | Educational robotics can be a useful tool in early and special education. According to a journal on new perspectives in science education, educational robotics can help to develop abilities that promote autonomy and assist their integration into society. Social and personal skills can also be developed through educational robotics. Using Lego Mindstorms NXT, schoolteachers were able to work with middle school aged children in order to develop programs and improve the children's social and personal skills. Additionally, problem solving skills and creativity were utilized through the creation of artwork and scenery to house the robots. Other studies show the benefits of educational robotics in special education as promoting superior cognitive functions, including executive functions. This can lead to an increased ability in "problem solving, reasoning and planning in typically developing preschool children." Through eight weeks of weekly forty-five-minute group sessions using the Bee-Bot, an increase in interest, attention, and interaction between both peers and adults was found in the school and preschool-aged children with Down Syndrome. This study suggests that educational robotics in the classroom can also lead to an improvement in visuo-spatial memory and mental planning. Furthermore, executive functions seemed to be possible in one child during this study. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=37120802 | 1,266,380 |
1,896,262 | On a slow pitch, England's opening pair of Richardson (45) and Bailey (34) started with 76, and then Compton made 58. But the major contribution to a big total was a sixth-wicket partnership of 93 between Cowdrey, who made 101 and Evans (62). As in the first Test, no South African batsman made 50. Wardle took five wickets for 53. Injuries to Neil Adcock and Clive van Ryneveld restricted South Africa to defensive bowling and fielding, but Compton (64) and Cowdrey (61) scored fast enough to allow May to declare, setting South Africa 385 to win in eight hours. They had little answer to Wardle, who took seven for 36 to finish with match figures of 12 for 89. In the South African second innings, Russell Endean was out handled the ball when he touched a ball that had flown upwards from his bat and threatened to fall on his stumps. It was the first time any batsman had been out in this manner in Test cricket. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9288282 | 1,895,178 |
1,463,209 | The double helix was discovered in 1953 by James Watson and Francis Crick. Other researchers made very important, but unconnected findings about the composition of DNA. Ultimately it was Watson and Crick who put all of these findings together to come up with a model for DNA. Later, chemist Alexander Todd determined that the backbone of a DNA molecule contained repeating phosphate and deoxyribose sugar groups. The biochemist Erwin Chargaff found that adenine and thymine always paired while cytosine and guanine always paired. High resolution X-ray images of DNA that were obtained by Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin suggested a helical, or corkscrew like shape. Some of the first scientists to recognize the structures now known as chromosomes were Schleiden, Virchow, and Bütschli. The term was coined by Heinrich Wilhelm Gottfried von Waldeyer-Hartz, referring to the term chromatin, was introduced by Walther Flemming. Scientists also discovered plant and animal cells have a central compartment called the nucleus. They soon realized chromosomes were found inside the nucleus and contained different information for many different traits. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4718833 | 1,462,386 |
1,906,765 | Byrne attended Manchester High School for Girls. Eventually she studied mathematics at Newnham College, Cambridge, where she became interested in the applications of mathematics to real-world problems. She moved to Wadham College, Oxford for her graduate studies, where she earned a master's degree in Mathematical Modelling and Numerical Analysis. She remained at Oxford for her doctoral degree in applied mathematics. She was appointed as a postdoctoral fellow at the cyclotron unit at Hammersmith Hospital. There, she started working in mathematical and theoretical biology. The biomedical questions she worked on included fitting mathematical models to positron emission tomography scans to evaluate oxygen and glucose transport and consumption within solid tumours. After hearing Mark Chaplain talk about tumours at a conference she realised she could use her mathematical skills to study tumour growth. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=62036830 | 1,905,669 |
919,651 | In September 1946, Levi-Montalcini was granted a one-semester research fellowship in the laboratory of Professor Viktor Hamburger at Washington University in St. Louis; he was interested in two of the articles Levi-Montalcini had published in foreign scientific journals. After she duplicated the results of her home laboratory experiments, Hamburger offered her a research associate position, which she held for 30 years. It was there that, in 1952, she did her most important work: isolating nerve growth factor (NGF) from observations of certain cancerous tissues that cause extremely rapid growth of nerve cells. By transferring pieces of tumors to chick embryos, Montalcini established a mass of cells that was full of nerve fibers. The discovery of nerves growing everywhere like a halo around the tumor cells was surprising. When describing it, Montalcini said it is: "like rivulets of water flowing steadily over a bed of stones." The nerve growth produced by the tumor was unlike anything she had seen before – the nerves took over areas that would become other tissues and even entered veins in the embryo. But nerves did not grow into the arteries, which would flow from the embryo back to the tumor. This suggested to Montalcini that the tumor itself was releasing a substance that was stimulating the growth of nerves. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=708064 | 919,165 |
560,721 | The rifamycins have a unique mechanism of action, selectively inhibiting bacterial DNA-dependent RNA polymerase, and show no cross-resistance with other antibiotics in clinical use. However, despite their activity against bacteria resistant to other antibiotics, the rifamycins themselves suffer from a rather high frequency of resistance. Because of this, Rifampin and other rifamycins are typically used in combination with other antibacterial drugs. This is routinely practiced in TB therapy and serves to prevent the formation of mutants that are resistant to any of the drugs in the combination. Rifampin rapidly kills fast-dividing bacilli strains as well as "persisters" cells, which remain biologically inactive for long periods of time that allow them to evade antibiotic activity. In addition, rifabutin and rifapentine have both been used against tuberculosis acquired in HIV-positive patients. Although Tuberculosis therapy remains the most important use of Rifampin, an increasing problem with serious Multiple Drug Resistant bacterial infections has led to some use of antibiotic combinations containing Rifampin to treat them. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=928130 | 560,432 |
2,105,819 | Primary ovarian insufficiency requires that a diagnosis be made prior to the age of 40, since it is considered premature relative to the average age of menopause of 51 in the US. The two criteria are the repeated elevation of the follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), which increases dramatically when a woman enters menopause, and the loss of menstruation for at least 4–6 months. In "FMR1" premuation carriers, the likelihood of receiving a clinical diagnosis of FXPOI is about 20% and increased FSH levels and altered menstrual cycles become particularly evident between 30 and 40 years of age. Even if menses are lost, women diagnosed with FXPOI may experience a spontaneous "escape" ovulation. This means that there is some chance for conception, around 10%, even if menstruation has been absent for extended periods in women with FXPOI. Women planning to conceive before the cessation of periods are often encouraged to consult a genetic counselor or medical geneticist to understand their individual risk for having a child with Fragile X Syndrome. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39611379 | 2,104,606 |
1,657,765 | Peptide modifications to extend half-life include PEGylation, glycosylation, cyclization, serum albumin binding, and lipidation. PEGylation is the attachment of polyethylene glycol (PEG) chains to the peptide via covalent bonds, helping to increase molecular weight, and limit enzymatic degradation as a result of steric hindrance caused by adding the PEG. PEGylation offers a number of benefits for pharmaceutical applications such as improved water solubility, high mobility in solution, as well as low toxicity and low immunogenicity. This does however depend on the molecular weight of the attached PEG. PEGylation as a method to improve half-life has been successfully demonstrated many times; in one example it was shown that site specific mono-PEGylation of GLP-1 led to a 16-fold increase in plasma half life time in rats. On the other hand, covalently attaching PEG can often lead to loss of biological activity. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=67051842 | 1,656,832 |
855,613 | That same year, Henry Harrington Janeway (1873–1921) published results he had achieved using another new laryngoscope he had recently developed. An American anesthesiologist practicing at Bellevue Hospital in New York City, Janeway believed that direct intratracheal insufflation of volatile anesthetics would provide improved conditions for surgery of the nose, mouth and throat. With this in mind, he developed a laryngoscope designed for the sole purpose of tracheal intubation. Similar to Jackson's device, Janeway's instrument incorporated a distal light source. Unique however was the inclusion of batteries within the handle, a central notch in the blade for maintaining the tracheal tube in the midline of the oropharynx during intubation, and a slight curve to the distal tip of the blade to help guide the tube through the glottis. The success of this design led to its subsequent use in other types of surgery. Janeway was thus instrumental in popularizing the widespread use of direct laryngoscopy and tracheal intubation in the practice of anesthesiology. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=352047 | 855,158 |
626,963 | Also acute necrotising ulcerative gingivitis and necrotising ulcerative periodontitis, it is a type of periodontal disease different than many other periodontal diseases. Clinical characteristics include gingival necrosis (breakdown of the gums), gingival pain, bleeding, halitosis (bad breath), as well as a grey colour to the gingiva and a punched out appearance. It is treated through debridement, usually under local anaesthetic due to immense pain. To maintain and treat the condition completely, a chlorhexidine mouthwash should be recommended to the patient to use twice daily, oral health instruction should be provided (using a soft bristle toothbrush or electric toothbrush twice a day) and an interdental cleaning aid, such as floss or interdental brushes, which cleans the areas that the toothbrush cannot reach. The patient should also be educated on proper nutrition and diet and healthy fluid intake. Smoking cessation should occur not only to completely eradicate the disease but also for the health of the patient. Pain control can be done through ibuprofen or paracetamol/acetaminophen. In the case of an immunocompromised patient, antibiotics should be prescribed. Assessment of treatment should be done after 24 hours of treatment and continued every 3–6 months until signs and symptoms are resolved and gingival health and function restored. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2265239 | 626,630 |
1,975,193 | In photo-reflectance, the sample's internal electric field is modulated by the photo-injection of electron-hole pairs (thus reducing the latent field). In order to achieve photo-injection, the energy of photons in the pump beam must exceed the band gap of material within the sample. Furthermore, semiconductors with little or no electric field will exhibit little or no electro-reflectance response. While this situation is not common, this point makes clear the importance of maintaining the probe intensity at a minimum, since any photo-injection of electron-hole pairs from the probe will necessarily offset the sample baseline condition by reducing the latent field. (Likewise, any CW component of the pump is undesirable.) Conversely, if the probe intensity is too low, detection may not be possible with conventional photodiodes. A further consideration is that phase-locked detection is a practical necessity due to the small size of the experimental signals (~ppm) and the unique ability of phase-locked detection methods to reject noise outside a narrow bandwidth centered on the modulation frequency. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=51572572 | 1,974,056 |
2,064,632 | The musicologist Stanley Sadie reviewed the album on LP in "Gramophone" in March 1977, comparing it with a recent alternative conducted by Herbert Kegel. He began by reminding his readers that if current scholarship was to be believed, Mozart had written his festive, mostly C major, trumpet-and-drum flavoured Waisenhaus-Messe when he was only twelve years old. Yes, there was music in it that betrayed its composer's immaturity - "naïveties", "clumsy things", passages that were echoes of ideas that Mozart could have picked up in Salzburg or Vienna. But there were, too, "movements fully and resourcefully worked out". In what Abbado had done with this piece of juvenilia, there was more to celebrate than to criticize. Gundula Janowitz was in "lovely, pure, limpid voice", showing no signs of difficulty except at the taxing beginning of the 'Resurrexit'. Wiesław Ochman used his "pleasant, slightly reedy voice" satisfactorily. Kurt Moll gave no cause for complaint either, except that his bass was weightier than ideal when duetting with his tenor colleague. The Chorus's contribution was meticulous, and the Vienna Philharmonic crystalline. The only charges that could be laid at Abbado's door were some mannered "piano" moments in the "Kyrie" and the "Credo". With excellent engineering by Deutsche Grammophon's production team, Abbado's disc was better than Kegel's in virtually every respect. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=61564932 | 2,063,441 |
1,764,488 | In April 2009, the IOC announced that six athletes had tested positive during the 2008 Summer Olympics, without mentioning names or sports. Later, rumours emerged that the athletes included two cyclists, one of them a medal winner. The Italian National Olympic Committee (CONI) then confirmed that a male Italian cyclist had tested positive for Continuous erythropoietin receptor activator (CERA) during the men's road race, without identifying him. The next day, on 29 April 2009, the Committee confirmed that Davide Rebellin was an involved athlete. Rebellin's agent sent a request for the analysis of the B sample. On 8 July 2009, Rebellin, along with Stefan Schumacher, were confirmed as having tested positive. Schumacher was already serving a ban after testing positive in the 2008 Tour de France, but faced further punishment, and Rebellin subsequently had his medal removed by the UCI and the IOC. On 27 November, Rebellin returned his silver medal to CONI, per their and the UCI's request. Per UCI regulations, Cancellara and Kolobnev were moved up to second and third in the official results, but did not initially receive new medals. On December 18, 2010, Cancellara received the same physical medal initially given to Rebellin, in a ceremony held in his hometown of Ittigen, Switzerland. The medal originally given to Cancellara will in turn be given to Kolobnev. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18664179 | 1,763,495 |
692,810 | BFDV infection was thought to be restricted to within Psittaciformes, but evidence of host switching among distantly-related Australian avian species was recently demonstrated in the rainbow bee-eater ("Merops ornatus"), powerful owl ("Ninox strenua") and finches. A large number of other non-psittacine birds are likely susceptible to sporadic spill-over infection, and there is unpublished evidence of BFDV-associated feather disease in the laughing kookaburra ("Daceolo novaeguineae"), columbids, corvids and raptors including the wedge-tailed eagle ("Aquila audax"), white-breasted sea eagle ("Haliaetus leucogaster"), peregrine falcon ("Falco peregrinus") and whistling kite ("Haliastur sphenurus"). However, the actual mechanism of this host-switch event in raptors and other species is not well understood. Presumably, it occurs in raptors and other birds following predation and/or opportunistic feeding upon the tissues or excretions of BFDV-affected parrots. "Knemidokoptes" mites have recently been shown to concentrate BFDV within their faeces which raises the possibility of ectoparasites such as hippoboscid flies acting as fomites and vectors of transmission particularly to insectivorous bird species such as the rainbow bee-eater. Interestingly, while interseasonal nest hollow sharing may promote the circulation of novel BFDV genotypes in psittacine populations, species such as raptors, which retain nest hollows over many seasons, may not have sufficient intraspecific transmission frequencies to permit permanent host switching. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4942191 | 692,447 |
1,649,025 | The Neutron Star Interior Composition ExploreR (NICER) is a NASA telescope on the International Space Station, designed and dedicated to the study of the extraordinary gravitational, electromagnetic, and nuclear physics environments embodied by neutron stars, exploring the exotic states of matter where density and pressure are higher than in atomic nuclei. As part of NASA's Explorer program, "NICER" enabled rotation-resolved spectroscopy of the thermal and non-thermal emissions of neutron stars in the soft X-ray (0.2–12 keV) band with unprecedented sensitivity, probing interior structure, the origins of dynamic phenomena, and the mechanisms that underlie the most powerful cosmic particle accelerators known. "NICER" achieved these goals by deploying, following the launch, and activation of X-ray timing and spectroscopy instruments. "NICER" was selected by NASA to proceed to formulation phase in April 2013. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39051035 | 1,648,093 |
1,918,212 | There is a great variation in social patterns among nocturnal lemurs; the golden-brown mouse lemur is exceptional with its mixed-sex sleeping groups. "M. ravelobensis" has a well dispersed, inter-sexual sleeping pattern that promotes promiscuity was first categorized in 2004 by researchers Weidt, et al. The golden-brown mouse lemur sleeps predominantly in tree branches or makes nests. Because of this exposed environment male/female sleeping groups exist to aid in both thermoregulation of nests and decrease the chances of predation. This observation has also been noted by Radespiel et al. (2003). Within the sleeping groups, there are several nest locations that individuals will switch between, but the members within the community never change. This social spatial distribution leads to overlapping territories that develop a multi-family community within a given range. Within this given range, studies show little or no competition between males during mating season . Though golden-brown mouse lemurs exhibit a social sleeping pattern, their active nocturnal lifestyle is typically solitary. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1375271 | 1,917,112 |
911,054 | Archimedes was able to use the concept of the infinitely small in a way that anticipated modern ideas of the integral calculus. Using a technique dependent on a form of proof by contradiction, he could reach answers to problems with an arbitrary degree of accuracy, while specifying the limits within which the answers lay. This technique is known as the method of exhaustion, and he employed in several of his works, such as to approximate the value of π ("Measurement of the Circle"). In "Quadrature of the Parabola", Archimedes proved that the area enclosed by a parabola and a straight line is times the area of a triangle with equal base and height using an infinite geometric series, whose sum was . In "The Sand Reckoner", Archimedes challenged the notion that the number of grains of sand was too large to be counted by trying to name how many grains of sand the universe could contain, devising his own counting scheme based on the myriad, which denoted 10,000. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1503369 | 910,575 |
458,962 | Starting in 2017, the Toronto Transit Commission began the implementation of ATC on to Line 1 Yonge–University, at a cost of $562.3million. Awarding the contract to Alstom in 2009, the TTC will be able to reduce the headway between trains on Line 1 during rush hours, and allow an increase in the number of trains operating on Line 1. Work would however not begin until the delivery of brand new trains with ATC compatibility and the retirement of older rolling stock that was not compatible with the new system. ATC was introduced in phases, beginning with a test on November 4, 2017 during regular service between Dupont and Yorkdale stations. It was first introduced in a permanent manner with the opening of the Toronto–York Spadina subway extension in December 17, 2017, between and stations.Implementation of the system on to the remainder of the line was carried out during weekend closures and night time work when the subway would close. There were delays on the project, with deadlines for the complete conversion of Line 1 pushed back multiple times until 2022. ATC conversion was completed to Finch station on September 24, 2022.Converting all of Line 1 to ATC required the installation of 2,000 beacons, 256 signals, and more than one million feet of cable. ATC is also planned to be used on the soon to open Line 5 Eglinton line, however, Unlike on Line 1, the system on Line 5 will be supplied by Bombardier Transportation using its Cityflo 650 technology.The TTC plans to convert Line 2 Bloor-Danforth and Line 4 Sheppard to ATC in the future, subject to funding availability and being able to replace the current non-ATC compatible fleet on Line 2 with trains that are, with an estimated date of completion by 2030. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1718054 | 458,738 |
1,005,627 | The higher-dimensional case has a longer history. Soon after Hamilton's breakthrough result, Gerhard Huisken extended his methods to higher dimensions, showing that if almost has constant positive curvature (in the sense of smallness of certain components of the Ricci decomposition), then the normalized Ricci flow converges smoothly to constant curvature. found a novel formulation of the maximum principle in terms of trapping by convex sets, which led to a general criterion relating convergence of the Ricci flow of positively curved metrics to the existence of "pinching sets" for a certain multidimensional ordinary differential equation. As a consequence, he was able to settle the case in which is four-dimensional and has positive curvature operator. Twenty years later, Christoph Böhm and Burkhard Wilking found a new algebraic method of constructing "pinching sets," thereby removing the assumption of four-dimensionality from Hamilton's result (). Simon Brendle and Richard Schoen showed that positivity of the isotropic curvature is preserved by the Ricci flow on a closed manifold; by applying Böhm and Wilking's method, they were able to derive a new Ricci flow convergence theorem (). Their convergence theorem included as a special case the resolution of the differentiable sphere theorem, which at the time had been a long-standing conjecture. The convergence theorem given above is due to , which subsumes the earlier higher-dimensional convergence results of Huisken, Hamilton, Böhm & Wilking, and Brendle & Schoen. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=288291 | 1,005,108 |
454,447 | Several modern methods probe the topmost 1–10 nm of surfaces exposed to vacuum. These include Angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy (ARPES), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), Auger electron spectroscopy (AES), low-energy electron diffraction (LEED), electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS), thermal desorption spectroscopy (TPD), ion scattering spectroscopy (ISS), secondary ion mass spectrometry, dual-polarization interferometry, and other surface analysis methods included in the list of materials analysis methods. Many of these techniques require vacuum as they rely on the detection of electrons or ions emitted from the surface under study. Moreover, in general ultra-high vacuum, in the range of 10 pascal pressure or better, it is necessary to reduce surface contamination by residual gas, by reducing the number of molecules reaching the sample over a given time period. At 0.1 mPa (10 torr) partial pressure of a contaminant and standard temperature, it only takes on the order of 1 second to cover a surface with a one-to-one monolayer of contaminant to surface atoms, so much lower pressures are needed for measurements. This is found by an order of magnitude estimate for the (number) specific surface area of materials and the impingement rate formula from the kinetic theory of gases. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=68513 | 454,225 |
485,451 | The alternative approach involves explicit modeling of dynamic adjustment paths. These models can seem more realistic, but are more challenging to construct and solve. They require for instance that future changes are predicted for all exogenous variables, not just those affected by a possible policy change. The dynamic elements may arise from partial adjustment processes or from stock/flow accumulation relations: between capital stocks and investment, and between foreign debt and trade deficits. However there is a potential consistency problem because the variables that change from one equilibrium solution to the next are not necessarily consistent with each other during the period of change. The modeling of the path of adjustment may involve forward-looking expectations, where agents' expectations depend on the future state of the economy and it is necessary to solve for all periods simultaneously, leading to full multi-period dynamic CGE models. An alternative is recursive dynamics. Recursive-dynamic CGE models are those that can be solved sequentially (one period at a time). They assume that behaviour depends only on current and past states of the economy. Recursive dynamic models where a single period is solved for, comparative steady-state analysis, is a special case of recursive dynamic modeling over what can be multiple periods. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5063124 | 485,202 |
1,484,854 | Australia's National Science Week is held annually in August, funded through the Department of Industry, Innovation and Science. National Science Week welcomes an audience of over a million and hosts more than 1000 events across the nation. Science Week provides an opportunity for all Australians to participate in events and activities that showcase science and encourages younger people to consider continuing studies in science. Past participants have included polar explorer and environmental scientist Tim Jarvis, NASA Astronaut Katherine Megan McArthur; environmentalist Tanya Ha; theoretical physicist Lawrence Krauss; and palaeontologist Scott Sampson. Another key activity during National Science Week is the National Project, which is run in conjunction with ABC Australia. Past project have included Weather Detective in 2014 and the Aussie Star Hunt in 2009. Also in 2009 Cosmos Magazine launched a website called HELLO FROM EARTH which collected over 28,000 messages which were beamed to the first Earth like planet candidate, Gliese 581d. In 2016 it included Wikibomb2016, a project to create missing Wikipedia pages on Australian women scientists. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4703342 | 1,484,017 |
846,258 | The encapsulation of some biological compounds in nanoparticulate systems has been shown to improve their effectiveness against pests, reduce their toxicity toward people and the environment, and lessen the losses caused by physical deterioration (such as volatilization and leaching). Thus, nanotechnology may aid in the creation of less toxic biopesticides with acceptable safety profiles, greater active agent stability, improved efficacy against the intended pests, and higher end-user acceptance. Neem ("Azadirachta" "indica") oil can be effectively protected from quick degradation by the use of nanoparticles, providing a more sustained action on the intended pests. The biodegradable polymers utilised in this type of formulation enable continuous administration of the active ingredient with no damage to the environment. Because there is currently a lack of extensive understanding regarding risk assessment factors and the subsequent toxicity of nanoparticles towards components of agroecosystems after their release into the environment, future research must focus on ways to avoid the risks associated with the use of nanoparticles. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2065799 | 845,808 |
455,511 | NAATs for TB are a heterogeneous group of tests that use either the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique or transcription-mediated amplification (TMA) or other forms of nucleic acid amplification methods to detect mycobacterial nucleic acid. These tests vary in which nucleic acid sequence they detect and vary in their accuracy. In the decade of the 2000s, the two most common commercially available tests were the amplified mycobacterium tuberculosis direct test (MTD, Gen-Probe) and Amplicor (Roche Diagnostics). In 2007, a systematic review of NAAT by the NHS Health Technology Assessment Programme concluded that "NAAT test accuracy to be far superior when applied to respiratory samples as opposed to other specimens. Although the results were not statistically significant, the AMTD test appears to perform better than other currently available commercial tests." Xpert ® MTB/RIF and Xpert MTB/RIF Ultra has high specificity in diagnosing extrapulmonary tuberculosis and is accurate in detecting rifampicin resistance. However, clinicians should rely on clinical judgement to diagnose TB meningitis when culture results are negative. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1330583 | 455,289 |
45,961 | Scientists have cited technical challenges for Neuralink. In 2017, a journalist at the IEEE Spectrum Magazine had asked for comments from five researchers that had been working on BCI implants, including Thomas Oxley that invented the Stentrode. At a live demonstration in August 2020, Musk described their device as "a Fitbit in your skull". Several neuroscientists and publications criticized these claims. "MIT Technology Review" accused the demonstration of having the main objective to "stir excitement", adding that "Neuralink has provided no evidence that it can (or has even tried to) treat depression, insomnia, or a dozen other diseases that Musk mentioned in a slide". Andrew Jackson, professor of neural interfaces at Newcastle University, also commented on the presentation to the BBC. To Musk's statement that he found Neuralink's advancements to be "profound", Jackson responded, "I don't think there was anything revolutionary in the presentation." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=53615490 | 45,943 |
705,741 | It started operating in the premises of "Swami Vivekananda Polytechnic" Bhopal. Mr. S. R. Beedkar, Principal of Swami Vivekananda Polytechnic was appointed as the planning officer of the institute. The foundation stone of the Institute building was laid by the then Prime Minister of India Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru on 23 April 1961. The Institute gradually progressed to become a high level education center with steady development of infrastructure as well as academics. J. N. Moudgill became the first principal of MACT in 1962. Five years degree programs in Civil Engineering, Mechanical Engineering and Electrical Engineering were started in 1962 itself. In 1963, the five-year program of Bachelor of Architecture was started as well. In 1964, the institute was shifted to its own building which is its present campus. As the necessity of science and technology kept on growing, more undergraduate programs kept on getting added like: Electronics and Communications Engineering in 1972; Computer Science and Engineering in 1986; 3-year Master of Computer Applications (MCA) in 1988 and Information Technology in 2001 (which was later merged with "Computer Science and Engineering" in 2013). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4014507 | 705,372 |
632,749 | A cryogenic storage dewar (named after James Dewar) is a specialised type of vacuum flask used for storing cryogens (such as liquid nitrogen or liquid helium), whose boiling points are much lower than room temperature. Cryogenic storage dewars may take several different forms including open buckets, flasks with loose-fitting stoppers and self-pressurising tanks. All dewars have walls constructed from two or more layers, with a high vacuum maintained between the layers. This provides very good thermal insulation between the interior and exterior of the dewar, which reduces the rate at which the contents boil away. Precautions are taken in the design of dewars to safely manage the gas which is released as the liquid slowly boils. The simplest dewars allow the gas to escape either through an open top or past a loose-fitting stopper to prevent the risk of explosion. More sophisticated dewars trap the gas above the liquid, and hold it at high pressure. This increases the boiling point of the liquid, allowing it to be stored for extended periods. Excessive vapour pressure is released automatically through safety valves. The method of decanting liquid from a dewar depends upon its design. Simple dewars may be tilted, to pour liquid from the neck. Self-pressurising designs use the gas pressure in the top of the dewar to force the liquid upward through a pipe leading to the neck. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27053099 | 632,411 |
1,111,794 | Rather than using later phased-array antennas and multiprocessor digital computers (both which did not exist yet back in the time) the TWS ability in B-200 was actually achieved by an alternative method, that is, by the so-called "brute use of force" approach (B-200 featured massive and very bulky electronics featuring many analog computers together with its own power supply in shape of heavy generators, regulators, stabilizers and ventilators, all which were placed inside a relatively large concrete bunker). The USSR created 56 of those radar sites between 1954 and 1956 (as many as there were S-25 missile sites) in two large concentric rings around Moscow which represented two lines of anti-aircraft defense, each of them featuring multiple S-25 sites (34 of those were located on the outer and remaining 22 on the inner ring). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=17395977 | 1,111,228 |
1,506,524 | EarthCARE is an acronym standing for Earth Clouds, Aerosols and Radiation Explorer, and the aims of the mission are to improve understanding of the cloud, radiative and aerosol processes that affect the Earth's climate. As of January 2011, the total budget for the project is £500 million (€590 million/US$810 million). A significant proportion of the project will be manufactured in the UK, the main structure of the spacecraft will be built by RUAG Space in Switzerland and subsequently completed in Astrium's Stevenage facility, while one of the instruments will be made in Sevenoaks by SSTL and another in Bristol, Somerset by SEA Group Ltd, now part of Thales Alenia Space UK. In September 2014, ESA and JAXA held a joined EarthCARE International Science Workshop. From 2014 to 2015, an ongoing integration of the instruments took place. In 2015, the launch was postponed to 2018 due to problems with lidar development. As of October 2022, EarthCARE's launch is scheduled for early 2024. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27420973 | 1,505,678 |
643,981 | The "periodical crisis" and the limitations of index retrieval technologies motivated the development of bibliometric tools and large citation index like the Science Citation Index of Eugene Garfield. Garfield's work was initially primarily concerned with the automated analysis of text work. In contrast with ongoing work largely focused on internal semantic relationship, Garfield highlighted "the importance of metatext in discourse analysis", such as introductory sentences and bibliographic references. Secondary forms of scientific production like literature reviews and bibliographic notes became central to Garfield's vision as they have already been to John Desmond Bernal's vision of scientific archives. By 1953, Garfield's attention was permanently shifted to citation analysis: in a private letter to William C. Adair, the vice-president of the publisher of the Shepard's Citation index, "he suggested a well tried solution to the problem of automatic indexing, namely to "shepardize" biomedical literature, to untangle the skein of its content by following the thread of citation links in the same way the legal citator did with court sentences." In 1955, Garfield published his seminal article "Citation Indexes for Science", that both laid out the outline of the Science Citation Index and had a large influence on the future development of bibliometrics. The general citation index envisioned by Garfield was originally one of the building block of the ambitious plan of Joshua Lederberg to computerize scientific literature. Due to lack of funding, the plan was never realized. In 1963, Eugene Garfield created the Institute for Scientific Information that aimed to transform the projects initially envisioned with Lederberg into a profitable business. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1223245 | 643,641 |
826,465 | The SKA is intended to provide observational data from the so-called Dark Ages (between 300,000 years after the Big Bang when the universe became cool enough for hydrogen to become neutral and decouple from radiation) and the time of First Light (a billion years later when young galaxies are seen to form for the first time and hydrogen becomes ionized again). By observing the primordial distribution of gas, the SKA should be able to see how the Universe gradually lit up as its stars and galaxies formed and then evolved. This period of the Dark Ages, culminating in First Light, is considered the first chapter in the cosmic story of creation, and the resolving power required to see this event is the reason for the Square Kilometre Array's design. To see back to First Light requires a telescope 100 times more powerful than the biggest radio telescopes currently in the world, taking up 1 million square metres of collecting area, or one square kilometre. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=792246 | 826,021 |
838,511 | FSHD is caused by a genetic mutation leading to deregulation of the "DUX4" gene. Normally, "DUX4" is expressed (i.e., turned on) in cells of the ovary and in very early human development, becoming repressed (i.e., turned off) by the time an embryo is several days old. In FSHD, "DUX4" is inadequately repressed, allowing sporadic expression throughout life. Deletion of DNA in the region surrounding "DUX4" is the causative mutation in 95% of cases, termed "D4Z4 contraction" and defining FSHD type 1 (FSHD1). FSHD caused by other mutations is FSHD type 2 (FSHD2). For disease to develop, also required is a 4qA allele, which is a common variation in the DNA next to "DUX4". The chances of a D4Z4 contraction with a 4qA allele being passed on to a child is 50% (autosomal dominant); in 30% of cases, the mutation arose spontaneously. Mutations of FSHD cause inadequate "DUX4" repression by unpacking the DNA around "DUX4", making it accessible to be copied into messenger RNA (mRNA). The 4qA allele stabilizes this "DUX4" mRNA, allowing it to be used for production of DUX4 protein. DUX4 protein is a modulator of hundreds of other genes, many of which are involved in muscle function. How this genetic modulation causes muscle damage remains unclear. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2570824 | 838,062 |
794,999 | Subsequent work on inducers by scientists over the 20th Century demonstrated that not only could the dorsal lip of the blastopore act as an inducer but so could a huge number of other seemingly unrelated items. This began when boiled ectoderm was found to still be able to induce by Johannes Holtfreter. Items as diverse as low pH, cyclic AMP, even floor dust could act as inducers leading to considerable consternation. Even tissue which could not induce when living could induce when boiled. Other items such as lard, wax, banana peels and coagulated frog’s blood did not induce. The hunt for a chemically based inducer molecule was taken up by developmental molecular biologists and a vast literature of items shown to have inducer abilities continued to grow. More recently the inducer molecule has been attributed to genes and in 1995 there was a call for all the genes involved in primary neural induction and all their interactions to be catalogued in an effort to determine “the molecular nature of Spemann’s organizer”. Several other proteins and growth factors have also been invoked as inducers including soluble growth factors such as bone morphogenetic protein, and a requirement for “inhibitory signals” such as noggin and follistatin. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1035621 | 794,574 |
145,329 | The integrated cycle implies that, before combustion, methane (primer natural gas component) is mixed with working fluid and converted into syngas (mix of H and CO) in a catalytic adiabatic (without an indirect heat supply) reactor by using sensible heat of the hot working fluid leaving, in the simplest case, the gas turbine outlet. The largest part of produced syngas (about 75%) is directed into the combustion chamber of the gas-turbine cycle to generate power, but another part of syngas (about 25%) is withdrawn from the power generation cycle as hydrogen, carbon monoxide, or their blend to produce chemicals, fertilizers, synthetic fuels, etc. The thermodynamic benefit owing to this modification is substantiated by exergy analysis. There are numerous technological options to separate syngas from working fluid and withdraw it from the cycle (e.g., condensing vapors and removing liquids, taking out gases and vapors by membrane and pressure swing adsorption separation, amine gas treating, and glycol dehydration). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=583901 | 145,271 |
331,882 | Two flight test engineers and two engine specialists monitored the 60GB per hour output of 1,375 sensors and 98,000 parameters, including strips of microelectromechanical systems to measure aerodynamic pressure distribution across the wing. MSN1795 was to undertake simulated icing tests and cold-weather tests in Canada, noise assessment, autoland testing and high angle-of-attack, minimum-unstick checks during rotation with a tail bumper. MSN1813 was to test natural icing conditions, assess hot and high conditions in the United Arab Emirates and La Paz, and fly 150h of route-proving; it has rakes and pressure sensors in the engine flows to compare actual thrust with ground bench measurements. MSN1819 was to validate the Airspace cabin interior fitting with artificial passengers for ventilation analysis and cabin environment measurements. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=43315216 | 331,705 |
45,081 | During that period, general relativity remained something of a curiosity among physical theories. It was clearly superior to Newtonian gravity, being consistent with special relativity and accounting for several effects unexplained by the Newtonian theory. Einstein showed in 1915 how his theory explained the anomalous perihelion advance of the planet Mercury without any arbitrary parameters ("fudge factors"), and in 1919 an expedition led by Eddington confirmed general relativity's prediction for the deflection of starlight by the Sun during the total solar eclipse of 29 May 1919, instantly making Einstein famous. Yet the theory remained outside the mainstream of theoretical physics and astrophysics until developments between approximately 1960 and 1975, now known as the golden age of general relativity. Physicists began to understand the concept of a black hole, and to identify quasars as one of these objects' astrophysical manifestations. Ever more precise solar system tests confirmed the theory's predictive power, and relativistic cosmology also became amenable to direct observational tests. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12024 | 45,064 |
217,902 | In 2000, China placed an order of passive electronically scanned array radar named Sokol (Falcon), designed by Phazotron, while the radar was still under development, it is reported that China had either partially funded or joined the development, but this can not be confirmed. All twenty units were delivered in 2004 after the development completed at the end of 2003, and the radars are installed on the Su-30MK2. The maximum range, average and peak power of Sokol radar remain the same as that of Zhuk-MSE radar on Su-30MKK, but the maximum number of targets it can simultaneously track actually decreased by 40%, from the original 20 to 12. However, the number of targets it can simultaneously engage is increased to six from the original four, thus fully utilizing the capability of the SUV-VEP subsystem of the onboard fire control system. The diameter of the antenna array is increased to 980 mm from the 960 mm of Zhuk-MS/MSE. The scan sector of the radar is 170 degrees and the elevation of the scan is from −40 degrees to +56 degrees. The radar has three receivers and a gain of 37 dB. When used against surface targets like a destroyer, the maximum range is doubled to 300 km, same as that of American AN/APG-68. There is not any confirmation for any follow-on orders of Sokol radar and unlike the capability optronic pod, this radar capability is not known to be added to the earlier Su-30MKKs during the incremental upgrades. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7541645 | 217,794 |
827,392 | It was designed from the beginning by Lapua to optimize accuracy, barrel life, and case capacity in a 6.5 mm cartridge for target and tactical shooting. As such it couples a sensible case volume (3.11 ml) to bore area (34.59 mm/0.3459 cm) ratio with ample space for loading relatively long slender projectiles that can provide good aerodynamic efficiency and external ballistic performance for the projectile diameter. The 6.5×47mm Lapua offers slightly lower muzzle velocities than 6.5 mm/.260 cartridges such as the 6.5 Creedmoor and .260 Remington due to its smaller case volume. In an article by the Precision Rifle Blog a survey of the top 100 shooters in the precision rifle series (PRS) showed that the 6.5 Creedmoor was on average faster than the 6.5×47mm Lapua. Although the 6.5×47mm Lapua is said to have superior brass quality compared to the 6.5 Creedmoor. The 6.5×47mm Lapua was the most popular cartridge during the PRS competition in 2015 beating out competing cartridges by more than two thirds. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9424542 | 826,948 |
496,293 | Teams in different parts of the world have different times allotted to complete the construction of the robot, due to the varying date of qualifying tournaments but must have a minimum of 8 weeks from "Global Challenge Release" (the date, usually in August, by which the details of the missions and research project become available to the public). They go on to compete in "FIRST" LEGO League Challenge tournaments, similar to the "FIRST" Robotics Competition regionals. The initial levels of competition are managed by an Affiliate Partner Organization (commonly affiliated Universities), who are led by an Affiliate or Operational Partner Representative ("The Partner"). The Partner has complete control over all official tournaments in their region. Region boundaries are set by "FIRST". Some States represent an entire region while others, like Central Florida, represent a mix of Counties within the State. Most Partners have a two-tier system; teams first go to a "Qualifier" and if they meet certain criteria and perform well in all 3 judged areas, they can receive a bid to advance to the next level of competition, which is most often a Regional-Level event. Certain territories have 3-tiers and may also employ a State Championship. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=970161 | 496,037 |
391,516 | On November 30, 2007, the Office of Civil Rights of the United States Department of Education issued a report finding insufficient evidence in support of allegations that Jewish students at UCI were harassed and subjected to a hostile environment based on their religious beliefs. The agency ultimately found that none of the incidents leading to the allegations qualified as "sufficiently severe, pervasive or persistent as to interfere with or limit the ability of an individual to participate in from the services, activities or privileges" provided by UCI, and that university officials had acted appropriately in response to each incident. In December 2007, UCI Administration was cleared of anti-semitism complaints by the US Department of Education's Office for Civil Rights. Following a speech by Chancellor Drake at the national Hillel meeting in Washington, D.C. in March 2008, Anteaters for Israel, along with three other Jewish organizations, issued a press release defending Drake and claiming that anti-Semitic activity was "exaggerated". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44757 | 391,321 |
710,265 | In the first participation of Chinese student in an international student assessment test, the 2009 Programme for International Student Assessment, 15-year-old students from Shanghai ranked first in all of the three categories: mathematics, science, and reading. The Chinese students scored particularly well compared to other nations in mathematics. One explanation for the Chinese results may be a culture emphasizing education and competitive examinations and more time spent studying in part due to less participation in activities such as sports. Teaching have become a higher status occupation. Also, industrialized Shanghai which has done important educational reforms may not be representative for the rest of China. While there was no evidence of cheating or technical problems with the testing, Shanghai which attracts many immigrants from the rest of China may have allowed particularly good students to study in the city and the students may have been told that the test was important for China's image. The OECD director of the testing, Andreas Schleicher, said that the results were expected to produce astonishment and had been examined for accuracy by international experts after the OECD received the Shanghai scores. He also said that the results "refute the commonly held hypothesis that China just produces rote learning" and "Large fractions of these students demonstrate their ability to extrapolate from what they know and apply their knowledge very creatively in novel situations". He believes that China has moved away from learning by rote. According to Schleicher, Russia performs well in rote-based assessments, but not in PISA, whereas China does well in both rote-based and broader assessments. In 2018 four major regions (Beijing, Shanghai, Jiangsu and Zhejiang) in China topped the rankings in reading, mathematics and science and China's school children are now the smartest in the world. Chinese high school students won multiple gold medals every year consistently at many International Science Olympiad Competitions like the International Biology Olympiad, the International Olympiad on Astronomy and Astrophysics, the International Olympiad in Informatics, the International Earth Science Olympiad, the International Mathematical Olympiad, the International Physics Olympiad and the International Chemistry Olympiad. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=277914 | 709,894 |
448,956 | The first step in the formation of Biofilms is adhesion. The initial bacterial adhesion to surfaces involves the adhesin–receptor interactions. Certain polysaccharides, lipids and proteins in the matrix function as the adhesive agents. EPS also promotes cell–cell cohesion (including interspecies recognition) to facilitate microbial aggregation and biofilm formation. In general, the EPS-based matrix mediates biofilm assembly as follows. First, the EPS formation takes place at the site of adhesion, it will be either produced on bacterial surfaces or secreted on the surface of attachment, and form an initial polymeric matrix promoting microbial colonization and cell clustering. Next, continuous production of EPS further expands the matrix in 3 dimensions while forming a core of bacterial cells. The bacterial core provides a supporting framework, and facilitates the development of 3D clusters and aggregation of microcolonies. Studies on "P. aeruginosa, B. subtilis", "V. cholerae", and "S. mutans" suggested that the transition from initial cell clustering to microcolony appears to be conserved among different biofilm-forming model organisms. As an example, "S. mutans" produces an exoenzymes, called glucosyltransferases (Gtfs), which synthesize glucans "in situ" using host diet sugars as substrates. Gtfs even bind to the bacteria that do not synthesize Gtfs, and therefore, facilitate interspecies and interkingdom coadhesion. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13575891 | 448,738 |
1,553,540 | In the 1880s, Munson worked on a monograph on native grapes that was to be illustrated by William Henry Prestele, the first artist appointed to the staff of the recently formed Pomological Division of the United States Department of Agriculture in Washington, D.C. Munson sent live and dried specimens to Prestele, who made color sketches of details that Munson would then review; Prestele would then use these detail drawings to create life-size paintings. The U.S. Secretary of Agriculture eventually decided the cost of printing the monograph with the illustrations would be prohibitive, so it was never published in its intended form. However, Munson went on to use the text he wrote as the foundation for his 1909 book "Foundations of American Grape Culture", regarded as one of the founding texts of American grape breeding and widely referenced even today. Instead of Prestele's watercolors, it was illustrated with photographs. Grape breeder Elmer Swenson credited it with inspiring his early interest in the field. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3468233 | 1,552,659 |
743,303 | Rayleigh scattering is a process in which electromagnetic radiation (including light) is scattered by a small spherical volume of variant refractive indexes, such as a particle, bubble, droplet, or even a density fluctuation. This effect was first modeled successfully by Lord Rayleigh, from whom it gets its name. In order for Rayleigh's model to apply, the sphere must be much smaller in diameter than the wavelength ("λ") of the scattered wave; typically the upper limit is taken to be about 1/10 the wavelength. In this size regime, the exact shape of the scattering center is usually not very significant and can often be treated as a sphere of equivalent volume. The inherent scattering that radiation undergoes passing through a pure gas is due to microscopic density fluctuations as the gas molecules move around, which are normally small enough in scale for Rayleigh's model to apply. This scattering mechanism is the primary cause of the blue color of the Earth's sky on a clear day, as the shorter blue wavelengths of sunlight passing overhead are more strongly scattered than the longer red wavelengths according to Rayleigh's famous 1/"λ" relation. Along with absorption, such scattering is a major cause of the attenuation of radiation by the atmosphere. The degree of scattering varies as a function of the ratio of the particle diameter to the wavelength of the radiation, along with many other factors including polarization, angle, and coherence. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=164483 | 742,909 |
1,739,791 | MAST campus is located in the Fort Hancock Historic Area, as part of the Sandy Hook Unit of the Gateway National Recreation Area. The school is adjacent to the Sandy Hook Lighthouse, the oldest operating lighthouse in the country, and is within walking distance of several beaches. The campus includes 13 newly renovated buildings and various laboratories devoted to marine biology, marine chemistry, oceanography, C.A.D., and multi-media. The buildings were previously mess halls and latrines for the "Tent City" that was set up at Fort Hancock for a time during World War II. A Technology Workshop, a Media Center containing a Computer Classroom, a Naval Science Building, a state of the art wet lab in the James J. Howard Marine Science laboratory, and other classrooms round out the facilities. There is also hands-on instruction on the school research vessel, the "R/V Blue Sea" for underclassmen and some seniors. The "R/V Blue Sea" is currently berthed at the Coast Guard Station on Sandy Hook. This vessel is extensively used throughout many core classes in the curriculum including marine biology, marine chemistry, marine physics, and oceanography. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=652400 | 1,738,811 |
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