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730,216 | Geologists such as Adam Sedgwick, and Roderick Murchison continued, in the course of disputes such as The Great Devonian Controversy, to make advances in stratigraphy. They described newly recognized geological periods, such as the Cambrian, the Silurian, the Devonian, and the Permian. Increasingly, such progress in stratigraphy depended on the opinions of experts with specialized knowledge of particular types of fossils such as William Lonsdale (fossil corals), and John Lindley (fossil plants) who both played a role in the Devonian controversy and its resolution. By the early 1840s much of the geologic time scale had been developed. In 1841, John Phillips formally divided the geologic column into three major eras, the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic, based on sharp breaks in the fossil record. He identified the three periods of the Mesozoic era and all the periods of the Paleozoic era except the Ordovician. His definition of the geological time scale is still used today. It remained a relative time scale with no method of assigning any of the periods' absolute dates. It was understood that not only had there been an "age of reptiles" preceding the current "age of mammals", but there had been a time (during the Cambrian and the Silurian) when life had been restricted to the sea, and a time (prior to the Devonian) when invertebrates had been the largest and most complex forms of animal life. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7991116 | 729,831 |
1,169,447 | Unlike thermal converters they are subject to bandwidth limitations which makes them unsuitable for most RF work. The circuitry before time averaging is particularly crucial for high-frequency performance. The slew rate limitation of the operational amplifier used to create the absolute value (especially at low input signal levels) tends to make the second method the poorest at high frequencies, while the FET method can work close to VHF. Specialist techniques are required to produce sufficiently accurate integrated circuits for complex analog calculations, and very often meters equipped with such circuits offer true RMS conversion as an optional extra with a significant price increase. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2615218 | 1,168,829 |
13,153 | As of October 2019, 1.17 million cubic meters of contaminated water was stored in the plant area. The water is being treated by a purification system that can remove radionuclides, except tritium, to a level that Japanese regulations allow to be discharged to the sea. As of December 2019, 28% of the water had been purified to the required level, while the remaining 72% needed additional purification. However, tritium cannot be separated from the water. As of October 2019, the total amount of tritium in the water was about 856 terabecquerels, and the average tritium concentration was about 0.73 megabecquerels per liter. A committee set up by the Japanese Government concluded that the purified water should be released to the sea or evaporated to the atmosphere. The committee calculated that discharging all the water to the sea in one year would cause a radiation dose of 0.81 microsieverts to the local people, whereas evaporation would cause 1.2 microsieverts. For comparison, Japanese people get 2100 microsieverts per year from natural radiation. IAEA considers that the dose calculation method is appropriate. Further, IAEA recommends that a decision on the water disposal must be made urgently. Despite the negligible doses, the Japanese committee is concerned that the water disposal may cause reputational damage to the prefecture, especially to the fishing industry and tourism. On 9 February 2021, the Catholic bishops of Japan and Korea voiced their opposition to the plan to release the water into the ocean, citing further opposition by fisheries, local prefecture councils, and the governor of Jeju Province. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31162817 | 13,148 |
41,011 | A common misconception is that evolution has goals, long-term plans, or an innate tendency for "progress", as expressed in beliefs such as orthogenesis and evolutionism; realistically however, evolution has no long-term goal and does not necessarily produce greater complexity. Although complex species have evolved, they occur as a side effect of the overall number of organisms increasing and simple forms of life still remain more common in the biosphere. For example, the overwhelming majority of species are microscopic prokaryotes, which form about half the world's biomass despite their small size, and constitute the vast majority of Earth's biodiversity. Simple organisms have therefore been the dominant form of life on Earth throughout its history and continue to be the main form of life up to the present day, with complex life only appearing more diverse because it is more noticeable. Indeed, the evolution of microorganisms is particularly important to evolutionary research, since their rapid reproduction allows the study of experimental evolution and the observation of evolution and adaptation in real time. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9236 | 40,996 |
320,275 | Priestley's science was integral to his theology, and he consistently tried to fuse Enlightenment rationalism with Christian theism. In his metaphysical texts, Priestley attempted to combine theism, materialism, and determinism, a project that has been called "audacious and original". He believed that a proper understanding of the natural world would promote human progress and eventually bring about the Christian millennium. Priestley, who strongly believed in the free and open exchange of ideas, advocated toleration and equal rights for religious Dissenters, which also led him to help found Unitarianism in England. The controversial nature of Priestley's publications, combined with his outspoken support of the American Revolution and later the French Revolution, aroused public and governmental contempt; eventually forcing him to flee in 1791, first to London and then to the United States, after a mob burned down his Birmingham home and church. He spent his last ten years in Northumberland County, Pennsylvania. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=40176 | 320,103 |
880,137 | Guard cells contain phototropin proteins which are serine and threonine kinases with blue-light photoreceptor activity. Phototrophins contain two light, oxygen, and voltage sensor (LOV) domains, and are part of the PAS domain superfamily. The phototropins trigger many responses such as phototropism, chloroplast movement and leaf expansion as well as stomatal opening. Not much was known about how these photoreceptors worked prior to around 1998. The mechanism by which phototropins work was elucidated through experiments with broad bean ("Vicia faba"). Immunodetection and far-western blotting showed blue light excites phototropin 1 and phototropin 2, causing protein phosphatase 1 to begin a phosphorylation cascade, which activates H-ATPase, a pump responsible for pumping H ions out of the cell. The phosphorylated H-ATPase allows the binding of a 14-3-3 protein to an autoinhibitory domain of the H-ATPase at the C terminus. Serine and threonine are then phosphorylated within the protein, which induces H-ATPase activity. The same experiment also found that upon phosphorylation, a 14-3-3 protein was bound to the phototropins before the H-ATPase had been phosphorylated. In a similar experiment they concluded that the binding of 14-3-3 protein to the phosphorylation site is essential for the activation of plasma membrane H-ATPase activity. This was done by adding phosphopeptides such as P-950, which inhibits the binding of 14-3-3 protein, to phosphorylated H-ATPase and observing the amino acid sequence. As protons are being pumped out, a negative electrical potential was formed across the plasma membrane. This hyperpolarization of the membrane allowed the accumulation of charged potassium (K) ions and chloride (Cl) ions, which in turn, increases the solute concentration causing the water potential to decrease. The negative water potential allows for osmosis to occur in the guard cell, so that water enters, allowing the cell to become turgid. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5134478 | 879,673 |
392,354 | In general, stiffer and lighter designs can be achieved with aluminium alloy than is feasible with steels. For instance, consider the bending of a thin-walled tube: the second moment of area is inversely related to the stress in the tube wall, i.e. stresses are lower for larger values. The second moment of area is proportional to the cube of the radius times the wall thickness, thus increasing the radius (and weight) by 26% will lead to a halving of the wall stress. For this reason, bicycle frames made of aluminium alloys make use of larger tube diameters than steel or titanium in order to yield the desired stiffness and strength. In automotive engineering, cars made of aluminium alloys employ space frames made of extruded profiles to ensure rigidity. This represents a radical change from the common approach for current steel car design, which depend on the body shells for stiffness, known as unibody design. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6191356 | 392,159 |
1,872,964 | The history of Drexel University, which concerns the evolution of Drexel University, a private university in Pennsylvania, United States of America, begins with the founding of Drexel Institute of Art, Science and Industry in 1891 by Anthony J. Drexel, with the main building dedicated on December 17 of that year. During the term of the Institute's first president, James A. MacAlister, from 1891 to 1913, the institute offered courses in various subjects such as art and illustration, mechanical arts, domestic arts and sciences, commerce and finance, teacher training, physical education, and librarianship. From 1895 to 1898, renowned American Impressionist painter Colin Campbell Cooper taught watercolor and architectural rendering courses. Though Drexel did not initially grant degrees, it began conferring the Bachelor of Science degree in 1914. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7621515 | 1,871,887 |
1,420,964 | IGOR Pro is a scientific data analysis software, numerical computing environment and programming language that runs on Windows or Mac operating systems. It is developed by WaveMetrics Inc., and was originally aimed at time series analysis, but has since then evolved and covers other applications such as curve fitting and image processing. It comes with a fully functional programming language and compiler, but many functions are also accessible through menus. IGOR Pro is primarily known for its graphics capabilities, and like Origin and other similar programs, is often used to generate plots for scientific and other publications. Other features include the possibility of extending the built-in functions with external operations (XOP) allowing data acquisition, manipulation and analysis features, communication with external devices and in principle any other task that can be programmed in C or C++. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2515207 | 1,420,164 |
65,410 | In his 2003 book "Enough: Staying Human in an Engineered Age", environmental ethicist Bill McKibben argued at length against many of the technologies that are postulated or supported by transhumanists, including germinal choice technology, nanomedicine and life extension strategies. He claims that it would be morally wrong for humans to tamper with fundamental aspects of themselves (or their children) in an attempt to overcome universal human limitations, such as vulnerability to aging, maximum life span and biological constraints on physical and cognitive ability. Attempts to "improve" themselves through such manipulation would remove limitations that provide a necessary context for the experience of meaningful human choice. He claims that human lives would no longer seem meaningful in a world where such limitations could be overcome technologically. Even the goal of using germinal choice technology for clearly therapeutic purposes should be relinquished, since it would inevitably produce temptations to tamper with such things as cognitive capacities. He argues that it is possible for societies to benefit from renouncing particular technologies, using as examples Ming China, Tokugawa Japan and the contemporary Amish. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30299 | 65,385 |
1,516,794 | L. Rafael Reif (born in Maracaibo, August 21, 1950). Venezuelan American electrical engineer, inventor and academic administrator. Descendent of Czech Jews ancestor on July 2, 2012, was elected president of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, succeeding Susan Hockfield the first woman in charge. Reif received his undergraduate degree in electrical engineering from the Universidad de Carabobo, Valencia, Venezuela in 1973. He then served for a year as an assistant professor at Universidad Simón Bolívar in Caracas. He went to the United States for graduate school, earning his doctorate in electrical engineering from Stanford University in 1979. He then spent a year as a visiting assistant professor in the department of electrical engineering at Stanford. His research centered on three-dimensional integrated circuit technologies and on environmentally benign microelectronics fabrication. An early champion of MIT's engagement in micro- and nanotechnologies, Dr. Reif is the inventor or co-inventor on 13 patents, has edited or co-edited five books and has supervised 38 doctoral theses. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29302481 | 1,515,942 |
2,105,458 | The RIPE project's proof-of-concept study established photosynthesis can be improved to increase yields, published in Science. The Guardian named this discovery one of the 12 key science moments of 2016. Computer model simulations identify strategies to improve the basic underlying mechanisms of photosynthesis and increase yield. First, researchers transform, or genetically engineer, model plants that are tested in controlled environments, e.g. growth chambers and greenhouses. Next, successful transformations are tested in randomized, replicated field trials. Finally, transformations with statistically significant yield increases are translated to the project's target food crops. Likely several approaches could be combined to additively increase yield. "Global access” ensures smallholder farmers will be able to use and afford the project's intellectual property. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=51559936 | 2,104,245 |
353,423 | Camouflage is also an important defense strategy, which involves the use of coloration or shape to blend into the surrounding environment. Some lepidopteran species blend with their surroundings, making them difficult to spot by predators. Caterpillars can exhibit shades of green that match its host plant. Others look like inedible objects, such as twigs or leaves. For instance, the mourning cloak fades into the backdrop of trees when it folds its wings back. The larvae of some species, such as the common Mormon ("Papilio polytes") and the western tiger swallowtail look like bird droppings. For example, adult Sesiidae species (also known as clearwing moths) have a general appearance sufficiently similar to a wasp or hornet to make it likely the moths gain a reduction in predation by Batesian mimicry. Eyespots are a type of automimicry used by some butterflies and moths. In butterflies, the spots are composed of concentric rings of scales in different colors. The proposed role of the eyespots is to deflect attention of predators. Their resemblance to eyes provokes the predator's instinct to attack these wing patterns. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=53307 | 353,240 |
2,235,933 | Concerns about environmentalism and conservation became popularized in the 1970s following the successes of the inaugural Earth Day that allowed for a sort of fusion between radical counterculture ideas regarding environmentalism and more mainstream ideas presented by politicians such as Gaylord Nelson. In addition, energy crises, such as the 1973 Oil Crisis and the 1979 Three Mile Island accident caused concern about the way contemporary energy sources were being utilized, prompting some to begin research in alternative forms of energy or better forms of energy conservation. In response, Ball State University started their efforts to implement energy education into the college; in 1979, with funding from the Indiana General Assembly, the university began planning of the Center for Energy Research/Education/Service, with construction beginning in the summer of 1980. Simultaneously, Ball State University began planning for incorporating this sort of education about conservation and energy education into their curriculum, including proposed courses in environmental architecture and in utilizing solar energy. In 1982, CERES was completed and opened for usage for Ball State's campus. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=57042077 | 2,234,663 |
1,863,916 | A third study surveyed downloaders of a more recent release of the program (AIDA v4.3a). Over a 1-year period (from March 2001 to February 2002) in total 3,864 responses were received. During the corresponding period some 8,578 actual downloads of the software were independently logged via the same route at the AIDA Website, giving a response rate for this survey of 45%. Responses were received from participants in 66 countries — over half of these (n=2,137; 55.3%) were from the United States and the United Kingdom. There were 2,318 responses (60.0%) received from people with diabetes and 443 (11.5%) from relatives of patients, with fewer responses from doctors, students, diabetes educators, nurses, pharmacists, and other end users. The authors concluded that the study highlighted ""considerable interest amongst patients and their relatives to learn more about balancing insulin and diet in diabetes, as well as possibly to get more involved in self-management of insulin dosages. More computer applications that can cater for this interest in diabetes patient self-care need to be developed and made available. The Internet provides an ideal medium for the distribution of such educational tools"". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8121243 | 1,862,844 |
665,281 | Modern experiments have been conducted on post-mortem invertebrates and vertebrates to understand how microbial mats and microbial activity influence the formation of fossils and the preservation of soft tissues. In these studies, microbial mats entomb animal carcasses in a sarcophagus of microbes—the sarcophagus entombing the animal's carcass delays decay. Entombed carcasses were observed to be more intact than non-entombed counter-parts by years at a time. Microbial mats maintained and stabilized the articulation of the joints and the skeleton of post-mortem organisms, as seen in frog carcasses for up to 1080 days after coverage by the mats. The environment within the entombed carcasses is typically described as anoxic and acidic during the initial stage of decomposition. These conditions are perpetuated by the exhaustion of oxygen by aerobic bacteria within the carcass creating an environment ideal for the preservation of soft tissues, such as muscle tissue and brain tissue. The anoxic and acidic conditions created by that mats also inhibit the process of autolysis within the carcasses delaying decay even further. Endogenous gut bacteria have also been described to aid the preservation of invertebrate soft tissue by delaying decay and stabilizing soft tissue structures. Gut bacteria form pseudomorphs replicating the form of soft tissues within the animal. These pseudomorphs are possible explanation for the increased occurrence of preserved guts impression among invertebrates. In the later stages of the prolonged decomposition of the carcasses, the environment within the sarcophagus alters to more oxic and basic conditions promoting biomineralization and the precipitation of calcium carbonate. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=188739 | 664,934 |
197,466 | The telescope has a mass of and contains a Schmidt camera with a front corrector plate (lens) feeding a primary mirror—at the time of its launch this was the largest mirror on any telescope outside Earth orbit, though the Herschel Space Observatory took this title a few months later. Its telescope has a 115 deg (about 12-degree diameter) field of view (FoV), roughly equivalent to the size of one's fist held at arm's length. Of this, 105 deg is of science quality, with less than 11% vignetting. The photometer has a soft focus to provide excellent photometry, rather than sharp images. The mission goal was a combined differential photometric precision (CDPP) of 20 ppm for a "m"(V)=12 Sun-like star for a 6.5-hour integration, though the observations fell short of this objective (see mission status). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=849815 | 197,364 |
614,758 | Producing approximately 25-50% of a shark's power, the RM is what powers the continuous swimming of sharks. This muscle thrives in elevated temperatures and is seen as almost mammal-like. The optimal temperature range for function is 20 to 30 degrees Celsius, and the muscles are deemed ineffective if exposed to cooler temperatures. Overall, the temperature of the RM is retained metabolically and is greatly above that of the external water temperature. This muscles also receives a sufficient blood supply which is why sharks can swim for extended periods of time, which helps break down fat. Red muscle fibers are concentrated in the ventral region of the shark, and are next to the vertebral column ultimately making the spinal column stronger. In other words, the first dorsal fin is posterior to the RM. In other fishes, the RM is more lateral. This muscle is increasingly thermally sensitive in both salmon shark and tuna. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6920914 | 614,444 |
863,095 | Very little is known about the details of Maximus' life prior to his involvement in the theological and political conflicts of the Monothelite controversy. Numerous Maximian scholars call substantial portions of the Maronite biography into question, including Maximus' birth in Palestine, which was a common seventh century trope to discredit an opponent. Moreover, the exceptional education Maximus evidently received could not have been had in any other part of the Byzantine Empire during that time except for Constantinople, and possibly Caesarea and Alexandria. It is also very unlikely that anyone of low social birth, as the Maronite biography describes Maximus, could have ascended by the age of thirty to be the Protoasekretis of the Emperor Heraclius, one of the most powerful positions in the Empire. It is more likely that Maximus was born of an aristocratic family and received an unparalleled education in philosophy, mathematics, astronomy, etc. It is true, however, that Maximus did not study rhetoric as he himself notes in the prologue to his Earlier Ambigua to John, to which his lack of high stylistic by Byzantine standards attests. Nevertheless, for reasons not explained in the few autobiographical details to be gleaned from his texts, Maximus left public life and took monastic vows at the monastery of Philippicus in Chrysopolis, a city across the Bosporus from Constantinople. Maximus was elevated to the position of abbot of the monastery. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=137473 | 862,635 |
10,661 | Schmidt also speculated on the belief systems of the groups that created Göbekli Tepe, based on comparisons with other shrines and settlements. He presumed shamanic practices and suggested that the T-shaped pillars represent human forms, perhaps ancestors, whereas he saw a fully articulated belief in deities as not developing until later, in Mesopotamia, that was associated with extensive temples and palaces. This corresponds well with an ancient Sumerian belief that agriculture, animal husbandry, and weaving were brought to humans from the sacred mountain Ekur, which was inhabited by Annuna deities, very ancient deities without individual names. Schmidt identified this story as a primeval oriental myth that preserves a partial memory of the emerging Neolithic. It is apparent that the animal and other images give no indication of organized violence, i.e. there are no depictions of hunting raids or wounded animals, and the pillar carvings generally ignore game on which the society depended, such as deer, in favour of formidable creatures such as lions, snakes, spiders, and scorpions. Expanding on Schmidt's interpretation that round enclosures could represent sanctuaries, Gheorghiu's semiotic interpretation reads the Göbekli Tepe iconography as a cosmogonic map that would have related the local community to the surrounding landscape and the cosmos. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=515395 | 10,656 |
1,023,018 | In 1958, after the inventor of the maser, Charles Townes, and his colleague, Arthur Schawlow, published an article in the "Physical Review" regarding the idea of optical masers, the race to build a working model began. Ruby had been used successfully in masers, so it was a first choice as a possible medium. While attending a conference in 1959, Maiman listened to a speech given by Schawlow, describing the use of ruby as a lasing medium. Schawlow stated that pink ruby, having a lowest energy-state that was too close to the ground-state, would require too much pumping energy for laser operation, suggesting red ruby as a possible alternative. Maiman, having worked with ruby for many years, and having written a paper on ruby fluorescence, felt that Schawlow was being "too pessimistic." His measurements indicated that the lowest energy level of pink ruby could at least be partially depleted by pumping with a very intense light source, and, since ruby was readily available, he decided to try it anyway. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4565309 | 1,022,486 |
1,411,179 | In 1887 Mendenhall published one of the earliest attempts at stylometry also known as author profiling, the quantitative analysis of writing style. Prompted by a suggestion made by the English mathematician Augustus de Morgan in 1851, Mendenhall attempted to characterize the style of different authors through the frequency distribution of words of various lengths. In this article Mendenhall mentioned the possible relevance of this technique to the Shakespeare authorship question, and several years later the idea was picked up by a supporter of the theory that Sir Francis Bacon was the true author of the works usually attributed to Shakespeare. He paid for a team of two people to undertake the counting required, but the results did not appear to support the theory. For comparison, in 1901 Mendenhall also had works by Christopher Marlowe analysed, and proponents of the Marlovian theory of Shakespeare authorship welcomed his finding that "in the characteristic curve of his plays Christopher Marlowe agrees with Shakespeare about as well as Shakespeare agrees with himself." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=847438 | 1,410,386 |
913,136 | The NAS review led to a reevaluation of these plans, and in July 1990, LLNL responded with the Nova Upgrade, which would reuse most of Nova, along with the adjacent Shiva facility. The resulting system would be much lower power than the LMF concept, with a driver of about 1 MJ. The new design included features that advanced the state of the art in the driver section, including multi-pass in the main amplifiers, and 18 beamlines (up from 10) that were split into 288 "beamlets" as they entered the target area. The plans called for the installation of two main banks of beamlines, one in the existing Nova beamline room, and the other in the older Shiva building next door, extending through its laser bay and target area into an upgraded Nova target area. The lasers would deliver about 500 TW in a 4 ns pulse. The upgrades were expected to produce fusion yields of between 2 and 10 MJ. The initial estimates from 1992 estimated construction costs around $400 million, with construction taking place from 1995 to 1999. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=337301 | 912,657 |
546,083 | "Cryptococcus neoformans" is a basidiomycetous fungus that grows as a budding yeast in culture and in an infected host. "C. neoformans" causes life-threatening meningoencephalitis in immune compromised patients. It undergoes a filamentous transition during the sexual cycle to produce spores, the suspected infectious agent. The vast majority of environmental and clinical isolates of "C. neoformans" are mating type α. Filaments ordinarily have haploid nuclei, but these can undergo a process of diploidization (perhaps by endoduplication or stimulated nuclear fusion) to form diploid cells termed blastospores. The diploid nuclei of blastospores can then undergo meiosis, including recombination, to form haploid basidiospores that can then be dispersed. This process is referred to as monokaryotic fruiting. Required for this process is a gene designated "dmc1", a conserved homologue of genes RecA in bacteria, and RAD51 in eukaryotes. "Dmc1" mediates homologous chromosome pairing during meiosis and repair of double-strand breaks in DNA (see Meiosis; also Michod et al.). Lin et al. suggested that one benefit of meiosis in "C. neoformans" could be to promote DNA repair in a DNA damaging environment that could include the defensive responses of the infected host. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3343370 | 545,797 |
1,456,085 | "Erlikosaurus" is poorly known from postcranial material, but the holotype skull became the focus of study in Computed Tomography (CT) scans that were published back in 2012 by the paleontologist Stephan Lautenschlager and Dr Emily Rayfield of Bristol University School of Earth Sciences, Professor Lindsay Zanno of the North Carolina Museum of Natural History and North Carolina State University, and Lawrence Witmer, Chang Professor of Paleontology at the Ohio University Heritage College of Osteopathic Medicine. Analysis of the brain cavity revealed that "Erlikosaurus", and quite likely most other therizinosaurids, had well developed senses of smell, hearing, and balance, traits better associated with carnivorous theropods. The enlarged forebrain of "Erlikosaurus" may also have been useful in complex social behavior and predator evasion. These senses were also well-developed in earlier coelurosaurs and other theropods, indicating that therizinosaurs may have inherited many of these traits from their carnivorous ancestors and used them for their different and specialized dietary purposes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4613539 | 1,455,265 |
162,268 | Before 1988, the most dominant car seen in a single season of F1 had been McLaren's car, the John Barnard designed MP4/2 which had won 12 of the 16 races that year driven by Prost and World Champion Niki Lauda (Lauda had defeated Prost in the Drivers' Championship by only half a point). However, the MP4/4's successes eclipsed the MP4/2 not only in wins but in qualifying performance. 1988 was an almost embarrassing walkover for McLaren, who took 15 victories from 16 races, including ten 1-2 finishes, while Prost finished 1st or 2nd in the 14 races he finished (he had 2 retirements - Britain and Italy). The car also sat on pole position in 15 of the 16 races (including a record 13 poles for Senna), locked out the front row in 12 races, and also set 10 fastest race laps. The dominant run was only interrupted once, at the Italian Grand Prix at Monza for Round 12, when Senna crashed out of the lead with only two laps remaining while lapping Jean-Louis Schlesser, who was making his first and only F1 start for Williams in place of Mansell who was suffering from chickenpox. With Prost already out after a rare engine failure, Gerhard Berger claimed an emotional victory for Ferrari just a month after the death of Ferrari founder Enzo Ferrari. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3210708 | 162,183 |
113,177 | Later, Soviet scientists under V. V. Osiko in the Laser Equipment Laboratory at the Lebedev Physical Institute in Moscow perfected the technique, which was then named "skull crucible" (an allusion either to the shape of the water-cooled container or to the form of crystals sometimes grown). They named the jewel "Fianit" after the institute's name FIAN (Physical Institute of the Academy of Science), but the name was not used outside of the USSR. This was known at the time as the Institute of Physics at the Russian Academy of Science. Their breakthrough was published in 1973, and commercial production began in 1976. In 1977 cubic zirconia began to be mass-produced in the jewelry marketplace by the Ceres Corporation with crystals stabilized with 94% yttria. Other major producers as of 1993 include Taiwan Crystal Company Ltd, Swarovski and ICT inc. By 1980 annual global production had reached 60 million carats (12 tonnes) and continued to increase with production reaching around 400 tonnes per year in 1998. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=60744 | 113,132 |
197,098 | Asteroid was lost after its 1950 discovery, since its observations over just 17 days were insufficient to precisely determine its orbit; it was rediscovered on December 31, 2000. It has a diameter of about a kilometer (0.6 miles), and an impact would therefore be globally catastrophic. It was observed by radar during its close 2001 approach, allowing much more precise orbit calculations. Although this asteroid will not strike for at least 800 years and thus has no Torino scale rating, it was added to the Sentry list in April 2002 as the first object with a Palermo scale value greater than zero. The then-calculated 1 in 300 maximum chance of impact and +0.17 Palermo scale value was roughly 50% greater than the background risk of impact by all similarly large objects until 2880. Uncertainties in the orbit calculations were further reduced using additional radar observations in 2012, and this decreased the odds of an impact. Taking all radar and optical observations through 2021 into account, the probability of impact in March 2880 is, , assessed at 1 in 34,000. The corresponding Palermo scale value of −2.05 is still among the highest for all objects on the Sentry List Table. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21626 | 196,997 |
1,062,023 | The development of hydrodynamic-based microfluidic biochips has been increasing over the years. In this technique, the cells or particles are trapped in a particular region for single cell analysis (SCA) usually without any application of external force fields such as optical, electrical, magnetic or acoustic. There is a need to explore the insights of SCA in the cell's natural state and development of these techniques is highly essential for that study. Researchers have highlighted the vast potential field that needs to be explored to develop biochip devices to suit market/researcher demands. Hydrodynamic microfluidics facilitates the development of passive lab-on-chip applications. A latest review gives an account of the recent advances in this field, along with their mechanisms, methods and applications. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38991948 | 1,061,469 |
1,016,020 | LD values for humans are best estimated by extrapolating results from human cell cultures. One form of measuring LD is to use model organisms, particularly animals like mice or rats, converting to dosage per kilogram of biomass, and extrapolating to human norms. The degree of error from animal-extrapolated LD values is large. The biology of test animals differs in important aspects to that of humans. For instance, mouse tissue is approximately fifty times less responsive than human tissue to the venom of the Sydney funnel-web spider. The square–cube law also complicates the scaling relationships involved. Researchers are shifting away from animal-based LD measurements in some instances. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has begun to approve more non-animal methods in response to animal welfare concerns. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=575776 | 1,015,497 |
1,909,747 | The first six faculty—all chemists—and staff were hired in 1966, and the first students were admitted in 1969. Carl Miller, a structural engineer, was the first staff member hired, and laser expert J. Richard Kerr was the second. OGC moved to a newly developed 74-acre site at 20000 NW Walker Road on the Hillsboro-Beaverton boundary in August 1969, which was intended to be its permanent campus, adjacent to the Oregon National Primate Research Center. The new site had been the Donovan family's wheat farm. Both campuses used Portland mailing addresses, although neither is in Portland proper. The initial programs were in chemistry, physics and mathematics, without any departmental divisions. OGC had no undergraduates, dormitories, sororities, fraternities, student-athletes, mascots, Latin motto, homecoming parade or social science departments, ever. The first research project was a study of the propagation of laser beams through the atmosphere by Kerr. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=48411848 | 1,908,649 |
352,742 | of this Report, a particular physical hypothesis which is, on a fundamental point, in contradiction with classical Mechanics, explicitly or tacitly.” Bohr's first paper on his atomic model quotes Planck almost word for word, saying: “Whatever the alteration in the laws of motion of the electrons may be, it seems necessary to introduce in the laws in question a quantity foreign to the classical electrodynamics, i. e. Planck's constant, or as it often is called the elementary quantum of action.” Bohr's footnote at the bottom of the page is to the French translation of the 1911 Solvay Congress proving he patterned his model directly on the proceedings and fundamental principles laid down by Planck, Lorentz, and the quantized Arthur Haas model of the atom which was mentioned seventeen times. Lorentz ended the discussion of Einstein's talk explaining: “The assumption that this energy must be a multiple of formula_1 leads to the following formula, where formula_2 is an integer: formula_3.” Rutherford could have outlined these points to Bohr or given him a copy of the proceedings since he quoted from them and used them as a reference. In a later interview, Bohr said it was very interesting to hear Rutherford's remarks about the Solvay Congress. But Bohr said, “I saw the actual reports” of the Solvay Congress. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4831 | 352,559 |
878,755 | Later in 1975, Alain Aspect proposed in an article, an experiment meticulous enough to be irrefutable: "Proposed experiment to test the non-separability of quantum mechanics". This led Aspect, together with physicists Philippe Grangier, Gérard Roger, and Jean Dalibard) to set up several increasingly complex experiments between 1980 and 1982 that further established quantum entanglement. Finally in 1998, the Geneva experiment tested the correlation between two detectors set 30 kilometres apart, virtually across the whole city, using the Swiss optical fibre telecommunication network. The distance gave the necessary time to commute the angles of the polarizers. It was therefore possible to have a completely random electrical shunting. Furthermore, the two distant polarizers were entirely independent. The measurements were recorded on each side, and compared after each experiment by dating each measurement using an atomic clock. The experiment once again verified entanglement under the strictest and most ideal conditions possible. If Aspect's experiment implied that a hypothetical coordination signal travel twice as fast as "c", Geneva's reached 10 million times "c". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1025272 | 878,292 |
1,551,427 | If the plated electrodes are arranged in a non-symmetric configuration, the imposed voltage can induce a variety of deformations such as twisting, rolling, torsioning, turning,twirling, whirling and non-symmetric bending deformation. Alternatively, if such deformations are physically applied to an IPMC strips they generate an output voltage signal (few millivolts for typical small samples) as sensors and energy harvesters. IPMCs are a type of electroactive polymer. They work very well in a liquid environment as well as in air. They have a force density of about 40 in a cantilever configuration, meaning that they can generate a tip force of almost 40 times their own weight in a cantilever mode. IPMCs in actuation,sensing and energy harvesting have a very broad bandwidth to kilo HZ and higher. IPMCs were first introduced in 1998 by Shahinpoor, Bar-Cohen, Xue, Simpson and Smith (see references below) but the original idea of ionic polymer actuators and sensors goes back to 1992-93 by Adolf, Shahinpoor, Segalman, Witkowski, Osada, Okuzaki, Hori, Doi, Matsumoto, Hirose, Oguro, Takenaka, Asaka and Kawami as depicted below: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7716807 | 1,550,546 |
307,899 | Albert Hofmann, born in Switzerland, joined the pharmaceutical-chemical department of Sandoz Laboratories, located in Basel, as a co-worker with professor Arthur Stoll, founder and director of the pharmaceutical department. He began studying the medicinal plant squill and the fungus ergot as part of a program to purify and synthesize active constituents for use as pharmaceuticals. His main contribution was to elucidate the chemical structure of the common nucleus of "Scilla" glycosides (an active principle of Mediterranean squill). While researching lysergic acid derivatives, Hofmann first synthesized LSD on November 16, 1938. The main intention of the synthesis was to obtain a respiratory and circulatory stimulant (an analeptic). It was set aside for five years, until April 16, 1943, when Hofmann decided to take a second look at it. While re-synthesizing LSD, he accidentally absorbed a small amount of the drug and discovered its powerful effects. He described what he felt as being: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1119225 | 307,734 |
641,877 | Guidelines have been set up by various governing bodies regarding the standards that are followed by practicing forensic scientists. For forensic chemists, the international Scientific Working Group for the Analysis of Seized Drugs (SWGDRUG) presents recommendations for the quality assurance and quality control of tested materials. In the identification of unknown samples, protocols have been grouped into three categories based on the probability for false positives. Instruments and protocols in category A are considered the best for uniquely identifying an unknown material, followed by categories B and then C. To ensure the accuracy of identifications SWGDRUG recommends that multiple tests using different instruments be performed on each sample, and that one category A technique and at least one other technique be used. If a category A technique is not available, or the forensic chemist decides not to use one, SWGDRUG recommends that at least three techniques be used, two of which must be from category B. Combination instruments, such as GC-MS, are considered two separate tests as long as the results are compared to known values individually For example, the GC elution times would be compared to known values along with the MS spectra. If both of those match a known substance, no further tests are needed. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2275867 | 641,538 |
1,236,905 | She started off in Bell’s Human Factors division, with the specific purpose of studying how technology could be used to positively impact human’s lives. Croak first began working on digital messaging applications, tasked with the study of determining if various messaging applications could communicate with each other. This kind of research was very novel, as the earliest form of the Internet would not come to full fruition until the next year in 1983. Bell Labs wanted to send voice, text, and video data digitally rather than using a standard phone line. And the favored mechanism for this was Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) protocol, but Croak, along with the rest of her team, convinced AT&T to use TCP/IP instead. TCP/IP allowed for a standardized way of packaging and communicating information. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58852329 | 1,236,241 |
401,317 | The Soviet space program was tied to the USSR's Five-Year Plans and from the start was reliant on support from the Soviet military. Although he was "single-mindedly driven by the dream of space travel", Korolev generally kept this a secret while working on military projects—especially, after the Soviet Union's first atomic bomb test in 1949, a missile capable of carrying a nuclear warhead to the United States—as many mocked the idea of launching satellites and crewed spacecraft. Nonetheless, the first Soviet rocket with animals aboard launched in July 1951; the two dogs were recovered alive after reaching 101 km in altitude. Two months ahead of America's first such achievement, this and subsequent flights gave the Soviets valuable experience with space medicine. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=723059 | 401,118 |
1,012,698 | During the 1960s and early 1970s, the Atomic Energy Commission came under fire from opposition concerned with more fundamental ecological problems such as the pollution of air and water. Under the Nixon Administration, environmental consciousness grew exponentially and the first Earth Day was held on April 22, 1970. Along with rising environmental awareness came a growing suspicion of the AEC and public hostility for their projects increased. In the public eye, there was a strong association between nuclear power and nuclear weapons, and even though the AEC had made a push in the late 1960s, to portray their efforts as being geared toward peaceful uses of atomic energy, criticism of the agency grew. The AEC was chiefly held responsible for the health problems of people living near atmospheric test sites from the early 1960s, and there was a strong association of nuclear energy with the radioactive fallout from these tests. Around the same time, the AEC was also struggling with opposition to nuclear power plant siting as well as nuclear testing. An organized push was finally made to curb the power held by the AEC, and in 1970 the AEC was forced to prepare an Environmental impact statement (EIS) for a nuclear test in northwestern Colorado as part of the initial preparation for Project Rio Blanco. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=51718 | 1,012,177 |
7,336 | Subatomic charged particles, primarily protons from cosmic rays and solar wind, are normally absorbed by Earth's atmosphere. When they interact in sufficient quantity, their effect is visible to the naked eye in a phenomenon called an aurora. Outside Earth's atmosphere, ISS crews are exposed to approximately one millisievert each day (about a year's worth of natural exposure on Earth), resulting in a higher risk of cancer. Radiation can penetrate living tissue and damage the DNA and chromosomes of lymphocytes; being central to the immune system, any damage to these cells could contribute to the lower immunity experienced by astronauts. Radiation has also been linked to a higher incidence of cataracts in astronauts. Protective shielding and medications may lower the risks to an acceptable level. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 | 7,333 |
782,676 | The soaring temperature in Chennai, especially during summer, demands extra care for residents of the zoo. Fortunately, the temperature inside the zoo campus is a couple of degrees lower than outside any time of the year, primarily due to the lush greenery. The park also maintains an exclusive summer management schedule. All animal enclosures have thatched roofs and fresh river sand spread on the floor to make it cooler for the animals. Water is sprinkled on the sand to provide extra cooling. Roofs of water birds' enclosures are covered with coconut leaves and wet gunny bags. Caves that are exposed directly to the sun are put under a shower twice a day. The enclosure for the king cobra has an air conditioner in order to provide an environment similar to its natural habitat as the species cannot withstand the summer heat. For birds, the topmost part of the cage is covered with jute bags, and water is sprinkled three times a day. Based on the temperature, cucumber, buttermilk, apple and banana are also served to herbivores. The zoo has also set up sprinklers to help animals beat the summer heat and is planning to set up about 20 more sprinklers at the deer safari. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30870670 | 782,257 |
1,818,235 | In a dynamic sense, the response of a gel to an alternating force (oscillation or vibration) will depend upon the period or frequency of vibration. As indicated here, even most simple liquids will exhibit some elastic response at shear rates or frequencies exceeding 5 x 10 cycles per second. Experiments on such short time scales probe the fundamental motions of the primary particles (or particle clusters) which constitute the lattice structure or aggregate. The increasing resistance of certain liquids to flow at high stirring speeds is one manifestation of this phenomenon. The ability of a condensed body to respond to a mechanical force by viscous flow is thus strongly dependent on the time scale over which the load is applied, and thus the frequency and amplitude of the stress wave in oscillatory experiments. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58840824 | 1,817,200 |
1,622,781 | The existing diversity of the microbial world is not unraveled completely yet, although we know that it is mainly composed by bacteria, fungi and unicellular eukaryotes. Taxonomic identification of microbial eukaryotes requires exceedingly skillful expertise and is often difficult due to small sizes of the organisms, fragmented individuals, hidden diversity and cryptic species. Further, prokaryotes can simply not be taxonomically assigned using traditional methods like microscopy, because they are too small and morphologically indistinguishable. Therefore, via the use of DNA metabarcoding, it is possible to identify organisms without taxonomic expertise by matching short High Throughput Sequences (HTS)-derived gene fragments to a reference sequence database, e.g. NCBI. These mentioned qualities make DNA barcoding a cost-effective, reliable and less time-consuming method, compared to the traditional ones, to meet the increasing need for large-scale environmental assessments. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=60361376 | 1,621,865 |
1,750,425 | Designed by GITAI Japan Inc., the robot will work as a general-purpose helper under the pressurized environment inside the Bishop Airlock. It will operate tools and switches and run scientific experiments. The next step will be to test it outside the ISS in the harsh space environment. The robot will be able to perform tasks both autonomously and via teleoperations. Its arm has eight degrees of freedom and a 1-meter reach. GITAI S1 is a semi-autonomous/semi-teleoperated robotic arm designed to conduct specified tasks internally and externally on space stations, on-orbit servicing, and lunar base development. By combining autonomous control via AI and teleoperations via the specially designed GITAI manipulation system H1, GITAI S1 on its own, possesses the capability to conduct generous-purpose tasks (manipulation of switches, tools, soft objects; conducting science experiments and assembly; high-load operations; etc.) that were extremely difficult for industrial robots such as task specific robotic arms to do. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=65437160 | 1,749,439 |
1,720,005 | "Mastotermes darwiniensis" is usually not very numerous, nor are the colonies large when left to natural conditions. However, when given abundant water (such as regular irrigation) and favourable food and soil conditions (such as stored timber or timber structures), populations can be enormous, numbering in the millions, quickly destroying their host. Its diet is varied, as it will eat introduced plants, damaged ivory and leather, and wood and debris, and in fact almost anything organic. It becomes a major agricultural pest, to the extent that vegetable farming has been virtually abandoned in Northern Australia wherever this termite is numerous, which it is outside of the rain forest or bauxite soils. It has developed the ability to bore up into a living tree and ring bark it such that it dies and becomes the center of a colony. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14511141 | 1,719,035 |
281,480 | His next paper, was a short report, based on observations that he made in 1853. This first experiment by Lister, as opposed to purely microscope work, was to prove two goals: firstly to determine the nature of the flow of chyle in the lymphatics and secondly, to determine if the lacteals in the gastrointestinal wall could absorb solid matter, in the form of granules, from the lumen. For the first experiment, a mouse that was fed beforehand on bread and milk was chloroformed then had its abdomen opened and a length of intestine placed on glass under a microscope. Lister repeated the experiment several times and each time saw mesenteric lymph flowing in a steady stream, without visible contractions of the lacteals. For the second experiment Lister dyed some bread with indigo dye and fed it to a mouse, with the result that no indigo particles were ever seen in the chyle. Lister delivered the paper to the 27th meeting of the British Medical Association, that was held in Dublin between 26 August to 2 September 1857. The paper was formally published in 1858 in the "Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=16535 | 281,327 |
1,206,934 | UFPs are both manufactured and naturally occurring. Hot volcanic lava, ocean spray, and smoke are common natural UFPs sources. UFPs can be intentionally fabricated as are fine particles to serve a vast range of applications in both medicine and technology. Other UFPs are byproducts, like emissions, from specific processes, combustion reactions, or equipment such as printer toner and automobile exhaust. In 2014, an air quality study found harmful ultrafine particles from the takeoffs and landings at Los Angeles International Airport to be of much greater magnitude than previously thought. There are a multitude of indoor sources that include but are not limited to laser printers, fax machines, photocopiers, the peeling of citrus fruits, cooking, tobacco smoke, penetration of contaminated outdoor air, chimney cracks and vacuum cleaners. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=16422485 | 1,206,288 |
744,977 | Amyloids are formed of long unbranched fibers that are characterized by an extended beta-sheet secondary structure in which individual beta strands (β-strands) (coloured arrows in the adjacent figure) are arranged in an orientation perpendicular to the long axis of the fiber. Such a structure is known as cross-β structure. Each individual fiber may be 7–13 nanometres in width and a few micrometres in length. The main hallmarks recognised by different disciplines to classify protein aggregates as amyloid is the presence of a fibrillar morphology with the expected diameter, detected using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) or atomic force microscopy (AFM), the presence of a cross-β secondary structure, determined with circular dichroism, FTIR, solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (ssNMR), X-ray crystallography, or X-ray fiber diffraction (often considered the "gold-standard" test to see whether a structure contains cross-β fibres), and an ability to stain with specific dyes, such as Congo red, thioflavin T or thioflavin S. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=396724 | 744,583 |
224,682 | Another emerging technique to optimize hydrogel mechanical properties is by taking advantage of the Hofmeister series. Due to this phenomenon, through the addition of salt solution, the polymer chains of a hydrogel aggregate and crystallize, which increases the toughness of the hydrogel. This method, called "salting out", has been applied to poly(vinyl alcohol) hydrogels by adding a sodium sulfate salt solution. Some of these processing techniques can be used synergistically with each other to yield optimal mechanical properties. Directional freezing or freeze-casting is another method in which a directional temperature gradient is applied to the hydrogel is another way to form materials with anisotropic mechanical properties. Utilizing both the freeze-casting and salting-out processing techniques on poly(vinyl alcohol) hydrogels to induce hierarchical morphologies and anisotropic mechanical properties. Directional freezing of the hydrogels helps to align and coalesce the polymer chains, creating anisotropic array honeycomb tube-like structures while salting out the hydrogel yielded out a nano-fibril network on the surface of these honeycomb tube-like structures. While maintaining a water content of over 70%, these hydrogels' toughness values are well above those of water-free polymers such as polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), Kevlar, and synthetic rubber. The values also surpass the toughness of natural tendon and spider silk. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=844290 | 224,568 |
847,854 | The observatory can observe wavelengths of light from the far-ultraviolet to the near-infrared. To enable the extreme wavefront stability needed for coronagraphic observations of Earth-like exoplanets, the LUVOIR design incorporates three principles. First, vibrations and mechanical disturbances throughout the observatory are minimized. Second, the telescope and coronagraph both incorporate several layers of wavefront control through active optics. Third, the telescope is actively heated to a precise to control thermal disturbances. The LUVOIR technology development plan is supported with funding from NASA's Astrophysics Strategic Mission Concept Studies program, the Goddard Space Flight Center, the Marshall Space Flight Center, the Jet Propulsion Laboratory and related programs at Northrop Grumman Aerospace Systems and Ball Aerospace. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=52350237 | 847,404 |
315,369 | Regulatory agencies have recently begun to look at more fundamental quality metrics of manufacturers than just compliance with basic GMP regulations. US-FDA has found that manufacturers who have implemented quality metrics programs gain a deeper insight into employee behaviors that impact product quality. In its Guidance for Industry "Data Integrity and Compliance With Drug CGMP" US-FDA states “it is the role of management with executive responsibility to create a quality culture where employees understand that data integrity is an organizational core value and employees are encouraged to identify and promptly report data integrity issues.” Australia's Therapeutic Goods Administration has said that recent data integrity failures have raised questions about the role of quality culture in driving behaviors. In addition, non-governmental organizations such as the International Society for Pharmaceutical Engineering (ISPE) and the Parenteral Drug Association (PDA) have developed information and resources to help pharmaceutical companies better understand why quality culture is important and how to assess the current situation within a site or organization. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=614085 | 315,200 |
1,770,030 | They waited to license a game engine until after preproduction, expecting the benefits of licensing to be more time for the content and gameplay. They chose the Unreal engine as it did 80% of what they needed from an engine and was more economical than building from scratch. Their small programming team allowed for a larger design group. The programmers also found the engine accommodating, though it took about nine months to acclimate to the software. Spector estimated that six to nine months of playing with the engine were necessary to learn how to use it properly, and even still, their ideas did not always implement as planned. Spector thought it would have been much harder to have written the interfaces, skill systems, and conversations on their own. Despite the savings, the time Spector thought they would save not writing an engine was lost learning the engine, though they did have more time to work on content creation and gameplay systems. Spector also felt that they would have understood the code better had they built it themselves, instead of "treating the engine as a black box" and coding conservatively. He acknowledged that this precipitated into the Direct3D issues in their final release, which slipped through their quality assurance testing. Spector also noted that the artificial intelligence, pathfinding, and sound propagation were designed for shooters and should have been rewritten from scratch instead of relying on the engine. He thought the licensed engine worked well enough that he expected to use the same for and "Thief 3". He added that developers should not attempt to force their technology to perform in ways it was not intended, and should find a balance between perfection and pragmatism. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=43210943 | 1,769,035 |
792,863 | Corliss kept a detailed record of the production, collective horsepower, and sales of his engines up until the patent expired. He did this for a number of reasons, including tracking those who infringed on the patent rights, maintenance and upgrade details, and especially as data used to extend the patent. With this data, a more clear understanding of the engine's influence is provided. By 1869, nearly 1200 engines had been sold, totaling 118,500 horsepower. Another estimated 60,000 horsepower was being utilized by engines that were created by manufacturers infringing on Corliss's patent, bringing the total horsepower to roughly 180,000. This relatively small number of engines produced 15% of the United States’ total 1.2 million horsepower. The mean horsepower for all Corliss engines in 1870 was 100, while the mean for all steam engines (including Corliss engines) was 30. Some very large engines even allowed for applications as large as 1,400 horsepower. Many were convinced of the Corliss engine's benefits, but adoption was slow due to patent protection. When Corliss was denied a patent extension in 1870, it became a prevalent model for stationary engines in the industrial sector. By the end of the 19th century, the engine was already having a major influence on the manufacturing sector, where it made up only 10% of the sector's engines, but produced 46% of the horsepower. The engine also became a model of efficiency outside of the textile industry, as it was used for pumping the waterways of Pawtucket, Rhode Island in 1878, and played an essential role in the expansion of the railroad by allowing for very large-scale operations in rolling mills. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1424698 | 792,438 |
1,732,723 | HB-EGF is recognized as an important component for the modulation of cell activity in various biological interactions. Found widely distributed in cerebral neurons and neuroglia, HB-EGF induced by brain hypoxia and or ischemia subsequently stimulates neurogenesis. Interactions between uterine HB-EGF and epidermal growth factor receptors of blastocysts influence embryo-uterine interactions and implantation. Studies show HB-EGF protects intestinal stem cells and intestinal epithelial cells in necrotizing enterocolitis, a disease affecting premature newborns. Associated with a breakdown in gut barrier function, necrotizing enterocolitis may be mediated by HB-EGF effects on intestinal mucosa. HB-EGF expressed during skeletal muscle contraction facilitates peripheral glucose removal, glucose tolerance and uptake. The upregulation of HB-EGF with exercise may explain the molecular basis for the decrease in metabolic disorders such as obesity and type 2 diabetes with regular exercise. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11883272 | 1,731,747 |
860,545 | Derivatives of Shor's algorithm are widely conjectured to be effective against all mainstream public-key algorithms including RSA, Diffie-Hellman and elliptic curve cryptography. According to Professor Gilles Brassard, an expert in quantum computing: "The time needed to factor an RSA integer is the same order as the time needed to use that same integer as modulus for a single RSA encryption. In other words, it takes no more time to break RSA on a quantum computer (up to a multiplicative constant) than to use it legitimately on a classical computer." The general consensus is that these public key algorithms are insecure at any key size if sufficiently large quantum computers capable of running Shor's algorithm become available. The implication of this attack is that all data encrypted using current standards based security systems such as the ubiquitous SSL used to protect e-commerce and Internet banking and SSH used to protect access to sensitive computing systems is at risk. Encrypted data protected using public-key algorithms can be archived and may be broken at a later time, commonly known as retroactive/retrospective decryption or "harvest and decrypt". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5749 | 860,087 |
98,043 | Beginning with the Spring and Autumn period of the eighth century BCE, China was divided into numerous states that were often at war with each other. Subsequently, there emerged rules for diplomacy and treaty-making, including notions regarding the just grounds for war, the rights of neutral parties, and the consolidation and partition of states; these concepts were sometimes applied to relations with "barbarians" along China's western periphery beyond the Central Plains. The subsequent Warring States period saw the development of two major schools of thought, Confucianism and Legalism, both of which held that the domestic and international legal spheres were closely interlinked, and sought to establish competing normative principles to guide foreign relations. Similarly, the Indian subcontinent was characterized by an ever-changing panoply of states, which over time developed rules of neutrality, treaty law, and international conduct. Embassies both temporary and permanent were established between states to maintain diplomatic relations, and relations were conducted with distant states in Europe and East Asia. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8195726 | 98,002 |
486,666 | The project, sometimes called "Phase One", was intended to allow the United States to learn from Russian experience with long-duration spaceflight and to foster a spirit of cooperation between the two nations and their space agencies, the US National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the Russian Federal Space Agency (Roscosmos). The project helped to prepare the way for further cooperative space ventures; specifically, "Phase Two" of the joint project, the construction of the International Space Station (ISS). The program was announced in 1993, the first mission started in 1994 and the project continued until its scheduled completion in 1998. Eleven Space Shuttle missions, a joint Soyuz flight and almost 1000 cumulative days in space for American astronauts occurred over the course of seven long-duration expeditions. In addition to Space Shuttle launches to "Mir" the United States also fully funded and equipped with scientific equipment the Spektr module (launched in 1995) and the Priroda module (launched in 1996), making them de facto U.S. modules during the duration of the Shuttle-"Mir" program. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=976586 | 486,417 |
647,349 | Coleman spoke out as a "rejectionis[t]" of global warming in 2007 after watching NBC's "Green is Universal" week, when as a sign of environmental awareness, the studio lights were cut for portions of "Sunday Night Football's" pre-game and half-time shows. In a 2015 open letter to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, he claimed that a causal relationship between rising levels of atmospheric and rising temperatures had not been shown to exist. He has called global warming the "greatest scam in history" and made numerous false or misleading claims about climate science. Coleman held a bachelor's degree in journalism and stated in interviews that he has not conducted any scientific research in the area of climate change. Coleman's views contributed to his decision to drop out of the American Meteorological Society. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6852886 | 647,009 |
2,155,160 | Levy contributed to a report by the World Meteorological Organisation which recorded that globally averaged concentrations of CO reached 403.3 parts per million (ppm) in 2016 up from 400ppm in 2015 and this was likely to see dangerous temperature increases by the end of the 21st century. When gathering data for this report Levy worked with other members of the GNS team, Jocelyn Turnbull and Nancy Bertler, to show that by observing rates of change in the past through the analysis of ice core records, it is possible to estimate the effect on the climate if this rate increased. The rate of increase in CO concentrations in 2017, is considerably faster than rates in the mid-Pliocene era, about 5 million years ago when similar concentrations had caused the collapse of ice sheets in Antarctica resulting in global sea levels higher and temperatures warmer than in 2017. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=67230101 | 2,153,929 |
1,630,563 | The only significant difference between the smaller and larger testing devices is the method of catching the reaction mass. The catching method for larger tests uses gravel. This is achieved by placing the Statnamic device on the test pile and lowering the reaction mass onto its hanger. A large containing container is then placed around the assembly and filled with gravel. As the Statnamic weights move upwards the gravel moves to fill the void left and support the weights once movement has ceased. Due to the time required to place and remove the gravel after testing this method is reserved for tests above 16 MN. Smaller rigs utilise a hydraulic catching mechanism that allows the mass to be caught within the frame of the device. This allows up to ten individual piles to be tested in a day or multiple cycles on a single pile at 15-minute intervals. Further description of the hydraulic catching mechanism is given by Middendorp (2000). The most recent development is the mounting of a 1 MN Statnamic device on a 360° tracked excavator which allows rapid deployment (1 hour) and increased production. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21486695 | 1,629,642 |
1,157,700 | Human Cytomegalovirus is a prevalent beta herpesvirus that remains in the latent state, going unnoticed in healthy individuals with serious consequences if the individual is immunocompromised. The virus cycles in and out of the latent state and is characterized by different gene expression regions: immediate-early (IE), early, and late. Conventional anti-viral treatments such as Ganciclovir use nucleoside analogs to target the early events of the viral replication cycles, however, these approaches are prone to developing resistance. Targeting IE1 and IE2 are thought to be crucial in regulating the pathogenesis of HCMV and retaining the virus in the latent state. Viral proteins derived from IE1 and IE2 regulate viral latency by controlling subsequent expression of early and late genes. Silencing of IE gene expression through antisense oligonucleotides, RNA interference, and gene-targeting ribosomes have been investigated for therapeutic applications. Alternatively, the rise of CRISPR technology allows for precise DNA editing that can knockout HCMV genes responsible for IE transcription. DNA targeting is more effective in latent infections, in which viral mRNA is absent or at a low concentration. Small molecule chemical inhibitors are also being investigated that target epigenetic factors and signaling proteins involved in IE expression. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=771660 | 1,157,087 |
834,776 | In March 1999, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) reversed its policy and signed a contract with a consortium of Duke Energy, COGEMA, and Stone & Webster (DCS) to design and operate a mixed oxide (MOX) fuel fabrication facility. Site preparation at the Savannah River Site (South Carolina) began in October 2005. In 2011 the New York Times reported "...11 years after the government awarded a construction contract, the cost of the project has soared to nearly $5 billion. The vast concrete and steel structure is a half-finished hulk, and the government has yet to find a single customer, despite offers of lucrative subsidies." TVA (currently the most likely customer) said in April 2011 that it would delay a decision until it could see how MOX fuel performed in the nuclear accident at Fukushima Daiichi. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197845 | 834,327 |
1,260,375 | Throughout the use of the bathythermograph various technicians, watchstanders, and oceanographers noted how dangerous the deployment and retrieval of the BT was. According to watchstander Edward S. Barr: "… In any kind of rough weather, this BT position was frequently subject to waves making a clean sweep of the deck. In spite of breaking waves over the side, the operator had to hold his station, because the equipment was already over the side. One couldn't run for shelter as the brake and hoisting power were combined in a single hand lever. To let go of this lever would cause all the wire on the winch to unwind, sending the recording device and all its cable to the ocean bottom forever. It was not at all uncommon, from the protective position of the laboratory door, to look back and see your watchmate at the BT winch completely disappear from sight as a wave would come crashing over the side. … We also took turns taking BT readings. It wasn't fair for only one person to get wet consistently." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5660340 | 1,259,688 |
498,662 | Milner discovered from H.M. and other case studies that "bilateral medial temporal-lobe resection in man results in a persistent impairment of recent memory whenever the removal is carried far enough posteriorly to damage portions of the anterior hippocampus and hippocampal gyrus." She showed that in patients with this syndrome the ability to learn certain motor skills remained normal. This finding introduced the concept of multiple memory systems within the brain and stimulated an enormous body of research. Milner stated in an interview with the "McGill Journal of Medicine", "To see that HM had learned the task perfectly but with absolutely no awareness that he had done it before was an amazing dissociation. If you want to know what was an exciting moment of my life, that was one." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=605565 | 498,405 |
705,412 | where is the "case B" recombination coefficient to the excited states of hydrogen, is the corresponding photoionization rate and "E" = 10.2 eV is the energy of the first excited state. Note that the second term in the right-hand side of the above equation can be obtained by a detailed balance argument. The equilibrium result given in the previous section would be recovered by setting the left-hand side to zero, i.e. assuming that the net rates of recombination and photoionization are large in comparison to the Hubble expansion rate, which sets the overall evolution timescale for the temperature and density. However, is comparable to the Hubble expansion rate, and even gets significantly lower at low redshifts, leading to an evolution of the free electron fraction much slower than what one would obtain from the Saha equilibrium calculation. With modern values of cosmological parameters, one finds that the universe is 90% neutral at "z" ≈ 1070. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=26244469 | 705,043 |
1,085,891 | In 1938 Brown was promoted to Lieutenant and in 1939 was assigned for a few months as a material engineer for the Navy's flying boats being built at the Glenn L. Martin Company in Maryland. He was engaged in magnetic and acoustic mine-sweeping research and development under the Bureau of Ships in Washington D.C. from October, 1940 to March, 1941. After the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 he was transferred to the Atlantic Fleet Radar School in Norfolk, Virginia in May 1942. In October 1942 Brown was discharged from navy service with Brown requesting to resign "for the good of the naval service in order to escape trial by General Court Martial" and with his official discharge exam listing "no comment" as to the reasons why. After 1944 he worked as a radar consultant to the Lockheed-Vega Aircraft Corporation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=188656 | 1,085,333 |
1,708,904 | Blakeslea trispora undergoes both sexual and asexual reproduction. The asexual reproductive phase of "Blakeslea trispora" involves the production of sporangiospores produced in sporangia. Once released, they can germinate in the presence of free water. Colonies of "B. trispora" grow rapidly on the agar growth media at 25 °C. They are white at first but become yellow to pale brown and very dark brown as they mature. The hyphae of "B. trispora" are aseptate, very dense, and highly branched. Sexual reproduction is by the formation of zygospores, which contain high concentrations of triglycerol-rich lipids and phosphatidylcholine. Zygospores can persist for long periods of time, and their germination is dependent on a cytoplasmic regulatory system that sustains dormancy and forestalls germination in the presence of unfavorable growth conditions. Zygospores range in size from 40-80μm. They are spherical or slightly flattened in shape. "Blakeslea trispora" has a heterothallic mating system, having (+) and (-) mating types. Contact and interchange between the opposite mating types is a necessary precursor to induce sexual reproduction and development of zygospores. Extensions called gametangia are formed from each of the compatible haploid mycelia. Following anastomosis, a fertile heterokaryotic zygosporangium is formed within which the zygospores develop. During sexual reproduction, carotenoid pigments are produced by both of mating type. Carotenoids are precursors of many apocarotenoids that contain very important sex-specific precursors, trisporic acid (TSA) for the sexual reproduction of "Blakeslea trispora". Carotenes produced from carotenoids are further processed by carotene oxygenase to synthesize trisporic acid (TSA). TSA produced from carotene stimulates both sexually complementary cells to make contact with each other. TSA is considered an important signalling molecule for the initiation and control sexual reproduction. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11322427 | 1,707,946 |
1,382,308 | Caseids are generally considered primarily terrestrial animals. Everett C. Olson in particular considered that the degree of ossification of the skeleton, the relatively short feet and hands, the massive claws, the limbs with very powerful extensor muscles, and the solid sacrum, strongly suggested a terrestrial lifestyle. Olson did not rule out that the caseids spent some time in water, but he considered locomotion on land to be an important aspect of their lifestyle. It has been suggested that the very powerful forelimbs, with strong and very tendinous extensor muscles, as well as very massive claws, could be used to dig up roots or tubers. However, the very short neck implied a low amplitude of vertical movements of the head which precluded the large species from feeding at ground level. Another hypothesis suggests that the caseids could have used their powerful forelimbs to fold large plants towards them, which they would have torn off with their powerful claws. Other hypotheses suggest that some caseids such as "Cotylorhynchus" used their limbs with powerful claws to defend themselves against predators, or during intraspecific activities linked in particular to reproduction. According to Olson, an interesting thing about this, is that almost all known specimens of the species "Cotylorhynchus hancocki" have one to ten ribs broken and healed during life. Finally, for some authors, the large derived caseids would have been semiaquatic animals that used their hands with large claws like paddles, which could also be used to manipulate the plants on which they fed. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4962651 | 1,381,543 |
995,482 | Delegates reporting to the Convention presented their credentials to the Secretary, Major William Jackson of South Carolina. The state legislatures of the day used these occasions to say why they were sending representatives abroad. New York thus publicly enjoined its members to pursue all possible "alterations and provisions" for good government and "preservation of the Union". New Hampshire called for "timely measures to enlarge the powers of Congress". Virginia stressed the "necessity of extending the revision of the federal system to all its defects". Conversely, Delaware categorically forbade any alteration of the Articles one-vote-per-state provision in the Articles of Confederation. The convention would have a great deal of work to do to reconcile the many expectations in the chamber. At the same time, delegates wanted to finish their work by fall harvest and its commerce. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=497752 | 994,965 |
560,064 | Houston also directed the NAACP's campaign to end restrictive housing covenants. In the early 20th century, the organization had won a United States Supreme Court case, "Buchanan v. Warley" (1917), which prohibited state and local jurisdictions from establishing restrictive housing. Real estate developers and agents developed restrictive covenants and deeds. The Court ruled in "Corrigan v. Buckley" (1926) that such restrictions were the acts of individuals and beyond the reach of the constitutional protections. As the NAACP continued with its campaign in the 1940s, Houston drew from contemporary sociological and other studies to demonstrate that such covenants and resulting segregation produced conditions of overcrowding, poor health, and increased crime that adversely affected African-American communities. Following Corrigan, Houston contributed to what was a 22-year campaign, in concert with lawyers he had trained, in order to overturn the constitutionality of restrictive covenants. This was achieved in the US Supreme Court ruling in "Shelley v. Kraemer" (1948). The court ruled that "judicial enforcement of private right constitutes state action for the purpose of the fourteenth amendment." Houston's use of sociological materials in these cases lay the groundwork for the approach and ruling in "Brown v. Board of Education" (1954). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=607150 | 559,775 |
496,724 | The potential of the Internet to consolidate and manipulate information has a new application in data aggregation, also known as "screen scraping". The Internet gives users the opportunity to consolidate their usernames and passwords, or PINs. Such consolidation enables consumers to access a wide variety of PIN-protected websites containing personal information by using one master PIN on a single website. Online account providers include financial institutions, stockbrokers, airline and frequent flyer and other reward programs, and e-mail accounts. Data aggregators can gather account or other information from designated websites by using account holders' PINs, and then making the users' account information available to them at a single website operated by the aggregator at an account holder's request. Aggregation services may be offered on a standalone basis or in conjunction with other financial services, such as portfolio tracking and bill payment provided by a specialized website, or as an additional service to augment the online presence of an enterprise established beyond the virtual world. Many established companies with an Internet presence appear to recognize the value of offering an aggregation service to enhance other web-based services and attract visitors. Offering a data aggregation service to a website may be attractive because of the potential that it will frequently draw users of the service from the hosting website. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10186403 | 496,468 |
776,121 | Elizabeth Winters (Lee Meriwether / Orine Fukushima), the President of the United States, sends Lieutenant Colonel Robert Burns (Steve Blum / Teruyuki Tanzawa) to infiltrate the station, along with the Bravo Company, an army of space Marines. They recruit Sam Gideon (Gideon Emery / Kenichirō Matsuda), a Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) soldier equipped with the prototype Augmented Reaction Suit (ARS), a cutting-edge battlesuit outfitted with a vast array of functions, including jet boosters attached to his thighs. He is armed with the experimental Battlefield Logic Adaptable Electronic Weapon System (BLADE), which scans existing weapons and transforms into them. It stores only three scans at a time and can shapeshift between each on command. He is assisted by Elena Ivanova (Kari Wahlgren / Chieko Honda) aboard the SBC2 command ship. The mission gives DARPA the perfect chance to test the suit. Winters gives classified orders for Sam to rescue scientist Dr. Francois Candide (Benito Martinez / Hitoshi Bifu), whom Zaitsev kidnapped. While Sam and Burns infiltrate Providence, Candide disables the microwave. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25991005 | 775,705 |
1,130,888 | The central importance of Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees means that animal care and use is fundamentally dependent on the application of the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals regulations by an institution's committee. It has been suggested that one measure of the success of the IACUC system is the reliability of protocol approvals between institutions. In other words, would a protocol for animal use, approved by the IACUC at one institution, be approved at another institution? This question was addressed specifically by researchers Plous and Herzog in 2001: They concluded that, regardless of whether the research involved terminal or painful procedures, IACUC protocol reviews did not exceed chance levels of intercommittee agreement. The Plous and Herzog work was criticized by some in the animal research community as drawing invalid conclusions because IACUCs rely on knowing the experience of the investigators and staff. The Plous and Herzog study compared responses of in-house IACUCs, who knew the investigators and staff, with blinded IACUCs, who did not know the investigators and staff. The blinded IACUCs did not necessarily have expertise in the species or procedures under consideration, or with the forms used to submit the protocol, and most of the lack of agreement between the non-blinded and blinded IACUC ratings took the form of requests for more information. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3199120 | 1,130,299 |
1,732,564 | Carroll had difficulty filling the position of president of the Academy, with many candidates declining the job before Robert Plunkett first took the office in 1791, though he only served 18 months. He oversaw the division of the Academy into "college", "preparatory", and "elementary", with the youngest starting at age eight. Jean-Edouard de Mondésir became the first teacher in late October 1791, and the first student, William Gaston, was enrolled on November 22, 1791. Classes commenced on January 2, 1792, with around 69 students attending in its first year. Georgetown's second building, Old North, which survives to this day, began construction in 1794. At three times the size of Old South, it greatly increased the number of classrooms and sleeping space on campus. Upon the building's completion under President Rev. William Matthews, George Washington visited and spoke from the porch, a position since reserved for U.S. Presidents. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9623056 | 1,731,588 |
362,406 | The side effects of ketoconazole are sometimes harnessed in the treatment of non-fungal conditions. While ketoconazole blocks the synthesis of the sterol ergosterol in fungi, in humans, at high dosages (>800 mg/day), it potently inhibits the activity of several enzymes necessary for the conversion of cholesterol to steroid hormones such as testosterone and cortisol. Specifically, ketoconazole has been shown to inhibit cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme, which converts cholesterol to pregnenolone, 17α-hydroxylase and 17,20-lyase, which convert pregnenolone into androgens, and 11β-hydoxylase, which converts 11-deoxycortisol to cortisol. All of these enzymes are mitochondrial cytochrome p450 enzymes. Based on these antiandrogen and antiglucocorticoid effects, ketoconazole has been used with some success as a second-line treatment for certain forms of advanced prostate cancer and for the suppression of glucocorticoid synthesis in the treatment of Cushing's syndrome. However, in the treatment of prostate cancer, concomitant glucocorticoid administration is needed to prevent adrenal insufficiency. Ketoconazole has additionally been used, in lower dosages, to treat hirsutism and, in combination with a GnRH analogue, male-limited precocious puberty. In any case, the risk of hepatotoxicity with ketoconazole limits its use in all of these indications, especially in those that are benign such as hirsutism. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=781661 | 362,216 |
1,487,859 | The U.S. Department of Labor has identified a model that has been successful in Europe and transferred it to American corporations, the model of white-collar apprenticeship programs. These programs are similar to other, more traditional blue-collar apprenticeship programs as they both consist of on-the-job training as the U.S. Department of Labor has implemented a path for the middle class in America to learn the necessary skills in a proven training program that employers in industries such as information technology, insurance, and health care. Through the adoption of these new white-collar apprenticeship programs, individuals are able to receive specialized training that they may have previously never been able to gain access to and, in some cases, also receive their Associate's Degree in a related field of study, sponsored by the company they are working for. The desire for more apprenticeship programs and more apprenticeship training has been in bipartisan agreement, and the agreement and push for more individuals to join these programs has seen dividends for active enrollment. The Labor Department has seen an increase in the amount of active apprentices, with the number rising from 375,000 in 2013 all the way to 633,625 active apprentices in 2019; however, a majority of these active apprentices are still in areas of skilled trades, such as plumbing or electrical work, there has been a rise of over 700 new white-collar apprenticeship programs from 2017 to 2019. The corporate support that these white-collar apprenticeship programs are receiving are from some of the world's largest organizations such as Amazon, CVS Health, Accenture, Aon, and many others. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=65622393 | 1,487,020 |
1,368,744 | Edelman was raised in the greater Boston area. He attended the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, where he received bachelor's degrees in Electrical Engineering and Computer Science (EECS) and in Applied Biology, and a master's degree in EECS. He earned his M.D. degree with distinction from Harvard Medical School and Ph.D. in Medical Engineering and Medical Physics within the Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology. He conducted his Ph.D. thesis work under the direction of Robert Langer to define the mathematics of regulated and controlled drug delivery. Edelman completed his medical training at Brigham and Women's Hospital and is board certified in internal medicine and cardiology. Following this, he spent six years as a research fellow under the tutelage of Prof. Morris J. Karnovsky to work on the biology of vascular repair. Edelman and his wife, Cheryl, have 3 children: Alex, A.J., and Austin. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=48326390 | 1,367,988 |
1,193,155 | Many people who have PTSD take antidepressants and inhibitors to help cope with sleeping disorders, panic attacks, depression, and anxiety attacks. There is evidence that antidepressants and inhibitors, such as tricyclics, SSRI, and MAOI antidepressants have demonstrated efficacy in larger, longer-term controlled trials. Tricyclics are commonly used as an antidepressant drug and some common tricyclic antidepressants are: Amitriptyline, Amoxapine, and Doxepin. They are a second-line treatment next to SSRIs. SSRIs stands for selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. SSRIs are typically used as antidepressants in the treatment of major depressive disorder, anxiety disorders, and other psychological conditions. The efficacy of SSRIs in mild or moderate cases of depression have been disputed and may or may not be outweighed by side effects, especially in adolescent populations. There are only two FDA approved SSRI drugs for PTSD, paroxetine and sertraline. Neither are fully effective but paroxetine has a higher efficacy rate than sertraline. MAOI antidepressants block the actions of monoamine oxidase enzymes. Monoamine oxidase enzymes are responsible for breaking down neurotransmitters such as dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin in the brain. Low levels of these three neurotransmitters have been linked with depression and anxiety. By blocking these enzymes, scientists believe that it helps relieve symptoms of depression. MAOI antidepressants are often used as a last resort because they have a higher risk of drug interactions than standard antidepressants and can also interact with certain types of food such as aged cheeses and cured meats. They also tend to have more side effects than standard antidepressants and may cause withdrawal upon discontinuation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=33410103 | 1,192,519 |
1,748,437 | In general, the pipelines of cold heating networks can be designed in a simpler and cheaper way than in warm/hot district heating systems. Due to the low operating temperatures, there is no thermomechanical stress, which allows the use of ordinary polyethylene pipes without insulation, as used for drinking water supply. This allows both a quick and cost-effective installation and quick adaptation to different network geometries. It also eliminates the need for expensive X-ray or ultrasound examinations of the pipes, the welding of individual pipes and the time-consuming on-site insulation of connecting pieces. However, compared to conventional district heating pipes, pipes with a larger diameter must be used to transport the same amount of heat. The energy requirement of the pumps is also higher due to the larger volumes. On the other hand, cold local heating systems can potentially be installed where the heat demand of the connected buildings is too low to operate a conventional heating network. In 2018, for example, 9 out of 16 systems for which sufficient data was available were below the threshold of 1.2 kW heat output/m grid length, which is considered the lower limit for the economic operation of conventional "warm" local heating systems. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=64664022 | 1,747,451 |
615,563 | All were male and white. President John F. Kennedy was disturbed at the lingering discrimination against African Americans in particular in the armed services, and in 1962 he brought pressure to bear on the Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force, General Curtis LeMay to nominate an African-American astronaut candidate. The USAF selected Captain Edward J. Dwight Jr., a B-57 pilot with 2,000 hours in high-performance jets, an aeronautical engineering degree from Arizona State University, and outstanding performance reviews, for training at the USAF Test Pilot School. Dwight graduated with Class 62-C in April 1963. He was the third African American to attend, after John L. Whitehead Jr., who had graduated in 1958, and Joseph C. Watts, a civilian, in 1960. The fourth would be Robert Henry Lawrence Jr. in 1966; by 1984, six had graduated. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2296945 | 615,249 |
99,743 | Biological nitrogen fixation (BNF, performed by the organisms called diazotrophs) is a very old process that probably originated in the Archean eon when the primitive atmosphere lacked oxygen. It is only carried out by Euryarchaeota and just 6 of the more than 50 phyla of bacteria. Some of these lineages co-evolved together with the flowering plants establishing the molecular basis of a mutually beneficial symbiotic relationship. BNF is carried out in nodules that are mainly located in the root cortex, although they are occasionally located in the stem as in "Sesbania rostrata". The spermatophytes that co-evolved with actinorhizal diazotrophs ("Frankia") or with rhizobia to establish their symbiotic relationship belong to 11 families contained within the Rosidae clade (as established by the gene molecular phylogeny of "rbcL", a gene coding for part of the RuBisCO enzyme in the chloroplast). This grouping indicates that the predisposition for forming nodules probably only arose once in flowering plants and that it can be considered as an ancestral characteristic that has been conserved or lost in certain lineages. However, such a wide distribution of families and genera within this lineage indicates that nodulation had multiple origins. Of the 10 families within the Rosidae, 8 have nodules formed by actinomyces (Betulaceae, Casuarinaceae, Coriariaceae, Datiscaceae, Elaeagnaceae, Myricaceae, Rhamnaceae and Rosaceae), and the two remaining families, Ulmaceae and Fabaceae have nodules formed by rhizobia. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=62798 | 99,700 |
692,653 | The earliest antecedent of the Weil conjectures is by Carl Friedrich Gauss and appears in section VII of his "Disquisitiones Arithmeticae" , concerned with roots of unity and Gaussian periods. In article 358, he moves on from the periods that build up towers of quadratic extensions, for the construction of regular polygons; and assumes that is a prime number congruent to 1 modulo 3. Then there is a cyclic cubic field inside the cyclotomic field of th roots of unity, and a normal integral basis of periods for the integers of this field (an instance of the Hilbert–Speiser theorem). Gauss constructs the order-3 periods, corresponding to the cyclic group of non-zero residues modulo under multiplication and its unique subgroup of index three. Gauss lets formula_1, formula_2, and formula_3 be its cosets. Taking the periods (sums of roots of unity) corresponding to these cosets applied to , he notes that these periods have a multiplication table that is accessible to calculation. Products are linear combinations of the periods, and he determines the coefficients. He sets, for example, formula_4 equal to the number of elements of which are in formula_1 and which, after being increased by one, are also in formula_1. He proves that this number and related ones are the coefficients of the products of the periods. To see the relation of these sets to the Weil conjectures, notice that if and are both in formula_1, then there exist and in such that and ; consequently, . Therefore formula_4 is the number of solutions to in the finite field . The other coefficients have similar interpretations. Gauss's determination of the coefficients of the products of the periods therefore counts the number of points on these elliptic curves, and as a byproduct he proves the analog of the Riemann hypothesis. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=244705 | 692,290 |
2,008,718 | Jennifer Redmond wrote in a WordPress post concerning the potential of an open-source software platform called Omeka as a tool to be utilized in telling the history of women’s education that emerges in various perspectives. Gender imbalance has always been a problem especially in an institutional or field that is greatly conquered by men. The late Adrianne Wadewitz, a feminist scholar and former senior Wikipedia editor worked hard to improve the quality and diversify the coverage of Wikipedia, and aspired to improve the gender gap in participation on a site in which over 90 per cent of the editors identified as male. Redmond stated in her post that it is important for women to get a seat at the table "while it’s still being set, not after the main course has been served" as equal partners and discovered that the word "table" has also been used to explain the necessity to collaborate, critique and engage in new developments. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38824009 | 2,007,566 |
453,603 | COBE was originally planned to be launched on a Space Shuttle mission STS-82-B in 1988 from Vandenberg Air Force Base, but the Challenger explosion delayed this plan when the Shuttles were grounded. NASA prevented COBE's engineers from going to other space companies to launch COBE, and eventually a redesigned COBE was placed into Sun-synchronous orbit on 18 November 1989 aboard a Delta launch vehicle. A team of American scientists announced, on 23 April 1992, that they had found the primordial "seeds" (CMBE anisotropy) in data from COBE. The announcement was reported worldwide as a fundamental scientific discovery and ran on the front page of "The New York Times". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=186630 | 453,382 |
1,075,898 | Focal infection theory's modern era really began with physician Frank Billings, based in Chicago, and his case reports of tonsillectomies and tooth extractions that apparently cured infections of distant organs. Replacing Hunter's term "oral sepsis" with "focal infection", Billings in November 1911 lectured at the Chicago Medical Society, and published it in 1912 as an article for the American medical community. In 1916, Billings lectured in California at Stanford University Medical School, this time printed in book format. Billings thus popularized intervention by tonsillectomy and tooth extraction. A pupil of Billings, Edward Rosenow held that extraction alone was often insufficient, and urged teamwork by dentistry and medicine. Rosenow developed the principle "elective localization", whereby microorganisms have affinities for particular organs, and also espoused extreme "pleomorphism", whereby a bacterium can drastically change form and perhaps evade conventional detection methods. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9510615 | 1,075,343 |
1,401,313 | Under the heading "Wrong Question", Sachs further argued that: "The panel that drew up the Copenhagen Consensus was asked to allocate an additional US$50 billion in spending by wealthy countries, distributed over five years, to address the world’s biggest problems. This was a poor basis for decision-making and for informing the public. By choosing such a low sum — a tiny fraction of global income — the project inherently favoured specific low-cost schemes over bolder, larger projects. It is therefore no surprise that the huge and complex challenge of long-term climate change was ranked last, and that scaling up health services in poor countries was ranked lower than interventions against specific diseases, despite warnings in the background papers that such interventions require broader improvements in health services." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=645189 | 1,400,526 |
1,670,195 | "Spiritele anului 3000", authored when Ionescu was just 17, is thought to be one of the first works of science fiction in Romanian literature. Written as a first-person narrative and dream sequence, it depicts its author and main character falling into slumber and awaking on the close of the 30th century. The world he encounters is peopled by humans of a small stature, who reach full maturity at the age of 15. "Spiritele anului 3000" is part political satire and part political project. Humanity is unified into a single confederation of republics and administrated from "Liberty" (a completely new capital built up on an artificial island in the Mediterranean Sea), while monarchies and wars have disappeared altogether. Romania is set "in her natural borders" through the intervention of a Supreme Tribunal, while the Romanian language adopts a form to Ionescu's liking (having shunned the more artificial etymology favored by Transylvanian intellectuals and the Romanian Academy alike). The Romanian climate is improved by afforestation, the country is spanned by canals, and the garden-like Bucharest, over which the narrator and Aru, his friend from the future, fly in a moored balloon, no longer has any churches left standing. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=738484 | 1,669,255 |
1,498,379 | Formerly known as Chart. The software functions like a traditional multi-channel chart recorder, XY plotter, polygraph and digital voltmeter. It is compatible with both Windows and Macintosh operating systems. The software has hardware settings control, performs analysis in real-time and offline without the loss of raw data, procedure automation via editable macros, and multiple block samplings for the recording and settings of different signals within one file. Large specialised add-ons called Modules provide data acquisition and analysis features for specific applications such as ECG, blood pressure, cardiac output, HRV etc. Smaller software plugins provide additional and specialized functionality to LabChart. Extensions perform functions such as file translations into other formats (including PVAN and Igor Pro) and specialist analysis functions (for specific research areas such as spirometry and ventricular pressure). The last version of LabChart6 (version 6.1.3) was released in January 2009. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20811122 | 1,497,535 |
682,617 | In normal circumstances after injury HIF-1a is degraded by prolyl hydroxylases (PHDs). In June 2015, scientists found that the continued up-regulation of HIF-1a via PHD inhibitors regenerates lost or damaged tissue in mammals that have a repair response; and the continued down-regulation of Hif-1a results in healing with a scarring response in mammals with a previous regenerative response to the loss of tissue. The act of regulating HIF-1a can either turn off, or turn on the key process of mammalian regeneration. One such regenerative process in which HIF1A is involved is skin healing. Researchers at the Stanford University School of Medicine demonstrated that HIF1A activation was able to prevent and treat chronic wounds in diabetic and aged mice. Not only did the wounds in the mice heal more quickly, but the quality of the new skin was even better than the original. Additionally the regenerative effect of HIF-1A modulation on aged skin cells was described and a rejuvenating effect on aged facial skin was demonstrated in patients. HIF modulation has also been linked to a beneficial effect on hair loss. The biotech company Tomorrowlabs GmbH, founded in Vienna in 2016 by the physician Dominik Duscher and pharmacologist Dominik Thor, makes use of this mechanism. Based on the patent-pending HSF ("HIF strengthening factor") active ingredient, products have been developed that are supposed to promote skin and hair regeneration. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2408425 | 682,261 |
805,988 | The "V-1", which is also known as the buzz bomb. This automatic aircraft would be known as a "cruise missile" today. The V-1 was developed at Peenemünde Army Research Center by the Nazi German "Luftwaffe" during the Second World War. During initial development it was known by the codename "Cherry Stone". The first of the so-called "Vergeltungswaffen" series designed for terror bombing of London, the V-1 was fired from launch facilities along the French (Pas-de-Calais) and Dutch coasts. The first V-1 was launched at London on 13 June 1944), one week after (and prompted by) the successful Allied landings in Europe. At its peak, more than one hundred V-1s a day were fired at south-east England, 9,521 in total, decreasing in number as sites were overrun until October 1944, when the last V-1 site in range of Britain was overrun by Allied forces. After this, the V-1s were directed at the port of Antwerp and other targets in Belgium, with 2,448 V-1s being launched. The attacks stopped when the last launch site was overrun on 29 March 1945. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=326225 | 805,559 |
828,678 | Once metabolite data matrix is determined, unsupervised data reduction techniques (e.g. PCA) can be used to elucidate patterns and connections. In many studies, including those evaluating drug-toxicity and some disease models, the metabolites of interest are not known "a priori". This makes unsupervised methods, those with no prior assumptions of class membership, a popular first choice. The most common of these methods includes principal component analysis (PCA) which can efficiently reduce the dimensions of a dataset to a few which explain the greatest variation. When analyzed in the lower-dimensional PCA space, clustering of samples with similar metabolic fingerprints can be detected. PCA algorithms aim to replace all correlated variables with a much smaller number of uncorrelated variables (referred to as principal components (PCs)) and retain most of the information in the original dataset. This clustering can elucidate patterns and assist in the determination of disease biomarkers - metabolites that correlate most with class membership. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1029211 | 828,232 |
957,523 | The OKB chose a "pod-and-boom" layout for their new fighter, the I-300 (also called the "izdeliye" F (model or product F) by the OKB) because it offered the advantages of improved landing performance and better visibility from the cockpit when landing but it had some drawbacks, such as the unfamiliar tricycle arrangement of the landing gear, protecting the rear fuselage from the jet exhaust, and where to place the aircraft's armament. The all-metal aircraft had unswept, mid-mounted wings with two prominent air intakes in the nose. Its two-spar wings were fitted with slotted flaps and Frise ailerons. Its powerplant comprised two RD-20 turbojets, which were Soviet-manufactured versions of the BMW 003. The two engines were located behind the cockpit in the lower fuselage, with the exhaust exiting under the tail unit. A steel laminate heatshield was installed on the bottom of the rear fuselage to protect it from the exhaust gasses. There were four bag-type fuel tanks in the fuselage and three in each wing, providing a total internal fuel capacity of 1,625 liters (429 US gallons). The cockpit was not pressurized. The planned armament consisted of a 57 mm NL-57 cannon mounted in the centerline engine intake bulkhead and two 23 mm Nudelman-Suranov NS-23 autocannon mounted on the lower lip of the air intakes. The N-57/OKB-16-57 gun was provided with 28 rounds and the two NS-23 cannons had 80 rounds each. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=304224 | 957,017 |
1,696,135 | His doctoral thesis on Elizabethan madrigals was published in 1962 and was notable for contextualizing them in the preceding Italian madrigal tradition. He maintained an interest in the English madrigal composer William Byrd throughout his career, and wrote several influential monographs on his work. He wrote a widely popular book on the Beethoven string quartets in the style of Donald Francis Tovey. With his wife, Vivian Kerman, he wrote the widely used textbook, "Listen", first published in 1972 and now in its 7th edition co-authored by Gary Tomlinson. In 1985 he published his history and critique of traditional musicology, "Contemplating Music: Challenges to Musicology", which argued that the intellectual isolation of musical theorists and musicologists and their excessively positivistic approach had hampered the development of serious musical criticism. Described in "The Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians" as "a defining moment in the field", the book has been credited as helping to shape a "new musicology" that is willing to engage with feminist theory, hermeneutics, queer studies, and post-structuralism. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7532443 | 1,695,182 |
1,551,612 | Pre-Cantona (1,000/900 B.C.E - 600 B.C.E.) The first settlers began to occupy this area which would later form a vast city. Pottery shards from the pre-Cantona period tell us that the early settlers came from the Poblano-Tlaxcalteca Valley and the Tehuacan Valley, and later from the Gulf of Mexico and the East. At this time Cantona consisted of a few sparse settlements with no fortification or defined plan. Between 900 and 750 A.C., two villas occupied the center and southern portion of the area where the city would later develop, and one or two villages existed to the North or Northeast. Little is known about the architecture of this phase, although the city had not yet developed complex fortifications, walls or streets that would characterize later stages of development. Cantona began exploiting and trading in obsidian obtained from the nearby Zaragoza-Oyameles Mountains of northeastern Puebla. Obsidian was a valuable resource used for weapons, tools, and artifacts to conduct ritual auto-sacrfice. The Zaragoza-Oyameles obsidian source would ultimately turn Cantona into one of the largest and most prosperous cities in prehispanic Mesoamerica. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1061925 | 1,550,731 |
1,994,423 | Throughout its history NSBP has had an active interest in physics related activities outside of the United States. Twenty years ago under the leadership of the late Nobel Laureate, Abdus Salam, and the late Charles Brown, several NSBP members organized the Edward Bouchet Abdus Salam Institute (EBASI). EBASI (1) provides mechanisms for synergistic scientific and technical collaborations between African and American physical scientists, engineers, and technologists, (2) enhances the impact of science and technology on the sustainable development of the countries on the African continent, and (3) increases the technical manpower pool working in Africa today by facilitating the training of Ph.D. students from African universities. More recently, through a program funded by the Kellogg Foundation NSBP will assist South Africa in its efforts to increase the number of Black astronomers and astrophysicists and to build capacity in the field. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18776384 | 1,993,280 |
366,400 | Judging the "Meteor F.3"s were ready for combat over Europe, the RAF finally decided to deploy them on the continent. On 20 January 1945, four Meteors from 616 Squadron were moved to Melsbroek in Belgium and attached to the Second Tactical Air Force, just under three weeks after the Luftwaffe's surprise Unternehmen Bodenplatte attack on New Year's Day, in which Melsbroek's RAF base, designated as Allied Advanced Landing Ground "B.58", had been struck by piston-engined fighters of JG 27 and JG 54. The 616 Squadron Meteor F.3s' initial purpose was to provide air defence for the airfield, but their pilots hoped that their presence might provoke the Luftwaffe into sending Me 262 jets against them. At this point the Meteor pilots were still forbidden to fly over German-occupied territory, or to go east of Eindhoven, to prevent a downed aircraft being captured by the Germans or the Soviets. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42702 | 366,208 |
2,201,851 | Evapotranspiration is the combined processes moving water from the earth’s surface into the atmosphere. Transpiration is the movement of water through a plant and out of its leaves and other aerial parts into the atmosphere. This movement is driven by solar energy. In the tallest trees, such as Sequoia sempervirens, the water rises well over 100 metres from root-tip to canopy leaves. Such trees also exploit evaporation to keep the surface cool. Water vapour from evapotranspiration mixed with air moves upwards to the point of saturation and then, helped by the emissions of cloud condensation nuclei, forms clouds. Each gram molecule (mole) of condensing water will bring about a marked 1200-fold plus reduction in volume.The simultaneous release of latent heat will drive air from below to fill the partial vacuum. The energy required for the surrounding air to move in is readily calculated from the small (one-fifteenth of latent heat) reduction in temperature. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=72304119 | 2,200,598 |
678,414 | In the wake of the Sutherland Springs church shooting, in which the gunman, 26-year-old Devin Patrick Kelley of nearby New Braunfels killed 26 and injured 20 others, the Fix NICS Act of 2017 was introduced in the 115th United States Congress. Kelley was prohibited by law from purchasing or possessing firearms and ammunition due to a domestic violence conviction in a court-martial while in the United States Air Force. The Air Force failed to record the conviction in the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) National Crime Information Center database, which is used by the National Instant Criminal Background Check System to flag prohibited purchases. In the wake of the shooting, it emerged that the Department of Defense Office of Inspector General had issued reports flagging similar problems with criminal reporting in 1997 and 2015. The error in Kelley's case prompted the Air Force to begin a review. The attack was the deadliest mass shooting by one person in Texas and the fifth-deadliest mass shooting in the United States. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2738211 | 678,060 |
1,652,950 | The success of Notre Dame reflected the rising status of Irish Americans and Catholics in the 1920s. Catholics rallied around the team and listened to the games on the radio, especially when it defeated teams from schools that symbolized the Protestant establishment in America—Harvard, Yale, Princeton, and Army. Its role as a high-profile flagship institution of Catholicism made it an easy target of anti-Catholicism. The most remarkable episode of violence was a clash between Notre Dame students and the Ku Klux Klan (KKK), a white supremacist and anti-Catholic movement, in 1924. The Klan decided to have a week-long Klavern in South Bend. Clashes with the student body started on May 17, when students blocked the Klansmen from descending from their trains in the South Bend station and ripped the KKK clothes and regalia. Two days later thousands of students massed downtown protesting the Klavern, and only the arrival of college president Walsh prevented any further clashes. The next day, Rockne spoke at a campus rally and implored the students to obey Walsh and refrain from further violence. A few days later the Klavern broke up, but the hostility shown by the students contributed to the downfall of the KKK in Indiana. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=33791684 | 1,652,018 |
129,826 | As devices that can quickly produce dramatic improvements in patient health, defibrillators are often depicted in movies, television, video games and other fictional media. Their function, however, is often exaggerated with the defibrillator inducing a sudden, violent jerk or convulsion by the patient. In reality, while the muscles may contract, such dramatic patient presentation is rare. Similarly, medical providers are often depicted defibrillating patients with a "flat-line" ECG rhythm (also known as asystole). This is not normal medical practice, as the heart cannot be restarted by the defibrillator itself. Only the cardiac arrest rhythms ventricular fibrillation and pulseless ventricular tachycardia are normally defibrillated. The purpose of defibrillation is to depolarize the entire heart all at once so that it is synchronized, effectively inducing temporary asystole, in the hope that in the absence of the previous abnormal electrical activity, the heart will spontaneously resume beating normally. Someone who is already in asystole cannot be helped by electrical means, and usually needs urgent CPR and intravenous medication (and even these are rarely successful in cases of asystole). A useful analogy to remember is to think of defibrillators as power-cycling, rather than jump-starting, the heart. There are also several heart rhythms that can be "shocked" when the patient is not in cardiac arrest, such as supraventricular tachycardia and ventricular tachycardia that produces a pulse; this more-complicated procedure is known as cardioversion, not defibrillation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=146384 | 129,774 |
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