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757,930 | The diagnosis is usually incidental when the host passes a worm in the stool or vomit. The eggs can be seen in a smear of fresh feces examined on a glass slide under a microscope and there are various techniques to concentrate them first or increase their visibility, such as the ether sedimentation method or the Kato technique. The eggs have a characteristic shape: they are oval with a thick, mamillated shell (covered with rounded mounds or lumps), measuring 35–50 micrometer in diameter and 40–70 in length. During pulmonary disease, larvae may be found in fluids aspirated from the lungs. White blood cell counts may demonstrate peripheral eosinophilia; this is common in many parasitic infections and is not specific to ascariasis. On X-ray, 15–35 cm long filling defects, sometimes with whirled appearance (bolus of worms). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=413928 | 757,525 |
1,141,451 | "Emergency response teams" such as policemen, the National Guard, military and even volunteers must undergo some type of crowd control training. Using researched principles of human behavior in crowds can give disaster training designers more elements to incorporate to create realistic simulated disasters. Crowd behavior can be observed during panic and non-panic conditions. When natural and unnatural events toss social ideals into a twisting chaotic bind, such as the events of 9/11 and hurricane Katrina, humanity's social capabilities are truly put to the test. Military programs are looking more towards simulated training, involving emergency responses, due to their cost-effective technology as well as how effective the learning can be transferred to the real world. Many events that may start out controlled can have a twisting event that turns them into catastrophic situations, where decisions need to be made on the spot. It is these situations in which crowd dynamical understanding would play a vital role in reducing the potential for anarchy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=886876 | 1,140,857 |
839,507 | Michelson was fascinated with the sciences, and the problem of measuring the speed of light in particular. While at Annapolis, he conducted his first experiments on the speed of light, as part of a class demonstration in 1877. His Annapolis experiment was refined, and in 1879, he measured the speed of light in air to be 299,864 ± 51 kilometres per second, and estimated the speed of light in a vacuum as 299,940 km/s, or 186,380 mi/s. After two years of studies in Europe, he resigned from the Navy in 1881. In 1883 he accepted a position as professor of physics at the Case School of Applied Science in Cleveland, Ohio, and concentrated on developing an improved interferometer. In 1887 he and Edward Morley carried out the famous Michelson–Morley experiment which failed to detect evidence of the existence of the luminiferous ether. He later moved on to use astronomical interferometers in the measurement of stellar diameters and in measuring the separations of binary stars. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=92733 | 839,058 |
1,321,667 | The primary advantage of superconducting computing is improved power efficiency over conventional CMOS technology. Much of the power consumed, and heat dissipated, by conventional processors comes from moving information between logic elements rather than the actual logic operations. Because superconductors have zero electrical resistance, little energy is required to move bits within the processor. This is expected to result in power consumption savings of a factor of 500 for an exascale computer. For comparison, in 2014 it was estimated that a 1 exaFLOPS computer built in CMOS logic is estimated to consume some 500 megawatts of electrical power. Superconducting logic can be an attractive option for ultrafast CPUs, where switching times are measured in picoseconds and operating frequencies approach 770 GHz. However, since transferring information between the processor and the outside world does still dissipate energy, superconducting computing was seen as well-suited for computations-intensive tasks where the data largely stays in the cryogenic environment, rather than big data applications where large amounts of information are streamed from outside the processor. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42266481 | 1,320,941 |
511,271 | Due to the strain on the oxygen supplies, the crew decides to abandon the Moon tank and the optical instruments and to cut short the lunar stay. The repair work is completed slightly ahead of schedule, and the rocket is cleared for lift-off. After launch, Jorgen escapes his bonds due to the detectives' bungling and tries to kill Tintin and the others with a gun; Wolff seeks to prevent him, and in their struggle over the gun accidentally kills Jorgen by shooting him through the heart. When it is revealed that there will not be enough oxygen aboard for the crew to survive the journey, Wolff sacrifices himself by opening the airlock and floating out into space to his death. Upon approaching Earth, the crew fall unconscious, but Tintin wakes long enough to set the rocket to auto-pilot and it arrives back in Syldavia safely. After landing, the crew is recovered when oxygen masks are placed on them. Calculus hopes they may return to the moon someday, but Haddock refuses, revealing that the expedition has taught him that "Man's proper place is on dear old Earth". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=547990 | 511,005 |
38,227 | Many investigations have attempted to prevent the development of "Helicobacter pylori"-related diseases by eradicating the bacterium during the early stages of its infestation using antibiotic-based drug regimens. Studies find that such treatments, when effectively eradicating "H. pylori" from the stomach, reduce the inflammation and some of the histopathological abnormalities associated with the infestation. However studies disagree on the ability of these treatments to alleviate the more serious histopathological abnormalities in "H. pylori" infections, e.g. gastric atrophy and metaplasia, both of which are precursors to gastric adenocarcinoma. There is similar disagreement on the ability of antibiotic-based regiments to prevent gastric adenocarcinoma. A meta-analysis (i.e. a statistical analysis that combines the results of multiple randomized controlled trials) published in 2014 found that these regimens did not appear to prevent development of this adenocarcinoma. However, two subsequent prospective cohort studies conducted on high-risk individuals in China and Taiwan found that eradication of the bacterium produced a significant decrease in the number of individuals developing the disease. These results agreed with a retrospective cohort study done in Japan and published in 2016 as well as a meta-analysis, also published in 2016, of 24 studies conducted on individuals with varying levels of risk for developing the disease. These more recent studies suggest that the eradication of "H. pylori" infection reduces the incidence of "H. pylori"-related gastric adenocarcinoma in individuals at all levels of baseline risk. Further studies will be required to clarify this issue. In all events, studies agree that antibiotic-based regimens effectively reduce the occurrence of metachronous "H. pylori"-associated gastric adenocarcinoma. (Metachronous cancers are cancers that reoccur 6 months or later after resection of the original cancer.) It is suggested that antibiotic-based drug regimens be used after resecting "H. pylori"-associated gastric adenocarcinoma in order to reduce its metachronus reoccurrence. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=199665 | 38,214 |
1,859,883 | With the program, students can permanently store and later retrieve computer files that are usually kept on hard drives and social media sites. The program's data is stored on a series of disks managed by the school and other departments. Two years in the making, the LifeTime Library has benefited from research projects funded by the National Science Foundation and other prestigious sources. Users can fine-tune their libraries, setting up policies and new capabilities, and therefore Marchionini expects the libraries to provide new learning experiences for the school's students. Eventually, researchers would like to see it synchronize with multiple devices. So far, SILS has provided storage for the LifeTime Library, but Marchionini's vision is for the project to be offered to all Carolina students. Business partners may be recruited to help with costs so that the LifeTime Library could continue to be free to students and alumni. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31382598 | 1,858,815 |
533,896 | Beck's groundbreaking work was eclipsed in 1955, with the development by Paul Zoll (1911 – 1999) of the external defibrillator — a device that could externally defibrillate the heart through the closed chest. Zoll published a report of his experience in "The New England Journal of Medicine" in 1956, in which his external defibrillator was employed to successfully stop ventricular fibrillation eleven times in four different patients. Since direct current batteries and capacitor technology both powerful enough to do the job and portable enough for practical use did not exist at that time, the earliest external defibrillators utilized alternating current and were run from line voltage. These AC defibrillators were very large and heavy, primarily because they contained a transformer to step up the line voltage from to 500 or . They were mounted on wheels and pushed down the hallway from one part of the hospital to another. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9543863 | 533,617 |
1,940,301 | Methods to prevent sleep loss, reduce human error, and optimize mental and physical performance during long-duration spaceflight are being investigated. Particular concerns include the effect of the space environment on higher-order cognitive processes like decision-making and the impact of changing gravity on mental functions, which will be important if artificial gravity is considered as a countermeasure for future interplanetary space missions. It is also necessary to develop human-response measurement technologies to assess the crew's ability to perform flight-management tasks effectively. Simple and reliable behavioral and psycho-physiological response measurement systems are needed to assess mental loading, stress, task engagement, and situation awareness during spaceflight. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=34095626 | 1,939,191 |
1,889,252 | The School of Biological Sciences had its own long-running podcast (and later video broadcast), where scientists within the faculty are interviewed about their research, as well as recently published high-impact papers, books and events they are involved with. Past guests include established researchers such as professor Daniel Davis, author of "The Compatibility Gene"', Dr David Kirby, author of "Lab coats in Hollywood", Dr. Sheena Cruickshank, winner of the Society of Biology Science Communication award (2013) and nobel prize winner Sir John Sulston. The podcast also features interviews with budding new scientists within the school, including high-achieving undergraduates and PhD students, such as the Manchester iGEM team. The broadcasts later went on to explore broader themes within Life Sciences. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=16021818 | 1,888,169 |
1,736,558 | Based on studies with dogs by Prof Leslie Geddes in the middle of last century, it is theorised that a current as low as 10 μA (microampere) directly through the heart, may send a human patient directly into ventricular fibrillation. Of course, the exact outcome is dependent on the duration of the current, the exact position of contact, the frequency of current oscillation, and the timing of the shock with the hearts rhythm e.g R on T phenomenon. It is feared that such a small current may be introduced unwittingly, and unobserved, creating a very perilous situation for the patient. To guard against this slim theoretical possibility then, modern medical devices include a range of protective measures to limit current in cardiac-connected circuits to the assumed safe levels of below 10 μA (microampere) . These measures include isolated patient connections, high impedance connections and current limiting circuits. Despite the in-built protections, and lack of observed incidents, microshock continues to be a concern to many practitioners of the fields of Biomedical and Clinical Engineering. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3869624 | 1,735,581 |
1,178,126 | Ursula Franklin explains in a prelude to her 2006 collection of papers, interviews and talks that her lifelong interest in structures, in what she terms "the arrangement and interplay of the parts within a whole," has been at the root of most of her activities. Looking back after almost 40 years, she adds, "I can see how I have tried to wrestle with just one fundamental question: 'How can one live and work as a pacifist in the here and now and help to structure a society in which oppression, violence, and wars would diminish and co-operation, equality, and justice would rise?'" As part of the answer, Franklin turns to the metaphor of mapmaking to explain her intellectual journey. "Increasingly I found the maps of conventional wisdom inadequate for my travels," she writes. "I became unwilling and unable to orient my life according to national maps depicting the realms of 'them' and 'us,' of good guys and bad guys, of winning, defeating, and being defeated; in short, all those maps drawn up for travel towards private gain and personal advancement." Franklin concludes that she has been guided in understanding what she calls "the real world" by "the maps of pacifism and feminism". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1094203 | 1,177,502 |
1,796,952 | Sometime in July 1993, a group of thirteen educators and merchant marine officers established an institute of higher learning, the Asian Institute of Maritime Studies (AIMS). The forerunners behind AIMS, namely: Capt. Wilijado P. Abuid, a former Navy Officer and a maritime educator in the field of training and upgrading; Atty. Santiago N. Pastor, a corporate lawyer, banker and educator; Dr. Felicito P. Dalaguete, a marine officer and an academician with expertise in marine education and training; Mrs. Jayne O. Abuid, a business woman; Arlene Abuid-Paderanga, Ed.D., a management specialist with background in Architecture and Design, along with other incorporators. Thus, on 16 August 1993, AIMS was legally registered as a non-stock educational institution, and was issued government accreditation by the Commission on Higher Education (Philippines) (CHED) to offer Customs Administration and Merchant Marine courses. AIMS is located at Roxas Boulevard fronting Manila Bay. The campus, with its training facilities housed at AIMS Tower was opened. In 1999, another site at A. S. Arnaiz Ave. corner F. B. Harrison St. was inaugurated to greet the new millennium towards more intensive and comprehensive education and training. In 2005, a new site (a six-storey building) was opened at Roxas Boulevard to house the Maritime College. The shack is also expected to house the Maritime Knowledge X-Change where libraries and an envisioned museum will be opened to the public. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29129519 | 1,795,943 |
1,401,617 | With a wide variety of decellularization-inducing treatments available, combinations of physical, chemical, and enzymatic treatments are carefully monitored to ensure that the ECM scaffold maintains the structural and chemical integrity of the original tissue. Scientists can use the acquired ECM scaffold to reproduce a functional organ by introducing progenitor cells, or adult stem cells (ASCs), and allowing them to differentiate within the scaffold to develop into the desired tissue. The produced organ or tissue can be transplanted into a patient. In contrast to cell surface antibodies, the biochemical components of the ECM are conserved between hosts, so the risk of a hostile immune response is minimized. Proper conservation of ECM fibers, growth factors, and other proteins is imperative to the progenitor cells differentiating into the proper adult cells. The success of decellularization varies based on the components and density of the applied tissue and its origin. The applications to the decellularizing method of producing a biomaterial scaffold for tissue regeneration are present in cardiac, dermal, pulmonary, renal, and other types of tissues. Complete organ reconstruction is still in the early levels of development. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=33993737 | 1,400,830 |
460,488 | The experimental facts collected on heavy fermion (HF) metals and two dimensional Helium-3 demonstrate that the quasiparticle effective mass "M"* is very large, or even diverges. Topological fermion condensation quantum phase transition (FCQPT) preserves quasiparticles, and forms flat energy band at the Fermi level. The emergence of FCQPT is directly related to the unlimited growth of the effective mass "M"*. Near FCQPT, M* starts to depend on temperature "T", number density "x", magnetic field B and other external parameters such as pressure "P", etc. In contrast to the Landau paradigm based on the assumption that the effective mass is approximately constant, in the FCQPT theory the effective mass of new quasiparticles strongly depends on "T", "x", B etc. Therefore, to agree/explain with the numerous experimental facts, extended quasiparticles paradigm based on FCQPT has to be introduced. The main point here is that the well-defined quasiparticles determine the thermodynamic, relaxation, scaling and transport properties of strongly correlated Fermi systems and M* becomes a function of "T", "x", B, "P", etc. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31349351 | 460,262 |
342,142 | Contact materials for relays vary by application. Materials with low contact resistance may be oxidized by the air, or may tend to "stick" instead of cleanly parting when opening. Contact material may be optimized for low electrical resistance, high strength to withstand repeated operations, or high capacity to withstand the heat of an arc. Where very low resistance is required, or low thermally-induced voltages are desired, gold-plated contacts may be used, along with palladium and other non-oxidizing, semi-precious metals. Silver or silver-plated contacts are used for signal switching. Mercury-wetted relays make and break circuits using a thin, self-renewing film of liquid mercury. For higher-power relays switching many amperes, such as motor circuit contactors, contacts are made with a mixtures of silver and cadmium oxide, providing low contact resistance and high resistance to the heat of arcing. Contacts used in circuits carrying scores or hundreds of amperes may include additional structures for heat dissipation and management of the arc produced when interrupting the circuit. Some relays have field-replaceable contacts, such as certain machine tool relays; these may be replaced when worn out, or changed between normally open and normally closed state, to allow for changes in the controlled circuit. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=26590 | 341,961 |
1,445,120 | Training can effectively debias decision makers over the long term. Training, to date, has received less attention by academics and policy makers than incentives and nudges because initial debiasing training efforts resulted in mixed success (see Fischhoff, 1982 in Kahneman et al.). Decision makers could be effectively debiased through training in specific domains. For example, experts can be trained to make very accurate decisions when decision making entails recognizing patterns and applying appropriate responses in domains such as firefighting, chess, and weather forecasting. Evidence of more general debiasing, across domains and different kinds of problems, however, was not discovered until recently. The reason for the lack of more domain-general debiasing was attributed to experts failing to recognize the underlying "deep structure" of problems in different formats and domains. Weather forecasters are able to predict rain with high accuracy, for example, but show the same overconfidence in their answers to basic trivia questions as other people. An exception was graduate training in scientific fields heavily reliant on statistics such as psychology. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=48258936 | 1,444,304 |
1,608,857 | The American Revolution, 1775–1783, and its attendant food decline resulted in 3100 hectares cleared in Newfoundland. In the early 19th century Irish immigrants began arriving who cultivated the land in Newfoundland. A very small percentage of the land is suitable in Newfoundland and Labrador for horticultural or crop production because there is a lot of forested and tundra geography. The province has some dairy production and farming concerns. Following World War II, farm training was available at the Government Demonstration Farm. Bonuses were paid for such things as the purchase of pure-bred sires, land clearing, and agriculture exhibition assistance to name a few. The industry of fish processing for food is the largest agricultural contribution from Newfoundland. Newfoundland fisheries, supply cod for the most part, followed closely by herring, haddock, lobster, rose fish, seals, and whales. The fishing industry depends very heavily upon exports and world conditions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=56672941 | 1,607,952 |
922,110 | The origin of Jupiter's colored banded structure is not completely clear, though it may resemble the cloud structure of Earth's Hadley cells. The simplest interpretation is that zones are sites of atmospheric upwelling, whereas belts are manifestations of downwelling. When air enriched in ammonia rises in zones, it expands and cools, forming high and dense white clouds. In belts, however, the air descends, warming adiabatically as in a convergence zone on Earth, and white ammonia clouds evaporate, revealing lower, darker clouds. The location and width of bands, speed and location of jets on Jupiter are remarkably stable, having changed only slightly between 1980 and 2000. One example of change is a decrease of the speed of the strongest eastward jet located at the boundary between the North Tropical zone and North Temperate belts at 23°N. However bands vary in coloration and intensity over time (see "specific band"). These variations were first observed in the early seventeenth century. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30873277 | 921,624 |
1,689,546 | At the time, an improved tubular version of the original Geiger counter, invented by Hans Geiger in 1908, had just been developed by his student Walther Müller. These Geiger–Müller tubes (GM tubes or counters) made possible Bothe's investigations. With Occhialini's help in the construction of GM tubes, and with the aid of a practical coincidence circuit, Rossi confirmed and extended the results of Bothe, who invited him to visit Berlin in the summer of 1930. Here, with financial support arranged by Garbasso, Rossi collaborated on further investigations of cosmic ray penetration. He also studied Carl Størmer's mathematical description of the trajectories of charged particles in the Earth's magnetic field. On the basis of these studies, he realised that the intensity of cosmic rays coming from eastward directions might be different from that of westward ones. From Berlin, he submitted the first paper suggesting that observations of this east–west effect could not only confirm that cosmic rays are charged particles, but also determine the sign of their charge. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=520727 | 1,688,600 |
70,132 | The deep vacuum of space could make it an attractive environment for certain industrial processes, such as those requiring ultraclean surfaces. Like asteroid mining, space manufacturing would require a large financial investment with little prospect of immediate return. An important factor in the total expense is the high cost of placing mass into Earth orbit: $–$ per kg, according to a 2006 estimate (allowing for inflation since then). The cost of access to space has declined since 2013. Partially reusable rockets such as the Falcon 9 have lowered access to space below 3500 dollars per kilogram. With these new rockets the cost to send materials into space remains prohibitively high for many industries. Proposed concepts for addressing this issue include, fully reusable launch systems, non-rocket spacelaunch, momentum exchange tethers, and space elevators. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=177602 | 70,105 |
2,048,310 | In editing from 1832 to 1838 the original "London Medical and Surgical Journal", Ryan had some assistance from James Fernandez Clarke. His later publications included "The Philosophy of Marriage in its Social, Moral, and Physical Relations; with an Account of the Diseases of the Genito-Urinary Organs and the Physiology of Generation in the Vegetable and Animal Kingdom", 1837; this formed part of a course of obstetric lectures delivered at the North London School of Medicine. Twelve editions in all, the last in 1867, were issued. This work contained an attack on extreme proponents of birth control. It was followed in 1839 by "Prostitution in London, with a Comparative View of that of Paris and New York … with an Account of the Nature and Treatment of the various Diseases". The historian Peter Gay classifies it as an "alarmist" work on prostitution, comparable to James Beard Talbot's "Miseries of Prostitition", which appeared five years later. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41530364 | 2,047,129 |
1,183,299 | Hybrid vigor is expressed during the plant’s early vegetative and reproductive growth stages. Young hybrid seedlings have faster root and leaf development and better canopy development; the mature plant has increased total dry matter, larger panicles (the terminal shoots that produce grain), more spikelets (units of flower) per unit area, increased total weight of grains, and, consequently, higher yields. The downside is that farmers need to buy new seeds each season. The grains produced by purebred varieties are almost genetically identical to their parents and so can be stored for planting later. If a farmer tries to plant the genetically diverse seeds (produced by sexual reproduction) saved from a previous hybrid crop, the resultant plants will display widely varying traits, in much the same way that siblings look different, and the ensuing crop will be an inconsistently yielding disappointment. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11371265 | 1,182,673 |
1,486,654 | When altered flow regimes have impacted riparian zone health, re-establishing natural streamflow may be the best solution to effectively restore riparian ecosystems. The complete removal of dams and flow-altering structures may be required to fully restore historic conditions, but this is not always realistic or feasible. An alternative to dam removal is for periodic flood pulses consistent with historical magnitude and timing to be simulated by releasing large amounts of water at once instead of maintaining more consistent flows throughout the year. This would allow overbank flooding, which is vital for maintaining the health of many riparian ecosystems. However, simply restoring a more natural flow regime also has logistical constraints, as legally appropriated water rights may not include the maintenance of such ecologically important factors. Reductions in groundwater pumping may also help restore riparian ecosystems by reestablishing groundwater levels that favor riparian vegetation; however, this too can be hampered by the fact that groundwater withdrawal regulations do not usually incorporate provisions for riparian protection. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=26956225 | 1,485,816 |
1,550,213 | To defend against excessive production of reactive oxygen, these organisms use antioxidants to reduce oxygen levels. Compared to "C. crispus", "M. stellatus"’ location on the rocky intertidal experiences greater fluctuations in environmental stressors. "M. stellatus" was found to have higher levels of oxygen metabolism and a faster decomposition rate than "C. crispus". Additionally, "M. stellatus" makes use of scavenging enzymes including: catalase, superoxide dismutase, glutathione reductase, and ascorbate peroxidase (to scavenge hydrogen peroxide). After conducting his research on "M. stellatus" and "C. crispus" in 1999, Jonas Collén argued that the difference between the species may be an evolutionary adaptation by adopting different strategies to cope with environmental stressors at differing intertidal zones and locations. "M. stellatus" showed responses to changes to tidal height with changes in oxygen metabolism, suggesting that the increase in this enzyme activity (which produces a higher content of soluble protein to break down reactive oxygen compounds) requires energy allocation to these enzymes in order to adapt stress tolerance. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6749073 | 1,549,332 |
1,930,580 | By 1995, the effort was again made to address the question of curriculum length as a norm. Questions at this point were again on curriculum integration but also that of the first professional degree. A professional degree, formerly known in the US as a "first professional degree", is a degree that prepares someone to work in a particular profession such as civil engineering and meets the minimum academic requirements for licensure or accreditation. The preparation for the 1995 conference focused on four topics: technical competence, communication skills, management concepts and teamwork. This was a clear recognition of weaknesses in curriculum content as one observer remarked -"an engineer is hired for his or her technical skills, fired for poor people skills and promoted for leadership and management skills." The question was raised why recreate elementary coursework in fields such as economics or management. Attendees noted that educators must balance depth versus breadth in developing engineering curricula. With management as an example, it was noted that students can take management instruction in any number of non-engineering environments but it was important for an engineering education program to possess a design that ensured all graduates acquired a "particular base of knowledge." One of the authors (Walesh) noted that one of the biggest problems faced by consulting engineers was poor project management and how few in academia recognized the importance of "effective project management on the survival of an engineering firm...". Noting the increased importance of management in civil engineering practice in the 21st century, the Conference stated that civil engineers must have a larger skillset than their counterparts in the 1920s with respect to knowledge in communication, teamwork and project management. This Conference then, laid the conceptual framework for looking at specialized applications of management within civil engineering curricula such as engineering management, design management construction management and project management. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19038577 | 1,929,473 |
96,437 | By definition, in a Hilbert space any Cauchy sequence converges to a limit. Conversely, finding a sequence of functions "f" with desirable properties that approximates a given limit function, is equally crucial. Early analysis, in the guise of the Taylor approximation, established an approximation of differentiable functions "f" by polynomials. By the Stone–Weierstrass theorem, every continuous function on can be approximated as closely as desired by a polynomial. A similar approximation technique by trigonometric functions is commonly called Fourier expansion, and is much applied in engineering, see below. More generally, and more conceptually, the theorem yields a simple description of what "basic functions", or, in abstract Hilbert spaces, what basic vectors suffice to generate a Hilbert space "H", in the sense that the "closure" of their span (that is, finite linear combinations and limits of those) is the whole space. Such a set of functions is called a "basis" of "H", its cardinality is known as the Hilbert space dimension. Not only does the theorem exhibit suitable basis functions as sufficient for approximation purposes, but also together with the Gram–Schmidt process, it enables one to construct a basis of orthogonal vectors. Such orthogonal bases are the Hilbert space generalization of the coordinate axes in finite-dimensional Euclidean space. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=32370 | 96,396 |
1,802,433 | This "Brachypodium" is emerging as a powerful model with a growing research community. The International Brachypodium Initiative (IBI) held its first genomics meeting and workshop at the PAG XIV conference in San Diego, California, in January 2006. The goal of the IBI is to promote the development of "B. distachyon" as a model system and will develop and distribute genomic, genetic, and bioinformatics resources such as reference genotypes, BAC libraries, genetic markers, mapping populations, and a genome sequence database. Recently, efficient "Agrobacterium"-mediated transformation systems have been developed for a range of "Brachypodium" genotypes, enabling the development of T-DNA mutant collections. The characterization and distribution of T-DNA insertion lines has been initiated to facilitate the understanding of gene function in grasses. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3845218 | 1,801,420 |
361,588 | The portmanteau word "pheromone" was coined by Peter Karlson and Martin Lüscher in 1959, based on the Greek φερω "pheroo" ('I carry') and ὁρμων "hormon" ('stimulating'). Pheromones are also sometimes classified as ecto-hormones. They were researched earlier by various scientists, including Jean-Henri Fabre, Joseph A. Lintner, Adolf Butenandt, and ethologist Karl von Frisch who called them various names, like for instance "alarm substances". These chemical messengers are transported outside of the body and affect neurocircuits, including the autonomous nervous system with hormone or cytokine mediated physiological changes, inflammatory signaling, immune system changes and/or behavioral change in the recipient. They proposed the term to describe chemical signals from conspecifics that elicit innate behaviors soon after the German biochemist Adolf Butenandt had characterized the first such chemical, bombykol, a chemically well-characterized pheromone released by the female silkworm to attract mates. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=105390 | 361,398 |
1,412,045 | The M5's optical rangefinder / viewfinder mechanism is based on the M4 (itself based on the Leica M2 (1958). The M5 has 0.72 viewfinder magnification, with a 68.5 mm RF Base Length and 49.32 mm Effective Base Length (79% focus accuracy). No other magnifications are offered with this model. The M5 is sometimes said to have the best viewfinder of the M series (others prefer the original M3, and the current MP is perhaps even better). It is fully adjustable using setting screws, and is not glued as in the later M-series. The M5 viewfinder does not have the blue tint of the earlier M2/M3. Its lens surfaces are multicoated, reducing flare. As with other .72 magnification finders, the M5 can suffer from RF 'white-out' (where the focus patch disappears in some flare-inducing lighting conditions), but this is less pronounced than on all following M-series until the coming of the Leica MP (2003, in which Leica added condenser lens, which was previously removed from the frame masking mechanism while M4-2 was produced, with a coated glass element to rectify the flare problem. Like the M4, the M5 viewfinder features bright-line frames for 35 mm, 50 mm, 90 mm, and 135 mm lenses. The 35 mm and 135 mm frames appear together as a pair. Uniquely, its viewfinder displays both metered area and shutter speeds. Leica M4-P framelines may be optionally installed (typically the MP coated glass element will be installed at the same time; reported cost for both modifications c. US$500). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18506907 | 1,411,250 |
745,080 | A collection of mature technologies called seasonal thermal energy storage (STES) is capable of storing heat for months at a time, so solar heat collected primarily in Summer can be used for all-year heating. Solar-supplied STES technology has been advanced primarily in Denmark, Germany, and Canada, and applications include individual buildings and district heating networks. Drake Landing Solar Community in Alberta, Canada has a small district system and in 2012 achieved a world record of providing 97% of the community's all-year space heating needs from the sun. STES thermal storage mediums include deep aquifers; native rock surrounding clusters of small-diameter, heat exchanger equipped boreholes; large, shallow, lined pits that are filled with gravel and top-insulated; and large, insulated and buried surface water tanks. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=413092 | 744,686 |
436,629 | A slosh tank is a large container of low viscosity fluid (usually water) that may be placed at locations in a structure where lateral swaying motions are significant, such as the roof, and tuned to counter the local resonant dynamic motion. During a seismic (or wind) event the fluid in the tank will slosh back and forth with the fluid motion usually directed and controlled by internal baffles – partitions that prevent the tank itself becoming resonant with the structure, "see Slosh dynamics". The net dynamic response of the overall structure is reduced due to both the counteracting movement of mass, as well as energy dissipation or vibration damping which occurs when the fluid's kinetic energy is converted to heat by the baffles. Generally the temperature rise in the system will be minimal and is passively cooled by the surrounding air. One Rincon Hill in San Francisco is a skyscraper with a rooftop slosh tank which was designed primarily to reduce the magnitude of lateral swaying motion from wind. A slosh tank is a passive tuned mass damper. In order to be effective the mass of the liquid is usually on the order of 1% to 5% of the mass it is counteracting, and often this requires a significant volume of liquid. In some cases these systems are designed to double as emergency water cisterns for fire suppression. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=923301 | 436,415 |
943,559 | The movie "The Thirteenth Floor" suggests a future where simulated worlds with sentient inhabitants are created by computer game consoles for the purpose of entertainment. The movie "The Matrix" suggests a future where the dominant species on planet Earth are sentient machines and humanity is treated with utmost speciesism. The short story "The Planck Dive" suggests a future where humanity has turned itself into software that can be duplicated and optimized and the relevant distinction between types of software is sentient and non-sentient. The same idea can be found in the Emergency Medical Hologram of "Starship Voyager", which is an apparently sentient copy of a reduced subset of the consciousness of its creator, Dr. Zimmerman, who, for the best motives, has created the system to give medical assistance in case of emergencies. The movies "Bicentennial Man" and "A.I." deal with the possibility of sentient robots that could love. "I, Robot" explored some aspects of Asimov's three laws. All these scenarios try to foresee possibly unethical consequences of the creation of sentient computers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13659583 | 943,057 |
1,659,901 | All indicators paint the same picture. Some 41% of Brazilian PhDs were granted by universities in the State of São Paulo in 2012 and 44% of all papers with Brazilian authors have at least one author from an institution based in São Paulo. São Paulo's scientific productivity (390 papers per million inhabitants over 2009–2013) is twice the national average (184), a differential which has been widening in recent years. The relative impact of publications by scientists from the State of São Paulo has also been systematically higher than for Brazil as a whole over the past decade. Two key factors explain São Paulo's success in scientific output: firstly, a well-funded system of state universities, including the University of São Paulo, University of Campinas (Unicamp) and the State University of São Paulo, all of which have been included in international university rankings;10 secondly, the role played by the São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP). Both the university system and FAPESP are allocated a fixed share of the state's sales tax revenue as their annual budgets and have full autonomy as to the use they make of this revenue. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1525228 | 1,658,968 |
480,840 | In 2006 (with an article published in 2007), Rémi Coulom produced a new algorithm he called Monte Carlo tree search. In it, a game tree is created as usual of potential futures that branch with every move. However, computers "score" a terminal leaf of the tree by repeated random playouts (similar to Monte Carlo strategies for other problems). The advantage is that such random playouts can be done very quickly. The intuitive objection - that random playouts do not correspond to the actual worth of a position - turned out not to be as fatal to the procedure as expected; the "tree search" side of the algorithm corrected well enough for finding reasonable future game trees to explore. Programs based on this method such as MoGo and Fuego saw better performance than classic AIs from earlier. The best programs could do especially well on the small 9x9 board, which had fewer possibilities to explore. In 2009, the first such programs appeared which could reach and hold low dan-level ranks on the KGS Go Server on the 19x19 board. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=227021 | 480,596 |
2,141,011 | The northern Guiana Shield, including Guyana is separated from Southern Guiana Shield by ENE to NE trending Tumbes /Guayaquil - Tacutu Tectonic Lineament. This is a major regional pre-Cambrian shear zone / mega-shear which is believed to have been re-activated several times. At the beginning of the Mesozoic when Africa and South America started to separate this re-activated again and was involved in formation of the Takutu Graben in the lower Rupununi area and the Guyana-Suriname basin near the coast and offshore. Both these sedimentary basins have oil potential, and in 2015 significant oil was found in a deep water area off Guyana. During the Mesozoic the headwaters of the Upper Orinoco and Rio Branco flowed through the Takutu Graben via the Essequibo either to the current river mouth, to the Corentyne, the Berbice or the Canje Rivers. Tilting associated with rifting of the Atlantic Ocean resulted in complex patterns of river capture, so now the headwaters of the Rio Branco flow to the south via the Amazon, and the headwaters of the Upper Orinoco flow to the west and north. Water and sediment volumes directly flowing east are now much reduced. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=57127212 | 2,139,781 |
1,328,669 | In classical physics, the intensity of each frequency of light produced in a radiating system is equal to the square of the amplitude of the radiation at that frequency, so attention next fell on amplitudes. The classical equations that Heisenberg hoped to use to form quantum theoretical equations would first yield the amplitudes, and in classical physics one could compute the intensities simply by squaring the amplitudes. But Heisenberg saw that "the simplest and most natural assumption would be" to follow the lead provided by recent work in computing light dispersion done by Kramers. The work he had done assisting Kramers in the previous year now gave him an important clue about how to model what happened to excited hydrogen gas when it radiated light and what happened when incoming radiation of one frequency excited atoms in a dispersive medium and then the energy delivered by the incoming light was re-radiated sometimes at the original frequency but often at two lower frequencies the sum of which equalled the original frequency. According to their model, an electron that had been driven to a higher energy state by accepting the energy of an incoming photon might return in one step to its equilibrium position, re-radiating a photon of the same frequency, or it might return in more than one step, radiating one photon for each step in its return to its equilibrium state. Because of the way factors cancel out in deriving the new equation based on these considerations, the result turns out to be relatively simple. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=24009146 | 1,327,941 |
70,716 | The study of abiogenesis aims to determine how pre-life chemical reactions gave rise to life under conditions strikingly different from those on Earth today. It primarily uses tools from biology and chemistry, with more recent approaches attempting a synthesis of many sciences. Life functions through the specialized chemistry of carbon and water, and builds largely upon four key families of chemicals: lipids for cell membranes, carbohydrates such as sugars, amino acids for protein metabolism, and nucleic acids DNA and RNA for the mechanisms of heredity. Any successful theory of abiogenesis must explain the origins and interactions of these classes of molecules. Many approaches to abiogenesis investigate how self-replicating molecules, or their components, came into existence. Researchers generally think that current life descends from an RNA world, although other self-replicating molecules may have preceded RNA. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19179706 | 70,689 |
1,787,840 | The metric of a case-specific FE analysis of cause is the comparative risk ratio (CRR). The CRR is a unique metric to FE; it allows for the comparison of probabilities applicable to the investigated circumstances of an individual injury or disease. Because a CRR is based on the unique circumstances surrounding the injury or disease of an individual, it may or may not be derived from a population-based relative risk (RR) or odds ratio (OR). An example of an RR analysis that could be used as a CRR is as follows: for an unbelted driver who was seriously injured in a traffic crash, an important causal question might be what role the failure to use a seat belt played in causing his injury. A relevant RR analysis would consist of the examination of the frequency of serious injury in 1000 randomly selected unbelted drivers exposed to a 20 mph frontal collision versus the frequency of serious injury in 1000 randomly selected restrained drivers exposed to the same collision severity and type. If the frequency of serious injury in the group exposed to the presumptive hazard (failure to use a seat belt) was 0.15 and the frequency in the unexposed (belted) group was 0.05, then the CRR would be the same thing as the RR of 0.15/0.05. The RR design of the analysis dictates that the populations that the numerator and denominator of the CRR are substantially similar in all respects, with the exception of the exposure to the investigated hazard, which was the failure to use a seat belt in the example. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50123287 | 1,786,835 |
709,679 | The US government determined to begin a process to purchase orbital launch services for cargo deliveries to the International Space Station (ISS) beginning in the mid-2000s, rather than operate the launch and delivery services as they had with the Space Shuttle, which was to retire in less than half a decade, and ultimately did retire in 2011. On 18 January 2006, NASA announced an opportunity for US commercial providers to demonstrate orbital transportation services. As of 2008, NASA planned to spend $500 million through 2010 to finance development of private sector capability to transport payloads to the International Space Station (ISS). This was considered more challenging than then-available commercial space transportation because it would require precision orbit insertion, rendezvous and possibly docking with another spacecraft. The commercial vendors competed in specific service areas. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=752732 | 709,308 |
2,143,806 | Antioxidants are suggested to be useful in preventing PD because they scavenge free radicals such as reactive nitrogen and oxygen, preventing their build-up and the destruction of dopamine-producing neurons. Research has attempted to link dietary patterns to the likelihood of developing Parkinson's disease. Promising research shows that a diet consisting of foods typically associated with a Mediterranean diet may act as a preventative measure for the disease due to the high levels of antioxidants found in within these foods such as complex phenols, vitamins C and E, and carotenoids. A typical Mediterranean diet consists of a high intake of vegetables, legumes, fruits, and cereals, olive oil (unsaturated fatty acids), and fish and low to moderate intake of foods such as dairy, meats, poultry. Other research has shown that diets rich in dairy products result in a higher likelihood of developing Parkinson's disease. Additionally, it has been seen that the intake of animal fats may be linked to the development of the disease. It has also been suggested that a diet that results in high plasma urate can result in a reduced risk of developing PD due to urate's ability to reduce oxidative stresses by scavenging peroxynitrite and hydroxyl radicals. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=36561543 | 2,142,575 |
382,966 | Various disputes have arisen over the morality, ethics, effectiveness, and safety of vaccination. Some vaccination critics say that vaccines are ineffective against disease or that vaccine safety studies are inadequate. Some religious groups do not allow vaccination, and some political groups oppose mandatory vaccination on the grounds of individual liberty. In response, concern has been raised that spreading unfounded information about the medical risks of vaccines increases rates of life-threatening infections, not only in the children whose parents refused vaccinations, but also in those who cannot be vaccinated due to age or immunodeficiency, who could contract infections from unvaccinated carriers (see herd immunity). Some parents believe vaccinations cause autism, although there is no scientific evidence to support this idea. In 2011, Andrew Wakefield, a leading proponent of the theory that MMR vaccine causes autism, was found to have been financially motivated to falsify research data and was subsequently stripped of his medical license. In the United States people who refuse vaccines for non-medical reasons have made up a large percentage of the cases of measles, and subsequent cases of permanent hearing loss and death caused by the disease. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=32473 | 382,771 |
483,991 | Segrè's group set up its equipment in a disused Forest Service cabin in the Pajarito Canyon near Los Alamos in August 1943. His group's task was to measure and catalog the radioactivity of various fission products. An important line of research was determining the degree of isotope enrichment achieved with various samples of enriched uranium. Initially, the tests using mass spectrometry, used by Columbia University, and neutron assay, used by Berkeley, gave different results. Segrè studied Berkeley's results and could find no error, while Kenneth Bainbridge likewise found no fault with New York's. However, analysis of another sample showed close agreement. Higher rates of spontaneous fission were observed at Los Alamos, which Segrè's group concluded were due to cosmic rays, which were more prevalent at Los Alamos due to its high altitude. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=376458 | 483,742 |
1,757,911 | Sporocarps are found only in the Salviniales, a group that is aquatic and heterosporous, but the structures are very different in the two families of the order. In the Salviniaceae family, the sporocarp is nothing more than a modified sorus, a single cluster of spore-producing tissues enclosed by a thin sphere of tissue and attached to the leaves. In the Marsileaceae (water-clover) family, the sporocarp is a more elaborate structure formed from an entire leaf whose development and form is greatly modified. These are hairy, short-stalked, bean-shaped structures (usually 3 to 8 mm in diameter) with a hardened outer covering. This outer covering is tough and resistant to drying out, allowing the spores inside to survive unfavorable conditions such as winter frost or summer desiccation. Despite this toughness, the sporocarps will open readily in water if conditions are favorable, and specimens have been successfully germinated after being stored for more than forty years. Each growing season, only one sporocarp develops per node along the rhizome near the base of the other leaf-stalks. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8901258 | 1,756,918 |
1,003,728 | Later discoveries included large primitive feathers 30–40 cm long with 3.5 mm quills believed to come from large dinosaurs; broken remains from almost all known Hell Creek dinosaur groups, including some incredibly rare hatchling and intact egg with embryo fossils; fossil pterosaurs for which no other fossils exist at that time; drowned ant nests with ants inside and chambers filled with asteroid debris; and burrows of small mammals living at the site immediately after the impact. Analysis of early samples showed that the microtektites at Tanis were almost identical to those found at the Mexican impact site, and were likely to be primary deposits (directly from the impact) and not reworked (moved from their original location by later geological processes). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=60404595 | 1,003,210 |
235,031 | In response to "The Wall Street Journal", U.S. General Martin Dempsey, chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, said on 23 August 2012 that the United States are in discussions with its close ally Japan about expanding a missile defense system in Asia by positioning an early warning radar in southern Japan. Dempsey however stated that no decisions have been reached on expanding the radar. The State Department said the U.S. is taking a phased approach to missile defense in Asia, as it is in Europe and the Middle East. "These are defensive systems. They don’t engage unless missiles have been fired," department spokeswoman Victoria Nuland told a news conference. "In the case of Asian systems, they are designed against a missile threat from North Korea. They are not directed at China." Nuland said the U.S. has broad discussions with China through military and political channels about the systems' intent. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=350551 | 234,912 |
292,197 | In Britain the "Daily Mail" newspaper encouraged women to manufacture cotton pads, and within one month a variety of pad respirators were available to British and French troops, along with motoring goggles to protect the eyes. The response was enormous and a million gas masks were produced in a day. The "Mail"s design was useless when dry and caused suffocation when wet—the respirator was responsible for the deaths of scores of men. By 6 July 1915, the entire British army was equipped with the more effective "smoke helmet" designed by Major Cluny MacPherson, Newfoundland Regiment, which was a flannel bag with a celluloid window, which entirely covered the head. The race was then on between the introduction of new and more effective poison gases and the production of effective countermeasures, which marked gas warfare until the armistice in November 1918. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=167578 | 292,039 |
52,137 | Infants absorb all sorts of complex social-emotional information from the social interactions that they observe. They notice the helpful and hindering behaviours of one person to another. From these observations they develop expectations of how two characters should behave, known as a "secure base script." These scripts provide as a template of how attachment related events should unfold and they are the building blocks of ones internal working models. infant's internal working model is developed in response to the infant's experience based internal working models of self, and environment, with emphasis on the caregiving environment and the outcomes of his or her proximity-seeking behaviours. Theoretically, secure child and adult script, would allow for an attachment situation where one person successfully utilizes another as a secure base from which to explore and as a safe haven in times of distress. In contrast, insecure individuals would create attachment situations with more complications. For example, If the caregiver is accepting of these proximity-seeking behaviours and grants access, the infant develops a secure organization; if the caregiver consistently denies the infant access, an avoidant organization develops; and if the caregiver inconsistently grants access, an ambivalent organization develops. In retrospect, internal working models are constant with and reflect the primary relationship with our caregivers. Childhood attachment directly influences our adult relationships. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=884589 | 52,117 |
1,299,622 | Skara Brae consists of ten clustered houses and is northern Europe's most complete Neolithic village. Occupied between 3100–2500 BC the houses are similar to those at Barnhouse, but they are linked by common passages and were built into a large midden containing ash, bones, shells, stone and organic waste. Only the roofs, which were probably supported by timber or whalebone, would have been visible from the outside. In each case the stone dressers were erected so that they dominated the view on entering the house through the low doors and there are elaborate carvings of unknown meaning on some of the stones in the houses and passages. A variety of bone beads, pins and pendants and four carved stone balls were also discovered at the site, which was only revealed after a storm in the winter of 1850 ripped away the grass from a covering sand dune. The existing ruins mostly belong to a secondary phase of building with the foundations of the first phase largely hidden from view. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19163052 | 1,298,908 |
866,465 | Petrus Christus placed his sitter in a naturalistic setting rather than a flat and featureless background. This approach was in part a reaction against van der Weyden, who, in his emphasis on sculptural figures, utilised very shallow pictorial spaces. In his 1462 "", Dieric Bouts went further by situating the man in a room complete with a window that looks out at a landscape, while in the 16th century, the full-length portrait became popular in the north. The latter format was practically unseen in earlier northern art, although it had a tradition in Italy going back centuries, most usually in fresco and illuminated manuscripts. Full-length portraits were reserved for depictions of the highest echelon of society, and were associated with princely displays of power. Of the second generation of northern painters, Hans Memling became the leading portraitist, taking commissions from as far as Italy. He was highly influential on later painters and is credited with inspiring Leonardo's positioning of the "Mona Lisa" in front of a landscape view. Van Eyck and van der Weyden similarly influenced the French artist Jean Fouquet and the Germans Hans Pleydenwurff and Martin Schongauer among others. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=799881 | 866,005 |
2,076,912 | Significant capital was required to undertake this endeavor. Through donations from Society members (Rudolph Hertzog, Werner von Siemens, Otto Lilienthal), the tethered balloon "Meteor" was purchased. The Royal Prussian Academy of Sciences made a one-time grant of 2000 Marks. Several private citizens (Hans Bartsch von Sigsfeld, Kurt Killisch-Horn (1856–1915), Patrick Young Alexander) put their private balloons at the disposal of the project. Nonetheless, the Society was not in a position to raise the funds to build and maintain a suitable balloon. Subsequently, a "Committee for the Organization of Scientific Flights" was set up in mid-1892, composed of Richard Aßmann, Wilhelm von Bezold, Hermann von Helmholtz, Werner von Siemens, Wilhelm Foerster, August Kundt and Paul Güßfeldt. The committee made an appeal to Kaiser Wilhelm II, which was supported by the Academy of Sciences. The Kaiser granted the request of 50 thousand Marks for the building and operation of the balloon "Humboldt" from his "Allerhöchsten Dispositionsfonds". After the crash-landing of the "Humboldt", he granted a further 32 thousand Marks for the building of the "Phönix". To finance additional flights, and for the publication of the scientific results, a renewed application was made in 1895, for which 20,400 Marks were paid. In 1897, the publisher Georg Büxenstein donated a thousand Marks for the building of the recording balloon "Cirrus II". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=55432762 | 2,075,713 |
1,840,819 | Research led to the discovery that its genome is enriched with genes associated with transporter activity of carbon sugars, as well as cell secretion and transposase activity, suggesting that these organisms have a potential role in the up-cycling of carbohydrates or the supply of proteins to their host. These skills can help them to quickly adapt to a new host or take advantage of a new niche. Although none of the "Endozoicomonas" genomes have genes for fixing nitrogen directly, some species have several forms of nitrate reductase, accounting for the conversion of nitrate to nitrite and of nitrite to ammonia, which could then be secreted. "Endozoicomonas" contain in their own genome for the assimilation of ammonia through the synthesis of glutamine and glutamate. They can also synthesize other amino acids like alanine, aspartate, cysteine, glycine, homocysteine, homoserine, leucine, lysine, methionine, serine, and threonine, indicating strain-specific functions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58767346 | 1,839,767 |
1,522,613 | GPR56 was the first adhesion GPCR causally linked to a disease. Loss-of-function mutations in GPR56 cause a severe cortical malformation known as bilateral frontoparietal polymicrogyria (BFPP). Investigating the pathological mechanism of disease-associated "GPR56" mutations in BFPP has provided mechanistic insights into the functioning of adhesion GPCRs. Researchers demonstrated that disease-associated "GPR56" mutations cause BFPP via multiple mechanisms. Li et al. demonstrated that GPR56 regulates pial basement membrane (BM) organization during cortical development. Disruption of the "Gpr56" gene in mice leads to neuronal malformation in the cerebral cortex, which resulted in 4 critical pathological morphologies: defective pial BM, abnormal localized radial glial endfeet, malpositioned Cajal-Retzius cells, and overmigrated neurons. Furthermore, the interaction of GPR56 and collagen III inhibits neural migration to regulate lamination of the cerebral cortex. Next to GPR56, the α3β1 integrin is also involved in pial BM maintenance. Study from "Itga3" (α3 integrin)/"Gpr56" double knockout mice showed increased neuronal overmigration compared to "Gpr56" single knockout mice, indicating cooperation of GPR56 and α3β1 integrin in modulation of the development of the cerebral cortex. More recently, the Walsh laboratory showed that alternative splicing of GPR56 regulates regional cerebral cortical patterning. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14517273 | 1,521,752 |
1,326,064 | Rockafellar moved to Cambridge, Massachusetts to attend Harvard College in 1953. Majoring in mathematics, he graduated from Harvard in 1957 with summa cum laude. He was also elected for the Phi Beta Kappa honor society. Rockafellar was a Fulbright Scholar at the University of Bonn in 1957–58 and completed a Master of Science degree at Marquette University in 1959. Formally under the guidance of Professor Garrett Birkhoff, Rockafellar completed his Doctor of Philosophy degree in mathematics from Harvard University in 1963 with the dissertation “Convex Functions and Dual Extremum Problems.” However, at the time there was little interest in convexity and optimization at Harvard and Birkhoff was neither involved with the research nor familiar with the subject. The dissertation was inspired by the duality theory of linear programming developed by John von Neumann, which Rockafellar learned about through volumes of recent papers compiled by Albert W. Tucker at Princeton University. Rockafellar’s dissertation together with the contemporary work by Jean-Jacques Moreau in France are regarded as the birth of convex analysis. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=26300644 | 1,325,337 |
387,739 | Ariane 5's first test flight (Ariane 5 Flight 501) on 4 June 1996 failed, with the rocket self-destructing 37 seconds after launch because of a malfunction in the control software. A data conversion from 64-bit floating-point value to 16-bit signed integer value to be stored in a variable representing horizontal bias caused a processor trap (operand error) because the floating-point value was too large to be represented by a 16-bit signed integer. The software had been written for the Ariane 4 where efficiency considerations (the computer running the software had an 80% maximum workload requirement) led to four variables being protected with a handler while three others, including the horizontal bias variable, were left unprotected because it was thought that they were "physically limited or that there was a large margin of safety". The software, written in Ada, was included in the Ariane 5 through the reuse of an entire Ariane 4 subsystem despite the fact that the particular software containing the bug, which was just a part of the subsystem, was not required by the Ariane 5 because it has a different preparation sequence than the Ariane 4. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3111 | 387,544 |
868,274 | Across the 0.2-second duration of the detectable signal, the relative tangential (orbiting) velocity of the black holes increased from 30% to 60% of the speed of light. The orbital frequency of 75 Hz (half the gravitational wave frequency) means that the objects were orbiting each other at a distance of only 350 km by the time they merged. The phase changes to the signal's polarization allowed calculation of the objects' orbital frequency, and taken together with the amplitude and pattern of the signal, allowed calculation of their masses and therefore their extreme final velocities and orbital separation (distance apart) when they merged. That information showed that the objects had to be black holes, as any other kind of known objects with these masses would have been physically larger and therefore merged before that point, or would not have reached such velocities in such a small orbit. The highest observed neutron star mass is two solar masses, with a conservative upper limit for the mass of a stable neutron star of three solar masses, so that a pair of neutron stars would not have had sufficient mass to account for the merger (unless exotic alternatives exist, for example, boson stars), while a black hole-neutron star pair would have merged sooner, resulting in a final orbital frequency that was not so high. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=49396186 | 867,814 |
395,188 | On day 28, areas of tissue in the heart tube begin to expand inwards; after about two weeks, these expansions, the membranous "septum primum" and the muscular "endocardial cushions", fuse to form the four chambers of the heart. A failure to fuse properly will result in a defect that may allow blood to leak between chambers. After this happens, cells that have migrated from the neural crest begin to divide the bulbus cordis, the main outflow tract is divided in two by the growth a spiraling septum, becoming the great vessels—the ascending segment of the aorta and the pulmonary trunk. If the separation is incomplete, the result is a "persistent truncus arteriosus". The vessels may be reversed ("transposition of the great vessels"). The two halves of the split tract must migrate into the correct positions over the appropriate ventricles. A failure may result in some blood flowing into the wrong vessel ("e.g."overriding aorta). The four-chambered heart and the great vessels have features required for fetal growth. The lungs are unexpanded and cannot accommodate the full circulatory volume. Two structures exist to shunt blood flow away from the lungs. Cells in part of the septum primum die creating a hole while muscle cells, the "septum secundum", grow along the right atrial side the septum primum, except for one region, leaving a gap through which blood can pass from the right artium to the left atrium, the foramen ovale. A small vessel, the "ductus arteriosus" allows blood from the pulmonary artery to pass to the aorta. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=868953 | 394,993 |
2,040,160 | Music for Electric Metronomes is an avant-garde aleatoric composition written in 1960 by Japanese composer Toshi Ichiyanagi for any number of performers between three and eight. The piece involves the manipulation of electric metronomes, followed by various unspecified sounds and actions. It is a very theatrical piece, and reflects Ichiyanagi's affiliation with Fluxus, an experimental art movement from the sixties. The only true scored "instrument" is an electric metronome for each individual player, though the varying sounds and/or actions may involve many different instruments and objects at the discretion of the performer. Because the graphic notation of the score—a series of dashes, lines, and numbers in an erratic pattern of connected paths—leaves room for personal interpretation and expression, each performance is unique, and almost certainly cannot be reproduced. There is no conductor for the performance. It has been recorded on the album "Toshi Ichiyanagi: 1960's & 1990's". In a review of a performance by the S.E.M. Ensemble in 1992 at the Paula Cooper Gallery, the music critic of "The New York Times", Alex Ross, described the piece as "merely a timid, spastic prelude to György Ligeti's monumental "Poème symphonique" for 100 metronomes". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=52529768 | 2,038,981 |
120,168 | A worldwide communication network meant that telegraph cables would have to be laid across oceans. On land cables could be run uninsulated suspended from poles. Underwater, a good insulator that was both flexible and capable of resisting the ingress of seawater was required. A solution presented itself with gutta-percha, a natural rubber from the "Palaquium gutta" tree, after William Montgomerie sent samples to London from Singapore in 1843. The new material was tested by Michael Faraday and in 1845 Wheatstone suggested that it should be used on the cable planned between Dover and Calais by John Watkins Brett. The idea was proved viable when the South Eastern Railway company successfully tested a gutta-percha insulated cable with telegraph messages to a ship off the coast of Folkestone. The cable to France was laid in 1850 but was almost immediately severed by a French fishing vessel. It was relaid the next year and connections to Ireland and the Low Countries soon followed. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30010 | 120,119 |
1,622,719 | Penn's first ice hockey team formed for the 1896–97 season and it began competing in the Intercollegiate Hockey Association (IHA), which included only 4 teams (the other three being Yale, Brown and Columbia), in 1898–99. On the first team in 1896–97 were several players of Canadian background, among them middle-distance runner George Orton. Early years were plagued by the lack of a local rink which forced the program to be suspended multiple times. In 1920 the Philadelphia Ice Palace opened, giving the team a more stable footing to operate, however, the lack of success on ice was evident. Despite growing popularity, the team was forced to fold in 1924 due to insufficient funding. In 1941, Penn re-entered the hockey world, competing in the Eastern Collegiate Hockey League and winning the league title that year. The Quakers continued to compete until the team was forced to dissolve as a result of World War II. Penn's hockey program was resurrected in the 1950s as a club team and became gradually more competitive until eventually reaching the varsity level in 1965. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54528991 | 1,621,803 |
950,836 | The Kerr effect can be described as a formula_1 as well. At high peak powers the Kerr effect can cause filamentation of light in air, in which the light travels without dispersion or divergence in a self-generated waveguide. At even high intensities the Taylor series, which led the domination of the lower orders, does not converge anymore and instead a time based model is used. When a noble gas atom is hit by an intense laser pulse, which has an electric field strength comparable to the Coulomb field of the atom, the outermost electron may be ionized from the atom. Once freed, the electron can be accelerated by the electric field of the light, first moving away from the ion, then back toward it as the field changes direction. The electron may then recombine with the ion, releasing its energy in the form of a photon. The light is emitted at every peak of the laser light field which is intense enough, producing a series of attosecond light flashes. The photon energies generated by this process can extend past the 800th harmonic order up to a few KeV. This is called high-order harmonic generation. The laser must be linearly polarized, so that the electron returns to the vicinity of the parent ion. High-order harmonic generation has been observed in noble gas jets, cells, and gas-filled capillary waveguides. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21723 | 950,332 |
788,632 | William James Lord Wallace's greatest challenge of his presidency came following the U.S. Supreme Court's 1954 ruling, "Brown v. Board of Education", which declared segregated schools to be unconstitutional. Following that, the historically black West Virginia State College opened its doors to all students. Dr. Wallace not only met the challenge but set an example for the world to follow. During Harold M. McNeill's tenure, the community college component was established; a building was erected for community college programs, and Ferrell Hall and the Drain-Jordan Library were renovated. During Thomas Winston Cole, Jr.'s administration, he made several organizational changes in the institution, creating new academic divisions and establishing a planning and advancement unit. Cole left West Virginia State in 1986 to become Chancellor of the West Virginia Board of Regents. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1245250 | 788,208 |
666,365 | Compartmentalization was important in the origins of life. Membranes form enclosed compartments that are separate from the external environment, thus providing the cell with functionally specialized aqueous spaces. As the lipid bilayer of membranes is impermeable to most hydrophilic molecules (dissolved by water), cells have membrane transport-systems that achieve the import of nutritive molecules as well as the export of waste. It is very challenging to construct protocells from molecular assemblies. An important step in this challenge is the achievement of vesicle dynamics that are relevant to cellular functions, such as membrane trafficking and self-reproduction, using amphiphilic molecules. On the primitive Earth, numerous chemical reactions of organic compounds produced the ingredients of life. Of these substances, amphiphilic molecules might be the first player in the evolution from molecular assembly to cellular life. A step from vesicle toward protocell might be to develop self-reproducing vesicles coupled with the metabolic system. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19179678 | 666,017 |
599,330 | When an electron from the inner shell of an atom is excited by the energy of a photon, it moves to a higher energy level. When it returns to the low energy level, the energy which it previously gained by the excitation is emitted as a photon which has a wavelength that is characteristic for the element (there could be several characteristic wavelengths per element). Analysis of the X-ray emission spectrum produces qualitative results about the elemental composition of the specimen. Comparison of the specimen's spectrum with the spectra of samples of known composition produces quantitative results (after some mathematical corrections for absorption, fluorescence and atomic number). Atoms can be excited by a high-energy beam of charged particles such as electrons (in an electron microscope for example), protons (see PIXE) or a beam of X-rays (see X-ray fluorescence, or XRF or also recently in transmission XRT). These methods enable elements from the entire periodic table to be analysed, with the exception of H, He and Li. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1063456 | 599,024 |
1,547,659 | The study of surface characteristics (or surface properties and processes) is a broad category of Mars science that examines the nature of the materials making up the Martian surface. The study evolved from telescopic and remote-sensing techniques developed by astronomers to study planetary surfaces. However, it has increasingly become a subdiscipline of geology as automated spacecraft bring ever-improving resolution and instrument capabilities. By using characteristics such as color, albedo, and thermal inertia and analytical tools such as reflectance spectroscopy and radar, scientists are able to study the chemistry and physical makeup (e.g., grain sizes, surface roughness, and rock abundances) of the Martian surface. The resulting data help scientists understand the planet's mineral composition and the nature of geological processes operating on the surface. Mars’ surface layer represents a tiny fraction of the total volume of the planet, yet plays a significant role in the planet's geologic history. Understanding physical surface properties is also very important in determining safe landing sites for spacecraft. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=28924877 | 1,546,781 |
1,611,175 | The relationship between socioeconomically disadvantaged youth and poor physical health is a topic notably evaluated by James Hamblin. Research has proven there is a correlation between disadvantaged youth and high blood pressure, excess body fat, and high levels of cortisol. The pressures associated with a low socioeconomic background have proven to produce chronic stress in individuals who strive for upward mobility, likely due to the increased familial and social pressures. Subsequently, chronic stress has been linked to a break down in bodily functions, and is thus a stimulant for disease. In other words, this means that the extrinsic factor of socioeconomic class can cause an individual to be less physically capable of handling stress and heavy workloads than someone born into a wealthier environment. This means that their self-control and work ethic comes with the price of their health, as people from low socioeconomic backgrounds are more likely to age faster at the cellular level. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58616052 | 1,610,270 |
1,266,724 | The MOL program was canceled in 1969 and Overmyer was selected as part of NASA Astronaut Group 7, where his first assignment was engineering development on the Skylab Program from 1969–71. From 1971–72, he was a support crew member for Apollo 17 and was the launch capsule communicator (CAPCOM). From 1973–75, he was a support crew member for the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project and was the NASA CAPCOM in the mission control center in Moscow. In 1976, he was assigned duties on the space shuttle Approach and Landing Tests (ALT) program and was the prime T-38 Talon chase pilot for Orbiter Free-Flights 1 and 3. In 1979, he was assigned as the deputy vehicle manager of OV-102 ("Columbia") in charge of finishing the manufacturing and tiling of "Columbia" at the Kennedy Space Center in preparation for its first flight. This assignment lasted until "Columbia" was transported to the launch pad in 1980. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=503631 | 1,266,035 |
395,830 | Then-President George W. Bush, when asked whether he would watch the film, responded: "Doubt it." "New technologies will change how we live and how we drive our cars, which all will have the beneficial effect of improving the environment," Bush said. "And in my judgment we need to set aside whether or not greenhouse gases have been caused by mankind or because of natural effects and focus on the technologies that will enable us to live better lives and at the same time protect the environment". Gore responded that "The entire global scientific community has a consensus on the question that human beings are responsible for global warming and he [Bush] has today again expressed personal doubt that that is true." White House deputy press secretary Dana Perino stated that "The president noted in 2001 the increase in temperatures over the past 100 years and that the increase in greenhouse gases was due to a certain extent to human activity". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4097799 | 395,635 |
1,072,207 | DNA nanotechnology provides one of the few ways to form designed, complex structures with precise control over nanoscale features. The field is beginning to see application to solve basic science problems in structural biology and biophysics. The earliest such application envisaged for the field, and one still in development, is in crystallography, where molecules that are difficult to crystallize in isolation could be arranged within a three-dimensional nucleic acid lattice, allowing determination of their structure. Another application is the use of DNA origami rods to replace liquid crystals in residual dipolar coupling experiments in protein NMR spectroscopy; using DNA origami is advantageous because, unlike liquid crystals, they are tolerant of the detergents needed to suspend membrane proteins in solution. DNA walkers have been used as nanoscale assembly lines to move nanoparticles and direct chemical synthesis. Further, DNA origami structures have aided in the biophysical studies of enzyme function and protein folding. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=26901564 | 1,071,653 |
1,965,360 | Following his PhD, Prasad joined the faculty at the University at Buffalo (UB) in 1974. During his tenure, he focused his research on two-photon technology and directed the Photonics Research Laboratory. Following his appointment to executive director of the Institute for Research in Lasers, Photonics and Biophotonics, Prasad developed novel photonic materials. In 1999, he assisted scientists at the University at Buffalo and Tulane University in tracking the AN-152 compound through a human breast-cancer cell by combining it with his fluorescent probe C625. In 2002, Prasad developed Nanoclinic, a silica nanoshell containing various diagnostic and therapeutic agents. The following year, he published a book entitled "Nanophotonics," which he described as "the first book to comprehensively cover nanophotonics, both as a fundamental phenomenon and as the origin of technologies and devices that will impact fields ranging from information technology to drug delivery." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=68899740 | 1,964,231 |
1,822,368 | The formula_28 geometry could be viewed as the unique closed space-like geodesic of a four-dimensional hyperboloid of one sheet, formula_43, foliating outside of the causal Minkowski light-cone the space-like region, assumed to have one more spatial dimension, this in accord with the so-called de Sitter Special Relativity, formula_44. Indeed, potentials, in being instantaneous and not allowing for time orderings, represent virtual, i.e. acausal processes and as such can be generated in one-dimensional wave equations upon proper transformations of virtual quantum motions on surfaces located outside the causal region marked by the Light Cone. Such surfaces can be viewed as geodesics of the surfaces foliating the space like region. Quantum motions on open formula_43 geodesics can give rise to barriers describing resonances transmitted through them. An illustrative example for the application of the color confining dipole potential in () to meson spectroscopy is given in Fig. 4. It should be pointed out that the potentials in the above equations () and () have been alternatively derived in, from Wilson loops with cusps, predicting their magnitude as formula_46, and in accord with (). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=59354087 | 1,821,330 |
872,716 | In terms of volume, the most impactful commercial aero engine produced by Safran Aircraft Engines is the CFM International CFM56 turbofan powerplant. This engine is both developed and manufactured via a 50-50 joint venture company, CFM International, which Safran jointly owns with the American industrial conglomerate General Electric (GE). Established during the 1970s, the CFM56 was not an early success; by April 1979, the joint venture had not received a single order in five years and was allegedly two weeks away from being dissolved. The program was saved when Delta Air Lines, United Airlines, and Flying Tigers chose the CFM56 to re-engine their DC-8s; shortly thereafter, it was also selected to re-engine the KC-135 Stratotanker fleet of the United States Air Force, this operator being the engine's biggest customer. Following this turn of fortune, tens of thousands of engines have since been produced over the decades. A total of 30,000 CFM56s have been completed by July 2016. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=748403 | 872,256 |
1,253,290 | During his research in 1856, Darwin noted his intention to publish his views on human racial ancestry: by early September of that year while drafting his book on "Natural Selection" he began collecting notes for Chapter 6 on the topic of sexual selection. This would cover humans as well as birds and fishes. By 31 March 1857 he had drafted five chapters with the sixth under way, and he wrote out a table of contents. In the following months he completed ten pages of Chapter 6, some 2,500 words, and pencilled in the heading "Theory applied to Races of Man". At this stage he regarded sexual selection as due to a "struggle for supremacy" between males, and did not yet think of female choice as significant. He then apparently dropped the whole topic for some reason, possibly Charles Lyell's caution: the brief abstract Darwin sent to Asa Gray on 5 September made no mention of sexual selection or human evolution. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1616231 | 1,252,611 |
1,332,404 | The standard solar model (SSM) is a mathematical treatment of the Sun as a spherical ball of gas (in varying states of ionisation, with the hydrogen in the deep interior being a completely ionised plasma). This model, technically the spherically symmetric quasi-static model of a star, has stellar structure described by several differential equations derived from basic physical principles. The model is constrained by boundary conditions, namely the luminosity, radius, age and composition of the Sun, which are well determined. The age of the Sun cannot be measured directly; one way to estimate it is from the age of the oldest meteorites, and models of the evolution of the Solar System. The composition in the photosphere of the modern-day Sun, by mass, is 74.9% hydrogen and 23.8% helium. All heavier elements, called "metals" in astronomy, account for less than 2 percent of the mass. The SSM is used to test the validity of stellar evolution theory. In fact, the only way to determine the two free parameters of the stellar evolution model, the helium abundance and the mixing length parameter (used to model convection in the Sun), are to adjust the SSM to "fit" the observed Sun. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5894781 | 1,331,675 |
1,818,244 | The structural relaxation of a viscoelastic gel has been identified as primary mechanism responsible for densification and associated pore evolution in both colloidal and polymeric silica gels. Experiments in the viscoelastic properties of such skeletal networks on various time scales require a force varying with a period (or frequency) appropriate to the relaxation time of the phenomenon investigated, and inversely proportional to the distance over which such relaxation occurs. High frequencies associated with ultrasonic waves have been used extensively in the handling of polymer solutions, liquids and gels and the determination of their viscoelastic properties. Static measurements of the shear modulus have been made, as well as dynamic measurements of the speed of propagation of shear waves, which yields the dynamic modulus of rigidity. Dynamic light scattering (DLS) techniques have been utilized in order to monitor the dynamics of density fluctuations through the behavior of the autocorrelation function near the point of gelation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58840824 | 1,817,209 |
310,578 | In the 21st century, multi-core CPUs became commercially available. Content-addressable memory (CAM) has become inexpensive enough to be used in networking, and is frequently used for on-chip cache memory in modern microprocessors, although no computer system has yet implemented hardware CAMs for use in programming languages. Currently, CAMs (or associative arrays) in software are programming-language-specific. Semiconductor memory cell arrays are very regular structures, and manufacturers prove their processes on them; this allows price reductions on memory products. During the 1980s, CMOS logic gates developed into devices that could be made as fast as other circuit types; computer power consumption could therefore be decreased dramatically. Unlike the continuous current draw of a gate based on other logic types, a CMOS gate only draws significant current during the 'transition' between logic states, except for leakage. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13636 | 310,410 |
1,786,724 | Ajayan was born on 15 July 1962 at Kodungallur, a coastal town in Thrissur District, in the Indian state of Kerala, to Pulickal Madhava Panickar, a telephone mechanic, and Radha, a teacher at the local school. He studied in a government school in Kodungallur where the medium of instruction was Malayalam until 6th standard, after which he moved to Loyola School, Thiruvananthapuram, a high school he has credited for making a strong impact on him, and for making him "realize that learning is the most exciting thing one can ever befriend". He graduated from Loyola in 1977. In 1985, Ajayan graduated at the top of his class with a BTech degree in Metallurgical Engineering from Indian Institute of Technology (BHU) Varanasi. In 1989, he earned a PhD in Materials Science and Engineering from Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois. Afterwards he spent three years as a post-doc at NEC corporation, Japan, two years as a researcher at the Laboratoire de Physique des Solides, Orsay, France, and one year at the Max Planck Institute for Metals Research, Stuttgart, Germany. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1111018 | 1,785,719 |
2,156,309 | Under Costerton's direction the center continued to fulfill its charter and began expanding its scope of inquiry. Costerton encouraged exploration of the bioelectric effect, the phenomenon of cell-cell signaling and its relation to biofilm structure and subsurface biobarrier technologies to protect water and soils from mining contamination. Industrial interest and membership grew in response to more diversified research topics. By 1996 Industrial Associate membership had grown to 19 diversified members including members representing water treatment, mining, government labs, specialty chemicals, consumer products, and oil/energy companies. In June 1996 the National Science Foundation renewed its commitment to the Center for Biofilm Engineering with a new five year grant of $7.6 million. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=45523355 | 2,155,078 |
1,752,232 | During the 1980s, the repeated operational breaks and high costs related to the Bergen Line past Finse was a constant problem for NSB and in 1983 the director, Robert Nordén launched the idea of a tunnel through the mountain. He was backed by the engineering staff in NSB, who felt that a tunnel would be a simple way of solving many of the challenges relating to the railway operations. Estimates calculated the cost of the investment at , including the upgrade of part of the line east of Finse Station. In addition to the argument for better regularity on the Bergen Line, NSB pointed out that the cost structure of railway operations had changed, making it relatively more expensive to operate snow sheds, that required rebuilding about every twenty years, than to build a tunnel, that would be excavated using heavy and automated machinery. NSB launched the idea to start construction after Oslo Central Station was scheduled for completion in 1989. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9326625 | 1,751,245 |
729,411 | By the 1930s, the theory of focal infection began to be reexamined, and new research shed doubt on the results of previous studies. A 1935 "Journal of the Canadian Dental Association" article called Price radical, while citing his comment in "Dental Infections, Oral and Systemic" of "continually seeing patients suffering more from the inconvenience and difficulties of mastication and nourishment than they did from the lesions from which their physician or dentist had sought to give them relief" as a good reason for the use of tooth extraction to be minimized. One researcher in 1940 noted "practically every investigation dealing with the pulpless teeth made prior to 1936 is invalid in the light of recent studies" and that the research of Price and others suffered from technical limitations and questionable interpretations of results. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7020762 | 729,027 |
1,315,569 | In everyday terms, when poured, SCC is an extremely fluid mix with the following distinctive practical features – it flows very easily within and around the formwork, can flow through obstructions and around corners ("passing ability"), is close to self-leveling (although not actually self-levelling), does not require vibration or tamping after pouring, and follows the shape and surface texture of a mold (or form) very closely once set. As a result, pouring SCC is also much less labor-intensive compared to standard concrete mixes. Once poured, SCC is usually similar to standard concrete in terms of its setting and curing time (gaining strength), and strength. SCC does not use a high proportion of water to become fluid – in fact SCC may contain less water than standard concretes. Instead, SCC gains its fluid properties from an unusually high proportion of fine aggregate, such as sand (typically 50%), combined with superplasticizers (additives that ensure particles disperse and do not settle in the fluid mix) and viscosity-enhancing admixtures (VEA). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13387024 | 1,314,844 |
1,066,835 | Following an initial air victory in June, on 25 July 1915 when on patrol over Passchendaele, Captain Hawker attacked three German aircraft in succession, flying a different Bristol Scout C, serial No. 1611, after his earlier No. 1609 had been written off, transplanting the custom Lewis gun mount onto No. 1611. The first aerial victory for Hawker that day occurred after he had emptied a complete drum of bullets from his aircraft's single Lewis machine gun into it, sending it spinning down. The second was driven to the ground damaged, and the third – an Albatros C.I of FFA 3 – which he attacked at a height of about 10,000 feet, burst into flames and crashed. (Pilot Oberleutnant Uebelacker and observer Hauptmann Roser were both killed.) For this feat he was awarded the Victoria Cross, as the third military pilot (and the first fighter pilot) to receive the VC following William Barnard Rhodes-Moorhouse's pioneering award for bravery during a bombing raid, and Reginald Warneford's award for an anti-Zeppelin attack on an airborne "Deutsches Heer" airship, using aerial bombing to bring it down. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=535536 | 1,066,281 |
416,579 | J. A. Hobson, a British liberal writing at the time of the fierce debate concerning imperialism during the Second Boer War, observed the spectacle of the "Scramble for Africa" and emphasized changes in European social structures and attitudes as well as capital flow, though his emphasis on the latter seems to have been the most influential and provocative. His so-called accumulation theory, very influential in its day, suggested that capitalism suffered from under-consumption due to the rise of monopoly capitalism and the resultant concentration of wealth in fewer hands, which he argued gave rise to a misdistribution of purchasing power. His thesis called attention to Europe's huge, impoverished industrial working class, which was typically far too poor to consume goods produced by an industrialized economy. His analysis of capital flight and the rise of mammoth cartels later influenced Vladimir Lenin in his book "Imperialism: The Highest Stage of Capitalism", which has become a basis for the Marxist analysis of imperialism. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1375342 | 416,376 |
652,580 | During the reign of the dynasties, "Guanhua" ("officials' speech"), which was almost exclusively utilized by the educated people of Peking and bureaucrats (or mandarins), was the most used form of writing. With a standardized writing system for all official documents and communication, unification of the mutually unintelligible spoken dialects was possible. After the establishment of the Chinese Nationalist Party, the 1913 Conference on Unification of Pronunciation planned to widely use and teach Mandarin as the official national standard, changing "Guanhua" to "Guoyu" ("National Language"). Continuing previous policies, the People's Republic of China sought to further standardize a common language, now dubbed "Putonghua" ("Common Speech"), for national and political unity. In aims of reducing the country's approximately 80% illiteracy rate, the "Decision of the Chinese Communist Party Central Committee and State Council Concerning Elimination of Illiteracy" of March 1956 solidified the Communist Party's plans to reform the country's traditional characters to a simplified writing system. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5115207 | 652,238 |
1,412,873 | A "quadrangle" is a topographic map produced by the United States Geological Survey (USGS) covering the United States. The maps are usually named after local physiographic features. The shorthand "quad" is also used, especially with the name of the map; for example, "the Ranger Creek, Texas quad". From approximately 1947-1992, the USGS produced the 7.5 minute series, with each map covering an area one-quarter of the older 15-minute quad series, which it replaced. A 7.5 minute quadrangle map covers an area of . Both map series were produced via photogrammetric analysis of aerial photography using stereoplotters supplemented by field surveys. These maps employ the 1927 North American Datum (NAD27); conversion or a change in settings is necessary when using a GPS which by default employ the WGS84 geodetic datum. Beginning in 2009, the USGS made available digital versions of 7.5 minute quadrangle maps based on GIS data that use the NAD83 datum, which is typically within one meter of WGS84, or within the uncertainty of most GPS coordinate measurements. On a quadrangle map, the north and south limits are not straight lines, but are actually curved to match Earth's lines of latitude on the standard projection. The east and west limits are usually not parallel as they match Earth's lines of longitude. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10921652 | 1,412,078 |
1,468,813 | The university went through various changes during the latter part of the 20th century. In 1962 it acquired its first electronic computer in a collaboration with Birkbeck College, while a year later it built insectaries in its vault with financial support from the Wellcome Trust. Due to the school's need for work with live insects, the insectaries were thought to have housed the largest mosquito farm in the world. In the meantime the school closed its library and expanded the Keppel Street building to increase research and teaching space. Once completed in 1967, the modernised parts were officially opened by Princess Alexandra. In the final years of the millennium, the school launched its first distance learning programmes to an initial enrollment of 149 students for the 1998/1999 cohort. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=531365 | 1,467,989 |
1,801,220 | In 1959, the Swedish Space Research Committee (SSRC) was founded to pursue three primary objectives: the development of a national space programme, to ensure Swedish engagement with international projects, and to handle a prospective launch site for sounding rockets. Almost immediately upon its creation, the committee begun negotiations to participate in the newly created European Space Research Organisation (ESRO), in line with its second objective. However, this ambition was somewhat complicated due to the committee's lack of executive authority, and the Swedish government's wider policy ambitions of stringent non-alignment, although the concept of some level of European cooperation was politically palatable. Accordingly, while Sweden did sign the ESRO Convention during June 1962, membership of the European Launcher Development Organisation (ELDO) was spurned; these decisions were as much motivated by political and industrial factors as they were by scientific ones. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=590274 | 1,800,211 |
870,473 | The arrival of RISC OS brought the possibility of developing desktop, or WIMP, applications in BASIC and other languages. Being available as standard, BASIC was a natural choice for many developers of desktop applications, although "the complexity of the Wimp" and the need to defer to operating system functionality described in the "RISC OS Programmer's Reference Manual", this consisting of "a staggering 52 Wimp calls", required some mitigation by tutorials seeking to guide programmers through the mechanisms and techniques involved. To ease the development of such applications, various products offering toolkits or libraries were announced, one of the earliest being Archway, this providing tools to define different aspects of an application, including window layout design and menu editing, along with BASIC library routines. More ambitious attempts were later made to extend BASIC to access desktop functionality. For instance, HelixBasic added extra keywords to BASIC V whilst also making it possible for traditional BASIC programs, including graphical programs, to run in the window-based environment transparently and concurrently. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=63145 | 870,013 |
37,121 | Beginning in 2005, Siemens became embroiled in a multi-national bribery scandal. One component of this scandal was the Siemens Greek bribery scandal over deals between Siemens and Greek government officials during the 2004 Summer Olympic Games. Siemens' activities came under legal scrutiny when complaints from prosecutors in Italy, Liechtenstein and Switzerland led to German authorities opening investigations, followed by a US investigation in 2006 concerning their activities while listed on US stock exchanges. The investigators found that bribing officials to win contracts was standard operating procedure. Over that time period the company paid around $1.3 billion in bribes in many countries and kept separate books to hide them. Settlement negotiations took place through most of 2008 with settlement terms announced in December 2008. The company paid a total of about $1.6 billion, around $800 million to the US and Germany each. This was the largest bribery fine in history, at the time. The company was also obligated to spend $1 billion on setting up and funding new internal compliance regimens. Siemens pleaded guilty to violating accounting provisions of the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act; the parent company did not plead guilty to paying bribes (although its Bangladesh and Venezuela subsidiaries did). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=168632 | 37,108 |
1,552,248 | In the aftermath of World War II, and what became recognized as deeply unethical human experimentation carried out by the Nazis, the Nuremberg Code – ethical principles governing international human experimentation – were founded. The code highlighted 3 key elements (voluntary informed consent, favorable risk/benefit analysis, and right to withdraw without repercussions) which later became the foundation for further human research regulations. However, neither the Nuremberg Code nor the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act of 1938 prevented the "thalidomide tragedy" of the early 1960s. Thalidomide was introduced in 1958, and there were reports of it being unsafe for certain groups, such as pregnant women and young children; however, although the Food and Drug Administration did not approve it for market, the existing regulations allowed relatively unrestricted testing of the drug. This led to the abuse of approved drug testing as the means to further a promotional marketing strategy. This was addressed by the Drug Amendments legislation of 1962, which introduced a requirement for a series of animal tests before proceeding with human experimentation, and a total of three phases of human clinical trials before a drug can be approved for the market. The inadequacy of the 1938 and 1962 acts was exposed by revelations in the 1960s and 1970s. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=26776184 | 1,551,367 |
757,683 | and Fluid Analysis group leader, was an inventor of the Power Activated Technology for Conductor Healing (PATCH), a self-healing wire for which "R&D Magazine" gave a Top 100 Award. Kauffman also received Top 100 awards from "R&D Magazine" for the Remaining Useful Life Evaluation Routine (RULER), a "smart" dipstick used to measure the quality of oils in use in aircraft, automobiles, and cooking vats, and the Status and Motion Activated Radiofrequency Tag (SMART) Sensor, which is a modified, passive radio frequency identification (RFID) tag that becomes readable only after a monitored problem has occurred. The Research Institute also developed and operates the world's only test facility to certify sulkies that race in U.S. Trotting Association sanctioned events and was involved in creating an Engineered Material Arresting System (EMAS) installed at airports around the country to stop runaway aircraft. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=454830 | 757,279 |
1,572,564 | Genome Research is a peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press. Disregarding review journals, Genome Research ranks 2nd in the category 'Genetics and Genomics' after Nature Genetics. The focus of the journal is on research that provides novel insights into the genome biology of all organisms, including advances in genomic medicine. This scope includes genome structure and function, comparative genomics, molecular evolution, genome-scale quantitative and population genetics, proteomics, epigenomics, and systems biology. The journal also features interesting gene discoveries and reports of cutting-edge computational biology and high-throughput biology methodologies. New data in these areas are published as research papers, or methods and resource reports that provide novel information on technologies or tools that will be of interest to a broad readership. The journal was established in 1991 as "PCR Methods and Applications" and obtained its current title in 1995. According to the "Journal Citation Reports", the journal has a 2020 impact factor of 9.043, which peaked in 2014 at 14.630. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2215109 | 1,571,676 |
2,137,916 | Conte and colleagues similarly modelled mental states following quantum mechanics while participants were asked to observe ambiguous figures. Although similar to Manousakis’ model, they consider the indeterminate perception (a patient isn’t sure about the shape) which resembles the mixed state. Although it is included in the model, it is represented as a wave-function, not as a third state as Paraan et al. suggested for the Manousakis model. Therefore, they argue that this is an inaccurate representation of indeterminate perception as it would mean the two states are superimposed onto each other; in actuality it is another activation of neural correlates of consciousness that is corresponding to the indeterminate position state and should be treated as such. Really it must be mentioned that the first approach to discuss Consciousness and Quantum Interference is due to C.H. Woo. This author discussed such team in a celebrated paper in 1981 and published on Foundations of Physics vol.11, Nos11/12,1981. He considered the wave function superimposed in a two states as in paper of Conte et al. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=49771725 | 2,136,686 |
1,688,227 | The two principal components of Marxist science are the dialectical method of logical deduction and genetic synthesis and its application to the evolution of real social history. While in each of these areas considered separately there are at least a number of scholarly works, there are few examples of substantial exegesis and fewer still successful applications of Marxian method to the fundamental obstacles to class consciousness today. This is reflected both at the general level of lack of understanding of the social nature of technological change embodied in Marx's theory of the value-form, reflected in widespread ignorance of the detail of the "rational kernel" of Hegel's dialectic whose the principal 'forms of being' Marx used to structure the whole of the work on "Capital". His analytical evolution of the relation between subjective and objective development and their qualitative and quantitatively measured forms and functions which make up the logical skeleton in his presentation are almost universally ignored. Compare Hegel's Logic for instance with Marx the value-form. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44379811 | 1,687,281 |
2,073,521 | Between 1915 and 1929 A. V. Kidder excavated sites in the Pecos Valley, New Mexico and elsewhere in the American southwest. Kidder is known as the “father of archaeology” for his demonstration of the value of stratigraphic excavation in the Americas. With Carl Guthe and Anna O. Shepard, Kidder's analysis resulted in the first full chronology of southwestern archaeology. Inspired by questions raised at Pecos, Carl Guthe and Elsie Clews Parsons conducted ethnographic studies at Jemez and San Ildefonso Pueblos in the first use of analogy with the present as a tool in archaeological interpretation. The excavations at Pecos and related sites recovered more than 25,000 artifacts. Earnest Hooton at Harvard's Peabody Museum studied the more than 2,000 sets of human remains from Pecos in the first physical anthropological study of population groups through time. In 1927 Kidder held the first Pecos Conference, initiating regional archaeological conferences. The Pecos Conferences were first sponsored by the Peabody and later hosted by participating institutions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29541110 | 2,072,329 |
700,940 | As a member of the transforming growth factor-beta superfamily, BMP signaling regulates a variety of embryonic patterning during fetal and embryonic development. For example, BMP signaling controls the early formation of the Mullerian duct (MD) which is a tubular structure in early embryonic developmental stage and eventually becomes female reproductive tracts. Chemical inhibiting BMP signals in chicken embryo caused a disruption of MD invagination and blocked the epithelial thickening of the MD-forming region, indicating that the BMP signals play a role in early MD development. Moreover, BMP signaling is involved in the formation of foregut and hindgut, intestinal villus patterning, and endocardial differentiation. Villi contribute to increase the effective absorption of nutrients by extending the surface area in small intestine. Gain or lose function of BMP signaling altered the patterning of clusters and emergence of villi in mouse intestinal model. BMP signal derived from myocardium is also involved in endocardial differentiation during heart development. Inhibited BMP signal in zebrafish embryonic model caused strong reduction of endocardial differentiation, but only had little effect in myocardial development. In addition, Notch-Wnt-Bmp crosstalk is required for radial patterning during mouse cochlea development via antagonizing manner. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1876572 | 700,575 |
17,369 | Ambiguities in the terms "disorder" and "chaos", which usually have meanings directly opposed to equilibrium, contribute to widespread confusion and hamper comprehension of entropy for most students. As the second law of thermodynamics shows, in an isolated system internal portions at different temperatures tend to adjust to a single uniform temperature and thus produce equilibrium. A recently developed educational approach avoids ambiguous terms and describes such spreading out of energy as dispersal, which leads to loss of the differentials required for work even though the total energy remains constant in accordance with the first law of thermodynamics (compare discussion in next section). Physical chemist Peter Atkins, in his textbook "Physical Chemistry", introduces entropy with the statement that "spontaneous changes are always accompanied by a dispersal of energy or matter and often both". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9891 | 17,364 |
944,283 | Nineteen women took astronaut fitness examinations given by the Lovelace Clinic in Albuquerque, New Mexico. Unlike NASA's male candidates, who competed in group, the women did their tests alone or in pairs. Because doctors did not know all the conditions which astronauts might encounter in space, they had to guess at what tests might be required. These ranged from typical X-rays and general body physicals to the atypical; for instance, the women had to swallow a rubber tube in order to test the level of their stomach acids. Doctors tested the reflexes in the ulnar nerve of the woman's forearms by using electric shock. To induce vertigo, ice water was shot into their ears, freezing the inner ear so doctors could time how quickly they recovered. The women were pushed to exhaustion while riding specially weighted stationary bicycles, in order to test their respiration. They subjected themselves to many more invasive and uncomfortable tests. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4054350 | 943,781 |
1,353,758 | The ECU collects and processes signals from various on-board sensors. An ECU electronic module contains microprocessors, memory units, analog to digital converters and output interface units. Depending upon the parameters, a number of different maps can be stored in the onboard memory. This allows the ECU to be tailored to the specific engine and vehicle requirements, depending on the application. The operating software of the ECU can be adapted for a wide variety of engines and vehicles without the necessity of hardware modification. The ECU is usually located in the cab or in certain cases, in a suitable position in the engine bay where additional environmental conditions might require cooling of the ECU as well as a requirement for better dust, heat and vibrations insulation . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15841900 | 1,353,011 |
2,141,185 | Restriction landmark genomic scanning (RLGS) is a genome analysis method for rapid simultaneous visualization of thousands of landmarks, or restriction sites. Using a combination of restriction enzymes some of which are specific to DNA modifications, the technique can be used to visualize differences in methylation levels across the genome of a given organism. RLGS employs direct labeling of DNA, which is first cut by a specific series of restriction enzymes, and then labeled by a radioactive isotope (usually phosphorus-32). A two-dimensional electrophoresis process is then employed, yielding high-resolution results. The radioactive second-dimension gel is then allowed to expose a large sheet of film. The radiation produced by the radioactive labeling will cause the film to be exposed wherever the restriction fragments have migrated during electrophoresis. The film is then developed, yielding a visual representation of the results in the form of an autoradiograph. The same combination of restriction enzymes will produce the same pattern of 'spots' from samples from the same organisms, but different patterns for different types of organism. For example, human and mouse DNA will produce distinctly different patterns when treated with the same combination of enzymes. These finished auto-rads can be examined against each other, revealing any changes in gene expression that lead to visual differences in the film. Each autoradiograph contains thousands of spots, each corresponding to a labeled DNA restriction landmark. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12830500 | 2,139,955 |
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