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1,401,002 | AIDA is the first operational program whose objective is to test a method of deflecting near-Earth asteroids. It was set up in 2013 jointly by scientists supported by NASA and ESA. Its objective is to test the use of an impactor-type device to deflect an asteroid that might strike the Earth. This program provides for the launch to the binary asteroid (65803) Didymos of two spacecraft: the DART impactor developed by NASA responsible for crashing at high speed on the smaller of the two asteroids and the "AIM orbiter" developed by ESA, which must measure the effects of the impact. After an evaluation phase in the two space agencies, the European Space Agency decided at the end of 2016 to abandon the development of AIM due to lack of sufficient financial support from member states. NASA, for its part, decided to continue the development of DART. In this new context, terrestrial observatories are responsible for taking over partially the role of AIM. The DART project will evolve thereafter by incorporating the LICIACube nano-satellite, released before the impact and responsible for taking and retransmitting the first 100 seconds of it. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=70249947 | 1,400,215 |
623,994 | Selection for binding activity is conceptually simple. The target molecule is immobilised on a solid support, a library of variant proteins is flowed over it, poor binders are washed away, and the remaining bound variants recovered to isolate their genes. Binding of an enzyme to immobilised covalent inhibitor has been also used as an attempt to isolate active catalysts. This approach, however, only selects for single catalytic turnover and is not a good model of substrate binding or true substrate reactivity. If an enzyme activity can be made necessary for cell survival, either by synthesizing a vital metabolite, or destroying a toxin, then cell survival is a function of enzyme activity. Such systems are generally only limited in throughput by the transformation efficiency of cells. They are also less expensive and labour-intensive than screening, however they are typically difficult to engineer, prone to artefacts and give no information on the range of activities present in the library. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4682359 | 623,662 |
1,449,171 | Karl Heinrich Emil Becker (14 September 1879 – 8 April 1940) was a German weapons engineer and artillery general. He advocated and implemented close ties of the military to science for purposes of advanced weapons development. He was the head of the Army Ordnance Office, Senator of the Kaiser Wilhelm Society, first president of the Reich Research Council, the first general officer to be a member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences, as well as being a professor at both the University of Berlin and the Berlin Technical University. He was an early and key supporter of the development of ballistic rockets as weapons. The military-scientific infrastructure he helped implement supported the German nuclear energy program, known as the Uranium Club. Being depressed over heavy criticism from Hitler for shortfalls in munitions production, he committed suicide in 1940. He was given a State funeral. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19162097 | 1,448,355 |
2,061,434 | The MicroDose system is based on an array of silicon strip detectors in a multi-slit configuration that is scanned across the object to acquire an image. When a photon interacts in the detector, charge is released and collected by electrodes on the sensor. The electrodes are connected to parallel channels in an application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC). Each channel comprises an amplifier and a shaper, which convert the charge to a pulse with an amplitude proportional to the energy of the impinging photon. This pulse height is measured by comparators, generally referred to as energy thresholds, which are followed by corresponding counters. The counters register the sum of all events within a specific energy window and are generally referred to as energy bins. The lower-most threshold is put below the expected incident spectrum to prevent electronic noise from being counted. The energy resolution of the MicroDose detector ranges from 2.0–2.3 keV standard deviation in the range 20–40 keV. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66026557 | 2,060,247 |
560,124 | Many rare diseases have not historically been tested for or testing that has been available has not been mandatory. One such disease is glutaric acidemia type I, a neurometabolic disease present in approximately 1 out of every 100,000 live births. A short-term California testing pilot project in 2003 and 2004 demonstrated the cost of forgoing rare disease testing on newborns. While both Zachary Wyvill and Zachary Black were both born with the same disease during the pilot program, Wyvill's birth hospital tested only for four state-mandated diseases while Black was born at a hospital participating in the pilot program. Wyvill's disease went undetected for over six months during which irreversible damage occurred but Black's disease was treated with diet and vitamin supplements. Both sets of parents became advocates for expanded neonatal testing and testified in favor of expanding tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) testing of newborns for rare diseases. By August, 2004, the California state budget law had passed requiring the use of tandem mass spectroscopy to test for more than 30 genetic illnesses and provided funding. California now mandates newborn screening for all infants and tests for 80 congenital and genetic disorders. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=768605 | 559,835 |
152,554 | The primitive gut is suspended from the posterior abdominal wall by the dorsal mesentery. The gastrointestinal tract and associated dorsal mesentery are subdivided into foregut, midgut, and hindgut regions based on the respective blood supply. The foregut is supplied by the celiac trunk, the midgut is supplied by the superior mesenteric artery (SMA), and the hindgut is supplied by the inferior mesenteric artery (IMA). This division is established by the fourth week of development. After this, the midgut undergoes a period of rapid elongation, forcing it to herniate through the navel. During herniation, the midgut rotates 90° anti-clockwise around the axis of the SMA and forms the midgut loop. The cranial portion of the loop moves to the right and the caudal portion of the loop moves toward the left. This rotation occurs at about the eighth week of development. The cranial portion of the loop will develop into the jejunum and most of the ileum, while the caudal part of the loop eventually forms the terminal portion of the ileum, the ascending colon and the initial two-thirds of the transverse colon. As the foetus grows larger, the mid-gut loop is drawn back through the umbilicus and undergoes a further 180° rotation, completing a total of 270° rotation. At this point, about 10 weeks, the caecum lies close to the liver. From here it moves in a cranial to caudal direction to eventually lie in the lower right portion of the abdominal cavity. This process brings the ascending colon to lie vertically in the lateral right portion of the abdominal cavity apposed to the posterior abdominal wall. The descending colon occupies a similar position on the left side. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=637855 | 152,486 |
1,560,585 | The Emberger syndrome is a rare, autosomal dominant, genetic disorder caused by familial or sporadic inactivating mutations in one of the two parental "GATA2" genes. The mutation results in a haploinsufficiency (i.e. reduction) in the levels of the gene's product, the GATA2 transcription factor. This transcription factor is critical for the embryonic development, maintenance, and functionality of blood-forming, lympathic-forming, and other tissues. The syndrome includes as its primary symptoms: serious abnormalities of the blood such as the myelodysplastic syndrome and acute myeloid leukemia; lymphedema (i.e. fluid retention and tissue swelling caused by a compromised lymphatic system) of the lower limbs, and sensorineural hearing loss. However, the anomalies caused by "GATA2" mutations are highly variable with some individuals showing little or no such symptoms even in old age while others exhibit non-malignant types of hematological anomalies; lymphedema in areas besides the lower limbs, little or no hearing loss; or anomalies in other tissues. The syndrome may present with relatively benign signs and/or symptoms and then progress rapidly or slowly (i.e. over years or decades) to the myelodysplastic syndrome and/or acute myeloid leukemia. Alternatively, it may present with one of the latter two life-threatening disorders. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=57392784 | 1,559,699 |
285,400 | During the Tang period, a set curricular schedule took shape where the three steps of reading, writing, and the composition of texts had to be learnt before students could enter state academies. As the number of graduates increased, competition for government posts became more fierce. Whereas at the beginning of the Tang dynasty, there were few jinshi, during the Song dynasty, there were more than the government needed. Several reforms to education were suggested to thin the number of candidates and improve their quality. In 1044, Han Qi, Fan Zhongyan, Ouyang Xiu, and Song Qi implemented the Qingli Reforms, which included hiring experts in the classics to teach at government schools, setting up schools in every prefecture, and requiring every candidate to have attended the prefectural school for at least 300 days to qualify for the prefectural exam. Prior to the Qingli Reforms, the role of the state was limited to supporting a few institutions, such as in 1022 when the government granted a prefectural school in Yanzhou with 151 acres of land. Some of the reformers directly participated in the creation of schools. Between 1035 and 1046, Fan Zhongyan and his followers set up 16 schools. Ouyang Xiu donated 1.5 million cash for the construction of a school in his home prefecture. Han Qi did the same as well. The Qingli Reforms were abandoned after only one year. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=244479 | 285,246 |
880,683 | There are two classes of non-toxic anti-fouling coatings. The most common class relies on low friction and low surface energies. Low surface energies result in hydrophobic surfaces. These coatings create a smooth surface, which can prevent attachment of larger microorganisms. For example, fluoropolymers and silicone coatings are commonly used. These coatings are ecologically inert but have problems with mechanical strength and long-term stability. Specifically, after days biofilms (slime) can coat the surfaces, which buries the chemical activity and allows microorganisms to attach. The current standard for these coatings is polydimethylsiloxane, or PDMS, which consists of a non-polar backbone made of repeating units of silicon and oxygen atoms. The non-polarity of PDMS allows for biomolecules to readily adsorb to its surface in order to lower interfacial energy. However, PDMS also has a low modulus of elasticity that allows for the release of fouling organisms at speeds of greater than 20 knots. The dependence of effectiveness on vessel speed prevents use of PDMS on slow-moving ships or those that spend significant amounts of time in port. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1413411 | 880,219 |
54,701 | These specimens remained the only known examples of Denisovans until 2019, when a research group led by Fahu Chen, Dongju Zhang and Jean-Jacques Hublin described a partial mandible discovered in 1980 by a Buddhist monk in the Baishiya Karst Cave on the Tibetan Plateau in China. Known as the Xiahe mandible, the fossil became part of the collection of Lanzhou University, where it remained unstudied until 2010. It was determined by ancient protein analysis to contain collagen that by sequence was found to have close affiliation to that of the Denisovans from Denisova Cave, while uranium decay dating of the carbonate crust enshrouding the specimen indicated it was more than 160,000 years old. The identity of this population was later confirmed through study of environmental DNA, which found Denisovan mtDNA in sediment layers ranging in date from 100,000 to 60,000 years before present, and perhaps more recent. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=26685803 | 54,678 |
1,397,124 | Since the Higgs boson, if it existed, could have any mass in a very wide range, a number of very advanced facilities were eventually required for the search. These included very powerful particle accelerator and detectors (in order to create Higgs bosons and detect their decay, if possible), and processing and analysis of vast amounts of data, requiring very large worldwide computing facilities. For example, over 300 trillion (3 x 10) proton-proton collisions at the LHC were analysed in confirming the July 2012 particle's discovery, requiring construction of the so-called LHC Computing Grid, the world's largest computing grid (as of 2012) comprising over 170 computing facilities in 36 countries. Experimental techniques included examination of a wide range of possible masses (often quoted in GeV) in order to gradually narrow down the search area and rule out possible masses where the Higgs was unlikely, statistical analysis, and operation of multiple experiments and teams in order to see if the results from all were in agreement. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=36772327 | 1,396,351 |
207,156 | APLHGR, being an average of the Linear Heat Generation Rate (LHGR), a measure of the decay heat present in the fuel bundles, is a margin of safety associated with the potential for fuel failure to occur during a LBLOCA (large-break loss-of-coolant accident – a massive pipe rupture leading to catastrophic loss of coolant pressure within the reactor, considered the most threatening "design basis accident" in probabilistic risk assessment and nuclear safety and security), which is anticipated to lead to the temporary exposure of the core; this core drying-out event is termed core "uncovery", for the core loses its heat-removing cover of coolant, in the case of a BWR, light water. If the core is uncovered for too long, fuel failure can occur; for the purpose of design, fuel failure is assumed to occur when the temperature of the uncovered fuel reaches a critical temperature (1100 °C, 2200 °F). BWR designs incorporate failsafe protection systems to rapidly cool and make safe the uncovered fuel prior to it reaching this temperature; these failsafe systems are known as the Emergency Core Cooling System. The ECCS is designed to rapidly flood the reactor pressure vessel, spray water on the core itself, and sufficiently cool the reactor fuel in this event. However, like any system, the ECCS has limits, in this case, to its cooling capacity, and there is a possibility that fuel could be designed that produces so much decay heat that the ECCS would be overwhelmed and could not cool it down successfully. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=143351 | 207,049 |
1,820,788 | At the Maggiore hospital, Forlanini worked in the departments of chronic diseases and eye diseases, then became the head of the skin department in 1881. While in these roles, Forlanini treated and observed a number of patients with tuberculosis, as the disease was a major health crisis in his lifetime. Aided by one of his brothers, Enrico, he designed and experimented with a number of devices and methods for treating tuberculosis. These included attempts to treat tuberculosis and similar diseases of the lungs with forced respiratory movement to increase blood flow to the lungs and improve the patient's air supply, though he found these methods unfruitful. However, something beneficial did emerge from these experiments and from his collaboration with Enrico; some of the world's first hyperbaric chambers. In 1875—to further research and treatment of tuberculosis—Forlanini founded both the Pneumotherapy Society and the Pneumatic Institute of Milan. In the course of his work with tuberculosis patients, Forlanini observed a number of them experience spontaneous pneumothorax. These ruptures frequently led to the patients' deaths. Pus and air would flood the pleural cavity, which put pressure on the already struggling lungs in addition to exposing them to further infection. Forlanini, as a handful of previous physicians had, theorized that if pressure could be artificially applied to the lungs with air and without septic fluid, the lung could be allowed to rest, heal, and scar, thus eliminating the cavities formed and inhabited by tuberculosis in the affected lung. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12359592 | 1,819,751 |
1,932,808 | Martin Luther's disputation at Heidelberg in April 1518 made a lasting impact, and his adherents among the masters and scholars soon became leading Reformationists in Southwest Germany. With the Palatinate's turn to the Reformed faith, Otto Henry, Elector Palatine, converted the university into a Calvinist institution. In 1563, the Heidelberg Catechism was created under collaboration of members of the university's divinity school. As the 16th century was passing, the late humanism stepped beside Calvinism as a predominant school of thought; and figures like Paul Schede, Jan Gruter, Martin Opitz, and Matthäus Merian taught at the university. It attracted scholars from all over the continent and developed into a cultural and academic center. However, with the beginning of the Thirty Years' War in 1618, the intellectual and fiscal wealth of the university declined. In 1622, the then-world-famous Bibliotheca Palatina (the library of the university) was stolen from the University Cathedral and taken to Rome. The reconstruction efforts thereafter were defeated by the troops of King Louis XIV, who destroyed Heidelberg in 1693 almost completely. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29278708 | 1,931,700 |
925,305 | The Long March 9 (LM-9, CZ-9, or Changzheng 9, Chinese: 长征九号) is a Chinese super-heavy carrier rocket concept proposed in 2018 that is currently in study. It is planned for a maximum payload capacity of 140,000 kg to low Earth orbit (LEO), 50,000 kg to trans-lunar injection or 44,000 kg to Mars. Its first flight is expected by 2028 or 2029 in preparation for a lunar landing sometime in the 2030s; a sample return mission from Mars has been proposed as first major mission. It has been stated that around 70% of the hardware and components needed for a test flight are currently undergoing testing, with the first engine test to occur by the end of 2018. The 2011 proposed design would be a three-staged rocket, with the initial core having a diameter of 10 meters and use a cluster of four engines. Multiple variants of the rocket have been proposed, CZ-9 being the largest with four liquid-fuel boosters with the aforementioned LEO payload capacity of 140,000 kg, CZ-9A having just two boosters and a LEO payload capacity of 100,000 kg, and finally CZ-9B having just the core stage and a LEO payload capacity of 50,000 kg. Approved in 2021, the Long March 9 is classified as a super heavy-lift launch vehicle. A very different design of LM-9 was announced in June 2021, with more engines and no external boosters. Payload capacities are 150 tonnes to LEO and 50 tonnes to TLI. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=55125 | 924,819 |
851,725 | While Sulla was fighting Mithridates, Lucius Cornelius Cinna dominated domestic Roman politics, controlling elections and other parts of civil life. Cinna and his partisans were no friends of Sulla: they razed Sulla's house in Rome, revoked his command in name, and forced his family to flee the city. Cinna himself would win election to the consulship three times consecutively; he also conducted a purge of his political opponents, displaying their heads on the rostra in the forum. During the war, Rome fielded two armies against Mithridates: one under Sulla and another, fighting both Sulla and Mithridates. Sulla returned in 82 BC at the head of his army, after concluding a generous peace with Mithridates, to retake the city from the domination of the Cinnan faction. After winning a civil war and purging the Republic of thousands of political opponents and "enemies" (many of whom were targeted for their wealth), he forced the Assemblies to make him dictator for the settling of the constitution, with an indefinite term. Sulla also created legal barriers, which would only be lifted during the dictatorship of Julius Caesar some forty years later, against political participation by the relatives of those whom he ordered murdered. And with this use of unprecedented violence at a new level, Sulla was able not only to take control of the state, but also retain control of it, unlike Scipio Nasica or Gaius Marius, both of whom had lost control of the city after deploying force. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12170961 | 851,272 |
1,337,778 | The Division of Extramural Research funds programs outside of the NIH which "support research, research training, and career development". The Division itself is broken down into "program clusters" that are "organized around critical, cross-cutting scientific topics that hold great promise for advancing knowledge and reducing the burden of neurological disease". They are: Repair and Plasticity; Systems and Cognitive Neuroscience; Channels, Synapses, and Circuits; Neurogenetics; Neural Environment; and Neurodegeneration. Other working groups include: the Clinical Trials group, the Office of Minority Health and Research, the Technology Development group; and the Office of International Activities, and the Office of Training and Career Development. Within these areas, the Division tracks research and development and determines the necessity and areas for further research, analyzing and reporting on its findings to the NIH and the nation. It pursues research with other NIH institutes. Finally, it consults with and outside scientists, health organizations, and medical associational to help identify research needs and develops necessary programs to meet them. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=237641 | 1,337,047 |
429,291 | After the first two machines, a revised version of the design became available, known as the Ferranti Mark 1 Star or the Ferranti Mark 1*. The revisions mainly cleaned up the instruction set for better usability. Instead of the original mapping from holes to binary digits that resulted in the random-looking mapping, the new machines mapped digits to holes to produce a much simpler mapping, codice_2. Additionally, several commands that used the index registers had side effects that led to quirky programming, but these were modified to have no side effects. The original machines' codice_3 instructions landed at a location "one before" the actual address, for reasons similar to the odd index behaviour, but these proved useful only in theory and quite annoying in practice, and were similarly modified. Input/output was also modified, with five-bit numbers being output least significant digit to the "right", as is typical for most numeric writing. These, among other changes, greatly improved the ease of programming the newer machines. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=571886 | 429,081 |
478,574 | Artin insisted that only German be spoken in the house. Even Tom, born in the U.S., spoke German as his first language, acquiring English only from his siblings and his playmates in the neighborhood; for the first four or five years of his life, he spoke English with a pronounced German accent. Consistent with his program of maintaining the family's German cultural heritage, Artin gave high priority to regularly reading German literature aloud to the children. The text was frequently from Goethe's autobiographical "Dichtung und Wahrheit," or his poems, "Erlkönig," for instance. Occasionally, he would read from an English text. Favorites were Mark Twain's "Tom Sawyer," Charles Dickens’s “A Christmas Carol,” and Oscar Wilde’s “The Canterville Ghost.” For the Artin children, these readings replaced radio entertainment, which was strictly banned from the house. There was a radio, but (with the notable exception of Sunday morning broadcasts by E. Power Biggs from the organ at the Busch-Reisinger Museum in Cambridge, to which Artin and Natascha listened still lounging in bed) it was switched on only to hear news of the war. Similarly, the Artin household would never in years to come harbor a television set. Once the war had ended, the radio was retired to the rear of a dark closet. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=245351 | 478,334 |
738,373 | After a final modulation to B major, the main substance of the movement appears: a titanic three-voice fugue in meter. The subject of the fugue can be divided itself into three parts: a tenth leap followed by a trill to the tonic; a 7-note scale figure repeated descending by a third; and a tail semiquaver passage marked by many chromatic passing tones, whose development becomes the main source for the movement's unique dissonance. Marked "con alcune licenze" ("with some licenses"), the fugue, one of Beethoven's greatest contrapuntal achievements, as well as making tremendous demands on the performer, moves through a number of contrasting sections and includes a number of "learned" contrapuntal devices, often, and significantly, wielded with a dramatic fury and dissonance inimical to their conservative and academic associations. Some examples: augmentation of the fugue theme and countersubject in a "sforzando" "marcato" at bars 96–117, the massive stretto of the tenth leap and trill which follows, a contemplative episode beginning at bar 152 featuring the subject in retrograde, leading to an exploration of the theme in inversion at bar 209. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=428977 | 737,982 |
15,666 | The rebels also quickly began to use Soviet-made and US shoulder-launched, man-portable air-defense system (MANPADS) missiles such as the Strela and Redeye which had either been captured from the Soviets or their Afghan allies or were supplied from Western sources. Many of them came from stocks that the Israelis had captured during wars with Soviet backed states in the Middle East. Owing to a combination of the limited capabilities of these early types of missiles, poor training and poor material condition of the missiles, they were not particularly effective. Instead, the RPG-7, originally developed as an antitank weapon, was the first effective countermeasure to the Hind. The RPG-7, not designed for air defence, had inherent shortcomings in this role. When fired at the angles needed to hit aerial targets, the back-blast could easily wound the shooter, and the inevitable cloud of smoke and dust made it easy for gunners to spot the shooter's position. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=384591 | 15,661 |
153,524 | In September 2011, market data vendor Nanex LLC published a report stating the contrary. They looked at the amount of quote traffic compared to the value of trade transactions over 4 and half years and saw a 10-fold decrease in efficiency. Nanex's owner is an outspoken detractor of high-frequency trading. Many discussions about HFT focus solely on the frequency aspect of the algorithms and not on their decision-making logic (which is typically kept secret by the companies that develop them). This makes it difficult for observers to pre-identify market scenarios where HFT will dampen or amplify price fluctuations. The growing quote traffic compared to trade value could indicate that more firms are trying to profit from cross-market arbitrage techniques that do not add significant value through increased liquidity when measured globally. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23550923 | 153,454 |
2,024,756 | Prior to the 2018 congressional directive, previous U.S. government biodefense strategies existed, including the George W. Bush administration's 2004 Homeland Security Presidential Directive-10 ("Biodefense for the 21st Century"), which was one of many laws and executive actions enacted following the 2001 anthrax attacks. The push for increased federal funding in biodefense began during Bush's term in office. For example, in 2006, Bush, in his annual budget request, asked for a total of $5.1 billion for civilian biodefense. This number was a decrease of $2.5 billion from the previous year's budget. The drop was primarily attributed to the absence of Project BioShield money in 2006; the money for that year was already allocated the previous year. Overall, the 2006 request contained incremental increases for all agencies involved in biodefense. Homeland Security Presidential Directive-10's primary focus was on preventing, detecting, and responding to potential intentional attacks using biological weapons, and set forth the role of the nascent U.S. Department of Homeland Security and other institutions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58603378 | 2,023,592 |
938,976 | The shift to the Carburetted Water Gas process initially resulted in a reduced output of water gas tar as compared to the volume of coal tars. The advent of automobiles reduced the availability of naphtha for carburetion oil, as that fraction was desirable as motor fuel. MGPs that shifted to heavier grades of oil often experienced problems with the production of tar-water emulsions, which were difficult, time-consuming, and costly to break. (The cause of tar change water emulsions is complex and was related to several factors, including free carbon in the carburetion oil and the substitution of bituminous coal as a feedstock instead of coke.) The production of large volumes of tar-water emulsions quickly filled up available storage capacity at MGPs and plant management often dumped the emulsions in pits, from which they may or may not have been later reclaimed. Even if the emulsions were reclaimed, the environmental damage from placing tars in unlined pits remained. The dumping of emulsions (and other tarry residues such as tar sludges, tank bottoms, and off-spec tars) into the soil and waters around MGPs is a significant factor in the pollution found at former manufactured gas plants (known as "FMGPs" in environmental remediation) today. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1380898 | 938,475 |
950,892 | Her elementary education consisted of attendance at the local school that her parents had started. The Walkers were determined that their daughters be as well-educated as their son, so they founded the first free schoolhouse in Oswego in the late 1830s. After finishing primary school, Mary and two of her older sisters attended Falley Seminary in Fulton, New York. Falley was not only an institution of higher learning, but a place that emphasized modern social reform in gender roles, education, and hygiene. Its ideologies and practices further cemented Mary's determination to defy traditional feminine standards on a principle of injustice. In her free time, Mary would pore over her father's medical texts on anatomy and physiology; her interest in medicine is attributable to her exposure to medical literature at an early age. As a young woman, she taught at a school in Minetto, New York, eventually earning enough money to pay her way through Syracuse Medical College, where she graduated with honors as a medical doctor in 1855, the only woman in her class. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=796125 | 950,388 |
1,042,995 | Designs with a superconducting coil do not require continuous power (but may require power for other functions, such as cooling); however, the plasma magnet design requires a continuous power source as specified in equation . An estimate for the plasma magnet power supply mass assumes ~3 kg/W for nuclear power in space. Other mass was assumed to be 10 tonnes for MS and 1 tonne of other mass for plasma magnet and MPS. Acceleration formula_531 is the thrust force formula_532 (N) from the first row divided by the total mass (coil plus other). An optimistic approximation is constant acceleration formula_531 (m/s), for which the time to reach a target velocity V (km/s) of 10% of the solar wind velocity is formula_534 (days) and time to cover a specified distance formula_535 ≈ 7.8x10 km (approximate distance from Earth to Jupiter) is formula_536 (days). For comparison purposes the time for a Hohmann transfer from Earth orbit to Jupiter orbit is 2.7 years (almost 1,000 days) but that would allow orbital insertion whereas a magnetic sail would do a flyby unless the magnetosphere and gravity of Jupiter could provided deceleration. Another comparison is the New Horizons interplanetary space probe with a 30 kg payload that flew by Jupiter after 405 days on its way to Pluto. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=37845 | 1,042,451 |
2,051,759 | Although ring spot is currently only a minor disease with little to no known impact on crop yield, with the changing climate, worsening of plant diseases may occur in the near future. Some reports show that on occasion "L. sacchari" can cause leaf blight in sugarcane seedlings, which can cause water stress and other symptoms which are more likely to affect yield. In general, climate change is capable of turning any minor disease into a major one and can greatly affect communities which rely on particular crops for consumption or income purposes. In 1926, ring spot caused growth retardation on the island of Oahu and was responsible for serious outbreaks in susceptible varieties in multiple other tropical regions. Therefore, there is a need to study "L. sacchari" and other seemingly minor plant pathogens before they become dangerous and have larger and more devastating effects on environmental and human ecology. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11128225 | 2,050,578 |
1,274,044 | Oliphant began research using the klystron, a device introduced by Russell and Sigurd Varian between 1937 and 1939, and the only system known to efficiently generate microwaves. Klystrons of the era were very low-power devices, and Oliphant's efforts were primarily directed to greatly increasing their output. If this were successful, it created a secondary problem; the klystron was an amplifier only, so a low-power source signal was needed for it to amplify. Oliphant put Randall and Harry Boot on this issue of producing a microwave oscillator, asking them to explore miniature Barkhausen–Kurz tubes for this role, a design already used for UHF systems. Their work quickly demonstrated that these offered no improvement in the microwave range. The klystron effort soon plateaued with a device that could generate about 400 watts of microwave power, enough for testing purposes, but far short of the multi-kilowatt systems that would be required for a practical radar system. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30859641 | 1,273,352 |
534,810 | Massachusetts Institute of Technology's intercollegiate sports teams, called the MIT Engineers, compete mostly in NCAA Division III. It has won 22 Team National Championships, 42 Individual National Championships. MIT is the all-time Division III leader in producing Academic All-Americas (302) and rank second across all NCAA Divisions. MIT Athletes won 13 Elite 90 awards and ranks first among NCAA Division III programs, and third among all divisions. Most of the school's sports compete in the New England Women's and Men's Athletic Conference (NEWMAC), with sports not sponsored by the NEWMAC housed in several other conferences. Men's volleyball competes in the single-sport United Volleyball Conference. One MIT sport, women's rowing, competes in Division I in the Eastern Association of Women's Rowing Colleges (EAWRC). Men's water polo, a sport in which the NCAA holds a single national championship for all three of its divisions, competes in the Collegiate Water Polo Association (CWPA) alongside Division I and Division II members. Three sports compete outside NCAA governance: men's rowing competes in the Eastern Association of Rowing Colleges (EARC), sailing in the New England Intercollegiate Sailing Association of ICSA and squash in the College Squash Association. In April 2009, budget cuts led to MIT's eliminating eight of its 41 sports, including the mixed men's and women's teams in alpine skiing and pistol; separate teams for men and women in ice hockey and gymnastics; and men's programs in golf and wrestling. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=33145029 | 534,531 |
1,369,463 | As a result of the oil price increases since 2003, the number of major mining, upgrading and thermal in-situ projects has grown to some 46 existing and proposed projects, encompassing 135 project expansion phases in various stages of execution. Estimates of capital expenditures to construct all announced projects over the period 2006 to 2015 total $125 billion. According to a Statistics Canada 2006 report, this extremely high level of activity has caused a severe labor shortage in Alberta and driven unemployment rates to their lowest level in history – the lowest of all 10 Canadian provinces and 50 U.S. states. This is the main factor limiting growth of oil sands production in the WCSB. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6612922 | 1,368,707 |
1,655,427 | Bloch's work focuses on the investigation of quantum many-body system using ultracold atoms stored in optical lattice potentials. Among other things, he is known for the realization of a quantum phase transition from a superfluid to a Mott insulator, in which ultracold atoms were brought into the regime of strong correlations for the first time, thereby allowing one to mimic the behaviour strongly correlated materials. The experimental ideas were based on a theoretical proposal by Peter Zoller and Ignacio Cirac. His other works includes the observation of a Tonks–Girardeau gas of strongly interacting bosons in one dimensions, the detection of collapses and revivals of the wavefunction of a Bose–Einstein condensate because of interactions, and the use of quantum noise correlations to observe Hanbury-Brown and Twiss bunching and antibunching for bosonic and fermionic atoms (simultaneously with the group of Alain Aspect). More recently, his research team was able to realize single-atom resolved imaging and addressing of ultracold atoms held in an optical lattice. Much of hiss related work was carried out in the group of Markus Greiner. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=37752671 | 1,654,495 |
144,717 | Moseley was determined to test Van den Broek's hypothesis. After a year of investigation of the Fraunhofer lines of various elements, he found a relationship between the X-ray wavelength of an element and its atomic number. With this, Moseley obtained the first accurate measurements of atomic numbers and determined an absolute sequence to the elements, allowing him to restructure the periodic table. Moseley's research immediately resolved discrepancies between atomic weight and chemical properties, where sequencing strictly by atomic weight would result in groups with inconsistent chemical properties. For example, his measurements of X-ray wavelengths enabled him to correctly place argon ("Z" = 18) before potassium ("Z" = 19), cobalt ("Z" = 27) before nickel ("Z" = 28), as well as tellurium ("Z" = 52) before iodine ("Z" = 53), in line with periodic trends. The determination of atomic numbers also clarified the order of chemically similar rare-earth elements; it was also used to confirm that Georges Urbain's claimed discovery of a new rare-earth element (celtium) was invalid, earning Moseley acclamation for this technique. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=619795 | 144,659 |
1,050,760 | The Catskill Formation (Upper Devonian, Famennian Stage), located in Tioga County, Pennsylvania, is the site of a large sample of small individuals of "Bothriolepis". The sample was collected from a series of rock slabs that consisted of partial or complete, articulated, external skeletons. More than two hundred individuals were found packed closely together with little to no overlap. From this sample, much information regarding characteristics of juvenile "Bothriolepis" can be determined. A morphometric study performed by Jason Downs and co-authors highlights certain characteristics that indicate juvenility in "Bothriolepis", including a moderately large head and moderately large orbital fenestra—both of which are characteristics also recognized by Erik Stensio in 1948 in the smallest "B. canadensis" individuals. Several other features that Stensio marked indicative of young individuals can also be seen exhibited in the Catskill sample. These features include "delicate dermal bones with ornament consisting of continuous anastomosing ridges rather than tubercles, a dorsal trunk shield narrower than long and with a continuous and pronounced dorsal median ridge, and a pre-median plate that is wider than it is long". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4467052 | 1,050,214 |
1,677,185 | Coccolithophores produce calcite plates termed coccoliths which together cover the entire cell surface forming the coccosphere. The coccoliths are formed using the intracellular strategy where the plates are formed in a coccoliths vesicle, but the product forming within the vesicle varies between the haploid and diploid phases. A coccolithophore in the haploid phase will produce what is called a holococcolith, while one in the diploid phase will produce heterococcoliths. Holococcoliths are small calcite crystals held together in an organic matrix, while heterococcoliths are arrays are larger, more complex calcite crystals. These are often formed over a pre-existing template, giving each plate its particular structure and forming complex designs. Each coccolithophore is a cell surrounded by the exoskeleton coccosphere, but there exists a wide range of sizes, shapes and architectures between different cells. Advantages of these plates may include protection against infection by viruses and bacteria, as well as protection from grazing zooplankton. The calcium carbonate exoskeleton enhances the amount of light the coccolithophore can uptake, increasing the level of photosynthesis. Finally, the coccoliths protect the phytoplankton from photodamage by UV light from the sun. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=55617041 | 1,676,243 |
1,621,153 | Northwestern remained a staunchly conservative institution throughout its history and into the 1950s and 1960s; the University of Chicago often referred to its uptown rival as "Country Club U". A 1952 visit by Senator Joseph McCarthy was met by little protest and much acclaim from both the student body and faculty. However, Northwestern students became increasingly politically active and engaged in protests and strikes throughout the 1960s and 1970s. A chapter of Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) was founded in 1965. Demonstrations mainly stemmed from student opposition to the Vietnam War but also included protests against the draft, Navy ROTC, defense industry corporations, and the Nixon administration as well as supporting affirmative action, environmentalism, women's rights, and other instances of New Left social activism. Despite the size of the protests, the student body was split between professionally oriented and traditional student body and activists. Some fraternities were known to antagonize protesters by playing patriotic music and jeering them from their houses. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10414221 | 1,620,238 |
491,542 | Certain diseases can cause excessive accumulations of fluid in areas of the body such as the abdomen (ascites) or the pleural space around the lungs (pleural effusion) or the pericardial space around the heart. An estimate of the concentration of protein in such fluids can narrow the differential diagnosis and assist the clinician in establishing a diagnosis. For example, fluid accumulations due to congestive heart failure and liver failure (cirrhosis) are typically lower in protein content and are called transudates whereas fluid accumulations due to cancer and tuberculosis are typically higher in protein content and are called exudates. The Rivalta Test is a simple, inexpensive method that can be used in resource-limited settings to differentiate a transudate from an exudate. It is a simple, inexpensive method that does not require special laboratory equipment and can be easily performed in private practice. The test was originally developed by the Italian researcher Rivalta around 1900 and was used to differentiate transudates and exudates in human patients. It is also useful in cats to differentiate between effusions due to feline infectious peritonitis (FIP) and effusions caused by other diseases. Not only the high protein content, but high concentrations of fibrinogen and inflammatory mediators lead to a positive reaction. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23351927 | 491,288 |
869,866 | Attempts at man-powered flight still persisted. Paucton's rotorcraft was man-powered, while another approach, also originally studied by da Vinci, was the use of flap valves. The flap valve is a simple hinged flap over a hole in the wing. In one direction it opens to allow air through and in the other it closes to allow an increased pressure difference. An early example was designed by Bauer in 1764. Later in 1808, Jacob Degen built an ornithopter with flap valves, in which the pilot stood on a rigid frame and worked the wings with a movable horizontal bar. His 1809 attempt at flight failed, so he then added a small hydrogen balloon and the combination achieved some short hops. Popular illustrations of the day depicted his machine without the balloon, leading to confusion as to what had actually flown. In 1811, Albrecht Berblinger built an ornithopter based on Degen's design but omitted the balloon, plunging instead into the Danube. The fiasco did have an upside: George Cayley, also taken in by the illustrations, was spurred to publish his findings to date "for the sake of giving a little more dignity to a subject bordering upon the ludicrous in public estimation", and the modern era of aviation was born. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1607990 | 869,406 |
1,186,912 | After the use of electric propulsion in submarine construction in the course of the development of the Type XXI and XXIII submarines, the designs of Types XVII, XVIII and XXII by Walterwerke were not pursued any further. When it turned out that the XXI boats were unsuitable for the tactical requirements of the convoy raids, the Kiel family company saw the opportunity for a "Walter U-boat" again and on October 12, 1943 presented a concept with the designation XXVIA . On March 28 of the following year, the Commander-in-Chief of the Navy, Karl Dönitz, decided to have the boat built under the type designation XXVIW (for Walter). A week later, the naval war command formulated the requirements that the new type of boat had to meet, which was now given the designation XXVI. Then the Ingenieurbüro Glückauf (IBG) was entrusted with the final design and instructed to also prepare the construction of the boats. The IBG designed the production of the Type XXVI boats in the so-called Modular design. For this purpose, the construction of 8 raw sections of the respective boat should take place in a steel construction company and, based on this, the individual sections should then be manufactured at specialized submarine shipyards. Finally, these sections were to be delivered to a large shipyard and assembled there to form a submarine. Type XXVI was designed as a deep-sea submarine with Walter propulsion, which should accelerate it to an underwater speed of . It would have had a crew of three officers and 30 men. On May 26th, the construction contract for 100 boats of this type was given to the Schichau shipyard in Gdansk, which already had relevant experience with section building through the manufacture of the Type XXI boats. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=68424049 | 1,186,283 |
1,981,368 | The symptoms of MEITL are generally non-specific. The diagnosis depends on endoscopic findings in the GI tract, histological findings on biopsied specimens from involved areas of the GI tract, evidence of disease involvement outside of the GI tract, and the differentiation of MEITL from other GI tract lymphomas and benign lymphoproliferative diseases. Endoscopy typically shows multiple raised and/or ulcerated lesions involving the jejunum or ileum, and less commonly, the duodenum, stomach, or colon. These lesions may occur at multiple sites or spread throughout large areas of the GI tract. Biopsied tissues show abnormally broad intestinal villi caused by the infiltration of sheets of uniformly-sized lymphocytes. These lymphocytes may also infiltrate and disrupt the architecture of nearby intestinal crypts and the epithelial lining. Unlike celiac disease-associated EATL, the lesions usually have little evidence of inflammatory cells (particularly lymphoplasmacytoid cells, i.e. cells showing a mixture of B cell and plasma cell morphological features) or of infiltration of the epithelium lining by the types of lymphocytes seen in celiac disease. The lymphocytes in these lesions are T cells expressing the marker molecules and genetic abnormalities given in the above Pathophysiology section. CT scans commonly reveal involvement of mesenteric lymph nodes. Advanced cases have involvement of the bone marrow and/or dissemination into other organs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=60219360 | 1,980,229 |
1,851,564 | Prior to the 1950s, competitive swimmers relied on the sound of a starting pistol to start their races and mechanical stopwatches to record their times at the end of a race. A limitation of analog timekeeping was the technology's inability to reliably record times accurately below one tenth (0.1) of a second. In 1967, the Omega company of Switzerland developed the first electronic timing system for swimming that attempted to coordinate the physical the recorded time. This new system placed contact pads (known as Touchpad) in each lane of the pool, calibrated in such a fashion that the incidental water movement of the competitors or wave action did not trigger the pad sensors; the pad was only activated by the touch of the swimmer at the end of the race. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22707753 | 1,850,503 |
1,676,977 | When auditing software, every critical component should be audited separately and together with the entire program. It is a good idea to search for high-risk vulnerabilities first and work down to low-risk vulnerabilities. Vulnerabilities in between high-risk and low-risk generally exist depending on the situation and how the source code in question is being used. Application penetration testing tries to identify vulnerabilities in software by launching as many known attack techniques as possible on likely access points in an attempt to bring down the application. This is a common auditing method and can be used to find out if any specific vulnerabilities exist, but not where they are in the source code. Some claim that end-of-cycle audit methods tend to overwhelm developers, ultimately leaving the team with a long list of known problems, but little actual improvement; in these cases, an in-line auditing approach is recommended as an alternative. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4692983 | 1,676,035 |
1,236,976 | In 1982 Smirnov "et al." reported similar results to that achieved by Lin in 1978. Using multimode phosphosilicate fibres pumped at 0.53 and 1.06 μm, they saw the normal Stokes components and a spectrum which extended from the ultraviolet to the near infrared. They calculated that the spectral broadening due to self-phase modulation should have been 910 cm, but their continuum was greater than 3000 cm. They concluded that "an optical continuum cannot be explained by self-phase modulation alone." They continued by pointing out the difficulties of phase-matching over long lengths of fibre to maintain four wave mixing, and reported an unusual damage mechanism (with hindsight this would probably be considered a very short fibre fuse). They note a much earlier suggestion by Loy and Shen that if the nanosecond pulses consisted of sub-nanosecond spikes in a nanosecond envelope, it would explain the broad continuum. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8736971 | 1,236,312 |
492,012 | Of interest is the hot ionized medium (HIM) consisting of a coronal cloud ejection from star surfaces at 10-10 K which emits X-rays. The ISM is turbulent and full of structure on all spatial scales. Stars are born deep inside large complexes of molecular clouds, typically a few parsecs in size. During their lives and deaths, stars interact physically with the ISM. Stellar winds from young clusters of stars (often with giant or supergiant HII regions surrounding them) and shock waves created by supernovae inject enormous amounts of energy into their surroundings, which leads to hypersonic turbulence. The resultant structures are stellar wind bubbles and superbubbles of hot gas. The Sun is currently traveling through the Local Interstellar Cloud, a denser region in the low-density Local Bubble. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44062 | 491,758 |
1,709,247 | In neurophysiology, a dendritic spike refers to an action potential generated in the dendrite of a neuron. Dendrites are branched extensions of a neuron. They receive electrical signals emitted from projecting neurons and transfer these signals to the cell body, or soma. Dendritic signaling has traditionally been viewed as a passive mode of electrical signaling. Unlike its axon counterpart which can generate signals through action potentials, dendrites were believed to only have the ability to propagate electrical signals by physical means: changes in conductance, length, cross sectional area, etc. However, the existence of dendritic spikes was proposed and demonstrated by W. Alden Spencer, Eric Kandel, Rodolfo Llinás and coworkers in the 1960s and a large body of evidence now makes it clear that dendrites are active neuronal structures. Dendrites contain voltage-gated ion channels giving them the ability to generate action potentials. Dendritic spikes have been recorded in numerous types of neurons in the brain and are thought to have great implications in neuronal communication, memory, and learning. They are one of the major factors in long-term potentiation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20512936 | 1,708,288 |
1,610,718 | He has been the recipient of grants from the Fulbright Foundation, the National Endowment for the Humanities, the Japanese Ministry of Education, the Japan Foundation, the American Council of Learned Societies, the Chiang Ching-kuo Foundation, and the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. He has also held a number of visiting professorships, including one year at the Research Institute in the Humanities of Kyoto University (1996-1997) and the two-year Mellon Visiting Professor in East Asian History at the School of Historical Studies, Institute for Advanced Study (2001-2003) in Princeton, New Jersey, as well as shorter stints at the British Inter-University China Centre or BICC (2007), Kansai University in Osaka, Japan (2008), and Hebrew University in Jerusalem (summers 2014, 2016). Since 2010, he has been an Honorary Senior Research Fellow at the Research Centre for Translation, Chinese University of Hong Kong. He has delivered a number of named lectures, including the 2007 Edwin O. Reischauer Lectures | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=40422645 | 1,609,813 |
200,028 | When parity was broken in weak interactions by Chien-Shiung Wu in her experiment, a series of discoveries were created thereafter. The interaction of these particles by scattering and decay provided a key to new fundamental quantum theories. Murray Gell-Mann and Yuval Ne'eman brought some order to these new particles by classifying them according to certain qualities, beginning with what Gell-Mann referred to as the "Eightfold Way". While its further development, the quark model, at first seemed inadequate to describe strong nuclear forces, allowing the temporary rise of competing theories such as the S-Matrix, the establishment of quantum chromodynamics in the 1970s finalized a set of fundamental and exchange particles, which allowed for the establishment of a "standard model" based on the mathematics of gauge invariance, which successfully described all forces except for gravitation, and which remains generally accepted within its domain of application. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13758 | 199,925 |
1,667,765 | Consequently, potential Israeli pilots are identified prior to reporting for national service at age 18, based on factors such as high grades in school and top scores on standardized tests, excellent physical condition and high technical aptitude. Those who meet these and other criteria are invited to participate in a six-day "gibush" (cohesion), a selection phase involving physical, mental, and sociometric challenges. Recruits are screened not only for their ability to perform the tasks assigned, but for their attitude in performing them —such as how they take hardships and unexpected difficulties, how well they work in groups and how they approach problem solving and disaster management situations. As many as 50% percent of those who commence the "gibush" will be dropped from further consideration at its conclusion. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31757228 | 1,666,826 |
47,192 | On May 27, 2019, at Computex in Taipei, AMD launched its third generation Ryzen processors which use AMD's Zen 2 architecture. For this generation's microarchitectures, Ryzen uses "Matisse", while Threadripper uses "Castle Peak". The chiplet design separates the CPU cores, fabricated on TSMC's 7FF process, and the I/O, fabricated on GlobalFoundries' 12LP process, and connects them via Infinity Fabric. The Ryzen 3000 series uses the AM4 socket similar to earlier models and is the first CPU to offer PCI Express 4.0 (PCIe) connectivity. The new architecture offers a 15% instruction-per-clock (IPC) uplift and a reduction in energy usage. Other improvements include a doubling of the L3 cache size, a re-optimized L1 instruction cache, a larger micro-operations cache, double the floating point performance, improved branch prediction, and better instruction pre-fetching. The 6-, 8- and 12-core CPUs became generally available on July 7, 2019, and 24-core processors were launched in November. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=52580774 | 47,173 |
213,248 | Pioneering structural studies in the 1980s by Aaron Klug's group provided the first evidence that an octamer of histone proteins wraps DNA around itself in about 1.7 turns of a left-handed superhelix. In 1997 the first near atomic resolution crystal structure of the nucleosome was solved by the Richmond group, showing the most important details of the particle. The human alpha satellite palindromic DNA critical to achieving the 1997 nucleosome crystal structure was developed by the Bunick group at Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Tennessee. The structures of over 20 different nucleosome core particles have been solved to date, including those containing histone variants and histones from different species. The structure of the nucleosome core particle is remarkably conserved, and even a change of over 100 residues between frog and yeast histones results in electron density maps with an overall root mean square deviation of only 1.6Å. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21843 | 213,140 |
280,120 | Advantages to the MMSE include requiring no specialized equipment or training for administration, and has both validity and reliability for the diagnosis and longitudinal assessment of Alzheimer's disease. Due to its short administration period and ease of use, it is useful for cognitive assessment in the clinician's office space or at the bedside. Disadvantages to the utilization of the MMSE is that it is affected by demographic factors; age and education exert the greatest effect. The most frequently noted disadvantage of the MMSE relates to its lack of sensitivity to mild cognitive impairment and its failure to adequately discriminate patients with mild Alzheimer's disease from normal patients. The MMSE has also received criticism regarding its insensitivity to progressive changes occurring with severe Alzheimer's disease. The content of the MMSE is highly verbal, lacking sufficient items to adequately measure visuospatial and/or constructional praxis. Hence, its utility in detecting impairment caused by focal lesions is uncertain. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1585251 | 279,969 |
116,225 | Chain reactions do not occur in RTGs. Heat is produced through spontaneous radioactive decay at a non-adjustable and steadily decreasing rate that depends only on the amount of fuel isotope and its half-life. In an RTG, heat generation cannot be varied with demand or shut off when not needed and it is not possible to save more energy for later by reducing the power consumption. Therefore, auxiliary power supplies (such as rechargeable batteries) may be needed to meet peak demand, and adequate cooling must be provided at all times including the pre-launch and early flight phases of a space mission. While spectacular failures like a nuclear meltdown or explosion are impossible with an RTG, still there is a risk of radioactive contamination if the rocket explodes, or the device reenters the atmosphere and disintegrates. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=211485 | 116,180 |
737,007 | Although variant angina has been documented in between 2% to 10% of angina patients, it can be overlooked by cardiologists who stop further evaluations after ruling out typical angina. Individuals who develop cardiac chest pain are generally treated empirically as an "acute coronary syndrome", and are immediately tested for elevations in their blood levels of enzymes such as creatine kinase isoenzymes or troponin that are markers for cardiac damage. They are also tested by ECG which may suggest variant angina if it shows elevations in the ST segment or an elevated ST segment plus a widening of the R wave during symptoms that are triggered by a provocative agent (e.g. ergonovine or acetylcholine). The electrocardiogram may show depressions rather than elevations in ST segments but in all diagnosable cases clinical symptoms should be promptly relieved and ECG changes should be promptly reversed by rapidly acting sublingual or intravenous nitroglycerin. However, the gold standard for diagnosing variant angina is to visualize coronary arteries by angiography before and after injection of a provocative agent such as ergonovine, methylergonovine or acetylcholine to precipitate an attack of vasospasm. A positive test to these inducing agents is defined as a ≥90% (some experts require lesser, e.g. ≥70%) constriction of involved arteries. Typically, these constrictions are fully reversed by rapidly acting nitroglycerin. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3213678 | 736,619 |
1,853,691 | The second day was more of the same, Eaton's speed over the 110 hurdles extended his lead to 69 points over Hardee, but considering how much faster Eaton normally is vs Hardee, he didn't extend the lead enough. Kasyanov was the best of the rest now almost 170 points behind the leaders. The discus was the reversal of fortunes. Hardee threw over 3 and a half metres further and took an 8-point lead. In the pole vault, Eaton's 4.60 was the poorest of the top 16, losing 20 cm to Hardee, while Leonel Suárez vaulted 5.00 to slide into third, barely ahead of Drozdov. In the javelin, Eaton only managed a 55.16, while Hardee went 68.99 and Suárez bettered that with 69.12 to move into second place by 32 points. With a 244-point lead, Hardee was not going to be caught from behind. It was predictable that Suárez needed to finish within 4.8 seconds of Eaton to hold on to silver. With Suárez' personal best in the 1500m at around 4:16, and Eaton's best around 4:20, it looked like a foregone conclusion. But Eaton went out aggressively, taking the lead on the final lap and powering close to a 65-second last lap to get a personal best 4:18.94. Eaton beat Suárez by 5.22 seconds to edge 4 points ahead and take the silver medal. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=32840850 | 1,852,629 |
1,562,906 | Collegiate wrestlers in the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s as usual made strides in the international styles, but were more well known for their scholastic and collegiate wrestling achievements. These wrestlers include Dan Gable, who won the Olympic gold medal in 1972 and was the Olympic freestyle coach in 1984, but was more famous for his 15 team championships as coach at the University of Iowa. John Smith also won gold medals at the Goodwill Games against a Soviet in Moscow and at the Olympic Games in 1988 and 1992. He is best known however for his two NCAA championships and his 90 straight victories for Oklahoma State University, where he later became a championship-winning coach. Ed and Lou Banach together won five individual NCAA championships for Iowa and were able to win gold medals at the 1984 Olympics. Wade Schalles of Clarion University earned a record of 821 victories, with 530 falls, which earned him a place in the Guinness Book of World Records as amateur wrestling's "all-time winning and pinning leader." Other high-achieving collegiate wrestlers who have had national, international, and Olympic wrestling championship careers include Robin Reed, Kenny Monday, Cael Sanderson, Temoer Terry, Bruce Baumgartner, and Kurt Angle (who would also become a major star in professional wrestling). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13129334 | 1,562,019 |
1,715,198 | Nearly all important molecules in the body are proteins. Proteins work by each having a specific sequence of amino acids and a specific shape. Determining the order of amino acids is relatively simple. Finding the shape requires the use of x-ray crystallography and is anything but easy. It took a team of three researchers at Harvard, Don Wiley, Jack Strominger, and Pamela Bjorkman, eight years to ferret out the structure of the HLA protein. They worked specifically with HLA-A*02. Bjorkman did the majority of the leg work and in the seven years managed to piece together the structure of 90% of the protein. That last 10% was elusive though. It took another year of work to finally unveil the complete structure of HLA-A*02. They completed their work in the spring of 1987, discovering that the final 10% made a "cup" (of sorts) located on top of the molecule. It was the perfect size to hold peptides. Other researchers had previously determined that T-Cells can recognize cells infected with a virus, cells injected with a single protein from a virus, and even cells injected with pieces of protein from a virus. The discovery of the HLA protein structure made it starkly clear that the HLA proteins hold viral peptides in their binding groove. But the research team from Harvard wasn't done. They also observed that there was clearly a peptide in the binding groove of the HLA molecules they used to determine the shape. However, the cells they had extracted the protein from were definitely not infected by any disease causing viruses. The conclusion they made and the conclusion that has stuck to this day, is that HLA molecules can bind both self, and non-self peptides. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18877437 | 1,714,231 |
974,846 | The RCA scan converter operated on an optical conversion principle. The conversion process started when the signal was sent to a high-quality video monitor, where a conventional RCA TK-22 television camera—using the NTSC broadcast standard of 525 scanned lines interlaced at 30 fps—merely re-photographed its screen. The monitor had persistent phosphors that acted as a primitive framebuffer. An analog disk recorder, based on the Ampex HS-100 model, was used to record the first field from the camera. It then fed that field, and an appropriately time-delayed copy of the first field, to the NTSC Field Interlace Switch (encoder). The combined original and copied fields created the first full 525-line interlaced frame and the signal was then sent to Houston. The disk recorder repeated this sequence five more times, until the camera imaged the next SSTV frame. The converter then repeated the whole process with each new frame downloaded from space in real time. In this way, the RCA converter produced the extra 20 frames per second needed to produce flicker-free images to the world's television broadcasters. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6549167 | 974,335 |
17,193 | In June 2015, a study by the USAF's Scientific Advisory Board identified several improvements for operating the Reaper in contested airspace; adding readily available sensors, weapons, and threat detection and countermeasures could increase situational awareness and enable riskier deployments. Suggestions included a radar warning receiver (RWR) to know when it's being targeted, air-to-air and miniature air-to-ground weapons, manned-unmanned teaming, multi-UAV control, automatic take-offs and landings, and precision navigation and timing systems to fly in GPS-denied areas. Another idea was redesigned ground control stations with user-friendly video game-like controllers and touchscreen maps to access data without overwhelming operators. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4769988 | 17,188 |
648,521 | In contrast to seeing primitive grandiosity or idealization as a representation of a defensive retreat from reality, Heinz Kohut regards narcissistic illusions within the analytic situation as representations of the patient's attempt to establish crucial developmental opportunities. These narcissistic illusions thus give an opportunity for revitalization of the self. Therefore, Heinz Kohut advocates that the analyst's position within treatment should be one where a full narcissistic transference should be encouraged instead of being challenged. To establish this, the analyst should be able to show empathic comprehension, which entails a receptivity to the narcissistic illusions and an avoidance at all costs of anything which would challenge them or suggest they are unrealistic. Heinz Kohut used the concepts of narcissistic transference and self-object needs. He also stressed the significance of infantilism and what appear to be excessive demands on the analyst and everyone else. Rather than instinctual wishes to be renounced, they are missed developmental needs to be warmly received and understood. The patient is groping toward self-cure, by trying to extract from others what was missing early in his development. Heinz Kohut feels the patient knows what he needs, regardless of what the analyst may think he knows. He stresses the importance of hopes in maturity and throughout development. There is an enduring need for ideals and idealization that vitalizes self experience. In his work with narcissistic patients, the defining feature of Heinz Kohut's psychoanalytic methodology became therefore empathic immersion (or vicarious inspection), whereby he tried to put himself in his patient's shoes. This view is certainly in contrast with Freud's early view of the analyzability of narcissistic defenses as discussed above. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1042977 | 648,180 |
1,409,807 | This bandwidth is also known as the terahertz gap because it is noticeably underutilized. This is because terahertz waves are electromagnetic waves with frequencies higher than microwaves but lower than infrared radiation and visible light. These characteristics mean that it is difficult to influence terahertz radiation with conventional electronic components and devices. Electronics technology controls the flow of electrons, and is well developed for microwaves and radio frequencies. Likewise, the terahertz gap also borders optical or photonic wavelengths; the infrared, visible, and ultraviolet ranges (or spectrums), where well developed lens technologies also exist. However, the terahertz wavelength, or frequency range, appears to be useful for security screening, medical imaging, wireless communications systems, non-destructive evaluation, and chemical identification, as well as submillimeter astronomy. Finally, as a non-ionizing radiation it does not have the risks inherent in X-ray screening. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=24386708 | 1,409,015 |
1,559,775 | Citing a need to avoid confusion, distinguish itself from the University of Pennsylvania, and return to its roots by identifying itself with the city, the Western University of Pennsylvania, by act of the state legislature, was renamed the University of Pittsburgh in 1908. During this time, Pitt had also outgrown its accommodations on the North Side of Pittsburgh and its departments had been scattered throughout the city for years. The Department of Medicine was in West Penn Hospital, the departments of Dentistry and Pharmacy were in a building on a hilltop at Pride and Bluff Streets, and the Law School was in the former University building at Ross and Diamond Streets after having moved from the Orphan's Court in the Old Allegheny County Court House. To consolidate its components on one campus, WUP bought of land in December 1907 in what is now the Oakland neighborhood of Pittsburgh and began relocating departments there by 1909. The initial campus layout plan came from the winning submission from a national architectural contest that incorporated a Greek Acropolis design by Henry Hornbostel for 30 buildings. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13999007 | 1,558,889 |
81,462 | Hyneman and Savage have appeared on numerous entertainment programs, such as "Good Morning America", the "Late Show with David Letterman", NPR's news program "All Things Considered", the syndicated radio "Bob and Tom Show", and in the movie "The Darwin Awards" (as two military surplus vendors who sold a JATO rocket to the main character). "Skeptic" magazine's Daniel Loxton interviewed the duo in a 2005 article titled "MythBusters Exposed". Hyneman and Savage spoke at the annual convention of the National Science Teachers Association in March 2006, and the California Science Teachers Association named them honorary lifetime members in October 2006. In 2009, they were the featured keynote speakers at RSA Conference. They also are occasionally interviewed for articles by "Popular Mechanics" and are featured in that magazine's September 2009 issue. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=627304 | 81,429 |
969,146 | The International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation (ILCOR) was formed in 1992 to coordinate the efforts of resuscitation worldwide. The ILCOR representatives come from various countries such as the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and from the European, Asian, and African continents. In 2000, the committee published the first resuscitation guideline. In 2005, the committee published International Consensus on Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and Emergency Cardiovascular Care (ECC) Science with Treatment Recommendations. Since 2010, the committee has provided materials for regional resuscitation providers such as European Resuscitation Council and American Heart Association to write their own guidelines. Since 2015, ILCOR has used a new methodology called Consensus on Science with Treatment Recommendations (COSTR) to evaluate the quality of latest evidence available and to reach a conclusion on the best treatments available in resuscitation. Using the COSTR methodology, ILCOR also started to conduct yearly reviews and published updates on the latest evidence in resuscitation, changing it from the previous 5-yearly review on resuscitation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=581687 | 968,636 |
1,205,107 | Joint Cross Domain eXchange (JCDX) is another example of an MLS capability currently on the UCDMO baseline. JCDX is the only Department of Defense (DoD), Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) accredited Multilevel Security (MLS) Command, Control, Communication, Computers and Intelligence (C4I) system that provides near real-time intelligence and warning support to theater and forward deployed tactical commanders. The JCDX architecture is comprehensively integrated with a high assurance Protection Level Four (PL4) secure operating system, utilizing data labeling to disseminate near real-time data information on force activities and potential terrorist threats on and around the world's oceans. It is installed at locations in United States and Allied partner countries where it is capable of providing data from Top Secret/SCI down to Secret-Releasable levels, all on a single platform. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1011379 | 1,204,462 |
777,437 | Ash ponds, a type of surface impoundment, are a widely used treatment technology at coal-fired plants. These ponds use gravity to settle out large particulates (measured as total suspended solids) from power plant wastewater. This technology does not treat dissolved pollutants. Power stations use additional technologies to control pollutants, depending on the particular wastestream in the plant. These include dry ash handling, closed-loop ash recycling, chemical precipitation, biological treatment (such as an activated sludge process), membrane systems, and evaporation-crystallization systems. Technological advancements in ion-exchange membranes and electrodialysis systems has enabled high efficiency treatment of flue-gas desulfurization wastewater to meet recent EPA discharge limits. The treatment approach is similar for other highly scaling industrial wastewaters. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1558218 | 777,020 |
301,349 | Pure spherical entry vehicles were used in the early Soviet Vostok and Voskhod capsules and in Soviet Mars and Venera descent vehicles. The Apollo command module used a spherical section forebody heat shield with a converging conical afterbody. It flew a lifting entry with a hypersonic trim angle of attack of −27° (0° is blunt-end first) to yield an average L/D (lift-to-drag ratio) of 0.368. The resultant lift achieved a measure of cross-range control by offsetting the vehicle's center of mass from its axis of symmetry, allowing the lift force to be directed left or right by rolling the capsule on its longitudinal axis. Other examples of the spherical section geometry in crewed capsules are Soyuz/Zond, Gemini, and Mercury. Even these small amounts of lift allow trajectories that have very significant effects on peak g-force, reducing it from 8–9 g for a purely ballistic (slowed only by drag) trajectory to 4–5 g, as well as greatly reducing the peak reentry heat. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=45294 | 301,188 |
2,189,645 | The ABR activator of RhoGEF and GTPase, also symbolized as ABR, gene is located on Chromosome 11 and has a reported 13 alternatively spliced transcript variants. This gene is found to have ubiquitous expression within 23 human tissues, including the heart and brain. The protein encoded by ABR shares homology with the Breakpoint Cluster Region (BCR) gene located on chromosome 22 and has shown to share similar protein functions. Additionally, the protein encoded by this gene contains a GTPase-activating protein domain, a domain found in members of the Rho family of GTP-binding proteins. The ABR gene is an inhibitor of ras-related C3 botulinum toxin substrate 1 (RAC1), a protein found to influence cell growth, motility of the cell, and maintain adhesion to neighboring epithelial cells. Recent papers suggest ABR has tumor suppressor properties in Leukemia because of its role as a RAC1 inhibitor and is being researched as a potential therapy treatment in Leukemia patients. Other studies suggest ABR plays an important role in vestibular morphogenesis. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=57489094 | 2,188,396 |
169,310 | Cavendish wrote papers on electrical topics for the Royal Society but the bulk of his electrical experiments did not become known until they were collected and published by James Clerk Maxwell a century later, in 1879, long after other scientists had been credited with the same results. Cavendish's electrical papers from the "Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London" have been reprinted, together with most of his electrical manuscripts, in "The Scientific Papers of the Honourable Henry Cavendish, F.R.S." (1921). According to the 1911 edition of Encyclopædia Britannica, among Cavendish's discoveries were the concept of electric potential (which he called the "degree of electrification"), an early unit of capacitance (that of a sphere one inch in diameter), the formula for the capacitance of a plate capacitor, the concept of the dielectric constant of a material, the relationship between electric potential and current (now called Ohm's Law) (1781), laws for the division of current in parallel circuits (now attributed to Charles Wheatstone), and the inverse square law of variation of electric force with distance, now called Coulomb's Law. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=102338 | 169,220 |
220,263 | The association of exposure to radiation and cancer had been observed as early as 1902, six years after the discovery of X-ray by Wilhelm Röntgen and radioactivity by Henri Becquerel. Georgii Nadson and German Filippov were the first who created fungi mutants under ionizing radiation in 1925. The mutagenic property of mutagens was first demonstrated in 1927, when Hermann Muller discovered that x-rays can cause genetic mutations in fruit flies, producing phenotypic mutants as well as observable changes to the chromosomes, visible due to the presence of enlarged "polytene" chromosomes in fruit fly salivary glands. His collaborator Edgar Altenburg also demonstrated the mutational effect of UV radiation in 1928. Muller went on to use x-rays to create Drosophila mutants that he used in his studies of genetics. He also found that X-rays not only mutate genes in fruit flies, but also have effects on the genetic makeup of humans. Similar work by Lewis Stadler also showed the mutational effect of X-rays on barley in 1928, and ultraviolet (UV) radiation on maize in 1936. The effect of sunlight had previously been noted in the nineteenth century where rural outdoor workers and sailors were found to be more prone to skin cancer. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20359 | 220,154 |
2,004,503 | George Eastman from Eastman Kodak came to M.I.T. one day, to enlist Arthur Noyes and Whitney's help. In merging with the American Aristotype company, Eastman needed help to lower costs by making the production of photographic paper less wasteful. Specifically, Eastman saw the need to recover the alcohol and ether vapor that was going to waste in the photographic paper production process. After some weeks, Noyes and Whitney had found a solution. Although the exact details of the solvent recovery process remained as secret, the procedure appeared to have involved collecting the evolved vapors and distilling them back into their constituents after passing them through a certain chemical gel. In July 1899, Noyes and Whitney signed a contract that granted the company full use of the process while paying the two chemists a handsome sum of money, funding half of a laboratory, and giving the two chemists stock from said company. At the time, this crossover between academics and businessmen was uncommon. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6046838 | 2,003,354 |
68,767 | The VLBI radio observations of Sagittarius A* could also be aligned centrally with the NIR images, so the focus of S2's elliptical orbit was found to coincide with the position of Sagittarius A*. From examining the Keplerian orbit of S2, they determined the mass of Sagittarius A* to be solar masses, confined in a volume with a radius no more than 17 light-hours (). Later observations of the star S14 showed the mass of the object to be about 4.1 million solar masses within a volume with radius no larger than 6.25 light-hours (). S175 passed within a similar distance. For comparison, the Schwarzschild radius is . They also determined the distance from Earth to the Galactic Center (the rotational center of the Milky Way), which is important in calibrating astronomical distance scales, as . In November 2004, a team of astronomers reported the discovery of a potential intermediate-mass black hole, referred to as GCIRS 13E, orbiting 3 light-years from Sagittarius A*. This black hole of 1,300 solar masses is within a cluster of seven stars. This observation may add support to the idea that supermassive black holes grow by absorbing nearby smaller black holes and stars. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=840191 | 68,740 |
212,382 | A maximum of eight valence electrons is strict for the Period 2 elements Be, B, C, N, O, and F, as is a maximum of two for H and He and effectively for Li as well. The issue of expansion of the valence shell of third period and heavier main group elements is controversial. A Lewis structure in which a central atom has a valence electron count greater than eight traditionally implies the participation of d orbitals in bonding. However, the consensus opinion is that while they may make a marginal contribution, the participation of d orbitals is unimportant, and the bonding of so-called hypervalent molecules are, for the most part, better explained by charge-separated contributing forms that depict three-center four-electron bonding. Nevertheless, by tradition, expanded octet structures are still commonly drawn for functional groups like sulfoxides, sulfones, and phosphorus ylides, for example. Regarded as a formalism that does not necessarily reflect the true electronic structure, such depictions are preferred by the IUPAC over structures featuring partial bonds, charge separation, or dative bonds. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=271046 | 212,274 |
1,397,243 | Ardor3D began life on September 23, 2008 as a fork from jMonkeyEngine by Joshua Slack and Rikard Herlitz due to what they perceived as irreconcilable issues with naming, provenance, licensing, and community structure in that engine, as well as a desire to back a powerful open-source Java engine with organized corporate support. The first public release came January 2, 2009, with new releases following every few months thereafter. In 2011, Ardor3D was used in the Mars Curiosity mission both by NASA Ames and NASA JPL for visualizing terrain and rover movement. On March 11, 2014, Joshua Slack announced that the project would be abandoned, although the software itself would remain under zlib license and continue to be freely available. However, a subset of Ardor3D called "JogAmp's Ardor3D Continuation" was still actively maintained by Julien Gouesse as of 2014. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1250768 | 1,396,470 |
91,093 | Factorials are used extensively in probability theory, for instance in the Poisson distribution and in the probabilities of random permutations. In computer science, beyond appearing in the analysis of brute-force searches over permutations, factorials arise in the lower bound of formula_30 on the number of comparisons needed to comparison sort a set of formula_1 items, and in the analysis of chained hash tables, where the distribution of keys per cell can be accurately approximated by a Poisson distribution. Moreover, factorials naturally appear in formulae from quantum and statistical physics, where one often considers all the possible permutations of a set of particles. In statistical mechanics, calculations of entropy such as Boltzmann's entropy formula or the Sackur–Tetrode equation must correct the count of microstates by dividing by the factorials of the numbers of each type of indistinguishable particle to avoid the Gibbs paradox. Quantum physics provides the underlying reason for why these corrections are necessary. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10606 | 91,053 |
1,687,875 | The Yugoslav boats served in a coastal and second-line escort role with the Royal Italian Navy () in the Adriatic under their Yugoslav designations, and were fitted with two L/30 anti-aircraft guns in place of their 66 mm guns, but no other significant alterations were made to them. After the Italians capitulated in September 1943, they transferred "T1" back to the KJRM-in-exile in December of that year. "T3" was seized by the Germans at Rijeka on 16 September 1943 and was renamed "TA48". She was commissioned on 15 August 1944, and was used for patrol and escort work in the northern Adriatic. The Germans added to her armament, fitting her with two single anti-aircraft guns in addition to the guns fitted by the Italians, and removing two of her torpedo tubes. There are two versions of how "TA48" was employed. The first version indicates that she was crewed exclusively by Croatian officers and sailors, but remained under German control, and the second states that she was handed over to the Navy of the Independent State of Croatia, but was repossessed by the Germans on 14 December 1944 because they considered the Croatians unreliable. Her complement was also increased to 52 during her German-Croatian service. She was sunk in the port of Trieste by Allied aircraft on 20 February 1945. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=46387997 | 1,686,929 |
211,077 | Between operations, Hahn returned to Berlin, where he was able to slip back to his old laboratory and work with Meitner, continuing with their research. In September 1917 he was one of three officers, disguised in Austrian uniforms, sent to the Isonzo front in Italy to find a suitable location for an attack, utilising newly developed rifled "minenwerfers" that simultaneously hurled hundreds of containers of poison gas onto enemy targets. They selected a site where the Italian trenches were sheltered in a deep valley so that a gas cloud would persist. The following Battle of Caporetto broke the Italian lines, and the Central Powers overran much of northern Italy. In 1918 the German offensive in the west smashed through the Allies' lines after a massive release of gas from their mortars. That summer Hahn was accidentally poisoned by phosgene while testing a new model gas mask. At the end of the war he was in the field in mufti on a secret mission to test a pot that heated and released a cloud of arsenicals. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=46825 | 210,970 |
1,081,034 | In 1913, a US Geological Survey crew headed by Eugene Stebinger and a US National Museum crew headed by Charles Gilmore worked together to excavate the first dinosaur of the formation. Stebinger was the first to identify the Two Medicine Formation and formally described the first fossils in a scientific paper published in 1914. Gilmore returned to the Formation in 1928 and 1935. During this time frame only three species were named and of these only "Styracosaurus ovatus" and "Edmontonia rugosidens" are still regarded as valid. Barnum Brown prospected the formation in 1933, but found nothing significant. Both of their research were interrupted by World War II. In 1977, Trexler reports finding hadrosaur remains west of Choteau, Montana. During the next year baby hadrosaurs were discovered. In 1979, Horner and Makela referred these hadrosaur bones to "Maiasaura peeblesorum". The announcement attracted renewed scientific interest to the formation and many new kinds of dinosaurs were discovered. More nesting sites were discovered later, including the Devil's Coulee site yielding "Hypacrosaurus stebingeri" in southern Alberta in 1987. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4518664 | 1,080,478 |
1,453,125 | Following his post-doctorate, Kaelin set up a laboratory at Dana-Farber in 1993 to continue his research on tumor suppression. He had become interested in Von Hippel–Lindau disease (VHL). VHL tumors, caused by gene mutation, were known to be angiogenic, creating blood vessels that secreted erythropoietin (EPO), a hormone known to be part of the body's mechanic to react to hypoxia, or low oxygen levels in the blood. Kaelin hypothesized that there may be a connection between the formation of VHL tumors and the deficiency of the body to detect oxygen. Kaelin's research found that in VHL subjects, there were genes expressed the formation of a protein critical in the EPO process, but which the mutation suppressed. Kaelin's work aligned with that of Peter J. Ratcliffe and Gregg Semenza who separately had identified a two-part protein, hypoxia-inducible factors (HIF) that was essential to EPO production and which was triggered by oxygen levels in the blood. Kaelin's work found that the VHL protein would help regulate the HIF, and in subjects where the VHL proteins were not present, the HIF would overproduce EPO and lead to cancer. The combined work of Kaelin, Ratcliffe, and Semenza identified the pathway of how cells detect and react to oxygen levels in the blood, and have led to the development of drugs to help patients with anaemia and kidney failure. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=52299158 | 1,452,308 |
1,754,750 | The United States has been at the forefront of the chemical weapons reduction efforts since the late 1960s, when President Richard Nixon imposed a moratorium on the production of chemical weapons in the U.S. In 1979, the first pilot program for chemical weapons destruction was established; the preferred disposal technology commonly used today originated from this program. The first major program to destroy chemical weapons stockpiles in the United States began in 1990, two years before the drafting of an international agreement that called for a halt in production as well as the destruction of existing chemical weapons. The first destruction site was located at Johnston Atoll, just over southwest of Hawaii. Since then two sites have been set up under management of the Department of Defense and six locations managed by the Army, all located within the United States. While there is an almost universal agreement that the elimination of chemical weapons is in the best interest of all mankind, there are many concerns surrounding the destruction operations. Safety of personnel and surrounding communities is a main concern, and this has been addressed in several ways. The pollution produced by the preferred destruction method involving the incineration of the chemical agents and the munitions that contained them was another concern. The program has been incredibly expensive; in the 2011 budget proposal submitted to Congress in February 2010 just over half a billion dollars was allocated for two of the destruction sites. This amount of money would create many benefits for the surrounding communities in the form of both jobs and equipment provided to local cities and counties. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=26503440 | 1,753,760 |
1,569,067 | The Tridactylidae are small members of the Orthoptera, most species being less than 10 mm in length, though some approach 20 mm. They have a wide, but patchy, distribution on all continents but Antarctica. Being so small and inconspicuously coloured, while living in shallow burrows in moist sandy soil, they are not generally familiar to non-entomologists. They have several unusual features, for example, the posterior femora are greatly enlarged, being strongly adapted for leaping; in some species those hind femora actually are larger than the abdomen. Correspondingly, in support of their powerful jumping capabilities, the hind tibiae bear movable plates towards their distal ends. These vary in number according to the genus, and they are called natatory lamellae (meaning literally "swimming plates"). Ordinarily the insect keeps the plates closely pressed against its tibiae but it can fan them out for swimming, which most species can do very well, some even being able to dive and swim under water. Apart from scrabbling over the water or swimming, some species actually can jump off the water surface. It is probable that the natatory lamellae are what makes such implausible leaps possible. The plates also may aid jumping on land, which Tridactylidae certainly can do impressively. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=34805343 | 1,568,180 |
1,341,328 | Another crucial issue in electricity price forecasting is the appropriate choice of explanatory variables. Apart from historical electricity prices, the current spot price is dependent on a large set of fundamental drivers, including system loads, weather variables, fuel costs, the reserve margin (i.e., available generation minus/over predicted demand) and information about scheduled maintenance and forced outages. Although "pure price" models are sometimes used for EPF, in the most common day-ahead forecasting scenario most authors select a combination of these fundamental drivers, based on the heuristics and experience of the forecaster. Very rarely has an automated selection or shrinkage procedure been carried out in EPF, especially for a large set of initial explanatory variables. However, the machine learning literature provides viable tools that can be broadly classified into two categories: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=48684895 | 1,340,595 |
750,740 | The RNA world hypothesis is supported by RNA's ability both to store, transmit, and duplicate genetic information, as DNA does, and to perform enzymatic reactions, like protein-based enzymes. Because it can carry out the types of tasks now performed by proteins and DNA, RNA is believed to have once been capable of supporting independent life on its own. Some viruses use RNA as their genetic material, rather than DNA. Further, while nucleotides were not found in experiments based on Miller-Urey experiment, their formation in prebiotically plausible conditions was reported in 2009; a purine base, adenine, is merely a pentamer of hydrogen cyanide, and it happens that this particular base is used as omnipresent energy vehicle in the cell: adenosine triphosphate is used everywhere in preference to guanosine triphosphate, cytidine triphosphate, uridine triphosphate or even deoxythymidine triphosphate, which could serve just as well but are practically never used except as building blocks for nucleic acid chains. Experiments with basic ribozymes, like Bacteriophage Qβ RNA, have shown that simple self-replicating RNA structures can withstand even strong selective pressures (e.g., opposite-chirality chain terminators). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25765 | 750,342 |
211,836 | ECC contrasts with error detection in that errors that are encountered can be corrected, not simply detected. The advantage is that a system using ECC does not require a reverse channel to request retransmission of data when an error occurs. The downside is that there is a fixed overhead that is added to the message, thereby requiring a higher forward-channel bandwidth. ECC is therefore applied in situations where retransmissions are costly or impossible, such as one-way communication links and when transmitting to multiple receivers in multicast. Long-latency connections also benefit; in the case of a satellite orbiting around Uranus, retransmission due to errors can create a delay of five hours. ECC information is usually added to mass storage devices to enable recovery of corrupted data, is widely used in modems, and is used on systems where the primary memory is ECC memory. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4237207 | 211,728 |
1,442,732 | Dipole polarization is the phenomenon that is responsible for the heating mechanism in Radio Frequency plastic welding, dielectric heating. When an electric field is applied to a molecule with an asymmetric distribution of charge, or dipole, the electric forces cause the molecule to align itself with the electrical field. When an alternating electrical field is applied, the molecule will continuously reverse its alignment, leading to molecular rotation. This process is not instantaneous, therefore if the frequency is high enough, the dipole will be unable to rotate quickly enough to stay aligned with the electric field resulting in random motion as the molecule attempts to follow the electrical field. This motion causes intermolecular friction which leads to heat generation. The amount of heat generated by friction in the material is dependent on field strength, frequency, dipole strength, and free volume in the material. Since the main driving force for dielectric heating is the interaction of the dipole of a molecule with the applied electrical field, RF welding can only be conducted on dipole molecules. The typical frequency range for dielectric heating is 10-100 MHz but normally RF Welding is conducted around 27 MHz. At too low of frequency, the dipoles are able to align themselves with the electrical field and stay in phase with the electrical current minimizing the intermolecular friction that is produced. This can also be described as having minimal power loss from the electrical field since the molecules will stay in phase and absorb minimal energy. As frequencies become high enough, power loss starts to increase as the dipoles are unable to align themselves at the rate of the reversing electrical field. The dipoles become out of phase absorbing energy and this is when heating occurs. At a certain frequency, a power loss maximum is reached to where higher frequencies will have decreased power loss and produce less heating. The maximum dielectric power loss is material dependent. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=57218852 | 1,441,919 |
1,398,509 | In May 1539, Rheticus arrived in Frombork (Frauenburg), where he spent two years with Copernicus. Despite the effort invested thus far, Copernicus had not finished a manuscript of his work, apparently choosing to not seek publication, presumably due to issues reconciling such findings with the historically held religious attitudes at the time. Eventually though, he would be swayed to allow Rheticus to author an abstract on his research despite being well aware of the criticism and controversy it could bring. Only following its reception, widely considered the best introduction to Copernicus' work, would he then give Rheticus further permission to edit and publish his work in full. In this, Rheticus would prove integral in utilizing previously forged social connections as well as strategically cultivating new ones just to bring it to publication. It was thus only because of this fortuitous meeting that the heliocentric theory, a concept that would still not be accepted for decades to come, would ultimately be brought to light. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50392 | 1,397,736 |
135,707 | Dyson originated several concepts that bear his name, such as Dyson's transform, a fundamental technique in additive number theory, which he developed as part of his proof of Mann's theorem; the Dyson tree, a hypothetical genetically engineered plant capable of growing in a comet; the Dyson series, a perturbative series where each term is represented by Feynman diagrams; the Dyson sphere, a thought experiment that attempts to explain how a space-faring civilization would meet its energy requirements with a hypothetical megastructure that completely encompasses a star and captures a large percentage of its power output; and Dyson's eternal intelligence, a means by which an immortal society of intelligent beings in an open universe could escape the prospect of the heat death of the universe by extending subjective time to infinity while expending only a finite amount of energy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11397 | 135,652 |
1,460,736 | With the use of positron emission tomography (PET), research has shown that brain regions active during translation are outside classical language areas. Translating from L1 to L2 and vice versa activates the anterior cingulate and bilateral subcortical structures (i.e. putamen and head of caudate nucleus). This pattern is explained in terms of the need for greater coordination of mental operations. More specifically, automated circuits are favoured over cerebral pathways for naming words. Language switching is another task in which brain activation is high in Broca's area and the supramarginal gyrus. This was originally observed by Poetzl, (1925, 1930) and Leischner, (1943)—all of whom reported that patients with supramarginal lesions were defective in switching languages. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25181073 | 1,459,914 |
1,504,873 | It is worth noting that the first infrared spectrum obtained by measuring thermal expansion using an AFM was obtained by Hammiche and co-workers without inducing resonant motions in the probe cantilever. In this early example the modulation frequency was too low to achieve high spatial resolution but there is nothing, in principle, preventing the measurement of thermal expansion at higher frequencies without analysing or inducing resonant behaviour. Possible options for measuring the displacement of the tip rather than the subsequent propagation of waves along the cantilever include; interferometry focused at the end of the cantilever where the tip is located, a torsional motion resulting from an offset probe (it would only be influenced by the motions of the cantilever as a second order effect) and exploiting the fact that the signal from a heated thermal probe is strongly influenced by the position of the tip relative to the surface thus this could provide a measurement of thermal expansion that wasn't strongly influenced by or dependent upon resonance. The advantages of a non-resonant method of detection is that any frequency of light modulation could be used thus depth information could be obtained in a controlled way (see below) whereas methods that rely on resonance are limited to harmonics. The thermal-probe based method of Hammiche "et al". has found a significant number of applications. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44893854 | 1,504,027 |
1,651,364 | A risk management system is composed of three parts. "Hazard identification" involves determining what health and safety concerns are present for both the nanomaterial and its corresponding bulk material, based on a review of safety data sheets, peer-reviewed literature, and guidance documents on the material. For nanomaterials, toxicity hazards are the most important, but dust explosion hazards may also be relevant. "Exposure assessment" involves determining actual routes of exposure in a specific workplace, including a review of which areas and tasks are most likely to cause exposure. "Exposure control" involves putting procedures in places to minimize or eliminate exposures according to the hierarchy of hazard controls. Ongoing verification of hazard controls can occur through monitoring of airborne nanomaterial concentrations using standard industrial hygiene sampling methods, and an occupational health surveillance program may be instituted. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=53376859 | 1,650,432 |
810,113 | Hippocrates was born on the island of Cos, Greece. Born into a family of priests, Hippocrates inherited the opportunity to practice medicine. But, he did not want to solely be an extension of his bloodline and continue the practice given to him under familial circumstances. At the time, he was opposed to the existing measures that made the practice of medicine heavily influenced by supernatural forces. He did not share in the belief that diseases were sent from God. For example, he was the first to describe epilepsy, not as a sacred disease sent from the divine, but rather a disease of the brain that was also hereditary. In addition to being opposed to his inheritance of opportunity, Hippocrates took that opposition and with it he decided to swing the doors of opportunity wide open and establish the School of Cos. Once he had established his school, he harnessed the ability to teach the art of medicine to those who were considered outsiders to the practice of medicine at the time. Known as the father of medicine, Hippocrates was an admirable physician and teacher during his time. When considered among fellow ancient Greek philosophers and physicians, Hippocrates was considered the most influential in the evolution of medicine as a science. He focused on a natural approach to medicine, expressing that there had to be a comprehensive understanding of the patient's health, as well as harmony between nature and the individual. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=570856 | 809,682 |
932,617 | The College of Librarianship Wales (CLW) was established at Llanbadarn Fawr in 1964, in response to a recommendation for the training of bilingual librarians that was made in the Bourdillon Report on "Standards of public library service in England" (HMSO, 1962). The college grew rapidly, developing close links to the Welsh speaking and professional communities, acquiring an international reputation and pioneering flexible and distance learning courses. It claimed to be Europe's largest institution for training librarians. The independent college merged with the university in August 1989 and the department moved to the Penglais campus a quarter of a century later. Following the merger, the new department took over responsibility for existing offerings in archives administration and modern records management. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=317897 | 932,125 |
1,145,578 | The Marine Biological Laboratory grew from the vision of several Bostonians and Spencer Fullerton Baird, the United States' first Fish Commissioner (a government official concerned with the use of fisheries). Baird had set up a United States Fish Commission research station in Woods Hole in 1882, and had ambitions to expand it into a major laboratory. He invited Alpheus Hyatt to move his marine biology laboratory and school which he had founded at the Norwood-Hyatt House in Annisquam, Massachusetts, to Woods Hole. Inspired by Harvard biologist Louis Agassiz's short-lived experimental summer school, the Anderson School of Natural History on Penikese Island, off the coast of Woods Hole, Hyatt accepted the offer. With $10,000 raised by the Woman's Education Association of Boston and the Boston Society of Natural History, land was purchased, a building was erected, and the MBL was incorporated with Hyatt as the first president of the board of trustees. The Fish Commission supplied crucial support, including marine organisms and running sea water. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=391313 | 1,144,977 |
52,926 | McKesson's Robot RX is another healthcare robotics product that helps pharmacies dispense thousands of medications daily with little or no errors. The robot can be ten feet wide and thirty feet long and can hold hundreds of different kinds of medications and thousands of doses. The pharmacy saves many resources like staff members that are otherwise unavailable in a resource scarce industry. It uses an electromechanical head coupled with a pneumatic system to capture each dose and deliver it to either its stocked or dispensed location. The head moves along a single axis while it rotates 180 degrees to pull the medications. During this process it uses barcode technology to verify it's pulling the correct drug. It then delivers the drug to a patient specific bin on a conveyor belt. Once the bin is filled with all of the drugs that a particular patient needs and that the robot stocks, the bin is then released and returned out on the conveyor belt to a technician waiting to load it into a cart for delivery to the floor. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25781 | 52,906 |
1,059,453 | In 1999 the policy statement of the Verhofstadt I Government (a coalition including the green parties Groen! and Ecolo) introduced a plan to phase-out nuclear power generation. The following year a government appointed commission reported that nuclear power was important to Belgium and recommended further development. Nevertheless, in 2003 near the end of its term Belgium's government passed phase-out legislation. It stipulates that no new commercial reactors are to be built and that Belgium's seven reactors would be shut down when they reach an operational lifetime of 40 years. All reactors reach this age in the period 2015–2025. When the law was being passed, there was speculation it would be overturned again as soon as an administration without the green parties was in power. A report published in 2005 by the Federal Planning Bureau noted that in many parts of Belgium nuclear power makes up more than 50% of the electricity generated. It would therefore be difficult for Belgium to adhere to the emissions targets of the Kyoto Protocols without nuclear power. In 2007, the Belgian Commission on Energy said that the use of nuclear energy is imperative to meet requirements and maintain economic stability. Furthermore, the commission believed that energy prices would double without the use of nuclear energy. The commission finally recommended that the operating lives of the seven nuclear power plants should be extended. The International Energy Agency stated in 2011 that the Belgian government should reconsider the nuclear phase-out policy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31196253 | 1,058,902 |
1,328,203 | With the Japanese ground forces heading south, plans were made to evacuate the bombers back to Australia. Between the 20th and 23d Malang alone suffered twelve separate attacks, and in the four days following the disastrous 20th eight more planes were lost on the ground. On 24 February 24 six B-17s attacked a Japanese convoy forming in the Makassar Strait for the final thrust across the Java Sea and again in the closing hours during the night of 28 February – 1 March, when six B-17s and one LB-30 bombed the same convoy as it moved towards the Java beaches. Their work was notable more as a gesture than for any worthwhile results and did nothing to halt or even delay the Japanese. To Fifth Bomber Command it became obvious that to continue operations on the present basis, without fighter protection and with their only three practicable airdromes under constant enemy observation, would mean the certain loss of all their planes. It was time to pull out and the remaining forces were withdrawn to Darwin, in the Northern Territory of Australia. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15948763 | 1,327,475 |
10,167 | MIT was named a sea-grant college in 1976 to support its programs in oceanography and marine sciences and was named a space-grant college in 1989 to support its aeronautics and astronautics programs. Despite diminishing government financial support over the past quarter century, MIT launched several successful development campaigns to significantly expand the campus: new dormitories and athletics buildings on west campus; the Tang Center for Management Education; several buildings in the northeast corner of campus supporting research into biology, brain and cognitive sciences, genomics, biotechnology, and cancer research; and a number of new "backlot" buildings on Vassar Street including the Stata Center. Construction on campus in the 2000s included expansions of the Media Lab, the Sloan School's eastern campus, and graduate residences in the northwest. In 2006, President Hockfield launched the MIT Energy Research Council to investigate the interdisciplinary challenges posed by increasing global energy consumption. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18879 | 10,163 |
1,036,870 | Finally, the collector current in a bipolar transistor for low and moderate emitter currents conforms closely to the relation formula_36 where formula_37 is the thermal voltage and formula_38 is a constant dependent on temperature, doping concentrations, and collector-emitter voltage. Matched currents in transistors Q1 and Q2 depend on conformity to the same equation but observed mismatches in formula_38 are geometry dependent and range from formula_40 percent. Such differences between Q1 and Q2 lead directly to static errors of the same percentage for the entire mirror. Careful layout and transistor design must be used to minimize this source of error. For example, Q1 and Q2 may each be implemented as a pair of paralleled transistors arranged as a cross-coupled quad in a common-centric layout to reduce effects of local gradients in current gain. If the mirror is to be used at a fixed bias level, matching resistors in the emitters of this pair can transfer some of the matching problem from the transistors to those resistors. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4469420 | 1,036,329 |
1,266,290 | The first paper describing TILLING used HPLC to identify mutations (McCallum et al., 2000a). The method was made more high throughput by using the restriction enzyme Cel-I combined with the LICOR gel based system to identify mutations (Colbert et al.,2001). Advantages to using this system are that mutation sites can be easily confirmed and differentiated from noise. This is because different colored dyes can be used for the forward and reverse primers. Once the cleavage products have been run on a gel, it can be viewed in separate channels, and much like an RFLP, the fragment sizes within a lane in each channel should add up to the full length product size. Advantages to the LICOR system are separation of large fragments (~ 2kb), high sample throughput (96 samples loaded on paper combs), and freeware to identify the mutations (GelBuddy). Drawbacks to the LICOR system is having to pour slab gels and long run times (~4 hours). TILLING and EcoTILLING methods are now being used on capillary systems from, Advanced Analytical Technologies, ABI and Beckman. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2129346 | 1,265,602 |
2,026,563 | Most of the variations are not significant and some common alterations include the deletion, rearrangement, repetition, or replacement of one or more words when the copyist's eye returns to a similar word in the wrong location of the original text. If their eye skips to an earlier word, they may create a repetition (error of dittography). If their eye skips to a later word, they may create an omission. They may resort to performing a rearranging of words to retain the overall meaning without compromising the context. In other instances, the copyist may add text from memory from a similar or parallel text in another location. Otherwise, they may also replace some text of the original with an alternative reading. Spellings occasionally change. Synonyms may be substituted. A pronoun may be changed into a proper noun (such as "he said" becoming "Jesus said"). John Mill's 1707 Greek New Testament was estimated to contain some 30,000 variants in its accompanying textual apparatus which was based on "nearly 100 [Greek] manuscripts." Peter J. Gurry puts the number of non-spelling variants among New Testament manuscripts around 500,000, though he acknowledges his estimate is higher than all previous ones. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=61239355 | 2,025,396 |
70,082 | Outer space is the closest known approximation to a perfect vacuum. It has effectively no friction, allowing stars, planets, and moons to move freely along their ideal orbits, following the initial formation stage. The deep vacuum of intergalactic space is not devoid of matter, as it contains a few hydrogen atoms per cubic meter. By comparison, the air humans breathe contains about 10 molecules per cubic meter. The low density of matter in outer space means that electromagnetic radiation can travel great distances without being scattered: the mean free path of a photon in intergalactic space is about 10 km, or 10 billion light years. In spite of this, extinction, which is the absorption and scattering of photons by dust and gas, is an important factor in galactic and intergalactic astronomy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=177602 | 70,055 |
80,328 | The performance of vapor compression refrigeration cycles is limited by thermodynamics. These air conditioning and heat pump devices "move" heat rather than convert it from one form to another, so "thermal efficiencies" do not appropriately describe the performance of these devices. The Coefficient of performance (COP) measures performance, but this dimensionless measure has not been adopted. Instead, the Energy Efficiency Ratio ("EER") has traditionally been used to characterize the performance of many HVAC systems. EER is the Energy Efficiency Ratio based on a outdoor temperature. To more accurately describe the performance of air conditioning equipment over a typical cooling season a modified version of the EER, the Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio ("SEER"), or in Europe the ESEER, is used. SEER ratings are based on seasonal temperature averages instead of a constant outdoor temperature. The current industry minimum SEER rating is 14 SEER. Engineers have pointed out some areas where efficiency of the existing hardware could be improved. For example, the fan blades used to move the air are usually stamped from sheet metal, an economical method of manufacture, but as a result they are not aerodynamically efficient. A well-designed blade could reduce the electrical power required to move the air by a third. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=57169 | 80,295 |
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