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141,975 | The growth of tertiary education, as a result of the Robbins Report in the 1960s, led the university to build numerous modern buildings across Hillhead, including several brutalist concrete blocks: the Mathematics building; the Boyd Orr Building and the Adam Smith building (housing the Faculty of Law, Business and Social Sciences, named after university graduate Adam Smith). Other additions around this time, including the new glass-lined Glasgow University Library, Rankine Building for Civil Engineering (named for Macquorn Rankine), and the amber-brick Gregory Building (housing the Geology department), were more in keeping with Gilmorehill's leafy suburban architecture. The erection of these buildings in the late 1960s, however, involved the demolition of a large number of houses in Ashton Road and rerouting the west end of University Avenue to its current position. To cater to the expanding student population, a new refectory, known as the Hub, was opened adjacent to the library in 1966. The Glasgow University Union also had an extension completed in 1965 and the new Queen Margaret Union building opened in 1969. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39569 | 141,917 |
10,536 | With a maximum takeoff weight of , the An-225 held several records, including heaviest aircraft ever built and largest wingspan of any aircraft in operational service. It was commonly used to transport objects once thought impossible to move by air, such as 130-ton generators, wind turbine blades, and diesel locomotives. Additionally, both Chinese and Russian officials had announced separate plans to adapt the An-225 for use in their respective space programmes. The Mriya routinely attracted a high degree of public interest, attaining a global following due to its size and its uniqueness. The only completed An-225 was destroyed in the Battle of Antonov Airport during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. On 20 May 2022, Ukrainian president Volodymyr Zelensky announced plans to complete the second An-225 to replace the destroyed aircraft. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=406245 | 10,531 |
2,056,043 | SPI has been used to model the integrity and performance of capped dredge-spoil sites (NOAA 2003) and containment sites (e.g. Parliamentary-Commissioner 1995; Gowing et al. 1997). Detailed acoustic surveys of spoil disposal sites are inherently limited to a vertical resolution of ca. 10 cm (Ramsay 2005). There is considerable evidence that spoil overburden of less than 10 cm affects macrofaunal species (Chang and Levings 1976; Maurer et al. 1982; Maurer et al. 1986; Chandrasekara and Frid 1998; Schratzberger et al. 2000; Cruz-Motta and Collins 2004). Backscatter and high-frequency side-scan sonar techniques may provide faster characterisation of spoil extent, but only when the spoil's acoustic reflectivity or topology is sufficiently distinct from native sediments. SPI devices produce imagery of the sediment/water interface with sub-millimetre resolution. SPI therefore offers the capability to examine dredge spoil mound morphology, compaction, winnowing, integration with native sediments, and, potentially, biological activity at a scale relevant to the macrofaunal assemblages under study. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14917968 | 2,054,860 |
888,168 | Amoebiasis is present all over the world. About 480 million people are infected with what appears to be "E. histolytica" and these result in the death of between 40,000–110,000 people every year. Most infections are now ascribed to "E. dispar". "E. dispar" is more common in certain areas and symptomatic cases may be fewer than previously reported. The first case of amoebiasis was documented in 1875 and in 1891 the disease was described in detail, resulting in the terms "amoebic dysentery" and "amoebic liver abscess". Further evidence from the Philippines in 1913 found that upon ingesting cysts of "E. histolytica" volunteers developed the disease. It has been known since 1897 that at least one non-disease-causing species of "Entamoeba" existed ("Entamoeba coli"), but it was first formally recognized by the WHO in 1997 that "E. histolytica" was two species, despite this having first been proposed in 1925. In addition to the now-recognized "E. dispar" evidence shows there are at least two other species of "Entamoeba" that look the same in humans - "E. moshkovskii" and "Entamoeba bangladeshi". The reason these species haven't been differentiated until recently is because of the reliance on appearance. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=518489 | 887,700 |
55,070 | The Schmidt sting pain index arose from the pursuit of a larger hypothesis: that the evolution of sociality in Hymenoptera was dependent on the evolution of venom that was both painful and toxic. Pain is an advertisement of damage in the body, but molecules that produce pain and those that are toxic, and actively cause damage, are not the same. Although the painful signal acts as a deterrent, intelligent predators learn the dishonesty of this signal with repeated exposure – that there is no real damage being done. For the early Hymenoptera that were primarily solitary, the pain alone would allow them the chance to escape. Furthermore, solitary insects do not provide a high energy reward for predators, and therefore predators do not expend significant effort to hunt them. However, with the evolution of sociality where many Hymenoptera cluster together in colonies, nests become a nutritionally rich and therefore worthwhile target. If there were no defences, predators would devour the defenceless society, leaving few surviving individuals. Sociality would therefore not be beneficial. In order for sociality to evolve, Hymenoptera needed a defence beyond a painful sting to protect their whole colony. Their sting was an advertisement of damage, and toxicity evolved as its truth. With a toxic sting, and thus the ability to protect against predators, Hymenoptera was able to progress towards sociality and its associated evolutionary benefits of the shared raising of youth, individual task specialization, inter-colony communication, and food storage. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1820622 | 55,047 |
135,315 | Pei's style was described as thoroughly modernist, with significant cubist themes. He was known for combining traditional architectural principles with progressive designs based on simple geometric patterns—circles, squares, and triangles are common elements of his work in both plan and elevation. As one critic wrote: "Pei has been aptly described as combining a classical sense of form with a contemporary mastery of method." In 2000, biographer Carter Wiseman called Pei "the most distinguished member of his Late-Modernist generation still in practice". At the same time, Pei himself rejected simple dichotomies of architectural trends. He once said: "The talk about modernism versus post-modernism is unimportant. It's a side issue. An individual building, the style in which it is going to be designed and built, is not that important. The important thing, really, is the community. How does it affect life?" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15155 | 135,260 |
26,453 | Starship HLS is a variant of SpaceX's Starship spacecraft optimized to operate on and around the Moon. In contrast to the Starship spacecraft from which it derives, Starship HLS will never re-enter an atmosphere, so it does not have a heat shield or flight control surfaces. In contrast to other proposed HLS designs that used multiple stages, the entire spacecraft will land on the Moon and will then launch from the Moon. Like other Starship variants, Starship HLS has Raptor engines mounted at the tail as its primary propulsion system. However, when it is within "tens of meters" of the lunar surface during descent and ascent, it will use high-thrust meth/ox RCS thrusters located mid-body instead of the Raptors to avoid raising dust via plume impingement. A solar array located on the nose below the docking port provides electrical power. Elon Musk stated that Starship HLS would be able to deliver "potentially up to 200 tons" to the lunar surface. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=60758751 | 26,443 |
429,882 | Anatolian Seljuk authority declined after their defeat at the hands of the Mongols in the Battle of Köse Dağ in 1243. In eastern Anatolia the Mongol Ilkhanids ruled indirectly through Seljuk vassals at first, before taking direct control after 1308. Smaller principalities and emirates emerged locally again, known collectively as the Beyliks. Even as the Seljuk empire was weakening in the thirteenth century, their intense building activity did not stop. Despite the decline of Seljuk power, the Seljuk tradition of architecture largely persisted and continued to evolve under new rulers and patrons. The attachment of a large part of Anatolia to the Ilkhanid Empire may have also renewed artistic connections with Iran, the center of that empire. For example, the construction of monumental portals flanked by two minarets is attested in earlier Iranian Seljuk monuments but did not appear in Anatolian Seljuk monuments until after the Mongol conquest. In central and eastern Anatolia, under dynasties like the Karamanids and the Eretnids, architecture remained fairly traditional. In western Anatolia, Turkish principalities such as Saruhanids, the Beylik of Aydın, and the Menteşe Beylik all existed on the Byzantine frontier in a region with many ancient Greek and Roman monuments. As a result, architecture here experimented with both Seljuk elements and Byzantine and Mediterranean traditions. One of the local Turkish dynasties, the Ottomans, eventually went on to establish the Ottoman Empire and developed a style of Ottoman architecture. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30557685 | 429,672 |
258,486 | Organic Fertilizers can also be employed in an ecological farm, such as animal and green manure. This allows soil fertility to be improved and well-maintained, leads to reduced costs and increased yields, reduces the usage of non-renewable resources in industrial fertilizers (Nitrogen and Phosphorus), and reduces the environmental pressures that are posed by intensive agricultural systems. Precision Agriculture can also be used, which focuses on efficient removal of pests using non-chemical techniques and minimizes the amount of tilling needed to sustain the farm. An example of a precision machine is the false seedbed tiller, which can remove a great majority of small weeds while only tilling one centimeter deep. This minimized tilling reduces the amount of new weeds that germinate from soil disturbance. Other methods that reduce soil erosion include contour farming, strip cropping, and terrace cultivation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=216143 | 258,352 |
1,934,631 | The WTS-4 (4 megawatt) wind turbine in Wyoming was designed by United Technologies (Hamilton Standard Division), under the technical management of NASA and with funding from the United States Department of Interior. The WTS-4 was placed into operation in Medicine Bow, Wyoming in 1982. It featured a "soft" steel tube tower, fiberglass blades, torsional springs and dashpots in the drivetrain, and a flexible teetered hub. To this day, the WTS-4 is the most powerful wind turbine to have operated in the US and it held the world record for power output for over 20 years. A second commercial prototype with a smaller generator (3 megawatts) designated the WTS-3 was constructed and operated in Sweden. Glidden Doman was Hamilton Standard's System Design Manager for the WTS-4 project and was hired by the Swedish government to initiate the WTS-3 project. In 2014, Glidden Doman co-founded Seawind Ocean Technology B.V. together with Martin Jakubowski and Silvestro Caruso to deploy a new generation of floating wind technologies based upon system design modifications to the WTS-4 wind turbine and subsequent 1.5 MW Gamma 60 wind turbine in 1991. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30251550 | 1,933,523 |
1,210,046 | For confirmatory tests, the Takayama Crystal Assay or an immunochromatographic test are typically used. The Takayama Crystal Assay, which forms a ferro protoporphyrin ring by a reaction between pyridine and the iron atom of the heme group. The Takayama reagent is added to a slide with a presumptive blood sample. The slide is dried at 115 degrees Celsius following the addition of the Takayama reagent. Then it is placed under a microscope and a positive result is the visualization of dark red, feathery crystals. For the immunochromatographic test, it functions similar to a pregnancy test where antigens present in blood are detected and a positive result is a band at the test site and control site. After performing the various tests an analyst can confirm the presence of human blood and continue to develop a DNA profile with downstream applications such as DNA extraction, Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR), Capillary Electrophoresis (CE), etc., followed by profile interpretation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=28000588 | 1,209,399 |
1,861,151 | Bedrock samples from earth surface or boreholes are required earth materials for OSL dating. Minerals (quartz and/or feldspar) are usually separated from the rock or sediment samples under regulated laboratory lighting system similar to procedures used in archaeological OSL dating. The light source is usually a controlled red light condition to avoid luminescence signal resetting. Crushing of sample are gently carried out to avoid generating heat that is strong enough to reset OSL signal in the minerals. Crushed samples are separated by means of a sieve to get fine-grained. A range of values varying from 90 – 125 microns, 100 – 200 microns and 180 – 212 microns can be used for OSL measurement. The selected grains are chemically treated with HCl to digest carbonates and with HO to remove organic materials that can contaminate the sensitivity of OSL signal during measurement. Feldspar and quartz with densities of < 2.62 g cm and < 2.68 g cm respectively are separated from other heavier minerals by density separation. Inclusions of zircon, apatite and feldspar in quartz as well as alpha-particles irradiated grain edges that can contaminate OSL signal are removed by etching in hydrofluoric acid (HF). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58433438 | 1,860,082 |
263,224 | A commonly touted advantage of EUV has been the relative ease of lithography, as indicated by the ratio of feature size to the wavelength multiplied by the numerical aperture, also known as the k1 ratio. An 18 nm metal linewidth has a k1 of 0.44 for 13.5 nm wavelength, 0.33 NA, for example. For the k1 approaching 0.5, some weak resolution enhancement including attenuated phase shift masks has been used as essential to production with the ArF laser wavelength (193 nm), whereas this resolution enhancement is not available for EUV. In particular, 3D mask effects including scattering at the absorber edges distort the desired phase profile. Also, the phase profile is effectively derived from the plane wave spectrum reflected from the multilayer through the absorber rather than the incident plane wave. Without absorbers, near-field distortion also occurs at an etched multilayer sidewall due to the oblique incidence illumination; some light traverses only a limited number of bilayers near the sidewall. Additionally, the different polarizations (TE and TM) have different phase shifts. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2154371 | 263,085 |
2,246,586 | Angiography, or the examination of blood vessels, is essential in many areas of research and clinical practice. In particular, angiography is needed to monitor angiogenesis, which is the growth and development of new blood vessels. Angiogenesis is an essential process which is most often observed in organ growth in fetuses and children, the development of the placenta in adults, and wound healing. However, excessive angiogenesis has been observed in dozens of disorders, including diabetes, endometriosis, autoimmune disease, and asthma. Angiography has been used in the research, diagnosis, and treatment of many of these disorders. Perhaps the most important application of angiography for monitoring angiogenesis is in tumor growth. Tumors can exist for months or even years in a non-angiogeneic stage of development and only begin rapid growth once the angiogenic phenotype is expressed. Thus, angiogenesis has become a target for certain cancer therapies. Some therapies aim to promote organized development of blood vessels in tumor regions, which allows for more homogenous and effective distribution of chemotherapy. Other methods aim to block the start or progression of angiogenesis altogether. In both cases, angiography is essential for measuring the growth, recession, or shape of blood vessels in-vivo over time during these treatments and related research | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=69401249 | 2,245,314 |
1,611,983 | Passive seismic is the detection of natural low frequency earth movements, usually with the purpose of discerning geological structure and locate underground oil, gas, or other resources. Usually the data listening is done in multiple measurement points that are separated by several hundred meters, over periods of several hours to several days, using portable seismometers. The conclusions about the geological structure are based on the spectral analysis or on the mathematical reconstruction of the propagation and possible sources of the observed seismic waves. If the latter is planned, data are usually acquired in multiple (in the ideal case - all) points simultaneously, using so called synchronized lines. Reliability of the time reverse modelling can be further increased using results of reflection seismology about the distribution of the sound speed in the underground volume. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14105621 | 1,611,078 |
785,638 | Soon after arriving in Stockholm, Berzelius wrote a chemistry textbook for his medical students, "Lärbok i Kemien", which was his first significant scientific publication. He had conducted experimentation, in preparation for writing this textbook, on the compositions of inorganic compounds, which was his earliest work on definite proportions. In 1813, he published an essay on the proportions of elements in compounds. The essay commenced with a general description, introduced his new symbolism, examined all the known elements, included a table of specific weights, and finished with a selection of compounds written in his new formalism. In 1818, he compiled a table of relative atomic weights, where oxygen was set to 100, and which included all of the elements known at the time. This work provided evidence in favour of the atomic theory proposed by John Dalton: that inorganic chemical compounds are composed of atoms of different elements combined in whole number amounts. In discovering that atomic weights are not integer multiples of the weight of hydrogen, Berzelius also disproved Prout's hypothesis that elements are built up from atoms of hydrogen. Berzelius's last revised version of his atomic weight tables was first published in a German translation of his "Textbook of Chemistry" in 1826. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23701666 | 785,215 |
903,762 | The Toyota Prius has modest acceleration but has extremely high efficiency for a midsized four-door sedan: usually significantly better than 40 mpg (US) (5.9 L/100 km) is typical of brief city jaunts; 55 mpg (4.3 L/100 km) is not uncommon, especially for extended drives at modest speeds (a longer drive allows the engine to warm up fully). This is approximately twice the fuel efficiency of a similarly equipped four-door sedan with a conventional power train. Not all of the extra efficiency of the Prius is due to the HSD system: the Atkinson cycle engine itself was also designed specifically to minimize engine drag via an offset crankshaft to minimize piston drag during the power stroke, and a unique intake system to prevent drag caused by manifold vacuum ("pumping losses") versus the normal Otto cycle in most engines. Furthermore, the Atkinson cycle recovers more energy per cycle than the Otto because of its longer power stroke. The downside of the Atkinson cycle is much reduced torque, particularly at low speed; but the HSD has enormous low-speed torque available from MG2. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1277811 | 903,286 |
22,590 | The CH-47 is powered by two Lycoming T55 turboshaft engines, mounted on each side of the helicopter's rear pylon and connected to the rotors by drive shafts. Initial models were fitted with engines rated at each. The counter-rotating rotors eliminate the need for an antitorque vertical rotor, allowing all power to be used for lift and thrust. The ability to adjust lift in either rotor makes it less sensitive to changes in the center of gravity, important for the cargo lifting and dropping. While hovering over a specific location, a twin-rotor helicopter has increased stability over a single rotor when weight is added or removed, for example, when troops drop from or begin climbing up ropes to the aircraft, or when other cargo is dropped. If one engine fails, the other can drive both rotors. The "sizing" of the Chinook was directly related to the growth of the Huey and the Army's tacticians' insistence that initial air assaults be built around the squad. The Army pushed for both the Huey and the Chinook, and this focus was responsible for the acceleration of its air mobility effort. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38005 | 22,581 |
1,799,235 | Heterogeneous OER is sensitive to the surface which the reaction takes place and is also affected by the pH of the solution. The general mechanism for acidic and alkaline solutions is shown below. Under acidic conditions water binds to the surface with the irreversible removal of one electron and one proton to form a platinum hydroxide. In an alkaline solution a reversible binding of hydroxide ion coupled to a one electron oxidation is thought to precede a turnover-limiting electrochemical step involving the removal of one proton and one electron to form a surface oxide species. The shift in mechanism between the pH extremes has been attributed to the kinetic facility of oxidizing hydroxide ion relative to water. Using the Tafel equation, one can obtain kinetic information about the kinetics of the electrode material such as the exchange current density and the Tafel slope. OER is presumed to not take place on clean metal surfaces such as platinum, but instead an oxide surface is formed prior to oxygen evolution. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31011269 | 1,798,226 |
1,115,160 | Starting with an examination of the learning process in organisms, Wiener expands the discussion to John von Neumann's theory of games, and the application to military situations. He then speculates about the manner in which a chess-playing computer could be programmed to analyse its past performances and improve its performance. This proceeds to a discussion of the evolution of conflict, as in the examples of matador and bull, or mongoose and cobra, or between opponents in a tennis game. He discusses various stories such as The Sorcerer's Apprentice, which illustrate the view that the literal-minded reliance on "magical" processes may turn out to be counter-productive or catastrophic. The context of this discussion was to draw attention to the need for caution in delegating to machines the responsibility for warfare strategy in an age of Nuclear weapons. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the possibility of self-replicating machines and the work of Professor Dennis Gabor in this area. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=40625991 | 1,114,591 |
17,096 | Princeton's 20th and current president Christopher Eisgruber was elected in 2013. In 2017, Princeton University unveiled a large-scale public history and digital humanities investigation into its historical involvement with slavery called the Princeton & Slavery Project. The project saw the publication of hundreds of primary sources, 80 scholarly essays, a scholarly conference, a series of short plays, and an art project. In April 2018, university trustees announced that they would name two public spaces for James Collins Johnson and Betsey Stockton, enslaved people who lived and worked on Princeton's campus and whose stories were publicized by the project. In 2019, large-scale student activism again entered the mainstream concerning the school's implementation of federal Title IX policy relating to Campus sexual assault. The activism consisted of sit-ins in response to a student's disciplinary sentence. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23922 | 17,091 |
951,150 | Cushing's reflex is named after Harvey Williams Cushing (1869–1939), an American neurosurgeon. Cushing began his research in Bern, Switzerland studying abroad with Emil Theodor Kocher. A month into his trip, Cushing received a formal proposition from Emil Theodor Kocher to begin testing how compression of the brain affected blood vessels. Cushing also enlisted the aid of Hugo Kronecker, a known blood pressure researcher. Utilizing Kroenecker's assistance and resources, Cushing began his research. Cushing left Bern in 1901 to work in Turin, Italy with Angelo Mosso, a previous student of Kroenecker. He continued to work on the same research project, while also simultaneously improving his methods of recording coincidence of blood pressure and ICP. In June 1901 Cushing published his first paper through Johns Hopkins Hospital Bulletin entitled "Concerning a definite regulatory mechanism of the vasomotor centre which controls blood pressure during cerebral compression". Between 1901 and 1903, Cushing published five papers pertaining to his research on the vasopressor response. These papers were published in German and English, and one was authored by Emil Theodor Kocher. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1149178 | 950,646 |
1,000,821 | Neil Risch of Stanford University has proposed that self-identified race/ethnic group could be a valid means of categorization in the US for public health and policy considerations. A 2002 paper by Noah Rosenberg's group makes a similar claim: "The structure of human populations is relevant in various epidemiological contexts. As a result of variation in frequencies of both genetic and nongenetic risk factors, rates of disease and of such phenotypes as adverse drug response vary across populations. Further, information about a patient's population of origin might provide health care practitioners with information about risk when direct causes of disease are unknown." However, in 2018 Noah Rosenberg released a study arguing against genetically essentialist ideas of health disparities between populations stating environmental variants are a more likely cause | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4816754 | 1,000,303 |
332,162 | A torque-biased variant of the Coyote is produced as an alternative to the EcoBoost V6 in the F-150 pickup truck. The F-150 5.0L receives a lower compression ratio (10.5:1), intake camshafts with less duration, cast iron exhaust manifolds, and revised cylinder heads to improve cooling. The intake manifold changed only in color, and height. These changes promote low-end and mid-range power and torque. The engine retains the Coyote's forged steel crank and piston-cooling jets but benefits from the addition of an external engine oil cooler similar to the Boss 302's. The changes result in the engine's peak horsepower dropping to at 5500 rpm, while torque is rated at at 4250 rpm. When the 2015 F-150 was revealed, Ford improved the induction system to pull air from above the grille under the hood (aka Ram Air Effect) as opposed to the fender intake inlet that had been used for all previous Ford Modular Engines. The addition of Ram Air Effect pulled more cool air into the engine in favor for a power increase to at 5750 rpm and at 3850 rpm. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=867439 | 331,985 |
341,881 | About 5000 species of aphid have been described and of these, some 450 species have colonized food and fiber crops. As direct feeders on plant sap, they damage crops and reduce yields, but they have a greater impact by being vectors of plant viruses. The transmission of these viruses depends on the movements of aphids between different parts of a plant, between nearby plants, and further afield. In this respect, the probing behavior of an aphid tasting a host is more damaging than lengthy aphid feeding and reproduction by stay-put individuals. The movement of aphids influences the timing of virus epidemics. They are major pests of greenhouse crops and species often encountered in greenhouses include: green peach aphid ("Myzus persicae"), cotton or melon aphid ("Aphis gossypii"), potato aphid ("Macrosiphum euphorbiae"), foxglove aphid ("Aulacorthum solani") and chrysanthemum aphid ("Macrosiphoniella sanborni") and others, which cause leaf yellowing, distorted leaves, and plant stunting; the excreted honeydew is a growing medium for a number of fungal pathogens including black sooty molds from the genera "Capnodium", "Fumago", and "Scorias" which then infect leaves and inhibit growth by reducing photosynthesis. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=162296 | 341,700 |
875,099 | Running parallel to the work underway at Vlasikha, BW research was also being pursued in an institution controlled by the state security apparatus. In July 1931, the Joint State Political Directorate (OGPU), a forerunner of the "NKVD", seized control of the Convent of the Intercession in Suzdal and then the following year created a special prison laboratory, or "sharashka", where around nineteen leading plague and tularaemia specialists were forced to work on the development of biological weapons. By 1936, scientists working on BW at both Vlasikha and Suzdal were transferred to Gorodomlya Island where they occupied an institute for the study of foot-and-mouth disease which had been built originally for the People’s Commissariat of Agriculture ("Narkomzem"). Velikanov was placed in command of the Gorodomlya Island facility which was named as the Biotechnical Institute, also known by the code designation V/2-1094. German intelligence reported that the institute was engaged in experiments focused on "Francisella tularensis" (the causative agent of tularaemia) and "Yersinia pestis" (the causative agent of plague). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11564525 | 874,637 |
1,363,069 | A solvent can carry a supersaturated load of gas in solution. Whether it will come out of solution in the bulk of the solvent to form bubbles will depend on a number of factors. Something which reduces surface tension, or adsorbs gas molecules, or locally reduces solubility of the gas, or causes a local reduction in static pressure in a fluid may result in a bubble nucleation or growth. This may include velocity changes and turbulence in fluids and local tensile loads in solids and semi-solids. Lipids and other hydrophobic surfaces may reduce surface tension (blood vessel walls may have this effect). Dehydration may reduce gas solubility in a tissue due to higher concentration of other solutes, and less solvent to hold the gas. Another theory presumes that microscopic bubble nuclei always exist in aqueous media, including living tissues. These bubble nuclei are spherical gas phases that are small enough to remain in suspension yet strong enough to resist collapse, their stability being provided by an elastic surface layer consisting of surface-active molecules which resists the effect of surface tension. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38814223 | 1,362,316 |
1,044,257 | The APG-73 is a late 1980s "upgrade of the APG-65 that provides higher throughputs, greater memory capacity, improved reliability, and easier maintenance". To reduce production costs, many of the upgraded radar's modules are common with the APG-70 (F-15E Strike Eagle) radar; its software engineers chose the JOVIAL programming language so that they could borrow and adapt existing software written for the APG-70. When fitted with a motion-sensing subsystem and stretch waveform generator and special test equipment, the APG-73 can generate high resolution ground maps and make use of 'advanced' image correlation algorithms to enhance weapon designation accuracy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2973824 | 1,043,713 |
352,490 | The general sample analysis strategy begins with high-resolution cameras to look for features of interest. If a particular surface is of interest, "Curiosity" can vaporize a small portion of it with an infrared laser and examine the resulting spectra signature to query the rock's elemental composition. If that signature is intriguing, the rover uses its long arm to swing over a microscope and an X-ray spectrometer to take a closer look. If the specimen warrants further analysis, "Curiosity" can drill into the boulder and deliver a powdered sample to either the Sample Analysis at Mars (SAM) or the CheMin analytical laboratories inside the rover. The MastCam, Mars Hand Lens Imager (MAHLI), and Mars Descent Imager (MARDI) cameras were developed by Malin Space Science Systems and they all share common design components, such as on-board digital image processing boxes, 1600 × 1200 charge-coupled device (CCDs), and an RGB Bayer pattern filter. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=36645032 | 352,307 |
1,916,551 | This cryo-EM structure reveals a high degree of plasticity of the N-terminal three β-sheet sandwich of tapasin and shows that flexible fastening of MHC-I is essential for tapasin to exert its proofreading function. Calreticulin is crucial and is highly dependant in the assembly and maturation of MHC-I in the PLC. The globular lectin domain of calreticulin harbours a glycan-binding site, which senses monoglucose moieties of N-core glycosylated MHC-I before it associates with tapasin. The monoglucosylated branch of the N-core glycan that emanates from N86 of MHC-I is binding to the glycan-binding surface of calreticulin, whereas another mannose branch is likely to lie close among residues at the edge of the lectin β-sandwich. Consistent with its proposed calcium-dependent lipid-sensing activity, the C-terminal acidic tail of calreticulin points towards the ER-luminal membrane leaflet, where it is located close to the C-terminal immunoglobulin-like domain of tapasin. In the cryo-EM structure emphasis is given in the central role of the C-terminal immunoglobulin-like domain of tapasin, which acts as an essential multivalent interaction core for the remaining PLC subunits. A central cavity that connects the exit of the peptide translocation pathway of TAP with the ER lumen via two lateral windows might serve as a molecular basket for transported peptides before they are edited by ER-resident aminopeptidases. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=59204782 | 1,915,452 |
68,503 | They list eight reasons why theories are important. The problems that arise from inadequate attention to theory is that it impossible to construct good models or interpret statistical findings correctly. By privileging hypothesis testing, that is overlooked. It might make sense to pay more attention to hypothesis testing if it produced much useful knowledge about international relations, but Mearsheimer and Walt claim that it is not the case and that the simplistic hypothesis test is inherently flawed. One of the consequences omitted variable bias, which is often treated as a methodological issue, but it should be treated as a theoretical matter. Selection bias is also a problem that arise from inadequate attention to theory. To examine that more clearly, the authors point out James Fearson's critique of Paul Huth and Bruce Russett's analyses of extended deterrence. Mearsheimer and Walt also point out that contemporary international relations scholarship faces challenging measurement issues because of inadequate attention to theory and cause misleading measures. A few examples are given to support their claim, including Dan Reiter and Allan Stam's "Democracies at War". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=980934 | 68,476 |
1,485,594 | Despite the limited number of details presently available regarding the structure and assembly of archaellum, it has become increasingly evident from multiple studies that archaella play important roles in a variety of cellular processes in archaea. In spite of the structural dissimilarities with the bacterial flagellum, the main function thus far attributed for archaellum is swimming in liquid and semi-solid surfaces. Increasing biochemical and biophysical information has further consolidated the early observations of archaella mediated swimming in archaea. Like the bacterial flagellum, the archaellum also mediates surface attachment and cell-cell communication. However, unlike the bacterial flagellum archaellum has not shown to play a role in archaeal biofilm formation. In archaeal biofilms, the only proposed function is thus far during the dispersal phase of biofilm when archaeal cells escape the community using their archaellum to further initiate the next round of biofilm formation. Also, archaellum have been found to be able to have a metal-binding site. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=36332456 | 1,484,756 |
99,528 | A population-based study of the incidence of MRSA infections in San Francisco during 2004–05 demonstrated that nearly one in 300 residents had such an infection in the course of a year and that greater than 85% of these infections occurred outside of the healthcare setting. A 2004 study showed that people in the United States with "S. aureus" infection had, on average, three times the length of hospital stay (14.3 vs. 4.5 days), incurred three times the total cost ($48,824 vs. $14,141), and experienced five times the risk of in-hospital death (11.2% vs 2.3%) than people without this infection. In a meta-analysis of 31 studies, Cosgrove "et al.", concluded that MRSA bacteremia is associated with increased mortality as compared with MSSA bacteremia (odds ratio= 1.93; 95% ). In addition, Wyllie "et al." report a death rate of 34% within 30 days among people infected with MRSA, a rate similar to the death rate of 27% seen among MSSA-infected people. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=192595 | 99,485 |
261,544 | One possible explanation for the small but non-zero value was noted by Steven Weinberg in 1987 following the anthropic principle. Weinberg explains that if the vacuum energy took different values in different domains of the universe, then observers would necessarily measure values similar to that which is observed: the formation of life-supporting structures would be suppressed in domains where the vacuum energy is much larger. Specifically, if the vacuum energy is negative and its absolute value is substantially larger than it appears to be in the observed universe (say, a factor of 10 larger), holding all other variables (e.g. matter density) constant, that would mean that the universe is closed; furthermore, its lifetime would be shorter than the age of our universe, possibly too short for intelligent life to form. On the other hand, a universe with a large positive cosmological constant would expand too fast, preventing galaxy formation. According to Weinberg, domains where the vacuum energy is compatible with life would be comparatively rare. Using this argument, Weinberg predicted that the cosmological constant would have a value of less than a hundred times the currently accepted value. In 1992, Weinberg refined this prediction of the cosmological constant to 5 to 10 times the matter density. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38992 | 261,405 |
1,908,635 | Type 2 diabetes associated sequence polymorphisms have been identified in 30 linkage disequilibrium (LD) blocks across the human genome, but their effects only explain a minor fraction of the observed phenotypic diversity among individuals. Previously, in other studies it has been demonstrated that connections between small methylation differences at isolated CpG sites have large differences in gene-expression levels On a genome wide scale studies have proven that hypomethylation in genes known to be associated with type 2 diabetes has been associated with an increase in susceptibility for the disease. CpG sites in particular display a small but significant case of hypomethylation consistently. The odds of belonging to the Type 2 Diabetes group increased by 6.1% for every 1% decrease in methylation based on microarray-based assay. These observed methylation differences are capable of producing or indicating real expression differences, which lead to the observed enhanced disease risk. Based on this study further investigation proved that if hypomethylation was induced, then the individual was far more likely to develop type 2 diabetes than those who led a healthy lifestyle. This proven presence of low methylation at certain sites could be used to diagnose diabetes 2 in individuals earlier in future treatment. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=35839849 | 1,907,538 |
1,234,495 | At the beginning of the 20th century, Viennese Medicine belonged to the first class internationally. Clemens von Pirquet defined the concepts of "allergy" and "serum sickness," Ernst Peter Pick conducted significant experiments on the chemical specificity of immunological reactions, and the Vienna School of Dentistry (founded by Bernhard Gotlieb) reached its zenith in the 1920s. All four Nobel Prizes, which were granted to (former) Viennese physicians during the next decades Robert Bárány (1914), Julius Wagner-Jauregg (1927), Karl Landsteiner (1930), and Otto Loewi (1936)], were the result of work undertaken at this time. The excellent tradition and research extended well into the First Austrian Republic. Under the auspices of the Medical Association of Vienna, which was founded in Vienna, well-received postgraduate courses for doctors worldwide were organized into the 1930s. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2621065 | 1,233,832 |
483,329 | The Soviet Union's war effort in World War II began when the Soviet Union was invaded on the 22 of June 1941. The Soviet Union was at a disadvantage from the very beginning. This was militarily and economically. Despite having such vast natural resource reserves, high quotas of the initial Five-year plans for the national economy of the Soviet Union required extensive exploitation of European Russia. As a result, the resource base in eastern regions of the Soviet Union remained largely untapped. During the first 6 months of the invasion, German forces managed to occupy or isolate territory which prior to WWII accounted for over 60% of total coal, pig iron, and aluminum production. Nearly 40% of total grain production and 60% of total livestock was lost. Moreover, this area contained 40% Soviet population before the war, 32% of the state enterprise labor force, and one-third of the fixed capital assets of the state enterprise sector. The sheer speed of the German advance meant that any Soviet evacuation efforts were troublesome. As result of the German invasion of World War II, the Economy of the Soviet Union suffered punishing blows, with Soviet GDP falling 34% between 1940 and 1942. Industrial output did not recover to its 1940 level for almost a decade. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=60830799 | 483,082 |
1,589,092 | In 2005, Hunter et al. conducted a study that determined relationships between sprint velocity and relative impulses in which gait and ground reaction force data was collected and analyzed. It was found that during accelerated runs, a typical support phase is characterized by a breaking phase followed by a propulsive phase (-FH followed by + FH). A common trend in the fastest subjects tested was that there was only a moderate to low amount of vertical force and a large amount of horizontal forces produced. Post study, it was hypothesized by the author that braking forces are necessary to store elastic energy in muscle and tendon tissue. This study loosely confirmed the importance of horizontal as well as vertical GRF during the acceleration phase of sprinting. Unfortunately, since data were collected at the 16-m mark, it was insufficient to draw definite conclusions regarding the entire acceleration phase. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=33989922 | 1,588,198 |
1,764,484 | The men's road race began at 11:00 local time (UTC+8) and within of the start, Horacio Gallardo (Bolivia) and Patricio Almonacid (Chile) formed a two-man breakaway. They held a maximum advantage of 15 minutes, but were never really seen as a threat, and in fact neither went on to finish the race. With no single team willing to force the pace, a 26-man breakaway formed at the mark, including Carlos Sastre (Spain), Kim Kirchen (Luxembourg), Jens Voigt (Germany), Roman Kreuziger (Czech Republic) and Simon Gerrans (Australia). Shortly after the race reached the finish line to begin the first of seven loops, Gallardo was dropped by Almonacid. The lone Chilean leader was then caught by the now 24-man chase group at the summit on the second loop, after riding solo ahead of the pack for over an hour and a half. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18664179 | 1,763,491 |
1,201,425 | The growth of industry soon brought to light the need for a better system of transportation. While canals and roads did improve, they were soon overshadowed by a means of transportation that held great promise: the railroads. The railroads may have been that most important factor of the industrial revolution. Railways had existed as early as 1500, but in 1700s the primitive wooden rails were replaced with wrought iron. These new rails enabled horses to pull even heavier loads with relative ease. But dependence on horsepower did not last for long. In 1804, the first steam-powered locomotive pulled 10 tons of ore and 70 people at 5 miles per hour. This new technology improved dramatically; locomotives soon reached speeds of 50 miles per hour. While the railroads revolutionized transportation, they further contributed to the growth of the industrial revolution by causing a great increase in the demand for iron and coal. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21992152 | 1,200,784 |
192,372 | The Menzies government first publicly discussed the need for replacing the English Electric Canberra in 1954, only a year after the RAAF began receiving the bomber. The non-supersonic Canberra lacked radar and electronic countermeasures, all disadvantages based on Korean War experience. The RAAF believed that it needed a new strategic bomber to fulfill the nation's obligations to the Commonwealth Strategic Reserve in Malaysia, ANZUS, and SEATO. Air Staff Requirement 36 that year mandated an all-weather attack aircraft by 1959 capable of delivering a variety of bombs and missiles. A study recommended one of the British V bombers, but Prime Minister Robert Menzies' Minister of Defence Frederick Shedden decided in 1956 that at £1 million each they were too expensive. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25595226 | 192,273 |
430,677 | The strategic plan, Lighting the Way, will serve as a blueprint for the next five years, outlining goals and aspirations that will lead the University into a future of transformation and growth. Rooted in mission, values, and vision, the plan sets forth an ambitious agenda for students, community, and the institution. The initial phases include campus growth with the addition of a new 33,150 square foot, four-story, $14 million Academic Center. The new Academic Center will house the College of Business; Center for Leadership, Entrepreneurship, & Innovation; Wm. T. (Bill) Robinson III ’67 Institution for Religious Liberty; and The Center for Faith, Mission, and Catholic Education. Further capital improvements will include transitioning The Saints Center back to its original designation as a student union, transforming it again into the gathering center for the campus and the community. Modifications to the Benedictine Library will integrate the Success Center under the same roof, creating a highly advanced, contemporary learning commons. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4255238 | 430,465 |
1,115,168 | The Farquhar-Hill was first patented in the UK in 1908 and in the United States in 1909. The key feature was an intermediate 'action' spring which stored recoil energy. Upon discharge, the barrel recoiled while still locked with the bolt, compressing the intermediate spring on recoil. Upon return of the barrel to the forward position, the energy stored in the intermediate spring cycled the bolt back and forth, extracting and ejecting the spent case and feeding a fresh round into the now stationary barrel. The main goal was to achieve smooth and reliable cycling, but the design was very complicated and thus badly suited for a military firearm. By 1911, Farquhar and Hill revised their rifle, changing its source of energy from barrel recoil to more convenient gas operated action. The new weapon also used an intermediate spring as a source of energy for cycling of the bolt with a stationary barrel, simplifying design and making it potentially more accurate and reliable. The design was refined and then tested by British Army on several occasions. This rifle was initially chambered for the new ".303 rimless" round, designed by necking up the 7.65x53mm Belgian Mauser case and loading it with British-issue Mk.VII bullet of .303 caliber. Later on this experimental loading was discarded in favor of the standard issue .303 British ammunition. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8457058 | 1,114,599 |
135,714 | Dyson joined the faculty at Cornell as a physics professor in 1951, though he still had no doctorate. In December 1952, Oppenheimer, the director of the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, offered Dyson a lifetime appointment at the Institute, "for proving me wrong", in Oppenheimer's words. Dyson remained at the Institute until the end of his career. In 1957 he became a US citizen. From 1957 to 1961 Dyson worked on Project Orion, which proposed the possibility of space-flight using nuclear pulse propulsion. A prototype was demonstrated using conventional explosives, but the 1963 Partial Test Ban Treaty, in which Dyson was involved and which he supported, permitted only underground nuclear weapons testing, and the project was abandoned in 1965. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11397 | 135,659 |
1,001,643 | Unlike most TLS implementations of HTTPS, such as on the World Wide Web, the majority of implementations of EAP-TLS require mutual authentication using client-side X.509 certificates without giving the option to disable the requirement, even though the standard does not mandate their use. Some have identified this as having the potential to dramatically reduce adoption of EAP-TLS and prevent "open" but encrypted access points. On 22 August 2012 hostapd (and wpa_supplicant) added support in its Git repository for an UNAUTH-TLS vendor-specific EAP type (using the hostapd/wpa_supplicant project Private Enterprise Number), and on 25 February 2014 added support for the WFA-UNAUTH-TLS vendor-specific EAP type (using the Wi-Fi Alliance Private Enterprise Number), which only do server authentication. This would allow for situations much like HTTPS, where a wireless hotspot allows free access and does not authenticate station clients but station clients wish to use encryption (IEEE 802.11i-2004 i.e. WPA2) and potentially authenticate the wireless hotspot. There have also been proposals to use IEEE 802.11u for access points to signal that they allow EAP-TLS using only server-side authentication, using the standard EAP-TLS IETF type instead of a vendor-specific EAP type. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1583409 | 1,001,125 |
4,995 | During the initial discussions, McCreary realized he needed to compose completely new music for the game and not reuse any previous music from the series. He said that although he loved those games, he "would not describe them as emotionally dynamic." Based on his memory of the earlier games' music, however, he was inspired by their sounds, such as "deep choirs, pounding drums, and shrieking brass", and reinvented them for the Nordic setting. To ensure the music represented the setting, McCreary spent months researching and listening to Viking folk music, which resulted in him using "exotic instrumentation and languages from various Northern European folk traditions." He also wanted the score to be huge and varied, "full of peaks and valleys, tiny incantations and gigantic set pieces." The main Kratos theme in particular features low orchestral instruments, an Icelandic choir, deep male vocals, powerful female vocals (in particular Faroese singer Eivør Pálsdóttir), folk percussion, and Nordic stringed instruments, like the nyckelharpa and hurdy gurdy. The track "Witch of the Woods" uses a renaissance and baroque instrument called a viola da gamba, which is an ancestor of the modern cello. The Stranger's theme, found in the track "Deliverance", uses a Hardanger fiddle. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50810460 | 4,992 |
976,377 | The Pentium (also referred to as P5, its microarchitecture, or i586) is a fifth generation, 32-bit x86 microprocessor that was introduced by Intel on March 22, 1993, as the very first CPU in the Pentium brand. It was instruction set compatible with the 80486 but was a new and very different microarchitecture design from previous iterations. The P5 Pentium was the first superscalar x86 microarchitecture and the world's first superscalar microprocessor to be in mass productionmeaning it generally executes at least 2 instructions per clock mainly because of a design-first dual integer pipeline design previously thought impossible to implement on a CISC microarchitecture. Additional features include a faster floating-point unit, wider data bus, separate code and data caches, and many other techniques and features to enhance performance and support security, encryption, and multiprocessing, for workstations and servers when compared to the next best previous industry standard processor implementation before it, the Intel 80486. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=24668 | 975,866 |
33,030 | Thirty-two B-17Gs were used by the Navy under the designation PB-1W, the suffix -W indicating an airborne early warning role. A large radome for an S-band AN/APS-20 search radar was fitted underneath the fuselage and additional internal fuel tanks were added for longer range, with the provision for additional underwing fuel tanks. Originally, the B-17 was also chosen because of its heavy defensive armament, but this was later removed. These aircraft were painted dark blue, the standard Navy paint scheme which had been adopted in late 1944. PB-1Ws continued in USN service until 1955, gradually being phased out in favor of the Lockheed WV-2 (known in the USAF as the EC-121, a designation adopted by the USN in 1962), a military version of the Lockheed 1049 Constellation commercial airliner. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4997 | 33,018 |
1,944,095 | Latin America presents a case of unfinished democratization when it comes to genuine inclusion and educational achievements. Certainly, and particularly in the last 15 years, the region has made notable progress in at least four fundamental respects that fall under what could be termed ‘educational progressivism’: i) the strengthening of the concept of education as a right and public good to the detriment of the concept of education as a service and consumer good; ii) expansion of the right to education through an extension of compulsory schooling, with an emphasis on lower and upper secondary education; iii) greater investment in education as a percentage of GDP of each country and a steady improvement of the conditions and inputs aimed at supporting teaching and learning processes, chiefly with respect to physical infrastructures, equipment and materials; and finally iv) the priority given to improving the working conditions and pay of teachers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=53555527 | 1,942,983 |
118,228 | Wallerstein wrote that there were no concrete rules about what exactly constitutes an individual state as various indicators of statehood (sovereignty, power, market control etc.) could range from total to nil. There were also no clear rules about which group controlled the state, as various groups located inside, outside, and across the states’ frontiers could seek to increase or decrease state power in order to better profit from a world-economy. Nonetheless, the “relative power continuum of stronger and weaker states has remained relatively unchanged over 400-odd years” implying that while there is no universal state system, an interstate system had developed out of the sum of state actions, which existed to reinforce certain rules and preconditions of statehood. These rules included maintaining consistent relations of production, and regulating the flow of capital, commodities and labor across borders to maintain the price structures of the global market. If weak states attempt to rewrite these rules as they prefer them, strong states will typically intervene to rectify the situation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1582335 | 118,183 |
527,724 | In case of recurrence after complete removal, and if the patient never felt any pain before inflammation occurred, the condition is more likely to be "onychia" which is often confused for an ingrown or ingrowing nail ("onychocryptosis"). Complete removal of the whole nail is a simple procedure. Anaesthetic is injected and the nail is removed quickly by pulling it outward from the toe. The patient can function normally right after the procedure and most of the discomfort goes away in a few days. The entire procedure can be performed in approximately 20 minutes and is less complex than the wedge resection. The nail often grows back, however, and in most cases it can cause more problems by becoming ingrown again. It can get injured by concussion and in some cases grows back too thick, too wide or deformed. This procedure can result in chronic ingrown nails causing more pain. Accordingly, in some cases as determined by a doctor, the nail matrix is coated with a chemical (usually phenol) so none of the nail will ever grow back. This is known as a permanent or full nail avulsion, or full matrixectomy, phenolisation, or full phenol avulsion. As can be seen in the images below, the nail-less toe does not look like a normal toe. Fake nails or nail varnish can still be applied to the area to provide a normal appearance. In a few cases phenolisation is not successful and has to be repeated. Podiatrists routinely warn patients of this possibility of regrowth. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=33171133 | 527,451 |
1,466,006 | Lampworking is a type of glasswork in which a torch or lamp is used to melt the glass. Once in a molten state, the glass is formed by blowing and shaping with tools and hand movements. It is also known as flameworking or torchworking, as the modern practice no longer uses oil-fueled lamps. Although lack of a precise definition for lampworking makes it difficult to determine when this technique was first developed, the earliest verifiable lampworked glass is probably a collection of beads thought to date to the fifth century BC. Lampworking became widely practiced in Murano, Italy in the 14th century. As early as the 17th century, itinerant glassworkers demonstrated lampworking to the public. In the mid-19th century lampwork technique was extended to the production of paperweights, primarily in France, where it became a popular art form, still collected today. Lampworking differs from glassblowing in that glassblowing uses a furnace as the primary heat source, although torches are also used. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1219391 | 1,465,183 |
882,385 | One of the earliest widespread commercial applications of sputter deposition, which is still one of its most important applications, is in the production of computer hard disks. Sputtering is used extensively in the semiconductor industry to deposit thin films of various materials in integrated circuit processing. Thin antireflection coatings on glass for optical applications are also deposited by sputtering. Because of the low substrate temperatures used, sputtering is an ideal method to deposit contact metals for thin-film transistors. Another familiar application of sputtering is low-emissivity coatings on glass, used in double-pane window assemblies. The coating is a multilayer containing silver and metal oxides such as zinc oxide, tin oxide, or titanium dioxide. A large industry has developed around tool bit coating using sputtered nitrides, such as titanium nitride, creating the familiar gold colored hard coat. Sputtering is also used as the process to deposit the metal (e.g. aluminium) layer during the fabrication of CDs and DVDs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9084531 | 881,921 |
1,445,460 | Another beneficial factor in cryoconservation of indigenous livestock is in terms of food security and economic development. Indigenous livestock often have beneficial traits related to adaptation to local climate and diseases that can be incorporated into major breeds through cryoconservation practices. Cryoconservation is a favorable strategy because it allows germplasms to be stored for extended periods of time in a small confined area. An additional benefit of cryoconservation is the ability to preserve the biological material of both maternal and paternal cells and maintain viability over extended periods of time. Cryoconservation has been successfully used as a conservation strategy for species and breeds that have since been endangered. One drawback is that cryoconservation can only be done if preparation has taken place in advance. With proper preparation of collecting and maintaining genetic material, this method is very beneficial for the conservation of rare and endangered livestock. Cryoconservation can serve as a contingency plan when a breed population needs to be restored or when a breed has become extinct, as well as for breed improvement. This process benefits companies and researchers by making genetic materials available. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50642488 | 1,444,644 |
279,541 | Traditionally, tendons have been considered to be a mechanism by which muscles connect to bone as well as muscles itself, functioning to transmit forces. This connection allows tendons to passively modulate forces during locomotion, providing additional stability with no active work. However, over the past two decades, much research has focused on the elastic properties of some tendons and their ability to function as springs. Not all tendons are required to perform the same functional role, with some predominantly positioning limbs, such as the fingers when writing (positional tendons) and others acting as springs to make locomotion more efficient (energy storing tendons). Energy storing tendons can store and recover energy at high efficiency. For example, during a human stride, the Achilles tendon stretches as the ankle joint dorsiflexes. During the last portion of the stride, as the foot plantar-flexes (pointing the toes down), the stored elastic energy is released. Furthermore, because the tendon stretches, the muscle is able to function with less or even no change in length, allowing the muscle to generate more force. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=144865 | 279,391 |
1,169,719 | Chromatography methods changed little after Tsvet's work until the explosion of mid-20th century research in new techniques, particularly thanks to the work of Archer John Porter Martin and Richard Laurence Millington Synge. By "the marrying of two techniques, that of chromatography and that of countercurrent solvent extraction", Martin and Synge developed partition chromatography to separate chemicals with only slight differences in partition coefficients between two liquid solvents. Martin, who had previously been working in vitamin chemistry (including attempts to purify vitamin E), began collaborating with Synge in 1938, brought his experience with equipment design to Synge's project of separating amino acids. After unsuccessful experiments with complex countercurrent extraction machines and liquid-liquid chromatography methods where the liquids move in opposite directions, Martin hit on the idea of using silica gel in columns to hold water stationary while an organic solvent flows through the column. Martin and Synge demonstrated the potential of the methods by separating amino acids marked in the column by the addition of methyl red. In a series of publications beginning in 1941, they described increasingly powerful methods of separating amino acids and other organic chemicals. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18519026 | 1,169,100 |
1,212,065 | The eddy-current proximity probes pioneered by Bently addressed this need. In 1970 the American Petroleum Institute designated the proximity probe as the measurement device for measuring acceptable shaft vibration during factory acceptance testing. It added this as a requirement to its standard for centrifugal compressors. Bently's pioneering design for shaft vibration measurement using proximity probes became the de facto industry standard for turbomachinery acceptance testing and machinery protection. The eddy-current proximity probe became the preferred method for assessing vibration and overall mechanical condition on large turbomachinery employing fluid bearings. Such machines and bearing types account for the vast majority of compressors, turbines, pumps, electric motors, generators, and other rotating equipment exceeding 1,000 HP, and can be found in abundance in most industrial plants. As a result, the primary focus of the company shifted from laboratory measurements to industrial measurements on rotating machinery. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8288739 | 1,211,413 |
487,353 | The μA709, which followed the compromised μA702, became a technical and commercial success. Widlar increased the μA709's voltage gain tenfold over that of the μA702 (70,000 vs. 7,000), and improved output performance with a push-pull output stage, although the output lacked protection against short circuits. The input stage was governed by a Widlar current source which allowed generation of low bias currents without the need for area-consumptive high-value resistors. The transistors were equipped with beta-compensation resistors to reduce the effects of inevitable mismatch. Fairchild R&D staff spoke against Widlar's decision to employ lateral PNP transistors. Widlar locked himself up for 170 hours of continuous experimental work and came out with a robust design that blended two resistive diffusion areas into a usable lateral PNP device. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3483624 | 487,103 |
1,019,999 | At diagnosis, patients typically are in their 60s and present to their physician with advanced disease. About half have B symptoms such as fever, night sweats, or unexplained weight loss (over 10% of body weight). Enlarged lymph nodes (for example, a "bump" on the neck, armpits or groin) or enlargement of the spleen are usually present. Bone marrow, liver and gastrointestinal tract involvement occurs relatively early in the course of the disease. Mantle cell lymphoma has been reported in rare cases to be associated with severe allergic reactions to mosquito bites. These reactions involve extensive allergic reactions to mosquito bites which range from greatly enlarged bite sites that may be painful and involve necrosis to systemic symptoms (e.g. fever, swollen lymph nodes, abdominal pain, and diarrhea), or, in extremely rare cases, to life-threatening anaphylaxis. In several of these cases, the mosquito bite allergy (MBA) reaction occurred prior to the diagnosis of MCL suggesting that MBA can be a manifestation of early-developing mantle cell lymphoma. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13760802 | 1,019,472 |
912,328 | Biogas is composed mainly of methane () and carbon dioxide (), with some traces of hydrogen sulphide, oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen. Macroalgae has high methane production rate compared to plant biomass. Biogas production from macroalgae is more technically viable compared to other fuels, but it is not economically viable due to the high cost of macroalgae feedstock. Carbohydrate and protein in microalgae can be converted into biogas through anaerobic digestion, which includes hydrolysis, fermentation, and methanogenesis steps. The conversion of algal biomass into methane can potentially recover as much energy as it obtains, but it is more profitable when the algal lipid content is lower than 40%. Biogas production from microalgae is relatively low because of the high ratio of protein in microalgae, but microalgae can be co-digested with high C/N ratio products such as wastepaper. Another method to produce biogas is through gasification, where hydrocarbon is converted to syngas through a partial oxidation reaction at high temperature (typically 800 °C to 1000 °C). Gasification is usually performed with catalysts. Uncatalyzed gasification requires temperature to be about 1300 °C. Syngas can be burnt directly to produce energy or used a fuel in turbine engines. It can also be used as feedstock for other chemical productions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14205946 | 911,849 |
343,055 | The Air Force has said the MOAB has a unit price of $170,000, but this is a historical unit cost made in the mid-2000s and various factors of the bomb's atypical development process have made exact cost estimation difficult. The Air Force Research Lab generated the value based on already existing parts such as bomb casing and metals, and since the bomb was built in-house, they did not pay for outside research or have standard procurement costs associated with it. MOAB was a "crash project" developed for use against an adversary with uncertain tactics on unfamiliar terrain, and so was an effort to meet an urgent need rather than a formal program. Should more bombs be ordered to be built, manufacturing would likely be started over with higher costs due to a lack of old parts, price inflation, and new design and testing. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=198967 | 342,874 |
311,500 | Humanitarian practices in areas lacking optimum care can also pause other interesting and difficult ethical dilemmas in terms of beneficence and non-maleficence. Humanitarian practices are based upon providing better medical equipment and care for communities whose country does not provide adequate healthcare. The issues with providing healthcare to communities in need may sometimes be religious or cultural backgrounds keeping people from performing certain procedures or taking certain drugs. On the other hand, wanting certain procedures done in a specific manner due to religious or cultural belief systems may also occur. The ethical dilemma stems from differences in culture between communities helping those with medical disparities and the societies receiving aid. Women's rights, informed consent and education about health become controversial, as some treatments needed are against societal law, while some cultural traditions involve procedures against humanitarian efforts. Examples of this are female genital mutilation (FGM), aiding in reinfibulation, providing sterile equipment in order to perform procedures such as FGM, as well as informing patients of their HIV positive testing. The latter is controversial because certain communities have in the past outcast or killed HIV positive individuals. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=237248 | 311,332 |
870,508 | In 1993, Aleph One collaborated with Acorn to produce Acorn-branded versions of the PC cards for use with the A3020 and A4000 which used a distinct "mini-podule expansion system". The 25 MHz 386SX and 486SLC cards were offered in this profile to provide DOS and Windows compatibility, branded as the PC386 and PC486, priced at £275 and £499 respectively. In late 1993, the supplied software was upgraded and discounts to the products announced, bringing the respective prices down to £225 and £425. Acorn also offered bundles of the A4000 with a hard drive and each of the cards. Coincidentally at this time, with speculation building about future Acorn computer products, Acorn's product marketing manager had been reported as suggesting that such products "would have an empty Intel socket for customers to add PC Dos and Windows compatibility". Such remarks were clarified by Acorn's technical director, indicating that an Intel "second processor" was merely an option in an architecture supporting multiple processors. Ultimately, Acorn would release the Risc PC with dual processor capabilities and support for using a "low cost (£99 upwards) plug-in 486 PC processor or other CPUs" alongside an ARM processor. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=63145 | 870,048 |
522,621 | According to a report published in "Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report" in September 2010, two confirmed cases of "Balamuthia" transmission occurred through organ transplantation in December 2009 in Mississippi. Two kidney recipients, a 31-year-old woman and a 27-year-old man, suffered from post-transplant encephalitis due to "Balamuthia". The woman died in February 2010 and the man survived with partial paralysis of his right arm. The CDC was notified by a physician on December 14, 2009, about possible transplant transmission in these two patients. Histopathologic testing of donor and recipient tissues confirmed the transmission. Two other patients who received heart and liver transplants from the same donor, but in different hospitals, were placed on preemptive therapy and remain unaffected. A second cluster of transplant-transmitted "Balamuthia" in Arizona was reported in the same weekly report. Four recipients were identified, two from Arizona (liver and kidney-pancreas), one from California (kidney), and another from Utah (heart). Recipients from Arizona—a 56-year-old male and a 24-year-old male—both succumbed to GAE within a span of 40 days from transplantation. The other two were placed on preemptive therapy after the first two were reported and remain unaffected. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6510698 | 522,349 |
1,498,588 | However, the precursor to the modern endoscope was invented in the 1800s when a physician in Frankfurt, Germany by the name of Philipp Bozzini, developed a tool to see the inner workings of the body. Bozzini called his invention a Light Conductor, or Lichtleiter in German, and later wrote about his experiments on live patients with this device that consisted of an eyepiece and a container for a candle. Following Bozzini's success, The University of Vienna starting using the device to test its practicality in other forms of medicine. After Bozzini's device received negative results from live human trials, it had to be discontinued. However, Maximilian Nitze and Joseph Leiter used the invention of the light bulb by Thomas Edison to make a more refined device similar to modern day endoscopes. This iteration was used for urological procedures, and eventually otolaryngologists began to use Nitze and Leiter's device for eustachian tube manipulation and removal of foreign bodies. The endoscope made its way to the US when Walter Messerklinger began teaching David Kennedy at Johns Hopkins Hospital. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=40633874 | 1,497,744 |
1,018,396 | Abiraterone acetate was approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration on 28 April 2011 for mCRPC. The FDA press release made reference to a phase III clinical trial in which abiraterone acetate use was associated with a median survival of 14.8 months versus 10.9 months with placebo; the study was stopped early because of the successful outcome. Abiraterone acetate was also licensed by the European Medicines Agency. Until May 2012 the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) did not recommend use of the drug within the NHS on cost-effectiveness grounds. This position was reversed when the manufacturer submitted revised costs. The use is currently limited to men who have already received one docetaxel-containing chemotherapy regimen. It was subsequently approved for the treatment of mCSPC in 2018. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12198134 | 1,017,869 |
1,329,428 | The New York Academy of Sciences (originally the Lyceum of Natural History) was founded in January 1817 as the Lyceum of Natural History. It is the fourth oldest scientific society in the United States. An independent, nonprofit organization with more than members in 100 countries, the academy has a mission to advance scientific research and knowledge, support scientific literacy, and promote science-based solutions to global challenges. The academy hosts programs and publishes scholarly scientific content in the life, physical, and social sciences, including several areas of cross-discipline inquiry such as nutrition, artificial intelligence, space exploration, and sustainability. The academy's programs and publications are designed to discuss and disseminate accurate and timely scientific information to its members, the broad scientific community, the media, and the public. The academy also provides professional and educational resources for researchers across all phases of their careers. The president and CEO of the academy is Nicholas Dirks. The chair of the board of governors is Jerry Hultin, chair and co-founder of Global Futures Group, LLC. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3493775 | 1,328,700 |
1,208,384 | Only a single vertebra is known from the remainder of the neck. This vertebra sported the most prominent feature of the genus, an extremely elongated neural spine that was deeply bifurcated into a left and right rod-like element. This neural spine is long and made the vertebra four times taller than it was long. Among sauropods, it was only comparable to those of the related "Amargasaurus", but the spine curved toward the front rather than being directed backwards as in that genus. The bases of the rod-like elements were triangular and compressed sideways; their cross-section along most of their length was egg-shaped. Their tips broadened slightly, unlike the acute tips in "Amargasaurus". In "Amargasaurus", the spines show striations on their surface that indicate that a keratin (horn) sheath was present in life. Although similar striations cannot be observed on the spines of "Bajadasaurus" due to poor preservation, Gallina and colleagues found it likely that the spines were covered by a horny sheath as well. The exact position of the single preserved vertebra in the neck is unclear: its morphology is comparable to the fifth neck vertebra of "Dicraeosaurus", the probable sixth of "Brachytrachelopan", and the seventh of "Amargasaurus"; based on these comparisons, it was tentatively described as the fifth neck vertebra. The centrum of this vertebra was twice as long as it was high and narrowed into a longitudinal keel on the underside; this keel was concave and broader in other dicraeosaurids. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=59855096 | 1,207,738 |
376,584 | Materials that have dimensions small enough to be electron transparent, such as powdered substances, small organisms, viruses, or nanotubes, can be quickly prepared by the deposition of a dilute sample containing the specimen onto films on support grids. Biological specimens may be embedded in resin to withstand the high vacuum in the sample chamber and to enable cutting tissue into electron transparent thin sections. The biological sample can be stained using either a negative staining material such as uranyl acetate for bacteria and viruses, or, in the case of embedded sections, the specimen may be stained with heavy metals, including osmium tetroxide. Alternately samples may be held at liquid nitrogen temperatures after embedding in vitreous ice. In material science and metallurgy the specimens can usually withstand the high vacuum, but still must be prepared as a thin foil, or etched so some portion of the specimen is thin enough for the beam to penetrate. Constraints on the thickness of the material may be limited by the scattering cross-section of the atoms from which the material is comprised. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=214513 | 376,389 |
708,995 | The natural occurrence of fermentation means it was probably first observed long ago by humans. The earliest uses of the word "fermentation" in relation to winemaking was in reference to the apparent "boiling" within the must that came from the anaerobic reaction of the yeast to the sugars in the grape juice and the release of carbon dioxide. The Latin "fervere" means, literally, "to boil". In the mid-19th century, Louis Pasteur noted the connection between yeast and the process of the fermentation in which the yeast act as catalyst and mediator through a series of a reaction that convert sugar into alcohol. The discovery of the Embden–Meyerhof–Parnas pathway by Gustav Embden, Otto Fritz Meyerhof and Jakub Karol Parnas in the early 20th century contributed more to the understanding of the complex chemical processes involved in the conversion of sugar to alcohol. In the early 2010s, New Jersey based wine tech company GOfermentor invented an automated winemaking device that ferments in single-use liners similar to the single-use bioreactor. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13824744 | 708,626 |
2,065,150 | For all of its advancements, "Polishing of Metal" suffered a major handicap: It was expensive to produce. Completed during a sort of economic boom to its publishing company, Emperor Multimedia, by 2013 the tide had changed. Money was not as easy to come by and the market for Compact Discs was faltering. Unable to gain financing for a follow-up, the project was terminated. Emperor Multimedia Corporation ended all compact disc manufacture and production shortly after. On March 17, 2013 the last shipment of CDs were shipped for commercial sale, the remaining inventory was given to charity. The date was carefully chosen as it coincided with the release date of the firm's first production, The Alliance of March 17, 1999. McDonald purchased all rights to the intellectual properties held by Emperor Multimedia to that date so he could continue production in the digital realm on a potential future website called 'The Diskery Music Archives' to take the place of his defunct music on-line retail shop The Diskery and the RRCA Music Archives. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13093858 | 2,063,959 |
705 | The Canadian CF-35 was a proposed variant that would differ from the F-35A through the addition of a drogue parachute and the potential inclusion of an F-35B/C-style refueling probe. In 2012, it was revealed that the CF-35 would employ the same boom refueling system as the F-35A. One alternative proposal would have been the adoption of the F-35C for its probe refueling and lower landing speed; however, the Parliamentary Budget Officer's report cited the F-35C's limited performance and payload as being too high a price to pay. Following the 2015 Federal Election the Liberal Party, whose campaign had included a pledge to cancel the F-35 procurement, formed a new government and commenced an open competition to replace the existing CF-18 Hornet. The CF-35 variant was deemed too expensive to develop, and was never considered. The Canadian government decided to not pursue any other modifications in the Future Fighter Capability Project, and instead focus on the potential procurement of the existing F-35A variant. It has been speculated, however, that the RCAF would still include the drag chute pod as seen on RNoAF F-35As for shortened landing distances. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11812 | 705 |
262,285 | As different uses of the technique were invented independently, cartographers began to recognize a common theme, and debated what to call these "lines of equal value" generally. The word "isogram" ( + ) was proposed by Francis Galton in 1889 for lines indicating equality of some physical condition or quantity, though "isogram" can also refer to a word without a repeated letter. As late as 1944, John K. Wright still preferred "isogram", but it never attained wide usage. During the early 20th Century, "isopleth" () was being used by 1911 in the United States, while "isarithm" () had become common in Europe. Additional alternatives, including the Greek-English hybrid "isoline" and "isometric line" (), also emerged. Despite attempts to select a single standard, all of these alternatives have survived to the present. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=650086 | 262,146 |
1,525,710 | By December 1939, excavation had commenced on the Stovall team's fifth quarry. The most significant remains uncovered there are referable to the large sauropod "Diplodocus". Prior to the cessation of digging at Quarry 5 in the middle of 1941, this quarry had attained impressive dimensions. Its walls were nine meters (30 feet) high and the breadth of the excavation wide. Other notable quarries excavated by the Stovall team include the eighth, which produced fossils of ornithopod and theropod dinosaurs as well as other reptiles like a new species of crocodilian, "Cteniogenys", and turtles. Lungfish were also preserved there. Funding for Stovall's field work ended with the advent of World War II in 1942, interrupting excavations at Quarries 9 and 10. In 1964, Charles Mook named the new crocodilian species uncovered by the Stovall team "Goniopholis stovalli" in his honor. The new theropod from Quarry 1 was named "Saurophagus". In 1995, Dan Chure published a new name for "Saurophagus" since that name had already been used for another kind of animal; he renamed it "Saurophaganax maximus". More recently, in 2004, Matt Bonnan and Matt Wedel noticed the presence of at least one "Brachiosaurus" bone among the fossils excavated by the Stovall Crew at Quarry 1. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=37799126 | 1,524,849 |
912,614 | The performance of direct contact heat exchangers operating at typical OTEC boundary conditions is important to the Claude cycle. Many early Claude cycle designs used a surface condenser since their performance was well understood. However, direct contact condensers offer significant disadvantages. As cold water rises in the intake pipe, the pressure decreases to the point where gas begins to evolve. If a significant amount of gas comes out of solution, placing a gas trap before the direct contact heat exchangers may be justified. Experiments simulating conditions in the warm water intake pipe indicated about 30% of the dissolved gas evolves in the top of the tube. The trade-off between pre-dearation of the seawater and expulsion of non-condensable gases from the condenser is dependent on the gas evolution dynamics, deaerator efficiency, head loss, vent compressor efficiency and parasitic power. Experimental results indicate vertical spout condensers perform some 30% better than falling jet types. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=68498 | 912,135 |
1,228,734 | Macleod did not continue to work on insulin, but he remained active as a researcher, lecturer and author. His last major contribution was a proof that the central nervous system does have an important role in maintaining carbohydrate metabolism balance, as was his original hypothesis. His theory about conversion of fats into carbohydrates remained unproven, despite his provision of several indirect proofs. He devoted his spare time to golf, motorcycling and painting. He was married to Mary W. McWalter, but they never had children. He died in 1935 in Aberdeen after several years of suffering from arthritis, despite which he remained active almost until his death. In 1933 he made a lecture tour of the US, and in 1934 he published the 7th edition of his book "Physiology and Biochemistry in Modern Medicine". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=16164 | 1,228,072 |
2,028,674 | Sotiris S. Xantheas (Σωτηρης Ξανθεας) is a Laboratory Fellow in the Advanced Computing, Mathematics and Data Division at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) in Richland, WA (https://www.pnnl.gov/science/staff/staff_info.asp?staff_num=5610) and an Affiliate Professor, UW - PNNL Distinguished Faculty Fellow in the Department of Chemistry at the University of Washington in Seattle, WA, USA (http://depts.washington.edu/chem/people/faculty/xantheas.html). He is an adjunct professor in the Department of Mathematics and Statistics at Washington State University in Pullman, WA, USA (http://www.math.wsu.edu/faculty/sxantheas/), and a specially appointed professor in the World Research Hub Initiative (WRHI) at the Tokyo Technological Institute in Tokyo, Japan (http://www.wrhi.iir.titech.ac.jp/en/news/announcement/6857/). He is an Elected Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the American Physical Society, and the Washington State Academy of Sciences (WSAS), a Marie Curie Fellow, a Fellow of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) and a visiting Fellow at the Institute for Advanced Study at the Technical University of Munich at Garching, Germany. He is the recipient of the ""Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel"" Award from the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation in Bonn, Germany, and the "Director’s Award for Exceptional Scientific Achievement" at PNNL (twice). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=53864612 | 2,027,506 |
921,993 | In 1967, the Boston Redevelopment Authority (BRA) published a study, titled "An Urban Campus by the Sea", which proposed building the campus on the Columbia Point peninsula. The site was a former landfill, adjacent to the largest and poorest public housing complex in New England, and a mile from the MBTA's Columbia station. The proposal was deeply unpopular among the faculty and students; 1,500 of them subsequently organized a rally in November 1967 on Boston Common demanding a downtown location in Copley Square. In April 1969, when the Students for a Democratic Society organized its opposition rally, the student leaders denounced the university as "a 'pawn' masking the Boston Redevelopment Authority's plan to remove poor people from Columbia Point" and that "the university is planning a prestigious dormitory school with high tuition which students from low- and moderate-income families–whom the university was designed to serve–will not be able to attend." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=99867 | 921,507 |
1,858,143 | Edge energy is the energy per unit length of a free edge contacting water. This can be thought of as the work needed to create a hole in the bilayer of unit length L. The origin of this energy is the fact that creating such an interface exposes some of the lipid tails to water, which is unfavorable. formula_1 is also an important parameter in biological phenomena as it regulates the self-healing properties of the bilayer following electroporation or mechanical perforation of the cell membrane. Unfortunately, this property is both difficult to measure experimentally and to calculate. One of the major difficulties in calculation is that the structural properties of this edge are not known. The simplest model would be no change in bilayer orientation, such that the full length of the tail is exposed. This is a high energy conformation and, to stabilize this edge, it is likely that some of the lipids rearrange their head groups to point out in a curved boundary. The extent to which this occurs is currently unknown and there is some evidence that both hydrophobic (tails straight) and hydrophilic (heads curved around) pores can coexist. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21451766 | 1,857,075 |
2,193,920 | In 1917 Milton Hopkins, Jr. moved with his family to Port Washington, New York and attended elementary school and high school there. In 1930 he received his bachelor's degree from Amherst College. After graduating with M.A. and Ph.D. in biology from Harvard University, he was a professor of biology from 1936 to 1945 at the University of Oklahoma. In 1944 he married Elizabeth Robbins Hewlett. In 1945 they returned to the Port Washington area to live in the Hewlett homestead (located in the Village of Flower Hill), which was built in the early 1700s and occupied by eight generations of the Hewlett family before being sold to the real estate developer Ivo Matkovic. From 1945 until retirement, Milton Hopkins was editor-in-chief of college textbooks at Holt, Rinehart & Winston. He was a local historian of Long Island and president of the Cow Neck Peninsula Historical Society of Port Washington. Milton and Elizabeth Hopkins lived in the historic Hewlett house until 1980. Upon his death he was survived by his widow, a daughter, and two granddaughters. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=61472652 | 2,192,670 |
22,662 | The most abundant iron isotope Fe is of particular interest to nuclear scientists because it represents the most common endpoint of nucleosynthesis. Since Ni (14 alpha particles) is easily produced from lighter nuclei in the alpha process in nuclear reactions in supernovae (see silicon burning process), it is the endpoint of fusion chains inside extremely massive stars, since addition of another alpha particle, resulting in Zn, requires a great deal more energy. This Ni, which has a half-life of about 6 days, is created in quantity in these stars, but soon decays by two successive positron emissions within supernova decay products in the supernova remnant gas cloud, first to radioactive Co, and then to stable Fe. As such, iron is the most abundant element in the core of red giants, and is the most abundant metal in iron meteorites and in the dense metal cores of planets such as Earth. It is also very common in the universe, relative to other stable metals of approximately the same atomic weight. Iron is the sixth most abundant element in the universe, and the most common refractory element. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 | 22,653 |
661,910 | Many period 4 elements find roles in controlling protein function as secondary messengers, structural components, or enzyme cofactors. A gradient of potassium is used by cells to maintain a membrane potential which enables neurotransmitter firing and facilitated diffusion among other processes. Calcium is a common signaling molecule for proteins such as calmodulin and plays a critical role in triggering skeletal muscle contraction in vertebrates. Selenium is a component of the noncanonical amino acid, selenocysteine; proteins which contain selenocysteine are known as selenoproteins. are utilized by both eukaryotes and prokaryotes, and may play a role in the virulence of some pathogenic bacteria. Vanabins, also known as vanadium-associated proteins, are found in the blood cells of some species of sea squirts. The role of these proteins is disputed, although there is some speculation that they function as oxygen carriers. Zinc ions are used to stabilize the zinc finger milieu of many DNA-binding proteins. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=181554 | 661,565 |
1,405,987 | Biological field stations or ecological research stations are facilities where research can be conducted into different aspects of the environmental and biological life. It covers a wide range of field stations including: marine research stations, tropical research stations etc. During the 18th and early 19th century, field stations were not yet formally established, and European naturalists and biologists would conduct their research through imperial scientific explorations. This time period occurred within the time of imperialism and colonial expansion which began from the mid-18th century, which was where European countries, which undergoing industrialization, were in the process of seeking to invade and conqueror territories around the world. Naturalists were often enlisted on imperial campaigns to "undiscovered" territories to assist in the cataloging and mapping of foreign specimens. For example, in 1813, Charles Darwin was appointed the naturalist on the Royal Navy ship, HMS Beagle, and his diary journals from that voyage contributed significantly to his later scientific theories on evolution and natural selection. Similarly, Joseph Banks was also an English naturalist who was appointed the botanist of imperial collaboration between the Royal Navy Society scientific expedition in 1768 on HMS Endeavour to the South Pacific which was heralded as the discovery of Australia or Terra Nullius as it was known at the time. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1857169 | 1,405,197 |
2,199,785 | After earning his Ph.D. Buddington had a series of brief appointments. He was first a postdoctoral fellow at Princeton, but in 1917 he took a position teaching at Brown. In early 1918, with World War I raging, he returned to Princeton to teach military aerial observation in its aviation ground school. Specifically he taught map-reading, range-finding, and telegraphy. In April he enlisted as a private in the U.S. Army's Signal Corps. He trained briefly as an aerial observer and photo interpreter before being reassigned to the Chemical Warfare Service, where he did research under Richard C. Tolman. He was discharged at war's end in 1919 as a sergeant first class and then returned to Brown once again to teach. Later that year he joined the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution for Science in Washington, D.C. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41916421 | 2,198,533 |
981,062 | Dike swarms (also called "dike complexes") are exposed in the eroded rift zones of Hawaiian volcanoes. As with most other magmatic dikes, these were fissures through which lava reached the surface. The swarms are typically 2.5 to 5 km in width, with individual dikes about a meter in width. The dike swarms extend radially out from volcano summits and parallel to the long axis of the volcanic shield. Sills and stocks are occasionally present in the complexes. They are abruptly truncated at the margins of summit calderas. Typically, there are about 50 to 100 dikes per kilometer at the center of the rift zone, though the density can be as high as 500 per kilometer and the dikes then make up half the volume of the rock. The density drops to 5 to 50 per kilometer away from the center of the rift zone before abruptly dropping to very few dikes. It is likely that the number of dikes must increase with depth, reaching a typical value of 300 to 350 per kilometer at the level of the ocean floor. In some respects, these dike swarms resemble those of western Scotland associated with the flood eruptions that preceded the opening of the Atlantic Ocean. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=975686 | 980,550 |
1,966,769 | The corpuscles of Stannius are special endocrine organs in the kidney in fish and are responsible for maintaining calcium balance. They are found only in bony fishes. They were discovered and described by a German anatomist Hermann Friedrich Stannius in 1839. Stannius considered them as functionally similar to adrenal glands in mammals. But they have later been found to be anatomically different as they are derived from different tissues of the embryo. Structurally the corpuscles are a large number of spherical bodies separated from each other by loose connective tissues. Each body or lobule is in turn composed of several columnar cells, which contain secretory granules and are, thus, secretory in function. Each Secretory granule is spherical in shape and measures 0.5 to 1 μm in diameter. Their possible endocrine nature, i.e. producing hormone, was suspected from the complete anatomical description, and it was believed to be responsible for regulating calcium level in the blood. The hormone was identified as stanniocalcin. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=48378306 | 1,965,639 |
2,089,468 | Based at the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, the project uses knockout mice most of which were generated by the International Knockout Mouse Consortium. For each mutant line, groups of seven male and seven female mice move through a standard analysis pipeline aimed at detecting traits that differ from healthy C57BL/6 mice. The pipeline collects many measurements of viability, fertility, body weight, infection, hearing, morphology, haematology, behaviour, blood chemistry and immunity and compares them to wild type controls using a statistical mixed model. These data are immediately shared among the scientific and medical research community through a bespoke open access database, and summaries are displayed in other online resources, including the Mouse Genome Informatics database and the Wikipedia-based Gene Wiki. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=40440471 | 2,088,265 |
44,399 | When he reached Calcutta, he asked his student K. R. Ramanathan, who was from the University of Rangoon, to conduct further research at IACS. By early 1922, Raman came to a conclusion, as he reported in the "Proceedings of the Royal Society of London":True to his words, Ramanathan published an elaborate experimental finding in 1923. His subsequent study of the Bay of Bengal in 1924 provided the full evidence. It is now known that the intrinsic colour of water is mainly attributed to the selective absorption of longer wavelengths of light in the red and orange regions of the spectrum, owing to overtones of the infrared absorbing O-H (oxygen and hydrogen combined) stretching modes of water molecules. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=276727 | 44,382 |
1,020,013 | Immune-based therapy is dominated by the use of the rituximab monoclonal antibody, sold under the trade name Rituxan (or as Mabthera in Europe and Australia). Rituximab may have good activity against MCL as a single agent, but it is typically given in combination with chemotherapies, which prolongs response duration. There are newer variations on monoclonal antibodies combined with radioactive molecules known as radioimmunotherapy (RIT). These include Zevalin and Bexxar. Rituximab has also been used in small numbers of patients in combination with thalidomide with some effect. In contrast to these antibody-based 'passive' immunotherapies, the field of 'active' immunotherapy tries to activate a patient's immune system to specifically eliminate their own tumor cells. Examples of active immunotherapy include cancer vaccines, adoptive cell transfer, and immunotransplant, which combines vaccination and autologous stem cell transplant. Though no active immunotherapies are currently a standard of care, numerous clinical trials are ongoing. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13760802 | 1,019,486 |
771,129 | This is an unusual form of epidemic epilepsy associated with onchocerciasis although definitive link has not been established. This syndrome was first described in Tanzania by Louise Jilek-Aall, a Norwegian psychiatric doctor in Tanzanian practice, during the 1960s. It occurs most commonly in Uganda and South Sudan. It manifests itself in previously healthy 5–15-year-old children, is often triggered by eating or low temperatures and is accompanied by cognitive impairment. Seizures occur frequently and may be difficult to control. The electroencephalogram is abnormal but cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are normal or show non-specific changes. If there are abnormalities on the MRI they are usually present in the hippocampus. Polymerase chain reaction testing of the CSF does not show the presence of the parasite. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=276846 | 770,715 |
472,567 | Pitolisant was the first antagonist/inverse agonist to proceed to clinical trials and is the only drug that has been approved by regulatory authorities in the US and Europe. It is highly selective for the H receptor. Pitolisant has high oral bioavailability and easily accesses the brain. It undergoes extensive first-pass effects through the CYP4A4 enzyme in the gut. The whole metabolic pathway has not yet been established but involves a few CYP enzymes. It has been proved to be useful for maintaining waking-state in the daytime for people with narcolepsy. Side effects encountered in clinical trials were found to be dose-dependent. As expected, some of the adverse effects were neuropsychiatric in character most common of which were insomnia, headache and anxiety. Pitolisant can also potentially cause a prolonged QT interval so caution is advised in cardiac patients. Keeping doses as low as possible can minimize risk for adverse events. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18242075 | 472,331 |
478,622 | Within various professional society memberships, Ashkin attained the rating of fellow in the Optical Society of America (OSA), the American Physical Society (APS), and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). He retired from Bell Labs in 1992 after a 40-year career during which he contributed to many areas of experimental physics. He authored many research papers over the years and held 47 patents. He was recipient of the Joseph F. Keithley Award For Advances in Measurement Science in 2003 and the Harvey Prize in 2004. He was elected to the National Academy of Engineering in 1984 and to the National Academy of Sciences in 1996. He was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in 2013. He continued to work in his home lab. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3173722 | 478,382 |
1,094,128 | In early 1917, the Sopwith chief engineer, Herbert Smith, began designing a new fighter (internal Sopwith designation 5F.1) powered by the geared 200 hp Hispano-Suiza 8B. The resulting Dolphin was a two-bay, single-seat biplane, with the upper wings attached to an open steel cabane frame above the cockpit. To maintain the correct centre of gravity, the lower wings were positioned forward of the upper wings, creating the Dolphin's distinctive negative wing stagger. The pilot sat with his head through the frame, where he had an excellent view. This configuration sometimes caused difficulty for novices, who found it difficult to keep the aircraft pointed at the horizon because the nose was not visible from the cockpit. The cockpit was nevertheless warm and comfortable, in part because water pipes ran alongside the cockpit walls to the two side-mounted radiator blocks. A pair of single-panel shutters, one in front of each radiator core and operated by the pilot, allowed the engine temperature to be controlled. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8745941 | 1,093,568 |
592,136 | The amount of carbon in the soil is determined by the input rate of new carbon and the decay rate of old carbon. Soil carbon that is derived from plants is a continuum, ranging from living biomass to humus, and it decays in different stages. It can be divided into an active, a slow and a passive pool, with mean carbon residence times (MRT) of 0.1–2 years, 15–100 years, and 500–5000 years for the three pools, respectively. The topsoil carbon residence time was 60 years on average in one experiment (specifically 19 years for depths between , and 30–152 years for depths between .) Carbon below was stable. The actual rate of carbon decay in a particular location depends on many factors, for instance plant species, soil type, temperature and humidity. Researchers did not find evidence of decreasing soil organic carbon accumulation as their test miscanthus crop aged, which meant no carbon saturation at that site for 20 years. Others estimate 30–50 years of continuous soil carbon increase after a land use change from annual to perennial crops. The amount of carbon in the ground under miscanthus fields is expected to increase during the entire life of the crop, but possibly with a slow start because of the initial tilling (plowing, digging) and the relatively low amounts of carbon input in the establishment phase. (Tilling helps the soil microbe populations to decompose the available carbon, producing CO.) Researchers argue that the high carbon storage below miscanthus fields is because of high proportions of pre- and direct-harvest residues (e.g. dead leaves), direct humus accumulation, a well-developed and deep-reaching root system, low decomposition rates of plant residues due to high carbon to nitrogen ratios, and absence of tillage (which leads to less soil aeration.) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8202316 | 591,834 |
574,190 | Chronic addictive drug use causes alterations in gene expression in the mesocorticolimbic projection, which arise through transcriptional and epigenetic mechanisms. The most important transcription factors that produce these alterations are ΔFosB, cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) response element binding protein (CREB), and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB). ΔFosB is the most significant biomolecular mechanism in addiction because the overexpression of ΔFosB in the D1-type medium spiny neurons in the nucleus accumbens is necessary and sufficient for many of the neural adaptations and behavioral effects (e.g., expression-dependent increases in drug self-administration and reward sensitization) seen in drug addiction. ΔFosB overexpression has been implicated in addictions to alcohol (ethanol), cannabinoids, cocaine, methylphenidate, nicotine, opioids, phencyclidine, propofol, and substituted amphetamines, among others. ΔJunD, a transcription factor, and G9a, a histone methyltransferase, both oppose the function of ΔFosB and inhibit increases in its expression. Increases in nucleus accumbens ΔJunD expression (via viral vector-mediated gene transfer) or G9a expression (via pharmacological means) reduces, or with a large increase can even block, many of the neural and behavioral alterations seen in chronic drug abuse (i.e., the alterations mediated by ΔFosB). Repression of c-Fos by ΔFosB, which consequently further induces expression of ΔFosB, forms a positive feedback loop that serves to indefinitely perpetuate the addictive state. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14873917 | 573,896 |
865,947 | Together with the modular system, the university introduced the «major/minor» education system, which means that students take main disciplines as their "major" and choose the block of additional programs subjected to individual choice as "minors". Altogether, this frees up time for students to prepare for seminars and individual projects. Assessment is carried out in accordance with the European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System. Correspondingly, every student has an individual GPA-based ranking that illustrates not only the academic performance, but also affects the size of the scholarship, gives a discount on tuition fees and the opportunity to participate in foreign internships, learn additional languages at the university and much more. Only 8% of students continue education in foreign universities, while 9% of all students came from abroad or participated in exchange programs. The university collaborates with more than 500 partner universities, mainly from Europe and Asia. As for 2019, HSE University had 50 double degree programs with Humboldt University of Berlin, Erasmus University Rotterdam, University of Leeds, London School of Economics, ESCP Europe, and other universities. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10443874 | 865,487 |
1,571,237 | Ultrasonography is based on the principle that sound can pass through human body tissues and is reflected by the tissue interfaces in the same way that light can reflect back on itself, from a mirror. Tissue in the body will offer varying degrees of resistance, known as acoustic impedance, to the path of the ultrasound beam. When there is a high impedance difference between two tissues, the interface between them will strongly reflect the sound. When the ultrasound beam meets air, or solid tissue such as bone, their impedance difference is so great that most of the acoustic energy is reflected making it impossible to see any underlying structures. The examiner will see just a shadow, instead of the image expected. Air will impede sound waves which is why a gel is used. The gel prevents air bubbles from forming between the probe, and the patient's skin and so helps the conduction of the sound waves from the transducer into the body. The watery medium also helps to conduct the sound waves. Liquids, including blood have a low impedance, which means that little energy will be reflected and no visualization possible. One of the important exceptions is that when the blood flow is very slow it can in fact be seen, in what is termed "spontaneous contrast". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38498516 | 1,570,349 |
1,502,883 | In 1998, a murine model of pancreatic cancer was used to study the effect of implanting genetically modified cytochrome P450 expressing feline epithelial cells encapsulated in cellulose sulfate polymers for the treatment of solid tumors. The approach demonstrated for the first time the application of enzyme expressing cells to activate chemotherapeutic agents. On the basis of these results, an encapsulated cell therapy product, NovaCaps, was tested in a phaseI/II clinical trial for the treatment of pancreatic cancer in patients and has recently been designated by the European medicines agency (EMEA) as an orphan drug in Europe. A further phase I/II clinical trial using the same product confirmed the results of the first trial, demonstrating an approximate doubling of survival time in patients with stage IV pancreatic cancer. In all of these trials using cellulose sulphate, in addition to the clear anti-tumour effects, the capsules were well tolerated and there were no adverse reactions seen such as immune response to the capsules, demonstrating the biocompatible nature of the cellulose sulphate capsules. In one patient the capsules were in place for almost 2 years with no side effects. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29578326 | 1,502,037 |
6,846 | Galileo was one of the first modern thinkers to clearly state that the laws of nature are mathematical. In "The Assayer", he wrote "Philosophy is written in this grand book, the universe ... It is written in the language of mathematics, and its characters are triangles, circles, and other geometric figures;..." His mathematical analyses are a further development of a tradition employed by late scholastic natural philosophers, which Galileo learned when he studied philosophy. His work marked another step towards the eventual separation of science from both philosophy and religion; a major development in human thought. He was often willing to change his views in accordance with observation. In order to perform his experiments, Galileo had to set up standards of length and time, so that measurements made on different days and in different laboratories could be compared in a reproducible fashion. This provided a reliable foundation on which to confirm mathematical laws using inductive reasoning. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374 | 6,843 |
13,170 | However, despite his paper being widely reported by the media, an undermining error, according to teams of other epidemiologists who point out Tsuda's remarks are fatally wrong, is that Tsuda did an apples and oranges comparison by comparing the Fukushima surveys, which uses advanced ultrasound devices that detect otherwise unnoticeable thyroid growths, with data from traditional non-advanced clinical examinations, to arrive at his "20 to 50 times what would be expected" conclusion. In the critical words of epidemiologist Richard Wakeford, “It is inappropriate to compare the data from the Fukushima screening program with cancer registry data from the rest of Japan where there is, in general, no such large-scale screening,”. Wakeford's criticism was one of seven other author's letters that were published criticizing Tsuda's paper. According to Takamura, another epidemiologist, who examined the results of small scale advanced ultrasound tests on Japanese children not near Fukushima, "The prevalence of thyroid cancer [using the same detection technology] does not differ meaningfully from that in Fukushima Prefecture". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31162817 | 13,165 |
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