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1,237,168 | This product pioneered several features that went on to become standard on future designs. The most important were: the strict organization of n-channel and p-channel transistors in 2-3 row pairs across the chip; and running all interconnect on grids rather than minimum custom spacing, which had been the standard until then. This later innovation paved the way to full automation when coupled with the development of 2-layer CMOS arrays. Customizing these first parts was somewhat tedious and error prone due to the lack of good software tools. IMI tapped into PC board development techniques to minimize manual customization effort. Chips at the time were designed by hand drawing all components and interconnect on precision gridded Mylar sheets, using colored pencils to delineate each processing layer. Rubylith sheets were then cut and peeled to create a (typically) 200x to 400x scale representation of the process layer. This was then photo-reduced to make a 1x mask. Digitization rather than rubylith cutting was just coming in as the latest technology, but initially it only removed the rubylith stage; drawings were still manual and then "hand" digitized. PC boards meanwhile had moved from custom rubylith to PC tape for interconnects. IMI created to-scale photo-enlargements of the base layers. Using decals of logic gate connections and PC tape to interconnect these gates, custom circuits could be quickly laid out by hand for these relatively small circuits, and photo-reduced using existing technologies. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=592816 | 1,236,504 |
405,848 | In May 1972, Nutting Associates chief engineer Nolan Bushnell, designer of the first commercial arcade video game, "Computer Space", saw a demonstration of the Odyssey. Inspired, when he and Ted Dabney quit Nutting to found Atari, he assigned Allan Alcorn to create a cheap ping-pong arcade game as a training exercise, though he did not tell Alcorn that it was for training nor that the idea was based on the Odyssey "Table Tennis" game. Alcorn soon developed "Pong" (1972), which Bushnell recognized as a potential hit, and it became the company's first game. "Pong" was very successful, and in turn helped drive sales of the Odyssey; Baer noted that customers bought the console because of "Table Tennis", in turn because of "Pong", and joked that they may as well have stopped designing games after that game card. In April 1974, however, Magnavox sued Atari along with several competitors, including Allied Leisure, Bally Midway, and arcade distributor Empire, for infringing on its patents for video games played on a television screen. Two more lawsuits joined it by 1975, against Sears, Nutting, Williams Electronics, and others. Baer later stated that the lawsuits were not filed right away because Magnavox and Sanders needed to wait until they could expect to be awarded more money than it would cost to pursue the suits. The root of the conflict was a set of patents by Baer and the development team—particularly a pair which described how the Odyssey showed player-controlled objects, or dots, on a video monitor and described a number of games that could be played with the system, with one patent by Baer and one by Rusch. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=77262 | 405,648 |
774,026 | The advent of agriculture has played a key role in the evolutionary history of humanity. Early farming communities benefited from new and comparatively stable sources of food, but were also exposed to new and initially devastating diseases such as tuberculosis, measles, and smallpox. Eventually, genetic resistance to such diseases evolved and humans living today are descendants of those who survived the agricultural revolution and reproduced. The pioneers of agriculture faced tooth cavities, protein deficiency and more generally malnutrition, resulting in shorter statures. Diseases are one of the strongest forces of evolution acting on "Homo sapiens". As this species migrated throughout Africa and began colonizing new lands outside the continent around 100,000 years ago, they came into contact with and helped spread a variety of pathogens with deadly consequences. In addition, the dawn of agriculture led to the rise of major disease outbreaks. Malaria is the oldest known of human contagions, traced to West Africa around 100,000 years ago, before humans began migrating out of the continent. Malarial infections surged around 10,000 years ago, raising the selective pressures upon the affected populations, leading to the evolution of resistance. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54472601 | 773,610 |
1,790,363 | The idea of a national science policy for Sri Lanka was first discussed in the 1980s, although the matter did not move forward in any concrete way for several decades due to the more pressing economic and budgetary needs of the civil war on successive administrations. Nevertheless, a presidential taskforce was appointed in 1991 to examine possible policy actions to be taken in the field of the sciences. Further advancements came some years later, when the Science and Technology Act No. 11 of 1994 established, among others, the National Science Foundation (NSF; formally founded in 1998 for funding scientific research in the country) and the National Science and Technology Commission (NASTEC; formally founded in August 1998 to formulate scientific policy) under the newly established Ministry of Science and Technology (MoST). Despite these efforts, R&D investments in the country were minimal, being just 0.19% GDP in 2006 (0.11% in 2008), lower than regional peers such as India (0.61%) and Malaysia (0.63%), and generally holding at <0.2% through the years. This has been attributed to various factors, including a lack of an innovation culture in Sri Lanka and a risk-averse private sector that did not see much benefit in local R&D ventures. Sri Lanka has thus underperformed significantly in increasing the share of high technology exports as a percentage of its total manufactured exports when compared to regional peers such as India. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54963902 | 1,789,357 |
2,120,576 | Dipak Kumar Dey (born August 12, 1953 in Kolkata, India) is an Indian-American statistician best known for his work on Bayesian methodologies. He is currently the Board of Trustees Distinguished Professor in the Department of Statistics at the University of Connecticut. Dey has an international reputation as a statistician as well as a data scientist. Since he earned a Ph.D. degree in statistics from Purdue University in 1980, Dey has made tremendous contributions to the development of modern statistics, especially in Bayesian analysis, decision science and model selection. Dey has published more than 10 books and edited volumes, and over 260 research articles in peer-refereed national and international journals. In addition, the statistical methodologies that he has developed has found wide applications in a plethora of interdisciplinary and applied fields, such as biometry and bioinformatics, genetics, econometrics, environmental science, and social science. Dey has supervised 40 Ph.D. students, and presented more than 200 professional talks in colloquia, seminars and conferences all over the world. During his career, Dey has been a visiting professor or scholar at many institutions or research centers around the world, such as Macquarie University (Sydney, Australia), Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, (Santiago, Chile), University of São Paulo (São Paulo, Brazil), University of British Columbia (Vancouver, Canada), Statistical and Applied Mathematical Sciences Institute (Research Triangle Park, NC), etc. Dey is an elected fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the American Statistical Association, the Institute of Mathematical Statistics, the International Society for Bayesian Analysis and the International Statistical Institute. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=59770129 | 2,119,357 |
936,183 | While dubbed economic and ecologically sound practices by suppliers, the effects of agricultural pesticides can include toxicity, bioaccumulation, persistence, and physiological responses in humans and wildlife, and several international NGOs, such as Pesticide Action Network, have risen in response to the economic activities of these larger transnational corporations. Historically, PAN's contributions targeting the Dirty Dozen have resulted in treaties and global environmental law banning persistent organic pollutants (POPs), such as endosulfan, and their campaign work on Prior Informed Consent (PIC) for countries in the Global South to know what hazardous and banned chemicals they might be importing have contributed to the culmination of the Rotterdam Convention on Prior Informed Consent, which went into effect in 2004. PAN's work, according to their website, involves "shifting global aid away from pesticides", in addition to community monitoring and serving as a watchdog for the World Bank policy failures. Additionally, Pesticide Action Network members helped co-author the International Assessment of Agricultural Knowledge, Science and Technology for Development (IAASTD), working to center agroecological knowledge and farming techniques as crucial to the future of agriculture. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=16534351 | 935,688 |
561,831 | A 2010 review by evolutionary psychologists Confer et al. suggested that domain general theories, such as for "rationality," has several problems: 1. Evolutionary theories using the idea of numerous domain-specific adaptions have produced testable predictions that have been empirically confirmed; the theory of domain-general rational thought has produced no such predictions or confirmations. 2. The rapidity of responses such as jealousy due to infidelity indicates a domain-specific dedicated module rather than a general, deliberate, rational calculation of consequences. 3. Reactions may occur instinctively (consistent with innate knowledge) even if a person has not learned such knowledge. One example being that in the ancestral environment it is unlikely that males during development learn that infidelity (usually secret) may cause paternal uncertainty (from observing the phenotypes of children born many months later and making a statistical conclusion from the phenotype dissimilarity to the cuckolded fathers). With respect to general purpose problem solvers, Barkow, Cosmides, and Tooby (1992) have suggested in "The Adapted Mind: Evolutionary Psychology and The Generation of Culture" that a purely general problem solving mechanism is impossible to build due to the frame problem. Clune et al. (2013) have argued that computer simulations of the evolution of neural nets suggest that modularity evolves because, compared to non-modular networks, connection costs are lower. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=446606 | 561,542 |
1,651,124 | In contrast to the “western” economic model, most early social scholarship about economics stressed the predominance of reciprocity as a primary driving force in traditional non-Western societies. Marcel Mauss referred to the gift as a “total social phenomenon”, fraught with ritual and socio political as well as material significance. Though some objects, such as armbands or shell necklaces in the kula ring that runs through several island groups off the coast of Papua New Guinea, might induce some form of prestige based competition, the terms of exchange are significantly different from a monetary transaction under a modern capitalist system. While Appadurai actually describes ritual objects as a type of commodity, he couches them as such under significantly different terms than the market-based types of commodity normally treated by economists. Annette Wiener criticizes earlier works in anthropology and sociology that depicted “simple” societies utilizing a simple version of reciprocity. Whatever the theoretical stance of social scholars on non-western traditional economies, there is a consensus that such essentials as food and water tended to be shared more freely than other types of goods or services. This dynamic tends to change with the introduction of a market-based economy into a society, with food coming to be increasingly treated as a commodity, rather than a social good or an essential component of health and survival. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=17200325 | 1,650,192 |
462,522 | Due to increasing destruction of their habitat, deforestation, climate change, diseases, and chemical contaminants, amphibian population decline and extinctions may be as high as 211 times the background extinction rate. Both water and air temperatures play a major role in timing and rates of breeding, larval development, time-to-time metamorphosis, size-at-metamorphosis, growth, and physiological parameters. There is experimental data present that details how organisms are more sensitive to contaminants when there is variation in temperature, which explains how chemical contamination can greatly impact the development of these frogs. Chloride in particular affects the development of the Green Frog. Vast exposure to chloride can result in many larvae having broken tails, swollen body cavities, a loss of pigment, and behavioral abnormalities. As the temperature increased in the environment, the frogs had lower time-to-mortality and significantly higher hazard when compared to the controls. This shows how temperature directly affects sensitivity to chemicals and thereby the development of the Green Frog by making their habitat more dangerous. According to the Maryland Biological Stream Survey, stormwater ponds which are a main example of a breeding habitat in Maryland can experience chloride concentrations of up to 3250 mg/L, which shows how there are several factors within their habitat affecting the survival rate of these frogs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13010117 | 462,293 |
925,708 | Direct3D 10.1 sets a few more image quality standards for graphics vendors, and gives developers more control over image quality. Features include finer control over anti-aliasing (both multisampling and supersampling with per sample shading and application control over sample position) and more flexibilities to some of the existing features (cubemap arrays and independent blending modes). Direct3D 10.1 level hardware must support the following features: Multisampling has been enhanced to generalize coverage based transparency and make multisampling work more effectively with multi-pass rendering, better culling behavior – Zero-area faces are automatically culled; this affects wireframe rendering only, independent blend modes per render target, new sample-frequency pixel shader execution with primitive rasterization, increased pipeline stage bandwidth, both color and depth/stencil MSAA surfaces can now be used with CopyResource as either a source or destination, MultisampleEnable only affects line rasterization (points and triangles are unaffected), and is used to choose a line drawing algorithm. This means that some multisample rasterization from Direct3D 10 are no longer supported, Texture Sampling – sample_c and sample_c_lz instructions are defined to work with both Texture2DArrays and TextureCubeArrays use the Location member (the alpha component) to specify an array index, support for TextureCubeArrays. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=97025 | 925,222 |
797,752 | Studies have shown that music education can be used to enhance cognitive achievement in students. In the United States an estimated 30% of students struggle with reading, while 17% are reported as having a specific learning disability linked to reading. Using intensive music curriculum as an intervention paired alongside regular classroom activities, research shows that students involved with the music curriculum show increases in reading comprehension, word knowledge, vocabulary recall, and word decoding. According to the National Association for Music Education, in a study done in 2012, those who participated in musical activities scored higher on the SAT. These students scored an average of 31 points higher in reading and writing, and 23 points higher in math. When a student is singing a melody with text, they are using multiple areas of their brain to multitask. Music effects language development, increases IQ, spatial-temporal skills, and improves test scores. Music education has also shown to improve the skills of dyslexic children in similar areas as mentioned earlier by focusing on visual auditory and fine motor skills as strategies to combat their disability. Since research in this area is sparse, we cannot convincingly conclude these findings to be true, however the results from research done do show a positive impact on both students with learning difficulties and those who are not diagnosed. Further research will need to be done, but the positive engaging way of bringing music into the classroom cannot be forgotten, and the students generally show a positive reaction to this form of instruction. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2025792 | 797,327 |
1,015,617 | On 21 April 2009, media reports, citing Pentagon sources, said that during 2007 and 2008, spies downloaded several terabytes of data related to the F-35's design and electronics systems, potentially compromising the aircraft and aiding the development of defense systems against it. Lockheed Martin rejected suggestions that the project was compromised, stating it "does not believe any classified information had been stolen". Other sources suggested that the incident caused both hardware and software redesigns to be more resistant to cyber attack. In March 2012, BAE Systems was reported to be the target of cyber espionage. BAE Systems refused to comment on the report, although they did state, "[Our] own cyber security capability can detect, prevent and rectify such attacks". On 9 November 2009, Ashton Carter, undersecretary of defense for acquisition, technology and logistics, acknowledged that the Pentagon "joint estimate team" (JET) had found possible future cost and schedule overruns in the project and that he would be holding meetings to attempt to avoid these. On 1 February 2010, Gates removed the JSF Program Manager, U.S. Marine Corps Major General David Heinz, and withheld $614 million in payments to Lockheed Martin because of program costs and delays. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54719700 | 1,015,096 |
100,008 | Since Spartans wrote no history prior to the Hellenistic period – their only extant literature is fragments of 7th-century lyrics – Plutarch's five Spartan lives and "Sayings of Spartans" and "Sayings of Spartan Women", rooted in sources that have since disappeared, are some of the richest sources for historians of Lacedaemonia. But while they are important, they are also controversial. Plutarch lived centuries after the Sparta he writes about (and a full millennium separates him from the earliest events he records) and even though he visited Sparta, many of the ancient customs he reports had been long abandoned, so he never actually saw of what he wrote. Plutarch's sources themselves can be problematic. As the historians Sarah Pomeroy, Stanley Burstein, Walter Donlan, and Jennifer Tolbert Roberts have written, "Plutarch was influenced by histories written after the decline of Sparta and marked by nostalgia for a happier past, real or imagined." Turning to Plutarch himself, they write, "the admiration writers like Plutarch and Xenophon felt for Spartan society led them to exaggerate its monolithic nature, minimizing departures from ideals of equality and obscuring patterns of historical change." Thus the Spartan egalitarianism and superhuman immunity to pain that have seized the popular imagination are likely myths, and their main architect is Plutarch. While flawed, Plutarch is nonetheless indispensable as one of the only ancient sources of information on Spartan life. Pomeroy et al. conclude that Plutarch's works on Sparta, while they must be treated with skepticism, remain valuable for their "large quantities of information" and these historians concede that "Plutarch's writings on Sparta, more than those of any other ancient author, have shaped later views of Sparta", despite their potential to misinform. He was also referenced in saying unto Sparta, "The beast will feed again." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=24517 | 99,963 |
798,403 | By the 1990s, computing was dominated by men. The proportion of female computer science graduates peaked in 1984 around 37 per cent, and then steadily declined. Although the end of the 20th century saw an increase in women scientists and engineers, this did not hold true for computing, which stagnated. Despite this, they were very involved in working on hypertext and hypermedia projects in the late 1980s and early 1990s. A team of women at Brown University, including Nicole Yankelovich and Karen Catlin, developed Intermedia and invented the anchor link. Apple partially funded their project and incorporated their concepts into Apple operating systems. Sun Microsystems Sun Link Service was developed by Amy Pearl. Janet Walker developed the first system to use bookmarks when she created the Symbolics Document Examiner. In 1989, Wendy Hall created a hypertext project called Microcosm, which was based on digitized multimedia material found in the Mountbatten archive. Cathy Marshall worked on the NoteCards system at Xerox PARC. NoteCards went on to influence Apple's HyperCard. As the Internet became the World Wide Web, developers like Hall adapted their programs to include Web viewers. Her Microcosm was especially adaptable to new technologies, including animation and 3-D models. In 1994, Hall helped organize the first conference for the Web. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2279544 | 797,978 |
1,144,531 | The mansions of metropolitan Detroit are among the nation's grandest estates. Meadow Brook Hall (1929), the 110 room mansion of Matilda Dodge Wilson at 480 South Adams Rd. in the suburb of Rochester Hills, is the fourth largest in the United States. Listed in the National Register of Historic Places, the mansion is open to the public. The suburbs of Grosse Pointe and Bloomfield Hills are replete with grandiose mansions. Albert Kahn designed the Edsel and Eleanor Ford House (1927) at 1100 Lakeshore Dr. in Grosse Pointe which is open to the public. Rose Terrace (1934–1976), the mansion of Anna Dodge, once stood at 12 Lakeshore Dr. in Grosse Pointe. Designed by Horace Trumbauer as a Louis XV styled château, Rose Terrace was an enlarged version of the firm's Miramar in Newport, Rhode Island. A developer, the highest bidder for Rose Terrace, demolished it in 1976 to create an upscale neighborhood. This gave a renewed sense of urgency to preservationists. The Dodge Collection from Rose Terrace may be viewed at the Detroit Institute of Arts. The Italian Renaissance styled Russell A. Alger Jr. House (1910), at 32 Lakeshore Dr., by architect Charles A. Platt serves as the Grosse Pointe War Memorial. The five Grosse Pointe communities feature a variety of newer and early-twentieth-century mansions which flank the shores of Lake St. Clair, one of the finest examples being Woodley Green (the Benson Ford House, 1934) by Hugh T. Keyes (considered "one of the most prolific and versatile architects of the period"). Bloomfield Hills also contains vast estates from the early to mid 20th century, such as Albert Kahn-designed Cranbrook House on Saarinen's Cranbrook campus (called by "The New York Times" "one of the greatest campuses ever created anywhere in the world"). Next door on Vaughan Rd. is Keyes-designed Woodland, the estate of John Bugas. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8692117 | 1,143,930 |
1,004,615 | During the October 1973 Yom Kippur War, with the initial surprise breakthroughs on both northern and southern borders by Arab armies, the alarmed Defense Minister Moshe Dayan told Israeli Prime Minister Golda Meir that "this is the end of the third temple." He was warning of Israel's impending total defeat, but "Temple" was also the code word for nuclear weapons. Dayan again raised the nuclear topic in a cabinet meeting, warning that the country was approaching a point of "last resort". That night Meir authorized the assembly of thirteen nuclear weapon "physics packages" to arm Jericho I missiles at Sdot Micha Airbase, and F-4 aircraft at Tel Nof Airbase, for use against Syrian and Egyptian targets. The range on the Jericho 1 is sufficient to strike major cities such as Damascus and Cairo from secured launch locations. They would be used if absolutely necessary to prevent total defeat, but the preparation was done in an easily detectable way, likely as a signal to the US. U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger learned of the nuclear alert on the morning of October 9. That day, in keeping with his deal and warning that prevented a preemptive Israeli attack on gathering Arab armies, President Nixon ordered the commencement of Operation Nickel Grass, a U.S. airlift to replace all of Israel's material losses. Anecdotal evidence suggests that Kissinger told Sadat that the reason for the U.S. airlift was that the Israelis were close to "going nuclear". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=216096 | 1,004,097 |
661,541 | Maritime College is the oldest institution of its kind in the United States. Due in part to the Civil War, there was a decline in the American maritime industry and a growing concern about the professionalism of its officers. As a result, the New York Chamber of Commerce and maritime interests of the port of New York lobbied the state legislature to create a professional nautical school for the city. This was done in 1873, but the school lacked a ship. The chamber then teamed up with the noted naval education reformer and modernizer, Stephen B. Luce. Luce led the effort, and through his efforts an act was passed by Congress in 1874 that enabled individual states to request from the Navy retired or obsolete vessels to train seamen. The state of New York then appealed to the Navy for a training vessel. On December 14, 1874, the USS "St. Mary's" arrived in New York harbor and became the home of the longest running nautical school in the United States. Originally administered by the Board of Education of the City of New York, it was conducted as a grammar school that taught common school subjects (along with nautical classes) during the winter term, and then held practical cruises during the summer term. As time advanced, the school began to teach more advanced professional subjects. During this early period, the school was typically run on an annual appropriation of $20,000 to $30,000 with the school often facing closure because the cost per pupil was much higher than in a regular public school, mainly due to the overhead of ship maintenance and student board. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=563935 | 661,196 |
884,090 | The first generation of Folding@home's GPU client (GPU1) was released to the public on October 2, 2006, delivering a 20–30 times speedup for some calculations over its CPU-based GROMACS counterparts. It was the first time GPUs had been used for either volunteer computing or major molecular dynamics calculations. GPU1 gave researchers significant knowledge and experience with the development of GPGPU software, but in response to scientific inaccuracies with DirectX, on April 10, 2008 it was succeeded by GPU2, the second generation of the client. Following the introduction of GPU2, GPU1 was officially retired on June 6. Compared to GPU1, GPU2 was more scientifically reliable and productive, ran on ATI and CUDA-enabled Nvidia GPUs, and supported more advanced algorithms, larger proteins, and real-time visualization of the protein simulation. Following this, the third generation of Folding@home's GPU client (GPU3) was released on May 25, 2010. While backward compatible with GPU2, GPU3 was more stable, efficient, and flexibile in its scientific abilities, and used OpenMM on top of an OpenCL framework. Although these GPU3 clients did not natively support the operating systems Linux and macOS, Linux users with Nvidia graphics cards were able to run them through the Wine software application. GPUs remain Folding@home's most powerful platform in FLOPS. As of November 2012, GPU clients account for 87% of the entire project's x86 FLOPS throughput. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=413102 | 883,626 |
950,781 | Tesla's design attempted to sidestep the key drawbacks of the bladed axial turbines, and even the lowest estimates for efficiency still dramatically outperformed the efficiency of axial steam turbines of the day. However, in testing against more modern engines, the Tesla turbine had expansion efficiencies far below contemporary steam turbines and far below contemporary reciprocating steam engines. It does suffer from other problems, such as shear losses and flows restrictions, but this is partially offset by the relatively massive reduction in weight and volume. Some of Tesla's turbine advantages lie in relatively low flow rate applications or when small applications are called for. The disks need to be as thin as possible at the edges in order not to introduce turbulence as the fluid leaves the disks. This translates to needing to increase the number of disks as the flow rate increases. Maximum efficiency comes in this system when the inter-disk spacing approximates the thickness of the boundary layer, and since boundary layer thickness is dependent on viscosity and pressure, the claim that a single design can be used efficiently for a variety of fuels and fluids is incorrect. A Tesla turbine differs from a conventional turbine only in the mechanism used for transferring energy to the shaft. Various analyses demonstrate that the flow rate between the disks must be kept relatively low to maintain efficiency. Reportedly, the efficiency of the Tesla turbine drops with increased load. Under light load, the spiral taken by the fluid moving from the intake to the exhaust is a tight spiral, undergoing many rotations. Under load, the number of rotations drops, and the spiral becomes progressively shorter. This will increase the shear losses and also reduce the efficiency because the gas is in contact with the discs for less distance. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30869 | 950,277 |
98,967 | In 1948, several Mongolian Paleontological expeditions organized by the USSR Academy of Sciences were conducted in the Nemegt Formation of the Gobi Desert, Southwestern Mongolia, with the main objective of new fossils findings. The expeditions unearthed numerous dinosaur and turtle fossil remains from the stratotype locality Nemegt (also known as Nemegt Valley), but the most notable elements collected were three partial manual unguals (claw bones) of considerable size. This set of unguals was found on a subdivision of the Nemegt locality designated as Quarry V near the skeleton of a large theropod, but also in association with other elements including a metacarpal fragment and several ribs fragments. It was labelled under the specimen number PIN 551-483 and later on, these fossils were described by the Russian paleontologist Evgeny Maleev in 1954 who used them to scientifically name the new genus and type species "Therizinosaurus cheloniformis", becoming the holotype specimen. The generic name, "Therizinosaurus", is derived from the Greek (, meaning scythe, reap or cut) and (, meaning lizard) in reference to the enormous manual unguals, and the specific name, "cheloniformis", is taken from the Greek (, meaning turtle) and Latin formis as the remains were thought to belong to a turtle-like reptile. Maleev also coined a separate family for this new and enigmatic taxon: Therizinosauridae. Since little was known of "Therizinosaurus" at the time of the original description, Maleev thought PIN 551-483 belonged to a large, long turtle-like reptile that relied on its giant hand claws to harvest seaweed. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=851586 | 98,924 |
1,458,576 | Wingcopter GmbH was founded in 2017 by Jonathan Hesselbarth, Tom Plümmer, and Ansgar Kadura in Darmstadt, Germany. In 2018, the company partnered with DHL and the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH on behalf of the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) to deliver medicine and critical supplies to the Ukerewe island district of Lake Victoria, Tanzania. In 2019, the company partnered with UNICEF to set up an on-demand delivery network, supplying 19 remote villages with vaccines from one central hub on the South Pacific island of Pentecost, Vanuatu. The Wingcopter 178 HL has also been used to survey whales in the Arctic region. During the 2020 African Drone Forum, Wingcopter was judged as the winner of the Emergency Delivery category of the Flying Competition and received a special award for its safety procedures. In 2020, Corecam Capital Partners invested several million euros into the company as seed funding In January 2021, Wingcopter raised $22 million in its Seris A funding round, intending to expand its operations into the United States of America. Its investors include Xplorer Capital, which has previously invested in ride-hailing service Uber and self-driving car start-up Zoox. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=63477455 | 1,457,756 |
1,472,396 | "This Is Your Brain on Music" was a finalist for the Los Angeles Times Book Award in 2006–2007 for best in the Science and Engineering category, and a Quill Award for best debut author of 2006–2007. It was named one of the best books of the year by "The Globe and Mail", "The Independent" and "The Guardian". A long list of prominent scientists and musicians have praised it, including Oliver Sacks, Francis Crick, Brian Greene, David Byrne, George Martin, Yoko Ono, Neil Peart, Victor Wooten, Pete Townshend and Keith Lockhart, and it has been adopted for course use in both science and literature classes at dozens of universities including MIT, Dartmouth College, UC Berkeley, Stanford, Kenyon College, the University of Wisconsin. Two documentary films were based on the book: "The Musical Brain" (2009) featuring Levitin as host, along with appearances by Sting, Michael Bublé, Feist, and former Fugees leader Wyclef Jean; and "The Music Instinct" (2009) with Levitin and Bobby McFerrin as co-hosts, with appearances by Yo Yo Ma, Jarvis Cocker, Daniel Barenboim, Oliver Sacks and others. In 2009, Harvard University announced "This Is Your Brain on Music" would be required reading in its Freshman Core Program in General Education. In 2011–2012, the Physics Department at the California Institute of Technology adopted it as a textbook. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23755918 | 1,471,567 |
266,183 | In 1997, Charig and Milner demonstrated direct dietary evidence in the stomach region of the "B. walkeri" holotype. It contained the first evidence of piscivory in a theropod dinosaur, acid-etched scales and teeth of the common fish "Scheenstia mantelli" (then classified in the genus "Lepidotes"), and abraded or etched bones of a young iguanodontid. They also presented circumstantial evidence for piscivory, such as crocodile-like adaptations for catching and swallowing prey: long, narrow jaws with their "terminal rosette", similar to those of a gharial, and the downturned tip and notch of the snout. In their view, these adaptations suggested that "Baryonyx" would have caught small to medium-sized fish in the manner of a crocodilian: gripping them with the notch of the snout (giving the teeth a "stabbing function"), tilting the head backwards, and swallowing them headfirst. Larger fish would be broken up with the claws. That the teeth in the lower jaw were smaller, more crowded and numerous than those in the upper jaw may have helped the animal grip food. Charig and Milner maintained that "Baryonyx" would primarily have eaten fish (although it would also have been an active predator and opportunistic scavenger), but it was not equipped to be a macro-predator like "Allosaurus". They suggested that "Baryonyx" mainly used its forelimbs and large claws to catch, kill and tear apart larger prey. An apparent gastrolith (gizzard stone) was also found with the specimen. The German palaeontologist Oliver Wings suggested in 2007 that the low number of stones found in theropods like "Baryonyx" and "Allosaurus" could have been ingested by accident. In 2004, a pterosaur neck vertebra from Brazil with a spinosaurid tooth embedded in it reported by Buffetaut and colleagues confirmed that the latter were not exclusively piscivorous. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1091918 | 266,039 |
900,865 | Student numbers, at over 21,000 in 2016, increased from the late 1980s, precipitating the expansion of the campus by the acquisition of adjacent buildings and lands. This expansion continued with the opening of the Alfred O'Rahilly building in the late 1990s, the Cavanagh Pharmacy building, the Brookfield Health Sciences centre, the extended "Áras na MacLéinn" (Devere Hall), the Lewis Glucksman Gallery in 2004, "Experience UCC" (Visitors' Centre) and an extension to the "Boole Library" – named for the first professor of mathematics at UCC, George Boole, who developed the algebra that would later make computer programming possible. The university also completed the Western Gateway Building in 2009 on the site of the former Cork Greyhound track on the Western Road as well as refurbishment to the Tyndall institute buildings at the Lee Maltings Complex. In 2016, UCC acquired the Cork Savings Bank building on Lapps Quay in the centre of Cork city. As of 2017, the university is rolling out a programme to increase the space across its campuses, with part of this development involving the creation of a 'student hub' to support academic strategy, to add 600 new student accommodation spaces, and to develop an outdoor sports facility. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=738094 | 900,389 |
1,951,346 | At this point in time, Haile Gebrselassie was the #1 distance runner in the world, with two successive Olympic titles and four World Championships at 10,000. He also held the 5-year-old world record plus the world record at 5,000 metres. A poor race at the previous World Championships was the first sign of his lack of total dominance, now the 30 year old had a challenger from near his home town, who also ran with an almost identical, efficient running form, 21 year old Kenenisa Bekele. As Gebrselassie ran a strong race trying to burn off his new rival, the rest of the world's best runners, including five Kenyan born athletes, disappeared in their wake. The last to hold on to the lead group was Sileshi Sihine, assuring an Ethiopian sweep, but the championship was in doubt. Bekele remained as Gebrselassie's twin shadow until he made one move with 200 metres to go. Gebrselassie's ever powerful sprint was no match for Bekele. Over the final straightaway, Bekele extended to more than a full second gap for the victory and the changing of the guard in dominance of long distance track running. Bekele took the prize at the next Olympics over Sihine with Gebrselassie out of the money and accomplished the Woolworth double (5 and 10) in 2008. Gebrselassie subsequently focused his effort onto 10k, half-marathon and marathon competitions, setting multiple world records before retiring. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21408212 | 1,950,225 |
369,645 | The gut plays several important roles including acting as the main pathway for fluid, electrolyte and nutrient absorption while also acting as a barrier to toxic agents present in the gut lumen including acid, digestive enzymes and gut bacteria. It is also a major immunological defence mechanism, detecting natural commensals and triggering immune response when toxic microbes are present. Failure of homeostasis due to trauma, drugs and infectious microbes not only damages the gut but can lead to influx of damaging agents into the bloodstream. These mechanisms have relevance for multiple conditions affecting all areas of the world and socioeconomic groups such as ulcers, inflammation, and infectious diarrhea. There is currently much interest in the potential value of colostrum for the prevention and treatment of these conditions as it is derived from natural sources and can influence damaging factors through multiple pathways including nutritional support, immunological intervention (through its immunoglobulin and other anti-microbial factors) and growth/healing factor constituents. As pointed out by Kelly, inconsistency between results in some published studies may be due in part to variation in dose given and to the timing of the colostrum collection being tested (first milking versus pooled colostrum collected up to day 5 following calving). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=525722 | 369,452 |
675,399 | The fish family Psychrolutidae (commonly known as blobfishes, toadfishes, flathead sculpins, tadpole sculpins,) contains over 35 recognized species in 8 genera. This family consists of bottom-dwelling marine sculpins shaped like tadpoles, with large heads and bodies that taper back into small, flat tails. The skin is loosely attached and movable, and the layer underneath it is gelatinous. The eyes are placed high on the head, focused forward closer to the tip of the snout. Members of the family generally have large, leaf-like pectoral fins and lack scales, although some species are covered with soft spines. This is important to the species as the depths in which they live are highly pressurized and they are ambush/opportunistic/foraging predators that do not expend energy unless they are forced to. The blobfish has a short, broad tongue and conical teeth that are slightly recurved and are arranged in bands in irregular rows along the premaxillaries; canines are completely absent. Teeth are nonexistent on the palatines and vomer; which make up the hard palate. The blobfish also has a set of specialized pharyngeal teeth that are well developed and paired evenly along the upper and lower portions of the pharyngeal arch. These specialized teeth may aid in the breakdown of food due to the very strategic dependency on whatever food falls from above. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2455979 | 675,046 |
205,553 | It is generally assumed that any extraterrestrial life that might exist will be based on the same fundamental biochemistry as found on Earth, as the four elements most vital for life, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, are also the most common chemically reactive elements in the universe. Indeed, simple biogenic compounds, such as very simple amino acids such as glycine, have been found in meteorites and in the interstellar medium. These four elements together comprise over 96% of Earth's collective biomass. Carbon has an unparalleled ability to bond with itself and to form a massive array of intricate and varied structures, making it an ideal material for the complex mechanisms that form living cells. Hydrogen and oxygen, in the form of water, compose the solvent in which biological processes take place and in which the first reactions occurred that led to life's emergence. The energy released in the formation of powerful covalent bonds between carbon and oxygen, available by oxidizing organic compounds, is the fuel of all complex life-forms. These four elements together make up amino acids, which in turn are the building blocks of proteins, the substance of living tissue. In addition, neither sulfur (required for the building of proteins) nor phosphorus (needed for the formation of DNA, RNA, and the adenosine phosphates essential to metabolism) are rare. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2592906 | 205,447 |
500,213 | Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 18 Manual (HEC-18) was published by the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). This manual includes several techniques of estimating scour depth. The empirical scour equations for live bed scour, clear water scour, and local scour at piers and abutment are shown in Chapter 5-General Scour section. The total scour depth is determined by adding three scour components which includes the long-term aggradation and degradation of the river bed, general scour at the bridge and local scour at the piers or abutment. However, research had shown that the standard equations in HEC-18 over-predict scour depth for a number of hydraulic and geologic conditions. Most of the HEC-18 relationships are based on laboratory flume studies conducted with sand-sized sediments increased with factors of safety that are not easily recognizable or adjustable. Sand and fine gravel are the most easily eroded bed materials, but streams frequently contain much more scour resistant materials such as compact till, stiff clay, and shale. The consequences of using design methods based on a single soil type are especially significant for many major physiographic provinces with distinctly different geologic conditions and foundation materials. This can lead to overly conservative design values for scour in low risk or non-critical hydrologic conditions. Thus, equation improvements are continued to be made in an effort to minimize the underestimation and overestimation of scour. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20943440 | 499,956 |
721,202 | A major advantage of closed-circuit rebreathers for biological research diving is the absence of noise and visual disturbance due to the bubbles of exhaled gas, which is known to have disruptive effects on animal behaviour. This has proved particularly effective where the diver needs to closely approach or capture animals like sea otters, and has considerably facilitated recording of animal sounds. Use of rebreathers reduces problems of multiple dives and decompressions by allowing divers to conduct a single, long-duration dive without the need to return to the surface or shore between multiple dives, particularly where continuous observation is desirable. The ability to maintain a constant oxygen partial pressure can allow very much longer dive times in the middle depth ranges without incurring a decomprssion obligation, and can allow a single multilevel dive to suffice where several open circuit dives were previously required. The capital outlay for equipment and training can sometimes be rapidly offset by the improved efficiency of getting a job done in one dive on one day. Considerable savings on the cost of helium diluent are possible for deeper dives specially in remote locations where the cost of helium may be ten times that in industrialised areas. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39194607 | 720,822 |
745,376 | Denis Papin (22 August 1647 – c. 1712) was a French physicist, mathematician and inventor, best known for his pioneering invention of the steam digester, the forerunner of the pressure cooker. In the mid-1670s Papin collaborated with the Dutch physicist Christiaan Huygens on an engine which drove out the air from a cylinder by exploding gunpowder inside it. Realising the incompleteness of the vacuum produced by this means and on moving to England in 1680, Papin devised a version of the same cylinder that obtained a more complete vacuum from boiling water and then allowing the steam to condense; in this way he was able to raise weights by attaching the end of the piston to a rope passing over a pulley. As a demonstration model, the system worked, but in order to repeat the process, the whole apparatus had to be dismantled and reassembled. Papin quickly saw that to make an automatic cycle the steam would have to be generated separately in a boiler; however, he did not take the project further. Papin also designed a paddle boat driven by a jet playing on a mill-wheel in a combination of Taqi al Din and Savery's conceptions and he is also credited with a number of significant devices such as the safety valve. Papin's years of research into the problems of harnessing steam was to play a key part in the development of the first successful industrial engines that soon followed his death. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=17423952 | 744,982 |
50,599 | The prospect of a potential third world war featuring large mechanized armies and nuclear-weapon strikes led to a degree of specialization along two design approaches: interceptors, such as the English Electric Lightning and Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21F; and fighter-bombers, such as the Republic F-105 Thunderchief and the Sukhoi Su-7B. Dogfighting, "per se", became de-emphasized in both cases. The interceptor was an outgrowth of the vision that guided missiles would completely replace guns and combat would take place at beyond-visual ranges. As a result, strategists designed interceptors with a large missile-payload and a powerful radar, sacrificing agility in favor of high speed, altitude ceiling and rate of climb. With a primary air-defense role, emphasis was placed on the ability to intercept strategic bombers flying at high altitudes. Specialized point-defense interceptors often had limited range and few, if any, ground-attack capabilities. Fighter-bombers could swing between air-superiority and ground-attack roles, and were often designed for a high-speed, low-altitude dash to deliver their ordnance. Television- and IR-guided air-to-surface missiles were introduced to augment traditional gravity bombs, and some were also equipped to deliver a nuclear bomb. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10929 | 50,579 |
1,584,877 | During the early part of the Cenozoic, central and eastern South Dakota was still covered by the sea. The uplift responsible for the Black Hills continued to elevate their topography. As the Cenozoic continued the sea shrank away from the state. In its place, grasslands formed and were roamed by herds of grazing mammals. Later, during the Oligocene, at least part of South Dakota was covered in seawater. The White River Formation was being deposited in the White River badlands as the sea gradually receded. The Oligocene flora left behind few fossils, but among them were hackberry seeds and petrified wood. Although plant fossils are scarce, these deposits preserve one of the best Tertiary mammal faunas in the world. More than 175 different kinds of animals were preserved from this time. The local mammals included the three-toed horses, pig-like animals, the camel "Poebrotherium", "Protoceras", rhinoceroses, rodents, saber teeth, tapirs, and titanotheres. Contemporary birds also left behind bones and even an egg. These are significant because bird fossils are very rare. Many streams carried even more sediment into the region from the young Rocky Mountains and Black Hills. At the time South Dakota consisted of plains dotted with marshes and shallow lakes and split by wide streams. Some of the local Oligocene wildlife left behind footprints that would later fossilize. The Brule Formation preserves one of only seven Oligocene fossil tracksites in the western United States. Volcanic activity sporadically showered the state with ash. During the Ice Age, glaciers scoured the state. As they melted, they deposited sediments that would preserve the fossil remains of creatures like bison, horses, mammoths, and mastodons. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=37799115 | 1,583,987 |
1,486,759 | Cryofibrinogenemic disease commonly begins in adults aged 40–50 years old with symptoms of the diseases occurring in the almost always affected organ, skin. Cutaneous symptoms include one or more of the following: cold contact-induced urticarial (which may be the first sign of the disease); painful episodes of finger and/or toe arterial spasms termed Raynaud phenomena; cyanosis, a palpable purpura termed cryofibrinogenemic purpura), and a lace-like purplish discoloration termed livedo reticularis all of which occur primarily in the lower extremities but some of which may occur in the nose, ears, and buttocks; non-healing painful ulcerations and gangrene of the areas impacted by the cited symptoms. Patients also have a history of cold sensitivity (~25% of cases), arthralgia (14–58%), neuritis (7–19%), myalgia (0–14%); and overt thrombosis of arteries and veins (25–40%) which may on rare occasions involve major arteries such of those of the brain and kidney. Signs of renal involvement (proteinuria, hematuria, decreased glomerular filtration rate, and/or, rarely, renal failure) occur in 4 to 25% of cases. Compared to secondary cryofibrinogemia, primary crygofibrinogenemia has a higher incidence of cutaneous lesions, arthralgia, and cold sensitivity while having a far lower incidence of renal involvement. Patients with secondary cryofibrinogenemia also exhibit signs and symptoms specific to the infectious, malignant, premalignant vasculitis, and autoimmune disorders associated with their disease. While rare, individuals with cryofibrinogenemic disease may experience pathological bleeding due to the consumption of blood clotting factors consequential to the formation of cryofibrinogen precipitates. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22137864 | 1,485,921 |
1,472,889 | In all cases of amenorrhea, pregnancy should be excluded. This can be done by obtaining serum B-hCG levels. In cases of suspected FHA, screening laboratory tests include a complete blood count (CBC), electrolytes, glucose, bicarbonate, blood urea nitrogen (BUN), creatinine, liver panel, and when appropriate, sedimentation rate and/or C-reactive protein levels. Liver function tests may be abnormal in females with extreme energy restriction. The initial endocrine evaluation includes testing for levels of TSH and free T4, prolactin, LH, FSH, estradiol (E2), and anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH). FHA patients may display a combination of the following: FSH concentrations that are normal but lower than LH levels, low or low normal LH, E2 <50 pg/mL, and progesterone <1 ng/mL. LH and FSH are often normal in FHA patients. No single E2 value can confirm FHA as each reflects only a certain time point, but in individuals whose E2 is <20 pg/mL persistently, an acute gonadotropin response to GnRH stimulation may distinguish FHA from hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. Testosterone and prolactin are expected to be in low normal ranges, and gonadotropins will be in a range lower than that which is characteristic of PCOS. In cases of stress-induced FHA, cortisol secretion, both basal and pulsatile, may be altered—increased concentrations are greatest in the early morning hours and overnight. However, these values may still be in the normal range. If clinical hyperandrogenism is evident, total testosterone and DHEA-S levels may also be obtained. 17α-hydroxyprogesteone levels should be evaluated if late onset congenital adrenal hyperplasia is suspected. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15738568 | 1,472,058 |
1,407,672 | David Wolf began his NASA career in the Medical Sciences Division at the Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas. He was responsible for engineering development and spacecraft avionics integration of the American Flight Echocardiograph for investigating cardiovascular physiology in microgravity. Upon completion, he was assigned as chief engineer for design of the Space Station medical facility, directly responsible for multidisciplinary team management, requirements definition, system design, spacecraft systems integration, project schedule, functional and safety verification, and budgetary authority. Dave Wolf was selected by NASA as an astronaut candidate in 1990. He completed 18 months of training before being qualified for flight. He was assigned to Kennedy Space Center in Florida where he was involved in Orbiter vehicle processing and testing and as a Capcom (including for the historic docking of Space Shuttle Atlantis with Space Station Mir in 1995). He is an expert in Extravehicular Activity (Spacewalk), Spacesuit design, and Rendezvous navigation. Some of his other qualifications include Robotic Manipulator System (Robot Arm) operations, on-orbit systems repair, computer networking, and as Shuttle re-entry flight deck engineer. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=468050 | 1,406,882 |
985,784 | Referred to as a “garden hospital”, KTP has an abundance of native plants and water features that surround its exterior. This inclusion of vegetation has increased the biodiversity of the local ecosystem, bringing butterflies and bird species; the rooftop of the hospital is also used by local residents to grow produce. Unlike many other hospitals, 15% of visitors come to Khoo Teck Puat for recreational reasons such as gardening or relaxing. The design behind this hospital was to increase the productivity of its doctors, wellbeing of its visitors, and increase the healing speed and pain resilience of its patients. To do this, the designers incorporated greenery from the hospital's courtyard to its upper floors, where patients have balconies that are covered in scented foliage. The hospital is centered on the Yishun pond, and like Frank Lloyd Wright's Fallingwater, the architects made this natural feature part of the hospital by having water stream through its courtyard, creating the illusion that the water was “drawn” from the pond. The hospital also utilizes natural ventilation as much as possible in common areas and corridors by orienting them in the direction the north and southeast prevailing winds; this has reduced energy consumption by 60% and increased airflow by 20-30%. This creates thermally adequate environments for patients and medical staff alike. Using Kellert strategies above, it is apparent that most of the strategies used for Khoo Teck Puat are direct nature experiences. The hospital also uses transitional spaces to make occupants more connected to the outdoors and has organized complexity throughout its overall architectural design. KTP has created a sense of place for occupants and neighbors, as it acts as a communal place for both those who work there and live nearby. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=59271750 | 985,269 |
694,520 | Urey speculated that the early terrestrial atmosphere was composed of ammonia, methane, and hydrogen. One of his Chicago graduate students was Stanley L. Miller, who showed in the Miller–Urey experiment that, if such a mixture were exposed to electric sparks and water, it can interact to produce amino acids, commonly considered the building blocks of life. Work with isotopes of oxygen led to pioneering the new field of paleoclimatic research. In 1958, he accepted a post as a professor at large at the new University of California, San Diego (UCSD), where he helped create the science faculty. He was one of the founding members of UCSD's school of chemistry, which was created in 1960. He became increasingly interested in space science, and when Apollo 11 returned moon rock samples from the moon, Urey examined them at the Lunar Receiving Laboratory. Lunar astronaut Harrison Schmitt said that Urey approached him as a volunteer for a one-way mission to the Moon, stating "I will go, and I don't care if I don't come back." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=453578 | 694,157 |
264,811 | Most subsistence agriculture is practiced in developing countries located in tropical climates. Effects on crop production brought about by climate change will be more intense in these regions as extreme temperatures are linked to lower crop yields. Farmers have been forced to respond to increased temperatures through things such as increased land and labor inputs which threaten long-term productivity. Coping measures in response to variable climates can include reducing daily food consumption and selling livestock to compensate for the decreased productivity. These responses often threaten the future of household farms in the following seasons as many farmers will sell draft animals used for labor and will also consume seeds saved for planting. Measuring the full extent of future climate change impacts is difficult to determine as smallholder farms are complex systems with many different interactions. Different locations have different adaptation strategies available to them such as crop and livestock substitutions. Rates of production for cereal crops, such as wheat, oats, and maize have been declining largely due to heat's effects on crop fertility. This has forced many farmers to switch to more heat tolerant crops to maintain levels of productivity. Substitution of crops for heat tolerant alternatives limits the overall diversity of crops grown on smallholder farms. As many farmers farm to meet daily food needs, this can negatively impact nutrition and diet among many families practicing subsistence agriculture. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=323964 | 264,668 |
229,415 | Electrical or magnetic interference inside a computer system can cause a single bit of dynamic random-access memory (DRAM) to spontaneously flip to the opposite state. It was initially thought that this was mainly due to alpha particles emitted by contaminants in chip packaging material, but research has shown that the majority of one-off soft errors in DRAM chips occur as a result of background radiation, chiefly neutrons from cosmic ray secondaries, which may change the contents of one or more memory cells or interfere with the circuitry used to read or write to them. Hence, the error rates increase rapidly with rising altitude; for example, compared to sea level, the rate of neutron flux is 3.5 times higher at 1.5 km and 300 times higher at 10-12 km (the cruising altitude of commercial airplanes). As a result, systems operating at high altitudes require special provisions for reliability. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4473248 | 229,298 |
1,516,828 | Arístides Bastidas (San Pablo, March 12, 1924 – Caracas, September 23, 1992) was a Venezuelan journalist, educator and scientist and was one of the pioneers of what is termed as "science journalism" in Venezuela. He moved to Caracas with his family in 1936, settling in a modest neighborhood in the south of the capital. He studied there but did not complete studies because the family economic pressure forced him to perform various jobs until 1945, when started in print journalism. He sympathised with the resistance against the regime of Marcos Pérez Jiménez (1948–1958). A self-taught scientist, from 1968 to 1981 he directed the science page of the Sunday newspaper "El Nacional" where from 1971 until his death he wrote the daily column "La Ciencia Amena". He considered the popularization of science as a tool to achieve technological self-determination and culture of countries. He co-founded the Iberoamerican Association of Science Journalists (Asociación Iberoamericana de Periodismo Científico) in 1969. For his contribution to the development of science journalism, Bastidas received recognition from the governments of Venezuela and Spain, and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), which awarded him the Kalinga Prize (Paris, 1980). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29302481 | 1,515,976 |
95,496 | Ecology is an employed science of restoration, repairing disturbed sites through human intervention, in natural resource management, and in environmental impact assessments. Edward O. Wilson predicted in 1992 that the 21st century "will be the era of restoration in ecology". Ecological science has boomed in the industrial investment of restoring ecosystems and their processes in abandoned sites after disturbance. Natural resource managers, in forestry, for example, employ ecologists to develop, adapt, and implement ecosystem based methods into the planning, operation, and restoration phases of land-use. Another example of conservation is seen on the east coast of the United States in Boston, MA. The city of Boston implemented the Wetland Ordinance, improving the stability of their wetland environments by implementing soil amendments that will improve groundwater storage and flow, and trimming or removal of vegetation that could cause harm to water quality. Ecological science is used in the methods of sustainable harvesting, disease, and fire outbreak management, in fisheries stock management, for integrating land-use with protected areas and communities, and conservation in complex geo-political landscapes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9630 | 95,455 |
963,373 | Project Ghatak was initiated as a successor to the 2009 AURA (Autonomous Unmanned Research Aircraft) programme. The AURA was a pioneer programme sanctioned in 2009 with a budget of , to carryout a feasibility study for the future Indian UCAV. The AURA programme was completed in April 2013. The project Ghatak was initiated by ADA in consultation with the Indian Air Force (IAF), with an objective to develop a stealthy UCAV based on flying wing design. The flying wing configuration is inherently stealthy, can carry more fuel and payload than conventional UCAV designs, however it has more complex flight control surfaces and laws. Times Now news quoting DRDO scientists reports that this design ensures optimum fuel use and stability for the aircraft. The Ghatak UCAV is projected to weigh less than a fighter jet and is intended to be powered by a 'dry engine' derivative of GTRE GTX-35VS Kaveri turbofan engine capable of producing a thrust of 52 kN. According to a Press Information Bureau (PIB) document dated to 2017, an initial fund of had been allocated in 2016 for the design of Ghatak and development of critical advanced Technologies for Ghatak & HAL AMCA. The Indian Navy is also interested in the project, and is keen on acquiring deck based UCAVs for future aircraft carriers and Landing Platform Docks (LPD). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27675934 | 962,864 |
1,004,637 | Energy needed to perform short lasting, high intensity bursts of activity is derived from anaerobic metabolism within the cytosol of muscle cells, as opposed to aerobic respiration which utilizes oxygen, is sustainable, and occurs in the mitochondria. The quick energy sources consist of the phosphocreatine (PCr) system, fast glycolysis, and adenylate kinase. All of these systems re-synthesize adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is the universal energy source in all cells. The most rapid source, but the most readily depleted of the above sources is the PCr system which utilizes the enzyme creatine kinase. This enzyme catalyzes a reaction that combines phosphocreatine and adenosine diphosphate (ADP) into ATP and creatine. This resource is short lasting because oxygen is required for the resynthesis of phosphocreatine via mitochondrial creatine kinase. Therefore, under anaerobic conditions, this substrate is finite and only lasts between approximately 10 to 30 seconds of high intensity work. Fast glycolysis, however, can function for approximately 2 minutes prior to fatigue, and predominately uses intracellular glycogen as a substrate. Glycogen is broken down rapidly via glycogen phosphorylase into individual glucose units during intense exercise. Glucose is then oxidized to pyruvate and under anaerobic conditions is reduced to lactic acid. This reaction oxidizes NADH to NAD, thereby releasing a hydrogen ion, promoting acidosis. For this reason, fast glycolysis can not be sustained for long periods of time. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=395477 | 1,004,119 |
1,004,303 | The 13th World Championship took place in 1998 in Germany. Russian team participated at this tournament for first time after dissolution of Soviet Union. In the second group round, they lost to United States with great margin of 36 points (60–96) but then managed to reach final where met with US team again. In the final match, United States faced with much stronger resistance – Russia led with margin of 9 points after first half (28–37), but in the second half US team managed to reach advantage and achieved final victory (71–65). Australia won World Championship bronze medals for first time in their history. The similar story took place at the next World Championship which took place in 2002 in China – United States defeated Russian team at the preliminary round with margin of 34 points (89–55) but later they faced with stronger resistance from Russian side in the final. Despite this, US team won final match with margin of 5 points (79–74) and captured seventh World title while Australia took bronze medals for second time in a row. At the next 2006 World Championship in Brazil, Russian team lost to United States at the preliminary round (80–90) and then lost two more matches at the group stage. But after group stage, Russia achieved remarkable victory by beating US team in semifinals (75–68). It was only first defeat of United States for 12 years at the either Olympic Games or World Championships (and the last till nowadays). They finished only at third place after beating hosts in a bronze medal match (99–59). After this success, Russia was unable to show the same resistance to Australian team who won final match with margin of 17 points (91–74). Therefore, Australia became only fourth national team to win either Olympic or World title in the history of women's basketball. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5779563 | 1,003,785 |
1,793,182 | In the post-Mao Zedong era, the anti-intellectual policies of the Cultural Revolution were reversed, and such top leaders as Deng Xiaoping encouraged the development of science. But China's leaders in the 1980s remained, like their predecessors over the past 100 years, interested in science primarily as a means for national strength and economic growth. The policy makers' goal was the creation of a vigorous scientific and technical establishment that operated at the level of developed countries while contributing in a fairly direct way to agriculture, industry, and defense. Since the early 1980s, major efforts to reform the scientific and technical system through a range of systemic and institutional changes were initiated in order to promote the application of scientific knowledge to the economy. As in the past 100 years, policy makers and scientists have grappled with such issues as the proportion of basic to applied research, the priorities of various fields of research, the limits of professional and academic freedom, and the best mechanisms for promoting industrial innovation and widespread assimilation of up-to-date technology. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14246598 | 1,792,173 |
2,203,320 | The study involved the investigation of ITIH3 (inter alpha trypsin inhibitor heavy chain 3). Researchers used functional analysis, linkage disequilibrium mapping, SNP markers, and the HapMap database. FESD Version II may have been used since it has the information from HapMap as well as other databases. The researchers discovered that the gene was on chromosome 3. In vitro functional analyses showed that this SNP enhanced the transcriptional level of the ITIH3 gene. Furthermore, expression of the ITIH3 protein in the vascular smooth muscle cells and macrophages in the human atherosclerotic lesions was found, suggesting ITIH3 SNP to be a novel genetic risk factor of MI. The gene has been shown to be related to the proinflammatory process of immune response. ITIH3 makes a complex with the locally synthesized hyaluronan (HA) and interacts with inflammatory cells. The ITIH3-HA complex has been reported to be involved in inflammatory diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis and inflammatory bowel diseases. The most statistically-significant SNP did not substitute an amino acid of ITIH3 protein. The researchers hypothesized that this synonymous SNP affected the transcriptional regulation, because several papers reported that some transcriptional factors bound to the exonic coding sequences of some genes and regulated their transcriptional level. There was expression of ITIH3 protein in the atherosclerotic lesion. ITIH3 could play a critical role in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis and subsequent myocardial infarction. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30894898 | 2,202,066 |
1,219,091 | Different rules govern the possible explanations for representations of the four classes and “every explanation given in accordance with this guiding line is merely relative. It [the principle of sufficient reason] explains things in reference to one another, but it always leaves unexplained something that it presupposes,” and the two things that are absolutely inexplicable are the principle itself and the “thing in itself”, which Schopenhauer connects with the will to live. The principle, in another point of view, provides the general form of any given perspective, presupposing both subject and object. The thing in itself, consequently, remains forever unknowable from any standpoint, for any qualities attributed to it are merely perceived, i.e., constructed in the mind from sensations given in time and space. Furthermore, because the concepts we form from our perceptions cannot in any way refer with any validity to anything beyond these limits to experience, all proofs for the existence of God or anything beyond the possibility of experience fall away under the razor of Kant’s critique. Kant termed this critical or transcendental idealism. Important to note here is that “Transcendental” does not refer to knowing the unknowable, but rather it refers to the a priori intellectual conditions for experience. This intuition of the a priori understanding is a modern elucidation of the postmodern expression "always already": time and space always and already determine the possibilities of experience. Additionally, Schopenhauer distinguishes from this something he calls a "spurious a priori": cultural perspectives (ideologies) one is born into that determine one's relationship to experience, in addition to the forms of space and time. He considers these false because it is possible to investigate and uncover their grounds, leading to a reorientation that regards the phenomena of experience as source material of new knowledge, rather than one's always already prejudices about phenomena. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5634430 | 1,218,437 |
736,838 | Tomatoes have been altered in attempts to add nutritional content. In 2000, the concentration of pro-vitamin A was increased by adding a bacterial gene encoding phytoene desaturase, although the total amount of carotenoids remained equal. The researchers admitted at the time that it had no prospect of being grown commercially due to the anti-GM climate. Sue Meyer of the pressure group Genewatch, told "The Independent" that she believed, "If you change the basic biochemistry, you could alter the levels of other nutrients very important for health". More recently, scientists created blue tomatoes that have increased the production of anthocyanin, an antioxidant in tomatoes in several ways. One group added a transcription factor for the production of anthocyanin from "Arabidopsis thaliana" whereas another used transcription factors from snapdragon ("Antirrhinum"). When the snapdragon genes were used, the fruits had similar anthocyanin concentrations to blackberries and blueberries. The inventors of the GMO blue tomato using snapdragon genes, Jonathan Jones and Cathie Martin of the John Innes Centre, founded a company called Norfolk Plant Sciences to commercialize the blue tomato. They partnered with a company in Canada called New Energy Farms to grow a large crop of blue tomatoes, from which to create juice to test in clinical trials on the way to obtaining regulatory approval. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=28441864 | 736,450 |
1,600,348 | This investigation is designed to perform a full-sky survey, searching for EUV sources. The instrument package contains four Wolter-Schwarzschild grazing-incidence telescopes (with EUV thin-film filters) to collect and to isolate radiation. The detector system for each telescope was a wedge and strip anode image converter, consisting of a micro-channel plate, a wedge and strip anode, and detector amplifiers designed to produce images of sky fields in selected wavelength ranges. Three telescopes are designed to operate at right angles to the spin axis and to carry out the sky survey, with bandpass filters (tentatively) for the wavelength ranges 80 to 190 Å, 170 to 330 Å, and 500 to 750 Å. These three telescopes point perpendicular to the Earth-Sun line and sweep out a great circle in the sky with each soacecraft revolution. As the Earth moves around the Sun, the great circle is shifted by 1° each day and so the entire celestial sphere is surveyed in 6 months. The fourth telescope points in the anti-solar direction, within the Earth's shadow cone. In this limited direction, the He II 304 Å background is almost completely absent, and thus higher sensitivity can be obtained for observing selected interesting objects. Spectroscopic observations of the brightest EUV sources are carried out with a resolving power of 100 from 80 to 800 Å. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8984536 | 1,599,447 |
223,798 | The right to marry a person of a different race was addressed in "Loving v. Virginia", in which the Court said, in 1967, that its decision striking down anti-miscegenation laws could be justified either by substantive due process, or by the Equal Protection Clause. The unconstitutionality of bans on and refusals to recognize same-sex marriage was decided partly on substantive due process grounds by "Obergefell v. Hodges" in 2015. A right to have children was addressed in "Skinner v. Oklahoma", but the Court in "Skinner", in 1942, explicitly declined to base its decision on due process but instead cited the Equal Protection Clause since the Oklahoma law required sterilization of some three-time felons but not others. A substantive due process right of a parent to educate a young child (before ninth grade) in a foreign language was recognized in "Meyer v. Nebraska", in 1923, with two justices dissenting, and Justice Kennedy has mentioned that "Meyer" might be decided on different grounds in modern times. Laws that "shock the conscience" of the Court were generally deemed unconstitutional, in 1952, in "Rochin v. California", but in concurring, Justices Black and Douglas argued that pumping a defendant's stomach for evidence should have been deemed unconstitutional on the narrower ground that it violates the Fifth Amendment's right against self-incrimination. The Court, in "O'Connor v. Donaldson", in 1975, said that due process is violated by confining a nondangerous mentally ill person who is capable of surviving safely in freedom. Chief Justice Burger's concurring opinion was that such confinement may also amount to "punishment" for being mentally ill, violating the Court's interpretation of the Eighth Amendment in "Robinson v. California". Freedom from excessive punitive damages was deemed to be a due process right in "BMW v. Gore", in 1996, but four justices disagreed. The Court, in "Cruzan v. Missouri", decided, in 1990, that due process is not violated if a state applies "a clear and convincing evidence standard in proceedings where a guardian seeks to discontinue nutrition and hydration of a person diagnosed to be in a persistent vegetative state". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=585092 | 223,684 |
216,843 | A low socioeconomic status in a deprived neighborhood may include exposure to "environmental stressors and risk factors". Socioeconomic inequalities are commonly measured by the Cartairs-Morris score, Index of Multiple Deprivation, Townsend deprivation index, and the Jarman score. The Jarman score, for example, considers "unemployment, overcrowding, single parents, under-fives, elderly living alone, ethnicity, low social class and residential mobility". In Vos' meta-analysis these indices are used to view the effect of low SES neighborhoods on maternal health. In the meta-analysis, data from individual studies were collected from 1985 up until 2008. Vos concludes that a correlation exists between prenatal adversities and deprived neighborhoods. Other studies have shown that low SES is closely associated with the development of the fetus in utero and growth retardation. Studies also suggest that children born in low SES families are "likely to be born prematurely, at low birth weight, or with asphyxia, a birth defect, a disability, fetal alcohol syndrome, or AIDS". Bradley and Corwyn also suggest that congenital disorders arise from the mother's lack of nutrition, a poor lifestyle, maternal substance abuse and "living in a neighborhood that contains hazards affecting fetal development (toxic waste dumps)". In a meta-analysis that viewed how inequalities influenced maternal health, it was suggested that deprived neighborhoods often promoted behaviors such as smoking, drug and alcohol use. After controlling for socioeconomic factors and ethnicity, several individual studies demonstrated an association with outcomes such as perinatal mortality and preterm birth. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=321263 | 216,735 |
1,929,727 | The field has only recently seen a growth in interest, as well as in research, due to technological advancements that facilitate better resolution of the minute modifications made to DNA. However, even with the significant advances in technology, studying the biology of neurological phenomena, such as cognition and addiction, comes with its own set of challenges. Biological study of cognitive processes, especially with humans, has many ethical caveats. Some procedures, such as brain biopsies of Rett Syndrome patients, usually call for a fresh tissue sample that can only be extricated from the brain of deceased individual. In such cases, the researchers have no control over the age of brain tissue sample, thereby limiting research options. In case of addiction to substances such as alcohol, researchers utilize mouse models to mirror the human version of the disease. However, the mouse models are administered greater volumes of ethanol than humans normally consume in order to obtain more prominent phenotypes. Therefore, while the model organism and the tissue samples provide an accurate approximation of the biology of neurological phenomena, these approaches do not provide a complete and precise picture of the exact processes underlying a phenotype or a disease. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=51304858 | 1,928,620 |
299,731 | The compact and lightweight engine was a 90-degree V4 cylinder bank mid-mounted mono-turbocharged petrol engine. It ran at 9,000 rpm, with performance coming from a direct fuel-injection system and a single Garrett-designed turbocharger with a dual overhead camshaft. It produced approximately and acted as a chassis load-bearing member. Due to the small size of the engine, the transmission casing was fitted to the rear suspension and was almost a third of the car's length. Engine cooling was achieved through a carbon-fibre-and-gold thermal airbox in its centre. Front airflow was enabled by louvres along its flank, and a single curved roll-hoop intake was mounted on its roof to allow air cooling. The car had traction control and a hydraulically operated paddle-shift seven-speed sequential gearbox with rear-lock differential mounted inside a carbon-fibre casing with titanium inserts around its high-stress sections. The brake discs were made from internally ventilated light-alloy carbon ceramic materials, and the car has power steering. For night driving, Porsche designed two four-point LED headlights at both sides of the vehicle for better visibility. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41368349 | 299,570 |
2,169,008 | The United States is the world leader in chemicals manufacturing. As a multibillion-dollar industry, the chemical industry has a leading role in the US economy and because of this, a high level of influence in federal decision-making. Central to the modern world economy, it converts raw materials (oil, natural gas, air, water, metals, and minerals) into more than 70,000 different products. The chemical industry—producers of chemicals, household cleansers, plastics, rubber, paints and explosives, keeps a watchful eye on issues including environmental and health policy, taxes and trade. The industry is often the target of environmental groups, which charge that chemicals and chemical waste are polluting the air and water supply. And like most industries with pollution problems, chemical manufacturers oppose meddlesome government regulations that make it more difficult and expensive for them to do business. So do most Republicans, which is why this industry gives nearly three-fourths of its campaign contributions to the GOP. In addition to campaign contributions to elected officials and candidates, companies, labor unions, and other organizations spend billions of dollars each year to lobby Congress and federal agencies. Some special interests retain lobbying firms, many of them located along Washington's legendary K Street; others have lobbyists working in-house. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31677000 | 2,167,771 |
763,547 | In order to test the effects of the protein mutations on living organisms, researchers genetically altered lab mice to be homozygous for another mutation in protein related to DNA replication, flap endonuclease 1, or FEN1. The results varied based on the specific gene alterations. The homozygous knockout mutant mice experienced a "failure of cell proliferation" and "early embryonic lethality" (27). The mice with the mutation F343A and F344A (also known as FFAA) died directly after birth due to complications in birth including pancytopenia and pulmonary hypoplasia. This is because the FFAA mutation prevents the FEN1 from interacting with PCNA (proliferating cell nuclear antigen), consequently not allowing it to complete its purpose during Okazaki fragment maturation. The interaction with this protein is considered to be the key molecular function in the FEN1's biological function. The FFAA mutation causes defects in RNA primer removal and long-base pair repair, of which cause many breaks in the DNA. Under careful observation, cells homozygous for FFAA FEN1 mutations seem to display only partial defects in maturation, meaning mice heterozygous for the mutation would be able to survive into adulthood, despite sustaining multiple small nicks in their genomes. Inevitably however, these nicks prevent future DNA replication because the break causes the replication fork to collapse and causes double strand breaks in the actual DNA sequence. In time, these nicks also cause full chromosome breaks, which could lead to severe mutations and cancers. Other mutations have been implemented with altered versions of Polymerase α, leading to similar results. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=506315 | 763,138 |
1,327,489 | The geographic origin of microblades is poorly understood, with differing theories posing origins in Southern Siberia, Northern China, or the PHSK (Paleo-Hokkaido-Sakhalin-Kurile) peninsula, with dates ranging from over 30,000 BP to as little as 18,000 BP. Because microblade technology is economical (using less raw material than other technologies), relatively easy to make, and extremely portable, it came into widespread use over vast parts of northern Asia and northeastern Siberia during and after the Ice Age. Microblade technology was very efficient for hunting because it used light, barbed spears. During the Ice Age, hunter-gatherers suffered from shortage of food resources, so they had to move more frequently. Microblade is suitable for high mobility and rapid weapon production, as well as reducing failure of hunting and lost or damaged weapons. In other words, in the resource-limited environment of the LGM, hunter-gatherers invested more time acquiring better raw materials and developing the technique of lithic manufacture. Barbed tips opened wounds and the resulting blood loss killed prey faster and with less loss of hunting equipment than traditional spears. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2613743 | 1,326,762 |
546,210 | The demands of combat during World War II led to changes in the composition of Army units. The success of German mechanised units during the invasions of Poland and France convinced Australian defence planners that the Army required armoured units, and these began to be raised in 1941. These units were not suitable for jungle warfare, however, and most were disbanded during 1943 and 1944. Conditions in the South West Pacific also led the Army to convert its six combat divisions to jungle divisions in early 1943 and 1944 with fewer heavy weapons and vehicles. This organisation proved only moderately successful, and the divisions were strengthened for their 1944–45 campaigns. The process of demobilisation began immediately after the end of hostilities in August 1945 and was finally completed on 15 February 1947. A total of 730,000 personnel enlisted in the Australian Army during the war, a figure which represented around 10 percent of the population. Nearly 400,000 men ultimately served overseas, with 40 percent of the total force serving in front line areas. As a proportion of its population, the Australian Army was ultimately one of the largest Allied armies during World War II. Casualties included 11,323 killed in action, 1,794 who died of wounds, and 21,853 wounded. Another 5,558 were killed or died as prisoners of war (POWs), while non-battle casualties in operational areas were also significant and included 1,088 killed and 33,196 wounded or injured. In addition, the Army suffered a substantial number of casualties in non-operational areas: 1,795 soldiers killed and 121,800 wounded or injured. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22738876 | 545,924 |
2,137,997 | Simply put, this architecture extends the existing World Wide Web infrastructure of networked web servers down into the product at its subsystem's controller level using a Systems Engineering "system of systems" nested approach. Its core is an embedded dual function webserver/computer workstation connected to the product controller's test ports (as used in retrofit applications, or integrated directly into the controller for new products), hence providing access to operational cycles, sensor and other information in a clustered, internet addressable node that allows for local or remote access, and the ability to host remotely reconfigurable software that can collect and process data from its mated subsystem controller onboard and pull in other computing resources throughout the network. It can then establish a localized wireless World Wide Web in and around the product that can be securely connected to by a mechanic with any web browser-equipped handheld independent of the greater World Wide Web, as well as seamlessly integrate into global networks when external wireless communications is available - thus creating data Digital Twins at the factory, connecting deployed product usage in the Product lifecycle with constantly updated digital threads. This allows for an integrated approach which enables both offline and online updates to occur. Legacy systems usually require a human to physically connect a laptop to the system controller or a telematic solution to manually collect data and carry it back to a location where it can be later transferred to the factory or to restricted webserver-based download sites for offboard analysis. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=16620919 | 2,136,767 |
1,326,024 | The Georgia General Assembly amended EES' charter in the early 1960s, authorizing an "industrial extension service to meet the technical, informational and other needs of industry and local development groups". This led to an expansion of some of EES' activities that it had been involved in since the 1940s. In particular, EES began providing additional services as a technological incubator during this time frame, and began an international development initiative that improved infrastructure and facilitated technology transfer in over 40 developing nations. The station's expanded mission bolstered its traditional research strengths, resulting in work on projects that improved radar operation on the Saturn rocket and in the invention of the compact antenna range by Richard C. Johnson. Throughout the 1960s, these changes brought about an increased focus on research that sought to solve societal problems rather than research for the sake of pure scientific knowledge. This came at a time when director Maurice W. Long began placing an emphasis on graduate education and multidisciplinary research. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4424567 | 1,325,297 |
100,576 | The F6F-5 featured several improvements, including a more powerful R-2800-10W engine employing a water-injection system and housed in a slightly more streamlined engine cowling, spring-loaded control tabs on the ailerons, and an improved, clear-view windscreen, with a flat armored-glass front panel replacing the F6F-3's curved plexiglass panel and internal armor glass screen. In addition, the rear fuselage and tail units were strengthened, and apart from some early production aircraft, most of the F6F-5s built were painted in an overall gloss sea-blue finish. After the first few F6F-5s were built, the small windows behind the main canopy were deleted. The F6F-5N night-fighter variant was fitted with an AN/APS-6 radar in a fairing on the outer-starboard wing. A few standard F6F-5s were also fitted with camera equipment for reconnaissance duties as the F6F-5P. While all F6F-5s were capable of carrying an armament mix of one 20-mm (.79-in) M2 cannon in each of the inboard gun bays (220 rounds per gun), along with two pairs of .50-in (12.7-mm) machine guns (each with 400 rounds per gun), this configuration was only used on later F6F-5N night fighters. The F6F-5 was the most common F6F variant, with 7,870 being built. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=532448 | 100,531 |
963,442 | On 6 June 1944, Dog, Easy, and Fox Companies, commanded by Lieutenant Colonel James Rudder, landed at Pointe du Hoc from LCA landing craft and specially modified DUKW "Ducks" operated by the Royal Navy. The 225 Rangers had set off from Britain to launch an assault upon the cliffs overlooking the English Channel. In order to augment the strength of the 2nd Battalion, members of the Provisional Ranger Group were assigned as well. Several landing craft containing Rangers and supplies capsized in the stormy waters and many Rangers drowned due to heavy equipment, but others were saved and hoisted into other DUKWs to participate in the attack. The Rangers had planned to land at the base of the cliffs at 0600 hours, however, because of a navigational error, they landed nearly an hour late. This cost the lives of more Rangers as well as the element of surprise. During the attack, the 190 remaining Rangers scaled the cliffs utilizing rope ladders, but only 90 Rangers were still able to bear arms after two days of relentless fighting. During the assault, 2nd Battalion managed to achieve their primary objective, disabling a battery of 155mm French artillery captured by the Germans. These guns were to be aimed at Utah Beach, however, the Rangers prevented their use, saving American lives on the shores of Normandy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3044555 | 962,933 |
312,351 | Which type of medication to use initially for hypertension has been the subject of several large studies and resulting national guidelines. The fundamental goal of treatment should be the prevention of the important endpoints of hypertension, such as heart attack, stroke and heart failure. Patient age, associated clinical conditions and end-organ damage also play a part in determining dosage and type of medication administered. The several classes of antihypertensives differ in side effect profiles, ability to prevent endpoints, and cost. The choice of more expensive agents, where cheaper ones would be equally effective, may have negative impacts on national healthcare budgets. As of 2018, the best available evidence favors low-dose thiazide diuretics as the first-line treatment of choice for high blood pressure when drugs are necessary. Although clinical evidence shows calcium channel blockers and thiazide-type diuretics are preferred first-line treatments for most people (from both efficacy and cost points of view), an ACE inhibitor is recommended by NICE in the UK for those under 55 years old. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=633467 | 312,183 |
950,379 | Academics had to play catch up with practitioners in this matter. One important theoretic development came from a Czech mathematician, Oldrich Vasicek, who argued in a 1977 paper that bond prices all along the curve are driven by the short end (under risk-neutral equivalent martingale measure) and accordingly by short-term interest rates. The mathematical model for Vasicek's work was given by an Ornstein–Uhlenbeck process, but has since been discredited because the model predicts a positive probability that the short rate becomes negative and is inflexible in creating yield curves of different shapes. Vasicek's model has been superseded by many different models including the Hull–White model (which allows for time varying parameters in the Ornstein–Uhlenbeck process), the Cox–Ingersoll–Ross model, which is a modified Bessel process, and the Heath–Jarrow–Morton framework. There are also many modifications to each of these models, but see the article on short-rate model. Another modern approach is the LIBOR market model, introduced by Brace, Gatarek and Musiela in 1997 and advanced by others later. In 1996, a group of derivatives traders led by Olivier Doria (then head of swaps at Deutsche Bank) and Michele Faissola, contributed to an extension of the swap yield curves in all the major European currencies. Until then the market would give prices until 15 years maturities. The team extended the maturity of European yield curves up to 50 years (for the lira, French franc, Deutsche mark, Danish krone and many other currencies including the ecu). This innovation was a major contribution towards the issuance of long dated zero-coupon bonds and the creation of long dated mortgages. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=547742 | 949,875 |
1,829,751 | The center currently has a total of 153,000 square feet with 24,000 square feet of raised floor modules for supercomputing systems in its expandable design. It incorporates numerous resource conservation features to reduce its environmental impact. Water consumption at the NWSC is reduced by about 40% compared to traditional designs by using innovative technologies, specialized cooling tower equipment, and low-flow plumbing fixtures. Waste heat from the systems is recycled to pre-heat components in the power plant, to heat the office spaces, and to melt snow and ice on outdoor walkways and rooftops. Windows supply natural light; combined with room occupancy sensors, the building saves 20-30% in lighting and electricity compared to typical office buildings. A building automation system saves energy by continuously optimizing pumps, fans, and controls that heat or cool only occupied areas of the facility. During construction, sustainable practices were used with emphasis on recycled and locally sourced materials. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=40305469 | 1,828,710 |
1,996,576 | The first recorded observations of oscillating genes come from the marches of Alexander the Great in the fourth century B.C. At this time, one of Alexander's generals, Androsthenes, wrote that the tamarind tree would open its leaves during the day and close them at nightfall. Until 1729, the rhythms associated with oscillating genes were assumed to be "passive responses to a cyclic environment". In 1729, Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan demonstrated that the rhythms of a plant opening and closing its leaves continued even when placed somewhere where sunlight could not reach it. This was one of the first indications that there was an active element to the oscillations. In 1923, Ingeborg Beling published her paper "Über das Zeitgedächtnis der Bienen" ("On the Time Memory of Bees") which extended oscillations to animals, specifically bees In 1971, Ronald Konopka and Seymour Benzer discovered that mutations of the PERIOD gene caused changes in the circadian rhythm of flies under constant conditions. They hypothesized that the mutation of the gene was affecting the basic oscillator mechanism. Paul Hardin, Jeffrey Hall, and Michael Rosbash demonstrated that relationship by discovering that within the PERIOD gene, there was a feedback mechanism that controlled the oscillation. The mid-1990s saw an outpouring of discoveries, with CLOCK, CRY, and others being added to the growing list of oscillating genes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21923868 | 1,995,433 |
1,663,441 | Pregnancy outcomes can impact the wellbeing of a society. Comparisons between the children who were in gestation during the 1918 flu pandemic and those in gestation immediately before or after the health crisis show marked differences between the two groups on census data. Across all socioeconomic measures, those who were fetuses during the crisis attained lower educational achievement, income, and socioeconomic status. Specifically, individuals affected were 15% less likely to graduate high school, 15% more likely to be poor, and 20% more likely to be disabled as adults. Even federal welfare payments were higher for the gestational cohort than those born before or after the flu hit. The same economic researcher, Douglas Almond, has investigated other historical situations affecting particular cohorts of fetuses: children born during or immediately following the Chernobyl nuclear disaster explosion, and China's Great Leap Forward (which resulted in a deadly famine). Both prenatally exposed groups suffered lower cognitive abilities and reduced employment levels. Such outcomes can have lasting impacts on the productivity and economic security of a society for an entire generation of individuals, and perhaps even continue to affect future descendants through changes in gene expression. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=47957160 | 1,662,506 |
34,480 | Despite Japan's loss of Mount Suribachi on the South end of the island, the Japanese still held strong positions on the north end. The rocky terrain vastly favored defense, even more so than Mount Suribachi, which was much easier to hit with naval artillery fire. Coupled with this, the fortifications constructed by Kuribayashi were more impressive than at the southern end of the island. Remaining under the command of Kuribayashi was the equivalent of eight infantry battalions, a tank regiment, and two artillery and three heavy mortar battalions. There were also about 5,000 gunners and naval infantry. The most arduous task left to the Marines was the taking of the Motoyama Plateau with its distinctive Hill 382 and Turkey knob and the area in between referred to as the Amphitheater. This formed the basis of what came to be known as the "meatgrinder". While this was being achieved on the right flank, the left was clearing out Hill 362 with just as much difficulty. The overall objective at this point was to take control of Airfield No. 2 in the center of the island. However, every "penetration seemed to become a disaster" as "units were raked from the flanks, chewed up, and sometimes wiped out. Tanks were destroyed by interlocking fire or were hoisted into the air on the spouting fireballs of buried mines". As a result, the fighting bogged down, with American casualties piling up. Even capturing these points was not a solution to the problem since a previously secured position could be attacked from the rear by the use of the tunnels and hidden pillboxes. As such, it was said that "they could take these heights at will, and then regret it". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=60027 | 34,468 |
1,702,499 | French anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss's structuralist anthropology brought together ideas of Boas (especially Boas's belief in the mutability of cultural forms, and Bastian's belief in the psychic unity of humankind) and French sociologist's Émile Durkheim's focus on social structures (institutionalized relationships among persons and groups of persons). Instead of making generalizations that applied to large numbers of societies, Lévi-Strauss sought to derive from concrete cases increasingly abstract models of human nature. His method begins with the supposition that culture exists in two different forms: the many distinct structures that could be inferred from observing members of the same society interact (and of which members of a society are themselves aware), and abstract structures developed by analyzing shared ways (such as myths and rituals) members of a society represent their social life (and of which members of a society are not only "not" consciously aware, but which moreover typically stand in opposition to, or negate, the social structures of which people "are" aware). He then sought to develop one universal mental structure that could only be inferred through the systematic comparison of particular social and cultural structures. He argued that just as there are laws through which a finite and relatively small number of chemical elements could be combined to create a seemingly infinite variety of things, there were a finite and relatively small number of cultural elements which people combine to create the great variety of cultures anthropologists observe. The systematic comparison of societies would enable an anthropologist to develop this cultural "table of elements," and once completed, this table of cultural elements would enable an anthropologist to analyze specific cultures and achieve insights hidden to the very people who produced and lived through these cultures. Structuralism came to dominate French anthropology and, in the late 1960s and 1970s, came to have great influence on American and British anthropology. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41831802 | 1,701,544 |
1,123,553 | A couple of years later, Grignard was able to isolate the intermediate. He had heated a mixture of magnesium turnings, isobutyl iodide, and added dry ethyl ether to the mixture and a reaction was observed. The product is known as a Grignard reagent. Named after him, this organo-magnesium compound (R-MgX) (R = alkyl ; X = Halogen) readily reacts with ketones, aldehydes, and alkenes to produce their respective alcohols in impressive yields. Grignard had discovered the synthetic reaction which now bears his name (the Grignard reaction) in 1900. In 1901, Grignard published his doctoral thesis titled "Thèses sur les combinaisons organomagnesiennes mixtes et leur application à des synthèses d‘acides, d‘alcools et d‘hydrocarbures". He became a lecturer in organic chemistry at the University of Nancy in 1909, and was promoted to full professor in 1910. In 1912 he and Paul Sabatier (1854–1941) were awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. During World War I he studied chemical warfare agents with Georges Urbain at Sorbonne University, particularly the manufacture of phosgene and the detection of mustard gas. In 1918, Grignard discovered that sodium iodide could be used as a battlefield test for mustard gas. Sodium iodide converts mustard gas to diiododiethyl sulfide, which crystallizes more easily than mustard gas. This test could detect as little as 0.01 gram of mustard gas in one cubic meter of air and was successfully used on the battlefield. His counterpart on the German side was another Nobel Prize–winning chemist, Fritz Haber. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=900383 | 1,122,979 |
1,127,728 | In the summer of 1950, when Canada was asked to contribute troops to the United Nations forces fighting in Korea, the government in Ottawa was forced to admit that the Mobile Strike Force was seriously under-strength, and that to send the Mobile Strike Force to South Korea would leave Canada undefended. Rather than engage in the politically difficult move of conscription, the Defence Minister, Brooke Claxton promised that Canada would raise an all-volunteer Army Special Force for Korea. By fall of 1950, 10, 587 men had volunteered to fight in Korea. Canada sent 26,791 Canadians to serve in the Korean War, with 7,000 more remaining to supervise the ceasefire until the end of 1955. Of these 1,558 became casualties, including 516 deaths, most due to combat. Canada's participation included several naval vessels and aircraft, in addition to the 25th Canadian Infantry Brigade which served as part of the 1st Commonwealth Division. In late 1950, Princess Patricia's Regiment left for South Korea and in February 1951 entered the line as part of an Anglo-Australian brigade. Princess Patricia's regiment was engaged in heavy fighting during the Battle of Kapyong on 22–25 April 1951 when a Chinese assault caused a South Korean division to collapse in the Kapyong valley; Princess Patricia's regiment was sent with British, Australian and New Zealand units in to hold the line. At one point during the night of April 22–23, 1951, Princess Patricia's had to call down artillery fire on their own positions to stop the advancing Chinese. The successful defence of the Kapyong valley earned the "Princess Pats" a presidential citation from President Truman, the first time that a Canadian unit had been so honored. The rest of 25th Infantry Brigade arrived in South Korea on 25 May 1951, and joined the Commonwealth Division in the summer. The 25th Brigade fitted in well with the British, Australian and New Zealand soldiers of the Commonwealth Division fighting for the Crown on the war-scarred hills of Korea. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3110164 | 1,127,150 |
573,344 | Because workers maintain the same posture over long work days and often several years, even natural postures like standing can lead to MSDs like low back pain. Postures which are less natural, such as twisting of or tension in the upper body, are typically contributors to the development of MSDs due to the unnatural biomechanical load of these postures. There is evidence that posture contributes to MSDs of the neck, shoulder, and back. Repeated motion is another risk factor for MSDs of occupational origin because workers can perform the same movements repeatedly over long periods of time (e.g. typing leading to carpal tunnel syndrome, lifting heavy objects leading to herniated discs/slipped discs), which can wear on the joints and muscles involved in the motion in question. Workers doing repetitive motions at a high pace of work with little recovery time and workers with little to no control over the timing of motions (e.g. workers on assembly lines) are also prone to MSDs due to the motion of their work. Force needed to perform actions on the job can also be associated with higher MSD risk in workers, because movements which require more force can fatigue muscles quicker which can lead to injury and/or pain. Additionally, exposure to vibration (experienced by truck drivers or construction workers, for example) and extreme hot or cold temperatures can affect a worker's ability to judge force and strength, which can lead to development of MSDs. Vibration exposure is also associated with hand-arm vibration syndrome, which has symptoms of lack of blood circulation to the fingers, nerve compression, tingling, and/or numbness. Recent epidemiological studies identify gender as a significant risk factor in occurrence of MSDs among workers in gender-related occupations, e.g. hairdressers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8400045 | 573,050 |
1,517,403 | In July 2007, the California Attorney General threatened to file suit against Corinthian Colleges, corporate parent of National Institute of Technology, unless it settled allegations that it has misrepresented its placement statistics; the school had been under investigation by the state attorney general's office for over 18 months. According to a case filed in Los Angeles County Superior Court, Corinthian Colleges "engaged in a persistent pattern of unlawful conduct" by overstating the percentage of those who obtained employment from its courses, inflated information on starting salaries and made misleading or false statements about which programs it was authorized to offer and which were approved by the California Department of Education. The suit stated that Corinthian's "own records show that a substantial percentage of students do not complete the programs and, of those who complete the program, a large majority do not successfully obtain employment within six months after completing the course." In late July, Corinthian Colleges agreed to pay $6.5 million to settle a lawsuit alleging that the chain engaged in unlawful business practices by exaggerating its record of placing students in well-paying jobs; the amount included $5.8 million in restitution to students as well as $500,000 in civil damages and $200,000 in court costs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4107494 | 1,516,551 |
278,557 | Barnard later wrote, "For a dying man it is not a difficult decision because he knows he is at the end. If a lion chases you to the bank of a river filled with crocodiles, you will leap into the water, convinced you have a chance to swim to the other side." The donor heart came from a young woman, Denise Darvall, who had been rendered brain dead in an accident on 2 December 1967, while crossing a street in Cape Town. On examination at Groote Schuur hospital, Darvall had two serious fractures in her skull, with no electrical activity in her brain detected, and no sign of pain when ice water was poured into her ear. Coert Venter and Bertie Bosman requested permission from Darvall's father for Denise's heart to be used in the transplant attempt. The afternoon before his first transplant, Barnard dozed at his home while listening to music. When he awoke, he decided to modify Shumway and Lower's technique. Instead of cutting straight across the back of the atrial chambers of the donor heart, he would avoid damage to the septum and instead cut two small holes for the venae cavae and pulmonary veins. Prior to the transplant, rather than wait for Darvall's heart to stop beating, at his brother Marius Barnard's urging, Christiaan had injected potassium into her heart to paralyse it and render her technically dead by the whole-body standard. Twenty years later, Marius Barnard recounted, "Chris stood there for a few moments, watching, then stood back and said, 'It works.'" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7015 | 278,407 |
2,200,290 | Charles Vacanti continued to work on these cells when he moved to Harvard, including with thoracic surgeon Koji Kojima who identified them in lung tissue. Working with a graduate student Haruko Obokata in his lab at Harvard from 2008, Vacanti later refined this theory to suggest that stress or injury could actually trigger the development of pluripotency in somatic cells. He first proposed this to Obokata and Masayuki Yamato at a conference in Florida in 2010; Yamato had independently come to the same conclusion. Obokata returned to Japan and continued this work at RIKEN. Vacanti presented these results in July 2012 at the Society of Cardiovascular Anesthesiologists conference, and then in January 2014 the journal "Nature" published two articles suggesting that a simple acid treatment could cause mouse blood cells to become pluripotent. The "Boston Globe" reported that "His discovery is a reminder that as specialized as science is, sometimes, a little ignorance may be a virtue. A stem-cell expert would probably never have even bothered to try the experiment Vacanti has been pursuing, on and off, since the late 1990s." Both STAP articles were retracted in July 2014 after an investigation by RIKEN concluded that the data were fabricated. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3352205 | 2,199,038 |
695,576 | Although the electronic health record (EHR), previously known as the electronic medical record (EMR), is frequently cited in the literature, there is no consensus about the definition. However, there is consensus that EMRs can reduce several types of errors, including those related to prescription drugs, to preventive care, and to tests and procedures. Recurring alerts remind clinicians of intervals for preventive care and track referrals and test results. Clinical guidelines for disease management have a demonstrated benefit when accessible within the electronic record during the process of treating the patient. Advances in health informatics and widespread adoption of interoperable electronic health records promise access to a patient's records at any health care site. A 2005 report noted that medical practices in the United States are encountering barriers to adopting an EHR system, such as training, costs and complexity, but the adoption rate continues to rise (see chart to right). Since 2002, the National Health Service of the United Kingdom has placed emphasis on introducing computers into healthcare. As of 2005, one of the largest projects for a national EHR is by the National Health Service (NHS) in the United Kingdom. The goal of the NHS is to have 60,000,000 patients with a centralized electronic health record by 2010. The plan involves a gradual roll-out commencing May 2006, providing general practices in England access to the National Programme for IT (NPfIT), the NHS component of which is known as the "Connecting for Health Programme". However, recent surveys have shown physicians' deficiencies in understanding the patient safety features of the NPfIT-approved software. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19565233 | 695,212 |
338,384 | AMS counts the atoms of and in a given sample, determining the / ratio directly. The sample, often in the form of graphite, is made to emit C ions (carbon atoms with a single negative charge), which are injected into an accelerator. The ions are accelerated and passed through a stripper, which removes several electrons so that the ions emerge with a positive charge. The ions, which may have from 1 to 4 positive charges (C to C), depending on the accelerator design, are then passed through a magnet that curves their path; the heavier ions are curved less than the lighter ones, so the different isotopes emerge as separate streams of ions. A particle detector then records the number of ions detected in the stream, but since the volume of (and , needed for calibration) is too great for individual ion detection, counts are determined by measuring the electric current created in a Faraday cup. The large positive charge induced by the stripper forces molecules such as , which has a weight close enough to to interfere with the measurements, to dissociate, so they are not detected. Most AMS machines also measure the sample's , for use in calculating the sample's radiocarbon age. The use of AMS, as opposed to simpler forms of mass spectrometry, is necessary because of the need to distinguish the carbon isotopes from other atoms or molecules that are very close in mass, such as and . As with beta counting, both blank samples and standard samples are used. Two different kinds of blank may be measured: a sample of dead carbon that has undergone no chemical processing, to detect any machine background, and a sample known as a process blank made from dead carbon that is processed into target material in exactly the same way as the sample which is being dated. Any signal from the machine background blank is likely to be caused either by beams of ions that have not followed the expected path inside the detector or by carbon hydrides such as or . A signal from the process blank measures the amount of contamination introduced during the preparation of the sample. These measurements are used in the subsequent calculation of the age of the sample. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=26197 | 338,204 |
119,353 | The precursor sciences to the development of modern computer graphics were the advances in electrical engineering, electronics, and television that took place during the first half of the twentieth century. Screens could display art since the Lumiere brothers' use of mattes to create special effects for the earliest films dating from 1895, but such displays were limited and not interactive. The first cathode ray tube, the Braun tube, was invented in 1897 – it in turn would permit the oscilloscope and the military control panel – the more direct precursors of the field, as they provided the first two-dimensional electronic displays that responded to programmatic or user input. Nevertheless, computer graphics remained relatively unknown as a discipline until the 1950s and the post-World War II period – during which time the discipline emerged from a combination of both pure university and laboratory academic research into more advanced computers and the United States military's further development of technologies like radar, advanced aviation, and rocketry developed during the war. New kinds of displays were needed to process the wealth of information resulting from such projects, leading to the development of computer graphics as a discipline. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18567210 | 119,304 |
693,733 | In Europe, the Water Framework Directive (WFD) went into effect on October 23, 2000. It requires all EU member states to show that all surface and groundwater bodies are in good status. The WFD requires member states to implement monitoring systems to estimate the integrity of biological stream components for specific sub-surface water categories. This requirement increased the incidence of biometrics applied to ascertain stream health in Europe A remote online biomonitoring system was designed in 2006. It is based on bivalve molluscs and the exchange of real-time data between a remote intelligent device in the field (able to work for more than 1 year without "in-situ" human intervention) and a data centre designed to capture, process and distribute the web information derived from the data. The technique relates bivalve behaviour, specifically shell gaping activity, to water quality changes. This technology has been successfully used for the assessment of coastal water quality in various countries (France, Spain, Norway, Russia, Svalbard (Ny-Ålesund) and New Caledonia). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1859694 | 693,370 |
2,194,760 | In November 1933 Dickinson decided to put aside his large painting "Woodland Scene", which he had been unable to bring to a satisfactory resolution, and began a new painting—his largest—that he eventually gave the neutral name of "Composition with Still Life". Adopting a more systematic method of painting than he had used previously, he began by mixing batches of paints in incremental values, evidently limited saturation, and with the darkest value considerably higher in key than in his darker, earlier pictures, a method that he employed in "Stranded Brig" as well. Work progressed steadily in 1934, except for the period Dickinson worked on "Stranded Brig", followed by a hospitalization for back pain and ulcers, and for two months at the beginning of 1935, when he finished up work on "Woodland Scene" at the request of his patron, Esther Hoyt Sawyer. Despite teaching painting classes at the Art Institute of Buffalo in the fall of 1934 and the following spring, Dickinson, with the use of Esther's painting studio, managed 216 sittings by June 16, 1935. But eleven days later, on the family's return to Provincetown, police stopped them to inform them that Edwin's eldest brother, Howard, had been murdered in Detroit. Howard's death hit him hard, and he ceased work on the painting. Although he made some attempts to resume work on the painting, and despite his keen awareness of the importance to his career of completing the painting swiftly and well, it was not until May 1936 that he resumed steady work on it. From then on, he worked at it fairly steadily, despite a few interruptions, until March 14, 1937, when the sittings numbered 396. Nineteen sittings were done beginning June 27 and then a long break until September 20, after which, in a flurry of activity, he added another fifty sittings. He painted the final object in his picture, a pale blue rose, between October 30 and November 1, on which day he wrote in his journal that the picture was done. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=32739872 | 2,193,510 |
1,966,411 | The evaluation of the performance cannot be considered complete without considering the limit of detection, the range of linear response and the signal reproducibility. EI is known as a low-efficiency ionization technique. Because less than 1/10 000 of the gas-phase sample molecules are ionized, impressive detection limits cannot be expected. However, the efficient interfacing mechanism of this interface allows picogram-level detection limit in selected ion monitoring (SIM) for most substances. On the other hand, soft ionization techniques such as ESI are, in some cases, far more efficient but generate fewer fragment ions. The cost of this attitude is paid in terms of structural information so that a second analyzer to generate MS/MS spectra is an obligation. A typical EI spectrum, in general, has extensive structural information, and a cheaper, single-stage mass spectrometer might be sufficient for analyte characterization or identification. As a rule of the thumb, nanogram-level sensitivity is obtained in full-scan mode for most substances. Linearity and reproducibility are two point of strength of the interface. Up to four orders of magnitude linearity with RSD lower than 10% are common values in many applications. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=24897052 | 1,965,282 |
849,652 | Max von Laue in his 1920 paper gave serious consideration to the effect of General Relativity on the Sagnac effect stating, "General relativity would of course be capable of giving some statements about it, and we want to show at first that no noticeable influences of acceleration are expected according to it." He makes a footnote regarding discussions with German physicist, Wilhelm Wien. The reason for looking at General Relativity is because Einstein's Theory of General Relativity predicted that light would slow down in a gravitational field which is why it could predict the curvature of light around a massive body. Under General Relativity, there is the equivalence principle which states that gravity and acceleration are equivalent. Spinning or accelerating an interferometer creates a gravitational effect. "There are, however, two different types of such [non-inertial] motion; it may for instance be acceleration in a straight line, or circular motion with constant speed." Also, Irwin Shapiro in 1964 explained General Relativity saying, "the speed of a light wave depends on the strength of the gravitational potential along its path." This is called the Shapiro delay. However, since the gravitational field would have to be significant, Laue (1920) concluded it is more likely that the effect is a result of changing the distance of the path by its movement through space. "The beam traveling around the loop in the direction of rotation will have farther to go than the beam traveling counter to the direction of rotation, because during the period of travel the mirrors and detector will all move (slightly) toward the counter-rotating beam and away from the co-rotating beam. Consequently the beams will reach the detector at slightly different times, and slightly out of phase, producing optical interference 'fringes' that can be observed and measured." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1636296 | 849,200 |
919,441 | The SDV is used primarily for inserting SEALs for covert operations or for placing mines on ships. It is also used for underwater mapping and terrain exploration, location and recovery of lost or downed objects, and reconnaissance missions. It has been invaluable at deploying SEAL teams in clandestine missions, as it has enabled them to land on shores inaccessible to a larger submarine with a degree of stealth greater than that offered by small surface craft, helicopters, or other means. In exercises, the SDV has been found to excel at anti-shipping attacks, being able to attack targets in heavily-guarded fleets or docked at military bases and then slip away undetected. Additionally, it can carry larger limpet mines than those carried by a diver and has a much greater range than a diver, enabling attacks on larger and more distant enemy ships. However, the SDV is not without its weaknesses, namely its range, reliability, and mobility. The SDV's short range, which is contingent on sea state, water temperature, payload, and other factors, sometimes hinders operations. In one example, the Navy wanted to use an SDV to get a closer look at a Soviet ship anchored in a Cuban harbor upriver from the Caribbean Sea. The SDV could not have made the round trip to the Soviet vessel from an American ship outside of Cuba's territorial waters, so the mission had to be called off. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=774540 | 918,956 |
729,761 | In his final "Memoir on the diffraction of light", deposited on 29 July and bearing the Latin epigraph ""Natura simplex et fecunda"" ("Nature simple and fertile"), Fresnel slightly expanded the two tables without changing the existing figures, except for a correction to the first minimum of intensity. For completeness, he repeated his solution to "the problem of interference", whereby sinusoidal functions are added like vectors. He acknowledged the directionality of the secondary sources and the variation in their distances from the observation point, chiefly to explain why these things make negligible difference in the context, provided of course that the secondary sources do not radiate in the retrograde direction. Then, applying his theory of interference to the secondary waves, he expressed the intensity of light diffracted by a single straight edge (half-plane) in terms of integrals which involved the dimensions of the problem, but which could be converted to the normalized forms above. With reference to the integrals, he explained the calculation of the maxima and minima of the intensity (external fringes), and noted that the calculated intensity falls very rapidly as one moves into the geometric shadow. The last result, as Olivier Darrigol says, "amounts to a proof of the rectilinear propagation of light in the wave theory, indeed the first proof that a modern physicist would still accept." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1141 | 729,377 |
1,727,070 | To sustain their guerrilla campaign, the Boers needed a regular supply of food, ammunition and equipment. In an effort to obtain such supplies, Koos de la Rey led a 3,000 strong Boer attack on the British post at Brakfontein on the Elands River in Western Transvaal on 4 August 1900. At the time, it was lightly defended by 300 Australians, comprising 105 New South Wales Citizens' Bushmen, 141 3rd Queensland Mounted Infantry, 2 Tasmanian Bushmen, 42 Victorian Bushmen, and 9 West Australian Bushmen, as well as an additional 201 Rhodesian Volunteers. De le Rey's force surrounded the outpost, but magnanimously offered to deliver the Australians to the nearest British position unharmed if they surrendered the supplies they were guarding. The commanding officer of the camp, Colonel Charles Hore, refused the offer. The Boers bombarded the Australian position with artillery fire. In two days they fired over 2,500 shells at the Elands River outpost. The defenders suffered 32 casualties, but continued to repulse any attempt to seize the outpost. The Boers turned back a relief force sent to assist the Australians, but were unable to take the position itself. After 11 days without success, and with the prospect of further reinforcements arriving, the Boers broke their siege and withdrew. The Australians and Rhodesians had successfully defended the Elands River outpost, and were eventually relieved on 16 August. The Boer commander, Koos de la Rey, was quoted as saying: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25045057 | 1,726,096 |
71,168 | Mustard gases were possibly developed as early as 1822 by César-Mansuète Despretz (1798–1863). Despretz described the reaction of sulfur dichloride and ethylene but never made mention of any irritating properties of the reaction product. In 1854, another French chemist, Alfred Riche (1829–1908), repeated this procedure, also without describing any adverse physiological properties. In 1860, the British scientist Frederick Guthrie synthesized and characterized the mustard agent compound and noted its irritating properties, especially in tasting. Also in 1860, chemist Albert Niemann, known as a pioneer in cocaine chemistry, repeated the reaction, and recorded blister-forming properties. In 1886, Viktor Meyer published a paper describing a synthesis that produced good yields. He combined 2-chloroethanol with aqueous potassium sulfide, and then treated the resulting thiodiglycol with phosphorus trichloride. The purity of this compound was much higher and consequently the adverse health effects upon exposure were much more severe. These symptoms presented themselves in his assistant, and in order to rule out the possibility that his assistant was suffering from a mental illness (psychosomatic symptoms), Meyer had this compound tested on laboratory rabbits, most of which died. In 1913, the English chemist Hans Thacher Clarke (known for the Eschweiler-Clarke reaction) replaced the phosphorus trichloride with hydrochloric acid in Meyer's formulation while working with Emil Fischer in Berlin. Clarke was hospitalized for two months for burns after one of his flasks broke. According to Meyer, Fischer's report on this accident to the German Chemical Society sent the German Empire on the road to chemical weapons. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=46126 | 71,141 |
1,434,423 | The notion of a proactive pre-emptive operations group (P2OG) emerged from a report of the Defense Science Board's (DSB) 2002 briefing. The briefing was reported by Dan Dupont in "Inside the Pentagon" on September 26, 2002, and was also discussed by William M. Arkin in the "Los Angeles Times" on October 27, 2002. The "Los Angeles Times" has subsequently quoted U.S. Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld revealing the creation of the "Proactive, Pre-emptive Operations Group". The mission was to conduct Aggressive, Proactive, Pre-emptive Operations to interdiction and disruption the threat using: psychological operations, managed information dissemination, precision targeting, and information warfare operations. Today, the proactive defence strategy means improving information collection by stimulating reactions of the threat agents, provide strike options to enhance operational preparation of the real as well as virtual battle space. The P2OG has been recommended to be constituted of one hundred highly specialized people with unique technical and intelligence skills. The group would be overseen by the White House's deputy national security adviser and would carry out missions coordinated by the secretary of defence. Proactive measures, according to DoD are those actions taken directly against the preventive stage of an attack by the enemy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18248534 | 1,433,619 |
1,656,542 | The Roman Senate and emperors were not blind to the possibility of rebellion by its troops as generals could gain the loyalty of his officers through a mixture of personal charisma, promises and simple bribes: once the general and officers had a unity of purpose the rigid discipline of the military meant that the troops would normally follow. Only later seemingly did the situation reverse and the soldiers began to dictate action to the officers and generals, raising generals to emperors even when the generals themselves were completely lacking such ambition or wishes. However, the state saw itself as relatively safe from such rebellions in the early imperial period. The reason for this safety from rebellion is that for a rebellion to be successful it was necessary for an usurper to gain control of a certain percentage of the army in order to stand some chance of success. Sulla and Caesar had managed such actions because the consular system of that period had concentrated in their hands a large proportion of the small number of armies in service of the state at the time. In the expanding empire, legions under generals were spread out across the extent of the Roman borders and it was not easy for one man to seize control of a great part of them, perhaps only commonly being in control of two or so legions. However, later larger-scale wars necessitated the concentration of greater military power in the hands of generals. There is evidence of emperors holding some members of generals' families as hostage to ensure their loyalty. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7968922 | 1,655,609 |
2,105,568 | The Department of Homeland Security laid out the plan for the national biosurveillance system. They stated that an effect surveillance system relies on five key principles that are generally applied to public health and medical preparedness. The first is being prepared for all potential catastrophic health events; the second is having vertical and horizontal coordination among all levels of government; the third is having a regional approach to health preparedness; the fourth is the engagement of the private sector, academia, and other nongovernmental entities; the fifth is the important roles of individuals, families, and communities. The biosurveillance program must be nationwide, robust, and integrated with international disease systems in order to provide early warning and ongoing characterization of disease outbreaks in real-time. The system must be sufficiently able to identify a specific disease and its prevalence in varying populations and environments and must be able to tailor the analysis to new diseases. The system should create a networked system to allow for two-way information flow between and among Federal, State, and local government public health authorities and clinical health care providers. The system shall build upon existing Federal, State, and local surveillance systems where they exists and should enable and provide incentive for public health agencies to implement surveillance systems where they do not exist. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=46862281 | 2,104,355 |
1,429,005 | The accuracy of the method then largely depends on the choice of the variational state. The simplest choice typically corresponds to a mean-field form, where the state formula_13 is written as a factorization over the Hilbert space. This particularly simple form is typically not very accurate since it neglects many-body effects. One of the largest gains in accuracy over writing the wave function separably comes from the introduction of the so-called Jastrow factor. In this case the wave function is written as formula_14, where formula_15 is the distance between a pair of quantum particles and formula_16 is a variational function to be determined. With this factor, we can explicitly account for particle-particle correlation, but the many-body integral becomes unseparable, so Monte Carlo is the only way to evaluate it efficiently. In chemical systems, slightly more sophisticated versions of this factor can obtain 80–90% of the correlation energy (see electronic correlation) with less than 30 parameters. In comparison, a configuration interaction calculation may require around 50,000 parameters to reach that accuracy, although it depends greatly on the particular case being considered. In addition, VMC usually scales as a small power of the number of particles in the simulation, usually something like "N" for calculation of the energy expectation value, depending on the form of the wave function. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8987340 | 1,428,201 |
1,415,762 | A common application of FBARs is radio frequency (RF) filters for use in cell phones and other wireless applications like positioning (GPS, Glonass, BeiDou, Galileo (satellite navigation) etc.), Wi-Fi systems, small telecommunication cells and modules for those. Such filters are made from a network of resonators (either in half-ladder, full-ladder, lattice, a combination of lattice and ladder or stacked topologies) and are designed to remove unwanted frequencies from being transmitted in such devices, while allowing other specific frequencies to be received and transmitted. FBAR filters can also be found in duplexers. FBAR filter technology is complementing surface acoustic wave (SAW) filter technology in areas where increased power handling capability, and electrostatic discharge (ESD) tolerance is needed. Frequencies more than 1.5–2.5 GHz are well-suited for FBAR devices. FBARs on a silicon substrate can be manufactured in high volumes and the manufacturing is supported by all development of semiconductor device fabrication methods. Future requirements of new applications like filtering bandwidth with steep stopband attenuation and lowest possible insertion loss have effects on resonator performance and show development steps needed. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4166537 | 1,414,965 |
1,984,945 | There is a stable equilibrium in point 1 of Figure 8 where the energy which has been input into the process is sufficient for the melting of the continuously fed wire electrode. In the case of a rapid change of distance, the arc compensates the length change, point 2. The lower resistance of the short arc brings about the increase of the current intensity which leads to the faster melting of the wire stick-out until again a stable working point is reached, point 3. This compensation process takes approximately between 100 and 200 ms. The arc sensor evaluates the remaining change in current intensity between point 1 and point 3 in order to achieve a distance-proportionate parameter. In principle, this evaluation concept is also applicable to pulsed arc welding. The concept which has been specified above is, in the case of most arc sensors, extended by the transversal scanning of the groove geometry. The deflection of the process to the fusion faces allows the comparative measurement of the torch distance. By calculating the difference of the distance values, the lateral positioning of the torch can be evaluated. The mean value of both distance values indicates the height of the torch above the groove. Different concepts are applied for the deflection (Figure 9). Mechanical oscillation is most widely spread and is frequently used, especially with robots. Basically, fast deflectory systems, e.g. with magnetic or rotatory deflection offer the improvement of the signal rate and the signal quality, a higher apparatus expenditure must, however, be calculated when these systems are used. In double-wire technique, both fusion faces are scanned at the same time with one wire each. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=37686388 | 1,983,806 |
717,562 | Lindgren was born in Taipei, Taiwan in 1973 to a Taiwanese mother and American father in the US Air Force; his Chinese name is Lin Qi'er (). His family later moved to the Midwestern United States, but he spent most of his childhood in England. He attended Lakenheath American High School for a year before moving back to the United States and graduating from James W. Robinson Secondary School in Fairfax, Virginia in 1991. After entering the United States Air Force Academy, he joined the Air Force Parachuting Team. In 1995, he received a Bachelor of Science (BS) degree in biology with a minor in Mandarin Chinese from the Air Force Academy. In 1996, he received a Master of Science (MS) degree in cardiovascular physiology from Colorado State University (CSU), in part for his work completing cardiovascular countermeasure research at NASA's Space Physiology Lab. He subsequently obtained a Doctorate of Medicine (MD) from the University of Colorado in 2002, and went on to complete a three-year residency in emergency medicine at Hennepin County Medical Center in Minneapolis. In 2006, he completed a post-doctoral fellowship and a Master of Health Informatics (MHI) at the University of Minnesota. He also completed a Master of Public Health (MPH) at the University of Texas Medical Branch in 2007 and a residency in aerospace medicine in 2008. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23437049 | 717,185 |
1,515,692 | At Imperial College, in the Department of Computing, Shanahan was a postdoc from 1987 to 1991, an advanced research fellow until 1995. At Queen Mary & Westfield College, he was a senior research fellow from 1995 to 1998. Shanahan joined the Department of Electrical Engineering at Imperial, and then (in 2005) the Department of Computing, where he was promoted from Reader to Professor in 2006. Shanahan was a scientific advisor for Alex Garland's 2014 film "Ex Machina". Garland credited Shanahan with correcting an error in Garland's initial scripts regarding the Turing test. Shanahan is on the external advisory board for the Cambridge Centre for the Study of Existential Risk. In 2016 Shanahan and his colleagues published a proof-of-concept for "Deep Symbolic Reinforcement Learning", a specific hybrid AI architecture that combines GOFAI with neural networks, and that exhibits a form of transfer learning. In 2017, citing "the potential (brain drain) on academia of the current tech hiring frenzy" as an issue of concern, Shanahan negotiated a joint position at Imperial College London and DeepMind. "The Atlantic" and "Wired UK" have characterized Shanahan as an influential researcher. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=49675317 | 1,514,840 |
2,134,428 | The AHAAH was first developed in 1987 by the U.S. Army Human Engineering Laboratory (HEL), which later became part of the U.S. Army Research Laboratory (ARL), to investigate the complex interactions between the outer, middle, and inner ears and understand the process behind hearing loss on the level of the cochlea. Originally designed to function as an electro-acoustic model of the ear, the AHAAH was the product of numerous noise exposure experiments which, in turn, guided the direction of future studies. The first version of the AHAAH was modeled after pre-existing, available data on the cat ear since much of the physiological and acoustic characteristics and values for the cat were more well-known at the time compared to that of humans and could be studied more directly. Additionally, the ears of mammals were similar enough that only modest adaptations to the model were required to adjust for human ear anatomy. By 1997, the AHAAH was modified into a human model that accounted for the structure of the human ear. In subsequent years, the AHAAH underwent several validation tests, including The Albuquerque Studies, which was one of the largest early studies of human impulse noise exposure and led to the creation of a large systematic database that documented the effects of impulse noise on humans. Results from these studies have demonstrated that the AHAAH was correct in 95 percent of the tests with protective hearing and 96 percent of the instances for all tests. In contrast, the MIL-STD-1474D method of hazard prediction was shown to have been correct only 38 percent of the time in protected hearing tests. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=57869905 | 2,133,203 |
1,313,304 | At least six major areas of cryobiology can be identified: 1) study of cold-adaptation of microorganisms, plants (cold hardiness), and animals, both invertebrates and vertebrates (including hibernation), 2) cryopreservation of cells, tissues, gametes, and embryos of animal and human origin for (medical) purposes of long-term storage by cooling to temperatures below the freezing point of water. This usually requires the addition of substances which protect the cells during freezing and thawing (cryoprotectants), 3) preservation of organs under hypothermic conditions for transplantation, 4) lyophilization (freeze-drying) of pharmaceuticals, 5) cryosurgery, a (minimally) invasive approach for the destruction of unhealthy tissue using cryogenic gases/fluids, and 6) physics of supercooling, ice nucleation/growth and mechanical engineering aspects of heat transfer during cooling and warming, as applied to biological systems. Cryobiology would include cryonics, the low temperature preservation of humans and mammals with the intention of future revival, although this is not part of mainstream cryobiology, depending heavily on speculative technology yet to be invented. Several of these areas of study rely on cryogenics, the branch of physics and engineering that studies the production and use of very low temperatures. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=219284 | 1,312,584 |
216,431 | In recent years, actor-network theory has gained a lot of traction, and a growing number of IS academics are using it explicitly in their research. Despite the fact that these applications vary greatly, all of the scholars cited below agree that the theory provides new notions and ideas for understanding the socio-technical character of information systems. Bloomfield present an intriguing case study of the development of a specific set of resource management information systems in the UK National Health Service, and they evaluate their findings using concepts from actor-network theory. The actor-network approach does not prioritize social or technological aspects, which mirrors the situation in the case study, where arguments about social structures and technology are intertwined within actors' discourse as they try to persuade others to align with their own goals. The research emphasizes the interpretative flexibility of information technology and systems, in the sense that seemingly similar systems produce drastically different outcomes in different locales as a result of the specific translation and network-building processes that occurred. They show how the boundary between the technological and the social, as well as the link between them, is the topic of constant battles and trials of strength in the creation of facts, rather than taking technology for granted. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=505093 | 216,323 |
536,273 | Albert Einstein, in 1916, introduced the Einstein notation which summed over a set of indexed terms in a formula, thus exerting notational brevity. Arnold Sommerfeld would create the contour integral sign in 1917. Also in 1917, Dimitry Mirimanoff proposes axiom of regularity. In 1919, Theodor Kaluza would solve general relativity equations using five dimensions, the results would have electromagnetic equations emerge. This would be published in 1921 in "Zum Unitätsproblem der Physik". In 1922, Abraham Fraenkel and Thoralf Skolem independently proposed replacing the axiom schema of specification with the axiom schema of replacement. Also in 1922, Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory was developed. In 1923, Steinmetz would publish "Four Lectures on Relativity and Space". Around 1924, Jan Arnoldus Schouten would develop the modern notation and formalism for the Ricci calculus framework during the absolute differential calculus applications to general relativity and differential geometry in the early twentieth century. In 1925, Enrico Fermi would describe a system comprising many identical particles that obey the Pauli exclusion principle, afterwards developing a diffusion equation (Fermi age equation). In 1926, Oskar Klein would develop the Kaluza–Klein theory. In 1928, Emil Artin abstracted ring theory with Artinian rings. In 1933, Andrey Kolmogorov introduces the "Kolmogorov axioms". In 1937, Bruno de Finetti deduced the "operational subjective" concept. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6134187 | 535,994 |
1,474,015 | The British victories over Burma in 1826 set the stage for a century in which the military history of Thailand was to be dominated by the threat of European colonialism. Initially, however, Siamese concern remained focused on its traditional rivals of Burma and Vietnam. Siam intervened in support of Britain against Burma in 1826, but her lackluster performance inspired Chao Anouvong's surprise attack on Korat. Lady Mo's resistance established her as a cultural heroine, and General Bodindecha's victory two years later established him as a major figure in Thai military history. His successful campaign in the Siamese–Vietnamese War (1841–1845) reaffirmed Siamese power over Cambodia. In 1849, weakening Burmese power encouraged revolt amongst the Burmese controlled Shan states of Kengtung and Chiang Hung. Chiang Hung repeatedly sought Siamese support, and ultimately Siam responded with the initial dispatch of forces in 1852. Both armies found difficulties campaigning in the northern mountainous highlands, and it took until 1855 before the Siamese finally reached Kengtung, though with great difficulty and the exhaustion of Siamese resources ultimately resulted in their retreat. These wars continued to be fought in the traditional mode, with war elephants deployed in the field carrying light artillery during the period, often being a decisive factor in battle. Meanwhile, the visible military weaknesses of China in the First and Second Opium Wars with Britain and later France between the 1830s and 1860s encouraged Siam to reject Chinese suzerainty in the 1850s. Siam, however, was under military and trade pressure itself from the European powers, and as King Rama III reportedly said on his deathbed in 1851: "We will have no more wars with Burma and Vietnam. We will have them only with the West." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2938344 | 1,473,184 |
1,598,456 | The development of the helicon or toroidal ring began with André-Marie Ampère, who in 1823 proposed tiny magnetic "loops of charge" to explain the attractive force between current elements. In that same era Carl Friedrich Gauss and Michael Faraday also uncovered foundational laws of classical electrodynamics, later collected by James Maxwell as Maxwell's equations. When Maxwell expressed the laws of Gauss, Faraday, and Ampère in differential form, he assumed point particles, an assumption that remains foundational to relativity theory and quantum mechanics today. In 1867 Lord Kelvin suggested that the vortex rings of a perfect fluid discovered by Hermann von Helmholtz represented "the only true atoms". Then shortly before 1900, as scientists still debated over the very existence of atoms, J. J. Thomson and Ernest Rutherford sparked a revolution with experiments confirming the existence and properties of electrons, protons, and nuclei. Max Planck added to the fire when he solved the blackbody radiation problem by assuming not only discrete particles, but discrete frequencies of radiation emanating from these "particles" or "resonators". Planck's famous paper, which incidentally calculated both Planck's constant "h" and Boltzmann's constant "k", suggested that something in the "resonators" themselves provided these discrete frequencies. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13372642 | 1,597,556 |
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