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730,209 | In 1828 Alexandre Brongniart's son, the botanist Adolphe Brongniart, published the introduction to a longer work on the history of fossil plants. Adolphe Brongniart concluded that the history of plants could roughly be divided into four parts. The first period was characterized by cryptogams. The second period was characterized by the appearance of the conifers. The third period brought emergence of the cycads, and the fourth by the development of the flowering plants (such as the dicotyledons). The transitions between each of these periods was marked by sharp discontinuities in the fossil record, with more gradual changes within the periods. Brongniart's work is the foundation of paleobotany and reinforced the theory that life on earth had a long and complex history, and different groups of plants and animals made their appearances in successive order. It also supported the idea that the Earth's climate had changed over time as Brongniart concluded that plant fossils showed that during the Carboniferous the climate of Northern Europe must have been tropical. The term "paleobotany" was coined in 1884 and "palynology" in 1944. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7991116 | 729,824 |
1,588,358 | The one-room school house, born of small multi-age rural populations, continued well into the twentieth century. Rural towns without a single central village often built two to a half-dozen school houses across their terrain. Much of this came from a lack of transportation and a need for students to return home by mid afternoon for farm chores. By 1920 all public schools, including the one-room school houses, were regulated by the state government. In the early 1930s state legislation established a review and certification program similar to accreditation. Schools were issued regulations about teacher education and curriculum. Education quality in rural areas was maintained through a program called Vermont Standard Schools. Rural school houses meeting certification requirements displayed a green and white plaque with the Vermont coat of arms and the words "Vermont Standard School." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19837401 | 1,587,464 |
2,163,402 | A consecutive controlled case series (CCCS) is a clinical study that involves aggregating multiple cases consecutively encountered wherein an experimentally controlled single-case experimental design was employed with each case. The CCCS design differs from the consecutive case series, because the latter reports on multiple cases where experimental control was not demonstrated, usually because a pre-post non experimental design was used. In contrast, a CCCS includes only cases where the intervention was evaluated using single-case experimental designs, such as a reversal design, where experimental control is demonstrated through the replication of treatment effects for each individual participant. Thus, the CCCS design has better internal validity than a consecutive case series. The CCCS design also address some concerns about the external validity or generality of findings of small-"n" single-case experimental design studies because it explicitly includes all cases encountered, regardless of outcome. By including all cases, any bias favoring a particular outcome in controlled for, resulting in stronger external validity relative to studies describing fewer cases that were not consecutively encountered. Moreover, when a large number of individuals are included in the series, this provides opportunities to identify variables that may predict treatment outcomes. Consecutive controlled case-series studies examining behavior analytic interventions of late have examined functional communication training. schedule thinning during functional communication training, and functional analysis and treatment using caregivers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50425977 | 2,162,166 |
1,459,277 | The historian Ian Wood has suggested that Mellitus' journey through Gaul probably took in the bishoprics of Vienne, Arles, Lyons, Toulon, Marseilles, Metz, Paris, and Rouen, as evidenced by the letters that Gregory addressed to those bishops soliciting their support for Mellitus' party. Gregory also wrote to the Frankish kings Chlothar II, Theuderic II, Theudebert II, along with Brunhilda of Austrasia, who was Theudebert and Theuderic's grandmother and regent. Wood feels that this wide appeal to the Frankish episcopate and royalty was an effort to secure more support for the Gregorian mission. While on his journey to England, Mellitus received a letter from Gregory allowing Augustine to convert pagan temples to Christian churches, and to convert pagan animal sacrifices into Christian feasts, to ease the transition to Christianity. Gregory's letter marked a sea change in the missionary strategy, and was later included in Bede's "Ecclesiastical History of the English People". Usually known as the "Epistola ad Mellitum", it conflicts with the letter sent to Æthelberht, which the historian R. A. Markus sees as a turning point in missionary history, when forcible conversion gave way to persuasion. This traditional view, that the "Epistola" represents a contradiction of the letter to Æthelberht, has been challenged by the historian and theologian George Demacopoulos, who argues that the letter to Æthelberht was mainly meant to encourage the King in spiritual matters, while the "Epistola" was sent to deal with purely practical matters, and thus the two do not contradict each other. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20716 | 1,458,456 |
266,734 | Despite attempts to standardize LCA, results from different LCAs are often contradictory, therefore it is unrealistic to expect these results to be unique and objective. Thus, it should not be considered as such, but rather as a family of methods attempting to quantify results through a different point-of-view. Among these methods are two main types: Attributional LCA and Consequential LCA. Attributional LCAs seek to attribute the burdens associated with the production and use of a product, or with a specific service or process, for an identified temporal period. Consequential LCAs seek to identify the environmental consequences of a decision or a proposed change in a system under study, and thus are oriented to the future and require that market and economic implications must be taken into account. In other words, Attributional LCA "attempts to answer 'how are things (i.e. pollutants, resources, and exchanges among processes) flowing within the chosen temporal window?', while Consequential LCA attempts to answer 'how will flows beyond the immediate system change in response to decisions?" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=604896 | 266,590 |
986,450 | In 2009, in their seminal JEI article, Hahnel and Sheeran highlight several major misinterpretations and common assumptions, which when accounted for substantially reduce the applicability of Coase's theorem to real world policy and economic problems. First, they recognize that the solution between a single polluter and single victim is a negotiation—not a market. As such, it is subject to the extensive work on bargaining games, negotiation, and game theory (specifically a "divide the pie" game under incomplete information). This typically yields a broad range of potential negotiated solutions, making it unlikely that the efficient outcome will be the one selected. Rather it is more likely to be determined by a host of factors including the structure of the negotiations, discount rates and other factors of relative bargaining strength (cf. Ariel Rubenstein). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=372063 | 985,935 |
193,052 | Siberian geneflow is found among several Uralic-speaking European ethnic groups. This Siberian component is itself a composition of Ancient North Eurasian and East Asian-related ancestry from Eastern Siberia, maximized among Evenks and Evens or Nganasans. The spread of this ancestry is linked by some geneticists to the dispersal of Uralic languages, others however maintain that the Uralic languages spreaded prior to the arrival of Siberian geneflow, which is a secondary source of diversity within Uralic-speaking populations. Genetic data points to a Western Siberian hunter-gatherer origin of the observed Siberian geneflow among Uralic-speaking groups, which are best represented by the modern Khanty. Historical Western Siberian hunter-gatherers were characterized by high Ancient North Eurasian ancestry and lower amounts of Eastern Siberian admixture. Genetic data on Volga Tatars or Chuvash, found among ""Western Turkic speakers, like Chuvash and Volga Tatar, the East Asian component was detected only in low amounts (~ 5%)"". East Asian ancestry is furthermore found at low frequency among other Europeans: Germans and French people (CEU) ~1%, Britons (GBR) 2.5%–3.8%, Russians and Finns ~13%, associated with the Turco-Mongol expansion, and higher among the Lipka Tatars, a Turkic minority in Belarus ~30%. East Asian ancestry is suggested to have largely arrived indirectly through previous admixed historical Steppe nomads from Central Asia, such as the Huns, Pannonian Avars, and the Golden Horde, which got absorbed by the European majority population. European-related ancestry to East Asians was similarly contributed indirectly through Central Asian groups, specifically into Northern Han Chinese (2.8%), Southern Han Chinese (1.7%), Japanese people (2.2%), and Koreans (1.6%). Northeast Asians had inherited significantly higher European-related ancestry: Mongolians (10.9%), Oroqens (9.6%) Daur people (8%), and Hezhen (6.8%), which also included earlier West-Eurasian ancestry through Ancient North Eurasians, representing the earliest layer within Siberia. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6578583 | 192,952 |
1,681,134 | In 1885, Andrew Dickson White's final presidential report warned the University of the day when "all be hard and dry, [the University]'s buildings mere boxes." Such a description is apt to describe the Class Halls. All were built in a similar box-like fashion, lacking individualizing characteristics and architectural complexity. The interiors were indistinguishable from each other, as well. Although not as clear with the addition of the Noyes Community Center, the Class Halls formed a quadrangle arranged symmetrically along an axis formed by the War Memorial. The Transfer Center, one of two West Campus Program Houses, resided in the Class of 1917 Hall. This Program House, established in 1977, was dissolved in May 2007 when the building was torn down. Between 2003 and 2007, the halls were demolished in favor of larger residential colleges as part of former president Hunter R. Rawlings III's "West Campus Housing Initiative." For many years, Sperry Hall (University Hall #6) was also a Program House. The Class of 1926 Hall housed the Just About Music (JAM) Program House. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5324709 | 1,680,191 |
757,845 | During the last 40 years, many trials for constructing effective "K. pneumoniae" vaccines have been tried, and new techniques were followed to construct vaccines against "Klebsiella". However, currently, no "Klebsiella" vaccine has been licensed for use in the US. "K. pneumoniae" is the most common cause of nosocomial respiratory tract and premature intensive care infections, and the second-most frequent cause of Gram-negative bacteraemia and urinary tract infections . Drug-resistant isolates remain an important hospital-acquired bacterial pathogen, add significantly to hospital stays, and are especially problematic in high-impact medical areas such as intensive care units. This antimicrobial resistance is thought to be attributable mainly to multidrug efflux pumps. The ability of "K. pneumoniae" to colonize the hospital environment, including carpeting, sinks, flowers, and various surfaces, as well as the skin of patients and hospital staff, has been identified as a major factor in the spread of hospital-acquired infections. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=954943 | 757,440 |
181,095 | Before 1996, approximately 6,000 large commercial transport airplanes were assigned a type certificate to fly up to without having to meet high-altitude special conditions. In 1996, the FAA adopted Amendment 25-87, which imposed additional high-altitude cabin pressure specifications for new-type aircraft designs. Aircraft certified to operate above "must be designed so that occupants will not be exposed to cabin pressure altitudes in excess of after any probable failure condition in the pressurization system". In the event of a decompression that results from "any failure condition not shown to be extremely improbable", the plane must be designed such that occupants will not be exposed to a cabin altitude exceeding for more than 2 minutes, nor to an altitude exceeding at any time. In practice, that new Federal Aviation Regulations amendment imposes an operational ceiling of on the majority of newly designed commercial aircraft. Aircraft manufacturers can apply for a relaxation of this rule if the circumstances warrant it. In 2004, Airbus acquired an FAA exemption to allow the cabin altitude of the A380 to reach in the event of a decompression incident and to exceed for one minute. This allows the A380 to operate at a higher altitude than other newly designed civilian aircraft. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1488888 | 181,001 |
563,565 | The base question behind the process of genome miniaturization is whether it occurs through large steps or due to a constant erosion of the gene content. In order to assess the evolution of this process is necessary to compare an ancestral genome with the one where the shrinkage is supposed to be occurred. Thanks to the similarity among the gene content of "Buchnera aphidicola" and the enteric bacteria "Escherichia coli", 89% identity for the 16S rDNA and 62% for orthologous genes was possible to shed light on the mechanism of genome miniaturization. The genome of the endosymbiont "B. aphidicola" is characterized by a genome size that is seven times smaller than "E. coli" (643 kb compared to 4.6 Mb) and can be view as a subset of the enteric bacteria gene inventory. From the confrontation of the two genomes emerged that some genes persist as partially degraded. indicating that the function was lost during the process and that consequent events of erosion shortened the length as documented in "Rickettsia". This hypothesis is confirmed by the analysis of the pseudogenes of "Buchnera" where the number of deletions was more than ten times higher compared to the insertion. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2355052 | 563,276 |
502,329 | Doba's first voyage across the Atlantic Ocean was from Senegal to Brazil in 2010 and spanned 5394 kilometers. He was 65 years old when he undertook this journey. It was accomplished in a 7-meter sea kayak and set a record for the longest open-water crossing ever undertaken by a kayaker, at roughly 99 days (the previous longest kayak crossing belonged to Peter Bray who traveled from Newfoundland to Ireland in 2001 and took over 76 days, relying on muscle-power only and no sail). While it was not the first transatlantic kayak crossing in history, Doba was the first one to travel this way from continent to continent and not island to island. Doba's journey started at 15:30 Polish time on 26 October 2010 in Dakar, Senegal, and ended when he reached Brazil, touching dry land at 10:12 local time for the first time in 98 days, 23 hours, and 42 min. He then reached Acaraú at 17:50 local time (99 days, 6 h, 20 min). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30757920 | 502,071 |
181,193 | Research in tissue engineering, stem cells and molecular biology primarily involves cultures of cells on flat plastic dishes. This technique is known as two-dimensional (2D) cell culture, and was first developed by Wilhelm Roux who, in 1885, removed a portion of the medullary plate of an embryonic chicken and maintained it in warm saline for several days on a flat glass plate. From the advance of polymer technology arose today's standard plastic dish for 2D cell culture, commonly known as the Petri dish. Julius Richard Petri, a German bacteriologist, is generally credited with this invention while working as an assistant to Robert Koch. Various researchers today also utilize culturing laboratory flasks, conicals, and even disposable bags like those used in single-use bioreactors. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1106830 | 181,099 |
1,817,052 | In 1956 and 1957 the US Army Corps of Engineers used a rotary rig to drill for ice cores at Site 2 in Greenland, as part of their Greenland Research and Development Program. The drill was set up at the bottom of a 4.5 m trench, with an 11.5 m mast to allow the use of 6 m pipes and core barrels. An air compressor was set up to clear the ice cuttings by air circulation; it produced air that could be as hot as 120 °C, so to prevent the hole walls and the ice core from melting, a heat exchanger was set up that brought the air down to 12 °C of the ambient temperature. The cores recovered were in reasonably good condition, with about 50% of the cored depth yielding unbroken cores. At 296 m it was decided to drill without coring in order to reach a greater depth more quickly (since non-coring drilling did not require slow roundtrips to remove the cores), and to start coring again once the hole reached 450 m. A tricone bit was used for the non-coring drilling, but it soon became stuck and could not be released. The hole was abandoned at 305 m. The following summer a new hole was begun in the same trench, again using air circulation to clear cuttings. Vibration of the drill bit and core barrel caused the cores to shatter during drilling, so a heavy drill collar was added to the drillstring, just above the core barrel, which improved core quality. At 305 m depth coring was stopped and the hole was continued to 406.5 m, with two more cores retrieved at 352 m and 401 m. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=56017314 | 1,816,018 |
1,086,758 | No Stranraers saw action away from UK territorial waters during World War II. Immediately following the outbreak of the war in September 1939, Stranraers patrolled the North Sea, intercepting enemy shipping between Scotland and Norway. Aircraft assigned to such duties were typically armed with bombs underneath one wing and a single overload fuel tank underneath the other one. Use of the Stranraer for such patrols came to an end on 17 March 1941. Stranraers saw service with No. 240 Squadron, and limited numbers were deployed at the No. 4 (Coastal) Operational Training Unit. The final Stranraer flight in RAF service was conducted by "K7303" at Felixstowe on 30 October 1942. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=586463 | 1,086,200 |
275,171 | Other larger scale dredging operations take place on exposed river gravel bars at seasonal low water. These operations typically use a land based excavator to feed a gravel screening plant and sluice box floating in a temporary pond. The pond is excavated in the gravel bar and filled from the natural water table. "Pay" gravel is excavated from the front face of the pond and processed through the floating plant, with the gold trapped in the onboard sluice box and tailings stacked behind the plant, steadily filling in the back of the pond as the operation moves forward. This type of gold mining is characterized by its low cost, as each rock is moved only once. It also has low environmental impact, as no stripping of vegetation or overburden is necessary, and all process water is fully recycled. Such operations are typical on New Zealand's South Island and in the Klondike region of Canada. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1291393 | 275,023 |
2,188,929 | The fruit bodies have convex to somewhat flattened caps, reaching a typical diameter of , although specimens up to have been recorded. The dark brown cap colour of youth softens in age to become chestnut-brown to yellow-tan. On the underside of the cap is a yellow pore surface. There are between 0.5 and 2 somewhat angular pores per millimetre. The tubes comprising the hymenophore are up to long; they are depressed around the point of attachment to the stipe. The tube tissue quickly stains blueish-green when injured. The stipe measures long by 1–4 mm thick. It is more or less equal in width throughout its length except for a slightly flared base. Its color is tan to brownish, with a red zone at the top 1–2 mm, and its surface texture features fine longitudinal striations, and brown "hairs" at the very base, The fruit body odor ranges from minimal to "pleasant", and it has a mild taste. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31746553 | 2,187,680 |
147,415 | French researcher Victor T. Junod was the first to describe symptoms of narcosis in 1834, noting "the functions of the brain are activated, imagination is lively, thoughts have a peculiar charm and, in some persons, symptoms of intoxication are present." Junod suggested that narcosis resulted from pressure causing increased blood flow and hence stimulating nerve centers. Walter Moxon (1836–1886), a prominent Victorian physician, hypothesized in 1881 that pressure forced blood to inaccessible parts of the body and the stagnant blood then resulted in emotional changes. The first report of anesthetic potency being related to lipid solubility was published by Hans H. Meyer in 1899, entitled "Zur Theorie der Alkoholnarkose". Two years later a similar theory was published independently by Charles Ernest Overton. What became known as the Meyer-Overton hypothesis may be illustrated by a graph comparing narcotic potency with solubility in oil. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21937 | 147,357 |
126,489 | Disc brakes consist of a rotor and caliper at each wheel. Carbon composite rotors (introduced by the Brabham team in 1976) are used instead of steel or cast iron because of their superior frictional, thermal, and anti-warping properties, as well as significant weight savings. These brakes are designed and manufactured to work in extreme temperatures, up to 1,000 degrees Celsius (1800 °F). The driver can control brake force distribution fore and aft to compensate for changes in track conditions or fuel load. Regulations specify this control must be mechanical, not electronic, thus it is typically operated by a lever inside the cockpit as opposed to a control on the steering wheel. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=645083 | 126,437 |
940,271 | Melanins are a family of naturally-occurring ancient pigments with radio-protective properties that are generally dark brown/black. It is important to note that melanin has a high molecular weight. This pigment can transduce and shield energy, therefore it can absorb electromagnetic radiation, including light. This quality means that melanin can protect melanized fungi from ionizing radiation. The energy transduction enhances growth in the fungi as well, meaning that melanized fungi grow faster. Melanin is also an advantage to the fungus in that it helps it survive in many different, more extreme, and varying environments. Examples of these environments include the damaged reactor at Chernobyl, the International Space Station, and the Antarctic mountains. Melanin may also be able to help the fungus metabolize radiation into energy, but more evidence and research is still needed. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11680057 | 939,770 |
1,716,496 | Aimed at promoting peace between Middle Eastern countries, Jordan was chosen as the location for the laboratory, as it was then the only country that maintained diplomatic relations with all the other founding members; Bahrain, Cyprus, Egypt, Iran, Israel, Pakistan, the Palestinian Authority, and Turkey. The project was launched in 1999 and the ground breaking ceremony was held on 6 January 2003. Construction work began the following July, with a scheduled completion date of 2015. However financial and technical infrastructural obstacles forced the project to be delayed. The laboratory was inaugurated on 16 May 2017 under the patronage and presence of King Abdullah II. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12260613 | 1,715,527 |
670,096 | Churches and similar houses of worship often pose design challenges. Speakers may need to be unobtrusive to blend in with antique woodwork and stonework. In some cases, audio designers have designed custom-painted speaker cabinets. Some facilities, such as sanctuaries or chapels are long rooms with low ceilings and additional fill-in speakers are needed throughout the room to give good coverage. Once installed, church systems are often operated by amateur volunteers from the congregation, which means that they must be easy to operate and troubleshoot. To this end, some mixing consoles designed for houses of worship have automatic mixers, which turn down unused channels to reduce noise, and automatic feedback elimination circuits which detect and notch out frequencies that are feeding back. These features may also be available in multi-function consoles used in convention facilities and multi-purpose venues. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=764380 | 669,746 |
192,389 | The Royal Australian Air Force's F-111 fleet was at times controversial. The long delay to the delivery of the aircraft was a significant political issue in the late 1960s and early 1970s. This occurred around the same time that massive delays and cost blowouts to the Sydney Opera House were making headlines, prompting some commentators to dub the F-111 the "Flying Opera House". In 1983 the Hawke government tasked an RF-111 to take surveillance photos of the Franklin Dam project in Tasmania. The use of an RAAF aircraft to "spy" on its own territory led to the minister responsible, Senator Gareth Evans, earning the nickname "Biggles" (after the famous hero pilot of a number of books by Captain W. E. Johns). Another aspect of the F-111 which drew criticism was the poor work conditions for F-111 ground crew involved in sealing/de-sealing F-111 fuel tanks resulted in a class action lawsuit and the Australian government paying out more than A$20 million in damages. The health issues with chemical exposure included permanent brain damage to a number of ground crew before conditions were improved. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25595226 | 192,290 |
1,604,034 | The University of Georgia Observatory is located on top of the Physics Building on the UGA campus. The observatory hosts colloquia, seminars, research groups, and open houses in addition to being utilized in undergraduate and graduate courses. The observatory is also the home of the Center for Simulational Physics, the Nanoscale Science and Engineering Center and the MRI Physics Lab. In 2013, UGA and Franklin College of Arts and Sciences became the first university to have a star-system named after it. The Kepler mission, NASA's first mission capable of finding earth-size planets, confirmed in 2012 the existence of three new planets in the system known as Kepler-37. This year, NASA authorized the nickname designation of this planetary system as UGA-1785, 1785 for the year the University of Georgia was founded. Roger C. Hunter, a Franklin College alumnus, presented the letter of conformation to then Franklin College dean Allan Dorsey during a visit to campus. Hunter noted the name to be given to this particular star system due to light captured by the Kepler telescope began its journey towards earth in 1801 – the same year Franklin College was founded. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=59604425 | 1,603,133 |
94,530 | One of the most interesting aspects of sharp waves is that they appear to be associated with memory. Wilson and McNaughton 1994, and numerous later studies, reported that when hippocampal place cells have overlapping spatial firing fields (and therefore often fire in near-simultaneity), they tend to show correlated activity during sleep following the behavioral session. This enhancement of correlation, commonly known as "reactivation", has been found to occur mainly during sharp waves. It has been proposed that sharp waves are, in fact, reactivations of neural activity patterns that were memorized during behavior, driven by strengthening of synaptic connections within the hippocampus. This idea forms a key component of the "two-stage memory" theory, advocated by Buzsáki and others, which proposes that memories are stored within the hippocampus during behavior and then later transferred to the neocortex during sleep. Sharp waves in Hebbian theory are seen as persistently repeated stimulations by presynaptic cells, of postsynaptic cells that are suggested to drive synaptic changes in the cortical targets of hippocampal output pathways. Suppression of sharp waves and ripples in sleep or during immobility can interfere with memories expressed at the level of the behavior, nonetheless, the newly formed CA1 place cell code can re-emerge even after a sleep with abolished sharp waves and ripples, in spatially non-demanding tasks. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=53948 | 94,489 |
2,153,447 | From 1724 to 1847 the chair had a mostly, but not exclusively, mathematical and theoretical orientation, with many holders being also mathematicians, and several such as Bartholomew Lloyd (1822) and James MacCullagh (1843) having previously held the Erasmus Smith's Professor of Mathematics chair. However, this period also saw the appointment of Humphrey Lloyd (1831), who succeeded his father Bartholomew Lloyd, and is considered one of Trinity’s greatest experimental physicists. The younger Lloyd is known for experimentally verifying conical refraction, a theoretical prediction made by William Rowan Hamilton about the way light is bent when traveling through a biaxial crystal. He also performed important research on terrestrial magnetism, visiting Gauss and Alexander von Humboldt in Germany, as well as building a “magnetical observatory” in Trinity College Dublin. In 1847 the University Chair of Natural Philosophy (1847) was founded and took on the applied mathematics and theoretical physics role, while Erasmus Smith's Professorship became predominantly a chair of experimental physics. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=51633206 | 2,152,216 |
204,848 | Ioannidis has defined meta-research to include "thematic areas of methods, reporting, reproducibility, evaluation, and incentives (how to do, report, verify, correct, and reward science)". He has performed large-scale assessments of the presence of reproducible and transparent research indicators such as data sharing, code sharing, protocol registration, declaration of funding and conflicts of interest in biomedical sciences, social sciences, and psychology. He has led or co-led efforts to define and improve reproducibility in science, e.g. computational reproducibility, and to reduce research waste in study design, conduct, and analysis. Ioannidis has co-authored the Manifesto for Reproducible Science, an eight-page document illuminating the need to fix the flaws in the current scientific process and mitigate the "reproducibility crisis" in science. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20900378 | 204,742 |
487,091 | TBT can enter the diet of humans and other mammals such as whales, dolphins, dugongs, and sea otters. As of 2008 high levels of tributyltin have been detected in the livers of sea otters ("Enhydra lutris") and stranded bottlenose dolphins. Otters dying of infectious causes tended to have higher levels of tissue butyltins than those dying of trauma or other causes. It was also reported by scientists that sea otters typically stay near boats and closed off marinas, which may have led to these organisms experiencing higher levels of butyltins. TBT has been shown to lead to immunosuppression in sea-otters and dolphins. TBT has also been linked to hearing loss in mammalian top predators such as toothed whales. In rats, the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis can be affected by TBT. In the pituitary and adrenal glands, there have been findings of morphophysiological changes within rats affected by TBT. TBT can also affect humans as well. Humans can be exposed to these compounds and potentially experience headaches, fatigue, respiratory issues, and more. Long-term exposure can also lead to damage of some internal organs such as the kidneys and liver. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4042604 | 486,841 |
1,859,296 | "MPEPIL" is an updated, comprehensive work covering the essential topics in international law. The new work is not just a revision of Rudolf Bernhardt's encyclopedia. Instead, new authors completely rewrote nearly all entries. "MPEPIL" includes numerous new topics in order to capture the latest developments in international law. To do justice to the changing nature of the law, an increased emphasis has been placed on the relevance of each keyword for contemporary international law. Particular attention has been paid to the contextualization of each topic within international law as well as the presentation of current trends while maintaining a focus on the mainstream/majority view. In order to reach the goal of avoiding a purely Eurocentric perspective the assistance of academics and practitioners from various legal backgrounds and perspectives was obtained already in the early stages of the undertaking. The intention is that "MPEPIL" is a work that reflects international law from a global perspective while taking into account also regional views. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20124324 | 1,858,228 |
922,690 | The field of three-dimensional and highly accurate models of biological systems is pioneered by multiple projects and technologies including a rapid method for creating tissues and even whole organs involve a 3-D printer that can bio-print the scaffolding and cells layer by layer into a working tissue sample or organ. The device is presented in a TED talk by Dr. Anthony Atala, M.D. the Director of the Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, and the W.H. Boyce Professor and Chair of the Department of Urology at Wake Forest University, in which a kidney is printed on stage during the seminar and then presented to the crowd. It is anticipated that this technology will enable the production of livers in the future for transplantation and theoretically for toxicology and other biological studies as well. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=307065 | 922,204 |
1,660,698 | On October 2, 2015, Xcel Energy filed plans with the Minnesota Public Utilities Commission to shut down the plant's Unit 2 in 2023 and Unit 1 in 2026. Prior to this filing, Xcel had planned to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions across the Upper Midwest by 40% by the year 2030 (from 2005 levels), but closing both of these units will contribute to a new goal of a 60% reduction in the same time frame. Generating capacity will be partly replaced with a new natural gas-fired power plant and partly through renewable energy investments. More detailed information was expected to be released in January 2016, with a ruling by the PUC expected later that year. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=37204986 | 1,659,764 |
1,870,938 | In 1815 the first steamships began to ply between the British ports of Liverpool and Glasgow. In 1826 the "United Kingdom", a leviathan steamship, as she was considered at the time of her construction, was built for the London and Edinburgh trade, steamship facilities in the coasting trade being naturally of much greater relative importance in the days before railways. In 1823 the City of Dublin Steam Packet Company was inaugurated, though it was not incorporated until ten years later. The year 1824 saw the incorporation of the General Steam Navigation Company, which was intended not only to provide services in British waters, but also to develop trade with the continent. The St George Steam Navigation Company and the British and Irish Steam Packet Company soon followed. The former was crushed in the keen competition which ensued, but it did a great work in the development of ocean travel. Isolated voyages by vessels fitted with steam engines had been made by the "Savannah" from the United States in 1819, and by the first "Royal William" from Canada in 1833, and the desirability of seriously attacking the problem of ocean navigation was apparent to shipping men in the three great British ports of London, Liverpool and Bristol. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3969301 | 1,869,861 |
610,260 | In some cases the coordination of motor components is hard-wired, consisting of fixed neuromuscular pathways that are called "reflexes". Reflexes are typically characterized as automatic and fixed motor responses, and they occur on a much faster time scale than what is possible for reactions that depend on perceptual processing. Reflexes play a fundamental role in stabilizing the motor system, providing almost immediate compensation for small perturbations and maintaining fixed execution patterns. Some reflex loops are routed solely through the spinal cord without receiving input from the brain, and thus do not require attention or conscious control. Others involve lower brain areas and can be influenced by prior instructions or intentions, but they remain independent of perceptual processing and online control. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2843988 | 609,949 |
1,333,759 | This inherent solubility is low yet varies greatly depending on the pressure of the system. Rhyolitic magmas have the highest solubility, ranging from approximately 0% at the surface to nearly 10% at 1100 °C and 5 kbar. Degassing occurs when hydrous magma is uplifted, gradually converting the dissolved water to aqueous phase. This aqueous phase is typically abundant in volatiles, metals (copper, lead, zinc, silver and gold), and Group 1 and Group 2 cations. Dependent on which cation the hydroxyl is bound to, it significantly impacts the properties of a volcanic eruption, particularly its explosiveness. During unusually high temperature and pressure conditions exceeding 374 °C and 218 bar, water enters a supercritical fluid state and becomes no longer a liquid or a gas. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23708860 | 1,333,030 |
1,634,473 | Research efforts since the early 1980s have studied their effects on electrolyte homeostasis. When administered intravenously, urodilatin induces strong diuresis and natriuresis with tolerable hemodynamic side effects. Urodilatin is localized in the kidney, differentially processed (involved in the regulation of body fluid volume and water-electrolyte excretion, while circulating), and secreted into the urine. As a consequence, urodilatin is involved in drug development along with the prohormone CDD/ANP-1-126 and cardiodilatin CDD/ANP-99-126. A message for the preprohormone is transcribed in the heart and kidneys from the gene of NP type A, resulting in a cGMP-dependent signal transduction, which induces diuresis and natriuresis, differentially processed to a peptide of 32 amino acids from the same precursor as renal ANP, may not be identical to the circulating cardiac hormone ANP. The kidneys produce their own natriuretic 32-residue peptide. Urodilatin renal natriuretic peptide potency equals or exceeds that of Atriopeptin [ANP-(99-126)], the prototype of cardiodilatin. Atriopeptin is only of trivial importance in the regulation of sodium excretion during normal living conditions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13703825 | 1,633,550 |
174,173 | Protein structures are currently determined experimentally by means of techniques such as X-ray crystallography, cryo-electron microscopy and nuclear magnetic resonance, techniques which are both expensive and time-consuming. Such efforts have identified the structures of about 170,000 proteins over the last 60 years, while there are over 200 million known proteins across all life forms. If it is possible to predict protein structure from the amino-acid sequence alone, it would greatly help to advance scientific research. However, the Levinthal's paradox shows that while a protein can fold in milliseconds, the time it takes to calculate all the possible structures randomly to determine the true native structure is longer than the age of the known universe, which made predicting protein structures a grand challenge in biology for scientists. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=59766171 | 174,082 |
1,316,718 | The Chauncy Hall School was established in 1828 by Gideon F. Thayer and was originally located on Chauncy Place in Boston. The school burned to the ground in May 1873. The decision was made to re-build a new school. "Fortunately our attention was directed to the neighborhood of what is now Copley Square, and though it seemed somewhat out-of-town, it was thought best to take the risk of the city growing in that direction," wrote historian Thomas Cushing. "The estimated cost was $100,000, and school masters do not usually have that sum at command to embody their wishes in brick and mortar." A stock company was formed of approximately 160 former pupils and parents of current pupils, including Dr. Israel Tisdale Talbot. The school paid the stockholders annual rent until the school relocated in 1896. When the decision was made to transfer the upper four grades to the empty building, the City of Boston entered into agreement to lease the building from the Chauncy Hall Association for annual rent and taxes of $8,708. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7442081 | 1,315,993 |
1,093,747 | In RF band detection, typically, the electromagnetic field drives oscillatory motion of electrons in an antenna; the captured EMF is subsequently electronically mixed with a local oscillator (LO) by any convenient non-linear circuit element with a quadratic term (most commonly a rectifier). In optical detection, the desired non-linearity is inherent in the photon absorption process itself. Conventional light detectors—so called "Square-law detectors"—respond to the photon energy to free bound electrons, and since the energy flux scales as the square of the electric field, so does the rate at which electrons are freed. A difference frequency only appears in the detector output current when both the LO and signal illuminate the detector at the same time, causing the square of their combined fields to have a cross term or "difference" frequency modulating the average rate at which free electrons are generated. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18515482 | 1,093,187 |
1,216,958 | A subcritical reactor can be used to destroy heavy isotopes contained in the used fuel from a conventional nuclear reactor, while at the same time producing electricity. The long-lived transuranic elements in nuclear waste can in principle be fissioned, releasing energy in the process and leaving behind the fission products which are shorter-lived. This would shorten considerably the time for disposal of radioactive waste. However, some isotopes have threshold fission cross sections and therefore require a fast reactor for being fissioned. While they can be transmuted into fissile material with thermal neutrons, some nuclides need as many as three successive neutron capture reactions to reach a fissile isotope and then yet another neutron to fission. Also, they release on average too few new neutrons per fission, so that with a fuel containing a high fraction of them, criticality cannot be reached. The accelerator-driven reactor is independent of this parameter and thus can utilize these nuclides. The three most important long-term radioactive isotopes that could advantageously be handled that way are neptunium-237, americium-241 and americium-243. The nuclear weapon material plutonium-239 is also suitable although it can be expended in a cheaper way as MOX fuel or inside existing fast reactors. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1219670 | 1,216,306 |
1,212,555 | Microbes have been found in sedimentary rocks down to about 3 kilometers, the deepest sampled. There is a lot of diversity, although the deepest tend to be iron(III)- or sulfate-reducing bacteria that use fermentation and can thrive in high temperature and salinity. Even more salt-tolerant halophiles have been found in deep salt deposits, and such deposits are found all over the world. In 2019 microbial organisms were discovered living 2,400 meters below the surface, breathing sulfur and eating rocks such as pyrite as their regular food source. The discovery occurred in the oldest known water on Earth. A study of biosignatures in vein mineral samples from more than 30 deep mines in the Fennoscandian Shield proves that signatures of ancient life are omnipresent across the shield. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=61218171 | 1,211,903 |
299,372 | One of the major issues relating to the use of speech recognition in healthcare is that the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (ARRA) provides for substantial financial benefits to physicians who utilize an EMR according to "Meaningful Use" standards. These standards require that a substantial amount of data be maintained by the EMR (now more commonly referred to as an Electronic Health Record or EHR). The use of speech recognition is more naturally suited to the generation of narrative text, as part of a radiology/pathology interpretation, progress note or discharge summary: the ergonomic gains of using speech recognition to enter structured discrete data (e.g., numeric values or codes from a list or a controlled vocabulary) are relatively minimal for people who are sighted and who can operate a keyboard and mouse. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29468 | 299,211 |
482,820 | After 1554 he became the city physician (). In addition to his duties there, and apart from a few journeys to foreign countries, and annual summer botanical journeys in his native land, and illnesses, he was able to devote himself to research and writing. His expeditions frequently involved visits to mountainous country, below the snow-line. Although primarily for purposes of botanical collection, he also extolled mountain climbing for the sake of exercise and enjoyment of the beauties of nature. In 1541 he prefixed to his treatise on milk and milk products, "Libellus de lacte et operibus lactariis" a letter addressed to his friend Jacob Avienus (Vogel) of Glarus on the wonders to be found among the mountains, declaring his love for them, and his firm resolve to climb at least one mountain every year, not only to collect flowers, but in order to exercise his body. In 1555 he issued his narrative "Descriptio Montis Fracti sive Montis Pilati" of his excursion to the Gnepfstein (1920 m), the lowest point in the Pilatus chain. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=162270 | 482,576 |
1,472,849 | The scientific work of the expedition covered the fields of geology, biology, meteorology, terrestrial magnetism and oceanography; the vast amounts of data filled multiple reports published over a period of 30 years. These reports provided an extensive description of Antarctica's extreme weather and of its animal and plant life. This was the first expedition to successfully establish wireless contact between the Antarctic continent and the Australian mainland, through the relay station on Macquarie Island; it also provided the first studies and mapping of the island. Its eight major sledging parties travelled for a total of , while "Aurora" sailed along of uncharted coastline, mapping the continental shelf through 55° of longitude. Hurley's photographs and film provided a comprehensive pictorial record. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3433767 | 1,472,020 |
819,198 | A backplate and wing is an alternative configuration of scuba harness with a buoyancy compensation bladder known as a "wing" mounted behind the diver, sandwiched between the backplate and the cylinder or cylinders. Unlike stabilizer jackets, the backplate and wing is a modular system, in that it consists of separable components. This arrangement became popular with cave divers making long or deep dives, who needed to carry several extra cylinders, as it clears the front and sides of the diver for other equipment to be attached in the region where it is easily accessible. This additional equipment is usually suspended from the harness or carried in pockets on the exposure suit. Sidemount is a scuba diving equipment configuration which has basic scuba sets, each comprising a single cylinder with a dedicated regulator and pressure gauge, mounted alongside the diver, clipped to the harness below the shoulders and along the hips, instead of on the back of the diver. It originated as a configuration for advanced cave diving, as it facilitates penetration of tight sections of cave as, sets can be easily removed and remounted when necessary. The configuration allows easy access to cylinder valves, and provides easy and reliable gas redundancy. These benefits for operating in confined spaces were also recognized by divers who made wreck diving penetrations. Sidemount diving has grown in popularity within the technical diving community for general decompression diving, and has become a popular specialty for recreational diving. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=28502 | 818,757 |
472,213 | The new millennium saw a number of independently-published RPGs for the PC, as well as a number of CRPGs developed in Europe and points farther east, leading some to call Eastern Europe a "hotbed" of RPG development in recent years. Examples of independently-produced RPGs include Spiderweb Software's "Geneforge" (2001–2009) and "Avernum" (2000–2010) series; "Pyrrhic Tales: Prelude to Darkness" (2002) by Zero Sum Software; "" (2007) and "" (2010) by Basilisk Games; "Depths of Peril" (2007) and "Din's Curse" (2010) by Soldak Entertainment; "Knights of the Chalice" (2009) by Heroic Games; and "Underrail" (2015) by Stygian Software. Examples of Central and Eastern European RPGs include Belgian developer Larian Studios' "Divinity" series (2002-2017); Russian developer Nival Interactive's series of tactical RPGs, starting with "Silent Storm" (2003); German developer Ascaron Entertainment's "Sacred" series of action RPGs (2004-2014); and Polish developer Reality Pump's "Two Worlds" (2007) and "Two Worlds 2" (2010). Hybrid RPGs include Russian developer Elemental Games' multi-genre "Space Rangers" (2002) and "" (2004); Ukrainian developer GSC Game World's hybrid survival horror RPG/first-person shooter "" (2007); Turkish developer TaleWorlds' hybrid series of RPG/medieval combat simulators, starting with "Mount & Blade" (2008); and Toby Fox's very-hard-to-describe console game-inspired RPG, "Undertale" (2015). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=32408640 | 471,977 |
729,771 | Accordingly, in the same memoir, Fresnel offered his first attempt at a wave theory of chromatic polarization. When polarized light passed through a crystal lamina, it was split into ordinary and extraordinary waves (with intensities described by Malus's law), and these were perpendicularly polarized and therefore did not interfere, so that no colors were produced (yet). But if they then passed through an "analyzer" (second polarizer), their polarizations were brought into alignment (with intensities again modified according to Malus's law), and they would interfere. This explanation, by itself, predicts that if the analyzer is rotated 90°, the ordinary and extraordinary waves simply switch roles, so that if the analyzer takes the form of a calcite crystal, the two images of the lamina should be of the same hue (this issue is revisited below). But in fact, as Arago and Biot had found, they are of complementary colors. To correct the prediction, Fresnel proposed a phase-inversion rule whereby "one" of the constituent waves of "one" of the two images suffered an additional 180° phase shift on its way through the lamina. This inversion was a weakness in the theory relative to Biot's, as Fresnel acknowledged, although the rule specified which of the two images had the inverted wave. Moreover, Fresnel could deal only with special cases, because he had not yet solved the problem of superposing sinusoidal functions with arbitrary phase differences due to propagation at different velocities through the lamina. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1141 | 729,387 |
2,028,913 | The two year observation program came to an end in October 1905. At this point, the spectra of the brighter stars south of declination –25° had been taken, producing a working list of 145 stars of which at least four plates had been taken. The total number of specrograms was 800, with 676 of stars on the list and 92 that were found to be unmeasureable. Twenty two stars with variable radial velocities were discovered. D. O. Mills agreed to continue funding the station for an additional five years. To head up this new observation period, acting astronomer Heber D. Curtis set sail from San Francisco on December 30, 1905. The same month, Palmer returned to Lick observatory where he began measurements of the spectrogram plates. Curtis assumed command of the expedition on March 1, 1906, whereupon Wright returned to the United States. Curtis' assistant, George F. Paddock, arrived August 2, 1906. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=67773743 | 2,027,745 |
1,832,673 | The model code was originally developed at Princeton University (G. Mellor and Alan Blumberg) in collaboration with Dynalysis of Princeton (H. James Herring, Richard C. Patchen). The model incorporates the Mellor–Yamada turbulence scheme developed in the early 1970s by George Mellor and Ted Yamada; this turbulence sub-model is widely used by oceanic and atmospheric models. At the time, early computer ocean models such as the Bryan–Cox model (developed in the late 1960s at the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory, GFDL, and later became the Modular Ocean Model, MOM)), were aimed mostly at coarse-resolution simulations of the large-scale ocean circulation, so there was a need for a numerical model that can handle high-resolution coastal ocean processes. The Blumberg–Mellor model (which later became POM) thus included new features such as free surface to handle tides, sigma vertical coordinates (i.e., terrain-following) to handle complex topographies and shallow regions, a curvilinear grid to better handle coastlines, and a turbulence scheme to handle vertical mixing. At the early 1980s the model was used primarily to simulate estuaries such as the Hudson–Raritan Estuary (by Leo Oey) and the Delaware Bay (Boris Galperin), but also first attempts to use a sigma coordinate model for basin-scale problems have started with the coarse resolution model of the Gulf of Mexico (Blumberg and Mellor) and models of the Arctic Ocean (with the inclusion of ice-ocean coupling by Lakshmi Kantha and Sirpa Hakkinen). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10285944 | 1,831,625 |
1,159,750 | Tao won eight consecutive ASCAP Morton Gould Young Composer Awards from 2004 to 2011. At age 10, his piano composition "Silhouettes and Shadows" won the BMI Carlos Surinach Prize. His first piano concerto, "The Four Elements", was premiered in 2007 by the ProMusica Chamber Orchestra of Columbus, Ohio. In 2008, Tao was named a Davidson Fellow Laureate for his project, "Bridging Classical Music from the Past to the Future as Pianist and Composer". In reviewing a 2008 piano recital in Berkeley, where Tao gave the US premiere of his "Fantasy-Sonata", the "San Francisco Chronicle" wrote: "The four movements of the piece tumble forth in a way that supports its hybrid title, suggesting both a free flow of ideas and an overarching structural framework. There are melodies for the ear to grab onto – especially in the slow movement, set against rippling left-hand accompaniment – and Tao varies and subverts them with glee; the intermezzo, with its spidery octave figures, is a little gem of sardonic wit." Other early compositions include pieces for solo piano and chamber music such as Tao's 2009 piano trio. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=33615494 | 1,159,135 |
1,901,629 | Normal pressure hydrocephalus (NPH) looks at CSF flow values and velocities, which is important for diagnosis because NPH is idiopathic and has varying symptoms amongst patients including urinary incontinence, dementia, and gait disturbances. Increased aqueduct CSF stroke volume and velocity are indicators of NPH. It is critically important to recognize and treat NPH because NPH is one of the few potentially treatable causes of dementia. The treatment of choice in NPH is ventriculoperitoneal shunt surgery (VPS). This treatment needs a VP shunt, which is a catheter with a valve aiming at implementing a one-way outflow of the excessive amount of CSF from the ventricles. It is obligatory to have patency control because of some possible complications such as infections and obstruction. Due to the development and widespread of PC-MRI, it superseded spin-echo(SE) images, which is the traditional way to choose patients who might benefit from a VPS. And PC-MRI gradually became the most often used sequence to evaluate the CSF flow pattern in patients with NPH in relation to the cardiac cycle. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=69349499 | 1,900,540 |
2,081,381 | In 2014, Cheng and his graduate student Hanze Ying co-established a startup titled Hindered Polyurea Technology (HPT). He also co-authored a study in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, where he evaluated the size-dependent biological profiles of three monodisperse drug-silica nanoconjugates at 20, 50 and 200 nm. A few months later, Cheng co-developed inexpensive hydrolyzable polymer to reverse the characteristics of polyurea. As a result of his research accomplishments, Cheng was named an inaugural Faculty Entrepreneurial Fellow at the Grainger College of Engineering in 2015. He was also elected a Fellow of the American Institute for Medical and Biological Engineering (AIMBE) for his " outstanding contribution to the development of polymeric biomaterials and translational nanomedicine." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=69492295 | 2,080,181 |
1,312,880 | Integrating recycling into K-12 educational system has become a goal for many educators. Usually, it is integrated into science or social studies classrooms. This is due to its inclusion in the national education standards for both of these subject areas. Common areas that recycling is integrated into the curriculum include areas such as the study of natural resources, general environmental units, soil units, water units, community units, economic units, and geography units. Although interest is growing, major textbook publishers do not always include recycling in a textbook so teachers are left to supplement the textbooks with outside curriculum to meet the national standards. For example, in a unit about trees or natural resources teachers could include supplemental curriculum about recycling because in the textbook it is never explicitly covered. Non-profit organizations as well as governmental organizations have created supplemental curriculum for teachers to fill this void. Some purely non-profit groups include the Center for a New American Dream and Be SMART. Other creators of curriculum include governmental offices. Some of these include Oregon, California, and Waukesha County, Wisconsin. Also, some non-profit organizations have partnered with sections of the government to collaborate on educational materials. For example, the Keystone Center partnered with the United States Department of Energy and the National Energy Technology Laboratory to create curriculum on global warming. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7709125 | 1,312,160 |
1,559,166 | One of most interesting questions is if there is a threshold in reaction energy and/or volume size which needs to be exceeded in order to form a domain in which quarks can move freely. It is natural to expect that if such a threshold exists the particle yields/ratios we have shown above should indicate that. One of the most accessible signatures would be the relative Kaon yield ratio. A possible structure has been predicted, and indeed, an unexpected structure is seen in the ratio of particles comprising the positive kaon K (comprising anti s-quarks and up-quark) and positive pion particles, seen in the figure (solid symbols). The rise and fall (square symbols) of the ratio has been reported by the CERN NA49. The reason the negative kaon particles do not show this "horn" feature is that the s-quarks prefer to hadronize bound in the Lambda particle, where the counterpart structure is observed. Data point from BNL–RHIC–STAR (red stars) in figure agree with the CERN data. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23984205 | 1,558,280 |
556,670 | Japan continued in this fashion to progress in developing new rockets, that is until 1990 when the USA trade policy "Section 301" came into effect, forcing Japan to submit its national satellites to international bidding. The capacity of the country to launch practical, application-oriented rockets was affected as well in several ways, mainly because of the influx US-made rockets which were more inexpensive to launch. Also, the high-cost of producing even a few domestic satellites, and the inability to compete with the lower prices of satellites mass-produced in the West, made it so that the successor to the Himawari 5 had to be purchased completely from America instead of being manufactured in Japan. Many other types of spacecraft were launched from within country, for example environmental observation satellites such as Midori, and astronomical or experimental spacecraft like HALCA, an activity which had great success overall. However, because of the predominance of commercial satellites being launched from overseas, to this date Japan still hasn't been able to accumulate a track-record of commercial launches of any kind. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30764115 | 556,381 |
1,339,344 | ISIS Neutron and Muon Source is administered and operated by the Science and Technology Facilities Council (previously CCLRC). The Science and Technology Facilities council, or STFC, is part of UK Research and Innovation. Experimental time is open to academic users from funding countries and is applied for through a twice-yearly 'call for proposals'. Research allocation, or 'beam-time', is allotted to applicants via a peer-review process. Users and their parent institutions do not pay for the running costs of the facility, which are as much as £11,000 per instrument per day. Their transport and living costs used to be refunded whilst carrying out the experiment, but aren't anymore. Most users stay in Ridgeway House, a hotel near the site, or at Cosener's House, an STFC-run conference centre in Abingdon. Over 600 experiments by 1600 users are completed every year. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2886032 | 1,338,611 |
1,838,964 | The control of antibody response by the "Mhc" raised many question. The one on the top of immunologists’ agenda was: Why were some individuals carrying a certain "H2" haplotype high responders to a given antigen, while others, carrying certain other haplotype were low responders or nonresponders? The phenomenon could be reproduced in vitro by the exposure to the antigen. Lymphocytes isolated from the high responder proliferated to a much higher degree than those isolated from a low responder individual. The assay required, in addition to the thymus-derived (T) lymphocytes, also "macrophages" or antigen-presenting cells (APCs) from the same individual. In this set-up the question reduced itself to: Are the T lymphocytes or the APCs responsible for the difference in responsiveness? Many immunologists were inclined to put the blame on the APCs, but the Klein-Nagy group, in a series of elegant experiments, falsified this hypothesis and explained why T lymphocytes bearing different "Mhc" haplotypes might differ in their response to specific antigens. The receptors of the T lymphocytes recognize an antigen in association with their own Mhc molecules. The different specificities of the Tcrs born by the individual T cells are generated by a special mechanism during the lymphocyte development from precursor cells in the thymus. The generation is entirely random, so that receptors arise against all possible antigens, including those borne by the individual in which the differentiation takes place (the self-molecules). The cells with receptors for self-molecules must be eliminated to prevent an immune reaction against the individual's own components. The eliminated Tcrs might, however, by chance have had the capability of recognizing certain foreign antigens (nonself) in association with the nonresponder’ own | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5231068 | 1,837,914 |
1,042,543 | In the late 1980s, following a conversation with his colleague, John Adler, M.D., at the time a resident at the Brigham and Women's Hospital in Boston, MA, he was introduced to the concept of the CyberKnife and later invested in the company that manufactures the device, Accuray, Inc. Following development of the prototype device at Stanford University, Doty was so convinced of its potential to change the manner in which radiation therapy was delivered that he convinced an investor to set up the first CyberKnife facility in the U.S. prior to FDA approval under an Investigational Device Exemption. Within one year of the facility opening, Accuray was effectively bankrupt having exhausted all means of raising further capital. Doty then provided ongoing funding to Accuray and became CEO. He ultimately convinced a venture firm in Taiwan to provide an infusion of funds and restructured the company, which soon thereafter received FDA approval for their CyberKnife technology. Accuray went public in 2007 (NASDAQ:ARAY) with a market cap of $1.3bn. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=36152381 | 1,042,000 |
366,441 | In , its name was changed by Haas' German parent company Stempel to "Helvetica" in order to make it more marketable internationally; it comes from the Latin name for the pre-Roman tribes of what became Switzerland. Intending to match the success of Univers, Arthur Ritzel of Stempel redesigned Neue Haas Grotesk into a larger family. The design was popular: Paul Shaw suggests that Helvetica "began to muscle out" Akzidenz-Grotesk in New York City from around summer 1965, when Amsterdam Continental, which imported European typefaces, stopped pushing Akzidenz-Grotesk in its marketing and began to focus on Helvetica instead. It was also made available for phototypesetting systems, as well as in other formats such as Letraset dry transfers and plastic letters, and many phototypesetting imitations and knock-offs were rapidly created by competing phototypesetting companies. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=147375 | 366,249 |
333,365 | How life originated from inorganic matter remains an unresolved problem in biology. One prominent hypothesis is that life first appeared in the form of short self-replicating RNA polymers. On this view, life may have come into existence when RNA chains first experienced the basic conditions, as conceived by Charles Darwin, for natural selection to operate. These conditions are: heritability, variation of type, and competition for limited resources. The fitness of an early RNA replicator would likely have been a function of adaptive capacities that were intrinsic (i.e., determined by the nucleotide sequence) and the availability of resources. The three primary adaptive capacities could logically have been: (1) the capacity to replicate with moderate fidelity (giving rise to both heritability and variation of type), (2) the capacity to avoid decay, and (3) the capacity to acquire and process resources. These capacities would have been determined initially by the folded configurations (including those configurations with ribozyme activity) of the RNA replicators that, in turn, would have been encoded in their individual nucleotide sequences. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21147 | 333,187 |
2,032,145 | The CARDIA study began in 1985 and 1986 with a sample of 5,115 black and white adults between the ages of 18 and 30. When the study began, participants were selected to ensure that the total sample would be about equally distributed across race, age, sex, and education. The original participants were recruited from Birmingham, Alabama, Chicago, Illinois, Minneapolis, Minnesota, and Oakland, California. Since then, the original participants have been contacted eight times for follow-up examinations in the following years: 1987-1988 (Year 2), 1990-1991 (Year 5), 1992-1993 (Year 7), 1995-1996 (Year 10), 2000-2001 (Year 15), 2005-2006 (Year 20), 2010-2011 (Year 25), and 2015-2016 (Year 30). The proportion of original participants who have been examined in each follow-up has varied from a high of 91% in Year 2 to a low of 71% in Year 30. By 2016, the study had produced hundreds of peer-reviewed journal articles that had been cited thousands of times in total. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58166121 | 2,030,975 |
201,843 | While the JINR–LLNL collaboration had been studying fusion reactions with Ca, a team of Japanese scientists at the Riken Nishina Center for Accelerator-Based Science in Wakō, Japan, led by Kōsuke Morita had been studying cold fusion reactions. Morita had previously studied the synthesis of superheavy elements at the JINR before starting his own team at Riken. In 2001, his team confirmed the GSI's discoveries of elements 108, 110, 111, and 112. They then made a new attempt on element 113, using the same Bi + Zn reaction that the GSI had attempted unsuccessfully in 1998. Despite the much lower yield expected than for the JINR's hot fusion technique with calcium-48, the Riken team chose to use cold fusion as the synthesised isotopes would alpha decay to known daughter nuclides and make the discovery much more certain, and would not require the use of radioactive targets. In particular, the isotope 113 expected to be produced in this reaction would decay to the known Bh, which had been synthesised in 2000 by a team at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL) in Berkeley. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=77474 | 201,740 |
908,269 | Animals with respiratory turbinates can breathe faster without drying out their lungs, and consequently can have a faster metabolism. For example, when the emu exhales, its nasal turbinates condense moisture from the air and absorbs it for reuse. Dogs and other canids possess well-developed nasal turbinates. These turbinates allow for heat exchange between small arteries and veins on their maxilloturbinate (turbinates positioned on maxilla bone) surfaces in a counter-current heat-exchange system. Dogs are capable of prolonged chases, in contrast to the ambush predation of cats, and these complex turbinates play an important role in enabling this (cats only possess a much smaller and less-developed set of nasal turbinates). This same complex turbinate structure help conserve water in arid environments. The water conservation and thermoregulatory capabilities of these well-developed turbinates in dogs may have been crucial adaptations that allowed dogs (including both domestic dogs and their wild prehistoric gray wolf ancestors) to survive in the harsh Arctic environment and other cold areas of northern Eurasia and North America, which are both very dry and very cold. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=534130 | 907,791 |
72,760 | The same reasoning applies to patent law. Patents are justified on the grounds that inventors must be protected so they have incentive to invent. It is therefore argued that it is in society's best interest that inventors receive a temporary government-granted monopoly on their idea, so that they can recoup investment costs and make economic profit for a limited period. In the United States, the length of this temporary monopoly is 20 years from the date the patent application was filed, though the monopoly does not actually begin until the application has matured into a patent. However, like the drinking-age problem above, the specific length of time would need to be different for every product to be efficient. A 20-year term is used because it is difficult to tell what the number should be for any individual patent. More recently, some, including University of North Dakota law professor Eric E. Johnson, have argued that patents in different kinds of industries – such as software patents – should be protected for different lengths of time. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=63452 | 72,733 |
383,207 | In 1569, mapmaker Gerardus Mercator first published a map based on his Mercator projection, which uses equally-spaced parallel vertical lines of longitude and parallel latitude lines spaced farther apart as they get farther away from the equator. By this construction, courses of constant bearing are conveniently represented as straight lines for navigation. The same property limits its value as a general-purpose world map because regions are shown as increasingly larger than they actually are the further from the equator they are. Mercator is also credited as the first to use the word "atlas" to describe a collection of maps. In the later years of his life, Mercator resolved to create his Atlas, a book filled with many maps of different regions of the world, as well as a chronological history of the world from the Earth's creation by God until 1568. He was unable to complete it to his satisfaction before he died. Still, some additions were made to the Atlas after his death and new editions were published after his death. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7294 | 383,012 |
557,804 | This is achieved through the use of competitive fluorescence in situ hybridization. In short, this involves the isolation of DNA from the two sources to be compared, most commonly a test and reference source, independent labelling of each DNA sample with fluorophores (fluorescent molecules) of different colours (usually red and green), denaturation of the DNA so that it is single stranded, and the hybridization of the two resultant samples in a 1:1 ratio to a normal metaphase spread of chromosomes, to which the labelled DNA samples will bind at their locus of origin. Using a fluorescence microscope and computer software, the differentially coloured fluorescent signals are then compared along the length of each chromosome for identification of chromosomal differences between the two sources. A higher intensity of the test sample colour in a specific region of a chromosome indicates the gain of material of that region in the corresponding source sample, while a higher intensity of the reference sample colour indicates the loss of material in the test sample in that specific region. A neutral colour (yellow when the fluorophore labels are red and green) indicates no difference between the two samples in that location. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=983601 | 557,515 |
532,674 | By March 2020, the international Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI) committed to research investments of US$100 million across several countries, and issued an urgent call to raise and rapidly invest $2 billion for vaccine development. Led by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation with partners investing million and coordinating with the World Health Organization, the COVID-19 Therapeutics Accelerator began in March, facilitating drug development researchers to rapidly identify, assess, develop, and scale up potential treatments. The COVID-19 Clinical Research Coalition formed to coordinate and expedite results from international clinical trials on the most promising post-infection treatments. In early 2020, numerous established antiviral compounds for treating other infections were being repurposed or developed in new clinical research efforts to alleviate the illness of COVID-19. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=63435931 | 532,395 |
1,194,963 | The manipulation and use of correlated phenomena has applications like superconducting magnets and in magnetic storage (CMR) technologies. Other phenomena like the metal-insulator transition in VO have been explored as a means to make smart windows to reduce the heating/cooling requirements of a room. Furthermore, metal-insulator transitions in Mott insulating materials like LaTiO can be tuned through adjustments in band filling to potentially be used to make transistors that would use conventional field effect transistor configurations to take advantage of the material's sharp change in conductivity. Transistors using metal-insulator transitions in Mott insulators are often referred to as Mott transistors, and have been successfully fabricated using VO before, but they have required the larger electric fields induced by ionic liquids as a gate material to operate. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2856466 | 1,194,323 |
1,454,842 | A study by Hayward found that the termini of α-helices and β-sheets form hinges in a large number of cases. Many hinges were found to involve two secondary structure elements acting like hinges of a door, allowing an opening and closing motion to occur. This can arise when two neighbouring strands within a β-sheet situated in one domain, diverge apart as they join the other domain. The two resulting termini then form the bending regions between the two domains. α-helices that preserve their hydrogen bonding network when bent are found to behave as mechanical hinges, storing `elastic energy' that drives the closure of domains for rapid capture of a substrate. Khade et. al. worked on prediction of the hinges in any conformation and further built an Elastic Network Model called hdANM that can model those motions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22835055 | 1,454,022 |
636,566 | Aquatic mammals, like other mammals, have the same size heart proportional to their bodies. In general, mammals have hearts about 0.6% of their total body mass: formula_17, where "M" is the body mass of the individual. Lung volume is also directly related to body mass in mammals (slope = 1.02). The lung has a volume of 63 ml for every kg of body mass, with the tidal volume at rest being 1/10 the lung volume. In addition, respiration costs with respect to oxygen consumption is scaled in the order of formula_18. This shows that mammals, regardless of size, have similarly scaled respiratory and cardiovascular systems and the same relative amount of blood: about 5.5% of body mass. This means that for similarly designed marine mammals, a larger individual can travel more efficiently, as it takes the same effort to move one body length. For example, large whales can migrate far distance in the oceans and not stop for rest. It is metabolically less expensive to be larger in body size. This goes for terrestrial and flying animals as well: smaller animals consume more oxygen per unit body mass than larger ones. The metabolic advantage in larger animals makes it possible for larger marine mammals to dive for longer durations of time than their smaller counterparts. That the heart rate is lower means that larger animals can carry more blood, which carries more oxygen. In conjuncture with the fact that mammals reparation costs scales in the order of formula_18, this shows having a larger body mass can be advantageous. More simply, a larger whale can hold more oxygen and at the same time demand less metabolically than a smaller whale. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1663537 | 636,227 |
204,014 | The RB211's complexity required a lengthy development and testing period. By Autumn 1969 Rolls-Royce was struggling to meet the performance guarantees to which it had committed: the engine had insufficient thrust, was over weight and its fuel consumption was excessive. The situation deteriorated further when in May 1970 the new "Hyfil" (a carbon fibre composite) fan stage, after passing other tests, shattered when a chicken carcass was fired into it at high speed as part of the bird ingestion test. The company had been developing a titanium blade as an insurance against difficulties with "Hyfil", but this meant extra cost and more weight. It also brought its own technical problems when it was discovered that only one side of the titanium billet was of the right metallurgical quality for blade fabrication. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=387227 | 203,909 |
1,843,638 | The Hoyas entered the game with both Boumtje-Boumtje and Samnick out with injuries and only nine scholarship players available. In the first half, Braswell shot 1-for-6 (16.7%) in his first six field goal attempts and missed his first two free throws, while Scruggs committed two personal fouls early in the game. Virginia, meanwhile, scored easily and went on a 14-0 run, although Georgetown freshman guard Demetrius Hunter kept Georgetown in the game with four three-point shots and the Hoyas managed to tie the game at 29-29 with 6:36 left in the half. Virginia pulled away again, and at halftime led 49-38. By five minutes into the second half, the Cavaliers had extended their lead to 58-43, but the Hoyas then went on a 17-2 run to tie the game at 60-60 with under 11 minutes to play. Virginia took the lead with 7:48 left in regulation and the Hoyas lost Hunter, freshman forward Courtland Freeman, and senior center Jameel Watkins to foul-outs. In the final 3:39 of regulation, Virginia shot 1-for-7 (14.3%) from the field, and Georgetown trailed by only four points with less than two minutes left. With 1:48 remaining, Burton sank two free throws, and, after Virginia failed to score on its next position, Perry scored on a layup to tie the score at 77-77 with 1:14 left. Scruggs blocked a Virginia drive to the basket with two seconds left, Burton missed on a 50-foot (15-meter) last-second shot, and the game went into overtime. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41154364 | 1,842,584 |
1,969,824 | There are also other devices, which can offer some helpful separation. These devices are known as Gloveboxes. Gloveboxes do not offer the separative control provisions of an isolator or RABS. Gloveboxes were originally designed for non-sterile product applications, such as weighing or manipulating a toxic drug and have a long track record for such non-sterile applications. Such gloveboxes can be very effective in preventing exposure of an operator to a toxic drug. In limited cases, they can also be used to protect a sterile product, when supplied with ISO 5 unidirectional air. However, in some notable cases, gloveboxes used for aseptic processing have provided no more sterile product protection than the traditional laminar air flow hood (LAF) design of the 1960s. In these cases, the glove boxes were problematic due to inappropriate design or controls (e.g., insufficient disinfection, transfer of contaminated materials, ingress of lower quality air into glovebox, poor design/integrity, poor transfers). However, if gloveboxes are very meticulously designed, thoroughly disinfected (e.g., using a sporadical) and carefully operated by well-trained aseptic processing personnel to prevent introduction of microbial contamination, it is possible to obtain some degree of increased sterile product protection versus the simple traditional LAF hood. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10127780 | 1,968,690 |
2,162,020 | Every hurricane season, HRD carries out an annual field program during which it collects information on tropical cyclones (especially Atlantic hurricanes) in order to improve scientific understanding of their formation, structure, and dynamics. Data is collected from satellites, land-based radar, wind towers, and from aircraft. They archive flight information from Air Force Reserve Hurricane Hunters, and plan and participate in research flights on NOAA's Aircraft Operations Center planes. The present fleet consists of two Orion P-3 four-engine turboprops, which can fly directly into the eye of hurricanes, and a Gulfstream IV high-altitude jet, which is used to fly around tropical cyclones, dropping instrument packages called dropsondes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11375605 | 2,160,785 |
467,211 | The working principle for the first case is explained by the primary pyroelectric effect, which describes the charge produced in a strain-free case. The primary pyroelectric effect dominates the pyroelectric response in PZT, BTO, and some other ferroelectric materials. The mechanism is based on the thermally induced random wobbling of the electric dipole around its equilibrium axis, the magnitude of which increases with increasing temperature. Due to thermal fluctuations under room temperature, the electric dipoles will randomly oscillate within a degree from their respective aligning axes. Under a fixed temperature, the total average strength of the spontaneous polarization form the electric dipoles is constant, resulting in no output of the pyroelectric nanogenerator. If we apply a change in temperature in the nanogenerator from room temperature to a higher temperature, the increase in temperature will result in that the electric dipoles oscillate within a larger degree of spread around their respective aligning axes. The total average spontaneous polarization is decreased due to the spread of the oscillation angles. The quantity of induced charges in the electrodes are thus reduced, resulting in a flow of electrons. If the nanogenerator is cooled instead of heated, the spontaneous polarization will be enhanced since the electric dipoles oscillate within a smaller degree of spread angles due to the lower thermal activity. The total magnitude of the polarization is increased and the amount of induced charges in the electrodes are increased. The electrons will then flow in an opposite direction. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30057479 | 466,976 |
383,034 | Arguably, the most important part of a pheochromocytoma surgical plan is an adequate pre-operative blockade. Excess catecholamines have been described as a dormant volcano, ready to erupt at any time, wreaking catastrophic havoc on the body. While an eruption can occur at any time, two of the most common triggers are anesthesia and direct tumor manipulation, making surgery one of the most dangerous times for a pheochromocytoma patient if not properly prepared. In order to help circumvent a catecholamine-crisis, the United States Endocrine Society recommends that all patients with functional (hormonally active) tumors be started on a pre-operative alpha-adrenoceptor blockade a minimum of seven days prior to surgery. There are several medication options depending on the clinical scenario, each with their own associated strengths and weaknesses. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=277088 | 382,839 |
14,137 | The SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory deep inelastic scattering experiments of the late 1960s showed that nucleons (protons and neutrons) contained point-like particles that scattered electrons. It was natural to identify these with quarks, but Feynman's parton model attempted to interpret the experimental data in a way that did not introduce additional hypotheses. For example, the data showed that some 45% of the energy momentum was carried by electrically neutral particles in the nucleon. These electrically neutral particles are now seen to be the gluons that carry the forces between the quarks, and their three-valued color quantum number solves the omega-minus problem. Feynman did not dispute the quark model; for example, when the fifth quark was discovered in 1977, Feynman immediately pointed out to his students that the discovery implied the existence of a sixth quark, which was discovered in the decade after his death. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25523 | 14,132 |
562,199 | Typically, safety guidelines prescribe a set of steps, deliverable documents, and exit criterion focused around planning, analysis and design, implementation, verification and validation, configuration management, and quality assurance activities for the development of a safety-critical system. In addition, they typically formulate expectations regarding the creation and use of traceability in the project. For example, depending upon the criticality level of a requirement, the US Federal Aviation Administration guideline DO-178B/C requires traceability from requirements to design, and from requirements to source code and executable object code for software components of a system. Thereby, higher quality traceability information can simplify the certification process and help to establish trust in the maturity of the applied development process. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29278 | 561,910 |
626,184 | The game is inspired by an idea originally created for Steven Spielberg's "Amazing Stories" series. Unlike other LucasArts adventure games, which typically includes humor, "The Dig" took a somber approach to its science fiction motif. In the game, the player takes the role of Commander Boston Low, part of a five-man team planting explosives on an asteroid in order to avert its collision course with Earth. Discovering the asteroid is hollow, Low and two of his team are transported to a long-abandoned complex, filled with advanced technology, on a strange alien world. Low and his companions must utilize xenoarchaeology to learn how the technology works, discover the fate of the alien race that built it, and solve other mysteries to find a way to return home. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=80928 | 625,851 |
1,324,650 | Most modern demand valves use a downstream rather than an upstream valve mechanism. In a downstream valve, the moving part of the valve opens in the same direction as the flow of gas and is kept closed by a spring. The usual form of downstream valve is a spring-loaded poppet with a hard elastomer seat sealing against an adjustable metal "crown" around the inlet orifice. The poppet is lifted away from the crown by a lever operated by the diaphragm. Two patterns are commonly used. One is the classic push-pull arrangement, where the actuating lever goes onto the end of the valve shaft and is held on by a nut. Any deflection of the lever is converted to an axial pull on the valve shaft, lifting the seat off the crown and allowing air to flow. The other is the barrel poppet arrangement, where the poppet is enclosed in a tube which crosses the regulator body and the lever operates through slots in the sides of the tube. The far end of the tube is accessible from the side of the casing and a spring tension adjustment screw may be fitted for limited diver control of the cracking pressure. This arrangement also allows relatively simple pressure balancing of the second stage. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=63408953 | 1,323,923 |
1,074,605 | A reaction center is laid out in such a way that it captures the energy of a photon using pigment molecules and turns it into a usable form. Once the light energy has been absorbed directly by the pigment molecules, or passed to them by resonance transfer from a surrounding light-harvesting complex, they release electrons into an electron transport chain and pass energy to a hydrogen donor such as HO to extract electrons and protons from it. In green plants, the electron transport chain has many electron acceptors including pheophytin, quinone, plastoquinone, cytochrome bf, and ferredoxin, which result finally in the reduced molecule NADPH, while the energy used to split water results in the release of oxygen. The passage of the electron through the electron transport chain also results in the pumping of protons (hydrogen ions) from the chloroplast's stroma and into the lumen, resulting in a proton gradient across the thylakoid membrane that can be used to synthesize ATP using the ATP synthase molecule. Both the ATP and NADPH are used in the Calvin cycle to fix carbon dioxide into triose sugars. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3967032 | 1,074,051 |
888,274 | The Samalas signal is only inconsistently reported from tree ring climate information, and the temperature effects were likewise limited, probably because the large sulfate output altered the average size of particles and thus their radiative forcing. Climate modelling indicated that the Samalas eruption may have reduced global temperatures by approximately , a value largely not replicated by proxy data. Better modelling with a general circulation model that includes a detailed description of the aerosol indicated that the principal temperature anomaly occurred in 1258 and continued until 1261. Climate models tend to overestimate the climate impact of a volcanic eruption; one explanation is that climate models tend to assume that aerosol optical depth increases linearly with the quantity of erupted sulfur when in reality self-limiting processes limit its growth. The possible occurrence of an El Niño before the eruption may have further reduced the cooling. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=51811834 | 887,806 |
1,249,602 | The sighing motive indicates the beginning of the recapitulation. Rather than affirming the tonic of C minor, however, Brahms takes the recapitulation in a different direction: the opening section again ends on a dominant pedal on G with the violin and viola playing pizzicato octaves on E, but the E is used to turn the music to E minor. Chromatic descent is employed to bring the music to a half-cadence on D, leading to the second theme in G major. This is perhaps the only sonata form movement in the minor mode in which the recapitulation features the second subject in the key of the major dominant. The second theme is first stated by the viola, which is then followed by three new variations (the first being played by the violin, the second and third by the piano), and one of the same variations as the exposition. A fifth variation leads to a short digression in C major but becomes chromatic and ends with a development the first theme, coming to a cadence on C. This is followed by a brief coda that expands on the first motives heard in the piece. Nevertheless, the key of C minor is arguably not clearly established by the recapitulation (the key signature of C minor is present at the end of the movement for less than two complete pages). The movement ends with a clear tonic–dominant–tonic perfect cadence, stated piano. The expansive and exploratory nature of the movement, along with the quiet closing dynamic, helps make the conventional final cadential progression appear mysterious. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21628117 | 1,248,926 |
2,072,281 | In 1884, James McMahon became a Cornell instructor, in 1890 an assistant professor, and in 1904 a member of the Cornell Faculty as professor of mathematics. He was one of the two most prominent Cornell mathematicians of this early period–the other one being James Oliver. In 1893 McMahon helped to found the Sigma Xi Society. The idea was to create the Phi Beta Kappa of the sciences, a concession that the literary and arts focused Phi Beta Kappa Society was perceived as being tied to an older collegiate focus antedating the rise of science and engineering in the university curriculum. The First Convention of Sigma Xi was held at Cornell University. McMahon was a delegate from Cornell University; Ernest G. Merritt represented the University of Kansas. McMahon's focus was on the policy by which the Society would expand. He also served as Vice President (1905) and President (1909) of the Theta Chapter, Phi Beta Kappa, and was succeeded by Madison Bentley (1909) and Alfred Hayes, Jr. (1910). On June 26, 1890, James McMahon married into Cornell University's Crane family. He was spouse to Katharine Crane, sister to Professor “TeeFee” Crane. Five years later, the Chairman of the Cornell Mathematics Department, Professor William Oliver, died. The University leased the Oliver cottage at 7 Central Avenue, and adjacent to Professor Crane's cottage, to the McMahons. James McMahon lived on Central Avenue from 1895 until his death in 1922. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=28079663 | 2,071,090 |
2,148,956 | The arrival of COVID-19 in Kentucky led to the first video conference meeting for the entire department (with over 30 participants) on 25 March 2020. On May 6, 2020, the department conducted a virtual graduation ceremony/Semple Day (renamed Geography in the Bluegrass Day) to recognize the accomplishments of graduating students. After over 40 years of service to the department, Gary Shannon retired in June of 2020. The interdisciplinary major of environmental studies moved under the department's administration, led by efforts of Betsy Beymer-Farris. This followed a revision of the undergraduate major in the summer of 2020, including the offering of a new minor in urban studies. A new online graduate program in applied environmental studies was also launched, with support from a postdoctoral hire: Kathryn Gillespie (Washington). Jonathan Phillips retired after his last semester of teaching in the Fall of 2020. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=47120039 | 2,147,725 |
2,062,438 | This function of MurI was discovered experimentally. DNA gyrase was incubated with the MurI enzyme and then added to a sample of DNA; the results of this experiment showed inhibition of supercoiling activity when MurI was present. The cell wall biosynthesis function of MurI is not directly related to its moonlighting function. MurI's ability to inhibit gyrase binding can proceed independently of its main function. This means that DNA gyrase, in turn, will not have any effect on MurI's racemization, which was confirmed in a study of the racemization with and without the presence of DNA gyrase. In an experimental analysis, it was determined that MurI employs the use of two different enzymatic active sites for its two functions. This was shown by the inclusion of the racemase substrate L-glutamate in an assay with the separated gyrase inhibition site. The gyrase inhibition occurs in both supercoiling and relaxing activities of the DNA gyrase, and the study concluded that the inhibition activity was able to proceed, unchanged, in the presence of the racemase substrate. This dictates that the two functions can be carried out independently of each other, on non-overlapping sites, making MurI a true moonlighting protein. Mutant forms of MurI that are unable to exhibit their racemase function, no matter how compromised their racemase abilities were, were still proven through a study to be able to perform the DNA gyrase inhibition, with comparable results to a non-mutated form of MurI. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14215535 | 2,061,248 |
2,244,825 | John McLean believed he was good enough to be the World Champion and again challenged Kemp to a race. The date agreed to was 15 December 1890 and once again it was held on the Parramatta River with the stake set at £200 a side. Kemp got away better at the start and was soon had a lead of half a length. Both boats came close together and McLean fouled Kemp who stopped rowing for a couple of strokes. McLean took advantage of this and went half a length ahead. However Kemp soon got underway and spurted and was quickly ahead again. McLean then made an effort and slipped ahead. He sculled well and despite the best work of Kemp he was unable to overtake McLean who finished six lengths ahead in a time of 22m.13s. The referee decided the foul in McLean's favour. Kemp was dissatisfied with the result and offered to row either McLean or Jim Stanbury for £500 a side after April the following year. This did not happen and Stanbury later beat McLean for the title. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22274850 | 2,243,554 |
585,284 | One tactical innovation adopted by 2nd TAF Spitfires was the "Fluid Six"' formation, which had been developed through combat experience in Europe and North Africa. The first use of the tactic dated back to at least November 1941. It is known that No. 112 Squadron RAF used this in the North African campaign. This formation "was considered the best fighter formation of the war". It abandoned the leader-wingman combination that had existed before. Instead, it was based on three pairs of Spitfires which could provide mutual cover and support: the pairs were 'stacked' in altitude so that the pair (e.g.: 5 & 6) flying up-sun, and covering the tails of the leaders (1 & 2), flew higher, while the other pair (e.g.: 3 & 4) flew lower. Any attacking aircraft could be sandwiched between two pairs of Spitfires, no matter the direction or altitude of the attack. Another advantage of this formation was that when operating at squadron strength a flight commander was able to lead six aircraft of his own flight, "whereas, with formations of four there would more likely be one formation from each flight with the third consisting of aircraft from another flight." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15630676 | 584,984 |
55,692 | Although "dan" ranks tend to be consistent between national organizations there is more variation in the "kyū" grades, with some countries having more "kyū" grades. Although initially "kyū" grade belt colours were uniformly white, today a variety of colours are used. The first black belts to denote a dan rank in the 1880s, initially the wide obi was used; as practitioners trained in kimono, only white and black obi were used. It was not until the early 1900s, after the introduction of the judogi, that an expanded colored belt system of awarding rank was created. Written accounts from the archives of London's Budokwai judo club, founded in 1918, record the use of coloured judo belts at the 1926 9th annual Budokwai Display, and a list of ranked colored judokas appears in the Budokwai Committee Minutes of June 1927. Kawaishi visited London and the Budokwai in 1928, and was probably inspired to bring the coloured belt system to France. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15601 | 55,669 |
1,749,545 | The term "proof" descended from its Latin roots (provable, probable, "probare" L.) meaning "to test". Hence, proof is a form of inference by means of a statistical test. Statistical tests are formulated on models that generate probability distributions. Examples of probability distributions might include the binary, normal, or poisson distribution that give exact descriptions of variables that behave according to natural laws of random chance. When a statistical test is applied to samples of a population, the test determines if the sample statistics are significantly different from the assumed null-model. True values of a population, which are unknowable in practice, are called parameters of the population. Researchers sample from populations, which provide estimates of the parameters, to calculate the mean or standard deviation. If the entire population is sampled, then the sample statistic mean and distribution will converge with the parametric distribution. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19441269 | 1,748,559 |
1,835,145 | Microctenopoma ansorgii is a small freshwater fish, known in the aquarium trade as the ornate ctenopoma, orange ctenopoma, ornate climbing perch, pretty ctenopoma, or rainbow ctenopoma. It is related to the more familiar spotted climbing perch ("Ctenopoma acutirostre"), but looks very different. Its body is more elongated and rounded, with fins with red and black stripes; the color intensifies when the fish are displaying, with black bars becoming visible on the body. The ornate ctenopoma spawns at night, laying its eggs on a floating bubble nest like its relatives in the osphronemidae. It lives in the slow-flowing forest streams of the Congo Basin, where it feeds on worms, insect larvae, and other aquatic invertebrates. It is the most common member of its genus in the aquarium trade, where it is known for being a shy, easily bullied fish that needs live or frozen foods and which benefits from the presence of smaller dither fish to encourage it to come out of hiding. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11981667 | 1,834,096 |
1,513,028 | In the early 1980s, NPO PM received the first prototype satellites from PO Polyot for ground tests. Many of the produced parts were of low quality and NPO PM engineers had to perform substantial redesigning, leading to a delay. On 12 October 1982, three satellites, designated Kosmos-1413, Kosmos-1414, and Kosmos-1415 were launched aboard a Proton rocket. As only one GLONASS satellite was ready in time for the launch instead of the expected three, it was decided to launch it along with two mock-ups. The American media reported the event as a launch of one satellite and "two secret objects." For a long time, the Americans could not find out the nature of those "objects". The Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union (TASS) covered the launch, describing GLONASS as a system "created to determine positioning of civil aviation aircraft, navy transport and fishing-boats of the Soviet Union". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30958981 | 1,512,177 |
1,279,781 | The overwhelming importance of viscosity for swimming at the micrometer scale has profound implications for swimming strategy. This has been discussed memorably by E. M. Purcell, who invited the reader into the world of microorganisms and theoretically studied the conditions of their motion. In the first place, propulsion strategies of large scale swimmers often involve imparting momentum to the surrounding fluid in periodic , such as vortex shedding, and coasting between these events through inertia. This cannot be effective for microscale swimmers like bacteria: due to the large viscous damping, the inertial coasting time of a micron-sized object is on the order of 1 μs. The coasting distance of a microorganism moving at a typical speed is about 0.1 angstroms (Å). Purcell concluded that only forces that are exerted in the present moment on a microscale body contribute to its propulsion, so a constant energy conversion method is essential. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=69133408 | 1,279,086 |
528,947 | The overwhelming importance of viscosity for swimming at the micrometer scale has profound implications for swimming strategy. This has been discussed memorably by E. M. Purcell, who invited the reader into the world of microorganisms and theoretically studied the conditions of their motion. In the first place, propulsion strategies of large scale swimmers often involve imparting momentum to the surrounding fluid in periodic , such as vortex shedding, and coasting between these events through inertia. This cannot be effective for microscale swimmers like bacteria: due to the large viscous damping, the inertial coasting time of a micron-sized object is on the order of 1 μs. The coasting distance of a microorganism moving at a typical speed is about 0.1 angstroms (Å). Purcell concluded that only forces that are exerted in the present moment on a microscale body contribute to its propulsion, so a constant energy conversion method is essential. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=17575156 | 528,673 |
1,826,779 | The overwhelming importance of viscosity for swimming at the micrometer scale has profound implications for swimming strategy. This has been discussed memorably by E. M. Purcell, who invited the reader into the world of microorganisms and theoretically studied the conditions of their motion. In the first place, propulsion strategies of large scale swimmers often involve imparting momentum to the surrounding fluid in periodic , such as vortex shedding, and coasting between these events through inertia. This cannot be effective for microscale swimmers like bacteria: due to the large viscous damping, the inertial coasting time of a micron-sized object is on the order of 1 μs. The coasting distance of a microorganism moving at a typical speed is about 0.1 angstroms (Å). Purcell concluded that only forces that are exerted in the present moment on a microscale body contribute to its propulsion, so a constant energy conversion method is essential. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=68657567 | 1,825,740 |
1,753,759 | PeBBu Thematic Network was managed by the CIB General Secretariat (International Council for Research and Innovation in Building Construction), particularly by the CIB Development Foundation (CIBdf). The PeBBu Network started working in 2001 and completed in 2005. In the PeBBu Network 73 organisations, included CIBdf (coordinating contractor), BBRI (Belgium), VTT (Finland), CSTB (France), EGM (Netherlands), TNO (Netherlands), BRE (UK), cooperated to this project bringing people together to share their work, their information and knowledge. The objectives of the Network was to stimulate and facilitate international dissemination and implementation of Performance Based Building in building and construction sector, maximising the contribution to this by the international Research and Development community. The PeBBu Thematic Network result is described and explained in 26 final reports which included three reports with an overall PBB scope, a multitude of research reports from the PeBBu Domains, User Platforms and Regional Platforms, a Final Management report and four practice reports for providing practical support to the actual application of PBB concept in building and construction sector. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25153936 | 1,752,769 |
1,522,886 | The Biomimicry Global Design Challenge (BGDC) was an annual program that gave scientists, inventors and designers the opportunity to apply biomimicry to create solutions to problems of climate change. Whether emulating the functions of a healthy forest floor to support cost-effective reforestation, or creating a rock-like aggregate that sequesters carbon in concrete (modeled on the formation of shells and coral reefs), the design challenge teams created solutions to man-made problems by learning from nature. Participants received access to training, mentoring, and other resources. Finalists were invited to join the Biomimicry Launchpad to get support to bring their design to market. The program was first announced at the 2014 Annual Meeting of the Clinton Global Initiative. The first two years of the challenge focused on the issue of food insecurity. The Challenge was discontinued in 2021. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=28443164 | 1,522,025 |
1,848,774 | The government's "National Strategy for Sustainable Development" (2013−2017) recognizes the need to remove controls on industry in order to create jobs, increase exports and turn the country into a hub for finance, business, tourism and culture within Central Asia. With the exception of hazardous industries where government intervention is considered justified, restrictions on entrepreneurship and licensing will be lifted and the number of permits required will be halved. Inspections will be reduced to a minimum and the government will strive to interact more with the business community. The state reserves the right, however, to regulate matters relating to environmental protection and conservation of ecosystem services. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54244683 | 1,847,716 |
1,229,639 | The cement is made by fusing together a mixture of a calcium-bearing material (normally calcium oxide from limestone) and an aluminium-bearing material (normally bauxite for general purposes, or refined alumina for white and refractory cements). The liquified mixture cools to a vesicular, basalt-like clinker which is ground alone to produce the finished product. Because complete melting usually takes place, raw materials in lump-form can be used. A typical kiln arrangement comprises a reverberatory furnace provided with a shaft preheater in which the hot exhaust gases pass upward as the lump raw material mix passes downward. The preheater recuperates most of the heat in the combustion gases, dehydrates and de-hydroxylates the bauxite and de-carbonates the limestone. The calcined material drops into the "cool end" of the melt bath. The melt overflows the hot end of the furnace into molds in which it cools and solidifies. The system is fired with pulverized coal or oil. The cooled clinker ingots are crushed and ground in a ball-mill. In the case of high-alumina refractory cements, where the mix only sinters, a rotary kiln can be used. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9307728 | 1,228,977 |
37,235 | In May 2006 Duke researchers mapped the final human chromosome, which made world news as it marked the completion of the Human Genome Project. Reports of Duke researchers' involvement in new AIDS vaccine research surfaced in June 2006. The biology department combines two historically strong programs in botany and zoology, while one of the divinity school's leading theologians is Stanley Hauerwas, whom "Time" named "America's Best Theologian" in 2001. The graduate program in literature boasts several internationally renowned figures, including Fredric Jameson, Michael Hardt, and Rey Chow, while philosophers Robert Brandon and Lakatos Award-winner Alexander Rosenberg contribute to Duke's ranking as the nation's best program in philosophy of biology, according to the "Philosophical Gourmet Report". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=53273 | 37,222 |
23,564 | Since 1962, Cornell has been involved in unmanned missions to Mars. In the 21st century, Cornell had a hand in the Mars Exploration Rover Mission. Cornell's Steve Squyres, Principal Investigator for the Athena Science Payload, led the selection of the landing zones and requested data collection features for the Spirit and Opportunity rovers. Jet Propulsion Laboratory engineers took those requests and designed the rovers to meet them. The rovers, both of which have operated long past their original life expectancies, are responsible for the discoveries that were awarded 2004 Breakthrough of the Year honors by "Science". Control of the Mars rovers has shifted between NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory at Caltech and Cornell's Space Sciences Building. Further, Cornell researchers discovered the rings around the planet Uranus, and Cornell built and operated the telescope at Arecibo Observatory located in Arecibo, Puerto Rico until 2011, when they transferred the operations to SRI International, the Universities Space Research Association and the Metropolitan University of Puerto Rico. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7954422 | 23,555 |
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