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842,005 | In some cases there may be an asymptomatic phase following the initial symptoms which is then followed by more significant toxicity including kidney damage, liver damage, and neurological dysfunction including seizures and coma. These signs usually develop within 1–3 days in serious cases. The patient develops jaundice and the liver and spleen become enlarged, in some cases blood sugar levels will rise (hyperglycemia) and then fall (hypoglycemia) and liver toxicity is seen. Additionally intravascular hemolysis causes destruction of red blood cells resulting in increase in free hemoglobin and hemoglobinuria which can lead to renal toxicity or kidney failure. Methemoglobinemia may also occur in some cases. This is where higher than normal levels of methemoglobin, which is a form of hemoglobin that can not carry oxygen, are found in the blood. It causes the patient to become short of breath and cyanotic. Cases of severe poisoning may progress to a terminal neurological phase, with delirium, muscle fasciculations and seizures, and mydriasis progressing to coma, circulatory collapse, and respiratory arrest. Death may occur from five to seven days after consumption. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=302600 | 841,555 |
273,923 | However, its single-shot nature was a serious drawback. Reloading after every shot meant a slow rate of fire and an inability to keep up a constant volume of fire during a firefight. This led the Navy to develop the China Lake Grenade Launcher, which was produced for deployed SEAL Teams. For close-in situations, the minimum arming range (the round travels 30 meters to arm itself) and the blast radius meant a grenadier had to use his .45 cal. (11.43 mm) pistol, or fire and hope that the grenade acted as a giant slow bullet. Special grenades for close-in fighting were created to compensate, though a soldier was not always able to load one in the heat of battle. Moreover, its size meant that a grenadier armed with the M79 could not carry a rifle, having only a sidearm to use in a firefight after expending his grenades, though some grenadiers opted to carry a slung M16 rifle in lieu of a sidearm. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=620718 | 273,775 |
405,829 | The Magnavox Odyssey is the first commercial home video game console. The hardware was designed by a small team led by Ralph H. Baer at Sanders Associates, while Magnavox completed development and released it in the United States in September 1972 and overseas the following year. The Odyssey consists of a white, black, and brown box that connects to a television set, and two rectangular controllers attached by wires. It is capable of displaying three square dots and one line of varying height on the screen in monochrome black and white, with differing behavior for the dots depending on the game played. Players place plastic overlays on the screen to display additional visual elements for each game, and one or two players for each game control their dots with the knobs and buttons on the controller by the rules given for the game. The console cannot generate audio or track scores. The Odyssey console came packaged with dice, paper money, and other board game paraphernalia to accompany the games, while a peripheral controller—the first video game light gun—was sold separately. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=77262 | 405,629 |
1,594,413 | Building upon this finding, Westheimer et al. directly measured the pK of Lys115 in the active site using 5-nitrosalicylaldehyde (5-NSA) . Reaction of 5-NSA with acetoacetate decarboxylase and subsequent reduction of the resulting Schiff base with sodium borohydride led to the incorporation of a 2-hydroxy-5-nitrobenzylamino reporter molecule in the active site (Figure 2). Titration of the enzyme with this attached reporter group revealed that the pK of Lys115 is decreased to 5.9 in the active site. These results were the basis for the proposal that the perturbation in the pK of Lys115 was due to its proximity to the positively charged ε-ammonium group of Lys116 in the active site. A nearby positive charge could cause unfavorable electrostatic repulsions that weaken the N-H bond of Lys115. Westheimer et al.'s proposal was further supported by site-directed mutagenesis studies. When Lys116 was mutated to cysteine or asparagine, the pK of Lys115 was found to be significantly elevated to over 9.2, indicating that positively charged Lys116 plays a critical role in determining the pK of Lys115. Although a crystal structure was not yet solved to provide structural evidence, this proposal was widely accepted and cited as a textbook example of how the active site can be precisely organized to perturb a pK and affect reactivity. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10688404 | 1,593,516 |
1,848,119 | is a solution technique for the Langevin equation, which is the relevant form of Newton's 2nd law for a Brownian particle. The method treats the suspended particles in a discrete sense while the continuum approximation remains valid for the surrounding fluid, i.e., the suspended particles are generally assumed to be significantly larger than the molecules of the solvent. The particles then interact through hydrodynamic forces transmitted via the continuum fluid, and when the particle Reynolds number is small, these forces are determined through the linear Stokes equations (hence the name of the method). In addition, the method can also resolve non-hydrodynamic forces, such as Brownian forces, arising from the fluctuating motion of the fluid, and interparticle or external forces. Stokesian Dynamics can thus be applied to a variety of problems, including sedimentation, diffusion and rheology, and it aims to provide the same level of understanding for multiphase particulate systems as molecular dynamics does for statistical properties of matter. For formula_1 rigid particles of radius formula_2 suspended in an incompressible Newtonian fluid of viscosity formula_3 and density formula_4, the motion of the fluid is governed by the Navier–Stokes equations, while the motion of the particles is described by the coupled equation of motion: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8723207 | 1,847,061 |
1,761,410 | East Asia has made considerable progress in child well-being in recent years, improving it by 45% over 1990–2006, reducing deprivation to a score of just 8.5; only one other developing region, Latin America, scores better. It has the best level of primary school enrolment and has managed to halve its child mortality rate over 1990–2006. Much of this progress is because of China's significant improvement, where almost two-thirds of the region's children live. China has made tremendous progress in increasing people's incomes; nonetheless 417,000 children under the age of 5 years still died in China in 2006 alone. Countries like Malaysia and Thailand did even better in all 3 of the areas the CDI measures. But, as in other regions of the world, government policy plays an important role in children's lives. For example, Myanmar saw almost no improvement at all. And in many countries, the poorest, most isolated groups are being left behind. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20643934 | 1,760,417 |
210,956 | Minimizing latency is of interest in the capital markets, particularly where algorithmic trading is used to process market updates and turn around orders within milliseconds. Low-latency trading occurs on the networks used by financial institutions to connect to stock exchanges and electronic communication networks (ECNs) to execute financial transactions. Joel Hasbrouck and Gideon Saar (2011) measure latency based on three components: the time it takes for information to reach the trader, execution of the trader's algorithms to analyze the information and decide a course of action, and the generated action to reach the exchange and get implemented. Hasbrouck and Saar contrast this with the way in which latencies are measured by many trading venues who use much more narrow definitions, such as, the processing delay measured from the entry of the order (at the vendor's computer) to the transmission of an acknowledgement (from the vendor's computer). Electronic trading now makes up 60% to 70% of the daily volume on the New York Stock Exchange and algorithmic trading close to 35%. Trading using computers has developed to the point where millisecond improvements in network speeds offer a competitive advantage for financial institutions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=17933 | 210,849 |
1,624,362 | Towards the end of UA1, (1990) Virdee, with a few other colleagues, started planning an experiment based on a high field solenoid that would be able to identify the missing elements of the Standard Model (SM) and also to probe in full the physics of the TeV scale. This was to become the CMS experiment at the LHC, one of the most complex instruments science has ever seen. Since 1991 Virdee has played a crucial role in all phases of CMS. Over the last two decades this has covered conceptual design, intensive R&D, prototyping, construction, installation, commissioning, data-taking and finally physics exploitation. He has been the driving force behind many of the major technology decisions made in CMS, especially the selection of the calorimeter technologies. The CMS hadron calorimeter uses the technique he had invented earlier. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=37891767 | 1,623,446 |
949,108 | In March 2022, information from the Canadian Security Intelligence Service (CSIS) indicated that CSA had been infiltrated by Chinese agents. The RCMP charged Wanping Zheng, a 61-year-old employed by CSA, in December 2021 with breach of trust, which the police said was tied to foreign interference. Despite repeated security warnings from CSIS since 2015, Zheng continued to work for CSA and was tied to the installation of unauthorized software, including secure file transfer and a messaging applications, on behalf of a foreign company, according to filed court documents. He was also accused of using his status as a CSA engineer to negotiate agreements for a satellite station installation with Iceland, on behalf of a Chinese aerospace company. Zheng resigned from CSA after 26 years with the agency, although none of the allegations against Zheng have been proved in court. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=328618 | 948,604 |
880,204 | Kwolek was one of two children born to Polish immigrant parents in the Pittsburgh suburb of New Kensington, Pennsylvania, in 1923. The grade school she attended was small enough to require her classroom be shared by two different grades, and as Kwolek's love of science grew, she easily outpaced even the older children across the room. Her father, John Kwolek, died when she was ten years old. He was a naturalist by avocation, and Kwolek spent hours with him, as a child, exploring the natural world. They would spend afternoons together exploring the woods nearby, collecting plants and observing animals that they would later name and characterize in a scrapbook Kwolek kept as a child. She attributed her interest in science to him and an interest in fashion design to her mother, Nellie (Zajdel) Kwolek, who worked as a seamstress. Her mother told her that she was too much of a perfectionist to work a career in fashion, so Kwolek decided to become a doctor. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=703722 | 879,740 |
1,945,601 | After Cambridge, Aitken started a postdoctoral position at the University of Edinburgh's Institute of Animal Genetics, working collaboratively with Anne McLaren, a graduate from the University of Oxford. However, for the first 12 months at Edinburgh, he had not done any outstanding research due to transformations in study models from descriptive on wild animals to mechanistic approaches using the mouse, as well as changes in laboratories. Despite initial difficulties, he became familiar with new study models of in vitro fertilisation and embryo transfer in the second year. In later years, combining these techniques with electrophoretic analysis of proteins, his publication rate rose dramatically and was being cited by other scientists at that time. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=56888479 | 1,944,489 |
749,898 | The M320 is based on the earlier Heckler & Koch AG-C, but with some Army-specific modifications. It includes a folding foregrip and shorter barrel for a more compact package. The sights had to be reconfigured to shoot accurately with the slightly different ballistics from the shorter barrel length. The system was supposed to be lighter than the M203 (it is actually slightly heavier) and does not require specific mounting hardware. Breech loading allows the grenadier to load a shell while keeping the sight on target. It weighs in its base configuration, with the LRF and electronic sight, and with the stock attached. The sights on the M320 are located to the side of the launcher, avoiding the problems that the M203 had with its sight design, which were mounted on top of the launcher and could interfere with the rifle's sights, so they had to be attached separately. This meant two separate operations had to be performed when adding the grenade launcher to the weapon, and since the sights were not integral to the M203, they had to be re-zeroed every time the launcher was reattached to the rifle. The LRF helps eliminate range estimation errors common in shots greater than 100 meters, thus increasing first round hit probability. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2242917 | 749,500 |
1,131,577 | The monopoly over telecommunications came to an end in 1987 when Telecom New Zealand was formed, initially as a state-owned enterprise and then privatised in 1990. Competition began in the early 1990s, greatly reducing prices. The first competitor to market was Clear Communications, a consortium of North American and New Zealand businesses. Chorus, which was split from Telecom (now Spark) in 2011, still owns the majority of the telecommunications infrastructure, but competition from other providers has increased. A large-scale rollout of gigabit-capable fibre to the premises, branded as Ultra-Fast Broadband, began in 2009 with a target of being available to 87% of the population by 2022. , the United Nations International Telecommunication Union ranks New Zealand 13th in the development of information and communications infrastructure. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21357 | 1,130,987 |
820,327 | Common Lisp provides a one-dimensional codice_25 implementation as a special case of the built-in codice_26, acting in a dual capacity as a class and a type specifier. Being a derivative of the array, it relies on the general codice_27 function to be configured with an element type of codice_28, which optionally permits the bit vector to be designated as dynamically resizable. The codice_25, however, is not infinite in extent. A more restricted codice_30 type exists, which explicitly excludes the dynamic characteristics. Bit vectors are represented as, and can be constructed in a more concise fashion by, the "reader macro" codice_31. In addition to the general functions applicable to all arrays, dedicated operations exist for bit vectors. Single bits may be accessed and modified using the codice_28 and codice_33 functions and an extensive number of logical operations is supported. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1189937 | 819,886 |
1,967,389 | Karplus extended Piaget's theory to college students and adults; Piaget's theory included four stages, and he had documented children's thinking in great detail, finding that most children made the transition from the 3rd stage (concrete operations) to the 4th stage (abstract reasoning) by about 16 years of age. Karplus, however, extended Piaget's methodology to older groups and found that many of these individuals had important gaps in their ability to use abstract reasoning in solving scientific, logical, and mathematical problems. His most famous test of proportional reasoning was the Mr. Tall-Mr. Short problem. Karplus further explored and documented the details of college students’ and adults’ thinking as they confronted the issues involved in this critical intellectual transition, finding that many of the issues and problems that he, Piaget, and others had discovered as critical for younger students were still relevant for older individuals, particularly when they were attempting to solve a problem in a discipline that was new to them. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4390780 | 1,966,259 |
205,647 | Isopropanol, methanol, or other alcohol vapor saturates the chamber. The alcohol falls as it cools down and the cold condenser provides a steep temperature gradient. The result is a supersaturated environment. As energetic charged particles pass through the gas they leave ionization trails. The alcohol vapor condenses around gaseous ion trails left behind by the ionizing particles. This occurs because alcohol and water molecules are polar, resulting in a net attractive force toward a nearby free charge (See Fig. 4). The result is a misty cloud-like formation, seen by the presence of droplets falling down to the condenser. When the tracks are emitted from a source, their point of origin can easily be determined. Fig. 5 shows an example of an alpha particle from a Pb-210 pin-type source undergoing Rutherford scattering. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=483855 | 205,541 |
429,894 | The Anatolian Seljuks heavily emphasized hospitality combined with rituals of devotion. These beliefs pushed forth the development of buildings such as caravanserais, Sufi lodges, and other complexes that focused on providing shelter and food to travelers. These buildings showcase the social and political significance of hospitality in the Seljuk countryside. Ibn Battuta, a 14th-century traveler, wrote about this phenomenon in his travelogues. Madrasas were not just used for teaching but also were meant to host various rituals and to provide lodging for guests. The similar layouts of Sufi lodges and madrasas suggest that both types of structure were used in similar ways for rituals and hospitality. These buildings had to be adaptable to the changing political and social demands during this time. The multiple orientations of the madrasa show their adaptability to changing religious situations. There were also rituals when offering hospitality to guests. The ritual involved first presenting the visitor a meal, then taking the guests to bathe, and later being offered fruit and sweetmeats before listening to the Quran recitation. Sufi lodges served as lively community centers that were connected to the wider world. They showcased the social mobility in Seljuk and the emphasis on comfort and generosity. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30557685 | 429,683 |
1,662,039 | See the diagram on the right. is the journal (bearing) of the walking beam , which rocks up and down about . is the piston, which is required to move vertically but not horizontally. The heart of the design is the four-bar linkage consisting of , and and the base link is , both joints on the framework of the engine. As the beam rocks, point (which is drawn to aid this explanation, but is not a marked point on the machine itself) describes an elongated figure-eight (more precisely, a lemniscate of Bernoulli) in mid-air. Since the motion of the walking beam is constrained to a small angle, describes only a short section of the figure-eight, which is quite close to a vertical straight line. The figure-eight is symmetrical as long as arms and are equal in length, and straightest when the ratio of to matches that of to . If the stroke length (that is, the maximum travel of ) is , then the straight section is longest when is around and is . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1074604 | 1,661,104 |
586,121 | Discharged from the Navy in 1946, Van Allen returned to civilian research at APL. He organized and directed a team at Johns Hopkins University to conduct high-altitude experiments, using V-2 rockets captured from the Germans at the end of World War II. Van Allen decided a small sounding rocket was needed for upper atmosphere research. The Aerojet WAC Corporal and the Bumblebee missile were developed under a US Navy program. He drew specifications for the Aerobee sounding rocket and headed the committee that convinced the U.S. government to produce it. The first instrument-carrying Aerobee was the A-5, launched on March 5, 1948 from White Sands, New Mexico, carrying instruments for cosmic radiation research, reaching an altitude of 117.5 km. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=255286 | 585,821 |
1,627,458 | β chain is crucial for enhancement of binding affinity to the ligand and transduces signal of the activated receptor complex. It is shared with other cytokine receptors IL-3 and IL-5. Its location is on chromosome 22. Surrounding sequences provide binding sites for several regulatory transcription factors similar to those for α chain (GATA, C/EBP, NF-κB). β subunit forms mature 95kDa 800 amino acid long polypeptide with 3 domains: extracellular, transmembrane and cytoplasmic. Extracellular domain contains haematopoietin domains, also known as cytokine receptor modules, which can be found in other cytokine receptors (growth hormone receptor, erythropoietin receptor). In the membrane distant part are typically cysteine residues forming disulphide bonds, proline pair, which devies the extracellular domain into two fibronectin type III-like subdomains in seven stranded β-barrel structure. In the membrane proximal region is then a WSXWS motif as is in α chain. Cytoplasmic domain serves as a signal transducer. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11849264 | 1,626,540 |
299,739 | The carbon fibre sandwich chassis was retained for 2016, but many of the car's components were improved because of detailed performance enhancements and weight reduction. The wheel rim was redesigned to be deeper in an attempt to reduce drag. The mandatory air extractor, which cooled the top of the front wheel arches, had a turning vane on its inner edge. The car had new rear wing endplates with a small extension at its base as part of the car's bodywork. The 2016-specification 919 Hybrid had three distinct aerodynamic packages. They were used depending on the type of circuit, with two high-downforce configurations for the Silverstone Circuit and a low-downforce package for the Circuit de Spa-Francorchamps and Le Mans (developed in Williams Grand Prix Engineering's wind tunnel in Grove, England with full-scale testing in Germany). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41368349 | 299,578 |
1,313,300 | LeMessurier is perhaps best known for his role during the Citicorp Center engineering crisis, when he secretly reassessed his calculations on the Citicorp headquarters tower in New York City after the building had been finished in 1977. In June 1978, Princeton University engineering student Diane Hartley contacted LeMessurier's office after she identified winds that could topple the building under certain circumstances. Later, another young student, Lee deCarolis, prompted LeMessurier to redo his analysis. He discovered that the contractor had replaced the required welded joints with lower-cost, and potentially weaker bolted joints. This weakness could contribute to the building collapsing in "quartering" winds. This realization triggered a hurried, clandestine retrofit which was described in a 1995 article in "The New Yorker" entitled "The Fifty-Nine-Story Crisis". The case is now an ethical case-study in architectural degree programs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1252493 | 1,312,580 |
611,862 | The Navy’s environmental investigations began in 1984. NRL was not listed on the National Priorities List as a Superfund and the Maryland Department of the Environment has regulatory oversight. Since the early 2010s, the Navy and MDE have coordinated their activities at NR. In 2017 groundwater investigation PFAS were present on-base in the shallow aquifer. As of 2022, there are 6 active IRP sites (Photo-processing Waste Discharge, fire testing area etc) and 3 active munition response sites at former small arms ranges with lead contamination in the Chesapeake Bay Detachment. An online Restoration Advisory Board (RAB) meeting in May 2021 alarmed residents because of extremely high PFAS levels in the soil at the CBD's fire training facility. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=411893 | 611,551 |
1,410,031 | Shockley, however, lacked experience in business and industrial management. Moreover, he decided that the lab would research an invention of his own, the four-layer diode, rather than developing the diffused silicon transistor that he and Beckman had agreed upon. Beckman was reassured by his engineers that the scientific ideas behind Shockley's project were still sound. When appealed to by members of Shockley's lab, Beckman chose not to interfere with its management. In 1957, eight leading scientists including Gordon Moore and Robert Noyce left Shockley's group to form a competing startup, Fairchild Semiconductor, which would successfully develop silicon transistors. In 1960, Beckman sold the Shockley subsidiary to the Clevite Transistor Company, ending his formal association with semiconductors. Nonetheless, Beckman had been an essential backer of the new industry in its initial stages. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=315197 | 1,409,239 |
103,015 | Combustion in oxygen is a chain reaction in which many distinct radical intermediates participate. The high energy required for initiation is explained by the unusual structure of the dioxygen molecule. The lowest-energy configuration of the dioxygen molecule is a stable, relatively unreactive diradical in a triplet spin state. Bonding can be described with three bonding electron pairs and two antibonding electrons, with spins aligned, such that the molecule has nonzero total angular momentum. Most fuels, on the other hand, are in a singlet state, with paired spins and zero total angular momentum. Interaction between the two is quantum mechanically a "forbidden transition", i.e. possible with a very low probability. To initiate combustion, energy is required to force dioxygen into a spin-paired state, or singlet oxygen. This intermediate is extremely reactive. The energy is supplied as heat, and the reaction then produces additional heat, which allows it to continue. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5638 | 102,970 |
31,450 | Ingested glucose initially binds to the receptor for sweet taste on the tongue in humans. This complex of the proteins T1R2 and T1R3 makes it possible to identify glucose-containing food sources. Glucose mainly comes from food—about per day is produced by conversion of food,<ref name="Löffler/Petrides 404">Peter C. Heinrich: "Löffler/Petrides Biochemie und Pathobiochemie." Springer-Verlag, 2014, , p. 404.</ref> but it is also synthesized from other metabolites in the body's cells. In humans, the breakdown of glucose-containing polysaccharides happens in part already during chewing by means of amylase, which is contained in saliva, as well as by maltase, lactase, and sucrase on the brush border of the small intestine. Glucose is a building block of many carbohydrates and can be split off from them using certain enzymes. Glucosidases, a subgroup of the glycosidases, first catalyze the hydrolysis of long-chain glucose-containing polysaccharides, removing terminal glucose. In turn, disaccharides are mostly degraded by specific glycosidases to glucose. The names of the degrading enzymes are often derived from the particular poly- and disaccharide; inter alia, for the degradation of polysaccharide chains there are amylases (named after amylose, a component of starch), cellulases (named after cellulose), chitinases (named after chitin), and more. Furthermore, for the cleavage of disaccharides, there are maltase, lactase, sucrase, trehalase, and others. In humans, about 70 genes are known that code for glycosidases. They have functions in the digestion and degradation of glycogen, sphingolipids, mucopolysaccharides, and poly(ADP-ribose). Humans do not produce cellulases, chitinases, or trehalases, but the bacteria in the gut microbiota do. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12950 | 31,440 |
2,049,911 | Originally, the four top candidates for the 2008 election, Hillary Clinton, Barack Obama, Mike Huckabee, and John McCain, were officially invited to discuss science and technology issues at Philadelphia's Franklin Institute on April 18, 2008. However, after none of the candidates agreed to participate in the debate, a second invitation was sent, proposing a debate at Portland State University on May 2, May 9, or May 16. The moderator was to be David Brancaccio, and it was set to air on PBS. Unlike most other debates, the questions were to be provided in advance. Although the candidates did not agree to the two televised debates proposed by Science Debate 2008, both Obama and McCain did participate in an online written version,sciencedebate.org providing detailed responses to the "14 Top Science Questions Facing America," a list suggested by the organization's members, and the Obama answers formed an early basis for the Obama science policy. Several of the earliest supporters of Science Debate are now in the Obama administration, including Energy Secretary Steven Chu, NOAA Director Jane Lubchenco, and Presidential Science Advisor John Holdren. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15544589 | 2,048,730 |
845,877 | At King's College, Wilkins pursued, among other things, X-ray diffraction work on ram sperm and DNA that had been obtained from calf thymus by the Swiss scientist Rudolf Signer. The DNA from Signer's lab was much more intact than the DNA which had previously been isolated. Wilkins discovered that it was possible to produce thin threads from this concentrated DNA solution that contained highly ordered arrays of DNA suitable for the production of X-ray diffraction patterns. Using a carefully bundled group of these DNA threads and keeping them hydrated, Wilkins and a graduate student Raymond Gosling obtained X-ray photographs of DNA that showed that the long, thin DNA molecule in the sample from Signer had a regular, crystal-like structure in these threads. Gosling later said "When... I first saw all those discrete diffraction spots ...emerging on the film in the developing dish was a truly eureka moment...we realised that if DNA was the gene material then we had just shown that genes could crystallize!" This initial X-ray diffraction work at King's College was done in May or June 1950. It was one of the X-ray diffraction photographs taken in 1950, shown at a meeting in Naples a year later, that sparked James Watson's interest in DNA causing him to write "suddenly I was excited about chemistry...I began to wonder whether it would be possible for me to join Wilkins in working on DNA". At that time Wilkins also introduced Francis Crick to the importance of DNA. Crick advised him to work on proteins telling Wilkins "what you ought to do is find yourself a good protein". Wilkins knew that proper experiments on the threads of purified DNA would require better X-ray equipment. Wilkins ordered a new X-ray tube and a new microcamera. He also suggested to Randall that the soon-to-be-appointed Rosalind Franklin should be reassigned from work on protein solutions to join the DNA effort. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=234248 | 845,427 |
95,666 | Indian Jaguars were used to carry out reconnaissance missions in support of the Indian Peace Keeping Force in Sri Lanka between 1987 and 1990. They later played an active role in the 1999 Kargil War with Pakistan, dropping both unguided and laser-guided bombs, the IAF defining its role as a "deep penetrating strike aircraft". The Jaguar is also used in small numbers for the anti-ship role, equipped with the Sea Eagle missile. The Jaguar remains an important element of the Indian military as, along with the Mirage 2000, the Jaguar has been described as one of the few aircraft capable of performing the nuclear strike role with reasonable chances of success. It has been alleged that the Indian military decided against developing the Jaguar into an active nuclear platform because of its lack of ground clearance for deploying India's gravity-dropped nuclear bombs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=176232 | 95,625 |
341,290 | Welles returned to Tuba City in 1964 to determine the age of the Kayenta Formation (it had been suggested to be Late Triassic in age, whereas Welles thought it was Early to Middle Jurassic), and discovered another skeleton about south of where the 1942 specimens had been found. The nearly complete specimen (catalogued as UCMP 77270) was collected with the help of William J. Breed of the Museum of Northern Arizona and others. During preparation of this specimen, it became clear that it was a larger individual of "M. wetherilli", and that it would have had two crests on the top of its skull. Being a thin plate of bone, one crest was originally thought to be part of the missing left side of the skull, which had been pulled out of its position by a scavenger. When it became apparent that it was a crest, it was also realized that a corresponding crest would have been on the left side, since the right crest was right of the midline, and was concave along its middle length. This discovery led to re-examination of the holotype specimen, which was found to have bases of two thin, upwards-extended bones, which were crushed together. These also represented crests, but they had formerly been assumed to be part of a misplaced cheek bone. The two 1942 specimens were also found to be juveniles, while the 1964 specimen was an adult, about one-third larger than the others. Welles later recalled that he thought the crests were as unexpected as finding "wings on a worm". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=444541 | 341,109 |
150,487 | The sensors mounted around the circumference of the disk provide quadrature encoded outputs and thus allow the vehicle's computer to determine the direction of rotation of the wheel. This is a legal requirement in Switzerland to prevent "rollback" when starting from standstill. Strictly, such devices are not tachometers since they do not provide a direct reading of the rotational speed of the disk. The speed has to be derived externally by counting the number of pulses in a time period. It is difficult to prove conclusively that the vehicle is stationary, other than by waiting a certain time to ensure that no further pulses occur. This is one reason why there is often a time delay between the train stopping, as perceived by a passenger, and the doors being released. Slotted-disk devices are typical sensors used in odometer systems for rail vehicles, such as are required for train protection systems — notably the European Train Control System. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=233487 | 150,419 |
1,819,256 | The book, Carroll's third, focuses on the global hunt for and discovery of the Higgs boson at the Large Hadron Collider at CERN. Carrol explained that the hunt is a tale of "money, politics, and jealousy" among scientists and nations seeking the prize. "The Particle at the End of the Universe" was the 2013 winner of the Royal Society Winton Prize for Science Books. The judges said, "This book allows you to imagine the unimaginable. It's the story of scientific discovery from start to end. It stands out as the best telling of an extraordinary tale, speaking to people who are not scientists." The text starts at the dramatic day of July 4, 2012, when the discovery of the boson was announced, then goes back in time to the ancient Greek philosophers who were the first ones to propose that all the matter in the Universe was composed of infinitesimal elemental pieces, and then concentrates on the global hunt for the mysterious particle that gives all others their mass. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=63205268 | 1,818,221 |
2,040,411 | In 1901 the seminary purchased in Kountze Place for $20,000. Within a year a building was completed that included dormitory rooms, classrooms, offices, a library and a chapel, as well as a dining room, janitor's quarters and other rooms. It was a three story tall gray stone building with high basement windows and a bell tower above the middle section. In 1903, funds from Judge Charles E. Vanderburgh's estate were bequeathed to the seminary to support the construction of the president's home on campus. Mary Sibbet Copley was the primary philanthropist supporting the seminary. After her initial contribution of the Cozzens Hotel in downtown Omaha in 1902, she made regular donations, practically underwriting the institution. In 1929, she left a bequest of $150,000 to the seminary. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=16865871 | 2,039,232 |
1,544,834 | Estonia's sparse population and large areas of forest have allowed stocks of European lynx, wild boar, brown bears, and moose to survive, among other animals. Estonia is thought to have a wolf population of around 200, which is considered slightly above the optimum range of 100 to 200. Estonian birdlife is characterized by rare seabirds like the Steller's eider ("Polysticta stelleri"), lesser white-fronted goose ("Anser erythropus") and black-tailed godwit ("Limosa limosa"), wetland birds like the great snipe ("Gallinago media"), dry open country birds like the corn crake ("Crex crex") and European roller ("Coracias garrulus") and large birds of prey like the greater spotted eagle ("Aquila clanga"). Estonia has five national parks, including Lahemaa National Park on the northern coast as the largest. Soomaa National Park, between Pärnu and Viljandi, is known for its wetlands. Reserves such as Käina Bay Bird Reserve and Matsalu National Park (a wetland of international importance under the Ramsar Convention) are also popular with locals and tourists and support a wide variety of birdlife. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14781558 | 1,543,960 |
655,691 | Since the museum's founding, over 1,000 participatory exhibits have been created, approximately 600 of which are on display at any given time. The exhibit-building workshop space is contained within the museum and is open to view. In addition to the public exhibition space, the Exploratorium has been engaged in the professional development of teachers, science education reform, and the promotion of museums as informal education centers since its founding. Since Oppenheimer's death in 1985, the Exploratorium has expanded into other domains, including its 50,000-page website and two iPad apps on sound and color. It has also inspired an international network of participatory museums working to engage the public with general science education. The new Exploratorium building is also working to showcase environmental sustainability efforts as part of its goal to become the largest net-zero museum in the country. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22990622 | 655,347 |
1,636,401 | The location of the station had not been researched before the station was built, even though the area is attractive for the type of projects that are the focus of the Czech research in Antarctica. From geological perspective, it is an area of chalk sediments rich in fossils with occasional intrusions of igneous rock. Volcanic activity often took place below the glaciers. The consequences of climate change have been observed in this area since the mid 20th century in the retreat of glaciers and colonisation of the exposed surface by non-vascular plants. Many organisms are completely new to science and there is a high share of endemic species. The freshwater lakes in the surrounding area contain interesting and hitherto uninvestigated communities of algae, cyanobacteria and simple animal species. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=49495570 | 1,635,476 |
383,625 | Blizzard sold exclusive worldwide rights to develop, publish, and distribute console versions of the game to Electronic Arts in 1996. In 1998, a PlayStation version of "Diablo" was released, developed by Climax Studios and published by Electronic Arts. The game lacked online play, but featured a two-player cooperative mode. Notable differences to the PC version include new lighting effects, auto-aiming for range weapons and spells, and an option for increased game speed. Despite the original PC game being based around mouse control, it does not support the PlayStation Mouse. It features an option to learn the story through a narrator without having to find the books in the game. The European PAL version is translated and dubbed into French, German and Swedish in addition to the original English. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18985454 | 383,430 |
382,620 | Concurrent with "The Second Hurricane", Copland composed (for radio broadcast) "Prairie Journal" on a commission from the Columbia Broadcast System. This was one of his first pieces to convey the landscape of the American West. This emphasis on the frontier carried over to his ballet "Billy the Kid" (1938), which along with "El Salón México" became his first widespread public success. Copland's ballet music established him as an authentic composer of American music much as Stravinsky's ballet scores connected the composer with Russian music and came at an opportune time. He helped fill a vacuum for American choreographers to fill their dance repertory and tapped into an artistic groundswell, from the motion pictures of Busby Berkeley and Fred Astaire to the ballets of George Balanchine and Martha Graham, to both democratize and Americanize dance as an art form. In 1938, Copland helped form the American Composers Alliance to promote and publish American contemporary classical music. Copland was president of the organization from 1939 to 1945. In 1939, Copland completed his first two Hollywood film scores, for "Of Mice and Men" and "Our Town", and composed the radio score "John Henry," based on the folk ballad. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=51298 | 382,425 |
1,940,941 | The central match in the sixth round receiving the attention was the clash between India and the Netherlands. The Dutch players started strong on all boards, especially Anish Giri who put Pentala Harikrishna in serious trouble on the first board, but the Indians defended well. After three draws, the only decisive game was played on the second board, where Baskaran Adhiban beat Erwin l'Ami with the Black pieces after the Dutch blundered an important pawn on the move 36 and put himself in a lost endgame (see diagram). Ukraine, who were the third team with a perfect score before the round, lost 2½-1½ to the United States, which allowed India to become sole leader and the only team with perfect match score after six rounds. Similarly to the match between India and the Netherlands, there was only one decisive game played on the first board, where Fabiano Caruana silently outplayed Pavel Eljanov in a position that seemed equal but later transposed into a winning endgame with a passed a-pawn. Caruana said that he was not better at all and that 19... Rf6 was step in the wrong direction for Black, followed with the weird 29... Rxe6. He also added that it was "by far" the biggest win he had ever had for the United States. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=51472590 | 1,939,830 |
590,487 | The moral here is that however realists choose to construct particulars out of instances of properties, they do so on the basis of a belief in the [mind-independent] existence of those properties. That is the bedrock of realism. Property instances lend themselves to different forms of packaging [instrumental valuations], but as a feature of scientific description, this does not compromise realism with respect to the relevant [intrinsic] packages.In sum, Chakravartty argues that contingent instrumental valuations are warranted only as they approximate unchanging intrinsic valuations. Scholars continue to perfect their explanations of intrinsic value, as they deny the developmental continuity of applications of instrumental value.Abstraction is a process in which only some of the potentially many relevant factors present in [unobservable] reality are represented in a model or description with some aspect of the world, such as the nature or behavior of a specific object or process. ... Pragmatic constraints such as these play a role in shaping how scientific investigations are conducted, and together which and how many potentially relevant factors [intrinsic kinds] are incorporated into models and descriptions during the process of abstraction. The role of pragmatic constraints, however, does not undermine the idea that putative representations of factors composing abstract models can be thought to have counterparts in the [mind-independent] world.Realist intrinsic value as proposed by Chakravartty, is widely endorsed in modern scientific circles, while the supernatural intrinsic value endorsed by Max Weber and Jacques Ellul maintains its popularity throughout the world. Doubters about the reality of instrumental and intrinsic value are few. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1116997 | 590,185 |
1,407,199 | As of 2014, total of 27 stone tool bearing sites from the Early to Middle Pleistocene have been discovered within the vicinity of Chenchiawo and Gongwangling, in addition to two Late Pleistocene sites. In 2018, Zhu and colleagues reported 2.1 million year old stone tools at the Shangchen site on the Loess Plateau, the oldest evidence of humans out of Africa. Only 26 stone tools were excavated at Gongwangling, 20 from adjacent sites, and 10 from Chenchiawo. In total, the Early to Middle Pleistocene assemblage comprise largely heavy-duty tools including choppers, handaxes, picks, cleavers, spheroids, and heavy-duty scrapers made of predominantly local river cobble — quartzite, quartz, greywacke, and igneous pebbles — and more rarely higher quality sandstone, limestone, and chert. Handaxes, cleavers, and picks are characteristic of the Acheulean, which seems to have prevailed for some time in this region even while the west was transitioning to the Middle Stone Age/Middle Paleolithic in the Late Pleistocene. They seem to have preferred the bipolar percussion technique (smashing the core into several flakes with a hammerstone, out of which at least a few should be the correct size and shape), and less frequently used the anvil-chipping technique (hitting the core against an anvil to slowly chip away pieces into a usable edge). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4524914 | 1,406,409 |
1,686,383 | In 1991, the Joseph N. Nicollet Tower and Interpretive Center was constructed in Sisseton, South Dakota near the path Nicollet had taken from Devil's Lake back to Fort Snelling on his final expedition. A banker and Sisseton resident became fascinated with Nicollet's story and work after reading "Joseph N. Nicollet on the Plains and Prairies", a translation of Nicollet's journals, and raised $335,000 from seven local donors to build the monument. The 80-foot tall tower with 96 steps was primarily built of Douglas-fir from Idaho with concrete pillars and steel bolts. From the top, six counties in three states (South Dakota, North Dakota, and Minnesota) can be seen, including a view of the Laurentian Divide, the Coteau des Prairies, and the ancient glacial valley that Nicollet mapped. The Interpretive Center houses 2,400 square feet of classroom space and exhibits, including Nicollet's map and a mural of Nicollet's meeting with Wanata, chief of the Yankton Dakota. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=442757 | 1,685,437 |
2,112,747 | Three-finger proteins or three-finger protein domains (3FP or TFPD) are a protein superfamily consisting of small, roughly 60-80 amino acid residue protein domains with a common tertiary structure: three beta strand loops extended from a hydrophobic core stabilized by disulfide bonds. The family is named for the outstretched "fingers" of the three loops. Members of the family have no enzymatic activity, but are capable of forming protein-protein interactions with high specificity and affinity. The founding members of the family, also the best characterized by structure, are the three-finger toxins found in snake venom, which have a variety of pharmacological effects, most typically by disruption of cholinergic signaling. The family is also represented in non-toxic proteins, which have a wide taxonomic distribution; 3FP domains occur in the extracellular domains of some cell-surface receptors as well as in GPI-anchored and secreted globular proteins, usually involved in signaling. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=53882691 | 2,111,532 |
1,906,696 | In extreme cases, the malalignment can be treated by means of a derotational osteotomy which is a major surgical procedure. It can be conducted around the existing intramedullary fixtures, but it usually requires a subtrochanteric osteotomy, which is an invasive surgical approach where bone is cut and realigned. As this is a major procedure, it is beneficial if discovered early, before callus has set, and consequently, patients should be assessed for malrotation in the early post-operative period and a CT scan should occur if abnormalities are found. Correct measurement of bone malalignment with a CT scan is vital when considering an osteotomies in fixing rotational deformities, as torsional differences below 15 degrees are often easily compensated for with non surgical treatment. Revision surgery should be avoided, if not necessary, as implementing femoral nails for a second time leads to higher rates of problems such as infection, nonunion, or nail destabilisation due to overlapping holes for the interlocking screws. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=60722451 | 1,905,600 |
1,955,915 | Although it was experienced that early, there was still no explanation to why it was occurring. It was not until the early microscopes, utilized by Robert Hooke in the mid-1600s, that allowed humans to observe nature in greater detail. Hooke himself published what he had seen in the text "Micrographia" in 1665. Here he describes various biological structures such as the feathers of colorful birds, wing and eyes of flies, and pearlescent scales of silverfish. This ability to look at the microstructures of nature, gave scientists information on the mechanisms behind the interactions between biology and light.The Theorie of Imperfection, published by the Russian biophysicist Zhuralev and American biochemist Seliger, is the first working hypothesis about the ultra-weak emission of photons by biological systems. Further developments in microscopy, like scanning electron microscopy (SEM), only increased this and would allow scientists to mimic these observed structures. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58581845 | 1,954,793 |
1,155,475 | In 2020, the results of a randomised phase 3 trial ("ProPSMA study") was published comparing Gallium-68 PSMA PET/CT to standard imaging (CT and bone scan). This 300 patient study conducted at 10 study sites demonstrated superior accuracy of PSMA PET/CT (92% vs 65%), higher significant change in management (28% vs 15%), less equivocal/uncertain imaging findings (7% vs 23%) and lower radiation exposure (10 mSv vs 19 mSv). The study concludes that PSMA PET/CT is a suitable replacement for conventional imaging, providing superior accuracy, to the combined findings of CT and bone scanning. This new technology was approved by the FDA on Dec 1, 2020. A dual-modality small molecule that is positron-emitting (F) and fluorescent targets PSMA and was tested in humans. The molecule found the location of primary and metastatic prostate cancer by PET, fluorescence-guided removal of cancer, and detects single cancer cells in tissue margins. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10843628 | 1,154,865 |
1,562,375 | When generating code for arithmetic expressions, the compiler has to decide which is the best way to translate the expression in terms of number of instructions used as well as number of registers needed to evaluate a certain subtree. Especially in the case that free registers are scarce, the order of evaluation can be important to the length of the generated code, because different orderings may lead to larger or smaller numbers of intermediate values being spilled to memory and then restored. The Sethi–Ullman algorithm (also known as Sethi–Ullman numbering) produces code which needs the fewest instructions possible as well as the fewest storage references (under the assumption that at the most commutativity and associativity apply to the operators used, but distributive laws i.e. formula_1 do not hold). The algorithm succeeds as well if neither commutativity nor associativity hold for the expressions used, and therefore arithmetic transformations can not be applied. The algorithm also does not take advantage of common subexpressions or apply directly to expressions represented as general directed acyclic graphs rather than trees. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=999491 | 1,561,488 |
1,572,193 | Sergey Bubka had been the dominant world record holder for five Olympic cycles and this was his fourth Olympic appearance, but the Bubka curse continued into a third consecutive Olympics as he failed to clear a height for the second time (it also happened at Barcelona '92). Eight men managed to get to , the winning height. Australia's two Soviet born vaulters Viktor Chistiakov and Dmitriy Markov were perfect before their adopted home crowd to that point, along with American Lawrence Johnson. With an earlier miss at 5.50m, Nick Hysong was in fourth place, but his first attempt clearance leapfrogged him into the lead, when the rest of the field failed to match him. Johnson was the only one to make it on his second attempt, putting him in silver position. 1992 champion Maksim Tarasov entered the height tied for fifth with Okkert Brits with three earlier misses, while Michael Stolle had already taken seven attempts to get over his first three bars. Both Tarasov and Stolle made 5.90m on their last attempt, but Tarasov had the tiebreaker to take the bronze. Markov saved one heroic attempt to snatch victory, but nobody could clear 5.96m. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23757326 | 1,571,305 |
899,769 | Scott D. Sampson has compared the evolution of ceratopsids to that of some mammal groups: both were rapid from a geological perspective and precipitated the simultaneous evolution of large body size, derived feeding structures, and "varied hornlike organs." The earliest ceratopsids, including members of both Centrosaurinae and Chasmosaurinae are known from the early Campanian stage, though the fossil record for early ceratopsids is poor. All but one of the named species of ceratopsid is known from Western North America, which formed the island continent of Laramidia during the Late Cretaceous, separated from the island continent of Appalachia to the east by the Western Interior Seaway. The latitudinal range of ceratopsians across Laramidia extends from Alaska to Mexico. The named ceratopsid outside of Laramidia is "Sinoceratops", a centrosaurine from the late Campanian of China. An indeterminate tooth of a ceratopsid is known from Mississippi dating to the late Maastrichtian, a few million years prior to the close of the Cretaceous, indicating that ceratopsids dispersed into eastern North America corresponding to the closure of the Western Interior Seaway at the end of the Cretaceous. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1560265 | 899,294 |
1,028,602 | Metallurgy did not arise as a science until the early 20th century. Before this, metallography was the primary method used for studying metals. Metallography is the study of the patterns in metals, the nature of fractures, and the microscopic crystal formations. However, neither metallography as a science nor the crystal theory of metals emerged until nearly a century after the invention of the microscope. The ancient swordsmiths had no knowledge of metallurgy, nor did they understand the relationship between carbon and iron. Everything was typically learned by a process of trial-and-error, apprenticeship, and, as sword-making technology was often a closely guarded secret, some espionage. Prior to the 14th century, very little attention was paid to the patterns in the blade as an aesthetic quality. However, the Japanese smiths often prided themselves on their understanding of the internal macro-structure of metals, including the layering, the wood grain-like structure, and use of different steel in different parts of the blade. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7528817 | 1,028,068 |
1,446,023 | Code Correlation DTS sends on/off sequences of limited length into the fiber. The codes are chosen to have suitable properties, e.g. Binary Golay code. In contrast to OTDR technology, the optical energy is spread over a code rather than packed into a single pulse. Thus a light source with lower peak power compared to OTDR technology can be used, e.g. long life compact semiconductor lasers. The detected backscatter needs to be transformed—similar to OFDR technology—back into a spatial profile, e.g. by cross-correlation. In contrast to OFDR technology, the emission is finite (for example 128 bit) which avoids that weak scattered signals from far are superposed by strong scattered signals from short distance, improving the Shot noise and the signal-to-noise ratio. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6593900 | 1,445,207 |
446,209 | In the pedosphere it is safe to assume that gases are in equilibrium with the atmosphere. Because plant roots and soil microbes release CO to the soil, the concentration of bicarbonate () in soil waters is much greater than that in equilibrium with the atmosphere, the high concentration of CO and the occurrence of metals in soil solutions results in lower pH levels in the soil. Gases that escape from the pedosphere to the atmosphere include the gaseous byproducts of carbonate dissolution, decomposition, redox reactions and microbial photosynthesis. The main inputs from the atmosphere are aeolian sedimentation, rainfall and gas diffusion. Eolian sedimentation includes anything that can be entrained by wind or that stays suspended, seemingly indefinitely, in air and includes a wide variety of aerosol particles, biological particles like pollen and dust to pure quartz sand. Nitrogen is the most abundant constituent in rain (after water), as water vapor utilizes aerosol particles to nucleate rain droplets. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1203155 | 445,993 |
348,676 | According to a legend, Archimedes created a mirror with an adjustable focal length (or more likely, a series of mirrors focused on a common point) to focus sunlight on ships of the Roman fleet as they invaded Syracuse, setting them on fire. Historians point out that the earliest accounts of the battle did not mention a "burning mirror", but merely stated that Archimedes's ingenuity combined with a way to hurl fire were relevant to the victory. Some attempts to replicate this feat have had some success; in particular, an experiment by students at MIT showed that a mirror-based weapon was at least possible, if not necessarily practical. The hosts of "MythBusters" tackled the Mirrors of Archimedes three times (in episodes 19, 57 and 172) and were never able to make the target ship catch fire, declaring the myth busted three separate times. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=453420 | 348,494 |
1,020,675 | ii)Theobald et al. 2015. In "Crowd science user contribution patterns and their implications" by Sauermann and Franzoni (2015), seven projects from the Zooniverse web portal are used to estimate the monetary value of the CS that had taken place. The seven projects are: Solar Stormwatch, Galaxy Zoo Supernovae, Galaxy Zoo Hubble, Moon Zoo, Old Weather, The Milky Way Project and Planet Hunters. Using data from 180 days in 2010, they find a total of 100,386 users participated, contributing 129,540 hours of unpaid work. Estimating at a rate of $12 an hour (an undergraduate research assistant's basic wage), the total contributions amount to $1,554,474, an average of $222,068 per project. The range over the seven projects was from $22,717 to $654,130. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2155752 | 1,020,146 |
540,417 | Experts historically used a reaction time of 0.75 seconds, but now incorporate perception resulting in an average perception-reaction time of: 1 second for population as an average; occasionally a two-second rule to simulate the elderly or neophyte; or even a 2.5 second reaction time—to specifically accommodate very elderly, debilitated, intoxicated, or distracted drivers. The coefficient of friction may be 0.25 or lower on wet or frozen asphalt, and anti-skid brakes and season specific performance tires may somewhat compensate for driver error and conditions. In legal contexts, conservative values suggestive of greater minimum stopping distances are often used as to be sure to exceed the pertinent legal burden of proof, with care not to go as far as to condone negligence. Thus the reaction time chosen can be related to the burden's corresponding population percentile; generally a reaction time of 1 second is as a preponderance more probable than not, 1.5 seconds is clear and convincing, and 2.5 seconds is beyond reasonable doubt. The same principle applies to the friction coefficient values. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8811105 | 540,137 |
1,167,487 | Systems of less than 10 kW accounted for 19.6% of totalled installed capacity. These are single direct use systems, mostly residential solar pv systems. Systems rated 10-100 kW represented 20.9% of capacity and represents systems used collectively within one place such as a large residential block or large commercial premise or intensive agricultural units. The next class size of systems 100-500 kW may represent larger commercial centers, hospitals, schools or industrial / agricultural premises or smaller ground mounted systems. The final category of systems rated over 500 kW mostly represent district power systems, ground mounted panels providing power to perhaps a mix of industrial and commercial sites. It is interesting to note that whilst large power plants receive a lot of attention in solar power articles, installations under 0.5 MW in size actually represent nearly 80% of the installed capacity in Italy in 2017.Nearly all Solar PV in Italy is grid connected with just 14 MW being off-grid as of 2017. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=32793086 | 1,166,869 |
2,048,396 | The magnetic field can be generated with a superconducting magnet filled with liquid helium. The more traditional iron magnets are not preferred due to their large mass and limited geometrical acceptance for the produced particles. The target polarization during the experiment is determined with the nuclear magnetic resonance method. The integrated enhanced NMR-signals are compared to the signals taken in superfluid helium-4 bath at well known calibration temperatures around 1 K, where the spin magnetization follows the Curie law and the nuclear polarization can be calculated from the temperature by using the Brillouin function. During the polarization build up a microwave generator is used to pump the paramagnetic centers in the target material close to the electron spin resonance frequency (about 70 GHz in 2.5 T field). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=35776952 | 2,047,215 |
1,166,453 | 18th-century geologist James Hutton contributed to an early understanding of the Earth's history by proposing the theory of uniformitarianism, which is now a basic principle in all branches of geology. Uniformitarianism describes an Earth formed by the same natural phenomena that are at work today, the product of slow and continuous geological changes. The theory can be summarized by the phrase "the present is the key to the past." Hutton also described the concept of deep time. The prevailing conceptualization of Earth history in 18th-century Europe, grounded in a literal interpretation of Christian scripture, was that of a young Earth shaped by catastrophic events. Hutton, however, depicted a very old Earth, shaped by slow, continuous change. Charles Lyell further developed the theory of uniformitarianism in the 19th century. Modern geologists have generally acknowledged that Earth's geological history is a product of both sudden, cataclysmic events (such as meteorite impacts and volcanic eruptions) and gradual processes (such as weathering, erosion, and deposition). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325030 | 1,165,836 |
1,696,077 | Founded on June 3, 1868, as Boston Dental College by Dr. Isaac J. Wetherbee, a graduate of the first organized dental university in the United States, Baltimore College of Dental Surgery. The college was incorporated into Tufts College in 1899 and was located at 416 Huntington Avenue in Boston. By 1929, Tufts Medical and Dental College began an affiliation with the Boston Floating Hospital for Infants and Children, as well as the Boston Dispensary. This merger resulted in the creation of an association known as the New England Medical Center (NEMC), which would be the name of the hospital attached to the current day Tufts Dental School until the 1990s. The union was partially caused by the fire, and subsequent destruction of the USS Boston Floating Hospital (ID # 2366), a mobile hospital for sick children on Boston Harbor. In 1948, Tufts Medical and Dental College sold the Huntington Avenue buildings to Northeastern University, and relocated closer to NEMC at 136 Harrison Avenue. In 1954, Tufts Dental College became the "Tufts University School of Dental Medicine". The school would remain at the Harrison Avenue location until 1971, when it was moved to its current location, 1 Kneeland Street. The building was only 10 floors in height, but was designed with future expansion in mind. In 2009, the building was expanded by 5 floors, vertically. This was seen by the architectural world as unprecedented; the design and execution has won several architectural awards. In 2013, the university announced plans to refurbish the third and fourth clinical floors, to match the newly renovated second floor. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3025192 | 1,695,124 |
517,799 | 99.9% pure silica in grits and powder form constitutes 90–93% of the body by weight dispersed in a matrix of unsaturated polyester resin (7–10%) mixed with peroxide catalyst and cobalt accelerator which facilitates the curing of the thermoset at ambient temperature. The cured material is normally kept for 24–48 hours before polishing and finishing absorbers are also dosed into the chemical mix to inhibit the discoloration as a result of reaction of unsaturated polyester resin with UV light. Engineered quartz stones manufactured by using unsaturated polyester resins are characterized by low water absorption, superior chemical durability, high hardness, flexural Strength and good thermal shock resistance compared to granite and marble. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4802906 | 517,530 |
34,890 | In 2001 and 2002, processes for growing gallium nitride (GaN) LEDs on silicon were successfully demonstrated. In January 2012, Osram demonstrated high-power InGaN LEDs grown on silicon substrates commercially, and GaN-on-silicon LEDs are in production at Plessey Semiconductors. As of 2017, some manufacturers are using SiC as the substrate for LED production, but sapphire is more common, as it has the most similar properties to that of gallium nitride, reducing the need for patterning the sapphire wafer (patterned wafers are known as epi wafers). Samsung, the University of Cambridge, and Toshiba are performing research into GaN on Si LEDs. Toshiba has stopped research, possibly due to low yields. Some opt for epitaxy, which is difficult on silicon, while others, like the University of Cambridge, choose a multi-layer structure, in order to reduce (crystal) lattice mismatch and different thermal expansion ratios, in order to avoid cracking of the LED chip at high temperatures (e.g. during manufacturing), reduce heat generation and increase luminous efficiency. Sapphire substrate patterning can be carried out with nanoimprint lithography. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18290 | 34,878 |
1,862,668 | Though, when available, more standard approaches to sex identification are used, in times where the archaeological remains are not completely discovered or preserved, odontometrics are used. Because teeth are “made from the most enduring mineralized tissues in the human body”, they are resistant to many types of destruction, including physical, thermal, mechanical and chemical. According to Marin Vodanović et al., “Sex determination using dental features is primarily based upon the comparison of tooth dimensions in males and females, or upon the comparison of frequencies of non-metric dental traits, like Carabelli's trait of upper molars, deflecting wrinkle of lower first molars, distal accessory ridge of the upper and lower canines or shoveling of the upper central incisors”. When analyzing the teeth, one must also take into consideration the differences in odontometric features between different populations, or one may be led to a false conclusion in sex determination. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27191998 | 1,861,599 |
2,102,952 | The rocket was envisioned as a sounding rocket in preparation for Starchaser's ultimate goal, Thunderstar. In this respect, the design had to allow for acceleration speeds that organisms can tolerate, as other Starchaser rockets have ignored this factor. The thrust that is generated from Skybolt's engine allows for acceleration forces at around 6-7G. This is within the limits of what humans can reasonably tolerate and so was essential if this new rocket is to be the fore-runner to a bigger, manned rocket. It will take Skybolt approximately five and a half minutes to go from launch pad to the 100 km (62mile) Edge of space, and continuing upwards to a maximum apogee of 83.52 miles. Skybolt is fully reusable, with both the airframe and nosecone containing parachutes for safe landing and recovery. A maximum payload capacity of 20 kg is limited, however as it is not intended for commercial use, this is not an issue. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=32865008 | 2,101,740 |
851,916 | Silliman and Wilkinson (1994) distinguish two types of scaffolding: 'supportive scaffolding' that characterises the IRF (Initiation-Response-Follow-up) pattern; and 'directive scaffolding' that refers to IRE (Initiation-Response-Evaluation). Saxena (2010) develops these two notions theoretically by incorporating Bhaktin's (1981) and vanLier's (1996) works. Within the IRE pattern, teachers provide 'directive scaffolding' on the assumption that their job is to transmit knowledge and then assess its appropriation by the learners. The question-answer-evaluation sequence creates a predetermined standard for acceptable participation and induces passive learning. In this type of interaction, the teacher holds the right to evaluate and asks 'known-information' questions which emphasise the reproduction of information. The nature and role of the triadic dialogue have been oversimplified and the potential for the roles of teachers and students in them has been undermined (Nassaji and Wells, 2000). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=263104 | 851,462 |
1,466,765 | The invention in this case was a method of programming a general-purpose digital computer using an algorithm to convert binary-coded decimal numbers into pure binary numbers. The Supreme Court noted that phenomena of nature, mental processes and abstract intellectual concepts were not patentable, since they were the basic tools of scientific and technological work. However, new and useful inventions derived from such discoveries are patentable. The Court found that the discovery in "Benson" was unpatentable since the invention, an algorithm, was no more than abstract mathematics. Despite this holding, the Court emphasized that its decision did not preclude computer software from being patented, but rather precluded the patentability of software where the only useful characteristic was an algorithm. The Court further noted that validating this type of patent would foreclose all future use of the algorithm in question. Therefore, like the traditional exceptions to patentable subject matter, the purpose of the algorithm exception was to encourage development of new technologies by not granting patents that would preclude others from using abstract mathematical principles. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2304859 | 1,465,942 |
98,982 | However, with the unexpected discovery and description of "Alxasaurus" in 1993, the widely accepted sauropodomorph affinities of segnosaurs were questioned by paleontologists Dale Russell and Dong Zhiming. This new genus was far more complete than any other segnosaur and multiple anatomical features indicated that it was related to "Therizinosaurus". With this, they identified the Therizinosauridae along with the Segnosauridae to be the same group, the former name having taxonomic priority. Due to some primitive characters present in "Alxasaurus" they coined a new taxonomic rank, the Therizinosauroidea, containing the new taxon and Therizinosauridae. All of the new information provided data on the affinities of the new-named therizinosauroids. Russell and Dong concluded that they were theropods with unusual features. In 1994, Clark and colleagues redescribed the very complete skull of "Erlikosaurus" and even more theropod traits were found this time. They also validated the synonymy of the Segnosauridae with Therizinosauridae and considered therizinosauroids as maniraptoran dinosaurs. In 1997, Rusell coined the infraorder Therizinosauria in order to contain all segnosaurs. This new infraorder was composed of Therizinosauroidea and the more advanced Therizinosauridae. Consequently, Segnosauria became a synonym of Therizinosauria. Though some uncertainties remained, a small and feathered therizinosauroid from China was described in 1999 by Xu Xing and colleagues: the new genus "Beipiaosaurus". It confirmed the placement of therizinosaurs among theropods and also their taxonomic place on the Coelurosauria. The discovery also indicated that feathers were highly distributed among theropod dinosaurs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=851586 | 98,939 |
1,379,076 | Incorporating the spatial positions of the major formation boundaries, including the effects of faulting, folding, and erosion (unconformities). The major stratigraphic divisions are further subdivided into layers of cells with differing geometries with relation to the bounding surfaces (parallel to top, parallel to base, proportional). Maximum cell dimensions are dictated by the minimum sizes of the features to be resolved (everyday example: On a digital map of a city, the location of a city park might be adequately resolved by one big green pixel, but to define the locations of the basketball court, the baseball field, and the pool, much smaller pixels – higher resolution – need to be used). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=869876 | 1,378,314 |
1,944,962 | From 50 to 60 million years ago in the Paleocene and Eocene the clay and sand units of the Golden Valley Formation deposited in lakes and streams and lie above Sentinel Butte units in some locations in the west. During the Eocene, mammals and grasses diversified in the area as North Dakota transitioned from a warm temperate to subtropical climate. With long running dryland conditions, North Dakota has gone through a period of extensive weathering that continues in the modern period, often producing unconsolidated sediments rather than rocks. The Tejas Sequence began to form in the Oligocene, starting off with conglomerate, siltstone, clay, volcanic ash, freshwater limestone and sands of the White River Group. Widespread volcanism to the west deposited volcanic ash in Miocene and Pliocene lake beds, which now forms the peaks of the Killdeer Mountains. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58674947 | 1,943,850 |
2,041,800 | In addition to selection, ecological drift, dispersal and evolutionary diversification have been proposed as key processes in community assembly, but are difficult to estimate in microbial communities. The only data currently at our disposal to quantify these processes are the diversity and distribution of microbes. Considering the high connectivity of aquatic environments, differences in marine microbial communities are frequently attributed to a combination of selection and drift, rather than limited dispersal, a conclusion which in the future could be refined by conceptual models developed for instance for soil microbial communities.) Diversification is mainly considered in the sense of coevolution or adaptation to host selection, which may also be driven by the horizontal acquisition of genes. However, cospeciation is challenging to prove and only few studies have examined this process in marine holobionts to date, each focused on a restricted number of actors. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=68504105 | 2,040,620 |
1,199,754 | The first known specimen of "Staurikosaurus" (MCZ 1669) was recovered from the Paleontological Site Jazigo Cinco of the Santa Maria Formation, Rio Grande do Sul, southern Brazil. "Staurikosaurus" was found in mid-Carnian sediments. The genus name refers to the star constellation "The Southern Cross", pictured in the coat of arms of Brazil and only visible in the Southern Hemisphere—when "Staurikosaurus" was described in 1970, it was unusual to find dinosaurs in the Southern Hemisphere. The specific name honors the Brazilian paleontologist Llewellyn Ivor Price, who discovered it in 1936. It was described by Edwin Harris Colbert, working at the American Museum of Natural History. The rarity of "Staurikosaurus" remains may be a result of it being uncommon while alive, or because it lived in an environment like a forest, where fossils rarely form. Nonetheless, Garcia et al. (2019) referred the holotype of "Teyuwasu barberenai" as a second specimen of "Staurikosaurus pricei" (see Classification). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1091923 | 1,199,113 |
768,768 | Monza was an ultra-fast circuit with no chicanes of any kind, and the weekend was marred by the death of Jochen Rindt, who was killed on the straight going into the Parabolica on his wingless Lotus 72. Aerodynamic downforce was not yet properly understood, and the car was, according to his teammate John Miles, rather unstable and difficult to drive. Ultimately though, it was a brake system failure that caused Rindt to spin off and crash into a poorly installed Armco barrier: the car went under the barrier and rotated a few times in the sand trap. Rindt's belts were loose, and he was not wearing a crotch strap belt, a recent introduction. As a result, he slipped down in the car and the belt buckle caused fatal throat injuries. Ferrari driver Clay Regazzoni won his first Formula One race, and the overjoyed crowd ran onto the track and celebrated. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1140091 | 768,356 |
517,043 | Cost of materials plays a very significant role in their selection. The most straightforward way to weight cost against properties is to develop a monetary metric for properties of parts. For example, life cycle assessment can show that the net present value of reducing the weight of a car by 1 kg averages around $5, so material substitution which reduces the weight of a car can cost up to $5 per kilogram of weight reduction more than the original material. However, the geography- and time-dependence of energy, maintenance and other operating costs, and variation in discount rates and usage patterns (distance driven per year in this example) between individuals, means that there is no single correct number for this. For commercial aircraft, this number is closer to $450/kg, and for spacecraft, launch costs around $20,000/kg dominate selection decisions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7589621 | 516,774 |
55,720 | The CIWS has two antennas that work together to engage targets. The first antenna, for searching, is located inside the radome on the weapon control group (top of the white-painted portion). The search subsystem provides bearing, range, velocity, heading, and altitude information of potential targets to the CIWS computer. This information is analyzed to determine whether the detected object should be engaged by the CIWS system. Once the computer identifies a valid target (see details below), the mount moves to face the target and then hands the target over to the tracking antenna at around 8 km. The track antenna is extremely precise, but views a much smaller area. The tracking subsystem observes the target until the computer determines that the probability of a successful hit is maximized and then, depending on the operator conditions, the system either fires automatically at around 2 km or recommends fire to the operator. While firing 75 rounds per second, the system tracks outgoing rounds and 'walks' them onto the target. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=89872 | 55,697 |
1,756,987 | carcinomas) are believed to result from the expression of weakly penetrant but highly prevalent mutations in various genes. For instance, polymorphism has been identified in genes associated to the metabolism of estrogens and/or carcinogens (Cytochrome P450, family 1, member A1, CYP1B1, CYP17A1, CYP19, Catechol-O-methyltransferase, N-acetyltransferase 2, Glutathione S-transferase Mu 1, GSTP1, GSTT, . . . ), to estrogen, androgen and vitamin D action (ESR1, AR, VDR), to co-activation of gene transcription (AIB1), to DNA damage response pathways (CHEK2, HRAS1, XRCC1, XRCC3, XRCC5). Sequence variants of these genes that are relatively common in the population may be associated with a small to moderate increased relative risk for breast cancer. Combinations of such variants could lead to multiplicative effects. Sporadic cancers likely result from the complex interplay between the expression of low penetrance genes ("risk variants") and environmental factors. However, the suspected impact of most of these variants on breast cancer risk should, in most cases, be confirmed in large populations studies. Indeed, low penetrance genes cannot be easily tracked through families, as is true for dominant high-risk genes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13704917 | 1,755,996 |
10,113 | Voluntary censorship of atomic information began before the Manhattan Project. After the start of the European war in 1939 American scientists began avoiding publishing military-related research, and in 1940 scientific journals began asking the National Academy of Sciences to clear articles. William L. Laurence of "The New York Times", who wrote an article on atomic fission in "The Saturday Evening Post" of 7 September 1940, later learned that government officials asked librarians nationwide in 1943 to withdraw the issue. The Soviets noticed the silence, however. In April 1942 nuclear physicist Georgy Flyorov wrote to Josef Stalin on the absence of articles on nuclear fission in American journals; this resulted in the Soviet Union establishing its own atomic bomb project. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19603 | 10,109 |
916,674 | In 1983 fighting between Palestinian refugees and Lebanese factions reignited that nation's long-running civil war. A UN agreement brought an international force of peacekeepers to occupy Beirut and guarantee security. US Marines landed in August 1982 along with Italian and French forces. On 23 October 1983, a suicide bomber driving a truck filled with 6 tons of TNT crashed through a fence and destroyed the Marine barracks, killing 241 Marines; seconds later, a second bomber leveled a French barracks, killing 58. Subsequently, the US Navy engaged in bombing of militia positions inside Lebanon. While US President Ronald Reagan was initially defiant, political pressure at home eventually forced the withdrawal of the Marines in February 1984. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=161323 | 916,191 |
881,976 | Many traditional theories of international relations, including the other approaches to hegemony, believe that the baseline nature of the international system is anarchy. Modelski's long cycle theory, however, states that war and other destabilizing events are a natural product of the long cycle and larger global system cycle. They are part of the living processes of the global polity and social order. Wars are "systemic decisions" that "punctuate the movement of the system at regular intervals." Because "world politics is not a random process of hit or miss, win or lose, depending on the luck of the draw or the brute strength of the contestants," anarchy simply doesn't play a role. After all, long cycles have provided, for the last five centuries, a means for the successive selection and operation of numerous world leaders. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1295711 | 881,512 |
982,947 | The first direct proof that nucleosynthesis occurs in stars was the astronomical observation that interstellar gas has become enriched with heavy elements as time passed. As a result, stars that were born from it late in the galaxy, formed with much higher initial heavy element abundances than those that had formed earlier. The detection of technetium in the atmosphere of a red giant star in 1952, by spectroscopy, provided the first evidence of nuclear activity within stars. Because technetium is radioactive, with a half-life much less than the age of the star, its abundance must reflect its recent creation within that star. Equally convincing evidence of the stellar origin of heavy elements is the large overabundances of specific stable elements found in stellar atmospheres of asymptotic giant branch stars. Observation of barium abundances some 20–50 times greater than found in unevolved stars is evidence of the operation of the s-process within such stars. Many modern proofs of stellar nucleosynthesis are provided by the isotopic compositions of stardust, solid grains that have condensed from the gases of individual stars and which have been extracted from meteorites. Stardust is one component of cosmic dust and is frequently called presolar grains. The measured isotopic compositions in stardust grains demonstrate many aspects of nucleosynthesis within the stars from which the grains condensed during the star's late-life mass-loss episodes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=48903 | 982,434 |
356,321 | Gasparatos et al. reviews current research about the side effects of all kinds of renewable energy production and argue that in general there is a conflict between "[...] site/local-specific conservation goals and national energy policy/climate change mitigation priorities [...]." The authors argue that for instance biodiversity should be seen as an equally "[...] legitimate goal of the Green Economy as curbing GHG emissions." Oil palm and sugar cane are examples of crops that have been linked to reduced biodiversity. Other problems are pollution of soil and water from fertiliser/pesticide use, and emission of ambient air pollutants, mainly from open field burning of residues. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7906908 | 356,136 |
816,065 | Several types of rotundas are found in the Carpathian Basin, within the former boundaries of Kingdom of Hungary. Building of rotundas in Carpathian basin started already in 9th century in Great Moravia. According to the research and radiocarbon dating of plaster, Rotunda of st. George in Nitrianska Blatnica was built sometimes around the year 830, what makes it one of the oldest still standing buildings in the area of Central Europe. Similar rotunda was standing in hillfort Kostolec in Ducové (only foundations remained). The role and form of rotundas developed from gradual enlargements of ancient small village churches. Many of them still stand today, e.g. in Nagytótlak, Kallósd and Kissikátor in Hungary or in Bíňa and Šivetice in Slovakia. Rotunda in Šivetice is the biggest one in Central Europe, with diameter of 11 m. In many places the ancient foundations have been excavated and conserved. The village church of Sárospatak is complete with a simple circular nave and an eastern apse. The church of Alagimajor at Dunakeszi was enlarged toward the apse in the 14th century. More significant enlargement of the central rotunda is seen at Isaszeg where the extension extended toward the East and West; the rotunda foundations can also be seen in the central portion of the nave of the Gothic church. In many cases the rotunda was used as the apse of the village's new and larger church (Bagod-Szentpál, Hidegség, Vágkeresztur, Ipolykiskeszi, Herencsény, Szalonna). Such semi-circle apses are preserved all over the Carpathian Basin. Rotundas of six apses, a most interesting form, are found at Karcsa, Kiszombor in Hungary, at Horjany in Ukraine and several places in Armenia (Aragatz, Bagaran, Bagnayr, Botshor, Kiagmis Alti). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=733672 | 815,629 |
1,698,598 | The original SMA correlator was designed to correlate 2 GHz of IF bandwidth per sideband from each of two active receivers in eight antennas, producing spectral data for 28 baselines. Because the analog-to-digital converters sampled at 208 MHz, the IF was downconverted into 24 partially overlapping "chunks", each 104 MHz wide, before sampling. After sampling, the data were sent to 90 large PC boards, each of which held 32 ASIC correlator chips. The correlator was an XF design; in the default configuration 6144 lags were calculated for each of two receivers on 28 baselines, before an FFT was applied to convert the lag data to spectra. In the default configuration the spectral resolution was 812.5 kHz per channel, but the correlator could be reconfigured to increase the spectral resolution on certain chunks, at the expense of lower resolution elsewhere in the spectrum. The correlator chips were designed at MIT Haystack, and funded by five institutions: SMA, USNO, NASA, NRFA and JIVE. The correlator could also be configured to correlate all 45 baselines produced by adding the CSO and JCMT to the array, but only for a single receiver per antenna. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1520534 | 1,697,644 |
812,038 | Created by Zimmer Biomet, Trabecular Metal material has been used clinically for 19 years for orthopedic applications such as implantations for the hip, knee, or shoulder as well as bone void fillers, osteonecrosis rods, and dental implants. It consists of an open-cell metal foam with up to 80% porosity with an average each pore size of 440 micrometers. It offers low stiffness and a high coefficient of friction (0.98) allowing implants to remain secure without sliding. The material is pure tantalum; chemically inert, corrosion-resistant, and biocompatible. The trabecular structure offers high compressive modulus and high fatigue strength in order to withstand normal physiological stresses over long periods of time. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=977221 | 811,605 |
2,092,811 | In 1796 he went to Baltimore. Here he helped forward the founding of the Baltimore General Dispensary, 1801; the penitentiary, 1802; the Bible Society, and the Baltimore Library. He delivered courses on natural history at the College of Medicine in 1811 and 1812, and his introductory lecture on “The Cause, Seat and Cure of Diseases” is extant. He held high rank in his profession, being censor, examiner, orator, and member of the committee to publish the "Transactions of the Medical and Chirurgical Faculty", and consulting physician to the Board of Health and City Hospital. He was among the first in America to use vaccine virus, which he did in the summer of 1800, a date contemporaneous with that of its use by Dr. Waterhouse, of Massachusetts, who has been given the credit of its first use in the Western Hemisphere. He wrote many medical articles of great interest and value in the medical journals of the day. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58030865 | 2,091,606 |
1,515,112 | Enrollment continued to grow, and a second building was added to the Junior Elementary School campus in the late 1920s, but still larger facilities were deemed necessary to accommodate future growth and additional grade levels. Coonley chose a wooded tract in Downers Grove, adjacent to the Maple Grove Forest Preserve, as the site for the new building, and her son-in-law, Waldron Faulkner, became the architect of the new building project. Over one hundred students attended school in the opened building on September 30, 1929, and it was renamed The Avery Coonley School, in honor of Coonley's late husband, who had died in 1920. Coonley chose an unusual mascot to represent the ideals of the school. She felt a seahorse was an example of a unique creature who was also a member of a larger community—an analogy for her vision for Avery Coonley. The seahorse swims upright, from which derives the school motto: "Onward and Upward", and representations of seahorses are reflected in decorative ironwork and the weather vane on the 1929 building. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8052357 | 1,514,261 |
1,257,195 | Prior to launch, and continuing through the early part of the mission, flight controllers on the ground were monitoring an anomaly within the electrical power generating Fuel Cell #2 (of three), making it appear that oxygen and hydrogen might be starting to uncontrollably mix, which could lead to detonation (a similar scenario that caused the explosion on Apollo 13). Despite troubleshooting, the anomaly persisted and appeared to worsen. Mission Flight Rules required that the fuel cell be shut down once a certain voltage threshold had been crossed, and with only two of three fuel cells working, that invoked another Flight Rule which required the mission be terminated early (loss of a second fuel cell would require severe and dangerous powerdowns, though the shuttle operates normally on two). Payload Specialist Dr. Linteris described the mission as "an exercise in crisis management. The main bus alarm was going off continually." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=555080 | 1,256,509 |
231,842 | Two key developments in the modeling of the modern α-helix were: the correct bond geometry, thanks to the crystal structure determinations of amino acids and peptides and Pauling's prediction of "planar" peptide bonds; and his relinquishing of the assumption of an integral number of residues per turn of the helix. The pivotal moment came in the early spring of 1948, when Pauling caught a cold and went to bed. Being bored, he drew a polypeptide chain of roughly correct dimensions on a strip of paper and folded it into a helix, being careful to maintain the planar peptide bonds. After a few attempts, he produced a model with physically plausible hydrogen bonds. Pauling then worked with Corey and Branson to confirm his model before publication. In 1954, Pauling was awarded his first Nobel Prize "for his research into the nature of the chemical bond and its application to the elucidation of the structure of complex substances" (such as proteins), prominently including the structure of the α-helix. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3054 | 231,723 |
355,347 | The majority of enemy contacts were at ranges of less than , and the enemy was exposed to fire for only short periods of time as they moved from cover to cover. Most rounds fired were not aimed at an enemy combatant but instead fired in the enemy's direction to keep them from moving and from firing back. These situations did not require a heavy rifle, firing full-power rifle bullets with long-range accuracy. A less-powerful weapon would still produce casualties at the shorter ranges encountered in actual combat, and the reduced recoil would allow more shots to be fired in the short amount of time an enemy was visible. The lower-powered round would also weigh less, allowing a soldier to carry more ammunition. With no need of a long barrel to fire full-power ammunition, a shorter barrel could be used. A shorter barrel made the weapon weigh less, was easier to handle in tight spaces, and was easier to shoulder quickly to fire a shot at an unexpected target. Full-automatic fire was also considered a desirable feature, allowing the soldier to fire short bursts of three to five rounds, increasing the probability of a hit on a moving target. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6579 | 355,164 |
575,131 | In July 2007 the FDA held a joint meeting of the Endocrinologic and Metabolic Drugs Advisory Committee and the Drug Safety and Risk Management Advisory Committee. FDA scientist Joy Mele presented a meta analysis examining the cardiovascular risk of rosiglitazone in completed clinical trials. The study found an overall 1.4x increase in risk of cardiovascular ischemic events relative to the control arms. The results were heterogenous, with clear evidence of increased risk relative to placebo but not relative to other diabetes treatments and higher risk associated with combinations of rosiglitazone with insulin or metformin. Based on the 1.4x increased risk relative to control groups, FDA scientist David Graham presented an analysis suggesting that rosiglitazone had caused 83,000 excess heart attacks between 1999 and 2007. The advisory panel voted 20 : 3 that the evidence available indicated that rosiglitazone increased the risk of cardiovascular events and 22 : 1 that the overall risk:benefit ratio of rosiglitazone justified its continued marketing in the United States. The FDA placed restrictions on the drug, including adding a boxed warning about heart attacks, but did not withdraw it. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=604046 | 574,837 |
445,425 | On September 26, 2013, NASA scientists reported that "Curiosity" detected "abundant, easily accessible" water (1.5 to 3 weight percent) in soil samples at the Rocknest region of Aeolis Palus in Gale. In addition, the rover found two principal soil types: a fine-grained mafic type and a locally derived, coarse-grained felsic type. The mafic type, similar to other martian soils and martian dust, was associated with hydration of the amorphous phases of the soil. Also, perchlorates, the presence of which may make detection of life-related organic molecules difficult, were found at the "Curiosity" landing site (and earlier at the more polar site of the Phoenix lander) suggesting a "global distribution of these salts". NASA also reported that Jake M rock, a rock encountered by "Curiosity" on the way to Glenelg, was a mugearite and very similar to terrestrial mugearite rocks. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14222236 | 445,209 |
187,242 | "Natural experiments" are a different type of quasi-experiment design used by researchers. It differs from person-by-treatment in a way that there is not a variable that is being manipulated by the experimenter. Instead of controlling at least one variable like the person-by-treatment design, experimenters do not use random assignment and leave the experimental control up to chance. This is where the name ""natural"" experiment comes from. The manipulations occur naturally, and although this may seem like an inaccurate technique, it has actually proven to be useful in many cases. These are the studies done to people who had something sudden happen to them. This could mean good or bad, traumatic or euphoric. An example of this could be studies done on those who have been in a car accident and those who have not. Car accidents occur naturally, so it would not be ethical to stage experiments to traumatize subjects in the study. These naturally occurring events have proven to be useful for studying posttraumatic stress disorder cases. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11864322 | 187,145 |
1,615,674 | IRAM's facilities have done pioneering work and made a large number of astronomical discoveries. NOEMA has observed the most distant galaxy known to date. Together with the IRAM 30-meter telescope it made the first complete and detailed radio images of nearby galaxies and their gas. NOEMA also obtained the first image of a gas disk surrounding a double star system "(Dutrey" al. 1994). Its antennas captured for the first time a cavity in one of these disks, a major hint for the existence of a planetary object orbiting the new star and absorbing matter on its trajectory (GG tau, "Piétu" et al. 2011). The IRAM facilities have discovered one third of the interstellar molecules known to date (published ApJ, 2018, "Brett A. McGuire"). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1963435 | 1,614,765 |
1,065,874 | Following political tension with Egypt and Syria, reconnaissance flights became evermore difficult. In 1979, a satellite program was proposed followed by a year of feasibility study. The study was completed by late 1980; Saguy requested from prime minister Menachem Begin that the project proceed to its next phase. In 1982, a new recommendation called "Ofeq Program" was submitted for developing an observation satellite. The program included timelines, planning for a ground station, budget estimates, and personnel requirements. The primary goal was to develop a satellite program without relying on any foreign know-how, to allow flexibility and creativity. The launcher would be developed by Malam, the two engines by the Israel Military Industries (IMI), and the third by Rafael. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5827404 | 1,065,320 |
33,003 | A second attempt on Schweinfurt on 14 October 1943 later came to be known as "Black Thursday". While the attack was successful at disrupting the entire works, severely curtailing work there for the remainder of the war, it was at an extreme cost. Of the 291 attacking Fortresses, 60 were shot down over Germany, five crashed on approach to Britain, and 12 more were scrapped due to damage – a loss of 77 B-17s. Additionally, 122 bombers were damaged and needed repairs before their next flights. Of 2,900 men in the crews, about 650 did not return, although some survived as prisoners of war. Only 33 bombers landed without damage. These losses were a result of concentrated attacks by over 300 German fighters. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4997 | 32,991 |
265,439 | Geoffrey A. Landis of NASA's Glenn Research Center states that a laser-powered interstellar sail ship could possibly be launched within 50 years, using new methods of space travel. "I think that ultimately we're going to do it, it's just a question of when and who," Landis said in an interview. Rockets are too slow to send humans on interstellar missions. Instead, he envisions interstellar craft with extensive sails, propelled by laser light to about one-tenth the speed of light. It would take such a ship about 43 years to reach Alpha Centauri if it passed through the system without stopping. Slowing down to stop at Alpha Centauri could increase the trip to 100 years, whereas a journey without slowing down raises the issue of making sufficiently accurate and useful observations and measurements during a fly-by. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14843 | 265,296 |
1,956,728 | The formula_7 transition is of special interest, since its wavelength (444 nm) can be covered by InGaN laser diodes, which are commercially available at high output powers. Because the absorption peak at 444 nm only has a bandwidth of a few nanometers, pumpdiodes have to be selected and stabilized for efficient laser action. Diode pumped solid state (DPSS) lasers using these diodes have reached multiple watts of output powers in continuous wave operation. Typical DPSS setups using Pr:YLF crystals consist of a hemispheric resonator in which the crystal is pumped longitudinally by the pump diode. Depending on the resonator length, this resonator type can tolerate slight misalignments of the mirrors and retains stability even if the crystal shows thermal lensing effects. The plane mirror of the resonator can be replaced by coating one face of the crystal, making the setup very compact. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=70394222 | 1,955,604 |
1,227,677 | Sweet potato (standard Māori: , Southern Māori dialects: ) is a traditional crop for Māori. Archaeological evidence suggests that kūmara arrived in New Zealand after the original Polynesian voyagers had settled in New Zealand, likely sometime between 1300 and 1400. Lack of archaeological evidence on the abandoned Māori settlements on Raoul Island and Norfolk Island implies kūmara was not available in the early 1300s. Oral histories tell of a return voyage to central Polynesia to collect the plant for use in New Zealand, but oral histories do not agree on a single voyage or source: the introduction of kūmara is associated with the "Aotea", "Arawa", "Horouta", "Kurahaupō", "Māhuhu", "Māmari", "Mātaatua", "Tainui" and "Tokomaru" canoes, possibly due to the associated with having brought kūmara to New Zealand. One history involves Tūhoe ancestor Toi-kai-rākau, who, after he sailed the "Horouta" to New Zealand, introduced local Māori to dried kūmara (). The locals, having loved the vegetable, sailed on the "Horouta" back to central Polynesia to collect the plant to grow in New Zealand. Ngāti Awa have a similar stories about the "Mātaatua" , that it was sent to bring kūmara supplies to Whakatāne. In Tainui and Te Arawa traditions, kūmara was brought to New Zealand by Whakaotirangi, a woman who carried seeds of important plants on the journey to New Zealand after being kidnapped by the chief Tama-te-kapua, around 1350 AD. Whakaotirangi experimented with ways to adapt growing kūmara in the colder climate, where they would develop an unpleasant sour taste when exposed to frost. Another history involves Marama, the junior wife of Hoturoa aboard the "Tainui" . She brought kūmara plants with her on her journey, but, when she arrived in Aotearoa, she was unfaithful to Hoturoa with a slave. As punishment, her kūmara plants turned into ("Calystegia sepium")a traditional weed of kūmara farms. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=67494898 | 1,227,015 |
295,947 | The PlayStation 3 version received critical acclaim. IGN gave the game an "Editor's Choice" Award, praised the enhanced resolutions, lower price point, and smoother frame rates, and stated it was the "definitive way to play the game". 1up.com noted the tremendous increase in visuals but said the in-engine cut-scenes appeared blurry. "GamePro" stated the collection is "two fantastic games on one disc for a low price; puts you in the right mindset for "God of War 3"". PlayStation LifeStyle (5/5) said "Those … familiar with Kratos will enjoy the extra polish the "Collection" brings to two of the best games from the PS2 era". Due to the success of "God of War Collection", Sony announced that further titles would receive similar treatment for release under its new "Classics HD" brand. By June 2012, "God of War Collection" had sold more than 2.4 million copies worldwide, making it the eighteenth best-selling PlayStation 3 game of all time. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=37694161 | 295,787 |
1,253,754 | B. subtilis is a soil-dwelling microbe that uses quorum sensing to regulate two different biological processes: competence and sporulation. During stationary growth phase when B. subtilis are at high cell density, approximately 10% of the cells in a population are induced to become competent. It is believed that this subpopulation becomes competent to take up DNA that could potentially be used for the repair of damaged (mutated) chromosomes. ComX (also known as competence factor) is a 10-amino acid peptide that is processed from a 55-amino acid peptide precursor. Like most autoinducers, ComX is secreted and accumulates as a function of cell density. Once a threshold extracellular level is achieved, ComX is detected by a two-component ComP/ComA sensor kinase/response regulator pair. Phosphorylation of ComA activates the expression of "comS" gene, ComS inhibits the degradation of ComK, and finally ComK activates the expression of a number of genes required for competence. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14489318 | 1,253,074 |
1,468,358 | It is possible that on an airless body such as the Moon, transient magnetic fields could be generated during large impact events. In particular, study of Apollo impact glass associated with a young, 2 million-year-old crater has yielded a strong magnetization comparable in strength to Earth's magnetic field. This magnetization could not have originated in the lunar core, but is instead consistent with predictions from fields associated with impact plasmas. These observations have led to the hypothesis that prior reports of high paleofield strengths from Apollo samples record impacts, not a core dynamo. Importantly, the lack of a long-lasting lunar dynamo and paleomagnetosphere should have allowed He, water, and other volatile resources acquired from solar winds and Earth’s magnetosphere over some 4 billion years to accumulate in lunar soils . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8955821 | 1,467,534 |
522,244 | A phasor network consists of phasor measurement units (PMUs) dispersed throughout the electricity system, Phasor Data Concentrators (PDC) to collect the information and a Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA) system at the central control facility. Such a network is used in Wide Area Measurement Systems (WAMS), the first of which began in 2000 by the Bonneville Power Administration. The complete network requires rapid data transfer within the frequency of sampling of the phasor data. GPS time stamping can provide a theoretical accuracy of synchronization better than 1 microsecond. "Clocks need to be accurate to ± 500 nanoseconds to provide the one microsecond time standard needed by each device performing synchrophasor measurement." For 60 Hz systems, PMUs must deliver between 10 and 30 synchronous reports per second depending on the application. The PDC correlates the data, and controls and monitors the PMUs (from a dozen up to 60). At the central control facility, the SCADA system presents system wide data on all generators and substations in the system every 2 to 10 seconds. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5199213 | 521,972 |
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