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1,988,920 | Walter P. Chrysler had just left Buick and General Motors and joined Willys enterprises as their vice-president in January 1920. Chrysler asked Breer, Zeder and Skelton if they wanted to join him at Willys-Overland. Breer with his two cohort engineers made several business trips to New York and the new cutting edge high-tech Willys factory in Elizabeth, New Jersey. The three elite engineers decided this would be an excellent move for them, as did 28 other of the best engineers from Studebaker. They all went to work designing a new car for Willys-Overland the "Chrysler". It was soon discovered that the Willys Corporation was out of money due to one of their branches taking all the reserves. Willys was bankrupt. Chrysler resigned from Willys in 1922 and became chairman of the board for Maxwell Motor Company. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=37861574 | 1,987,778 |
950,074 | The vacuum booster or vacuum servo is used in most modern hydraulic brake systems which contain four wheels. The vacuum booster is attached between the master cylinder and the brake pedal and multiplies the braking force applied by the driver. These units consist of a hollow housing with a movable rubber diaphragm across the center, creating two chambers. When attached to the low-pressure portion of the throttle body or intake manifold of the engine, the pressure in both chambers of the unit is lowered. The equilibrium created by the low pressure in both chambers keeps the diaphragm from moving until the brake pedal is depressed. A return spring keeps the diaphragm in the starting position until the brake pedal is applied. When the brake pedal is applied, the movement opens an air valve which lets in atmospheric pressure air to one chamber of the booster. Since the pressure becomes higher in one chamber, the diaphragm moves toward the lower pressure chamber with a force created by the area of the diaphragm and the differential pressure. This force, in addition to the driver's foot force, pushes on the master cylinder piston. A relatively small diameter booster unit is required; for a very conservative 50% manifold vacuum, an assisting force of about 1500 N (200n) is produced by a 20 cm diaphragm with an area of 0.03 square meters. The diaphragm will stop moving when the forces on both sides of the chamber reach equilibrium. This can be caused by either the air valve closing (due to the pedal apply stopping) or if "run out" is reached. Run out occurs when the pressure in one chamber reaches atmospheric pressure and no additional force can be generated by the now stagnant differential pressure. After the run out point is reached, only the driver's foot force can be used to further apply the master cylinder piston. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2925093 | 949,570 |
1,876,699 | The main focus of "JPSJ" is all topics related to physics. This includes pure and applied physics research topics which encompass core physics disciplines, and broad topical coverage that is related to these core disciplines. Hence, subject areas cover an exploration and investigation of nature and substances that exist in the world and the universe, from atomic to cosmological scales. This encompasses defining and describing observations, interactions, and forces which occur in nature and, hence, in substances. Such descriptions may include their effect on, or within, a given natural system. More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the universe behaves. Therefore, subject areas encompass energy, forces, mechanics, radiation, heat, matter, electromagnetism, quantum mechanics and general theory of relativity. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10255222 | 1,875,621 |
1,873,643 | 3-D imaging requires a 2-D array transducer in which the number of elements can be ten times more than the linear 1-D array transducer. Moreover, the number of scanlines required in a 3-D volume is at least one order of magnitude higher than in a 2-D image in order to form the volumetric display. To reduce the computational complexities, researchers proposed several methods to support the implementation. To replace the traditional 2-D array, 2-D sparse arrays were put forward to reduce the spatial redundancy. The method of preliminary beamforming for reconfigurable arrays was proposed to reduce the number of A/D converters and the front-end complexities. To improve the imaging resolution, separable beamforming for SAU 3D imaging was used to decompose the 2D beamforming as a series of 1-D array processing, which was shown to produce images with comparable quality as the non-separable method. A better performance of these methods and devices will be achieved as the technology is improving in terms of higher computation speed and smaller size. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=48521031 | 1,872,566 |
1,707,836 | Warfarin is a commonly prescribed oral anticoagulant, or blood thinner used to treat blood clots such as deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism and to prevent stroke in people who have atrial fibrillation, valvular heart disease or artificial heart valves. Warfarin causes inhibition on VKORC1 activities and leads to a reduced amount of vitamin K available to serve as a cofactor for clotting proteins. Inappropriate dosing of warfarin has been associated with a substantial risk of both major and minor hemorrhage. As the pharmacological target of warfarin, VKORC1 is considered a candidate gene for the variability in warfarin response. Previous researches have shown that the CYP2C9 genotype of patients also played a role in warfarin metabolism and response. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14756663 | 1,706,878 |
1,116,718 | Later, Reis continued his teaching and scientific studies, but his failing health had become a serious impediment. For several years it was only by the exercise of his strong will that he was able to carry on with his duties. His voice began to fail as his lung disease became more pronounced, and in the summer of 1873 he was obliged to forsake his tutoring duties for several weeks. An autumn vacation strengthened his hopes of recovery and he resumed his teaching, but it was to be the last flicker of his expiring flame. It was announced that he would show his new gravity-machine at a meeting of the "Gesellschaft Deutscher Naturforscher und Ärzte" (Society of German Scientists and Physicians) of Wiesbaden in September, but he was too ill to appear. In December he lay down and, after a long and painful illness, died at five o'clock in the afternoon of 14 January 1874. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=305047 | 1,116,145 |
1,210,683 | The basolateral amygdala and nucleus accumbens shell together mediate specific Pavlovian-instrumental transfer, a phenomenon in which a classically conditioned stimulus modifies operant behavior. One of the main functions of the basolateral complex is to stimulate the fear response. The fear system is intended to avoid pain or injury. For this reason the responses must be quick, and reflex-like. To achieve this, the “low-road” or a bottom-up process is used to generate a response to stimuli that are potentially hazardous. The stimulus reaches the thalamus, and information is passed to the lateral nucleus, then the basolateral system, and immediately to the central nucleus where a response is then formed. There is no conscious cognition involved in these responses. Other non-threatening stimuli are processed via the “high road” or a top-down form of processing. In this case, the stimulus input reaches the sensory cortex first, leading to more conscious involvement in the response. In immediately threatening situations, the fight-or-flight response is reflexive, and conscious thought processing doesn’t occur until later. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13859060 | 1,210,036 |
1,421,941 | Both immediate and long term applications exist for the use of synthetic biological circuits, including different applications for metabolic engineering, and synthetic biology. Those demonstrated successfully include pharmaceutical production, and fuel production. However, methods involving direct genetic introduction are not inherently effective without invoking the basic principles of synthetic cellular circuits. For example, each of these successful systems employs a method to introduce all-or-none induction or expression. This is a biological circuit where a simple repressor or promoter is introduced to facilitate creation of the product, or inhibition of a competing pathway. However, with the limited understanding of cellular networks and natural circuitry, implementation of more robust schemes with more precise control and feedback is hindered. Therein lies the immediate interest in synthetic cellular circuits. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=33835047 | 1,421,140 |
541,688 | After briefly serving in the First World War Thomson became a Fellow at Cambridge and then moved to the University of Aberdeen. George Thomson was jointly awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1937 for his work in Aberdeen in discovering the wave-like properties of the electron. The prize was shared with the American physicist Clinton Davisson who had made the same discovery independently. Whereas his father had seen the electron as a particle (and won his Nobel Prize in the process), Thomson demonstrated that the electron could be diffracted like a wave. By scattering electrons through thin metallic films (3.10 cms) with known crystal structures, such as aluminum, gold and platinum, Thomson found the dimensions of the observed diffraction patterns. In each case, his observed diffractions were within 5 percent of the predicted values given by de Broglie's wave theory. This discovery provided further evidence for the principle of wave–particle duality which had first been posited by Louis-Victor de Broglie in the 1920s as what is often dubbed the de Broglie hypothesis. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=725910 | 541,408 |
547,239 | The first version of VCM (2005-2006 Odyssey) hydraulic circuit control was defaulted open, meaning that the engine had to build up enough oil pressure on initial startup to begin operating the rear bank of cylinders. A single solenoid on the rear camshaft is activated to close oil pressure to unlock the cam followers, thereby closing the valves. In theory, the closing of all rear bank valves produces an ‘air spring’ effect. However, the reciprocating effect of the piston with closed valves reportedly produces a vacuum condition where oil can get pulled past the piston rings to flood the cylinder. When VCM disengages, the engine then misfires if needing to clear the cylinder of oil. This unique type of oil consumption has led to premature failure of parts like spark plugs, catalytic converters, engine mounts, pistons/rings, and cylinder walls. Newer versions of VCM have been developed to improve system reliability but consumers continue to log complaints. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1359252 | 546,952 |
146,133 | Actinium was discovered in 1899 by André-Louis Debierne, an assistant of Marie Curie, in the pitchblende waste left after removal of radium and polonium. He described the substance (in 1899) as similar to titanium and (in 1900) as similar to thorium. The discovery of actinium by Debierne was however questioned in 1971 and 2000, arguing that Debierne's publications in 1904 contradicted his earlier work of 1899–1900. This view instead credits the 1902 work of Friedrich Oskar Giesel, who discovered a radioactive element named "emanium" that behaved similarly to lanthanum. The name actinium comes from the , meaning beam or ray. This metal was discovered not by its own radiation but by the radiation of the daughter products. Owing to the close similarity of actinium and lanthanum and low abundance, pure actinium could only be produced in 1950. The term actinide was probably introduced by Victor Goldschmidt in 1937. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2308 | 146,075 |
2,199,641 | Thiosulfate dehydrogenase, isolated from the appreciably studied bacterial strain "Allochromatium vinosum" (253 peptide chain length, 25.8 kDa) is composed of two catalytic domains, each similar to cytochrome "c", linked by a long unstructured peptide chain. The N-terminal domain is structurally homologous to the SoxA family of cytochrome enzymes while the C-terminal domain is representative of the standard mitochondrial cytochrome "c" family fold with high similarity to nitrite reductase from "P. haloplanktis". Each domain contains a covalently bound iron-containing heme molecule separated by a short distance of 8.1 Å which assists with rapid electron transfer. Both the N and C terminus domains contain 4 α helices (surrounding the heme in the corresponding domain) and a two-stranded anti-parallel β sheet, suggesting the enzyme resulted from a gene duplication event. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14162200 | 2,198,389 |
1,660,317 | Since the discovery of HIV in the 1980s, remarkable progress has been made in the development of novel antiviral drugs. The trigger for the discovery of the CCR5 antagonists was the observation that a small percentage of high-risk populations showed either resistance or delayed development of the disease. This population was found to have a mutation (CCR5-Δ32) in the gene that codes for the CCR5 receptor which results in almost complete resistance against HIV-1 infection and scientists then discovered the key role of the cell surface receptors CCR5 and CXCR4 in successful viral fusion and infection. In 1996, it was demonstrated that CCR5 serves as a co-receptor for the most commonly transmitted HIV-1 strains, R5. This type of virus is predominant during the early stages of infection and remains the dominant form in over 50% of late stage HIV-1 infected patients, however R5 strains can eventually evolve into X4 as the disease progresses. This information led to the development of a new class of HIV drugs called CCR5 antagonists. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=24643329 | 1,659,384 |
717,956 | His family belonged to the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod. When he was in the eighth grade, he discovered Charles Darwin, and was caught reading "On the Origin of Species" in church. Later in life, he rejected religion. Due to lack of money, he almost failed to attend college. His eldest brother interceded, and Hilleman graduated first in his class in 1941 from Montana State University with family help and scholarships. He won a fellowship to the University of Chicago and received his doctoral degree in microbiology in 1944. His doctoral thesis was on chlamydia infections, which were then thought to be caused by a virus. Hilleman showed that these infections were, in fact, caused by a species of bacterium, "Chlamydia trachomatis", that grows only inside of cells. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1731754 | 717,577 |
514,736 | The principal historical reason for OpenGL's dominance in the professional market was performance. Many professional graphics applications (for example, Softimage|3D, Alias PowerAnimator) were originally written in IRIS GL for high-end SGI workstations, which were far more capable, both graphically and in raw CPU power, than the PCs of the time. Later, many of these were ported to OpenGL, even as the personal computer was evolving into a system powerful enough to run some professional graphics applications. Users were able to run Maya, for example, the successor to Alias PowerAnimator on either SGIs or Windows-based personal computers (and today on Linux, Mac OS X, and Windows). Price competition eventually broke SGI's dominance in the market, but the established base of OpenGL software engineers and the broadening user base for OpenGL in Apple, Linux, and other operating systems, has resulted in a market where both DirectX and OpenGL are viable, widespread APIs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=793319 | 514,470 |
703,800 | In many countries, the bureaucratic overhead required for high altitude balloon launches is minimal when the payload is below a certain weight threshold, typically on the order of a few kilograms. This makes the process of launching these small HABs accessible to many students and amateur groups. Despite their smaller size, these HABs still often ascend to (and past) altitudes on the order of , providing easy stratospheric access for scientific and educational purposes. These amateur balloon flights are often informed in their operations by the use of a path predictor. Before launch, weather forecasts containing predicted wind vectors are used to numerically propagate a simulated HAB along a trajectory, predicting where the actual balloon will travel. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1030084 | 703,432 |
936,107 | OBE has been practiced in Malaysia since the 1950s; however, as of 2008, OBE is being implemented at all levels of education, especially tertiary education. This change is a result of the belief that the education system used prior to OBE inadequately prepared graduates for life outside of school. The Ministry of Higher Education has pushed for this change because of the number of unemployed graduates. Findings in 2006 state that nearly 70% of graduates from public universities were considered unemployed. A further study of those graduates found that they felt they lacked, job experience, communication skills, and qualifications relevant to the current job market. The Malaysian Qualifications Agency (MQA) was created to oversee quality of education and to ensure outcomes were being reached. The MQA created a framework that includes eight levels of qualification within higher education, covering three sectors; skills, vocational and technical, and academic. Along with meeting the standards set by the MQA, universities set and monitor their own outcome expectations for students | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22816 | 935,612 |
362,873 | The first self-propelled MRLs and arguably the most famous was the Soviet BM-13 Katyusha, first used during World War II and exported to Soviet allies afterwards. They were simple systems in which a rack of launch rails was mounted on the back of a truck. This set the template for modern MRLs. The Americans mounted tubular launchers atop M4 Sherman tanks to create the T34 Calliope rocket launching tank, only used in small numbers, as their closest equivalent to the Katyusha. The Germans began using a towed six-tube multiple rocket launcher during World War II, the Nebelwerfer, called the "Screaming Mimi" by the Allies. The system was developed before the war to skirt the limitations of the Treaty of Versailles. Later in the war, 15 cm Nebelwerfer 41s were mounted on modified Opel Maultier "Mule" halftracks, becoming Panzerwerfer 42 4/1s. Another version produced in limited numbers towards the end of the war was a conversion of the Schwerer Wehrmachtschlepper ("heavy military transport", sWS) halftrack to a configuration similar to the Panzerwerfer 42 4/1, mounting the 10-barreled 15 cm Nebelwerfer. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=492015 | 362,683 |
637,812 | NPTU Ballston Spa, which opened in 1957, is located at the Kenneth A. Kesselring Site Operation near Ballston Spa, New York. It is a subsidiary facility of Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory (KAPL), located about 30 minutes to the south. It is home to two land-based reactor prototypes. These are the MARF/S7G and the S8G Trident prototypes. The S8G plant was refueled with the S6W reactor core (for ) in the early 1990s, and the plant is currently (as of 2021) undergoing a third refueling with the Technology Demonstration Core (TDC). Though the MARF plant is scheduled to be decommissioned in the near future, the Navy is building a first-of-its-kind Engine Room Team Trainer at the site “which will use advance computer simulation coupled with an immersive learning environment to augment the training provided to sailors on the S8G Prototype's nuclear propulsion plant.” This Trainer will allow the training throughput of the site to be maintained at a high level even though only one prototype will remain in operation at the site. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=24008985 | 637,473 |
562,697 | The Mk II was replaced by the Mk III Supra which, like the Mk II, had varying degrees of success, but both TOM'S and SARD, who competed only in 1988, fared better in Japan with the TOM'S team winning its debut, at the Sugo Track, on September 9, 1987. In all, eleven MA70 Group-A turbos were built by TRD Japan for racing. In 1987 the Turbo MK III was fairly competitive in Japan - it not only won its debut race, but also for the remainder of the race season the Supras outqualified all Nissan Skylines (DR30) in Division 3 of the JTCC. After the FIA increased the weight multiplication factor from 1.4 to 1.7, the MK III lost competitiveness as the rest of the Division 3 cars were mostly running 2.0 or 2.5 L engines, increasing weight differences. Additionally, unreliable long-stroke engines, homologation delays and poor development caused a further decline of the car as the Ford Sierra Cosworth RS500 and the more advanced Nissan Skyline GT-R became the cars to have in top flight Group A racing. The Supra was abandoned at the end of the 1990 season in favour of the Toyota Corolla AE101 in 1991, and only a few were kept in competition by privateers until the end of the season. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14253999 | 562,408 |
2,049,943 | "Methanocaldococcus sp." FS406-22 is significant due to its ability to fix nitrogen and reduce it from N to NH in an optimum temperature of 92 °C. This is an extremely important discovery to the scientific community as this optimum Nitrogen reduction in 92 °C is a total of 28 °C higher than the previously recorded nitrogen reduction of the methanogen, "Methanothermococcus thermolithotrophicus". Before the discovery of "Methanocaldococcus sp." FS406-22, "Methanothermococcus thermolithotrophicus was" the most thermophilic microorganism, fixing nitrogen at 64 °C. This particular discovery has potential to reveal a much wider range of conditions for life not only, in the seafloor biosphere but also, other ecosystems that are nitrogen deficient"." Looking further into this methanogen, it was found that the 16S rRNA gene of "Methanocaldococcus sp." FS406-22, is 99% similar to that of "Methanocaldococcus jannaschii" DSM 2661. This odd 1% divergence between FS406-22 and "M. jannaschii" is due to a previous separation of ancestral genes. The revelation of a hyperthermophilic, diazotrophic, archaea (strain FS406-22) may be due to the evolutionary history of nitrogenous. The phylogenetic analysis of nitrogenous and chlorophyll iron proteins suggests that an ancestral iron protein duplicated and diverged into "nifH" and "anfH" genes. This divergence of genes is estimated to have happened before the separation of the Domains bacteria and methanogenic archaea. Strain FS406-22 contains a functional "nifH" gene which is able to encode dinitrogenase reductase whereas "M. jannaschii" does not possess this gene, explaining the 1% divergence between the two species. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=49392640 | 2,048,762 |
1,589,476 | On moving in 1868 to Franklin, New Hampshire, he entered the Franklin Academy, and after six months there, went to the New London Academy, subsequently Colby–Sawyer College. From this school he was duly graduated in the summer of 1871. In the following autumn he entered Brown University from which he was graduated in 1875. His studies at college followed the usual curriculum without any suggestion of specialization. On the commencement stage he had the honour of the classical oration. During his college course he received the Dunn premium, given for the best work of the year in the department of English, with special reference to writing and speaking, and also one of the Carpenter prizes given to the two students of the year who in the opinion of the faculty combined in the highest degree the elements of success in life. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4211119 | 1,588,582 |
222,955 | The philosophy of logic also investigates the nature and philosophical implications of the fundamental concepts of logic. This includes the problem of truth, especially of logical truth, which may be defined as truth depending only on the meanings of the logical terms used. Another question concerns the nature of premises and conclusions, i.e. whether to understand them as thoughts, propositions, or sentences, and how they are composed of simpler constituents. Together, premises and a conclusion constitute an inference, which can be either deductive and ampliative depending on whether it is necessarily truth-preserving or introduces new and possibly false information. A central concern in logic is whether a deductive inference is valid or not. Validity is often defined in terms of necessity, i.e. an inference is valid if and only if it is impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion to be false. Incorrect inferences and arguments, on the other hand, fail to support their conclusion. They can be categorized as formal or informal fallacies depending on whether they belong to formal or informal logic. Logic has mostly been concerned with definitory rules, i.e. with the question of which rules of inference determine whether an argument is valid or not. A separate topic of inquiry concerns the strategic rules of logic: the rules governing how to reach an intended conclusion given a certain set of premises, i.e. which inferences need to be drawn to arrive there. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21368888 | 222,846 |
526,166 | Another application of paired difference testing arises when comparing two groups in a set of observational data, with the goal being to isolate the effect of one factor of interest from the effects of other factors that may play a role. For example, suppose teachers adopt one of two different approaches, denoted "A" and "B", to teaching a particular mathematical topic. We may be interested in whether the performances of the students on a standardized mathematics test differ according to the teaching approach. If the teachers are free to adopt approach A or approach B, it is possible that teachers whose students are already performing well in mathematics will preferentially choose method A (or vice versa). In this situation, a simple comparison between the mean performances of students taught with approach A and approach B will likely show a difference, but this difference is partially or entirely due to the pre-existing differences between the two groups of students. In this situation, the baseline abilities of the students serve as a confounding variable, in that they are related to both the outcome (performance on the standardized test), and to the treatment assignment to approach A or approach B. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23004551 | 525,893 |
1,063,457 | During reasonable care and use, optical flats need to maintain their flatness over long periods of time. Therefore, hard glasses with low coefficients of thermal expansion, such as fused silica, are often used for the manufacturing material. However, a few laboratory measurements of room temperature, fused-silica optical-flats have shown a motion consistent with a material viscosity on the order of 10–10 Pa·s. This equates to a deviation of a few nanometres over the period of a decade. Because the flatness of an optical flat is relative to the flatness of the original test flat, the true (absolute) flatness at the time of manufacture can only be determined by performing an interferometer test using a liquid flat, or by performing a "three flat test", in which the interference patterns produced by three flats are computer-analyzed. A few tests that have been carried out have shown that a deviation sometimes occurs on the fused silica's surface. However, the tests show that the deformation may be sporadic, with only some of the flats deforming during the test period, some partially deforming, and others remaining the same. The cause of the deformation is unknown and would never be visible to the human eye during a lifetime. (A λ/4 flat has a normal surface-deviation of 158 nanometres, while a λ/20 flat has a normal deviation of over 30 nm.) This deformation has only been observed in fused silica, while soda-lime glass still shows a viscosity of 10Pa·s, which is many orders of magnitude higher. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4230598 | 1,062,903 |
489,132 | At the beginning of the 20th century science was progressing quickly and the inner workings of the atom were just beginning to be discovered. In 1900, Max Planck proposed the quantum theory, the idea that all energy moves in discrete amounts called quanta. In 1905, Albert Einstein published his theory of special relativity, which would be instrumental in the progression of physics and the understanding of the universe. Around 1927, Niels Bohr and Werner Heisenberg, collaborating with many other physicists, developed the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum theory, determining the probabilities of the movement of particles. These breakthroughs provided the model for the structure and workings of the atom and drove the revolution that would sweep up Nathan Rosen. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=711870 | 488,879 |
1,756,215 | Various preliminary rounds must be completed by the students in order to be selected for the competing team of the participating university. The initial case for the competition typically falls during the reign of Emperor Justinian the Great (527-565 AD). The competition itself initially consists of a group phase. The advanced rounds then consist of two semi-finals, a small final and a large final. Three judges work in all rounds, with the exception of the Grand Final, where five judges sit on the bench. Past judges include Melchior Wathelet (First Advocate General and former judge of the ECJ) and Johannes Schnizer (judge at the Austrian Constitutional Court). As with any moot court, the aim is to take on the role of the plaintiff and the defendant in the fictitious legal dispute and to convince the court of its own point of view. A session lasts approximately forty minutes. The entire process is oral, so no briefs are drawn up and will be held in English. The aim is to convince the judges with Roman legal principles, modern English rhetoric, modern legal argumentation skills and modern negotiating tactics. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66886892 | 1,755,224 |
196,227 | Palmer's past is rehashed, showing that he never quite got over Jean, even during the days of "Sword of the Atom". Indigo-1 claims that she can teleport the armies of each Lantern Corps onto Earth, if given time to meditate. The responsibility falls to Palmer to protect her while she does so. Before she enters her trance, she reveals to Palmer that the indigo staff and his overwhelming compassion allows him to mimic the other powers of the Lantern Corps; she demonstrates this by temporarily becoming a Red Lantern and vomiting corrosive blood all over an attacking company of Black Lanterns. She then enters her trance, while Palmer fights off Black Lanterns Hawkman and Hawkgirl by temporarily becoming an Orange Lantern, loudly proclaiming "I want my friends back!" He then summons two orange energy duplicates of Khufu and Chay-Ara to help him fight off his and Indigo-1's attackers. He is briefly successful. But then Jean shows up to torment him, and she leaps into Indigo-1's ring. Palmer follows her. He ends up reliving Sue Dibny's death, and is then attacked by various Black Lantern Morlaidhans, the minuscule race he befriended during "Sword of the Atom". He fights them off and, summoning the powers of a Green Lantern, destroys Jean. Indigo-1 manages to summon the various armies and thanks Palmer for his help. He tells her to keep his involvement in the deployment of the troops a secret, and asks that she help him find a way to legitimately resurrect Hawkman and Hawkgirl. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4971776 | 196,127 |
971,860 | In the fall of 1943, Alvarez returned to the United States with an offer from Robert Oppenheimer to work at Los Alamos on the Manhattan Project. However, Oppenheimer suggested that he first spend a few months at the University of Chicago working with Enrico Fermi before coming to Los Alamos. During these months, General Leslie Groves asked Alvarez to think of a way that the US could find out if the Germans were operating any nuclear reactors, and, if so, where they were. Alvarez suggested that an airplane could carry a system to detect the radioactive gases that a reactor produces, particularly xenon-133. The equipment did fly over Germany, but detected no radioactive xenon because the Germans had not built a reactor capable of a chain reaction. This was the first idea of monitoring fission products for intelligence gathering. It would become extremely important after the war. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=320445 | 971,350 |
867,899 | The LSF novelty – compared to other criteria to describe conditions at the twin – lies in combining a geometrical criterion with the deformation field in the parent grain to provide an approximate indication of the local twin mode (i.e., thickening or propagation). However, the LSF analysis does not take advantage of the available full-field data, relies on global information on the applied stress, and does not consider the energy balance that drives twin growth. There have been few in-situ experiments to quantify the strain field ahead of a propagating deformation twin. Such observations might validate geometrical or hybrid geometrical-energy-based criteria for growth. Nanoscale testing (i.e., transmission electron microscopy) may not represent the behaviour in bulk samples due to plasticity starvation, i.e., large surface area to volume ratio , so a suitable analysis method is needed. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1997989 | 867,439 |
675,763 | Viral encephalitis can be diagnosed based on the individual's symptoms, personal history, such as travel history, and different clinical tests such as histology, medical imaging, and lumbar punctures. A differential diagnosis can also be done to rule out other causes of the encephalitis. Many encephalitic viruses often have characteristic symptoms of infection, helping to aid diagnosis. Treatment is usually supportive in nature while also providing antiviral drug therapy. The primary exception to this is herpes simplex encephalitis, which is treatable with acyclovir. Prognosis is good for most individuals who are infected by an encephalitic virus but is poor among those who develop severe symptoms, including viral encephalitis. Long-term complications of viral encephalitis typically relate to neurological damage, such as experiencing seizures, memory loss, and intellectual impairment. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3169045 | 675,410 |
76,418 | Given the potential of fusion to transform the world's energy industry and mitigate climate change, fusion science has traditionally been seen as an integral part of peace-building science diplomacy. However, technological developments and private sector involvement has raised concerns over intellectual property, regulatory administration, global leadership; equity, and potential weaponization. These challenge ITER's peace-building role and led to calls for a global commission. Fusion power significantly contributing to climate change by 2050 seems unlikely without substantial breakthroughs and a space race mentality emerging, but a contribution by 2100 appears possible, with the extent depending on the type and particularly cost of technology pathways. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=55017 | 76,389 |
664,596 | In the composition of the book, Darwin drew on worldwide responses to his questionnaire (circulated in the early months of 1867) concerning emotional expression in different ethnic groups; on anthropological memories from his time on ; on conversations with livestock breeders and pigeon fanciers; on observations on his infant son William Erasmus Darwin (""A Biographical Sketch of an Infant"" – published in 1877 in the philosophical journal "Mind"), on his family's dogs and cats, and on the orangutans at London Zoo; on simple psychology experiments with members of his family concerning the recognition of emotional expression; on the neurological insights of Duchenne de Boulogne, a physician at the Salpêtrière asylum in Paris; on hundreds of photographs of actors, babies and children; and on descriptions of psychiatric patients in the West Riding Pauper Lunatic Asylum at Wakefield in West Yorkshire. Darwin corresponded intensively with James Crichton-Browne, the son of the phrenologist William A. F. Browne and now the medical director of the Wakefield asylum. At the time, Crichton-Browne was publishing his extremely influential "West Riding Lunatic Asylum Medical Reports", and Darwin remarked to him that "The Expression" "should be called by Darwin "and" Browne". Darwin also drew on his personal experience of the symptoms of bereavement and studied the text of Henry Maudsley's 1870 Gulstonian lectures on "Body and Mind". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1704268 | 664,249 |
135,541 | In other words, the considerable observable differences between humans and chimps may be due as much or more to genome level variation in the number, function and expression of genes rather than DNA sequence changes in shared genes. Indeed, even within humans, there has been found to be a previously unappreciated amount of copy number variation (CNV) which can make up as much as 5 – 15% of the human genome. In other words, between humans, there could be +/- 500,000,000 base pairs of DNA, some being active genes, others inactivated, or active at different levels. The full significance of this finding remains to be seen. On average, a typical human protein-coding gene differs from its chimpanzee ortholog by only two amino acid substitutions; nearly one third of human genes have exactly the same protein translation as their chimpanzee orthologs. A major difference between the two genomes is human chromosome 2, which is equivalent to a fusion product of chimpanzee chromosomes 12 and 13. (later renamed to chromosomes 2A and 2B, respectively). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42888 | 135,486 |
55,521 | "Staphylococcus aureus" can be sorted into ten dominant human lineages. There are numerous minor lineages as well, but these are not seen in the population as often. Genomes of bacteria within the same lineage are mostly conserved, with the exception of mobile genetic elements. Mobile genetic elements that are common in "S. aureus" include bacteriophages, pathogenicity islands, plasmids, transposons, and staphylococcal cassette chromosomes. These elements have enabled "S. aureus" to continually evolve and gain new traits. There is a great deal of genetic variation within the "S. aureus" species"." A study by Fitzgerald et al. (2001) revealed that approximately 22% of the "S. aureus" genome is non-coding and thus can differ from bacterium to bacterium. An example of this difference is seen in the species' virulence. Only a few strains of "S. aureus" are associated with infections in humans. This demonstrates that there is a large range of infectious ability within the species. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=118212 | 55,498 |
339,916 | The Morrison Formation has been a rich fossil hunting ground. The flora of the period has been revealed by fossils of green algae, fungi, mosses, horsetails, ferns, cycads, ginkgoes, and several families of conifers. Animal fossils discovered include bivalves, snails, ray-finned fishes, frogs, salamanders, turtles, sphenodonts, lizards, terrestrial and aquatic crocodylomorphs, several species of pterosaur, numerous dinosaur species, and early mammals such as docodonts, multituberculates, symmetrodonts, and triconodonts. Dinosaurs known from the Morrison include the theropods "Ceratosaurus", "Ornitholestes", "Tanycolagreus", and "Torvosaurus", the sauropods "Haplocanthosaurus", "Camarasaurus", "Cathetosaurus", "Brachiosaurus", "Suuwassea", "Apatosaurus", "Brontosaurus", "Barosaurus", "Diplodocus", "Supersaurus", "Amphicoelias", and "Maraapunisaurus", and the ornithischians "Camptosaurus", "Dryosaurus", and "Stegosaurus". "Allosaurus" is commonly found at the same sites as "Apatosaurus", "Camarasaurus", "Diplodocus", and "Stegosaurus". The Late Jurassic formations of Portugal where "Allosaurus" is present are interpreted as having been similar to the Morrison, but with a stronger marine influence. Many of the dinosaurs of the Morrison Formation are the same genera as those seen in Portuguese rocks (mainly "Allosaurus", "Ceratosaurus", "Torvosaurus", and "Stegosaurus"), or have a close counterpart ("Brachiosaurus" and "Lusotitan", "Camptosaurus" and "Draconyx"). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1347 | 339,735 |
1,546,451 | The MOC-induced effects discussed thus far have all been observed in experiments conducted in silence (generally in sound-attenuated booths or rooms). However, measuring the cochlea’s response to sounds in these conditions may not reveal the true biological function of the MOCS, since evolving mammals are rarely in silent situations, and the MOCS is particularly responsive to noise (Guinan et al., 2003). The first experiments investigating the effects of MOC stimulation in the presence of noise were conducted on guinea pigs by Nieder and Nieder (1970a, 1970b, 1970c), who measured cochlear output evoked by click stimuli presented in constant background noise (BGN). In this condition, they found that the N1 potential evoked by click stimuli was enhanced during a period of MOC stimulation. This finding has been confirmed using both electrical stimulation (Dolan and Nuttall, 1988; Winslow and Sachs, 1987) and acoustic activation (Kawase et al., 1993, Kawase and Liberman, 1993) of the mammalian MOCS. Winslow and Sachs (1987) found that stimulating the OCB: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=17523336 | 1,545,577 |
86,981 | LaTeX attempts to follow the design philosophy of separating presentation from content, so that authors can focus on the content of what they are writing without attending simultaneously to its visual appearance. In preparing a LaTeX document, the author specifies the logical structure using simple, familiar concepts such as "chapter", "section", "table", "figure", etc., and lets the LaTeX system handle the formatting and layout of these structures. As a result, it encourages the separation of the layout from the content — while still allowing manual typesetting adjustments whenever needed. This concept is similar to the mechanism by which many word processors allow styles to be defined globally for an entire document, or the use of Cascading Style Sheets in styling HTML documents. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18195 | 86,946 |
1,521,381 | In most arachnids, hydraulic compression acts as the primary means of extension in several of their hinged leg joints, namely the femur–patella joint and tibia–metatarsus joints or second and third leg joints respectively. Instead of blood, hemolymph is used to move nutrients around inside of the arachnid, and has the secondary function of acting as a hydraulic fluid. When compressed by the body of the arachnid, the hemolymph applies compressive force through channels in the limbs that cause them to extend. This motion is then balanced by flexor muscle to retract the leg joints as needed. Due to hydraulics being used for extension, the flexor muscle is able to be significantly larger than would otherwise be possible without impacting size or weight. Measurable core body volume change can occur during periods of higher compression to the legs, as the sinuses of the body contract to achieve pressurization in specific legs. Aside from the normal gait of the arachnid, in some variants, extremely high pressures are used as a means of jumping, propelling rear legs and allowing for much greater and more sudden motion. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=67470706 | 1,520,520 |
1,465,146 | MIP-1α and MIP-1β are major factors produced by macrophages and monocytes after they are stimulated with bacterial endotoxin or proinflammatory cytokines such as IL-1β. But it appears that they can be expressed by all hematopoietic cells and some tissue cells such as fibroblasts, epithelial cells, vascular smooth muscle cells or platelets upon activation. They are crucial for immune responses towards infection and inflammation. CCL3 and CCL4 can bind to extracellular proteoglycans, which is not necessary for their function but it can enhance their bioactivity. The biological effect is carried out through ligation of chemokine receptors CCR1 (ligand CCL3) and CCR5 (ligands CCL3 and CCL4) and the signal is then transferred into the cell, thus these cytokines affect any cell that has these receptors. The main effect is inflammatory and mainly consists of chemotaxis and transendothelial migration but cells can be activated to release of some bioactive molecules also. These chemokines affect monocytes, T lymphocytes, dendritic cells, NK cells and platelets. They, too, activate human granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils) which can lead to acute neutrophilic inflammation. They also induce the synthesis and release of other pro-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin 1 (IL-1), IL-6 and TNF-α from fibroblasts and macrophages. The genes for CCL3 and CCL4 are both located on human chromosome 17 and on murine chromosome 11. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5573084 | 1,464,323 |
586,438 | In the late 1850s, bat and ball games had started to become highly known and the sport of baseball was starting to become an establishment at U.S. universities. The first intercollegiate baseball game took place in 1859 between Amherst College and Williams College. The popularity of collegiate baseball increased from this point, and by 1870, college teams were playing extensive schedules. In 1879, the first official intercollegiate baseball league was formed. The first intercollegiate cricket match took place in 1860 between Franklin & Marshall College and Millersville State Normal School. Track and field also grew in popularity during this time, and the first intercollegiate track and field event occurred in 1873. This competition featured a two-mile race between athletes from Amherst College, Cornell University, and McGill University of Montreal, Quebec, Canada. The first intercollegiate soccer match in the U.S. took place on November 6, 1869, in New Brunswick, New Jersey, when clubs from Princeton and Rutgers played under rules modified from those of association football. The first intercollegiate rugby game took place on May 15, 1874, at Cambridge, Massachusetts when Harvard played against McGill University. The first intercollegiate football game between teams from Rutgers College (now Rutgers University) and the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University) took place on November 6, 1869 at College Field (now the site of the College Avenue Gymnasium at Rutgers University) in New Brunswick, New Jersey. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2181526 | 586,138 |
446,211 | Tropical forests (rainforests) receive more insolation and rainfall over longer growing seasons than any other environment on earth. With these elevated temperatures, insolation and rainfall, biomass is extremely productive leading to the production of as much as 800 grams of carbon per square meter per year (8 tons of C/hectare/year). Higher temperatures and larger amounts of water contribute to higher rates of chemical weathering. Increased rates of decomposition cause smaller amounts of fulvic acid to percolate and leach metals from the zone of active weathering. Thus, in stark contrast to soil in forests, tropical forests have little to no podzolization and therefore do not have marked visual and chemical contrasts with the soil layers. Instead, the mobile metals Mg, Fe and Al are precipitated as oxide minerals giving the soil a rusty red color. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1203155 | 445,995 |
352,246 | In the same 1821 paper he co-authored with Henry De la Beche on ichthyosaur anatomy, William Conybeare named and described the genus "Plesiosaurus" (near lizard), called so because he thought it more like modern reptiles than the ichthyosaur had been. The description was based on a number of fossils, the most complete of them specimen OUMNH J.50146, a paddle and vertebral column that had been obtained by Lieutenant-Colonel Thomas James Birch. Christopher McGowan has hypothesised that this specimen had originally been much more complete and had been collected by Anning, during the winter of 1820/1821. If so, it would have been Anning's next major discovery, providing essential information about the newly recognised type of marine reptile. No records by Anning of the find are known. The paper thanked Birch for giving Conybeare access to it, but does not mention who discovered and prepared it. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38334 | 352,063 |
1,626,972 | As porosity is eliminated and rearrangement slows, diffusive mechanisms, analogous to those present in diffusional creep, become dominant and change the sizes and shapes of powder particles. These mechanisms proceed via the dissolution of solid into the liquid phase, diffusion through the liquid, and reprecipitation; hence, the solubility and diffusivity of the solid in the liquid controls the rates of these processes. The process of grain growth or particle coarsening is called Ostwald ripening and occurs because smaller grains are more soluble in the liquid than larger grains. The resulting concentration gradient causes material to diffuse through the liquid, causing larger grains to grow at the expense of smaller grains. Shape change proceeds similarly; in a process termed “contact flattening”, solid preferentially dissolves in areas with high capillary pressure (i.e. where particles are close together) and reprecipitates elsewhere. Thus, two curved surfaces in close proximity will flatten over time. Shape change can also be driven by anisotropy in the surface energy of the solid and/or differences in the magnitudes of the solid-solid and solid-liquid interfacial energies. These shape changes allow the grains to pack more tightly, further eliminating porosity and densifying the compact. Early models of solution-reprecipitation demonstrate that the rate of densification can be increased by increasing temperature, decreasing the grain size, and increasing the solid solubility in the liquid. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66940304 | 1,626,054 |
728,357 | The localized fuel temperature instabilities mentioned above in the criticism section resulted in a heavy contamination of the whole vessel by Cs-137 and Sr-90. Thus the reactor vessel was filled with light concrete in order to fix the radioactive dust and in 2012 the reactor vessel of will be moved to an intermediate storage. There exists currently no dismantling method for the AVR vessel, but it is planned to develop some procedure during the next 60 years and to start with vessel dismantling at the end of the century. In the meantime, after transport of the AVR vessel into the intermediate storage, the reactor buildings will be dismantled and soil and groundwater will be decontaminated. AVR dismantling costs will exceed its construction costs by far. In August 2010, the German government published a new cost estimate for AVR dismantling, however without consideration of the vessel dismantling: An amount of 600 million € ( $750 million) is now expected (200 million € more than in an estimate of 2006), which corresponds to 0.4 € ($0.55) per kWh of electricity generated by the AVR. Consideration of the unresolved problem of vessel dismantling is supposed to increase the total dismantling costs to more than 1 bn €. Construction costs of AVR were 115 million Deutschmark (1966), corresponding to a 2010 value of 180 million €. A separate containment was erected for dismantling purposes, as seen in the AVR-picture. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=143354 | 727,973 |
1,862,276 | Electrically active microorganisms create electrochemically active biofilms (EABs) which have been used in microbial fuel cells to generate an electric current. These fuel cells have also been paired with wastewater treatment by taking advantage of the many biodegradable organic components in wastewater. It has been considered as an alternative to conventional wastewater treatment methods, or as a step before the membrane reactor, or to reduce the amount of solid sludge produced. Researchers have looked at treating dairy, animal carcass, brewery, winery, and domestic wastewater, to name a few, with microbial fuel cells. This technology, however, has yet to be fully successful on a large scale due to low power density and the fluctuating temperature and composition of real wastewater. EABs have also been looked at to produce hydrogen, which is currently produced from mostly non-renewable fossil fuels. In the new technology of microbial electrolysis cells, EABs on the anode break down organic substrates to CO, electrons, and protons. Furthermore, EABs have been used for the synthesis of metal nanoparticles and metal semiconductor composites as an alternative to traditional chemical methods. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=16807527 | 1,861,207 |
1,481,916 | Perceptual narrowing is a developmental process during which the brain uses environmental experiences to shape perceptual abilities. This process improves the perception of things that people experience often and causes them to experience a decline in the ability to perceive some things to which they are not often exposed. This phenomenon is a result of neuroplasticity, including Hebbian learning and synaptic pruning. Through these mechanisms, neural pathways that are more consistently used are strengthened, making them more efficient, while those pathways that are unused become less efficient. This process is most evident during sensitive periods of development. The prevailing theory is that human infants are born with the ability to sense a wide variety of stimuli, and as they age, they begin to selectively narrow these perceptions by categorizing them in a more socio-culturally relevant way. Most of the research in this area focuses on facial discrimination and phoneme distinction in human infants. However, other work has found that perceptual narrowing also occurs for music and sign language perception. Perceptual narrowing has also been implicated in synaesthesia. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10184074 | 1,481,082 |
552,848 | A stateful firewall keeps track of the state of network connections, such as TCP streams, UDP datagrams, and ICMP messages, and can apply labels such as "LISTEN", "ESTABLISHED", or "CLOSING". State table entries are created for TCP streams or UDP datagrams that are allowed to communicate through the firewall in accordance with the configured security policy. Once in the table, all "RELATED" packets of a stored session are streamlined allowed, taking fewer CPU cycles than standard inspection. Related packets are also permitted to return through the firewall even if no rule is configured to allow communications from that host. If no traffic is seen for a specified time (implementation dependent), the connection is removed from the state table. Applications can send keepalive messages periodically to prevent a firewall from dropping the connection during periods of no activity or for applications which by design have long periods of silence. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=214257 | 552,559 |
384,782 | BPA is an environmental contaminant of emerging concern. Despite its short half-life and non-bioaccumulating character, the continuous release of BPA into the environment causes continuous exposure to both plant and animal life. Although many studies have been performed, these often focus on a limited range of model organisms and can use BPA concentrations well beyond environmental levels. As such, the precise effects of BPA on the growth, reproduction, and development of aquatic organism is not fully understood. Regardless, the existing data shows the effects of BPA on wildlife to be generally negative. BPA appears able to effect development and reproduction in a wide range of wildlife, with certain species being particularly sensitive, such as invertebrates and amphibians. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1001430 | 384,587 |
332,483 | Just as the impact factor has attracted criticism for various immediate problems associated with its application, so has there also been criticism that its application undermines the broader process of science. Research has indicated that bibliometrics figures, particularly the impact factor, decrease the quality of peer review an article receiving, a reluctance to share data, decreasing quality of articles, and a reduced scope in terms of what they can research. "For many researchers the only research questions and projects that appear viable are those that can meet the demand of scoring well in terms of metric performance indicators - and chiefly the journal impact factor.". Furthermore, the process of publication and science is slowed down - authors automatically try and publish with the journals with the highest impact factor - "as editors and reviewers are tasked with reviewing papers that are not submitted to the most appropriate venues." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1036865 | 332,306 |
657,472 | A number of scholars propose that Proto-Indo-European rituals included the requirement that young unmarried men initiate into manhood by joining a warrior-band named *"kóryos". They were led by a senior male and lived off the country by hunting and engaging in raiding and pillaging foreign communities. Kóryos members served in such brotherhoods ("Männerbunden") for a number of years before returning home to adopt more respectable identities as mature men. During their initiation period, the young males wore the skin and bore the names of wild animals, especially wolves (*"wl̩kʷo") and dogs ("*ḱwōn"), in order to assume their nature and escape the rules and taboos of their host society. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=931859 | 657,128 |
670,945 | Following the construction of Austria-Hungary's last class of pre-dreadnought battleships, the , Montecuccoli submitted his first proposal for true dreadnought battleships for the Austro-Hungarian Navy. Taking advantage of political support for naval expansion he had obtained in both Austria and Hungary over the course of several years, and Austrian fears of a war with Italy over the Bosnian Crisis during the previous year, Montecuccoli drafted a new memorandum to Emperor Franz Joseph I in January 1909 proposing an enlarged Austro-Hungarian Navy consisting of 16 battleships, 12 cruisers, 24 destroyers, 72 seagoing torpedo boats, and 12 submarines. While this was a modified version of his 1905 plan, one notable change was the inclusion of four additional dreadnought battleships with a displacement of at load. These ships would become the "Tegetthoff" class. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1089216 | 670,593 |
175,699 | Level I BASIC is based on Li-Chen Wang's free Tiny BASIC with more functions added by Radio Shack. The accompanying "User's Manual for Level 1" by David A. Lien presents lessons on programming with text and cartoons. Lien wrote that it was "written specifically for people who don't know anything about computers ... I want you to have fun with your computer! I don't want you to be afraid of it, because there is nothing to fear". Reviewers praised the manual's quality. Level I BASIC has only two string variables (codice_1 and codice_2), 26 numeric variables (codice_3 – codice_4), and one array, codice_5. Code for functions like SIN(), COS() and TAN() is not included in ROM but printed at the end of the book. The only error messages are "codice_6" for syntax errors, "codice_7" for arithmetic errors such as division by zero, and "codice_8" for out of memory errors. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30747 | 175,607 |
451,687 | The first specimens were collected by Charles Hazelius Sternberg in the San Juan Basin in New Mexico. Sternberg worked in commission for the Swedish Uppsala University. In 1921 he recovered a skull and a rump, specimens PMU R.200 and PMU R.286, at the Meyers Creek near the Kimbetoh Wash in a layer of the Kirtland Formation. He sent these fossils to paleontologist Carl Wiman. In 1922 Sternberg decided to work independently and began a dig north of Tsaya Trading Post, in the Fossil Forest of San Juan County. Here he discovered a complete skeleton, which he sold to the American Museum of Natural History. The museum then sent out a team headed by Charles Mook and Peter Kaisen to assist Sternberg in securing this specimen; subsequent digging by Sternberg in 1923 brought the total of AMNH specimens to four. The rump of the main specimen was discarded by the museum because it had insufficient value as a display. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1791383 | 451,468 |
265,762 | On September 26, 2013, NASA scientists reported the Mars "Curiosity" rover detected abundant chemically-bound water (1.5 to 3 weight percent) in soil samples at the Rocknest region of Aeolis Palus in Gale Crater. In addition, NASA reported the rover found two principal soil types: a fine-grained mafic type and a locally derived, coarse-grained felsic type. The mafic type, similar to other martian soils and martian dust, was associated with hydration of the amorphous phases of the soil. Also, perchlorates, the presence of which may make detection of life-related organic molecules difficult, were found at the "Curiosity" rover landing site (and earlier at the more polar site of the Phoenix lander) suggesting a "global distribution of these salts". NASA also reported that Jake M rock, a rock encountered by "Curiosity" on the way to Glenelg, was a mugearite and very similar to terrestrial mugearite rocks. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21857752 | 265,618 |
1,617,397 | On January 8, 2014, the "Vancouver Sun" reported that UBC had purchased the 85-year-old Vancouver School of Theology building on Iona Drive for $28 million and will convert it to the new home of UBC's Vancouver School of Economics (VSE) since the building was too large and costly for VST's 115 full- and part-time students to maintain. The Christian graduate school will move—in the summer of 2014—to a smaller building "on the north side of the UBC campus, called Somerville House. The school will retain its A-frame Chapel of Epiphany". While the 1927 Iona building is the longtime home of the Vancouver School of Theology, it needs only about a "quarter of the space" and it is finding it difficult to keep up with operating costs. VST will use a portion of the sale proceeds to relocate their operations to more suitable space in the UBC theological neighbourhood and place the balance of the funds in an endowment to support its educational mission and operations. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4302258 | 1,616,484 |
1,499,722 | Ranking is one of many procedures used to transform data that do not meet the assumptions of normality. Conover and Iman provided a review of the four main types of rank transformations (RT). One method replaces each original data value by its rank (from 1 for the smallest to "N" for the largest). This rank-based procedure has been recommended as being robust to non-normal errors, resistant to outliers, and highly efficient for many distributions. It may result in a known statistic (e.g., in the two independent samples layout ranking results in the Wilcoxon rank-sum / Mann–Whitney U test), and provides the desired robustness and increased statistical power that is sought. For example, Monte Carlo studies have shown that the rank transformation in the two independent samples t-test layout can be successfully extended to the one-way independent samples ANOVA, as well as the two independent samples multivariate Hotelling's "T" layouts Commercial statistical software packages (e.g., SAS) followed with recommendations to data analysts to run their data sets through a ranking procedure (e.g., PROC RANK) prior to conducting standard analyses using parametric procedures. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29601304 | 1,498,877 |
296,478 | Often the greater engineering challenge is designing an efficient sabot to successfully launch extremely long penetrators, now approaching in length. The sabot, necessary to fill the bore of the cannon when firing a long, slender flight projectile, is parasitic weight that subtracts from the potential muzzle velocity of the entire projectile. Maintaining the in-bore structural integrity of such a long flight projectile under accelerations of tens of thousands of g's is not a trivial undertaking, and has brought the design of sabots from employing in the early 1980s readily available low cost, high strength aerospace-grade aluminums, such as 6061 and 6066-T6, to high strength and more expensive 7075-T6 aluminum, maraging steel, and experimental ultra-high strength 7090-T6 aluminum, to the current state-of-the-art and incredibly expensive graphite fiber reinforced plastics, in order to further reduce the parasitic sabot mass, that could be nearly half the launch mass of the entire projectile. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8458792 | 296,318 |
1,267,765 | Another but equivalent way to interpret the principle of optomechanical cavities is by using the concept of radiation pressure. According to the quantum theory of light, every photon with wavenumber formula_5 carries a momentum formula_6, where formula_7 is the Planck constant. This means that a photon reflected off a mirror surface transfers a momentum formula_8 onto the mirror due to the conservation of momentum. This effect is extremely small and cannot be observed on most everyday objects; it becomes more significant when the mass of the mirror is very small and/or the number of photons is very large (i.e. high intensity of the light). Since the momentum of photons is extremely small and not enough to change the position of a suspended mirror significantly, the interaction needs to be enhanced. One possible way to do this is by using optical cavities. If a photon is enclosed between two mirrors, where one is the oscillator and the other is a heavy fixed one, it will bounce off the mirrors many times and transfer its momentum every time it hits the mirrors. The number of times a photon can transfer its momentum is directly related to the finesse of the cavity, which can be improved with highly reflective mirror surfaces. The radiation pressure of the photons does not simply shift the suspended mirror further and further away as the effect on the cavity light field must be taken into account: if the mirror is displaced, the cavity's length changes, which also alters the cavity resonance frequency. Therefore, the detuning—which determines the light amplitude inside the cavity—between the changed cavity and the unchanged laser driving frequency is modified. It determines the light amplitude inside the cavity – at smaller levels of detuning more light actually enters the cavity because it is closer to the cavity resonance frequency. Since the light amplitude, i.e. the number of photons inside the cavity, causes the radiation pressure force and consequently the displacement of the mirror, the loop is closed: the radiation pressure force effectively depends on the mirror position. Another advantage of optical cavities is that the modulation of the cavity length through an oscillating mirror can directly be seen in the spectrum of the cavity. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=49916168 | 1,267,075 |
89,877 | The electron guns in color CRTs are driven by a video amplifier which takes a signal per color channel and amplifies it to 40-170v per channel, to be fed into the electron gun's cathodes; each electron gun has its own channel (one per color) and all channels may be driven by the same amplifier, which internally has three separate channels. The amplifier's capabilities limit the resolution, refresh rate and contrast ratio of the CRT, as the amplifier needs to provide high bandwidth and voltage variations at the same time; higher resolutions and refresh rates need higher bandwidths (speed at which voltage can be varied and thus switching between black and white) and higher contrast ratios need higher voltage variations or amplitude for lower black and higher white levels. 30Mhz of bandwidth can usually provide 720p or 1080i resolution, while 20Mhz usually provides around 600 (horizontal, from top to bottom) lines of resolution, for example. The difference in voltage between the cathode and the control grid is what modulates the electron beam, modulating its current and thus the brightness of the image. The phosphors used in color CRTs produce different amounts of light for a given amount of energy, so to produce white on a color CRT, all three guns must output differing amounts of energy. The gun that outputs the most energy is the red gun since the red phosphor emits the least amount of light. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6014 | 89,839 |
1,343,621 | Tunner was promoted to Brigadier general on June 30, 1943, and tapped for command of the airlift supply operation from India to China in the spring of 1944. He made an inspection trip in the CBI theater with his prospective staff in June, where he piloted a C-46 Commando over "The Hump". He went back to the CBI in August and took command of what had become the India-China Division (ATC) on September 4, 1944. Tunner's orders were to increase cargo tonnage levels flown by the airlift but also to reduce an alarmingly high accident level. Tunner incorporated four-engined Douglas C-54 Skymaster cargo planes into a second route to China called the "Low Hump" that widened the airlift corridor from 50 to 200 miles to increase efficiency. He instituted maintenance and flying safety programs that reduced the deadly accident rate to less than a quarter of what it had been when he took command, despite more than doubling the tonnage and hours flown. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=922978 | 1,342,885 |
241,960 | Cosmologists normally work with a given space-like slice of spacetime called the comoving coordinates, the existence of a preferred set of which is possible and widely accepted in present-day physical cosmology. The section of spacetime that can be observed is the backward light cone (all points within the cosmic light horizon, given time to reach a given observer), while the related term Hubble volume can be used to describe either the past light cone or comoving space up to the surface of last scattering. To speak of "the shape of the universe (at a point in time)" is ontologically naive from the point of view of special relativity alone: due to the relativity of simultaneity, different points in space cannot be said to exist "at the same point in time" nor, therefore, of "the shape of the universe at a point in time". However, the comoving coordinates (if well-defined) provide a strict sense to those by using the time since the Big Bang (measured in the reference of CMB) as a distinguished universal time. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=99293 | 241,834 |
100,322 | Measurement of the energy of photons emitted from the specimen is a common method to get analytical capabilities. Examples are the energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) detectors used in elemental analysis and cathodoluminescence microscope (CL) systems that analyse the intensity and spectrum of electron-induced luminescence in (for example) geological specimens. In SEM systems using these detectors it is common to color code these extra signals and superimpose them in a single color image, so that differences in the distribution of the various components of the specimen can be seen clearly and compared. Optionally, the standard secondary electron image can be merged with the one or more compositional channels, so that the specimen's structure and composition can be compared. Such images can be made while maintaining the full integrity of the original signal data, which is not modified in any way. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=28034 | 100,277 |
861,037 | It is therefore useful to reconsider what was mentioned above about philosophical sources. The Renaissance saw a significant broadening of source material. Plato, known directly only through two and a half dialogues in the Middle Ages, came to be known through numerous Latin translations in fifteenth century Italy, culminating in the hugely influential translation of his complete works by Marsilio Ficino in Florence in 1484. Petrarch was not able to read Plato directly, but he greatly admired him. Petrarch was also a great admirer of Roman poets such as Virgil and Horace and of Cicero for Latin prose writing. Not all Renaissance humanists followed his example in all things, but Petrarch contributed to a broadening of his time's 'canon' (pagan poetry had previously been considered frivolous and dangerous), something that happened in philosophy as well. In the sixteenth century anyone who considered himself 'au fait' read Plato as well as Aristotle, trying as much as possible (and not always very successfully) to reconcile the two with each other and with Christianity. This is probably the main reason why Donato Acciaiuoli's commentary on Aristotle's "Ethics" (first published in 1478) was so successful: it blended the three traditions beautifully. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=809629 | 860,578 |
2,143,139 | The Millimeter Anisotropy eXperiment IMaging Array (MAXIMA) experiment was a balloon-borne experiment funded by the United States NSF, NASA, and Department of Energy, and operated by an international collaboration headed by the University of California, to measure the fluctuations of the cosmic microwave background. It consisted of two flights, one in August 1998 and one in June 1999. For each flight the balloon was started at the Columbia Scientific Balloon Facility in Palestine, Texas and flew to an altitude of 40,000 metres for over 8 hours. For the first flight it took data from about 0.3 percent of the sky of the northern region near the Draco constellation. For the second flight, known as MAXIMA-II, twice the area was observed, this time in the direction of Ursa Major. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10999983 | 2,141,908 |
1,422,468 | Neurolaw also encompasses ethical questions regarding nootropics, or mind-enhancing drugs. Current research suggests that the future may hold powerful medications that can specifically target and alter brain function by bypassing the blood brain barrier. The potential to significantly improve one's concentration, memory, or cognition through drug-use has raised numerous questions on the legality of these substances, and their appropriateness in everyday life. Analogous to the controversy over the use of anabolic steroids in professional sports, many high schools and universities are wary of students eventually using nootropics to artificially boost academic performance. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10152418 | 1,421,667 |
874,390 | Due to the shortage of aircraft, there was a very slow initial build-up of new S.E.5a squadrons, which lasted well into 1918. Once the Wolseley Viper-powered model became plentiful, many more units were re-equipped with the type. By the end of the war, the S.E.5a was employed by a total of 21 British Empire squadrons as well as two U.S. units. Many of the top Allied aces of the Great War flew this fighter, including Billy Bishop, Andrew Beauchamp-Proctor, Edward Mannock and James McCudden. Legendary British ace Albert Ball was initially disparaging of the S.E.5, but in the end claimed 11 of his 44 victories flying it. McCudden wrote of the S.E.5: "It was very fine to be in a machine that was faster than the Huns, and to know that one could run away just as things got too hot." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1004448 | 873,928 |
478,143 | Experimental and statistical criticisms followed. Until approximately a decade ago, critics of Bateman's model focused on his experimental design. In recent years, they have shifted attention to the actual experimental and statistical calculations Bateman published throughout his trials. Birkhead wrote a 2000 review arguing that since Bateman's experiments lasted only three to four days, the female fruit fly, "Drosophila melanogaster", may not have needed to mate repeatedly, as it can store sperm for up to four days; if Bateman had used a species in which females had to copulate more often to fertilize their eggs, the results might have been different. Snyder and Gowaty conducted the first in-depth analysis of the data in Bateman's 1948 paper. They found sampling biases, mathematical errors, and selective presentation of data. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=26276222 | 477,903 |
1,691,275 | Ecological speciation due to sexual isolation results from differing environmental conditions that modify communication systems or mate choice patterns over time. Examples abound in nature. The coastal snail species "Littorina saxatilis" has been a focus of research as two ecotypes residing at different shore levels exhibit reproductive isolation as a result of mate choice regarding the body size differences of the ecotype. Both marine and freshwater stickleback fish have shown strong evidence of having speciated this way. Evidence is also found in "Neochlamisus bebbianae" leaf beetles, "Timema cristinae" walking-stick insects, and in the butterfly species "Heliconius melpomene" and "H. cydno" which are thought to have diverged recently due to assortive mating being enhanced where the species populations meet in sympatry. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41161859 | 1,690,325 |
1,317,890 | Individuals who are high in agreeableness exhibit prosocial behaviors, are cooperative, compassionate, and polite, and show sincere concern for the welfare and rights of others. Research links agreeableness with empathy and theory of mind to explain the emotions, intentions, and mental states of others. Agreeable workers are valued employees; their agreeableness is a key factor in maintaining their social relationships. Their tendency to strive toward integration, inclusion, and solidarity with others supports group cohesion. They tend to be helpful and concerned for the welfare of others. Agreeable workers also tend to experience high job satisfaction compared to less agreeable workers. Workers high in agreeableness tend to rate themselves as high in intrinsic motivation, particularly when work performed on behalf of others or an organization is considered. Heterogeneity of personality is important in team productivity, particularly where agreeableness is involved; having complete agreeableness among all members of a team is negatively related to performance as it tends to lead to groupthink. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10145037 | 1,317,165 |
212,372 | Resonance is to be distinguished from isomerism. Isomers are molecules with the same chemical formula but are distinct chemical species with different arrangements of atomic nuclei in space. Resonance contributors of a molecule, on the other hand, can only differ in the way electrons are formally assigned to atoms in the Lewis structure "depictions" of the molecule. Specifically, when a molecular structure is said to be represented by a resonance hybrid, it does "not" mean that electrons of the molecule are "resonating" or shifting back and forth between several sets of positions, each one represented by a Lewis structure. Rather, it means that the set of contributing structures "represents an intermediate structure" (a weighted average of the contributors), with a single, well-defined geometry and distribution of electrons. It is incorrect to regard resonance hybrids as rapidly interconverting isomers, even though the term "resonance" might evoke such an image. (As described below, the term "resonance" originated as a classical physics analogy for a quantum mechanical phenomenon, so it should not be construed too literally.) Symbolically, the double headed arrow <chem>A<->B</chem> is used to indicate that A and B are contributing forms of a single chemical species (as opposed to an equilibrium arrow, e.g., <chem>A <=> B</chem>; see below for details on usage). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=271046 | 212,264 |
10,383 | Georgetown University's School of Foreign Service awards Bachelor of Science degrees in foreign service to all of its undergraduates, although many students major in humanities-oriented fields such as international history or culture and politics. The London School of Economics offers BSc degrees in practically all subject areas, even those normally associated with the arts, while the Oxbridge universities almost exclusively award the BA as a first degree. In both instances, there are historical and traditional reasons. Northwestern University's School of Communication grants BSc degrees in all of its programs of study, including theater, dance, and radio/television/film. University of California, Berkeley grants a BS degree in environmental economics and policy at the College of Natural Resources (CNR), a BS degree in business administration at Haas School of Business, and a BA degree in environmental economics and policy at the College of Letters and Science (L&S). Cornell University offers a BS degree in computer science from its College of Engineering and a BA degree in computer science from its College of Arts and Sciences. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21068988 | 10,379 |
1,476,502 | "Cabbage clubroot" is a disease of Brassicaceae (mustard family or cabbage family) caused by the soil-borne Plasmodiophora brassicae. The disease first appears scattered in fields, but in successive seasons it will infect the entire field, reducing the yield significantly and sometimes resulting in no yield at all. Symptoms appear as yellowing, wilting, stunting, and galls on the roots. It is transmitted by contaminated transplants, animals, surface water runoff, contaminated equipment, and irrigation water. The pathogen can survive in a field for years as resting spores without a host present and will infect the next crop planted if it is a susceptible host. This pathogen prefers a wet climate and a pH around 5.7, so proper irrigation and the addition of compounds that raise the pH can be used to control this disease. Other control methods include sanitation to prevent transmission, chemical control, and resistant varieties. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3013542 | 1,475,670 |
851,583 | Faraday, Weber, Helmholtz, Clifford and others had glimpses of this view; and the experimental works of Zeeman, Goldstein, Crookes, J. J. Thomson and others had greatly strengthened this view. Weber predicted that electrical phenomena were due to the existence of electrical atoms, the influence of which on one another depended on their position and relative accelerations and velocities. Helmholtz and others also contended that the existence of electrical atoms followed from Faraday's laws of electrolysis, and Johnstone Stoney, to whom is due the term "electron", showed that each chemical ion of the decomposed electrolyte carries a definite and constant quantity of electricity, and inasmuch as these charged ions are separated on the electrodes as neutral substances there must be an instant, however brief, when the charges must be capable of existing separately as electrical atoms; while in 1887, Clifford wrote: "There is great reason to believe that every material atom carries upon it a small electric current, if it does not wholly consist of this current." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5951576 | 851,130 |
984,549 | There have been many efforts to engineer and improve new AAV variants for both clinical and research purposes. Such modifications include new tropisms to target specific tissues, and modified surface residues to evade detection by the immune system. Beyond opting for particular strains of recombinant AAV (rAAV) to target particular cells, researchers have also explored AAV pseudotyping, the practice of creating hybrids of certain AAV strains to approach an even more refined target. The hybrid is created by taking a capsid from one strain and the genome from another strain. For example, research involving AAV2/5, a hybrid with the genome of AAV2 and the capsid of AAV5, was able to achieve more accuracy and range in brain cells than AAV2 would be able to achieve unhybridized. Researchers have continued to experiment with pseudotyping by creating strains with hybrid capsids. AAV-DJ has a hybrid capsid from eight different strains of AAV; as such, it can infect different cells throughout many areas of the body, a property which a single strain of AAV with a limited tropism would not have. Other efforts to engineer and improve new AAV variants have involved the ancestral reconstruction of virus variants to generate new vectors with enhanced properties for clinical applications and the study of AAV biology. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1883421 | 984,035 |
16,370 | For Peirce, rational inquiry implies presuppositions about truth and the real; to reason is to presuppose (and at least to hope), as a principle of the reasoner's self-regulation, that the real is discoverable and independent of our vagaries of opinion. In that vein, he defined truth as the correspondence of a sign (in particular, a proposition) to its object and, pragmatically, not as the actual consensus of some definite, finite community (such that to inquire would be to poll the experts), but instead as that final opinion which all investigators "would" reach sooner or later but still inevitably, if they were to push investigation far enough, even when they start from different points. In tandem he defined the real as a true sign's object (be that object a possibility or quality, or an actuality or brute fact, or a necessity or norm or law), which is what it is independently of any finite community's opinion and, pragmatically, depends only on the final opinion destined in a sufficient investigation. That is a destination as far, or near, as the truth itself to you or me or the given finite community. Thus, his theory of inquiry boils down to "Do the science." Those conceptions of truth and the real involve the idea of a community both without definite limits (and thus potentially self-correcting as far as needed) and capable of definite increase of knowledge. As inference, "logic is rooted in the social principle" since it depends on a standpoint that is, in a sense, unlimited. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=26833 | 16,365 |
1,106,772 | Under CEQA, every agency in the state "is encouraged to develop and publish thresholds of significance" against which to compare the environmental impacts of projects. Such thresholds are to be published for public review and supported by substantial evidence before their adoption. A lead agency will normally consider the environmental impacts of a project to be significant if and only if they exceed established thresholds of significance. According to a 2001 survey, however, few agencies have actually developed thresholds of significance. The survey's analysts wondered, "if most agencies are "not" developing thresholds and publishing them for public review, then what criteria "are" they using?". In absence of thresholds of significance developed independently by lead agencies, impact assessments apply the significant criteria detailed in Appendix G, Environmental Checklist, of the CEQA Statutes and Guidelines, which is produced by the California Office of Planning and Research (OPR). Lead agencies can also defer to authority agencies that publish their recommended guidelines for the resources they regulate. Examples of this include the California Department of Conservation has threshold tests for assessing impacts to agricultural resources using the LESA model, and the Bay Area Air Quality Management District has published guidelines for air quality impacts. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1833622 | 1,106,208 |
1,627,131 | Vaccines should be administered several weeks before conception to provide immunity throughout the susceptible period of gestation but after the disappearance of passively acquired colostral antibody, which could interfere with the development of active immunity. These limits may define a very brief interval for effective vaccination of gilts that are bred before 7 months of age. Although inactivated vaccine provides maximum safety, there is experimental evidence that PPV can be sufficiently attenuated so that it is unlikely to cause reproductive failure even if inadvertently administered during gestation. The apparent safety of MLV vaccine may be due to its reduced ability to replicate in tissues of the intact host and cause the level of viremia needed for transplacental infection. Moreover, it has been shown by transuterine inoculation of both virulent and attenuated virus that a much larger dose of attenuated virus is required to establish infection of fetuses. Duration of immunity following vaccination is unknown; however, in one study antibody titers were maintained for at least 4 months after administration of an inactivated vaccine. Low levels of antibody found to be protective allow speculation that, once the immune system has been primed with PPV, subsequent exposure to virulent virus during gestation is unlikely to result in transplacental infection even if antibody from vaccination is no longer detected. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4741170 | 1,626,213 |
1,361,465 | However, it can be difficult for these methods to accurately simulate CSTs everts. Estimates of CST based on phylogenies made using the VNTR marker can be biased towards detecting CST events across a wide range of the parameters. SNPs tend to be less biased and variable in estimates of CST when estimations of CST rates are low and a low number of SNPs is used. In general, CST rate estimates using these methods are most reliable in systems with more mutations, more markers, and high genetic differences between introduced strains. CST is very complex and models need to account for a lot of parameters to accurately represent the phenomena. Models that oversimplify reality can result in biased data. Multiple parameters such as number of mutations accumulated since introduction, stochasticity, the genetic difference of strains introduced, and the sampling effort can make unbiased estimates of CST difficult even with whole-genome sequences, especially if sampling is limited, mutation rates are low, or if pathogens were recently introduced. More information on the factors that influence CST rates is needed for the contraction of more appropriate models to study these events. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=40977477 | 1,360,712 |
1,948,858 | An Inductive pump is a magnetically regulated positive displacement pump used to pump liquids and gases. It is capable of handling many corrosive chemicals as well as solvents and gases. It is characterized by a single piston that reciprocates within a magnetic field and therefore doesn’t require a dynamic seal to link the piston to an outside mechanical power source. Check valves are placed at both ends of the piston housing allowing the simultaneous suctioning and pumping that reverses with each stroke. This is known to reduce pulsations especially at higher flow rates. The piston and housing are constructed of materials that are inert to many liquids and gasses. Because the piston and housing are non-plastic materials the positive displacement chamber does not change in dimension from flexing and distortion thus allowing inductive pumps to remain very accurate with no significant changes over time. Inductive pumps are extremely accurate as each stroke contains the same volume created by a solid piston inside a solid chamber. The number of strokes can be counted or timed to determine the total volume delivered. They can be used in sterile and controlled environments as they will not leak to the outside of the housing even if the piston has experienced wear. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4028727 | 1,947,740 |
2,029,987 | A generalisation to dimension 2 of the fundamental groupoid on a set of base was given by Brown and Higgins in 1978 as follows. Let formula_22 be a triple of spaces, i.e. formula_23. Define formula_24 to be the set of homotopy classes rel vertices of maps of a square into X which take the edges into A and the vertices into C. It is not entirely trivial to prove that the natural compositions of such squares in two directions are inherited by these homotopy classes to give a double groupoid, which also has an extra structure of so-called connections necessary to discuss the idea of commutative cube in a double groupoid. This double groupoid is used in an essential way to prove a two-dimensional Seifert-van Kampen theorem, which gives new information and computations on second relative homotopy groups as part of a crossed module. For more information, see Part I of the book by Brown, Higgins, Sivera listed below. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25981912 | 2,028,819 |
711,560 | Kahn quickly learned English and went to Detroit public schools. In 1883, he got a job at the architectural business of Mason and Rice where he got his initial architectural training. While working there he primarily designed residences and bank buildings. In 1891, at age 22, he won a Rotch Traveling Fellowship to study in Europe, where he toured Germany, France, Italy, and Belgium with Henry Bacon, another young architecture student. Bacon later designed the Lincoln Memorial that is located in Washington, D.C. After leaving Mason & Rice in 1895, Kahn joined in a partnership with Alexander B. Trowbridge and George W. Nettleton known as Nettleton, Kahn & Trowbridge. He married Ernestine Krolik in 1896 and they had four children. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=394770 | 711,188 |
957,483 | After mid-1942, with the growth of armed Resistance, and the spectacular destruction of the Gorgopotamos bridge (Operation "Harling") by a force of Greek guerrillas and British saboteurs on 25 November, the Italian authorities tried vainly to contain the surge in acts of resistance directed against their forces. The guerrillas were largely successful against the Italians, allowing for the creation of "liberated" areas in the mountainous interior, including sizeable towns, by mid-1943. At that time, German troops began moving into Greece. Elite formations such as the 1st Panzer Division and the 1st Mountain Division were brought into the country, both in anticipation of a possible Allied landing in Greece (a concept deliberately promoted by the Allies themselves as a diversion from the landings at Sicily) and as a guarantee against a possible Italian capitulation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2150988 | 956,977 |
1,856,355 | Swarm robotic platforms apply swarm robotics in multi-robot collaboration. They take inspiration from nature (e.g. collective problem solving mechanisms seen in nature such as honey bee aggregation). The main goal is to control a large number of robots (with limited sensing/processing ability) to accomplish a common task/problem. Hardware limitation and cost of robot platforms limit current research in swarm robotics to mostly performed by simulation software (e.g. Stage, ARGoS). On the other hand, simulation of swarm scenarios that needs large numbers of agents is extremely complex and often inaccurate due to poor modelling of external conditions and limitation of computation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=52467144 | 1,855,287 |
511,666 | Rivers whose discharge is liable to become quite small at their low stage, or which have a somewhat large fall, as is usual in the upper part of rivers, cannot be given an adequate depth for navigation purely by works which regulate the flow; their ordinary summer level has to be raised by impounding the flow with weirs at intervals across the channel, while a lock has to be provided alongside the weir, or in a side channel, to provide for the passage of vessels. A river is thereby converted into a succession of fairly level reaches rising in steps up-stream, providing still-water navigation comparable to a canal; but it differs from a canal in the introduction of weirs for keeping up the water-level, in the provision for the regular discharge of the river at the weirs, and in the two sills of the locks being laid at the same level instead of the upper sill being raised above the lower one to the extent of the rise at the lock, as usual on canals. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3966984 | 511,400 |
924,000 | In the late 1930s, the 1907 was updated by Winchester with a much thicker fore-end (eliminating the cracking problems common to the earlier models) and stock. The newer model also had a redesigned charging handle which made it easier to lock the bolt back. At the same time, a variant for police use was introduced, featuring an M1892 Krag bayonet lug, and the possibility of using an extended magazine for 20 rounds. For a long time, on the Internet, a photo of a similar rifle from the Cody Firearms Museum (USA), S/N 47357, manufactured in 1935, was presented as a "French order of the First World War", having nothing to do with it. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21036743 | 923,514 |
1,451,093 | Massospondylidae is a family of early massopod dinosaurs that existed in Asia, Africa, North America, South America and Antarctica during the Late Triassic to the Early Jurassic periods. Several dinosaurs have been classified as massospondylids over the years. The largest cladistic analysis of early sauropodomorphs, which was presented by Apaldetti and colleagues in November 2011, found "Adeopapposaurus", "Coloradisaurus", "Glacialisaurus", "Massospondylus", "Leyesaurus" and "Lufengosaurus" to be massospondylids. This result supports many previous analyses that tested fewer taxa. However, this analysis found the two recently described North American massopods, "Sarahsaurus" and "Seitaad", and the South African "Ignavusaurus" to nest outside Massospondylidae, as opposed to some provisional proposals. Earlier in 2011, "Pradhania", a sauropodomorph from India, was tested for the first time in a large cladistic analysis and was found to be a relatively basal massospondylid. "Mussaurus" and "Xixiposaurus" may also be included within Massospondylidae. In 2019, a specimen previously assigned to "Massospondylus" from South Africa was re-examined and found to belong to a separate genus that was named "Ngwevu". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13049075 | 1,450,276 |
254,212 | The availability of a continuous, high-fidelity, calibrated blood pressure waveform opened up the perspective of beat-to-beat computation of integrated haemodynamics, based on two notions: pressure and flow are inter-related at each site in the arterial system by their so-called characteristic impedance. At the proximal aortic site, the 3-element Windkessel model of this impedance can be modelled with sufficient accuracy in an individual patient with known age, gender, height and weight. According to comparisons of non-invasive peripheral vascular monitors, modest clinical utility is restricted to patients with normal and invariant circulation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=242110 | 254,079 |
637,892 | The needle-winding technique basically represents the only feasible winding process for inside slotted stator laminations. The stator mainly consists of a steel package, two end plates and slot insulation. The particular benefit of this process technology lies in the fact that the winding machine produces a completely winded assembly group when adequate electrical slot fill factors are employed. If, however, the use of single teeth requires joining and interconnecting operations, all interconnecting measures of the coil sections of one phase may be executed by the winding machine for the stator laminations. In this case, the electric slot fill factor may amount up to 45%. Since manufacturing a functioning stator merely requires a small effort, the negative impact on the electric fill factor is gladly accepted. In order to be able to use various additional functions of the winding machine, the end plates are often designed in a way which allows e.g. the taking on of cutting terminal contacts. In addition, winding space restrictions and laying ducts for the connecting wires of a phase may be integrated. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=51118813 | 637,553 |
2,156,645 | The ancestral mink-human spillover event in Michigan also showed evidence of animal-to-human transmission, resulting in four human infections that were largely kept from public view upon their discovery late 2020, and only announced by the US Centers for Disease Control (CDC) several months later, in March 2021. The CDC defended its decision by noting that its findings were not "surprising or unexpected", since similar mink-to-human crossover events had already been documented in Europe. Two of the people infected by the Michigan mink strain had no known link to the mink farm, but had reported recent interactions with white-tailed deer while hunting on dates on or near the onset of illness. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=70401628 | 2,155,414 |
36,120 | The Stinger's combat debut occurred during the Falklands War () fought between the United Kingdom and Argentina. At the onset of the conflict soldiers of the British Army's Special Air Service (SAS) had been clandestinely equipped with six missiles, although they had received little instruction in their use. The sole SAS trooper who had received training on the system, and was due to train other troops, was killed in a helicopter crash on 19 May. Nonetheless, on 21 May 1982 an SAS soldier engaged and shot down an Argentine Pucará ground attack aircraft with a Stinger. On 30 May, at about 11.00 a.m., an Aérospatiale SA 330 Puma helicopter was brought down by another missile, also fired by the SAS, in the vicinity of Mount Kent. Six Argentine National Gendarmerie Special Forces troops were killed and eight more wounded. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38049 | 36,108 |
686,062 | The creation of new wavetables was previously a difficult process unless supported by specialized editing facilities and (near) real-time playback of edited wavetables on the synthesizer. Such editors often required the use of extra hardware devices like the PPG Waveterm or were only present in expensive models like the Waldorf WAVE. More commonly, pre-computed wavetables could be added via memory cards or sent to the synthesizer via MIDI. Today, wavetables can be created more easily by software and auditioned directly on a computer. Since all waveforms used in wavetable synthesis are periodic, the time-domain and frequency-domain representation are exact equivalents of each other and both can be used simultaneously to define waveforms and wavetables. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=175310 | 685,705 |
346,594 | Hanaoka's success in performing this painless operation soon became widely known, and patients began to arrive from all parts of Japan. Hanaoka went on to perform many operations using tsūsensan, including resection of malignant tumors, extraction of bladder stones, and extremity amputations. Before his death in 1835, Hanaoka performed more than 150 operations for breast cancer. However, this finding did not benefit the rest of the world until 1854 as the national isolation policy of the Tokugawa shogunate prevented Hanaoka's achievements from being publicized until after the isolation ended. Nearly forty years would pass before Crawford Long, who is titled as the inventor of modern anesthetics in the West, used general anesthesia in Jefferson, Georgia. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=56561 | 346,413 |
333,327 | Once he had his theory, Darwin was meticulous about gathering and refining evidence before making his idea public. He was in the process of writing his "big book" to present his research when the naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace independently conceived of the principle and described it in an essay he sent to Darwin to forward to Charles Lyell. Lyell and Joseph Dalton Hooker decided to present his essay together with unpublished writings that Darwin had sent to fellow naturalists, and "On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection" was read to the Linnean Society of London announcing co-discovery of the principle in July 1858. Darwin published a detailed account of his evidence and conclusions in "On the Origin of Species" in 1859. In the 3rd edition of 1861 Darwin acknowledged that others—like William Charles Wells in 1813, and Patrick Matthew in 1831—had proposed similar ideas, but had neither developed them nor presented them in notable scientific publications. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21147 | 333,149 |
306,869 | Before rapid digital computers were available, the data processing was done using an optical holography technique. The analog radar data were recorded as a holographic interference pattern on photographic film at a scale permitting the film to preserve the signal bandwidths (for example, 1:1,000,000 for a radar using a 0.6-meter wavelength). Then light using, for example, 0.6-micrometer waves (as from a helium–neon laser) passing through the hologram could project a terrain image at a scale recordable on another film at reasonable processor focal distances of around a meter. This worked because both SAR and phased arrays are fundamentally similar to optical holography, but using microwaves instead of light waves. The "optical data-processors" developed for this radar purpose were the first effective analog optical computer systems, and were, in fact, devised before the holographic technique was fully adapted to optical imaging. Because of the different sources of range and across-range signal structures in the radar signals, optical data-processors for SAR included not only both spherical and cylindrical lenses, but sometimes conical ones. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=645554 | 306,705 |
963,176 | Over an exactly three-year-long timespan, Frictional created and self-published "". The game was released on 8 September 2010 to generally favourable reviews, however, Frictional noted that it expected the game to struggle becoming popular and profitable given its lack of a third-party publisher. "Amnesia: The Dark Descent" sold 36,000 copies within its first month of release, and a total of 1,360,000 copies within the first two years, earning the company a total revenue of about in contrast to their development budget. According to Nilsson, the Frictional team did not know how to continue the "Amnesia" series and feared that a misattempted "Amnesia" game would "fail miserably". Instead, the team opted to draft The Chinese Room as a third-party developer to develop a second game, giving them advice on the horror aspects, while The Chinese Room was responsible for the plot and gameplay development. The game, "", was released by Frictional in 2013. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15928048 | 962,667 |
1,068,095 | President George H. W. Bush continued to support space development, announcing the bold Space Exploration Initiative, which had as goals, among other things, a permanent settlement on the Moon and manned missions to Mars. The SEI faced a number of political hurdles, and opposition only increased when follow-up analysis of SEI reveled a half-a-trillion dollar price tag over 30 years. This, combined with problems on the Hubble Space Telescope and massive cost overruns for the Space Station, threatened funding for NASA, but in spite of this, and in spite of an economic downturn, Bush ordered a 20 percent increase in NASA's budget in a tight budget era. The Bush administration also commissioned another report on the future of NASA, the Advisory Committee on the Future of the United States Space Program, also known as the Augustine Report. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30731968 | 1,067,541 |
2,081,428 | FST3 supports several standard data mining tasks, more specifically, data preprocessing and classification, but its main focus is on feature selection. In feature selection context, it implements several common as well as less usual techniques, with particular emphasis put on threaded implementation of various sequential search methods (a form of hill-climbing). Implemented methods include individual feature ranking, floating search, oscillating search (suitable for very high-dimension problems) in randomized or deterministic form, optimal methods of branch and bound type, probabilistic class distance criteria, various classifier accuracy estimators, feature subset size optimization, feature selection with pre-specified feature weights, criteria ensembles, hybrid methods, detection of all equivalent solutions, or two-criterion optimization. FST3 is more narrowly specialized than popular software like the Waikato Environment for Knowledge Analysis Weka, RapidMiner or PRTools. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29550075 | 2,080,228 |
398,111 | An analysis of these claims was published by Gregory McIntosh, a historian of cartography, who examined the map in depth in his book "The Piri Reis Map of 1513" (Athens and London: University of Georgia Press, 2000). He was able to find sources for much of the map in Columbus's writings. Certain peculiarities (such as the appearance of the Virgin Islands in two locations) he attributed to the use of multiple maps as sources; others (such as the errors in North American geography) he traced to the continued confusion of the area with East Asia. As far as the accuracy of depiction of the supposed Antarctic coast is concerned, there are two conspicuous errors. First, it is shown hundreds of kilometres north of its proper location; second, the Drake Passage is completely missing, with the Antarctic Peninsula presumably conflated with the Western Patagonian coast. The identification of this area of the map with the frigid Antarctic coast is also difficult to reconcile with the notes on the map which describe the region as having a warm climate. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1615421 | 397,915 |
149,494 | The last race of the year was at the demanding and punishing Adelaide street circuit in Australia. With Nigel Mansell out of action with injury after the Japanese GP, Williams did a deal with Brabham to use 1988 signing Riccardo Patrese for the final race of 1987 and Brabham took on youngster Stefano Modena as Patrese's replacement. Otherwise the field was as before. Japanese GP winner Gerhard Berger was on pole position in his Ferrari from Alain Prost's McLaren-TAG/Porsche, Nelson Piquet's Williams-Honda and the Lotus-Honda of Ayrton Senna. Thierry Boutsen was fifth quickest in his Benetton-Ford ahead of Michele Alboreto's Ferrari, Patrese's Williams, Stefan Johansson's McLaren, Teo Fabi's Benetton and Andrea de Cesaris's Brabham. Berger did as he had done in Japan, leading from flag to flag. He was chased initially by Piquet and Senna but the Lotus soon fell behind Prost. After the midrace pit stops Senna moved to second with Alboreto third. The final World Championship points went to Jonathan Palmer (Tyrrell) in fourth place and Roberto Moreno (AGS) in sixth. Yannick Dalmas (Larrousse Lola) finished fifth, but was not eligible for World Championship points as he was driving Larrousse-Lola's second car and the team had officially entered only one car for the entire championship. Senna was then disqualified for a weight infringement in his last race for Lotus. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1139093 | 149,426 |
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