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94,168 | In Big Bang cosmology the cosmic microwave background (CMB, CMBR) is electromagnetic radiation that is a remnant from an early stage of the universe, also known as "relic radiation". The CMB is faint cosmic background radiation filling all space. It is an important source of data on the early universe because it is the oldest electromagnetic radiation in the universe, dating to the epoch of recombination when the first atoms were formed. With a traditional optical telescope, the space between stars and galaxies (the background) is completely dark (see: Olbers' paradox). However, a sufficiently sensitive radio telescope shows a faint background brightness, or glow, almost uniform, that is not associated with any star, galaxy, or other object. This glow is strongest in the microwave region of the radio spectrum. The accidental discovery of the CMB in 1965 by American radio astronomers Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson was the culmination of work initiated in the 1940s, and earned the discoverers the 1978 Nobel Prize in Physics. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7376 | 94,127 |
1,518,738 | As with all the labs of DRDO, DMRL started its operations as a part of the Ordnance Factory Board at its Metal & Steel Factory in Calcutta in the year 1951 as the Technical Development Establishment (Metals), later to be upgraded as DMRL in 1956. DMRL was shifted to Hyderabad in 1963. Since then, it has developed competence in the areas of powder metallurgy based fabrication and development of alloys, armor and rocket motor steel, aerospace light alloys, and magnetic materials. The formation of other entities such as the Mishra Dhatu Nigam Ltd., Heavy Alloy Penetrator Plant, Composites Production Centre, Non-Ferrous Technology Development Centre, and the Advanced Research Centre International have followed the establishment of DMRL. The DMRL is also involved in R&D efforts to develop futuristic materials to provide advanced technology options. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14080274 | 1,517,880 |
1,049,260 | Burmese amber, also known as Burmite or Kachin amber, is amber from the Hukawng Valley in northern Myanmar. The amber is dated to around 100 million years ago, during the latest Albian to earliest Cenomanian ages of the mid-Cretaceous period. The amber is of significant palaeontological interest due to the diversity of flora and fauna contained as inclusions, particularly arthropods including insects and arachnids but also birds, lizards, snakes, frogs and fragmentary dinosaur remains. The amber has been known and commercially exploited since the first century AD, and has been known to science since the mid-nineteenth century. Research on the deposit has attracted controversy due to its alleged role in funding internal conflict in Myanmar and hazardous working conditions in the mines where it is collected. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=48679019 | 1,048,715 |
1,072,262 | In all, 318 cases of Ebola were identified in Zaire, and 280 resulted in death. An additional 284 cases and 151 deaths occurred in nearby South Sudan in an unrelated outbreak. Yambuku Mission Hospital was closed after 11 of its 17 staff members died. Belgian nuns serving the community were also infected, and two of them died, along with Mayinga N'Seka, a Zairean nurse, after the group was transported to Kinshasa. With assistance from the WHO, the outbreak was eventually contained by quarantining local villagers in their communities, sterilizing medical equipment, and providing protective clothing to medical personnel. The small Congolese Air Force provided helicopters to allow the outbreak team to visit 550 villages in the area. Cases were documented in 55 of the 550 villages surveyed. The majority of cases were detected in the first four weeks of September, and the last detected probable case died on 5 November 1976. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=64307401 | 1,071,708 |
2,006,723 | Infrared and ultraviolet light are also useful tools to understand the intrinsic details of certain objects. However, X-rays tend to be more useful for denser objects. The benefit of radiography is that it is not intrusive. Radiography does expose the object to radiation, but these levels are low. In fact, they are much lower than the radiation levels required for medical X-rays. While technicians and staff conducting the X-ray must use protective gear, the object is not damaged during the process. Furthermore, the use of radiography is widely accepted by conservators, art historians, and archaeologists. Several institutions around the world conduct radiography of objects in their collections including the Victoria & Albert Museum in London, England and the Smithsonian, which operates the Museum Conservation Institute. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=48048697 | 2,005,573 |
534,409 | Advanced degrees were not a criterion for professorships at most colleges. This began to change in the mid-19th century, as thousands of the more ambitious scholars at major schools went to Germany for one to three years to obtain a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in the sciences or the humanities. Graduate schools slowly emerged in the United States. In the 1860s and 1870s, Yale and Harvard awarded a few PhD's. The major breakthrough came with the opening of Clark University, which only offered graduate programs, and Johns Hopkins University, which began focusing more seriously on its PhD program. By the 1890s, Harvard, Columbia, Michigan and Wisconsin were building major graduate programs; their alumni were in strong demand at aspiring universities. By 1900, there were 6,000 enrolled graduate students. The six main universities awarded about 300 PhD's annually. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44440652 | 534,130 |
107,311 | Two different valvetrains are present on this engine series. The L12A, L13A and L15A use (), or “intelligent Dual & Sequential Ignition”. i-DSI utilizes two spark plugs per cylinder which fire at different intervals during the combustion process to achieve a more complete burn of the gasoline. This process allows the engine to have more power while keeping fuel consumption low, thanks to the better gasoline utilization. Emissions are also reduced. The i-DSI engines have two to five valves per cylinder and a modest redline of only 6,000 rpm, but reach maximum torque at mid-range rpm, allowing for better performance without having to rev the engine at high speeds. The i-DSI is also known for not using Turbochargers in the performance category, as it uses a high compression, long stroke with a lightweight and compact engine. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3878763 | 107,266 |
1,714,283 | Mathematical Grammar School has built a reputation as an elite school throughout its 45 years of existence, with significant world stage highlights at the end of 1980s and during the 1990s, which led to increased number of candidates applying every year. Eventually the number of applicants far outnumbered the number of available spaces. Paid classes were introduced in 1997 for students whose parents were willing and able to pay for their education. This practice has continued since, enabling the School to keep its high teaching standards through budget improvements. Basic fees are 10,000 euros per year. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8358106 | 1,713,317 |
919,757 | On April 12, 2007, LGBT rights group Soulforce selected PHC as one of the targets of its annual "Equality Ride" to protest the stance of conservative Christian colleges concerning homosexuality. Patrick Henry College officials did not allow Soulforce to enter the university premises but did suggest that student representatives engage in a formal debate at a neutral location on the merits of the proposed Federal Marriage Amendment to the US Constitution. Soulforce organizers declined this suggestion and notified the college of their intent to enter the campus. After being refused entry, Soulforce protesters formed a picket line outside of the campus entrance and protested for approximately five hours. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1025788 | 919,271 |
1,844,461 | The institute was named Institute for Research on Learning (IRL) and founded in 1988. Its first director was George Pake, a physicist from PARC. Its staff was composed of an inter-disciplinary group of researchers: recruited in part from PARC and from Stanford and UC Berkeley. Researchers came from the disciplines of education, linguistics, anthropology, computer science, and psychology. Of particular note, James G. Greeno, a senior educational psychologist, worked to define themes and guide research projects throughout IRL's history. This first generation of researchers developed the vision and methodology for the institute. They were inspired by anthropology's conception of learning as a social and cultural phenomenon and inspired by books like “Situated Learning” (Co-authors Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger were members of the institute). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25504703 | 1,843,407 |
446,498 | PATH uses behavior change communication techniques to encourage healthy behaviors for HIV prevention. One of the best-known examples is PATH's work with "magnet theater" in Kenya, India, Vietnam, and other developing countries. Named because of its natural pulling power, this interactive street theater draws people in rural communities to clearings, dirt roads, and village centers—any open space where people can gather. There, actors banter with their audiences and pull them into the play, stimulating dialogue about HIV/AIDS and other taboo subjects and helping individuals re-examine behaviors that contribute to poor health. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8271030 | 446,282 |
1,357,764 | There is no cure for canine cognitive dysfunction, but there are medical aids to help mask the symptoms attributed to the disease as it progresses. Therapies are a major form of symptom masking, such as exercise increase, new toys, and learning new commands have shown increases in memory. Changing the dog's diet is also a helpful tool in improving memory and cell membrane health. Medication is also one of the most effective ways to mask the symptoms of CCD. Anipryl (selegiline) is the only drug that has been approved for use on dogs with canine cognitive dysfunction. Anipryl is a drug that is used to treat humans with Parkinson's disease, and has shown drastic improvement in the quality of life in dogs living with CCD. In Korea a drug containing the active substance Crisdesalazine was approved for treatment of CCD. It is proposed to act as an inhibitor of the enzyme MPGES-1. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41726017 | 1,357,014 |
910,066 | Methods for spacing may be: manual, using various tools, including power saws, brush saws, and clippers; mechanical, using choppersand mulchers; chemical; or combinations of several methods. One treatment has had notable success in spacing massively overstocked (<100 000 stems/ha) natural regeneration of spruce and fir in Maine. Fitted to helicopter, the Thru-Valve boom emits herbicide spray droplets 1000 µm to 2000 µm in diameter at very low pressure. Swaths 1.2 m wide and leave strips 2.4 m wide were obtained with "knife-edge" precision when the herbicide was applied by helicopter flying at a height of 21 m at a speed of 40–48 km/h. It seems likely that no other method could be as cost-effective. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1031149 | 909,587 |
1,945,266 | In 1983, classification for cerebral palsy competitors in this sport was done by the Cerebral Palsy International Sports and Recreation Association. The classification used the classification system designed for field athletics events. In 1983, there were five cerebral palsy classifications. Going into the 2000 Summer Paralympics, there were concerns raised by members of the cerebral palsy community about the need to maintain a multiple functional classification system inside this sport specifically for this class of athletes given the large range of functional ability inside the community with cerebral palsy and other motor functional disabilities. At the New York hosted Empire State Games for the Physically Challenged, this sport was played, with the organisers having hearing and vision impaired classifications, amputee classifications, Les Autres, cerebral palsy and spinal cord disabilities. By the early 1990s, table tennis classification had moved away from medical based system to a functional classification system. Because of issues in objectively identifying functionality that plagued the post Barcelona Games, the IPC unveiled plans to develop a new classification system in 2003. This classification system went into effect in 2007, and defined ten different disability types that were eligible to participate on the Paralympic level. It required that classification be sport specific, and served two roles. The first was that it determined eligibility to participate in the sport and that it created specific groups of sportspeople who were eligible to participate and in which class. The IPC left it up to International Federations to develop their own classification systems within this framework, with the specification that their classification systems use an evidence based approach developed through research. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=36583561 | 1,944,154 |
1,585,193 | An algae bloom is the enhanced growth of photosynthetic organisms in a water system, which manifests itself as a clear change of water color. Algal blooms are often caused by a local enrichment of the water system with nutrients, which temporarily remove the limiting growth factor of photosynthetic organisms like cyanobacteria. Due to oxygen depletion, blocking sunlight and the release of possible toxins algal blooms can be harmful to their environment. Algae are characterized by their green color, caused by the absorption spectra of the chlorophyll-a in these organisms. Optical satellites like Sentinel-2 or active radiometers like Sentinel-3 and MODIS can capture the reflectance of the ocean surface in the visible and near-infrared spectrum. Areas with a higher concentration of algae near the surface have a distinct different color. The spectral signature of an algal bloom in water is captured by the sensor as a high green and near-infrared radiation reflectance and low red light reflectance. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=67696353 | 1,584,302 |
202,031 | In 1926 at the age of 39, Austrian theoretical physicist Erwin Schrödinger produced the papers that gave the foundations of quantum wave mechanics. In those papers he described his partial differential equation that is the basic equation of quantum mechanics and bears the same relation to the mechanics of the atom as Newton's equations of motion bear to planetary astronomy. Adopting a proposal made by Louis de Broglie in 1924 that particles of matter have a dual nature and in some situations act like waves, Schrödinger introduced a theory describing the behaviour of such a system by a wave equation that is now known as the Schrödinger equation. The solutions to Schrödinger's equation, unlike the solutions to Newton's equations, are wave functions that can only be related to the probable occurrence of physical events. The readily visualized sequence of events of the planetary orbits of Newton is, in quantum mechanics, replaced by the more abstract notion of probability. (This aspect of the quantum theory made Schrödinger and several other physicists profoundly unhappy, and he devoted much of his later life to formulating philosophical objections to the generally accepted interpretation of the theory that he had done so much to create.) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1416046 | 201,928 |
1,015,984 | It is now accepted that the giant squid has a maximum mass of several hundred kilograms, but the literature is rife with claims of much greater weights. Clarke (1966), for example, put the mass of the largest giant squid specimens at around . Similarly, Richard Ellis wrote: "Where [giant] squid carcasses have actually been weighed, it appears that the longest ones—in the 50-foot [] range, for example—weigh about a ton []." Much greater estimates of giant squid mass can be found in, for example, "Natural History of Marine Animals" by MacGinitie & MacGinitie (1949): "two arms of "Architeuthis" that were long were found, and if one reconstructed a body [...] the squid to which these arms belonged was in diameter and long, with an overall measurement of . It would have weighed about 42 tons []." They added that a specimen, such as the one reported from Thimble Tickle, "would have weighed 29 or 30 tons [] including the tentacles—a truly noble animal, being a little more than one-fifth the weight of the largest whale and larger than the whale sharks and basking sharks, the largest of all fishes". Ellis characterised these estimates as "unfounded exaggerations". In the revised edition of "Natural History of Marine Animals", published in 1968, the authors reduced their estimate to less than 8 tonnes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8375147 | 1,015,461 |
1,551,480 | Shortly after the ISOLDE experimental program started, some major improvements for SC were planned. In 1972 the SC shut down to upgrade its beam intensity by changing its radiofrequency system. The SC improvement program increased the primary proton beam intensity by about a factor of 100. To be able to handle this high-intensity ISOLDE facility also needed some modifications. After necessary modifications, the new ISOLDE facility also known as ISOLDE 2 was launched in 1974. Its new target design combined with the increased beam intensity from the SC led to significant enhancements in the number of nuclides produced. However, after some time the external beam current from the SC started to be a limiting factor. The collaboration discussed the possibility of moving the facility to an accelerator that could reach higher current values but decided on building another separator with ultra-modern design, for the facility. The new high-resolution separator, ISOLDE 3, was in full use by the end of the 80s. In 1990 a new ion source named Resonance Ionization Laser Ion Source (RILIS) was installed at the facility to selectively and efficiently produce radioactive beams. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2050029 | 1,550,599 |
1,564,672 | Although these plastics can still be recycled, they will also decompose into a waxy substance in less than a year, provided they are exposed to environmental conditions such as sunlight, air and water. Ecotoxicity tests have shown that this intermediary wax is "non-harmful for contact with soil, plants and the aquatic environment". Bacteria and fungi will then digest the wax and break it down into carbon dioxide and water. It does not leave behind microplastics, a common problem of previous biodegradable products. According to Polymateria, this is achieved because the additives do not just break down the amorphous, but also the crystalline regions of the polymer. The resulting substance thus has a molecular weight of only around 6001000 daltons, compared to existing technologies which were unable to get below 5000 daltons. At these lower levels, the polymer is broken down enough to become a waxy substance biologically available to microbes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66122548 | 1,563,785 |
1,926,367 | Amebiasis has been observed in saurian, ophidian, and chelonian reptiles and is shown to result in a mortality rate of approximately 100%. Several scientists have noted that reptiles native to lower temperature climates tend to be carriers of the parasite, while those species who live in warmer temperatures usually develop pathogenic cases. It has also been found that snakes and lizards have the highest mortality rates in contrast to turtles and crocodiles who tend to be asymptomatic carriers. Symptoms typically include dehydration, anorexia, lethargy, and bloody stools. This condition is usually diagnosed by directly examining fecal samples for trophozoites, however, diagnosis is difficult due to the short lifespan and the morphological similarities to the other Entamoeba species. There is still a great need to develop an assay that is rapid, specific, and sensitive to "E. Invadens". The development of such an assay will allow identification of carriers, therefore preventing the spread of E. Invadens to other reptiles. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44779596 | 1,925,263 |
762,093 | Heterotrimeric G proteins located within the cell are activated by G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) that span the cell membrane. Signaling molecules bind to a domain of the GPCR located outside the cell, and an intracellular GPCR domain then in turn activates a particular G protein. Some active-state GPCRs have also been shown to be "pre-coupled" with G proteins, whereas in other cases a collision coupling mechanism is thought to occur. The G protein activates a cascade of further signaling events that finally results in a change in cell function. G protein-coupled receptor and G proteins working together transmit signals from many hormones, neurotransmitters, and other signaling factors. G proteins regulate metabolic enzymes, ion channels, transporter proteins, and other parts of the cell machinery, controlling transcription, motility, contractility, and secretion, which in turn regulate diverse systemic functions such as embryonic development, learning and memory, and homeostasis. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12841 | 761,685 |
1,979,492 | "M. caliginosus" is used in Europe in the biological control of whitefly in tomato crops in greenhouses. It can survive for some time on its host plants in the absence of insect prey, can feed on pests other than whitefly, and has the additional advantage of being able to move freely from plant to plant. Due to a taxonomic revision, the species used in biocontrol is now properly identified as "Macrolophus pygmaeus". Following its success in Europe, North American growers hoped to import it for biological control. However, regulatory authorities are reluctant to issue import permits for non-native generalist predators because of the possibility of them escaping into the wider environment with unintended consequences. So a search was undertaken in North America for an indigenous natural enemy for use in greenhouses there, and the mirid "Dicyphus hesperus" was found suitable to fulfil the role. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=47271901 | 1,978,354 |
1,980,938 | In the effort to improve the impact of his results on discrete radio sources, Bolton chose to refine his source positions and eliminate any systematic uncertainties. Bolton and Stanley did this via an expedition to New Zealand, conducting sea-cliff interferometric observations from both New Zealand and Australia. These observations corrected the positions of the sources in the 1948 paper by over 1 degree. With 10 arcminute precision and a better handle on systematic uncertainties due to ionospheric refraction, Bolton could now reasonably suggest optical counterparts. While the optical candidate of Cygnus A remained elusive, Bolton showed that Taurus A was associated with the peculiar Crab Nebula, Virgo A with a galaxy that emanated a long jet-like structure (M87), and Centaurus A with such a peculiar object that astronomers were contemporarily arguing about whether it belonged to the Milky Way or not. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=840442 | 1,979,800 |
862,856 | Quotas prompt foreign suppliers to raise their prices toward the domestic level of the importing country. That relieves some of the competitive pressure on domestic suppliers, and both they and the foreign suppliers gain at the expense of a loss to consumers, and to the domestic economy, in addition to which there is a "deadweight loss" to the world economy. When quotas were banned under the rules of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), the United States, Britain and the European Union made use of equivalent arrangements known as "voluntary restraint agreements" (VRAs) or voluntary export restraints (VERs) which were negotiated with the governments of exporting countries (mainly Japan)—until they too were banned. Tariffs have been considered to be less harmful than quotas, although it can be shown that their welfare effects differ only when there are significant upward or downward trends in imports. Governments also impose a wide range of non-tariff barriers that are similar in effect to quotas, some of which are subject to WTO agreements. A recent example has been the application of the "precautionary principle" to exclude innovatory products. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1700209 | 862,396 |
2,188,894 | Born on 23 August 1864, Robert Elliot was educated at Bedford School and at the Medical College of St Bartholomew's Hospital. He entered the Indian Medical Service and was gazetted surgeon-lieutenant on 30 January 1892. He served on the North West Frontier, between 1892 and 1893, and was Superintendent of the Government Ophthalmic Hospital, Madras, and professor of Ophthalmology at Madras Medical College, between 1904 and 1914. He gained a D.Sc. from the University of Edinburgh in 1904 with a thesis on the pharmacology of cobra venom. He was Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons, between 1916 and 1917, and Chairman of the Naval and Military Committee of the British Medical Association, between 1917 and 1922. In 1919 he was appointed as lecturer in Ophthalmology at the London School of Tropical Medicine, and as ophthalmic surgeon at the Prince of Wales Hospital. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=43797696 | 2,187,645 |
30,359 | After the first batches of Rubik's Cubes were released in May 1980, initial sales were modest, but Ideal began a television advertising campaign in the middle of the year which it supplemented with newspaper advertisements. At the end of 1980, Rubik's Cube won a German Game of the Year special award and won similar awards for best toy in the UK, France, and the US. By 1981, Rubik's Cube had become a craze, and it is estimated that in the period from 1980 to 1983 around 200 million Rubik's Cubes were sold worldwide. In March 1981, a speedcubing championship organised by the Guinness Book of World Records was held in Munich, and a Rubik's Cube was depicted on the front cover of "Scientific American" that same month. In June 1981, "The Washington Post" reported that Rubik's Cube is "a puzzle that's moving like fast food right now ... this year's Hoola Hoop or Bongo Board", and by September 1981, "New Scientist" noted that the cube had "captivated the attention of children of ages from 7 to 70 all over the world this summer." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25971 | 30,349 |
1,395,562 | There is some debate within the field about what the ERN reflects (see especially Burle, et al.) Some researchers maintain that the ERN is generated during the detection of or response to errors. Others argue that the ERN is generated by a comparison process or a conflict monitoring system, and not specific to errors. In contrast to the above cognitive theories, new models suggest that the ERN may reflect the motivational significance of a task or perhaps the emotional reaction to making an error. This later view is consistent with findings linking errors and the ERN to autonomic arousal and defensive motivated states, and with findings suggesting that the ERN is dissociable from cognitive factors, but not affective ones. Unfortunately, it is still unclear how to interpret differences in sizes of ERN, as both smaller and larger ERN have been interpreted as "better". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27318965 | 1,394,791 |
62,081 | The German inventor Christian Hülsmeyer was the first to use radio waves to detect "the presence of distant metallic objects". In 1904, he demonstrated the feasibility of detecting a ship in dense fog, but not its distance from the transmitter. He obtained a patent for his detection device in April 1904 and later a patent for a related amendment for estimating the distance to the ship. He also obtained a British patent on 23 September 1904 for a full radar system, that he called a "telemobiloscope". It operated on a 50 cm wavelength and the pulsed radar signal was created via a spark-gap. His system already used the classic antenna setup of horn antenna with parabolic reflector and was presented to German military officials in practical tests in Cologne and Rotterdam harbour but was rejected. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25676 | 62,056 |
441,385 | During the Apollo 13 crisis, Lunney played a key role. Coming on shift an hour after the oxygen tank explosion that put the crew's lives in jeopardy, Lunney and his team faced the unprecedented challenge of having to power up the Lunar Module on an extremely tight timeline, while transferring guidance and navigation data to it from the dying command module. His excellent memory and quick thinking were critical in the success of his team during the ensuing hours. Ken Mattingly, the astronaut who had been bumped from the Apollo 13 crew due to his exposure to German measles, later called Lunney's performance "the most magnificent display of personal leadership that I've ever seen." On the day following the Apollo 13 splashdown, Lunney joined his fellow flight directors in accepting the Presidential Medal of Freedom as a member of the Apollo 13 mission operations team. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6393260 | 441,170 |
852,721 | Several assumptions were made in the formulation of these equations: First, an individual in the population must be considered as having an equal probability as every other individual of contracting the disease with a rate of formula_111, which is considered the contact or infection rate of the disease. Therefore, an infected individual makes contact and is able to transmit the disease with formula_112 others per unit time and the fraction of contacts by an infected with a susceptible is formula_113. The number of new infections in unit time per infective then is formula_114, giving the rate of new infections (or those leaving the susceptible category) as formula_115 (Brauer & Castillo-Chavez, 2001). For the second and third equations, consider the population leaving the susceptible class as equal to the number entering the infected class. However, infectives are leaving this class per unit time to enter the recovered/removed class at a rate formula_116 per unit time (where formula_116 represents the mean recovery rate, or formula_118 the mean infective period). These processes which occur simultaneously are referred to as the Law of Mass Action, a widely accepted idea that the rate of contact between two groups in a population is proportional to the size of each of the groups concerned (Daley & Gani, 2005). Finally, it is assumed that the rate of infection and recovery is much faster than the time scale of births and deaths and therefore, these factors are ignored in this model. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=16981683 | 852,267 |
1,573,822 | Nutritional stress can change bacterial morphology. A common shape alteration is filamentation which can be triggered by a limited availability of one or more substrates, nutrients or electron acceptors. Since the filament can increase a cell's uptake–surface area without significantly changing its volume appreciably. Moreover, the filamentation benefits bacterial cells attaching to a surface because it increases specific surface area in direct contact with the solid medium. In addition, the filamentation may allows bacterial cells to access nutrients by enhancing the possibility that part of the filament will contact a nutrient-rich zone and pass compounds to the rest of the cell's biomass. For example, "Actinomyces israelii" grows as filamentous rods or branched in the absence of phosphate, cysteine, or glutathione. However, it returns to a regular rod-like morphology when adding back these nutrients. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=35547268 | 1,572,933 |
111,092 | The foundations of MOSFET technology were laid down by the work of William Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain. Shockley independently envisioned the FET concept in 1945, but he was unable to build a working device. The next year Bardeen explained his failure in terms of surface states. Bardeen applied the theory of surface states on semiconductors (previous work on surface states was done by Shockley in 1939 and Igor Tamm in 1932) and realized that the external field was blocked at the surface because of extra electrons which are drawn to the semiconductor surface. Electrons become trapped in those localized states forming an inversion layer. Bardeen's hypothesis marked the birth of surface physics. Bardeen then decided to make use of an inversion layer instead of the very thin layer of semiconductor which Shockley had envisioned in his FET designs. Based on his theory, in 1948 Bardeen patented the progenitor of MOSFET, an insulated-gate FET (IGFET) with an inversion layer. The inversion layer confines the flow of minority carriers, increasing modulation and conductivity, although its electron transport depends on the gate's insulator or quality of oxide if used as an insulator, deposited above the inversion layer. Bardeen's patent as well as the concept of an inversion layer forms the basis of CMOS technology today. In 1976 Shockley described Bardeen's surface state hypothesis "as one of the most significant research ideas in the semiconductor program". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41228216 | 111,047 |
921,270 | The lily family, Liliaceae, consists of about 15 genera and 610 species of flowering plants within the order Liliales. They are monocotyledonous, perennial, herbaceous, often bulbous geophytes. Plants in this family have evolved with a fair amount of morphological diversity despite genetic similarity. Common characteristics include large flowers with parts arranged in threes: with six colored or patterned petaloid tepals (undifferentiated petals and sepals) arranged in two whorls, six stamens and a superior ovary. The leaves are linear in shape, with their veins usually arranged parallel to the edges, single and arranged alternating on the stem, or in a rosette at the base. Most species are grown from bulbs, although some have rhizomes. First described in 1789, the lily family became a paraphyletic "catch-all" (wastebasket) group of lilioid monocots that did not fit into other families and included a great number of genera now included in other families and in some cases in other orders. Consequently, many sources and descriptions labelled "Liliaceae" deal with the broader sense of the family. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=167883 | 920,784 |
701,706 | Following the end of the Space Race, spaceflight has been characterized by greater international co-operation, cheaper access to low Earth orbit and an expansion of commercial ventures. Interplanetary probes have visited all of the planets in the Solar System, and humans have remained in orbit for long periods aboard space stations such as "Mir" and the ISS. Most recently, China has emerged as the third nation with the capability to launch independent crewed missions, whilst operators in the commercial sector have developed re-usable booster systems and craft launched from airborne platforms. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6949369 | 701,341 |
1,972,027 | Nixon's renunciation is often overlooked in discussions about his presidency and his presidential legacy. Books about Nixon devote little space to the act and those centered on the topic of arms-control, even less. The abandonment of an entire class of weapons remains unrepeated in U.S. history. In addition, Melvin Laird's role in the elimination of offensive U.S. biological capabilities has been largely overlooked. The official U.S. Army history of the U.S. biological warfare program, which spans from the early Cold War to 1969 and includes an overview of biowarfare research, Fort Derick contracts between U.S. universities and the private industry, as well as testing on human volunteers, was published online by the National Security Archives. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20791072 | 1,970,893 |
794,905 | Previously, autoland systems have been so expensive that they were rarely used on small aircraft. However, as display technology has developed the addition of a head up display (HUD) allows for a trained pilot to manually fly the aircraft using guidance cues from the flight guidance system. This significantly reduces the cost of operating in very low visibility, and allows aircraft that are not equipped for automatic landings to make a manual landing safely at lower levels of look ahead visibility or runway visual range (RVR). In 1989, Alaska Airlines was the first airline in the world to manually land a passenger-carrying jet (Boeing B727) in FAA Category III weather (dense fog) made possible with the head-up guidance system. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1841031 | 794,480 |
1,879,902 | The removal of heat from nuclear reactors is an essential step in the generation of energy from nuclear reactions. In nuclear engineering there are a number of empirical or semi-empirical relations used for quantifying the process of removing heat from a nuclear reactor core so that the reactor operates in the projected temperature interval that depends on the materials used in the construction of the reactor. The effectiveness of removal of heat from the reactor core depends on many factors, including the cooling agents used and the type of reactor. Common liquid coolants for nuclear reactors include: deionized water (with boric acid as a chemical shim during early burnup), heavy water, the lighter alkaline metals (such as sodium and lithium), lead or lead-based eutectic alloys like lead-bismuth, and NaK, a eutectic alloy of sodium and potassium. Gas cooled reactors operate with coolants like carbon dioxide, helium or nitrogen but some very low powered research reactors have even been air-cooled with Chicago Pile 1 relying on natural convection of the surrounding air to remove the negligible thermal power output. There is ongoing research into using supercritical fluids as reactor coolants but thus far neither the supercritical water reactor nor a reactor cooled with supercritical Carbon Dioxide nor any other kind of supercritical-fluid-cooled reactor has ever been built. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=55608661 | 1,878,821 |
112,238 | The Mars Odyssey spacecraft carries an instrument, the Mars Radiation Environment Experiment (MARIE), to measure the radiation. MARIE found that radiation levels in orbit above Mars are 2.5 times higher than at the International Space Station. The average daily dose was about —equivalent to 0.08 Gy per year. A three-year exposure to such levels would exceed the safety limits currently adopted by NASA, and the risk of developing cancer due to radiation exposure after a Mars mission could be two times greater than what scientists previously thought. Occasional solar proton events (SPEs) produce much higher doses, as observed in September 2017, when NASA reported radiation levels on the surface of Mars were temporarily doubled, and were associated with an aurora 25-times brighter than any observed earlier, due to a massive, and unexpected, solar storm. Building living quarters underground (possibly in Martian lava tubes) would significantly lower the colonists' exposure to radiation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1744360 | 112,193 |
833,372 | The university began as Morehead Normal School, which opened its doors in 1887. One student appeared on the first day of class in October 1887, in a little, rented cottage where the Adron Doran University Center now stands. The private school closed in the spring of 1922 when the Kentucky General Assembly established Morehead State Normal School. The state institution accepted its first students in the fall of 1923, and graduated its first class in 1927. Name changes occurred again 1926, when it was extended to Morehead State Normal School and Teachers College; in 1930, when it was shortened to just Morehead State Teachers College; in 1948, when it was shortened again to Morehead State College; and, finally, to Morehead State University in 1966. Fourteen people, starting with Frank C. Button, have served as president. Joseph A. Morgan assumed office as the 14th president on July 1, 2017. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=192826 | 832,923 |
1,527,342 | Under neutral or slightly acidic conditions (in the presence of silica gel, for instance), oxidation occurs by an initial hydrogen bond between the hydroxyl group and the oxoammonium nitrogen, followed by concerted proton transfer and hydride abstraction. The need for hydrogen bonding is supported by the low reactivity of β-alkoxy and β-amino alcohols, which exhibit competitive "intramolecular" hydrogen bonding. The mechanism of oxidation under weakly basic (pyridine) conditions is similar, except that pyridine neutralizes the hydroxyammonium species, and this intermediate "comproportionates" with oxoammonium salt to give nitroxide radicals and pyridinium salts (see equation (3) below). Because this reaction consumes base and active oxidant, two equivalents of base and oxidant are necessary under weakly basic conditions. A unified mechanism under neutral and basic conditions in presented in a recent article. The authors present a comprehensive analysis of a number of oxoammonium salt mediated oxidations. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27669623 | 1,526,478 |
666,803 | Rutherford died and the search committee named Lawrence Bragg as next in the line of the Cavendish Professors who direct the Cavendish Laboratory. The Laboratory had an eminent history in atomic physics and some members were wary of a crystallographer, which Bragg surmounted by even-handed administration. He worked on improving the interpretation of diffraction patterns. In the small crystallography group was a refugee research student without a mentor: Max Perutz. He showed Bragg X-ray diffraction data from haemoglobin, which suggested that the structure of giant biological molecules might be deciphered. Bragg appointed Perutz as his research assistant and within a few months obtained additional support with a grant from the Rockefeller Foundation. The work was suspended during the Second World War when Perutz was interned as an enemy alien and then worked in military research. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=303544 | 666,455 |
133,250 | The earliest Greek philosophers, known as the pre-Socratics, provided competing answers to the question found in the myths of their neighbors: "How did the ordered cosmos in which we live come to be?" The pre-Socratic philosopher Thales (640–546 BCE) of Miletus, identified by later authors such as Aristotle as the first of the Ionian philosophers, postulated non-supernatural explanations for natural phenomena. For example, that land floats on water and that earthquakes are caused by the agitation of the water upon which the land floats, rather than the god Poseidon. Thales' student Pythagoras of Samos founded the Pythagorean school, which investigated mathematics for its own sake, and was the first to postulate that the Earth is spherical in shape. Leucippus (5th century BCE) introduced atomism, the theory that all matter is made of indivisible, imperishable units called atoms. This was greatly expanded on by his pupil Democritus and later Epicurus. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14400 | 133,197 |
1,631,751 | Because of the implications to human health, sEH has been pursued as a pharmaceutical target and several sEH inhibitors have been developed in the private and public sectors. One such inhibitor, UC1153 (AR9281), was taken to a phase IIA clinal trial for treatment of hypertension by Arête Therapeutics. However, UC1153 failed the clinical trial, due in large part because of its poor pharmacokinetic properties. Since this trial, a different sEH inhibitor, GSK2256294, developed for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease by GlaxoSmithKline has entered the pre-recruiting phase of a phase I clinical trial for obese male smokers. EicOsis designs and applies sEH inhibitors towards treating chronic pain in humans, companion animals and horses. The inhibitor "EC"1728 has been shown to successfully treat equine laminitis and alleviate inflammatory pain in dogs and cats and is currently undergoing clinical trials in horses. The sEH inhibitor "EC"5026 has been selected as the therapeutic for diabetic neuropathy and recently entered Phase 1 clinical trials. Thus, interest continues in sEH as a therapeutic target. Another drug described as a small-molecule thrombolytic with multiple mechanisms of action, SMTP-7, has been found to act as a sEH inhibitor, but is still at early experimental stages. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=34520195 | 1,630,829 |
1,571,109 | According to the Scriptures, Jubal was the father of harpists and organists (Gen. 4:20–21). The harp was among the chief instruments and the favorite of David, and it is referred to more than fifty times in the Bible. It was used at both joyful and mournful ceremonies, and its use was "raised to its highest perfection under David" (1 Sam. 16:23). Lockyer adds that "It was the sweet music of the harp that often dispossessed Saul of his melancholy (1 Sam. 16:14–23; 18:10–11). When the Jews were captive in Babylon they hung their harps up and refused to use them while in exile, earlier being part of the instruments used in the Temple (1 Kgs. 10:12). Another stringed instrument of the harp class, and one also used by the ancient Greeks, was the lyre. A similar instrument was the lute, which had a large pear-shaped body, long neck, and fretted fingerboard with head screws for tuning. Coins displaying musical instruments, the Bar Kochba Revolt coinage, were issued by the Jews during the Second Jewish Revolt against the Roman Empire of 132–135 AD. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=49646776 | 1,570,221 |
923,563 | In 2000 Max Tegmark claimed that any quantum coherent system in the brain would undergo effective wave function collapse due to environmental interaction long before it could influence neural processes (the "warm, wet and noisy" argument, as it was later came to be known). He determined the decoherence timescale of microtubule entanglement at brain temperatures to be on the order of femtoseconds, far too brief for neural processing. Christof Koch and Klaus Hepp also agreed that quantum coherence does not play, or does not need to play any major role in neurophysiology. Koch and Hepp concluded that "The empirical demonstration of slowly decoherent and controllable quantum bits in neurons connected by electrical or chemical synapses, or the discovery of an efficient quantum algorithm for computations performed by the brain, would do much to bring these speculations from the 'far-out' to the mere 'very unlikely'." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=712245 | 923,077 |
2,116,971 | American scientific journals "Science" and "Nature" have both reported in recent years that China's stem cell programs hold potential, and in 2004 a delegation from Britain's Department of Trade and Industry concluded more emphatically that Chinese research in the field was already world-class. Funding for stem cell research by the Chinese government is extremely limited compared to Western nations, with the Chinese Ministry of Science and Technology planning to devote between US$33 million and US$132 million on stem cell research during the next 5 years. By contrast, the state of California alone has earmarked US$3 billion to fund stem cell research at California institutions during the next decade. However, it is simply cheaper to produce goods in China than in nearly any other country, and in sophisticated sectors such as medical research, the cost advantage is likely to be retained for quite some time. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22511846 | 2,115,753 |
2,005,097 | The pathogenesis of BPF is not well established but it is thought that patients become pharyngeal or conjunctival carriers of "H. aegyptius", which is followed by spreading to the bloodstream. This hypothesis is supported by the isolation of from both the conjunctiva and oropharynx of documented BPF cases with "H. aegyptius" bacteremia. Possible virulence factors of "H. aegyptius" include lipooligosaccharides (LOS), capsular polysaccharides, pilus proteins (mediates adhesion to mucosal membrane), immunoglobulin A1 (IgA1), membrane associated proteins, and extracellular proteins. In a study conducted by Barbosa "et al.", a 60 kilodalton hemagglutinating extracellular product was suggested to be the major pathogenic factor linked to the hemorrhagic manifestations of BPF. This molecule was found to be absorbable by human O-type erythrocytes. After the molecule had been injected into rabbits, they showed reactions similar to that of BPF patients. Further research is being conducted to determine the mechanisms involved with the other virulence factors of" H. aegyptius." The overall pathogenesis of BPF probably involves multiple steps and a number of bacterial factors. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3070675 | 2,003,948 |
663,029 | Antibodies are produced by B cells in two ways: (i) randomly, and (ii) in response to a foreign protein or substance within the body. Initially, one B cell produces one specific kind of antibody. In either case, the B cell is allowed to proliferate or is killed off through a process called clonal deletion. Normally, the immune system is able to recognize and ignore the body's own healthy proteins, cells, and tissues, and to not overreact to non-threatening substances in the environment, such as foods. Sometimes, the immune system ceases to recognize one or more of the body's normal constituents as "self," leading to production of pathological autoantibodies. Autoantibodies may also play a nonpathological role; for instance they may help the body to destroy cancers and to eliminate waste products. The role of autoantibodies in normal immune function is also a subject of scientific research. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2016069 | 662,684 |
740,034 | Research into the natural product chemistry of "Coprinellus micaceus" has revealed the presence of several chemical compounds unique to the species. Micaceol is a sterol with "modest" antibacterial activity against the pathogens "Corynebacterium xerosis" and "Staphylococcus aureus". The compound (Z,Z)-4-oxo-2,5-heptadienedioic acid has inhibitory activity against glutathione S-transferase, an enzyme that has been implicated in the resistance of cancer cells against chemotherapeutic agents, especially alkylating drugs. A 2003 study did not find any antibacterial activity in this species. A 1962 publication reported the presence of the biologically active indole compound tryptamine in "C. micaceus", although the concentration was not determined. The fruit bodies additionally produce a variety of pigment compounds known as melanins—complex chemical polymers that contribute to the formation of soil humus after the fruit bodies have disintegrated. "C. micaceus" has been found to be devoid of the toxin coprine, the disulfiram-mimicking chemical found in "Coprinopsis atramentaria" that causes illness when consumed simultaneously with alcohol. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22449893 | 739,642 |
1,659,836 | Assuming sorted data, L-estimators involving only a few points can be calculated with far fewer mathematical operations than efficient estimates. Before the advent of electronic calculators and computers, these provided a useful way to extract much of the information from a sample with minimal labour. These remained in practical use through the early and mid 20th century, when automated sorting of punch card data was possible, but computation remained difficult, and is still of use today, for estimates given a list of numerical values in non-machine-readable form, where data input is more costly than manual sorting. They also allow rapid estimation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=17398955 | 1,658,903 |
1,015,656 | In September 2013, Northrop Grumman revealed the development of a company-funded Directional Infrared Counter Measures system in anticipation of a requirement to protect the F-35 from heat-seeking missiles. A laser jammer is expected to be part of the F-35 Block 5 upgrade; it must meet low-observability (LO) requirements and fit in the F-35's restricted space. Called the Threat Nullification Defensive Resource (ThNDR), it is to have a small, powerful laser, beam steering and LO window, use liquid cooling, and fit alongside the distributed aperture system (DAS) to provide spherical coverage with minimal changes; the DAS would provide missile warning and cue the jam head. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54719700 | 1,015,133 |
1,556,910 | Zero- to ultralow-field (ZULF) NMR is the acquisition of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectra of chemicals with magnetically active nuclei (spins 1/2 and greater) in an environment carefully screened from magnetic fields (including from the Earth's field). ZULF NMR experiments typically involve the use of passive or active shielding to attenuate Earth’s magnetic field. This is in contrast to the majority of NMR experiments which are performed in high magnetic fields provided by superconducting magnets. In ZULF experiments the dominant interactions are nuclear spin-spin couplings, and the coupling between spins and the external magnetic field is a perturbation to this. There are a number of advantages to operating in this regime: magnetic-susceptibility-induced line broadening is attenuated which reduces inhomogeneous broadening of the spectral lines for samples in heterogeneous environments. Another advantage is that the low frequency signals readily pass through conductive materials such as metals due to the increased skin depth; this is not the case for high-field NMR for which the sample containers are usually made of glass, quartz or ceramic. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11801199 | 1,556,025 |
956,259 | Haldane took Indian citizenship; he was interested in Hinduism and became a vegetarian. In 1961, Haldane described India as "the closest approximation to the Free World." Jerzy Neyman objected that "India has its fair share of scoundrels and a tremendous amount of poor unthinking and disgustingly subservient individuals who are not attractive." Haldane retorted:Perhaps one is freer to be a scoundrel in India than elsewhere. So one was in the U.S.A in the days of people like Jay Gould, when (in my opinion) there was more internal freedom in the U.S.A than there is today. The "disgusting subservience" of the others has its limits. The people of Calcutta riot, upset trams, and refuse to obey police regulations, in a manner which would have delighted Jefferson. I don't think their activities are very efficient, but that is not the question at issue.When on 25 June 1962 he was described in print as a "Citizen of the World" by Groff Conklin, Haldane responded:No doubt I am in some sense a citizen of the world. But I believe with Thomas Jefferson that one of the chief duties of a citizen is to be a nuisance to the government of his state. As there is no world state, I cannot do this. On the other hand, I can be, and am, a nuisance to the government of India, which has the merit of permitting a good deal of criticism, though it reacts to it rather slowly. I also happen to be proud of being a citizen of India, which is a lot more diverse than Europe, let alone the U.S.A, the U.S.S.R or China, and thus a better model for a possible world organisation. It may of course break up, but it is a wonderful experiment. So, I want to be labeled as a citizen of India. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=62417 | 955,754 |
1,936,772 | Page's research centers around cosmic background radiation (CMB), which is the electromagnetic radiation from the Big Bang. In 1991, Page, together with David Todd Wilkinson, Norman Jarosik and Edward J. Wollack, conceived of a satellite designed to specifically detect CMB. They eventually partnered with Johns Hopkins University, University of California, Los Angeles, the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center and other institutions, and the effort became the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) project, which was named in honor of Wilkinson. The satellite was launched in 2001. Since CMB comes from a time when the universe began, WMAP enables the study of the universe's early history, including its expansion, as well as its composition. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10744404 | 1,935,664 |
95,872 | Meanwhile, Alice characterized the atmosphere, both by emissions of atmospheric molecules (airglow), and by dimming of background stars as they pass behind Pluto (occultation). During and after closest approach, SWAP and PEPSSI sampled the high atmosphere and its effects on the solar wind. VBSDC searched for dust, inferring meteoroid collision rates and any invisible rings. REX performed active and passive radio science. The communications dish on Earth measured the disappearance and reappearance of the radio occultation signal as the probe flew by behind Pluto. The results resolved Pluto's diameter (by their timing) and atmospheric density and composition (by their weakening and strengthening pattern). (Alice can perform similar occultations, using sunlight instead of radio beacons.) Previous missions had the spacecraft transmit through the atmosphere, to Earth ("downlink"). Pluto's mass and mass distribution were evaluated by the gravitational tug on the spacecraft. As the spacecraft speeds up and slows down, the radio signal exhibited a Doppler shift. The Doppler shift was measured by comparison with the ultrastable oscillator in the communications electronics. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=390905 | 95,831 |
1,020,426 | According to some definitions, covalent hydrides cover all other compounds containing hydrogen. Some definitions limit hydrides to hydrogen centres that formally react as hydrides, i.e. are nucleophilic, and hydrogen atoms bound to metal centers. These hydrides are formed by all the true non-metals (except zero group elements) and the elements like Al, Ga, Sn, Pb, Bi, Po, etc., which are normally metallic in nature, i.e., this class includes the hydrides of p-block elements. In these substances the hydride bond is formally a covalent bond much like the bond made by a proton in a weak acid. This category includes hydrides that exist as discrete molecules, polymers or oligomers, and hydrogen that has been chem-adsorbed to a surface. A particularly important segment of covalent hydrides are complex metal hydrides, powerful soluble hydrides commonly used in synthetic procedures. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=142100 | 1,019,899 |
740,903 | Development of technologies will result in technical solutions that improve thrust levels, Isp, power, specific mass, (or specific power), volume, system mass, system complexity, operational complexity, commonality with other spacecraft systems, manufacturability, durability, and cost. These types of improvements will yield decreased transit times, increased payload mass, safer spacecraft, and decreased costs. In some instances, development of technologies within this technology area (TA) will result in mission-enabling breakthroughs that will revolutionize space exploration. There is no single propulsion technology that will benefit all missions or mission types. The requirements for in-space propulsion vary widely due according to their intended application. The described technologies should support everything from small satellites and robotic deep space exploration to space stations and human missions to Mars applications. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=28506 | 740,511 |
1,010,575 | Experiments have been performed to test precisely how the glycocalyx can be altered or damaged. One particular study used an isolated perfused heart model designed to facilitate detection of the state of the vascular barrier portion, and sought to cause insult-induced shedding of the glycocalyx to ascertain the cause-and-effect relationship between glycocalyx shedding and vascular permeability. Hypoxic perfusion of the glycocalyx was thought to be sufficient to initiate a degradation mechanism of the endothelial barrier. The study found that flow of oxygen throughout the blood vessels did not have to be completely absent (ischemic hypoxia), but that minimal levels of oxygen were sufficient to cause the degradation. Shedding of the glycocalyx can be triggered by inflammatory stimuli, such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha. Whatever the stimulus is, however, shedding of the glycocalyx leads to a drastic increase in vascular permeability. Vascular walls being permeable is disadvantageous, since that would enable passage of some macromolecules or other harmful antigens. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=961291 | 1,010,054 |
1,733,173 | Inappropriate IT infrastructure likely limits healthcare analytics findings and their impact on clinical practice. Establishing standards ensures IT infrastructure capable of housing big data balanced with addressing accessibility, ownership, and privacy. New possibilities could be explored such as private clouds and “a virtual sandbox” consisting of filtered data authorized to the researchers accessing the sandbox. Standards promote easier coordination in information collaboration between different medical and research organizations resulting in significantly improving patient care by improving communication between providers and reducing duplicity and costs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44317101 | 1,732,197 |
1,947,122 | Systemic lupus erythematosus is the most common form of lupus and is a condition in which the immune system attacks healthy bodily tissue causing wide-spread inflammation and tissue damage across many organ systems. Hypomethylation is observed across the epigenome in those with systemic lupus. The promoter regions of many genes including ITGAL, CD40LG, and CD70 are shown to be hypomethylated as well as the 18S and 28S ribosomal gene promoters. In particular, this DNA hypomethylation is thought to alter the chromatin structure of T cells enhancing the immune and inflammatory response observed in those with this condition. Genome wide it has been shown that when comparing the epigenomes of pairs of identical twins in which one twin is afflicted by the condition and one is not, the twin possessing the condition shows global decreases in methylation of their genomes. This hypomethylation causes genes that are traditionally repressed by methylation to be overexpressed particularly in CD4+ T cells. It has been suggested that inhibition of DNMT1 produces the loss of methylation observed in those afflicted by systemic lupus. DNMT1 is a DNA methyltransferase that maintains methylation patterns across the process of DNA replication, ensuring that new copies of DNA contain the methylation pattern observed on the original parent strand. Inhibition of DNMT1 causes methylation patterns to be lost across generations and epigenome-wide hypomethylation is observed as a result. In particular, it has been observed that DNMT1 expression is lower in immune T-cells. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=70058191 | 1,946,009 |
1,725,654 | The cranium includes the face, much of the frontal bone, parts of the midvault and the base anterior to the foramen magnum. The cranial length, width and height are 21 cm (8.3 in), 15.87 cm (6.2 in) and 19.05 cm (7.5 in) respectively. Researchers have suggested that Bodo butchered animals because Acheulean hand axes and cleavers, along with animal bones, were found at the site. Cuts on the Bodo cranium show the earliest evidence of removal of flesh immediately after the death of an individual using a stone tool. The findings of symmetrical cut marks with specific patterns and directionality on the cranium serve as strong evidence that de-fleshing was done purposefully for mortuary practices and represents the earliest evidence of non-utilitarian mortuary practices. The cut marks were located "laterally among the maxilla" causing speculation among researchers that the specific reason for de-fleshing was to remove the mandible. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=37326923 | 1,724,683 |
554,583 | It is not altogether clear what is meant by 'solving' a set of differential equations. A problem is regarded as solved when the particles coordinates at time "t" are expressed as simple functions of "t" and of parameters defining the initial positions and velocities. However, 'simple function' is not a well-defined concept: nowadays, a function "f"("t") is not regarded as a formal expression in "t" (elementary function) as in the time of Newton but most generally as a quantity determined by "t", and it is not possible to draw a sharp line between 'simple' and 'not simple' functions. If one speaks merely of 'functions', then every mechanical problem is solved as soon as it has been well stated in differential equations, because given the initial conditions and "t" determine the coordinates at "t". This is a fact especially at present with the modern methods of computer modelling which provide arithmetical solutions to mechanical problems to any desired degree of accuracy, the differential equations being replaced by difference equations. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=454450 | 554,294 |
1,701,115 | Evans was born on March 22, 1932 in Manhattan, the son of Bella (Shotl) and Harry Evans. His family was Jewish. He learned much about the game by playing for ten cents an hour on 42nd Street in New York City, quickly becoming a rising star. At age 14, he tied for 4th–5th place in the Marshall Chess Club championship. The next year he won it outright, becoming the youngest Marshall champion at that time. He also finished equal second in the U.S. Junior Championship, which led to an article in the September 1947 issue of Chess Review. At 16, he played in the 1948 U.S. Chess Championship, his first, tying for eighth place at 11½–7½. Evans tied with Arthur Bisguier for first place in the U.S. Junior Chess Championship of 1949. By age 18, he had won a New York State championship as well as a gold medal in the Dubrovnik 1950 Chess Olympiad. In the latter, his 90% score (eight wins and two draws) on sixth board tied with Rabar of Yugoslavia for the best result of the entire Olympiad. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1047985 | 1,700,161 |
1,223,248 | The wettest periods in this century have been from 1973 to 1976, peaking in 1974, all La Niña years. The drought in 1979–83 is regarded as the worst of the twentieth century for short-term rainfall deficiencies of up to one year and their over-all impact. An El Niño event brought severe dust storms in north-western Victoria and severe bushfires in south-east Australia in February 1983. This El Niño-related drought ended in March, when a monsoon depression became an extratropical low and swept across Australia's interior and on to the south-east in mid-to late March. 1987–88 were weak El Niño years, with 1988–89 featuring a strong La Niña event affecting the southeast half of the country. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=69348495 | 1,222,588 |
1,590,794 | In prehistoric times the coastline of Somerset was very different from the present one, the sea level at the last glacial maximum being several hundred feet lower than today so that the Bristol Channel was almost non-existent. The Bristol Channel has one of the largest tidal ranges in the world, up to at Burnham-on-Sea for example, behind only the Bay of Fundy and Ungava Bay in Canada. Normal high tide may be enhanced by between and during storm surges. This feature has meant that large areas of the county have been liable to flooding by the sea. Thus the present coastline is partly due to a belt of marine clay at the coast and partly due to seawalls built to reclaim areas previously flooded at high tide. The coastline contains exposures of Devonian sediments and tectonics west of Minehead adjoining the classic exposures of Mesozoic sediments and structural features which extend eastward to the Parrett estuary forming cliffs along the coastline near Clevedon and near Minehead, with low sandhills near Burnham-on-Sea. There are sandy beaches mainly at Burnham-on-Sea, Brean and Weston-super-Mare. There are also storm ridges, salt marsh, and sand dunes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3407122 | 1,589,900 |
696,070 | Working under the supervision of Seymour Papert, she developed a child-friendly version of the educational robotics language LOGO, called TORTIS ("Toddler's Own Recursive Turtle Interpreter System"). During research performed in 1974–76, young children—the youngest aged 3½ years, programmed a LOGO educational robot called a Turtle. Perlman has been described as a pioneer of teaching young children computer programming.Afterwards, she was inspired to make a new programming language that would teach much younger children similar to Logo, but using special "keyboards" and input devices. This project was abandoned because "being the only woman around, I wanted to be taken seriously as a 'scientist' and was a little embarrassed that my project involved cute little kids". MIT media project later tracked her down and told her that she started a new field called tangible user interface from the leftovers of her abandoned project. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4236111 | 695,706 |
1,536,779 | Weaknesses: One of the biggest drawbacks of micro-MRI is its cost. Depending on the magnetic strength (which determines resolution), systems used for animal imaging between 1.5 and 14 teslas in magnetic flux density range from $1 million to over $6 million, with most systems costing around $2 million. Furthermore, the image acquisition time is extremely long, spanning into minutes and even hours. This may negatively affect animals that are anesthetized for long periods of time. In addition, micro-MRI typically captures a snapshot of the subject in time, and thus it is unable to study blood flow and other real-time processes well. Even with recent advances in high strength functional micro-MRI, there is still around a 10–15 second lag time to reach peak signal intensity, making important information such as blood flow velocity quantification difficult to access. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=26065582 | 1,535,911 |
729,831 | Fresnel's next lens was a rotating apparatus with eight "bull's-eye" panels, made in annular arcs by Saint-Gobain, giving eight rotating beams – to be seen by mariners as a periodic flash. Above and behind each main panel was a smaller, sloping bull's-eye panel of trapezoidal outline with trapezoidal elements. This refracted the light to a sloping plane mirror, which then reflected it horizontally, 7 degrees ahead of the main beam, increasing the duration of the flash. Below the main panels were 128 small mirrors arranged in four rings, stacked like the slats of a louver or Venetian blind. Each ring, shaped as a frustum of a cone, reflected the light to the horizon, giving a fainter steady light between the flashes. The official test, conducted on the unfinished "Arc de Triomphe" on 20 August 1822, was witnessed by the commission – and by Louis and his entourage – from 32km away. The apparatus was stored at Bordeaux for the winter, and then reassembled at Cordouan Lighthouse under Fresnel's supervision. On 25 July 1823, the world's first lighthouse Fresnel lens was lit. Soon afterwards, Fresnel started coughing up blood. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1141 | 729,447 |
491,472 | Maunsell initiated trials with Urie N15 No. 442 in 1924, and proved that better performance could be obtained by altering the steam circuit, valve travel and draughting arrangements. As a result, Clayton reduced the N15 cylinder diameter to and replaced the safety valves with Ross pop valves set to boiler pressure. The Urie boiler was retained, though the Eastleigh superheater was replaced by a Maunsell type with 10 per cent greater superheating surface area. This was supplemented by a larger steam chest and an increased-diameter chimney casting specially designed for the rebuilds. It incorporated a rim and capuchon to control exhaust flow into the atmosphere. Valve events (the timing of valve movements with the piston) were also revised to promote efficient steam usage and the wheels were re-balanced to reduce hammerblow. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1326400 | 491,218 |
1,427,707 | "A. pisum" and "Buchnera" were the first insect-endosymbiont pair to have the genomes of both partners sequenced. This has provided researchers with a great deal of information about the evolutionary and molecular interactions of this endosymbiosis. The "A. pisum" and "Buchnera" genomes have experienced unique modifications that are likely related to the establishment and maintenance of the endosymbiotic relationship. The genomes of both organisms have undergone significant gene loss compared to related organisms. The "Buchnera" genome is 641-kb and consists of a circular chromosome with 2 plasmids. It has been reduced to one-seventh of the size of its closest free-living relative, "E. coli." "Buchnera" has lost genes that would allow it to live outside the host but maintains genes essential for the nutrition of "A. pisum." The "Buchnera" genome is missing genes required for surface membrane construction such as lipopolysaccharides and phospholipids as well as genes associated with cellular defense. Transporter genes and regulatory genes are also missing from the genome. Such gene loss is typical of an obligate and intracellular bacterium. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30160421 | 1,426,903 |
671,507 | Following the independence of Finland from Russia in 1917 and the defeat of the Finnish Red Guard during the Finnish Civil War, Finland began the process of replacing its obsolete Russian armament. The efforts to modernize Finland's arsenal included the replacement of Russian Nagant M1895 revolvers with the Spanish Ruby Pistols purchased from France in 1919 and later the German P08 Luger purchased from Deutsche Waffen und Munitionsfabriken in 1923. Finland became intent on autonomously producing its own weaponry with the Finnish Volunteer Guards opening the arsenal, Suojeluskuntain ase- ja Konepaja Oy (SAKO) in 1921 and the Government of Finland opening the Valtion Kivääritehdas (VKT) in Jyväskylä in 1929. The Finnish Army soon called for a domestically produced pistol that could withstand Finland's harsh winters. Design began in 1929 under the supervision of Aimo Lahti and a patent was granted for the M1935 Lahti pistol in 1935. The Lahti was originally designed to fire stockpiled 7.65×21mm Parabellum and 9×19mm Parabellum ammunition but was ultimately restricted to 9mm only. The Lahti pistol became formally adopted in 1935 by the Finnish armed forces as the Pistooli L-35. Production was slow for widespread use with only 500 pistols completed before production was halted by the start of the Winter War. Production continued in 1941 with about 4,500 pistols manufactured before the production was interrupted again by the Continuation War. Final production of Finnish Lahti pistols resumed again in 1946 with around 9,000 completed before 1951. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5117885 | 671,155 |
903,343 | Soon after World War II, Rickover was assigned to the Bureau of Ships in September 1947 and received training in nuclear power at Oak Ridge, Tennessee. In February 1949 he received an assignment to the Division of Reactor Development, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission and then assumed control of the United States Navy's effort as Director of the Naval Reactors Branch in the Bureau of Ships. This dual role allowed him to lead the efforts to develop the world's first nuclear-powered submarine, , which was launched in 1954. As Vice Admiral, from 1958, for three decades Rickover exercised tight control over the ships, technology, and personnel of the nuclear navy, even interviewing every prospective officer for new nuclear-powered navy vessels. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=942255 | 902,867 |
929,758 | Questions have been raised about the reporting reliability of the "Journal" report by David Isenberg, an independent Washington, D.C.-based analyst and Cato Institute Adjunct Scholar, specifically saying that Mr. Roome is denying the quotes attributed to him and that he, Isenberg, also had similar complaints with one of the same "Journal" reporters in an earlier story. NSN has issued the following denial: NSN "has not provided any deep packet inspection, web censorship or Internet filtering capability to Iran". A concurrent article in "The New York Times" stated the NSN sale had been covered in a "spate of news reports in April [2009], including "The Washington Times"," and reviewed censorship of the Internet and other media in the country, but did not mention DPI. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=454995 | 929,267 |
1,393,471 | Additive manufacturing is defined as a material joining process, whereby a product can be directly fabricated from its 3D model, usually layer upon layer. Comparing to traditional manufacturing technologies such as CNC machining or casting, AM processes have several unique capabilities. It enables the fabrication of parts with a complex shape as well as complex material distribution. These unique capabilities significantly enlarge the design freedom for designers. However, they also bring a big challenge. Traditional Design for manufacturing (DFM) rules or guidelines deeply rooted in designers’ mind and severely restrict designers to further improve product functional performance by taking advantages of these unique capabilities brought by AM processes. Moreover, traditional feature-based CAD tools are also difficult to deal with irregular geometry for the improvement of functional performance. To solve these issues, design methods or tools are needed to help designers to take full advantages of design freedom provide by AM processes. These design methods or tools can be categorized as Design for Additive Manufacturing. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=51500017 | 1,392,700 |
1,146,512 | At the time settlers first came to the United States, the predominant medical system was humoral theory, or the idea that diseases are caused by an imbalance of bodily fluids. Settlers initially believed that they should only use medicines that fit in this medical system and were made out of "such things only as grown in England, they being most fit for English Bodies," as said in "The English Physitian Enlarged", a medical handbook commonly owned by early settlers. However, as settlers were faced with new diseases and a scarcity of the typical plants and herbs used to make therapies in England, they increasingly turned to local flora and Native American remedies as alternatives to European medicine. The Native American medical system typically tied the administration of herbal treatments with rituals and prayer. This inclusion of a different spiritual system was denounced by Europeans, in particular Spanish colonies, as part of the religious fervor associated with the Inquisition. Any Native American medical information that didn't agree with humoral theory was deemed heretical, and tribal healers were condemned as witches. In English colonies it was more common for settlers to seek medical help from Native American healers. However, their medical knowledge was still looked down upon as it was assumed that they didn't understand why their treatments worked because their medical system differed. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38600542 | 1,145,908 |
27,773 | In 1510 or 1512 Copernicus moved to Frombork, a town to the northwest at the Vistula Lagoon on the Baltic Sea coast. There, in April 1512, he participated in the election of Fabian of Lossainen as Prince-Bishop of Warmia. It was only in early June 1512 that the chapter gave Copernicus an "external curia"—a house outside the defensive walls of the cathedral mount. In 1514 he purchased the northwestern tower within the walls of the Frombork stronghold. He would maintain both these residences to the end of his life, despite the devastation of the chapter's buildings by a raid against Frauenburg carried out by the Teutonic Order in January 1520, during which Copernicus's astronomical instruments were probably destroyed. Copernicus conducted astronomical observations in 1513–16 presumably from his external curia; and in 1522–43, from an unidentified "small tower" ("turricula"), using primitive instruments modeled on ancient ones—the quadrant, triquetrum, armillary sphere. At Frombork Copernicus conducted over half of his more than 60 registered astronomical observations. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=323592 | 27,763 |
1,955,447 | In 1965, the modern era of IOERT began in Japan at Kyoto University where patients were treated with electrons generated by a betatron Compared with other forms of IORT such as orthovoltage X-ray beams, electron beams improved IOERT dose distributions, limited penetration beyond the tumor, and delivered the required dose much more rapidly. Normal tissue beneath the tumor bed could be protected and shielded, if required, and the treatment took only a few minutes to deliver. These advantages made electrons the preferred radiation for IOERT. The technique gained favor in Japan. Other Japanese hospitals initiated IOERT using electron beams, principally generated from linear particle accelerators. At most institutions, patients were operated on in the operating room (OR) and were transported to the radiation facility for treatment. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13524515 | 1,954,325 |
2,115,870 | Regulation in the USA started in 1906 with the Food and Drugs Act and further USA regulation came in 1938 with the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act following the deaths due to Elixir sulfanilamide in 1937. Further tragedies resulted from the use of Thalidomide that was marketed in 1957, Germany, without adequate testing. The Thalidomide catastrophe tightened the regulatory pressure in the US with the Kefauver Harris Amendment (1962) to the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act and the European regulation appeared with UK's "Medicines Act 1968". Further developments lead to a large volume and variety of regulatory “guidances” by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the USA and “guidelines” by the European Medicines Agency (EMA) in Europe. Also, other regions of the world issued regulatory guidance, for example, Pharmaceuticals and Medical Devices Agency (PMDA) in Japan. In 1989 a plan for harmonization of guidance across Europe, Japan and the USA was started and the first meeting of International Conference on Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Registration of Pharmaceuticals for Human Use (ICH) was held in 1990, Brussels. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=53033516 | 2,114,653 |
392,682 | Solubility is a property of interest in many aspects of science, including but not limited to: environmental predictions, biochemistry, pharmacy, drug-design, agrochemical design, and protein ligand binding. Aqueous solubility is of fundamental interest owing to the vital biological and transportation functions played by water. In addition, to this clear scientific interest in water solubility and solvent effects; accurate predictions of solubility are important industrially. The ability to accurately predict a molecule's solubility represents potentially large financial savings in many chemical product development processes, such as pharmaceuticals. In the pharmaceutical industry, solubility predictions form part of the early stage lead optimisation process of drug candidates. Solubility remains a concern all the way to formulation. A number of methods have been applied to such predictions including quantitative structure–activity relationships (QSAR), quantitative structure–property relationships (QSPR) and data mining. These models provide efficient predictions of solubility and represent the current standard. The draw back such models is that they can lack physical insight. A method founded in physical theory, capable of achieving similar levels of accuracy at an sensible cost, would be a powerful tool scientifically and industrially. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=59497 | 392,487 |
505,842 | Conventional linguistic anthropology also has implications for sociology and self-organization of peoples. Study of the Penan people, for instance, reveals that their language employs six different and distinct words whose best English translation is "we". Anthropological linguistics studies these distinctions, and relates them to types of societies and to actual bodily adaptation to the senses, much as it studies distinctions made in languages regarding the colours of the rainbow: seeing the tendency to increase the diversity of terms, as evidence that there are distinctions that bodies in this environment "must" make, leading to situated knowledge and perhaps a situated ethics, whose final evidence is the differentiated set of terms used to denote "we". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=320063 | 505,579 |
48,158 | The earliest integrated circuits were packaged in ceramic flat packs, which continued to be used by the military for their reliability and small size for many years. Commercial circuit packaging quickly moved to the dual in-line package (DIP), first in ceramic and later in plastic, which is commonly cresol-formaldehyde-novolac. In the 1980s pin counts of VLSI circuits exceeded the practical limit for DIP packaging, leading to pin grid array (PGA) and leadless chip carrier (LCC) packages. Surface mount packaging appeared in the early 1980s and became popular in the late 1980s, using finer lead pitch with leads formed as either gull-wing or J-lead, as exemplified by the small-outline integrated circuit (SOIC) package – a carrier which occupies an area about 30–50% less than an equivalent DIP and is typically 70% thinner. This package has "gull wing" leads protruding from the two long sides and a lead spacing of 0.050 inches. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15150 | 48,138 |
1,289,964 | Elevated expression of FGFR1 protein was detected in 10 of 10 human Rhabdomyosarcoma tumors and 4 of 4 human cell lines derived from rhabdomyocarcoma. The tumor cases included 6 cases of Alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma, 2 cases of Embryonal rhabdomyosarcoma, and 2 cases of pleomorphic rhabdomyosarcoma. Rhabdomyosarcoma is a highly malignant form of cancer that develops from immature skeletal muscle cell precursors viz., myoblastss that have failed to fully differentiate. FGFR1 activation causes myoblast to proliferate while inhibiting their differentiation, dual effects that may lead to the assumption of a malignant phenotype by these cells. The 10 human rhabdomyosarcoma tumor exhibited decreased levels of methylation of CpG islands upstream of the first FGFR1 exon. CpG islands commonly function to silence expression of adjacent genes while their methylation inhibits this silencing. Hypomethylation of CpG islands upstream of FGFR1 is hypothesized to be at least in part responsible for the over-expression of FGFR1 by and malignant behavior of these rhabdomyosarcoma tumors. In addition, a single case of rhabdomyosarcoma tumor was found express co-amplified "FOXO1" gene at 13q14 and "FGFR1" gene at 8p11, i.e. t(8;13)(p11;q14), suggesting the formation, amplification, and malignant activity of a chimerical FOXO1-FGFR1 fusion gene by this tumor. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11485159 | 1,289,254 |
2,021,451 | Caution should be taken while refining some of the parameters simultaneously (i.e. formula_2 or formula_9, multipole populations and thermal parameters), as they may correlate strongly, resulting in an unstable refinement or unphysical parameter values. Applying additional constraints resulting from local symmetry for each atom in a molecule (which decreases the number of refined multipoles) or importing populational parameters from existing databases may also be necessary to achieve a passable model. On the other hand, the aforementioned approaches significantly reduce the amount of information required from experiments, while preserving some level of detail concerning aspherical charge distribution. Therefore, even macromolecular structures with satisfactory X-ray diffraction data can be modelled aspherically in a similar fashion. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=53264410 | 2,020,288 |
2,134,082 | In 1994, Phillips co-founded and became CTO of Boston-based SpeechWorks, which became one of the leading US-based vendors of speech recognition technology at the time, alongside Nuance Communications and IBM. The startup developed interactive voice response systems, including call-center interfaces for clients including Amtrak and FedEx. SpeechWorks’ technology worked for call-center interfaces because the customer could verbally answer questions posed by the human-sounding speech recognition program, rather than navigating through a menu. The technology also had time-saving “barge-in” capabilities, meaning that a customer could interrupt the system before it finished offering the full list of options. The system could also “learn.” It kept a record of names or phrases customers had used in the past so that it could learn to understand names and phrases that slightly differed from its original vocabulary. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=49177971 | 2,132,857 |
169,270 | Though reduced sexual dimorphism has often been cited historically as one of the radical differences between "H. ergaster" and earlier "Homo" and australopithecines, it is unclear whether australopithecines were significantly more sexually diamorphic than "H. ergaster" or modern humans. Skeletal evidence suggests that sexes in "H. ergaster" differed no more in size than sexes in modern humans do, but a 2003 study by palaeoanthropologists Philip L. Reno, Richard S. Meindl, Melanie A. McCollum and C. Owen Lovejoy suggested that the same was also true for the significantly earlier "Australopithecus afarensis". Sexual dimorphism is difficult to measure in extinct species since the sex of fossils is usually not determinable. Historically, scientists have typically measured differences between the extreme ends (in terms of size and morphology) of the fossil material attributed to a species and assumed that the resulting ratio applies to the mean difference between male and female individuals. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=276745 | 169,180 |
1,940,938 | Three teams, the Netherlands, Ukraine and India, continued their victorious runs and scored their fifth match win. After closely defeating the first seeds Russia in the previous round, Ukraine beat another strong opponent in the name of the reigning Olympic champions China by 2½-1½. The only decisive game in the match was Yuriy Kryvoruchko's win with the White pieces against Yu Yangyi on the third board. The Netherlands had also a close encounter with Belarus with only one decisive game in favour of the Dutch team. The game was played between Kirill Stupak and Benjamin Bok on the fourth board. Black was better out of the opening, which mostly accounted for the unsafe position of the White king, and even sacrificed a rook for a direct attack. The game turned around at some point as Black did not succeed to properly coordinate his pieces in the attack and White appeared to be winning. Nonetheless, White committed himself to a series of mistakes that left Black with a very powerful attack despite being a rook down that resulted in a Black's win. It was Bok's fourth win in the fourth game he played. India continued their winning streak after stunning the hosts Azerbaijan 3-1 thanks to two wins with the Black pieces. Pentala Harikrishna beat Shakhriyar Mamedyarov and Vidit Santosh Gujrathi defeated Arkadij Naiditsch to score his fifth win at the Olympiad. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=51472590 | 1,939,827 |
1,529,656 | As the concept of adaptive memory is a relatively recent development in memory research, there is still much research to be done in this field. One important consideration for further research in this field is adopting of a functional perspective of memory, leading to the important goal of further empirical findings and the refinement of those results obtained thus far. Another important research goal is identifying the precise conditions under which the survival advantage is in effect and those under which it is not. A third critical research focus is determining the specific functional mechanism or mechanisms responsible for this effect. Future research should be conducted with a wide variety of items such as pictures, categorized lists, and content specific materials (for example, those related to food, reproduction, predators and other survival-relevant domains). Finally, neuroimaging research has yet to be done to address any neurological activity that may be different in adaptive memory processing compared to normal conditions. Further research into adaptive memory would be very helpful in understanding more about how exactly the brain works in a survival situation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31058472 | 1,528,792 |
1,370,595 | Cocrystal engineering is relevant to production of energetic materials, pharmaceuticals, and other compounds. Of these, the most widely studied and used application is in drug development and more specifically, the formation, design, and implementation of active pharmaceutical ingredients (API). Changing the structure and composition of the API can greatly influence the bioavailability of a drug. The engineering of cocrystals takes advantage of the specific properties of each component to make the most favorable conditions for solubility that could ultimately enhance the bioavailability of the drug. The principal idea is to develop superior physico-chemical properties of the API while holding the properties of the drug molecule itself constant. Cocrystal structures have also become a staple for drug discovery. Structure-based virtual screening methods, such as docking, makes use of cocrystal structures of known proteins or receptors to elucidate new ligand-receptor binding conformations. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30031679 | 1,369,839 |
261,393 | The Air Council decided on 7 July 1960 that Project E weapons would be phased out by December 1962, by which time it was anticipated that there would be sufficient British megaton weapons to equip the entire strategic bomber force. Project E weapons were replaced by British Yellow Sun bombs. Problems encountered in the development of Red Beard meant that the replacement of kiloton weapons took longer than anticipated. The Air Ministry decided to replace the Canberras with Valiants as the long-range Vulcan and Victor V bombers became available. A Valiant squadron at RAF Marham was assigned to SACEUR on 1 January 1961, followed by two more in July. The UK-based Canberra squadrons were then disbanded. Each of the 24 Valiants was equipped with two Project E Mark 28 nuclear bombs. These were replaced by the newer Mark 43 nuclear bombs in early 1963. The Valiants were withdrawn from service in 1965. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2095669 | 261,254 |
897,653 | The Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA and WPA2) security protocols were later created to address the problems with WEP. If a weak password, such as a dictionary word or short character string is used, WPA and WPA2 can be cracked. Using a long enough random password (e.g. 14 random letters) or passphrase (e.g. 5 randomly chosen words) makes pre-shared key WPA virtually uncrackable. The second generation of the WPA security protocol (WPA2) is based on the final IEEE 802.11i amendment to the 802.11 standard and is eligible for FIPS 140-2 compliance. With all those encryption schemes, any client in the network that knows the keys can read all the traffic. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2681135 | 897,180 |
211,059 | In 1897, after taking his "Abitur", Hahn began to study chemistry at the University of Marburg. His subsidiary subjects were mathematics, physics, mineralogy and philosophy. Hahn joined the Students' Association of Natural Sciences and Medicine, a student fraternity and a forerunner of today's "Landsmannschaft Nibelungi" (Coburger Convent der akademischen Landsmannschaften und Turnerschaften). He spent his third and fourth semesters at the University of Munich, studying organic chemistry under Adolf von Baeyer, physical chemistry under Friedrich Wilhelm Muthmann, and inorganic chemistry under Karl Andreas Hofmann. In 1901, Hahn received his doctorate in Marburg for a dissertation entitled "On Bromine Derivates of Isoeugenol", a topic in classical organic chemistry. He completed his one-year military service (instead of the usual two because he had a doctorate) in the 81st Infantry Regiment, but unlike his brothers, did not apply for a commission. He then returned to the University of Marburg, where he worked for two years as assistant to his doctoral supervisor, "Geheimrat" professor Theodor Zincke. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=46825 | 210,952 |
1,928,737 | Monitoring of population changes through genetic means can be done retrospectively, through analysis of 'historical' DNA recovered from museum-archived species and comparison with contemporary DNA of that species. It can also be used as a tool for evaluating ongoing changes in the status and persistence of current populations. Genetic measures of relative population change include changes in diversity (e.g. heterozygosity and allelic richness). Monitoring of relative population changes through these metrics has been performed retrospectively for Beringian bison, Galapagos tortoise, houting, Atlantic salmon, northern pike, New Zealand snapper, steelhead trout, greater prairie chicken, Mauritius kestrel and Hector's dolphin and is the subject of many ongoing studies, including Danish and Swedish brown trout populations. Measuring absolute population changes (e.g. effective population size (Ne)) can be carried out by measuring changes in population allele frequencies (‘Ftemporal’) or levels of linkage disequilibrium over time (‘LDNe’), while changing patterns of gene flow between populations can also be monitored by estimating differences in allele frequencies between populations over time. Subjects of such studies include grizzly bears, cod, red deer, Leopard frogs and Barrel Medic. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22237707 | 1,927,632 |
800,209 | From the tables of stars on the ceiling of the tombs of Rameses VI and Rameses IX it seems that for fixing the hours of the night a man seated on the ground faced the Astrologer in such a position that the line of observation of the pole star passed over the middle of his head. On the different days of the year each hour was determined by a fixed star culminating or nearly culminating in it, and the position of these stars at the time is given in the tables as in the centre, on the left eye, on the right shoulder, etc. According to the texts, in founding or rebuilding temples the north axis was determined by the same apparatus, and we may conclude that it was the usual one for astronomical observations. In careful hands, it might give results of a high degree of accuracy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=16847243 | 799,783 |
745,932 | From the tables of stars on the ceiling of the tombs of Rameses VI and Rameses IX it seems that for fixing the hours of the night a man seated on the ground faced the Astrologer in such a position that the line of observation of the pole star passed over the middle of his head. On the different days of the year each hour was determined by a fixed star culminating or nearly culminating in it, and the position of these stars at the time is given in the tables as in the centre, on the left eye, on the right shoulder, etc. According to the texts, in founding or rebuilding temples the north axis was determined by the same apparatus, and we may conclude that it was the usual one for astronomical observations. In careful hands it might give results of a high degree of accuracy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14021 | 745,538 |
898,721 | The treated ore is introduced to a water-filled aeration tank containing surfactant such as methylisobutyl carbinol (MIBC). Air is constantly forced through the slurry and the air bubbles attach to the hydrophobic copper sulfide particles, which are conducted to the surface, where they form a froth and are skimmed off. These skimmings are generally subjected to a cleaner-scavenger cell to remove excess silicates and to remove other sulfide minerals that can deleteriously impact the concentrate quality (typically, galena), and the final concentrate sent for smelting. The rock which has not floated off in the flotation cell is either discarded as tailings or further processed to extract other metals such as lead (from galena) and zinc (from sphalerite), should they exist. To improve the process efficiency, lime is used to raise the pH of the water bath, causing the collector to ionize more and to preferentially bond to chalcopyrite (CuFeS) and avoid the pyrite (FeS). Iron exists in both primary zone minerals. Copper ores containing chalcopyrite can be concentrated to produce a concentrate with between 20% and 30% copper-in-concentrate (usually 27–29% copper); the remainder of the concentrate is iron and sulfur in the chalcopyrite, and unwanted impurities such as silicate gangue minerals or other sulfide minerals, typically minor amounts of pyrite, sphalerite or galena. Chalcocite concentrates typically grade between 37% and 40% copper-in-concentrate, as chalcocite has no iron within the mineral. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=828834 | 898,246 |
1,652,854 | The rubber muscles contract when inflated and extend when exhausted. This results in a more reliable and robust engineering design. The body stands on the ground within the chassis of the machine, which incorporates a lower body exoskeleton connecting it to the robot. Encoders on the hip joints provides the data that will allow the human controller to move and direct the machine as well as vary the speed at which it will travel. The action of the human operator lifting a leg lifts the three alternate machine legs and swings them forward. By turning its torso, the body makes the machine walk in the direction it is facing. Thus the interface and interaction is more direct, allowing an intuitive human-machine choreography. The walking system, with attached accelerometer sensors generates data that is converted to sounds that augment the acoustical pneumatics and machine mechanism operation. Once the machine is in motion, it is no longer applicable to ask whether the human or machine is in control as they become fully integrated and move as one. The six-legged robot both extends the body and transforms its bipedal gait into a 6-legged insect-like movement. The appearance and movement of the machine legs are both limb-like and wing-like motion. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1378166 | 1,651,922 |
130,719 | The armored tub, ranging from thickness and enveloping the engine and the cockpit, could deflect all small arms fire and glancing blows from larger-caliber ammunition. Unfortunately the rear gunners did not have the benefit of all-around armor protection, especially from the rear and to the sides, and suffered about four times the casualties of pilots. Added casualties resulted from the Soviet policy of not returning home with unused ammunition which typically resulted in repeated passes on the target. Soviet troops often requested additional passes even after the aircraft were out of ammunition to exploit the intimidating effect Il-2s had on German ground troops, who gave it the nickname "The Flying Tank". It was also called "Black Death" by German troops. "Luftwaffe" pilots called it "Zementbomber" (Concrete bomber). The Finnish nickname "maatalouskone" ("agricultural machine" or "tractor") derived from a word play with "maataistelukone" (ground attack aircraft, literally "ground combat aircraft" where "kone", literally "machine", in turn is shortened from "lentokone", aircraft, literally "flying machine") | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=183726 | 130,667 |
1,729,418 | Trachelomonas is a genus of swimming, free-living euglenoids characterized by the presence of a shell-like covering called a lorica. Details of lorica structure determine the classification of distinct species in the genus. The lorica can exist in spherical, elliptical, cylindrical, and pyriform (pear-shaped) forms. The lorica surface can be smooth, punctuate or striate and range from hyaline, to yellow, or brown. These colors are due to the accumulation of ferric hydroxide and manganic oxide deposited with the mucilage and minerals that comprise the lorica. In "Trachelomonas", the presence of a lorica obscures cytoplasmic details of the underlying cell. In each "Trachelomonas" cell, there is a gap at the apex of the lorica from which the flagellum protrudes. Thickening around this gap results in a rim-like or collar-like appearance. During asexual reproduction, the nucleus divides yielding two daughter cells one of which exits through the opening in the lorica. This new cell then synthesizes its own new lorica. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9226264 | 1,728,444 |
956,230 | Space warfare is a staple of science fiction, where it is shown with a wide range of realism and plausibility. Fictional space warfare includes anticipated future technology and tactics, and fantasy- or history-based scenarios in a scifi setting. Some portray a space military as like an air force; others depict a more naval framework. Still others suggest forces more like space marine: highly mobile forces doing interplanetary and interstellar war but most of the conflict happens in terrestrial environments. The main sub-genres of the science fictional space warfare thematic genre are space opera, Military and Space Western. Though sword and planet stories like Finisterre universe by C. J. Cherryh might be considered, they rarely feature such technologies. These three genres often intertwine and have themes that are common to all. Written Space Westerns are often based directly on existing established scifi space opera franchises with expanded universes like Star Wars and Star Trek, including "Warhammer 40,000": the most popular space opera military miniature wargame which spawned successful spin-off media: novels, video-games and on-going live adaption based on books by Dan Abnett. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=956982 | 955,725 |
1,760,976 | With the new car making its early debut at the Phillip Island round of the championship, after damaging the VL in a rollover at Symmons Plains Raceway, the team spent most of 1993 developing the VP into a race-winning package. Even after an engine failure at the Sandown 500 the team fronted at Bathurst, full of confidence that the car was fast enough to win. The Perkins Castrol Commodore, with its Holden V8 engine as opposed to the Chevrolets run by the other leading Holden teams, was the fastest in all but one session during practice and qualifying. Perkins then cut a near perfect lap to claim his 2nd pole position in the race (Peter Brock set the pole time in 1983), and won after a race long battle with Jim Richards and Mark Skaife. Former motorcycle racer and longtime Allan Moffat co-driver Gregg Hansford had joined to team to co-drive at Sandown and Bathurst. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6922736 | 1,759,983 |
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