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54,381 | Manufacture of YP-38s fell behind schedule, at least partly because of changes to meet the need for mass production, making them substantially different in construction from the prototype. Another factor was the sudden required expansion of Lockheed's facility in Burbank, taking it from a specialized civilian firm dealing with small orders to a large government defense contractor making Venturas, Harpoons, Lodestars, and Hudsons, and designing the Constellation for TWA. The first YP-38 was not completed until September 1940, with its maiden flight on 17 September. The 13th and final YP-38 was delivered to the USAAC in June 1941; 12 aircraft were retained for flight testing and one for destructive stress testing. The YPs were substantially redesigned and differed greatly in detail from the hand-built XP-38. They were lighter and included changes in engine fit. The propeller rotation was reversed, with the blades spinning outward (away from the cockpit) at the top of their arc, rather than inward as before. This improved the aircraft's stability as a gunnery platform. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25041 | 54,361 |
420,426 | This family of algorithms is computationally expensive and thus many modifications and adaptations exist, including the next reaction method (Gibson & Bruck), tau-leaping, as well as hybrid techniques where abundant reactants are modeled with deterministic behavior. Adapted techniques generally compromise the exactitude of the theory behind the algorithm as it connects to the master equation, but offer reasonable realizations for greatly improved timescales. The computational cost of exact versions of the algorithm is determined by the coupling class of the reaction network. In weakly coupled networks, the number of reactions that is influenced by any other reaction is bounded by a small constant. In strongly coupled networks, a single reaction firing can in principle affect all other reactions. An exact version of the algorithm with constant-time scaling for weakly coupled networks has been developed, enabling efficient simulation of systems with very large numbers of reaction channels (Slepoy Thompson Plimpton 2008). The generalized Gillespie algorithm that accounts for the non-Markovian properties of random biochemical events with delay has been developed by Bratsun et al. 2005 and independently Barrio et al. 2006, as well as (Cai 2007). See the articles cited below for details. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4438763 | 420,221 |
1,852,081 | By June 24, they encountered the pack ice again and slowly made their way towards Upernavik. Hunting and visiting with the local Inuit passed the time until they harbored at a Danish settlement in early July. Setting out as the ice cleared, they encountered British whalers, exchanging news, mail, and fresh provisions before briefly visiting Upernavik. Nearby, they again met and joined forces with the "Prince Albert", still searching for Franklin. The three ships made slow progress northward though the ice fields over the next weeks, before the way was blocked entirely. On August 5, the "Prince Albert" abandoned the situation, heading south through the pressing ice. "Rescue" and "Advance" continued their efforts to reach the search areas of the open waters of Wellington Channel as the summer season faded early. They slowly cut north, yard by yard, through the increasingly violent pack ice, as larger icebergs drifted in and calved still more loose ice. By August 17, they had pulled themselves to open water for the first time in nearly a month, and De Haven resolved to return home before winter caught them again. Upernavik was reached on August 23. They were met by Henry Grinnell at New York on September 30, 1851, to whom both ships were returned. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=26501694 | 1,851,020 |
997,478 | The idea that oxidation of ammonia to nitrate is in fact biological process was first given by Louis Pasteur in 1862. Later in 1875, Alexander Müller during quality assessment of water from wells in Berlin noted that ammonium was stable in sterilized solutions but nitrified in natural waters. A. Müller put forward, that nitrification is thus performed by microorganisms. In 1877, Jean-Jacques Schloesing and Achille Müntz, two French agricultural chemists working in Paris, proved that nitrification is indeed microbially mediated process by the experiments with liquid sewage and artificial soil matrix (sterilized sand with powdered chalk). Their findings were confirmed soon (in 1878) by Robert Warington who was investigating nitrification ability of garden soil at the Rothamsted experimental station in Harpenden in England. R. Warington made also the first observation that nitrification is a two-step process in 1879 which was confirmed by John Munro in 1886. Although at that time, it was believed that two-step nitrification is separated into different life phases or character traits of a single microorganism. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=361028 | 996,960 |
58,411 | Some operators lost a large proportion of their aircraft through accidents, although the accident rate varied widely depending on the user and operating conditions. The German Air Force and Federal German Navy, the largest combined user of the F-104 and operator of over 35% of all airframes built, lost approximately 32% of its Starfighters in accidents over the aircraft's 31-year career. The Belgian Air Force, on the other hand, lost 41 of its 100 airframes between February 1963 and September 1983, and Italy, the final Starfighter operator, lost 138 of 368 (37%) by 1992. Canada's accident rate with the F-104 ultimately exceeded 46% (110 of 238) over its 25-year service history, though the Canadian jets tended to be flown for a greater number of hours than those of other air forces (three times that of the German F-104s, for example). However, some operators had substantially lower accident rates: Denmark's attrition rate for the F-104 was 24%, with Japan losing just 15% and Norway 14% (6 of 43) of their respective Starfighter fleets. The best accident rate was achieved by the Spanish Air Force, which ended its Starfighter era with a perfect safety record: the Ejército del Aire lost none of its 18 F-104Gs and 3 TF-104Gs over a total of seven years and 17,500 flight hours. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=82439 | 58,386 |
340,163 | Within the conceptual frame of the scientific method, an investigator sets up several distinct and contrasting temporally transient material processes that have the structure of experiments, and records candidate material responses, normally intending to determine causality in the physical world. For instance, one may want to know whether a high intake of carrots causes humans to develop the bubonic plague. The quantity of carrot intake is a process that is varied from occasion to occasion. The occurrence or non-occurrence of subsequent bubonic plague is recorded. To establish causality, the experiment must fulfill certain criteria, only one example of which is mentioned here. For example, instances of the hypothesized cause must be set up to occur at a time when the hypothesized effect is relatively unlikely in the absence of the hypothesized cause; such unlikelihood is to be established by empirical evidence. A mere observation of a correlation is not nearly adequate to establish causality. In nearly all cases, establishment of causality relies on repetition of experiments and probabilistic reasoning. Hardly ever is causality established more firmly than as more or less probable. It is most convenient for establishment of causality if the contrasting material states of affairs are precisely matched, except for only one variable factor, perhaps measured by a real number. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=37196 | 339,982 |
1,525,387 | Best's vitelliform macular dystrophy (BVMD) is one of the most common Best1-associated diseases. BVMD typically becomes noticeable in children and is represented by the buildup of lipofuscin (lipid residuals) lesions in the eye. Diagnosis normally follows an abnormal electrooculogram in which decreased activation of calcium channels in the basolateral membrane of the retinal pigment epithelium becomes apparent. A mutation in the BEST1 gene leads to a loss of channel function and eventually retinal degeneration. Although BVMD is an autosomal dominant form of macular dystrophy, expressivity varies within and between affected families although the overwhelming majority of affected families come from northern European descent. Typically, people with this condition experience five progressively worsening stages, though timing and severity varies greatly. BVMD is often caused by the single missense mutations; however, amino acid deletions have also been identified. A loss of function of the Best1 chloride channel could likely explain some of the most common issues associated with BVMD: an inability to regulate intracellular ion concentrations and regulate overall cell volume. To date, over 100 disease-causing mutations have been related to BVMD as well as a number of other degenerative retinal diseases. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14754119 | 1,524,526 |
136,187 | Carcinogens, as mentioned, are agents in the environment capable of contributing to cancer growth. Carcinogens can be categorized into two different types: activation-dependent and activation-independent, and each nature impacts their level and type of influence when it comes to promoting cancer growth. These can range from certain viruses, such as HPV, to an over-consumption of alcohol, or even excessive amounts of red and processed meats, therefore impacting a person's health in ways they may not immediately associate with cancer. Activation-independent carcinogens, such as ultraviolet rays or nitrosamines in tobacco products, possess characteristics enabling them to interact directly with DNA and other cellular components to cause harm. These include not requiring metabolic action or molecular changes to act, which complements their ability to be electrically excited, permitting them to interact with oxygen and nitrogen atoms in negatively charged cellular environments. This type of interaction leads to the alteration of DNA nucleotide bases, causing disarrangement of that genetic material. This disarrangement is also responsible for the formation of DNA adducts, segments of DNA which bind to carcinogens, which furthers harm. Eventually, failure in DNA repair mechanisms will lead to a buildup of DNA damage and potentially the development of cancer. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6445 | 136,132 |
983,118 | To better address both the funding concerns and concerns about government control, one alternative model is that the cost and control would be distributed across the private sector instead of the public sector. Companies across the economy would be required to employ humans, but the job descriptions would be left to private innovation, and individuals would have to compete to be hired and retained. This would be a for-profit sector analog of basic income, that is, a market-based form of basic income. It differs from a job guarantee in that the government is not the employer (rather, companies are) and there is no aspect of having employees who "cannot be fired", a problem that interferes with economic dynamism. The economic salvation in this model is not that every individual is guaranteed a job, but rather just that enough jobs exist that massive unemployment is avoided and employment is no longer solely the privilege of only the very smartest or highly trained 20% of the population. Another option for a market-based form of basic income has been proposed by the Center for Economic and Social Justice (CESJ) as part of "a Just Third Way" (a Third Way with greater justice) through widely distributed power and liberty. Called the Capital Homestead Act, it is reminiscent of James S. Albus's Peoples' Capitalism in that money creation and securities ownership are widely and directly distributed to individuals rather than flowing through, or being concentrated in, centralized or elite mechanisms. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=32040137 | 982,604 |
264,259 | Despite this lack of backing, the Swallow attracted international attention for some time. During late 1958, research efforts were temporarily revived through cooperation with the Mutual Weapons Development Programme of NATO, under which all of Wallis' variable geometry research was shared with the Americans. According to aviation author James R. Hansen, American aerospace engineer John Stack was enthusiastic on the concept, as were numerous engineers at NASA; however, the United States Department of Defense was opposed to committing any resources to the project. Wallis collaborated with NASA's Langley Laboratory on a design study for a variable-sweep fighter. Although it used the pivot mechanism he had developed, NASA also insisted on implementing a conventional horizontal stabiliser to ease the issues of trim and manoeuvrability. Although it was no longer the wing-controlled aerodyne that Wallis envisaged, it would prove a more practical solution than either his or Bell's. Swallow research led to several new configurations, including the adoption of a compact folding tail section and canards. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=349470 | 264,116 |
710,328 | 15-28% of governmental R&D expenditures may go to military research according to some unofficial estimates. The Chinese defense sector remains almost completely state-owned but military equipment production has been reorganized into corporate bodies allowing limited competition and the defense patent system has been reformed to allow greater rewards to innovative enterprises and individuals. The organizational structure has shed civilian applications while at the same time cooperation with the civilian sector has increased and state supported civilian research sometimes have dual use applications. Chinese jet engines remains a problematic area that has caused concern at the highest levels with China still being largely dependent on imports from foreign manufacturers. One possible explanation is a continued Soviet style fragmentation of the research and production line into many isolated units having little contact with one another causing problems with overall standardization, integration, and quality control. More problems from this may be duplication of efforts, dispersal of efforts, and unproductive competition over patronage causing problems such as dishonest reporting of problems. High precision jet engines may be particularly sensitive to accumulated quality problems. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=277914 | 709,957 |
1,718,036 | During the conflict, US forces ability to detect biological weapons in the field was extremely limited, consisting only of experimental sampling systems and laboratory testing undertaken by a small group responsible for the whole theater of operation. Compared to the sophisticated chemical weapons detection regime in place, the military was concerned about being caught off guard. The FMIB stepped in to solve the problem, taking command of the 9th Chemical Detachment of the 9th Infantry Division, Fort Lewis, Washington, providing operations, rations, administrative, training, personnel, and logistical support to enable a vast expansion of operations. The detachment consisted of a headquarters section, seven three-man biological detection teams and five chemical/biological detection teams. With them came a detachment from the US Army Technical Escort Unit. On February 1, 1991, sampling teams dispatched to locations across the theater, including Riyadh, Dhahran, Kuwait City, Nasiriyah, and several locations across Southern Iraq. No biological warfare agents or munitions were ultimately detected. For much of the war, the contingent of the unit based in Saudi Arabia was located near Dhahran at Khobar Towers, which later became a nickname for the Battalion's barracks back at Aberdeen, until the towers were bombed in 1996 by Hezbollah Al-Hejaz. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=67447284 | 1,717,066 |
1,460,409 | On 6 February 2012, SwissMicros (previously known as RPN-Calc) introduced a miniature clone named "DM-15CC" approximating the size of an ID-1 credit card (88 mm × 59 mm × 7 mm). It closely emulates the functionality of the original HP-15C by running the original ROM image in an emulator on an ARM Cortex-M0-based NXP LPC1114 processor. Newer "DM15" models feature a better keyboard and more RAM (LPC1115). With a modified firmware (M80 and M1B), the additional memory allows for up to 129 or even 230 registers and up to 1603 or 896 programs steps. A "DM15 Silver Edition" in a titanium case is available as well in three color variants (metal, brown, blue). Deviating from the original, these calculators feature a dot-matrix display, switchable fonts and clock speeds, and, based on a Silicon Labs CP2102 converter chip, they come with a USB (Mini-B) serial interface to exchange data with a PC etc. for backup purposes and possibly to communicate with applications (like PC-based HP-15C emulators) or to update the firmware. In September 2015, SwissMicros introduced the "DM15L", a version of the calculator about the same size as the original HP-15C. It still comes with a USB Mini-B connector. Powering via USB is not supported. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4650504 | 1,459,587 |
1,759,585 | The preserving of an even keel is accomplished in the Curtiss machine by small planes hinged between the main planes at the outer ends. They serve to prevent the machine from tipping over sideways. They are operated by arms, projecting from the back of the aviator's seat, which embrace his shoulders on each side, and are moved by the swaying of his body. In a measure, they are automatic in action, for when the aeroplane sags downward on one side, the pilot naturally leans the other way to preserve his balance, and that motion swings the ailerons (as these small stabilizing planes are called) in such a way that the pressure of the wind restores the aeroplane to an even keel. The wires which connect them with the back of the seat are so arranged that when one aileron is being pulled down at its rear edge the rear of the other one is being raised, thus doubling the effect. As the machine is righted the aviator comes back to an upright position, and the ailerons become level once more. There are other controls which the pilot must operate consciously. In the Curtiss machine these are levers moved by the feet. With a pressure of the right foot he short-circuits the magneto, thus cutting off the spark in the engine cylinders and stopping the motor. This lever also puts a brake on the forward landing wheels, and checks the speed of the machine as it touches the ground. The right foot also controls the pump which forces the lubricating oil faster or slower to the points where it is needed. The left foot operates the lever which controls the throttle by which the aviator can regulate the flow of gas to the engine cylinders. The average speed of the 7-foot propeller is 1,100 revolutions per minute. With the throttle it may be cut down to 100 revolutions per minute, which is not fast enough to keep afloat, but will help along when gliding." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14977215 | 1,758,592 |
1,731,632 | With a spike on a graph, an entourage effect and retrograde signaling, by the motto “Science for Peace", and, also in the spirit of Niels Bohr, the Danish physicist with the first relatively correct model of how an atom looks like, - an international group of about 6000 researchers connected at CERN, by a particle accelerator located 100 meters underground, called LHC Large Hadron Collider 1, which consists of a 27 km long tube in a circle, that can accelerate protons to near the speed of light and smash them together, demonstrated on 4 July 2012 the existence of the Higgs particle, a manifestation of the existence of the Higgs field - an invisible field in the entire Universe (symmetry breaking), believed to have emerge at about 1 picosecond (10 s) after the Big Bang, and required for atoms and other structures to form, as well as for nuclear reactions in stars, such as our Sun and Betelgeuse. As so, the Higgs field is responsible for this symmetry breaking, and which all particles pass through, and which provide them their mass and thereby, weight, and without this field, all particles and elements in the NAE-structure, would be moving around at the speed of light, because they didn't have a mass, and they and living nature, wouldn't be able to exist. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20853174 | 1,730,656 |
1,232,777 | YPVS Yamaha engines, Yamaha Power Valve System: Yamaha engineers realized that by altering the height of the exhaust port they could effectively change the engine power delivery thereby having optimal power and torque across the entire rev range, so it was that the YPVS was born. The valve is of a cylindrical "cotton reel" design running across the top of the exhaust port, it is turned by a servo motor controlled from a control box taking information from the CDI (and other locations). The valve is a slightly oval shape. This changes the height and size of the exhaust port at different engine speeds, maximizing the available power at all rev ranges, opening up firstly at 3k rpm for low end power, gradually in between 3-6k, fully opening at 6k rpm for maximum power, on most 125cc. It was fitted to all of the later models of the RZ/RD two-stroke road bikes (125, 250, 350 and 500 cc), the TZR range. It was also added to the DT(125lc 2/3) range after 1984 (but was locked closed to comply with UK learner regulations until the (R) in 1988-04 which had a fully functional YPVS valve) the DT125R has a better design of engine, although not much altered in speed, just more reliable than its predecessor. The YZ series of motocross bikes has a mechanical power valve which is activated at RPM speed. The YPVS is only found on the liquid-cooled bikes not air cooled versions. Yamaha have also used a guillotine version in some of their later models such as the 1994 TZR250 3XV SP model, and many later TZ road race bikes. The TZR250R 3XV SPR actually uses a Triple-YPVS, which is a combination of the guillotine and "cotton reel" designs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2238101 | 1,232,115 |
1,968,215 | However, a study conducted on the tobacco plant in 2007 has disproved this theory. Led by Ralph Bock from the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology in Germany, researchers studied genetically modified tobacco in which the transgene was integrated in chloroplasts. A transplastomic tobacco plant generated through chloroplast mediated transformation was bred with plants that were male sterile with an untouched chloroplast. The transplastomic plants were engineered to have resistance to the antibiotic spectinomycin and engineered to produce a green fluorescent protein molecule (GFP). Therefore, it was hypothesized that any offspring produced by from these two lines of tobacco plant should not be able to grow on spectinomycin or be fluorescent, as the genetic material in the chloroplast should not be able to transfer via pollen. However, it was found that some of the seeds were resistant to the antibiotic and could germinate on spectinomycin agar plates. Calculations showed that 1 out of every million pollen grains contained plastid genetic material, which would be significant in an agricultural farm setting. Because tobacco has a strong tendency towards self-fertilisation, the reliability of transplastomic plants is assumed to be even higher under field conditions. Therefore, the researchers believe that only one in 100,000,000 GM tobacco plants actually would transmit the transgene via pollen. Such values are more than satisfactory to ensure coexistence. However, for GM crops used in the production of pharmaceuticals, or in other cases in which absolutely no outcrossing is permitted, the researchers recommend the combination of chloroplast transformation with other biological containment methods, such as cytoplasmic male sterility or transgene mitigation strategies. This study showed that whilst transplastomic plants do not have absolute gene containment, the level of containment is extremely high and would allow for coexistence of conventional and genetically modified agricultural crops. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12007423 | 1,967,085 |
1,004,644 | Dehydration refers both to hypohydration (dehydration induced prior to exercise) and to exercise-induced dehydration (dehydration that develops during exercise). The latter reduces aerobic endurance performance and results in increased body temperature, heart rate, perceived exertion, and possibly increased reliance on carbohydrate as a fuel source. Although the negative effects of exercise-induced dehydration on exercise performance were clearly demonstrated in the 1940s, athletes continued to believe for years thereafter that fluid intake was not beneficial. More recently, negative effects on performance have been demonstrated with modest (<2%) dehydration, and these effects are exacerbated when the exercise is performed in a hot environment. The effects of hypohydration may vary, depending on whether it is induced through diuretics or sauna exposure, which substantially reduce plasma volume, or prior exercise, which has much less impact on plasma volume. Hypohydration reduces aerobic endurance, but its effects on muscle strength and endurance are not consistent and require further study. Intense prolonged exercise produces metabolic waste heat, and this is removed by sweat-based thermoregulation. A male marathon runner loses each hour around 0.83 L in cool weather and 1.2 L in warm (losses in females are about 68 to 73% lower). People doing heavy exercise may lose two and half times as much fluid in sweat as urine. This can have profound physiological effects. Cycling for 2 hours in the heat (35 °C) with minimal fluid intake causes body mass decline by 3 to 5%, blood volume likewise by 3 to 6%, body temperature to rise constantly, and in comparison with proper fluid intake, higher heart rates, lower stroke volumes and cardiac outputs, reduced skin blood flow, and higher systemic vascular resistance. These effects are largely eliminated by replacing 50 to 80% of the fluid lost in sweat. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=395477 | 1,004,126 |
379,890 | Two unique semiconductors, one n-type and one p-type, are used because they need to have different electron densities. The alternating p & n-type semiconductor pillars are placed thermally in parallel to each other and electrically in series and then joined with a thermally conducting plate on each side, usually ceramic removing the need for a separate insulator. When a voltage is applied to the free ends of the two semiconductors there is a flow of DC current across the junction of the semiconductors, causing a temperature difference. The side with the cooling plate absorbs heat which is then transported by the semiconductor to the other side of the device. The cooling ability of the total unit is then proportional to the total cross section of all the pillars, which are often connected in series electrically to reduce the current needed to practical levels. The length of the pillars is a balance between longer pillars, which will have a greater thermal resistance between the sides and allow a lower temperature to be reached but produce more resistive heating, and shorter pillars, which will have a greater electrical efficiency but let more heat leak from the hot to cold side by thermal conduction. For large temperature differences, longer pillars are far less efficient than stacking separate, progressively larger modules; the modules get larger as each layer must remove both the heat moved by the above layer and the waste heat of the layer. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=310597 | 379,695 |
1,235,803 | When the first proteins were rationally designed during the 1970s and 1980s, the sequence for these was optimized manually based on analyses of other known proteins, the sequence composition, amino acid charges, and the geometry of the desired structure. The first designed proteins are attributed to Bernd Gutte, who designed a reduced version of a known catalyst, bovine ribonuclease, and tertiary structures consisting of beta-sheets and alpha-helices, including a binder of DDT. Urry and colleagues later designed elastin-like fibrous peptides based on rules on sequence composition. Richardson and coworkers designed a 79-residue protein with no sequence homology to a known protein. In the 1990s, the advent of powerful computers, libraries of amino acid conformations, and force fields developed mainly for molecular dynamics simulations enabled the development of structure-based computational protein design tools. Following the development of these computational tools, great success has been achieved over the last 30 years in protein design. The first protein successfully designed completely "de novo" was done by Stephen Mayo and coworkers in 1997, and, shortly after, in 1999 Peter S. Kim and coworkers designed dimers, trimers, and tetramers of unnatural right-handed coiled coils. In 2003, David Baker's laboratory designed a full protein to a fold never seen before in nature. Later, in 2008, Baker's group computationally designed enzymes for two different reactions. In 2010, one of the most powerful broadly neutralizing antibodies was isolated from patient serum using a computationally designed protein probe. Due to these and other successes (e.g., see examples below), protein design has become one of the most important tools available for protein engineering. There is great hope that the design of new proteins, small and large, will have uses in biomedicine and bioengineering. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1581752 | 1,235,140 |
204,010 | Rolls-Royce was also working on a series of triple-spool designs as replacements for the Conway, which promised to deliver higher efficiency. In this configuration, three groups of turbines spin three separate concentric shafts to power three sections of the compressor area running at different speeds. In addition to allowing each stage of the compressor to run at its optimal speed, the triple-spool design is more compact and rigid, although more complex to build and maintain. Several designs were being worked on at the time, including a 10,000 lbf (44 kN) thrust design known as the RB203 intended to replace the Spey. Work started on the Conway replacement engine in July 1961 and a twin-spool demonstrator engine to prove the HP compressor, combustor, and turbine system designs, had been run by 1966. Rolls-Royce chose the triple-spool system in 1965 as the simplest, lowest cost solution to the problem of obtaining lower fuel consumption and reduced noise levels at a constant power setting. Work on the RB211 as essentially a scaled-down RB207 began in 1966-7 with the first certificated engines being scheduled to be available by December 1970 at 33,260lb take-off thrust and at a price of $511,000 each. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=387227 | 203,905 |
1,232,505 | The quality of the data found on dbSNP has been questioned by many research groups, which suspect high false positive rates due to genotyping and base-calling errors. These mistakes can easily be entered into dbSNP if the submitter uses (1) uncritical bioinformatic alignments of highly similar but distinct DNA sequences, and/or (2) PCRs with primers that cannot discriminate between similar but distinct DNA sequences. Mitchell "et al." (2004) reviewed four studies and concluded that dbSNP has a false positive rate between 15-17% for SNPs, and also that the minor allele frequency is greater than 10% for approximately 80% of the SNPs that are not false positives. Similarly, Musemeci "et al." (2010) states that as many as 8.32% of the biallelic coding SNPs in dbSNP are artifacts of highly similar DNA sequences (i.e. paralogous genes) and refer to these entries as single nucleotide differences (SNDs). The high error rates in dbSNP may not be surprising: of the 23.7 million refSNP entries for humans, only 14.5 million have been validated, leaving the remaining 9.2 million as candidate SNPs. However, according to Musemeci "et al." (2010), even the validation code provided in the refSNP record is only partially useful: only HapMap validation reduced the number of SNDs (3% vs 8%), but only accepting this method removes more than half of the real SNPs in the dbSNP. These authors also note that one source of submissions from the Lee group are plagued with errors: 20% of these submissions are SNDs (vs. 8% for submissions). However, as the authors note, ignoring all of these submissions would remove many real SNPs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=16569621 | 1,231,843 |
310,151 | These devices are not rated in joules because they operate differently from the earlier suppressors, and they do not depend on materials that inherently wear out during repeated surges. SM suppressors are primarily used to control transient voltage surges on electrical power feeds to protected devices. They are essentially heavy-duty low-pass filters connected so that they allow 50 or 60 Hz line voltages through to the load, while blocking and diverting higher frequencies. This type of suppressor differs from others by using banks of inductors, capacitors and resistors that suppress voltage surges and inrush current to the neutral wire, whereas other designs shunt to the ground wire. Surges are not diverted but actually suppressed. The inductors slow down the energy. Since the inductor in series with the circuit path slows the current spike, the peak surge energy is spread out in the time domain and harmlessly absorbed and slowly released from a capacitor bank. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=414738 | 309,984 |
803,306 | Quantum wells have been proposed to increase the efficiency of solar cells. The theoretical maximum efficiency of traditional single-junction cells is about 34%, due in large part to their inability to capture many different wavelengths of light. Multi-junction solar cells, which consist of multiple p-n junctions of different bandgaps connected in series, increase the theoretical efficiency by broadening the range of absorbed wavelengths, but their complexity and manufacturing cost limit their use to niche applications. On the other hand, cells consisting of a p-i-n junction in which the intrinsic region contains one or more quantum wells, lead to an increased photocurrent over dark current, resulting in a net efficiency increase over conventional p-n cells. Photons of energy within the well depth are absorbed in the wells and generate electron-hole pairs. In room temperature conditions, these photo-generated carriers have sufficient thermal energy to escape the well faster than the recombination rate. Elaborate multi-junction quantum well solar cells can be fabricated using layer-by-layer deposition techniques such as molecular beam epitaxy or chemical vapor deposition. It has also been shown that metal or dielectric nanoparticles added above the cell lead to further increases in photo-absorption by scattering incident light into lateral propagation paths confined within the multiple-quantum-well intrinsic layer. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=642886 | 802,877 |
364,149 | Diatoms are unicellular organisms: they occur either as solitary cells or in colonies, which can take the shape of ribbons, fans, zigzags, or stars. Individual cells range in size from 2 to 200 micrometers. In the presence of adequate nutrients and sunlight, an assemblage of living diatoms doubles approximately every 24 hours by asexual multiple fission; the maximum life span of individual cells is about six days. Diatoms have two distinct shapes: a few ("centric diatoms") are "radially" symmetric, while most ("pennate diatoms") are broadly "bilaterally" symmetric. A unique feature of diatom anatomy is that they are surrounded by a cell wall made of silica (hydrated silicon dioxide), called a frustule. These frustules have structural coloration due to their photonic nanostructure, prompting them to be described as "jewels of the sea" and "living opals". Movement in diatoms primarily occurs passively as a result of both ocean currents and wind-induced water turbulence; however, male gametes of centric diatoms have flagella, permitting active movement to seek female gametes. Similar to plants, diatoms convert light energy to chemical energy by photosynthesis, but their chloroplasts were acquired in different ways. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=46374 | 363,959 |
763,576 | The UCMJ, the Rules for Courts-Martial (the military analogue to the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure), and the Military Rules of Evidence (the analogue to the Federal Rules of Evidence) have evolved since their implementation, often paralleling the development of the federal civilian criminal justice system. In some ways, the UCMJ has been ahead of changes in the civilian criminal justice system. For example, a rights-warning statement similar to the "Miranda" warnings (and required in more contexts than in the civilian world where it is applicable only to custodial interrogation) was required by Art. 31 () a decade and a half before the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in "Miranda v. Arizona"; Article 38(b) ((b)) continued the 1948 Articles of War guarantee that qualified defense counsel be provided to all accused without regard to indigence (and at earlier stages than required in civilian jurisdictions), whereas the U.S. Supreme Court only guaranteed the provision of counsel to indigents in "Gideon v. Wainwright". Additionally, the role of what was originally a court-martial's non-voting "law member" developed into the present office of military judge whose capacity is little different from that of an Article III judge in a U.S. district court. At the same time, the "court-martial" itself (the panel of officers hearing the case and weighing the evidence) has converted from being essentially a board of inquiry/review presiding over the trial, into a jury of military service-members. The current version of the UCMJ is printed in the latest edition of the "Manual for Courts-Martial" (2019), incorporating changes made by the President (executive orders) and National Defense Authorization Acts of 2006 and 2007. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=487397 | 763,167 |
927,352 | Another innovative use of ROV technology was during the "Mardi Gras" Shipwreck Project. The "Mardi Gras Shipwreck" sank some 200 years ago about 35 miles off the coast of Louisiana in the Gulf of Mexico in 4,000 feet (1220 meters) of water. The shipwreck, whose real identity remains a mystery, lay forgotten at the bottom of the sea until it was discovered in 2002 by an oilfield inspection crew working for the Okeanos Gas Gathering Company (OGGC). In May 2007, an expedition, led by Texas A&M University and funded by OGGC under an agreement with the Minerals Management Service (now BOEM), was launched to undertake the deepest scientific archaeological excavation ever attempted at that time to study the site on the seafloor and recover artifacts for eventual public display in the Louisiana State Museum. As part of the educational outreach Nautilus Productions in partnership with BOEM, Texas A&M University, the Florida Public Archaeology Network and Veolia Environmental produced a one-hour HD documentary about the project, short videos for public viewing and provided video updates during the expedition. Video footage from the ROV was an integral part of this outreach and used extensively in the "Mystery Mardi Gras Shipwreck" documentary. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=299462 | 926,865 |
1,409,433 | Shahid Rahman (Lille) and collaborators developed dialogical logic into a general framework for the study of logical and philosophical issues related to logical pluralism. Beginning 1994 this triggered a kind of renaissance with lasting consequences. This new philosophical impulse experienced a parallel renewal in the fields of theoretical computer science, computational linguistics, artificial intelligence, and the formal semantics of programming languages, for instance the work of Johan van Benthem and collaborators in Amsterdam who looked thoroughly at the interface between logic and games, and Hanno Nickau who addressed the full abstraction problem in programming languages by means of games. New results in linear logic by Jean-Yves Girard in the interfaces between mathematical game theory and logic on one hand and argumentation theory and logic on the other hand resulted in the work of many others, including S. Abramsky, J. van Benthem, A. Blass, D. Gabbay, M. Hyland, W. Hodges, R. Jagadeesan, G. Japaridze, E. Krabbe, L. Ong, H. Prakken, G. Sandu, D. Walton, and J. Woods, who placed game semantics at the center of a new concept in logic in which logic is understood as a dynamic instrument of inference. There has also been an alternative perspective on proof theory and meaning theory, advocating that Wittgenstein's "meaning as use" paradigm as understood in the context of proof theory, where the so-called reduction rules (showing the effect of elimination rules on the result of introduction rules) should be seen as appropriate to formalise the explanation of the (immediate) consequences one can draw from a proposition, thus showing the function/purpose/usefulness of its main connective in the calculus of language.(, , , , ) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=617121 | 1,408,641 |
1,200,828 | Energy homeostasis, which relies on a balance of glucose and lipids, is essential for organism survival. Diseases involving impaired metabolic activity include obesity, Type 2 Diabetes (T2D) and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). In the context equilibrium, over nutrition promotes lipogenesis (lipid synthesis) in response to increased glucose and insulin concentrations, and fasting promotes β-oxidation (lipid breakdown) and gluconeogenesis (synthesis of glucose). Experiments performed in diet-induced obese mice saw increased lipogenesis driven by over expression of sterol regulatory element binding protein 1C (SREBP1C), which works in coordination with the carbohydrate responsive-element binding protein (ChREBP). Both are transcription factors critical for lipogenesis, and both are acetylated by CBP, a post translational modification that increases their transcriptional activity. To balance the increase in lipid synthesis, the body needs to be able to export the macromolecule out of cells and storage. Microsomal triglyceride transfer protein (MTP) is responsible for lipoprotein assembly and secretion, and it associates with an RNA helicase, DDX3, which interacts with CBP causing HNF4 acetylation, which in turn increases the rate of transcription of MTP in a positive feedback loop. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9927027 | 1,200,187 |
349,363 | Shortly after the War, the French architect Le Corbusier, who was nearly sixty years old and had not constructed a building in ten years, was commissioned by the French government to construct a new apartment block in Marseille. He called it Unité d'Habitation in Marseille, but it more popularly took the name of the Cité Radieuse (and later "Cité du Fada" "City of the crazy one" in Marseille French), after his book about futuristic urban planning. Following his doctrines of design, the building had a concrete frame raised up above the street on pylons. It contained 337 duplex apartment units, fit into the framework like pieces of a puzzle. Each unit had two levels and a small terrace. Interior "streets" had shops, a nursery school, and other serves, and the flat terrace roof had a running track, ventilation ducts, and a small theater. Le Corbusier designed furniture, carpets, and lamps to go with the building, all purely functional; the only decoration was a choice of interior colors that Le Corbusier gave to residents. Unité d'Habitation became a prototype for similar buildings in other cities, both in France and Germany. Combined with his equally radical organic design for the Chapel of Notre-Dame du-Haut at Ronchamp, this work propelled Corbusier in the first rank of postwar modern architects. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=315927 | 349,180 |
2,168,505 | In the finite element method, the behavior (stresses, strains and displacements resulting from load conditions) of large-scale structures is approximated by a FE model consisting of structural elements (members) connected at structural node points. Calculations on traditional computers are performed at each node point and results communicated to adjacent node points until the behavior of the entire structure is computed. On the Finite Element Machine, microprocessors located at each node point perform these nodal computations in parallel. If there are more node points (N) than microprocessors (P), then each microprocessor performs N/P computations. The Finite Element Machine contained 32 processor boards each with a Texas Instruments TMS9900 processor, 32 Input/Output (IO) boards and a TMS99/4 controller. The FEM was conceived, designed and fabricated at NASA Langley Research Center. The TI 9900 processor chip was selected by the NASA team as it was the first 16-bit processor available on the market which until then was limited to less powerful 8-bit processors. The FEM concept was first successfully tested to solve beam bending equations on a Langley FEM prototype (4 IMSAI 8080s). This led to full-scale FEM fabrication & testing by the FEM hardware-software-applications team led by Dr. Olaf Storaasli formerly of NASA Langley Research Center and Oak Ridge National Laboratory (currently at USEC). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12501094 | 2,167,268 |
790,725 | With the use of in vivo Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and tissue sampling, different cortical samples from members of each hominoid species were analyzed. In each species, specific areas were either relatively enlarged or shrunken, which can detail neural organizations. Different sizes in the cortical areas can show specific adaptations, functional specializations and evolutionary events that were changes in how the hominoid brain is organized. In early prediction it was thought that the frontal lobe, a large part of the brain that is generally devoted to behavior and social interaction, predicted the differences in behavior between hominoid and humans. Discrediting this theory was evidence supporting that damage to the frontal lobe in both humans and hominoids show atypical social and emotional behavior; thus, this similarity means that the frontal lobe was not very likely to be selected for reorganization. Instead, it is now believed that evolution occurred in other parts of the brain that are strictly associated with certain behaviors. The reorganization that took place is thought to have been more organizational than volumetric; whereas the brain volumes were relatively the same but specific landmark position of surface anatomical features, for example, the lunate sulcus suggest that the brains had been through a neurological reorganization. There is also evidence that the early hominin lineage also underwent a quiescent period, or a period of dormancy, which supports the idea of neural reorganization. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=17682224 | 790,300 |
1,037,765 | In a later interview, Jennifer elaborated, "I'd like to mention that I've always been an incredibly inconsistent player. If my worst tournaments and my best ones were put side by side and compared, it wouldn't look like I was the same player." As an example to further her point, she shared, "My situation in the hunt for the IM title also makes perfect sense because I have all three of my norms but have yet to cross the 2400 threshold. To me, this means that I am capable of performing at IM-level strength in my best tournaments, making it possible to achieve the norms, but that I'm definitely a long road away from consistently playing at that level." Her inconsistency and fighting spirit were again on full display in her tumultuous tournament victory in the 2022 U.S. Women's Chess Championship, where she finished tied for first on 9/13 with 8 wins, 3 losses, and 2 draws before three more decisive games in the tiebreaks crowned Jennifer Yu champion over Irina Krush. "I like to create messes," said Jennifer, who trusted her ability to navigate unclear positions and tactical vision. Jennifer always tries to have decisive games and her universal style makes her comfortable steering the game to where her opponents may wish to avoid, but she prefers tactical middlegames that offer more winning chances to drier positions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=60375025 | 1,037,224 |
2,029,906 | Common issues arising from the use of 3D cultures is the lack of vasculature within the organoid, leading to cell death and dysfunction at inner layers. Current efforts are focusing on introducing endothelial cells into guided formation cultures in order to create vascular systems and provide nutrient distribution to deep layers. Self-organizing organoids also vary in terms in proportion and location of expressed cells causing challenges in reproducibility of experiments. More effort has been placed on guided formation organoids to account for this problem, however this method is more time consuming and difficult to optimize. 3D organoid culture's ability to resemble aging phenotypes is also limited as many organoid methods rely on iPSCs which are more similar to prenatal brain cells due to reprograming protocols. Researchers are currently investigating common transcriptional profiles associated with Alzheimer's disease and aging in order to reintroduce these lanscapes into iPSCs for future biomedical research and therapeutic development. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=67639494 | 2,028,738 |
568,440 | The process of creating the charge well is used as the write operation in a computer memory, storing a single binary digit, or bit. A positively charged dot is erased (filling the charge well) by drawing a second dot immediately adjacent to the one to be erased (most systems did this by drawing a short dash starting at the dot position, the extension of the dash erased the charge initially stored at the starting point). This worked because the negative halo around the second dot would fill in the positive center of the first dot. A collection of dots or spaces, often one horizontal row on the display, represents a computer word. Increasing beam energy made the dots bigger and last longer, but required them to be further apart, since nearby dots would erase each other. The beam energy had to be large enough to produce dots with a usable lifetime. This places an upper limit on the memory density, and each Williams tube could typically store about 256 to 2560 bits of data. Because the electron beam is essentially inertia-free and can be moved anywhere on the display, the computer can access any location, making it a random access memory. Typically, the computer would load the address as an X and Y pair into the driver circuitry and then trigger a time base generator that would sweep the selected locations, reading from or writing to the internal registers, normally implemented as flip-flops. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=33571 | 568,150 |
499,796 | Thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) are advanced materials systems usually applied to metallic surfaces operating at elevated temperatures, such as gas turbine or aero-engine parts, as a form of exhaust heat management. These 100 μm to 2 mm thick coatings of thermally insulating materials serve to insulate components from large and prolonged heat loads and can sustain an appreciable temperature difference between the load-bearing alloys and the coating surface. In doing so, these coatings can allow for higher operating temperatures while limiting the thermal exposure of structural components, extending part life by reducing oxidation and thermal fatigue. In conjunction with active film cooling, TBCs permit working fluid temperatures higher than the melting point of the metal airfoil in some turbine applications. Due to increasing demand for more efficient engines running at higher temperatures with better durability/lifetime and thinner coatings to reduce parasitic mass for rotating/moving components, there is significant motivation to develop new and advanced TBCs. The material requirements of TBCs are similar to those of heat shields, although in the latter application emissivity tends to be of greater importance. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7068038 | 499,539 |
1,359,695 | Genetic modification used to address concerns outside of medical necessities such as eye color, athletic abilities, intelligence, etc. is one example that has brought into question the ethicality of its purpose. Eugenics, which places a group of desirable human characteristics over another has led to fears of potential backlash toward genetically-modified, or genetically unmodified individuals in society. In the case of germline editing, there is no guarantee that treatment will provide an absolute cure throughout the patient’s life and/or whether those genes can be passed onto their offspring. Although CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats), a technique that allows for genes to be edited with ease may present certain benefits, but it may also cause further risks to the human body. For example, there may be technical limitations to CRISPR editing. Until advancements are made to fully equip scientists with the knowledge to understand all potential benefits and risks associated with CRISPR editing, concerns regarding the safety of its applications remain. The possibility that editing could bring about an incomplete or inaccurate genetic sequence has been reported in several experiments related to both animal and human cell line studies. Since it is almost impossible to predict a favorable outcome with certainty, this technique makes germline editing all the more difficult to promote as a definite cure for anyone suffering from terminal illnesses. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29071957 | 1,358,944 |
731,518 | Conceived in 1992 by the Pakistan Air Force, the program started in 1995 on main considerations of retiring the A–5 Fantan from active service. The Pakistan Air Force, which already was operating Dassalt Mirage IIIs and Dassalt Mirage 5s, began its procurement of second-hand Mirage fighters from Australia, Lebanon, Libya, and Spain at the price range within the MoD's fund. Over 90% of the aircraft were retrofitted at the Aeronautical Complex in Kamra; few were upgraded in France. From 1996–2000, several Mirage IIIE and Mirage 5 were bought from the other countries and were upgraded under this program at the Pakistan Aeronautical Complex. In this project the avionics of the aircraft were increased and in-flight refueling was added. Due to this, the range and combat radius of the fighter jet was increased, new grifo fire control radars having about 75 km range were introduced which gave the aircraft capability to fire BVR missiles if needed, the metallurgy of aircraft was overhauled and service life was increased. The capability to do take offs and landings from motorways was also added, after the Rose-3 upgrading the locally manufactured standoff weapons like H-4 SOW bombs, H-2 SOW bombs, Takbir glide bomb , Stealth nuclear cruise missiles such as Ra'ad MK-1 and Ra'ad Mk-2 were added in the weapon package of the aircraft. Further considerations for upgrades were recommended but the program was terminated due to increasingly combined costs of the spare parts and the conditions of the second–hand airframes of the Mirage IIIE and Mirage V at the time of their procurement from various countries. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4760570 | 731,132 |
175,866 | Before his relationship with his later wife Gertrud "Trude" Weiss, Leo Szilard's life partner in the period 1927–1934 was the kindergarten teacher and opera singer Gerda Philipsborn, who also worked as a volunteer in a Berlin asylum organization for refugee children and in 1932 moved to India to continue this work. Szilard married Trude Weiss, a physician, in a civil ceremony in New York on October 13, 1951. They had known each other since 1929 and had frequently corresponded and visited each other ever since. Weiss took up a teaching position at the University of Colorado in April 1950, and Szilard began staying with her in Denver for weeks at a time when they had never been together for more than a few days before. Single people living together was frowned upon in the conservative United States at the time and, after they were discovered by one of her students, Szilard began to worry that she might lose her job. Their relationship remained a long-distance one, and they kept news of their marriage quiet. Many of his friends were shocked, having considered Szilard a born bachelor. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=56359 | 175,774 |
1,567,799 | For GEVI development, its future direction is highly coupled with the target applications. With newer generations of GEVIs overcome the poor performance of the first generation ones, we will see more routes open up for GEVIs to be used in more challenging and versatile applications. Like many other protein biosensors and actuators, once it passes the initial threshold of practicality, there will be more attempts to reshape the tool for its usage in different target applications, each with a different emphasis and requirement for a subset of performance metrics. For example, JEDI-2P, the latest generation of GEIV, is a fast, sensitive, bright, and photostable two-photon-compatible sensor which is considered to be almost perfect for many challenging deep-tissue imaging applications. However, authors of JEDI-2P stated that the negative-going (bright-to-dim) sensor is good for detecting subthreshold depolarizations and hyperpolarizations but positive-going (dim-to-bright) sensors might be better for spike detection. We may argue that it takes effort to engineer (screen) a perfect sensor, but often the more compelling reason is that simply there is not a unanimous definition of such perfection. For example, scientist might prefer sensors of different emission and excitation colors to be spectrally compatible with other optogenetic actuators. Recently, to compensate for the low signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) due to the poor brightness of GEVI, several denoising methods have been applied to increase SNR. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=53995681 | 1,566,912 |
435,217 | In 1976, Lyle challenged his landscape architecture graduate students at California State Polytechnic University, Pomona to "envision a community in which daily activities were based on the value of living within the limits of available renewable resources without environmental degradation." Over the next few decades an eclectic group of students, professors and experts from around the world and crossing many disciplines developed designs for an institute to be built at Cal Poly Pomona. In 1994, the Lyle Center for Regenerative Studies opened after two years of construction. In that same year Lyle's book "Regenerative Design for Sustainable Development" was published by Wiley. In 1995 Lyle worked with William McDonough at Oberlin College on the design of the Adam Joseph Lewis Center for Environmental Studies completed in 2000. In 2002 McDonough's book, the more popular and successful, "" was published reiterating the concepts developed by Lyle. Swiss architect Walter R. Stahel developed approaches entirely similar to Lyle's also in the late 1970s but instead coined the term cradle-to-cradle design made popular by McDonough and Michael Braungart. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14967273 | 435,003 |
2,051,715 | EPI designs and directs research and evaluation studies for organizations, schools and government agencies to answer questions that contribute to a better understanding of K-12 and postsecondary education and how to improve student outcomes. EPI designs and conducts research experiments, engages in evaluation research and survey development, and conducts data analysis. Recent projects include evaluations of federally funded initiatives including the Elementary and Secondary School Counseling Program, GEAR UP, Reading First, Safe Schools/Healthy Students, Teacher Quality Partnership, Teaching American History, Title II Improving Teacher Quality, and Title III Strengthening Institutions; evaluation design and metrics development for the Library of Congress and the Texas Education Agency; policy analysis for the National Council on Disability; and research and policy studies and technical assistance related to postsecondary student success for DeVry, the Imagine America Foundation, and TG. EPI's research and evaluation team includes researchers from around the world, who are matched to specific projects based on prior experience and expertise. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25804822 | 2,050,534 |
327,784 | While the book was readable enough to sell, its dryness ensured that it was seen as aimed at specialist scientists and could not be dismissed as mere journalism or imaginative fiction. Unlike the still-popular "Vestiges", it avoided the narrative style of the historical novel and cosmological speculation, though the closing sentence clearly hinted at cosmic progression. Darwin had long been immersed in the literary forms and practices of specialist science, and made effective use of his skills in structuring arguments. David Quammen has described the book as written in everyday language for a wide audience, but noted that Darwin's literary style was uneven: in some places he used convoluted sentences that are difficult to read, while in other places his writing was beautiful. Quammen advised that later editions were weakened by Darwin making concessions and adding details to address his critics, and recommended the first edition. James T. Costa said that because the book was an abstract produced in haste in response to Wallace's essay, it was more approachable than the big book on natural selection Darwin had been working on, which would have been encumbered by scholarly footnotes and much more technical detail. He added that some parts of "Origin" are dense, but other parts are almost lyrical, and the case studies and observations are presented in a narrative style unusual in serious scientific books, which broadened its audience. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29932 | 327,610 |
1,619,664 | The first versions of an abstract Plancherel formula for the Fourier transform on a unimodular locally compact group "G" were due to Segal and Mautner. At around the same time, Harish-Chandra and Gelfand & Naimark derived an explicit formula for SL(2,R) and complex semisimple Lie groups, so in particular the Lorentz groups. A simpler abstract formula was derived by Mautner for a "topological" symmetric space "G"/"K" corresponding to a maximal compact subgroup "K". Godement gave a more concrete and satisfactory form for positive definite spherical functions, a class of special functions on "G"/"K". Since when "G" is a semisimple Lie group these spherical functions φ were naturally labelled by a parameter λ in the quotient of a Euclidean space by the action of a finite reflection group, it became a central problem to determine explicitly the Plancherel measure in terms of this parametrization. Generalizing the ideas of Hermann Weyl from the spectral theory of ordinary differential equations, Harish-Chandra introduced his celebrated c-function "c"(λ) to describe the asymptotic behaviour of the spherical functions φ and proposed "c"(λ) "d"λ as the Plancherel measure. He verified this formula for the special cases when "G" is complex or real rank one, thus in particular covering the case when "G"/"K" is a hyperbolic space. The general case was reduced to two conjectures about the properties of the c-function and the so-called spherical Fourier transform. Explicit formulas for the c-function were later obtained for a large class of classical semisimple Lie groups by Bhanu-Murthy. In turn these formulas prompted Gindikin and Karpelevich to derive a product formula for the c-function, reducing the computation to Harish-Chandra's formula for the rank 1 case. Their work finally enabled Harish-Chandra to complete his proof of the Plancherel theorem for spherical functions in 1966. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18298785 | 1,618,749 |
611,303 | Mahidol University Kanchanaburi Campus in western Thailand has been announced since 2002 with the main objective of expanding higher education in the upcountry region, in order to increase local incomes, create occupational opportunities and improve the quality of life of rural people. An Administration Building, 2 lecture and Laboratory Buildings, 13 dormitories and associated infrastructures have been constructed on the space, in addition to 2 field stations for research in population studies and tropical medicine. The Faculty of Veterinary Science has opened the first hospital for livestock and wildlife of the country on this campus. Four greenhouses have been built for the Faculty of Science, Agriculture Science program. Within the next decade, MU is considering to expand the 6 offered undergraduate programs at present to become 12 programs and complete the new building facilities, including 6 additional dormitories to accommodate an expected enrolled students of 2,400. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1585772 | 610,992 |
912,901 | Cope had planned to write a monograph about the group Ornithopoda, but never made much progress towards it before his death. This unrealized endeavor would come to be the inspiration for Richard Swann Lull and Nelda Wright to work on a similar project decades later. Eventually they realized the whole of Ornithopoda was too broad of a scope, until eventually it was narrowed down to specifically North American hadrosaurs. Their monograph, "Hadrosaurian Dinosaurs of North America", was published in 1942, and looked back at the whole of understanding about the family. It was designed as a definitive work, covering all aspects of their biology and evolution, and as part of it every known species was re-evaluated and many of them redescribed. They agreed with prior authors on the semi-aquatic nature of hadrosaurs, but re-evaluated Cope's idea of weak jaws and found quite the opposite. The teeth were rooted in strong batteries and would be continuously replaced to prevent them getting worn down. Such a system seemed incredibly overbuilt for the job of eating soft Mesozoic plants, and this fact confused the authors. Though they stil proposed a diet of water plants, they considered it likely this would be supplemented by occasional forrays into browsing on land plants. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1091928 | 912,422 |
870,638 | Available in oral and injectable form, theophylline is a long-acting bronchodilator that prevents asthma episodes. It belongs to the chemical class methylxanthines (along with caffeine). It is prescribed in severe cases of asthma or those that are difficult to control. It must be taken 1–4 times daily, and doses cannot be missed. Blood tests are required to monitor therapy and to indicate when dosage adjustment is necessary. Side effects can include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, stomach or headache, rapid or irregular heart beat, muscle cramps, nervous or jittery feelings, and hyperactivity. These symptoms may signal the need for an adjustment in medication. It may promote acid reflux, also known as GERD, by relaxing the lower esophageal sphincter muscle. Some medications, such as seizure and ulcer medications and antibiotics containing erythromycin, can interfere with the way theophylline works. Coffee, tea, colas, cigarette-smoking, and viral illnesses can all affect the action of theophylline and change its effectiveness. A physician should monitor dosage levels to meet each patient's profile and needs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66388 | 870,178 |
372,886 | While a single GluN2 subunit is found in invertebrate organisms, four distinct isoforms of the GluN2 subunit are expressed in vertebrates and are referred to with the nomenclature GluN2A through GluN2D (encoded by GRIN2A, GRIN2B, GRIN2C, GRIN2D). Strong evidence shows that the genes encoding the GluN2 subunits in vertebrates have undergone at least two rounds of gene duplication. They contain the binding-site for glutamate. More importantly, each GluN2 subunit has a different intracellular C-terminal domain that can interact with different sets of signalling molecules. Unlike GluN1 subunits, GluN2 subunits are expressed differentially across various cell types and developmental timepoints and control the electrophysiological properties of the NMDA receptor. In classic circuits, GluN2B is mainly present in immature neurons and in extrasynaptic locations such as growth cones, and contains the binding-site for the selective inhibitor ifenprodil. However, in pyramidal cell synapses in the newly evolved primate dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, GluN2B are exclusively within the postsynaptic density, and mediate higher cognitive operations such as working memory. This is consistent with the expansion in GluN2B actions and expression across the cortical hierarchy in monkeys and humans and across primate cortex evolution. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=374338 | 372,691 |
2,204,686 | He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1909. His candidature read: "Professor of Mineralogy in the University of Cambridge since 1881. Fellow of Oriel College, Oxford, since 1872. First Class in Mathematical Moderations and Finals. First Class in the School of Natural Science. Senior University Mathematical Scholarship, 1871. Author of a Treatise on Crystallography (Cambridge University Press, 1899), which has become a recognised and authoritative Text-book for English students. (This work contains a number of original crystallographic investigations; the mathematical treatment of many of the problems and methods discussed is highly original and in many respects more exhaustive than that of other Treatises). Author of various papers on the crystallography of minerals and of artificial products; in particular, a paper 'On Barium Nitrate, which definitely established the Symmetry of that Substance' (Phil Mag, vol iii, 1877); 'An Exhaustive Monograph on the Crystallography of the rare mineral Miargyrite' (Proc Camb Phil Soc, vol iv, 1883); 'Researches on Minerals from the Binnenthal' (Min Mag, vol xiii, 1903); several papers concerning methods of calculation, the determination of possible errors in crystal measurements, the representation of crystals, &c. Prof Lewis has maintained at Cambridge a School of Mineralogy which has earned a high reputation." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18546309 | 2,203,431 |
1,526,934 | Smagorinsky was among the earliest researchers who sought to exploit new methods of numerical weather prediction (NWP) to extend forecasting past one or two days. Smagorinsky published a seminal paper in 1963 on his research using primitive equations of atmospheric dynamics to simulate the atmosphere's circulation. This paper fundamentally changed the approach to modeling climate. He extended early weather models to include variables such as wind, cloud cover, precipitation, atmospheric pressure and radiation emanating from the earth and sun. In order to make these simulations possible, a method was needed to account for atmospheric turbulence that occurred on scales smaller than the model's grid size but still played a crucial role in the atmospheric energy cycle. With colleagues Douglas Lilly and James Deardorff, both at the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR), he developed one of the first successful approaches to large eddy simulation (e.g., the Smagorinsky-Lilly model), providing a solution to this problem that is still in use, not only in meteorology, but in all fields involving fluid dynamics. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5194620 | 1,526,070 |
2,033,813 | The "University Times" was first published in December 1968 under its own charter, making it an independent newspaper for the university's faculty and staff. Initially published quarterly, it was released in the months of December, March, June, and September. The newspaper was intended to replace a myriad of newsletters from individuals schools and departments in the university. An editorial in the first issue described its initial intended purpose as one that would "keep you up to date on the 'times' at Pitt" – from the changing face of the campus to the activities of the alumni, from the antics of the students to the deeper emotional involvements of education today." By the 1970s, the "University Times" was being published bi-weekly, and by 1979, faced controversy when the university planned to end its publication because of "apparent dissatisfaction about controversial stories" when the paper ran articles about faculty disagreements with the administration and an article about a dispute between two deans. A unanimous 42–0 vote from the university faculty assembly requested the university rescind its plan to end the paper. The paper again faced controversy over the alleged censorship of a 1994 story on the first gay wedding to occur in the university's Heinz Memorial Chapel. However, Leon Haley, then publisher of the newspaper, defended the decision in saying that it was "not university policy to write stories about events at Heinz Chapel. These events are personal and private." Ken Hall, one of the men married in the ceremony, also stated that he "didn't want any notoriety or controversy to mar the occasion." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=34798327 | 2,032,640 |
352,660 | In 1823, when he was 10, Verdi's parents arranged for the boy to attend school in Busseto, enrolling him in a "Ginnasio"—an upper school for boys—run by Don Pietro Seletti, while they continued to run their inn at Le Roncole. Verdi returned to Busseto regularly to play the organ on Sundays, covering the distance of several kilometres on foot. At age 11, Verdi received schooling in Italian, Latin, the humanities, and rhetoric. By the time he was 12, he began lessons with Ferdinando Provesi, "maestro di cappella" at San Bartolomeo, director of the municipal music school and co-director of the local "Società Filarmonica" (Philharmonic Society). Verdi later stated: "From the ages of 13 to 18 I wrote a motley assortment of pieces: marches for band by the hundred, perhaps as many little "sinfonie" that were used in church, in the theatre and at concerts, five or six concertos and sets of variations for pianoforte, which I played myself at concerts, many serenades, cantatas (arias, duets, very many trios) and various pieces of church music, of which I remember only a "Stabat Mater"." This information comes from the "Autobiographical Sketch" which Verdi dictated to the publisher Giulio Ricordi late in life, in 1879, and remains the leading source for his early life and career. Written, understandably, with the benefit of hindsight, it is not always reliable when dealing with issues more contentious than those of his childhood. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12958 | 352,477 |
1,448,444 | Kineticists have historically relied on linearization of rate data to extrapolate rate constants, perhaps best demonstrated by the widespread use of the standard Lineweaver–Burke linearization of the Michaelis–Menten equation. Linearization techniques were of particular importance before the advent of computing techniques capable of fitting complex curves, and they remain a staple in kinetics due to their intuitively simple presentation. It is important to note that linearization techniques should "NOT" be used to extract numerical rate constants as they introduce a large degree of error relative to alternative numerical techniques. Graphical rate laws do, however, maintain that intuitive presentation of linearized data, such that visual inspection of the plot can provide mechanistic insight regarding the reaction at hand. The basis for a graphical rate law rests on the rate ("v") vs. substrate concentration ([S]) plots discussed above. For example, in the simple cycle discussed with regard to different-excess experiments a plot of vs. [B] and its twin vs. [A] can provide intuitive insight about the order of each of the reagents. If plots of vs. [B] overlay for multiple experiments with different-excess, the data are consistent with a first-order dependence on [A]. The same could be said for a plot of vs. [A]; overlay is consistent with a first-order dependence on [B]. Non-overlaying results of these graphical rate laws are possible and are indicative of higher order dependence on the substrates probed. Blackmond has proposed presenting the results of different-excess experiments with a series of graphical rate equations (that she presents in a flow-chart adapted here), but it is important to note that her proposed method is only one of many possible methods to display the kinetic relationship. Furthermore, while the presentation of graphical rate laws may at times be considered a visually simplified way to present complex kinetic data, fitting the raw kinetic data for analysis by differential or other rigorous numerical methods is necessary to extract accurate and quantitative rate constants and reaction orders. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=33482057 | 1,447,628 |
2,012,703 | The Hoyas had improved to No. 9 in the AP Poll by the time they hosted No. 20 Marquette in their first game at home against a ranked opponent all season. During the first half and well into the second, it looked as though the Golden Eagles would blow out the Hoyas; Marquette led 43–29 at halftime and extended its lead to 56–39 with 13:10 left to play. However, the Hoyas shot 76 percent from the field during the second half and mounted a comeback led by Jason Clark despite putting four freshmen – Mikael Hopkins, Otto Porter, Jabril Trawick, and Greg Whittington – on the court when upperclassmen Henry Sims and Hollis Thompson got into foul trouble. While the Golden Eagles went cold, not scoring a field goal for minutes, Georgetown cut Marquette's lead to 62–57 with a little over seven minutes remaining, and Hollis Thompson re-entered the game to score five consecutive points and tie the game at 66-66. A Sims layup put the Hoyas ahead 68–66, and the teams traded baskets to even the score at 70-70. Hollis Thompson, whose last-second three-pointer almost five weeks earlier had given Georgetown its win over Alabama, then hit a clutch three-pointer with 24 seconds to play to give Georgetown a 73–70 victory and an 11-game winning streak. Clark finished with a game-high 26 points, Thompson scored 16, and Sims added 13. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=33673923 | 2,011,548 |
1,286,497 | BNNT production route has been a significant issue due to low yield and poor quality in comparison with CNT, thus limiting its practical uses. However, many great successes in BNNT synthesis have been achieved in recent years, enabling access to this material and paving the way for the development of promising applications Recently significant advancement have been made by Deakin University Australia with a ‘novel and scalable’ manufacturing process will allow the production of BNNTs in large quantities for the first time since the material was first discovered two decades ago. Australian listed ASX entity PPK Group (ASX:PPK) signed a joint venture agreement with Deakin in November 2018 to form BNNT Technology Limited, with the goal of manufacturing boron nitride nanotubes (BNNT) on a commercial basis. This collaboration is supported with investment by the Australian Government into BNNT Technology Limited and may significantly increase the world supply of BNNT unlocking a new array of applications, materials, composites and technologies. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=48540155 | 1,285,796 |
1,131,143 | Evidence of phenotypic saltation has been found in the centipede and some scientists have suggested there is evidence for independent instances of saltational evolution in sphinx moths. Saltational changes have occurred in the buccal cavity of the roundworm "Caenorhabditis elegans". Some processes of epigenetic inheritance can also produce changes that are saltational. There has been a controversy over whether mimicry in butterflies and other insects can be explained by gradual or saltational evolution. According to Norrström (2006) there is evidence for saltation in some cases of mimicry. The endosymbiotic theory is considered to be a type of saltational evolution. Symonds and Elgar, 2004 have suggested that pheromone evolution in bark beetles is characterized by large saltational shifts. The mode of evolution of sex pheromones in "Bactrocera" has occurred by rapid saltational changes associated with speciation followed by gradual divergence thereafter. Saltational speciation has been recognized in the genus "Clarkia" (Lewis, 1966). It has been suggested (Carr, 1980, 2000) that the "Calycadenia pauciflora" could have originated directly from an ancestral race through a single saltational event involving multiple chromosome breaks. Specific cases of homeosis in flowers can be caused by saltational evolution. In a study of divergent orchid flowers (Bateman and DiMichele, 2002) wrote how simple homeotic morphs in a population can lead to newly established forms that become fixed and ultimately lead to new species. They described the transformation as a saltational evolutionary process, where a mutation of key developmental genes leads to a profound phenotypic change, producing a new evolutionary lineage within a species. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4131939 | 1,130,554 |
411,282 | An early cataloguing of fingerprints dates back to 1885 when Juan Vucetich started a collection of fingerprints of criminals in Argentina. Josh Ellenbogen and Nitzan Lebovic argued that Biometrics originated in the identification systems of criminal activity developed by Alphonse Bertillon (1853–1914) and by Francis Galton's theory of fingerprints and physiognomy. According to Lebovic, Galton's work "led to the application of mathematical models to fingerprints, phrenology, and facial characteristics", as part of "absolute identification" and "a key to both inclusion and exclusion" of populations. Accordingly, "the biometric system is the absolute political weapon of our era" and a form of "soft control". The theoretician David Lyon showed that during the past two decades biometric systems have penetrated the civilian market, and blurred the lines between governmental forms of control and private corporate control. Kelly A. Gates identified 9/11 as the turning point for the cultural language of our present: "in the language of cultural studies, the aftermath of 9/11 was a moment of articulation, where objects or events that have no necessary connection come together and a new discourse formation is established: automated facial recognition as a homeland security technology." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=290622 | 411,080 |
1,561,421 | Keeping up with the times, the university staff is sensitive to all the requirements of reforms and transformations that are taking place in the field of education and health care in the Republic of Uzbekistan. Since 2005, a new milestone has begun in the history of the university. To date, decent conditions have been created for a high-quality educational process and scientific activities of the teaching staff in order to significantly increase their return. At the university, in order to ensure a high-quality educational process, as well as conducting research work, lecture halls, classrooms and educational and clinical laboratories are equipped with the latest information basic technologies, multimedia projectors, video and audio systems, distance learning has been introduced. The educational process is supported by modern information and communication Internet technologies using electronic and modular training systems (mt.sammu.uz), where electronic teaching and methodological materials are placed in all disciplines that are taught at the university, including in English for foreign students. Also, the Student Scientific Society (SSS) operates in all departments. Of course, all this allows you to conduct classes at a high modern level that meets the world educational systems. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66858162 | 1,560,535 |
114,933 | Large scale CCS plays a crucial role in reaching climate change stabilization. According to the IPCC, the carbon emission patterns can greatly vary based on the uncertainty of human power consumption. A file regarding the fluctuations of greenhouse gas emissions is shown to the right. However, CCS' primarily role is to delay the shift from fossil fuels and thereby reducing transition costs. The implementation of default technology assumptions would cost 29-297% more over the century than efforts without CCS for a 430-480 ppm CO/yr scenario. The Paris agreement upholds a goal to reach no more than a 2.0 °C increase above pre-industrial temperatures. If the 2.0 °C goal is to be reached in time, CCS must be utilized to achieve net zero emissions by 2060-2070. After 2060-2070, negative emissions will need to be achieved to remain below the 2.0 °C target. The variations in methods depend heavily on the climate change model being used and the anticipated energy consumption patterns. It is widely agreed upon, however, that CCS would need to be utilized if there is to be any negative climate change mitigation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3679268 | 114,888 |
85,946 | Maxwell left the Academy in 1847 at age 16 and began attending classes at the University of Edinburgh. He had the opportunity to attend the University of Cambridge, but decided, after his first term, to complete the full course of his undergraduate studies at Edinburgh. The academic staff of the university included some highly regarded names; his first year tutors included Sir William Hamilton, who lectured him on logic and metaphysics, Philip Kelland on mathematics, and James Forbes on natural philosophy. He did not find his classes demanding, and was therefore able to immerse himself in private study during free time at the university and particularly when back home at Glenlair. There he would experiment with improvised chemical, electric, and magnetic apparatus; however, his chief concerns regarded the properties of polarised light. He constructed shaped blocks of gelatine, subjected them to various stresses, and with a pair of polarising prisms given to him by William Nicol, viewed the coloured fringes that had developed within the jelly. Through this practice he discovered photoelasticity, which is a means of determining the stress distribution within physical structures. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=28989696 | 85,912 |
270,605 | The seventh-generation RR (SC57), the Honda CBR1000RR, was the successor to the 2002 CBR954RR. While evolving the CBR954RR design, few parts were carried over to the CBR1000RR. The compact in-line four was a new design, with different bore and stroke dimensions, race-inspired cassette-type six-speed gearbox, all-new ECU-controlled ram-air system, dual-stage fuel injection, and center-up exhaust with a new computer-controlled butterfly valve. The chassis was likewise all-new, including an organic-style aluminum frame composed of Gravity Die-Cast main sections and Fine Die-Cast steering head structure, inverted fork, Unit Pro-Link rear suspension, radial-mounted front brakes, and a centrally located fuel tank hidden under a faux cover. Additionally, the Honda Electronic Steering Damper (HESD) debuted as an industry first system which aimed to improve stability and help eliminate head shake while automatically adjusting for high and low speed steering effort. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396372 | 270,458 |
1,389,303 | Due to a major advancement in industrial and commercial construction, in conjunction with a highly increased emphasis on energy efficiency, it is not uncommon for colleges and universities to have courses and degrees specifically allocated to facilities engineering. For example, in the late 1990s Purdue University created a graduate course with an emphasis on the various mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, and control skills necessary to maintain and increase the efficiency of these facilities. These skills consist of: mechanical measurements, calculations, basics of HVAC, the piping included in systems and associated equipment, efficiency in electricity and power, induction motors and variable speed drives, electrical systems, wiring, and lighting. Since facilities engineering has such a broad scope due to its wide array of necessary skills, courses tend to include education and hands-on training in virtually every aspect of engineering. This includes principles from software engineering and basic programming and coding in at least one language. However, the main focuses of these facilities engineering degrees tend to be on HVAC and energy efficiency. Other methods of training are certification courses sponsored and offered by the Association for Facilities Engineers. The Association for Facilities Engineers (AFE) was created by the American Institute of Plant Engineers, which was consisted of a highly regarded group of like-minded engineers or aspiring engineers who shared a common goal. This goal was to create new methods in which facilities engineers, plant engineers, facilities managers, and facility supervisors could become more efficient and productive in their various trades. This in turn would not only benefit the prospective engineers and managers, but was also intended to help economically advance the industries in which these trainees work. These certifications help to train engineers, supervisors, and maintenance managers in accordance with the methods necessary to maintain and efficiently work in and/or run a plant operating based on modern technological standards. With all of this training facilities engineers are capable of working in just about any facility, which can come in some variety. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=551409 | 1,388,532 |
703,333 | The word "transcriptome" is a portmanteau of the words "transcript" and "genome". It appeared along with other neologisms formed using the suffixes "-ome" and "-omics" to denote all studies conducted on a genome-wide scale in the fields of life sciences and technology. As such, transcriptome and transcriptomics were one of the first words to emerge along with genome and proteome. The first study to present a case of a collection of a cDNA library for silk moth mRNA was published in 1979. The first seminal study to mention and investigate the transcriptome of an organism was published in 1997 and it described 60,633 transcripts expressed in "S. cerevisiae" using serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE). With the rise of high-throughput technologies and bioinformatics and the subsequent increased computational power, it became increasingly efficient and easy to characterize and analyze enormous amount of data. Attempts to characterize the transcriptome became more prominent with the advent of automated DNA sequencing during the 1980s. During the 1990s, expressed sequence tag sequencing was used to identify genes and their fragments. This was followed by techniques such as serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE), cap analysis of gene expression (CAGE), and massively parallel signature sequencing (MPSS). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1075071 | 702,965 |
1,648,551 | Childhood experiences shaped Graves' interest in race and racism: "My parents were poor. They didn't know how to read. I had to teach myself how to read," he says. "The school system of my home was racially biased. When I was in kindergarten teachers wanted to declare me mentally retarded so that I could be placed in a special education curriculum. The regular curriculum had a tracking system," Graves continues. "For no apparent reason, all the black kids ended up in the lower track." But, by graduation day, years later, Graves had risen to be among the highest ranked students at his high school. He accepted an academic scholarship to attend Oberlin College and graduated from there with an A.B. in Biology in 1977. His next two years were spent at the Institute for Tropical Disease at the University of Lowell. He then earned a National Science Foundation Graduate Fellowship to begin his PhD work at the University of Michigan in 1979. He completed his PhD in Evolutionary, Environmental, and Systematic Biology at Wayne State University in 1988. This work afforded him the prestigious President's Postdoctoral Fellowship at the University of California, Irvine from 1988 to 1990. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9978479 | 1,647,619 |
1,498,187 | In plants, cellulose is synthesized by large cellulose synthase complexes (CSCs), which consist of synthase protein isoforms (CesA) that are arranged into a unique hexagonal structure known as a “particle rosette” 50 nm wide and 30–35 nm tall. There are more than 20 of these full-length integral membrane proteins, each of which is around 1000 amino acids long. These rosettes, formerly known as granules, were first discovered in 1972 by electron microscopy in green algae species "Cladophora" and "Chaetomorpha" (Robinson et al. 1972). Solution x-ray scattering have shown that CesAs are at the surface of a plant cell and are elongated monomers with a two catalytic domains that fuse together into dimers. The center of the dimers is the main point of catalytic activity, and the lobes are presumed to contain the plant specific PC-R and CS-R. Since cellulose is made in all cell walls, CesA proteins are present in all tissues and cell types of plants. Nonetheless, there are different types of CesA, some tissue types may have varying concentrations of one over another. For example, the AtCesA1 (RSW1) protein is involved in the biosynthesis of primary cell walls throughout the whole plant while the AtCesA7 (IRX3) protein is only expressed in the stem for secondary cell wall production. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14650763 | 1,497,343 |
346,039 | His homemade neutron source was often incorrectly referred to as a reactor, but it did emit measurable levels of radiation, likely exceeding 1,000 times normal background radiation. Alarmed, Hahn began to dismantle his experiments, but in a chance encounter, police discovered his activities, which triggered a Federal Radiological Emergency Response Team involving the FBI and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission. On June 26, 1995, the EPA, having designated Hahn's mother's property a Superfund hazardous materials cleanup site, dismantled the shed and its contents and buried them as low-level radioactive waste in Utah. Unknown to officials, his mother, fearful that she would lose her house if the full extent of the radiation were known, had already collected the majority of the radioactive material and thrown it away in the conventional garbage. Hahn refused medical evaluation for radiation exposure. EPA scientists believed that Hahn's life expectancy may have been shortened due to his exposure to radioactivity, particularly since he spent long periods in the small, enclosed shed with large amounts of radioactive material and only minimal safety precautions, but he refused their recommendation that he be examined at the Enrico Fermi Nuclear Generating Station. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1024843 | 345,858 |
965,953 | 1969 studies on the element showed that lawrencium reacts with chlorine to form a product that was most likely the trichloride, . Its volatility was found to be similar to the chlorides of curium, fermium, and nobelium and much less than that of rutherfordium chloride. In 1970, chemical studies were performed on 1500 atoms of Lr, comparing it with divalent (No, Ba, Ra), trivalent (Fm, Cf, Cm, Am, Ac), and tetravalent (Th, Pu) elements. It was found that lawrencium coextracted with the trivalent ions, but the short half-life of Lr precluded a confirmation that it eluted ahead of in the elution sequence. Lawrencium occurs as the trivalent ion in aqueous solution and hence its compounds should be similar to those of the other trivalent actinides: for example, lawrencium(III) fluoride () and hydroxide () should both be insoluble in water. Due to the actinide contraction, the ionic radius of should be smaller than that of , and it should elute ahead of when ammonium α-hydroxyisobutyrate (ammonium α-HIB) is used as an eluant. Later 1987 experiments on the longer-lived isotope Lr confirmed lawrencium's trivalency and that it eluted in roughly the same place as erbium, and found that lawrencium's ionic radius was , larger than would be expected from simple extrapolation from periodic trends. Later 1988 experiments with more lawrencium atoms refined this to and calculated an enthalpy of hydration value of . It was also found that the actinide contraction at the end of the actinides was larger than the analogous lanthanide contraction, with the exception of the last actinide, lawrencium: the cause was speculated to be relativistic effects. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=17746 | 965,444 |
870,443 | Having considerably improved graphical capabilities compared to those provided with Acorn's 8-bit machines, a number of art packages were released for the Archimedes to exploit this particular area of opportunity, albeit rather cautiously at first. One of the first available packages, Clares' Artisan, supported image editing at the high resolution of but only in the 16-colour mode 12, despite the availability of the 256-colour mode 15 as standard. Favourably received as being "streets ahead" of art software on the BBC Micro, it was considered as barely the start of any real exploitation of the machine's potential. Typical of software of the era, only months after the launch of the machine, Artisan provided its own graphical interface and, continuing the tradition of BBC Micro software, took over the machine entirely even to the point of editing the machine configuration and restoring it upon exiting. Clares released a successor, Artisan 2, two years later to provide compatibility with RISC OS, replacing special-purpose printer support with use of the system's printer drivers, but not making the software a desktop application. The program's user interface deficiencies were regarded as less forgivable with the availability of a common desktop interface that would have addressed such problems and made the program "easier to use and a more powerful program as a result". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=63145 | 869,983 |
313,079 | From September 1939 to November 1940, Leahy served as Governor of Puerto Rico after Roosevelt removed Blanton Winship for his role in the Ponce massacre. Winship had aligned himself with the Coalición, a pro-American electoral alliance that represented the interests of the island's wealthy elite and American sugar corporations. Roosevelt gave Leahy both military and social objectives to carry out: on the military side, he had to develop and upgrade base installations there; on the social side, he had to alleviate the extreme poverty and inequality that afflicted the island. To tackle these problems, Leahy was given an additional $10 million (equivalent to $ million in ) and extraordinary latitude in spending it. Leahy was named as the head of the Puerto Rican office of the Works Progress Administration (WPA), which gave him control over New Deal funding. In October 1939, he also became the head of the Puerto Rico Cement Corporation in order to help it secure a $700,000 loan () from the Federal government's Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC), and in December he became the head of the Puerto Rican branch of the RFC. His power was enhanced by his direct access to the President and the Secretary of the interior, Harold L. Ickes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=448716 | 312,911 |
1,036,819 | Region-wide accreditation has also been planned for vocational skills. Currently local training agencies award National Vocational Qualifications (NVQ) or national Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) certification, which are not valid across Member States. However, in 2003, the Caribbean Association of National Agencies (CANTA) was formed as an umbrella organization of the various local training agencies including Trinidad and Tobago's National Training Agency, the Barbados TVET Council and the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States TVET agency and the HEART Trust/NTA of Jamaica. Since 2005, the member organizations of CANTA have been working together to ensure a uniformed level of certified skilled labour under the Caricom Single Market and Economy (CSME) and CANTA itself has established a regional certification scheme that awards the Caribbean Vocational Qualification (CVQ), which is to replace NVQs and national TVET certifications. The CVQ will be school-based and although based on the certification scheme of CANTA, will be awarded by the Caribbean Examinations Council (CXC) which will be collaborating with CANTA on the CVQ programme. At the February 9–10, 2007 meeting of the Regional Coordinating Mechanism for Technical and Vocational Education and Training, officials discussed arrangements for the award of the CVQ which was approved by the Council for Human and Social Development (COHSOD) in October 2006. It was expected that the CVQ programme may be in place by mid-2007, if all the requirements are met and that provisions were being made for the holders of current NVQs to have them converted into the regionally accepted type (although no clear mandate is yet in place). This deadline was met and in October 2007, the CVQ programme was officially launched. The CVQ now facilitates the movement of artisans and other skilled persons in the CSME. This qualification will be accessible to persons already in the workforce as well as students in secondary schools across the Caribbean region. Those already in the work force will be required to attend designated centres for assessment. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3233460 | 1,036,279 |
56,866 | Film composer and editor John Ottman, a big "Star Trek" fan, directed the fourth episode of the season. Ottman helped Kurtzman oversee the editing of the third season in return for getting to direct in the fourth. On April 22, 2021, production on the season was paused after a "Zone A" individual (referring to key cast members as well as the crew who are in contact with them) came in "close proximity" away from set with someone who tested positive for COVID-19. This was detected through Ontario's contact tracing system, and the individual began 14 days of quarantine. The rest of the season's almost 80-person production were not required to quarantine and filming was set to start again on May 6. There was also a lockdown in the Toronto area at that time, but film and television productions were allowed to continue. One of the series' pandemic protocols saw the bridge crew of "Discovery" rotated so the same actors would not always be on set. This is explained in the series by Burnham requiring all crewmembers to take time off for their mental and emotional health. Production for the season was originally set to end on June 10, but pandemic delays meant this end date was extended to August or September. In mid-July, Martin-Green said they had "a little bit more [filming] to do" for the season, and much of the cast wrapped for the season by early August. It was during August that Abrams travelled to Toronto to film her appearance for the finale, and she requested that the cast and crew not spoil the events of the season for her so she could still watch it as a fan. Paradise travelled to Toronto on August 9 for the final weeks of pickup shots and location shooting, and announced that filming for the season had been completed on August 23. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=63388083 | 56,842 |
2,041,756 | Such a conceptual perspective raises fundamental questions not only regarding the interaction between the different components of holobionts and processes governing their dynamics, but also of the relevant units of selection and the role of coevolution. For instance, plant and animal evolution involves new functions co-constructed by members of the holobiont or elimination of functions redundant among them, and it is likely that these processes are also relevant in marine holobionts. Eugene Rosenberg "et al". have argued that all animals and plants can be considered holobionts, and thus advocate the hologenome theory of evolution, suggesting that natural selection acts at the level of the holobiont and its hologenome. This interpretation of Margulis’ definition of a holobiont considerably broadened fundamental concepts in evolution and speciation and has not been free of criticism, especially when applied at the community or ecosystem level. More recently, it has been shown that species that interact indirectly with the host can also be important in shaping coevolution within mutualistic multi-partner assemblages. Thus, the holobiont concept and the underlying complexity of holobiont systems should be better defined and further considered when addressing evolutionary and ecological questions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=68504105 | 2,040,576 |
1,256,114 | In the 1960s and 1970s, a number of plant biologists, ecologists, and entomologists expanded this line of research on the ecological roles of plant secondary metabolites. During this period, Thomas Eisner and his close collaborator Jerrold Meinwald published a series seminal papers on chemical defenses in plants and insects. A number of other scientists at Cornell were also working on topics related to chemical ecology during this period, including Paul Feeny, Wendell L. Roelofs, Robert Whittaker and Richard B. Root. In 1968, the first course in chemical ecology was initiated at Cornell. In 1970, Eisner, Whittaker and the ant biologist William L. Brown, Jr. coined the terms allomone (to describe semiochemicals that benefit the emitter, but not the receiver) and kairomone (to describe semiochemicals that benefit the receiver only). Whittaker and Feeny published an influential review paper in "Science" the following year, summarizing the recent research on the ecological roles of chemical defenses in a wide variety of plants and animals and likely introducing Whittaker's new taxonomy of semiochemicals to a broader scientific audience. Around this time, Lincoln Brower also published a series of important ecological studies on monarch sequestration of cardenolides. Brower has been credited with popularizing the term "ecological chemistry" which appeared in the title of a paper he published in "Science" in 1968 and again the following year in an article he wrote for "Scientific American", where the term also appeared on the front cover under an image of a giant bluejay towering over two monarch butterflies. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=619320 | 1,255,430 |
154,457 | "With the adoption of the M14 service rifle no provision was made for an M14 sniper rifle, [and] the designation of a sniper in the rifle squad was discontinued. "The conflict in Vietnam revived the need for snipers." Snipers became "optional" and no table of organization and equipment (TOE) authorized sniper organizations ["units"]." However, "units" could train and deploy snipers on a limited basis depending upon...requirements." As a result, U.S. Army snipers were trained in country in South Vietnam at Division. During the Vietnam War, U.S. Marines were issued bolt-action hunting rifles, U.S. Soldiers were issued XM21 rifles. The Rock Island Arsenal converted 1,435 National Match (target grade) M14s by adding a 3-9x Redfield Adjustable Ranging Telescope (ART) and provided National Match grade (7.62 Lake City Long Range XM-118) ammunition. The ART scope, designed by 2nd Lieutenant James Leatherwood (U.S. Army), combined rangefinding and bullet drop compensation. The innovation came just in time as the U.S. military found itself losing servicemen to Viet Cong snipers who had the home field advantage in terrain that was, to say the least, difficult. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=375761 | 154,387 |
1,614,515 | L. S. Shashidhara, born on 23 March 1963 in the south Indian state of Karnataka, graduated in science from University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad (UAS) in 1985 and obtained a master's degree in Genetics and Plant breeding in 1987 from the same university. After a brief stint (1987–88) at UAS as a teaching associate, he moved to University of Cambridge in 1988 for his doctoral studies to secure a PhD in 1991. On completion of his post-doctoral studies at Cambridge (1991–93), he returned to India to join National Centre for Biological Sciences and worked as a visiting fellow for two years. Subsequently, he moved to Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB) in 1995 as a scientist (group leader) where he served until 2007 when he was transferred, on deputation, to the Pune centre of Indian Institutes of Science Education and Research (IISER) as a professor. Since then, he has been serving the institute as a professor and has served as the chair of Biology and the coordinator of the department of biology. He pursues his research interests as the head of the LSS Laboratory at IISER, where he hosts a number doctoral and postdoctoral scholars. He also serves as an honorary professor at Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research. He served as the vice-president of the Indian National Science Academy from 2015 to 2017. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=52156468 | 1,613,609 |
1,538,873 | The locomotive was to be a 4-8-4, but wartime restrictions on light steel alloys increased weight until six-wheel leading and trailing trucks were needed; its construction was also delayed by World War II. Construction of the locomotive took place at the Baldwin plant in Eddystone. Two turbines were fitted, one for forward travel and a smaller one for reversing at speeds up to . Compressed steam at a rate of about 2,000 miles per hour was injected onto the turbine blades through 4 nozzles; thousands of turbine blades transmitted steam energy to the transmission gear. The maximum rotation speed of the forward turbine is 9,000 rpm, developing 6,900 hp; the reverse turbine generates 1,500 hp at 8,300 rpm. A monitoring system ensured that the forward turbine could only be started when the reverse turbine was switched off. Weight of propulsion equipment was 39,000 lbs., or 5.65 lbs/hp. A large boiler with a Belpaire firebox and long combustion chamber was fitted. An automatic lubrication system was installed, connecting the transmission case, where the driving gear wheels were immersed in a lubricant reservoir filled with lubricating oil. Lubricant goes through all lubrication points, including roller bearings on all axles via the filtered pipes with the help of two steam pumps. A Worthington-pattern feedwater heater was fitted for increased efficiency. Twin air pumps for train braking were fitted below the running boards beside the smokebox front, and a large radiator assembly at the nose cooled the compressed air. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1283811 | 1,538,000 |
153,730 | Modern x86 CPUs contain SIMD instructions, which largely perform the same operation in parallel on many values encoded in a wide SIMD register. Various instruction technologies support different operations on different register sets, but taken as complete whole (from MMX to SSE4.2) they include general computations on integer or floating-point arithmetic (addition, subtraction, multiplication, shift, minimization, maximization, comparison, division or square root). So for example, codice_54 performs 4 parallel 16-bit (indicated by the codice_55) integer adds (indicated by the codice_56) of codice_57 values to codice_58 and stores the result in codice_57. Streaming SIMD Extensions or SSE also includes a floating-point mode in which only the very first value of the registers is actually modified (expanded in SSE2). Some other unusual instructions have been added including a sum of absolute differences (used for motion estimation in video compression, such as is done in MPEG) and a 16-bit multiply accumulation instruction (useful for software-based alpha-blending and digital filtering). SSE (since SSE3) and 3DNow! extensions include addition and subtraction instructions for treating paired floating-point values like complex numbers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=214948 | 153,660 |
1,032,075 | The British engine manufacturer Cosworth, founded in 1958 by Keith Duckworth and Mike Costin, was represented in the Formula 1 World Championship for 17 years from 1967 with the 3.0-liter naturally aspirated DFV engine. Funded by Ford, the DFV was freely available and dominated Formula 1 in the 1970s. With 155 world championship races won, 12 driver's and 10 constructor's titles between 1967 and 1983, it is the most successful engine in the history of Formula 1. During this time, no other manufacturer was able to design a similarly competitive naturally aspirated engine. Only with the advent of turbo engines in 1977 did the DFV gradually fall behind. In the early 1980s, Formula 1 teams gradually switched to turbo engines; in the 1986 season, only turbocharged engines were allowed. Cosworth had the supercharged GBA in its range, which, unlike the DFV, was only available to selected customers. When the FIA surprisingly decided in October 1986 to allow conventional naturally aspirated engines - now with 3.5 liters displacement - in addition to the turbos from the 1987 season, Cosworth was the only engine manufacturer who was able to react to this rule change at short notice. From the DFV block designed in 1966, a 3.5-liter variant was developed within three months, which was given the designation DFZ. The quickly built DFZ was an interim solution. In 1988 the further developed version DFR, which was still based on the DFV, appeared. In its first year, Benetton received the DFR engine exclusively, after which it was used in various versions until 1991 by 14 mostly smaller teams as a customer engine. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=68931039 | 1,031,539 |
2,241,943 | On 22 June 2014, it was reported that Germany's defense ministry had temporarily halted new orders worth €34 million ($ million) over accuracy concerns for the rifle. The Bundeswehr consulted the Fraunhofer Institute for High-Speed Dynamics (Ernst Mach Institut) and the Federal Criminal Police Office. On 30 March 2015, Minister of Defence Ursula von der Leyen told the Associated Press that the weight-saving design was the root of the issues. This is based on a letter from Inspector General Volker Wieker advising the Stewards of Defence and Budget Committee of the Bundestag and the troops in advance of publication of the report. The report was released by the Fraunhofer Ernst Mach Institut and Wehrtechnische Dienststelle 91 on 19 April 2015. According to their 372-page report, the observed hit rate of the predominantly plastic weapon with the unsupported free-floating barrel drops down to a mere 7% at 100 meters when the temperature increases by or more, whereas the Bundeswehr required a hit rate of 90% at that distance. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=698999 | 2,240,672 |
1,182,162 | As had been planned previously, in September 1818 Charles joined his older brother Erasmus Alvey Darwin (nicknamed "Eras") in staying as a boarder at the Shrewsbury School, where he loathed the required rote learning, and would try to visit home when he could, but also made many friends and developed interests. Years later, he recalled being "very fond of playing at Hocky on the ice in skates" in the winter time. He continued collecting minerals and insects, and family holidays in Wales brought Charles new opportunities, but an older sister ruled that "it was not right to kill insects" for his collections, and he had to find dead ones. He read Gilbert White's "The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne" and took up birdwatching. Eras took an interest in chemistry and Charles became his assistant, with the two using a garden shed at their home fitted out as a laboratory and extending their interests to crystallography. When Eras went on to a medical course at the University of Cambridge, Charles continued to rush home to the shed on weekends, and for this received the nickname "Gas". The headmaster was not amused at this diversion from studying the classics, calling him a "poco curante" (trifler) in front of the boys. At fifteen, his interest shifted to hunting and bird-shooting at local estates, particularly at Maer in Staffordshire, the home of his relatives, the Wedgwoods. His exasperated father once told him off, saying "You care for nothing but shooting, dogs, and rat-catching, and you will be a disgrace to yourself and all your family." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2087722 | 1,181,537 |
1,484,228 | Common genetic engineering strategies require a permanent modification of the target genome. To this end great sophistication has to be invested in the design of routes applied for the delivery of transgenes. Although for biotechnological purposes random integration is still common, it may result in unpredictable gene expression due to variable transgene copy numbers, lack of control about integration sites and associated mutations. The molecular requirements in the stem cell field are much more stringent. Here, homologous recombination (HR) can, in principle, provide specificity to the integration process, but for eukaryotes it is compromised by an extremely low efficiency. Although meganucleases, zinc-finger- and transcription activator-like effector nucleases (ZFNs and TALENs) are actual tools supporting HR, it was the availability of site-specific recombinases (SSRs) which triggered the rational construction of cell lines with predictable properties. Nowadays both technologies, HR and SSR can be combined in highly efficient "tag-and-exchange technologies". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4385154 | 1,483,391 |
417,891 | In August 1943, the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, Winston Churchill, and the President of the United States, Franklin D. Roosevelt, signed the Quebec Agreement, which provided for cooperation between the two countries. The Quebec Agreement established the Combined Policy Committee and the Combined Development Trust to coordinate the efforts of the United States, the United Kingdom and Canada. The subsequent Hyde Park Agreement in September 1944 extended this cooperation to the postwar period. A British Mission led by Wallace Akers assisted in the development of gaseous diffusion technology in New York. Britain also produced the powdered nickel required by the gaseous diffusion process. Another mission, led by Oliphant who acted as deputy director at the Berkeley Radiation Laboratory, assisted with the electromagnetic separation process. As head of the British Mission to the Los Alamos Laboratory, James Chadwick led a multinational team of distinguished scientists that included Sir Geoffrey Taylor, James Tuck, Niels Bohr, Peierls, Frisch, and Klaus Fuchs, who was later revealed to be a Soviet atomic spy. Four members of the British Mission became group leaders at Los Alamos. William Penney observed the bombing of Nagasaki and participated in the Operation Crossroads nuclear tests in 1946. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41957579 | 417,687 |
1,515,290 | Measurements of redshifted energy serve as a means of detecting the presence of rare solitons. Additionally, peak intensity and redshifted energy are well correlated variables in supercontinuum generation with low soliton number; thus, redshifted energy serves as an indicator of peak intensity in this regime. This may be understood by recognizing that for sufficiently small soliton number only rare events contain a well-formed soliton. Such a soliton has short duration and high peak intensity, and Raman scattering ensures that it is also redshifted relative to the majority of the input radiation. Even if more than one soliton occurs in a single event, the most intense one generally has the most redshifted energy in this scenario. The solitons generally have little opportunity to interact with other intense features. As previously noted, the situation at higher pump power is different in that soliton fission occurs explosively; soliton structures appear in number at essentially the same point of the fiber and relatively early in the propagation, allowing collisions to occur. Such collisions are accompanied by an energy exchange facilitated by third-order dispersion and Raman effects, causing some solitons to absorb energy from others, thereby creating the potential for anomalous spectral redshifts. In this situation, the anomalous occurrences are not necessarily tied to the largest peak intensities. In summary, rare solitons may be generated at low pump power or input noise levels, and these events can be identified by their redshifted energy. At higher power, many solitons are generated and simulations suggest that their collisions can also yield extremes in redshifted energy, although in this case, the redshifted energy and peak intensity may not be as strongly correlated. Oceanic rogue waves are also thought to arise from both seeding of modulation instability and collisions between solitons, as in the optical scenario. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42450197 | 1,514,439 |
671,940 | In an EI ion source, electrons are produced through thermionic emission by heating a wire filament that has electric current running through it. The kinetic energy of the bombarding electrons should have higher energy than the ionization energy of the sample molecule. The electrons are accelerated to 70 eV in the region between the filament and the entrance to the ion source block. The sample under investigation which contains the neutral molecules is introduced to the ion source in a perpendicular orientation to the electron beam. Close passage of highly energetic electrons in low pressure (ca. 10 to 10 torr) causes large fluctuations in the electric field around the neutral molecules and induces ionization and fragmentation. The fragmentation in electron ionization can be described using Born Oppenheimer potential curves as in the diagram. The red arrow shows the electron impact energy which is enough to remove an electron from the analyte and form a molecular ion from non- dissociative results. Due to the higher energy supplied by 70 eV electrons other than the molecular ion, several other bond dissociation reactions can be seen as dissociative results, shown by the blue arrow in the diagram. These ions are known as second-generation product ions. The radical cation products are then directed towards the mass analyzer by a repeller electrode. The ionization process often follows predictable cleavage reactions that give rise to fragment ions which, following detection and signal processing, convey structural information about the analyte. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=340284 | 671,588 |
722,083 | Langley Research Center (LaRC), founded in 1917, is the oldest of NASA's field centers, located in Hampton, Virginia. LaRC focuses primarily on aeronautical research, though the Apollo lunar lander was flight-tested at the facility and a number of high-profile space missions have been planned and designed on-site. Established in 1917 by the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, the Center currently devotes two-thirds of its programs to aeronautics, and the rest to space. LaRC researchers use more than 40 wind tunnels to study improved aircraft and spacecraft safety, performance, and efficiency. Both Langley Field and the Langley Laboratory are named for aviation pioneer Samuel Pierpont Langley. Starting in 1958, when NASA started Project Mercury, LaRC housed the Space Task Group, which was expanded into the Manned Spacecraft Center and moved to Houston in 1961–1962. The selection of Houston as the location of the Manned Spacecraft Center resulted in some controversy at NASA Langley and in the surrounding area at the time, given they had previously expected either for Langley to be expanded or for a nearby location in the Hampton Roads region to be selected for the center. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=33208799 | 721,703 |
372,177 | Because it is a fixed resource, the "practical" limits and basic physical considerations of the radio spectrum, the frequencies which are useful for radio communication, are determined by technological limitations which are impossible to overcome. So although the radio spectrum is becoming increasingly congested, there is no possible way to add additional frequency bandwidth outside of that currently in use. The lowest frequencies used for radio communication are limited by the increasing size of transmitting antennas required. The size of antenna required to radiate radio power efficiently increases in proportion to wavelength or inversely with frequency. Below about 10 kHz (a wavelength of 30 km), elevated wire antennas kilometers in diameter are required, so very few radio systems use frequencies below this. A second limit is the decreasing bandwidth available at low frequencies, which limits the data rate that can be transmitted. Below about 30 kHz, audio modulation is impractical and only slow baud rate data communication is used. The lowest frequencies that have been used for radio communication are around 80 Hz, in ELF submarine communications systems built by a few nations' navies to communicate with their submerged submarines hundreds of meters underwater. These employ huge ground dipole antennas 20–60 km long excited by megawatts of transmitter power, and transmit data at an extremely slow rate of about 1 bit per minute (17 millibits per second, or about 5 minutes per character). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=634183 | 371,982 |
1,424,232 | The 1992–93 Michigan Wolverines men's basketball team represented the University of Michigan in intercollegiate college basketball during the 1992–93 season. The team played its home games in the Crisler Arena in Ann Arbor, Michigan, and was a member of the Big Ten Conference. Under the direction of head coach Steve Fisher, the team finished second in the Big Ten Conference. Although the team compiled a 31–5 record during the season, the National Collegiate Athletic Association has adjusted the team's record to 0-4 due to the University of Michigan basketball scandal. The team earned an invitation to the 1993 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament where it was national runner up. The team was ranked for the entire eighteen weeks of Associated Press Top Twenty-Five Poll, starting the season ranked first, holding the number one position for three weeks and ending ranked third, and it ended the season ranked fourth in the final USA Today/CNN Poll. The team had an 8–5 record against ranked opponents, including the following victories: December 28, 1992, against #20 Nebraska 88–73 in the Rainbow Classic at the Blaisdell Center, December 29 against #5 North Carolina 79–78 in the Rainbow Classic, December 30 against #2 Kansas 86–74 in the Rainbow Classic, January 7, 1993, against #9 Purdue 80–70 at Mackey Arena, February 2 against #25 Michigan State 73–69 at the Breslin Student Events Center, February 7 against #19 Purdue 84–76 at Crisler Arena, March 2 against #15 Iowa 82–73 at Crisler Arena, April 2 against #2 Kentucky 81–78 (OT) at the Superdome in the 1993 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22460119 | 1,423,430 |
1,924,173 | ORCTL3 is a 90 kDa protein composed of 351 amino acids. It is suggested that the protein spans the cell membrane several times, based on computational methods. Overexpressed ORCTL3 is localized to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), Golgi and the plasma membrane but not to mitochondria. ORCTL3 was identified as the first high-affinity nicotinate exchanger in kidneys and intestine. Nicotinate is an essential vitamin (Vitamin B3) that is involved in NAD+ synthesis, which in turn is important for energetic processes, signal transduction pathways, and the activation of the NAD+ -dependent histone deacetylase SIRT1. ORCTL3 has been shown to be activated for apoptosis induction in renal cells "in vitro", "in vivo" and "ex vivo". For its apoptosis effect ORCTL3 targets stearoyl-CoA desaturase (SCD), an enzyme that introduces a double bond in the fatty acid stearic acid. The fact that SCD is commonly overexpressed in cancer and oncogene transformed cells might explain the tumor-specificity of ORCTL3 to some extent, however, the existence of other additional targets of ORCTL3 cannot formally be ruled out. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=34556489 | 1,923,070 |
733,242 | In normal circumstances after injury HIF1A is degraded by prolyl hydroxylases (PHDs). In June 2015, scientists found that the continued up-regulation of HIF1A via PHD inhibitors regenerates lost or damaged tissue in mammals that have a repair response; and the continued down-regulation of HIF1A results in healing with a scarring response in mammals with a previous regenerative response to the loss of tissue. The act of regulating HIF1A can either turn off, or turn on the key processes of mammalian regeneration. One such regenerative process in which HIF1A is involved is peripheral nerve regeneration. Following axon injury, HIF1A activates VEGFA to promote regeneration and functional recovery. HIF1A also controls skin healing. Researchers at the Stanford University School of Medicine demonstrated that HIF1A activation was able to prevent and treat chronic wounds in diabetic and aged mice. Not only did the wounds in the mice heal more quickly, but the quality of the new skin was even better than the original. Additionally the regenerative effect of HIF-1A modulation on aged skin cells was described and a rejuvenating effect on aged facial skin was demonstrated in patients. HIF modulation has also been linked to a beneficial effect on hair loss. The biotech company Tomorrowlabs GmbH, founded in Vienna in 2016 by the physician Dominik Duscher and pharmacologist Dominik Thor, makes use of this mechanism. Based on the patent-pending HSF ("HIF strengthening factor") active ingredient, products have been developed that are supposed to promote skin and hair regeneration. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12744173 | 732,855 |
662,521 | Although some early computers such as EDSAC, inspired by the design of EDVAC, later made successful use of mercury delay-line memory, the technology had several drawbacks: it was heavy, it was expensive, and it did not allow data to be accessed randomly. In addition, because data was stored as a sequence of acoustic waves propagated through a mercury column, the device's temperature had to be very carefully controlled, as the velocity of sound through a medium varies with its temperature. Williams had seen an experiment at Bell Labs demonstrating the effectiveness of cathode-ray tubes (CRT) as an alternative to the delay line for removing ground echoes from radar signals. While working at the TRE, shortly before he joined the University of Manchester in December 1946, he and Tom Kilburn had developed a form of electronic memory known as the Williams tube or Williams–Kilburn tube, based on a standard CRT: the first electronic random-access digital storage device. The Baby was designed to show that it was a practical storage device by demonstrating that data held within it could be read and written reliably at a speed suitable for use in a computer. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=531686 | 662,176 |
1,099,156 | All this is a substantial amount of work, even if authoring tools have become available to ease the task. This means that building an ITS is an option only in situations in which they, in spite of their relatively high development costs, still reduce the overall costs through reducing the need for human instructors or sufficiently boosting overall productivity. Such situations occur when large groups need to be tutored simultaneously or many replicated tutoring efforts are needed. Cases in point are technical training situations such as training of military recruits and high school mathematics. One specific type of intelligent tutoring system, the Cognitive Tutor, has been incorporated into mathematics curricula in a substantial number of United States high schools, producing improved student learning outcomes on final exams and standardized tests. Intelligent tutoring systems have been constructed to help students learn geography, circuits, medical diagnosis, computer programming, mathematics, physics, genetics, chemistry, etc. Intelligent Language Tutoring Systems (ILTS), e.g. this one, teach natural language to first or second language learners. ILTS requires specialized natural language processing tools such as large dictionaries and morphological and grammatical analyzers with acceptable coverage. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3765637 | 1,098,596 |
1,966,527 | Dissorophids are most readily recognized for their distinctive osteoderms, although these are not unique to either dissorophids among temnospondyls or to temnospondyls among early tetrapods. It is also debated whether "Platyhystrix" has true osteoderms or simply ornamented neural spines with similar morphology to the ornamentation of osteoderms in other taxa. There is also great variability in the osteoderms, both in the number of series and in the overall proportions and anatomy. Dissorophines like "Dissorophus" typically possess wide osteoderms in contrast to eucacopines like "Cacops". Both groups have two series of osteoderms that are relatively flat, in contrast to aspidosaurines, which purportedly a single series that is dorsally keeled to form an inverted-V morphology; it has been suggested, based on CT data, that at least some aspidosaurines may actually have two series of osteoderms but that one is largely obscured. Although osteoderm morphology has been shown to not exert a discernible influence on dissorophid phylogeny, osteoderms remain a major hallmark used to differentiate major clades within Dissorophidae and remain useful for establishing the monophyly of the group within Dissorophoidea. Schoch & Milner (2014) list several features that diagnose dissorophids, but most of these are only useful for differentiating the clade from the closely related trematopids, and some are outdated in light of newer research: (1) maxillary tooth row terminating at or anterior to the posterior orbital margin; (2) basipterygoid region firmly sutured; (3) no prefrontal-postfrontal contact; (4) absence of denticles on the basal plate of the parasphenoid; (5) no pterygoid-vomer contact; (6) short postorbital; (7) long and parallel-sided choana; and (8) absence of a supinator process. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2917704 | 1,965,397 |
693,648 | Wharton's family had long roots in Newport, Rhode Island and he summered there with his extended family at the family house on Washington Street for many decades. When his children were young, Wharton enjoyed taking them rowing and sailing about the harbor. Often they would sail across the bay to Conanicut Island to picnic and explore the cliffs and beaches. In 1882 Joseph Wharton, his brother Charles, and other friends purchased plots in Jamestown, Rhode Island, across the bay from Newport and built summer homes there. Wharton constructed Horsehead-Marbella, a large stone house with a prominent tower overlooking the entrance to Narragansett Bay. He named the house "Marbella" but it was later called "Horsehead" after a rock formation on the cliffs below that looked like the head of a horse from a certain angle. The family was active in swimming and sailing, and the grandchildren enjoyed playing on the rocks and tidal pools below the house. Wharton and his wife Anna enjoyed socializing but preferred the company of a few selected people to many, and avoided balls and late hours. In the early 1890s, the government surveyed sites on Conanicut Island for a coastal fort that would command the entrance to the bay, and took some of Wharton's property along with other nearby summer estates, starting construction of nearby Fort Wetherill in 1896. The fort took several years to finish and during this time the Horsehead property continued to be threatened so Wharton purchased an additional in the southern part of Jamestown including several farms, one at Beavertail in 1899. The threatened action did not happen and the Horsehead property still stands today. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=383305 | 693,285 |
1,554,917 | EnvisionTEC is a privately held global company that develops, manufactures and sells more than 40 configurations of desktop and production 3D printers based on seven several distinct process technologies that build objects from digital design files. Founded in 2002, the company now has a corporate headquarters for North America, located in Dearborn, Mich., and International headquarters in Gladbeck, Germany. It also has a production facility in the Greater Los Angeles area, as well as additional facilities in Montreal, for materials research, in Kiev, Ukraine, for software development, and in Woburn, Mass, for robotic 3D printing research and development. Today, the company's 3D Printers are used for mass customized production and to manufacture finished goods, investment casting patterns, tooling, prototypes and more. EnvisionTEC serves a variety of medical, professional and industrial customers. EnvisionTEC has developed large customer niches in the jewelry, dental, hearing aid, medical device, biofabrication and animation industries. EnvisionTEC is one of the few 3D printer companies globally whose products are being used for real production of final end-use parts. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44314961 | 1,554,034 |
545,479 | In 1919, Rutherford had succeeded in disintegrating nitrogen atoms with alpha particles emitted from decaying radium atoms. This and subsequent experiments hinted at the structure of atomic nuclei. To explore it further, he needed an artificial means of creating particles with a velocity high enough to overcome the charge of the nucleus. This opened a new line of research at the Cavendish Laboratory. He assigned Cockcroft, Thomas Allibone and Ernest Walton to the problem. They built what became known as a Cockcroft–Walton accelerator. Mark Oliphant designed a proton source for them. A crucial moment came when Cockcroft read a paper by George Gamow on quantum tunnelling. Cockcroft realised that as a result of this phenomenon, the desired effect could be achieved with much lower voltages than first thought. In fact, he calculated that protons with energy of just 300,000 electronvolts would be able to penetrate a boron nucleus. Cockcroft and Walton worked on their accelerator for the next two years. Rutherford obtained a £1,000 grant from the University of Cambridge for them to buy a transformer and other equipment they needed. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=352564 | 545,193 |
577,022 | Three types of ion guns are employed. In one, ions of gaseous elements are usually generated with duoplasmatrons or by electron ionization, for instance noble gases (Ar, Xe), oxygen (O, O, O), or even ionized molecules such as SF (generated from SF) or C (fullerene). This type of ion gun is easy to operate and generates roughly focused but high current ion beams. A second source type, the surface ionization source, generates Cs primary ions. Cesium atoms vaporize through a porous tungsten plug and are ionized during evaporation. Depending on the gun design, fine focus or high current can be obtained. A third source type, the liquid metal ion gun (LMIG), operates with metals or metallic alloys, which are liquid at room temperature or slightly above. The liquid metal covers a tungsten tip and emits ions under influence of an intense electric field. While a gallium source is able to operate with elemental gallium, recently developed sources for gold, indium and bismuth use alloys which lower their melting points. The LMIG provides a tightly focused ion beam (<50 nm) with moderate intensity and is additionally able to generate short pulsed ion beams. It is therefore commonly used in static SIMS devices. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=651485 | 576,726 |
1,040,960 | In 1975 the United States Department of Transportation (DOT) conservatively identified a 0.7% reduction in traffic fatalities during DST, and estimated the real reduction at 1.5% to 2.0%, but the 1976 NBS review of the DOT study found no differences in traffic fatalities. In 1995 the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety estimated a reduction of 1.2%, including a 5.0% reduction in crashes fatal to pedestrians. Others have found similar reductions. Single/Double Summer Time (SDST), a variant where clocks are one hour ahead of the sun in winter and two in summer, has been projected to reduce traffic fatalities by 3% to 4% in the UK, compared to ordinary DST. However, accidents do increase by as much as 11% during the two weeks that follow the end of British Summer Time. Likewise in the United States, vehicular collisions with deer increase, purportedly by 16%, in the week after the end of Daylight Savings Time. It is not clear whether sleep disruption contributes to fatal accidents immediately after the spring clock shifts. A correlation between clock shifts and traffic accidents has been observed in North America and the UK but not in Finland or Sweden. Four reports have found that this effect is smaller than the overall reduction in traffic fatalities. In 2022, a driving simulator study documented a significant worsening of several driving performance indicators in the week after the spring transition to DST. A 2009 U.S. study found that on Mondays after the switch to DST, workers sleep an average of 40 minutes less, and are injured at work more often and more severely. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=65801630 | 1,040,417 |
320,288 | In his "Essay on a Course of Liberal Education for Civil and Active Life" (1765), "Lectures on History and General Policy" (1788), and other works, Priestley argued that the education of the young should anticipate their future practical needs. This principle of utility guided his unconventional curricular choices for Warrington's aspiring middle-class students. He recommended modern languages instead of classical languages and modern rather than ancient history. Priestley's lectures on history were particularly revolutionary; he narrated a providentialist and naturalist account of history, arguing that the study of history furthered the comprehension of God's natural laws. Furthermore, his millennial perspective was closely tied to his optimism regarding scientific progress and the improvement of humanity. He believed that each age would improve upon the previous and that the study of history allowed people to perceive and to advance this progress. Since the study of history was a moral imperative for Priestley, he also promoted the education of middle-class women, which was unusual at the time. Some scholars of education have described Priestley as the most important English writer on education between the 17th-century John Locke and the 19th-century Herbert Spencer. "Lectures on History" was well received and was employed by many educational institutions, such as New College at Hackney, Brown, Princeton, Yale, and Cambridge. Priestley designed two "Charts" to serve as visual study aids for his "Lectures". These charts are in fact timelines; they have been described as the most influential timelines published in the 18th century. Both were popular for decades, and the trustees of Warrington were so impressed with Priestley's lectures and charts that they arranged for the University of Edinburgh to grant him a Doctor of Law degree in 1764. During this period Priestley also regularly delivered lectures on rhetoric that were later published in 1777 as "A Course of Lectures on Oratory and Criticism". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=40176 | 320,116 |
539,134 | In 1971, the Italian Navy began an ingenious program to develop ballistic missiles called Alfa. Officially the project was termed as a development effort for a study on efficient solid-propellant rockets for civil and military applications. It was planned as a two-stage rocket and could be carried on submarines or ships. Ever since 27 March 1960, when Admiral Pecori Geraldi had argued that a seaborne nuclear force was the most resistant to attack, the navy had looked for an opportunity to take on a nuclear role. Alfa was long and had a diameter of . The first stage of the Alfa was long and contained of solid rocket fuel. It supplied a thrust of for a duration of 57 seconds. It could carry a warhead for a range of , placing European Russia and Moscow in range from the Adriatic Sea. After the first stage motor was fired eleven times in static tests, three test missiles with inert second stages were successfully launched at Salto di Quirra in Sardinia, the last on 6 April 1976. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54884675 | 538,854 |
1,417,503 | Surfaces and interfaces are critical zones where major physical, chemical, and biological exchanges occur. As the ocean covers 362 million km, about 71% of the Earth's surface, the ocean-atmosphere interface is plausibly one of the largest and most important interfaces on the planet. Every substance entering or leaving the ocean from or to the atmosphere passes through this interface, which on the water-side -and to a lesser extent on the air-side- shows distinct physical, chemical, and biological properties. On the water side the uppermost 1 to 1000 μm of this interface are referred to as the sea surface microlayer (SML). Like a skin, the SML is expected to control the rates of exchange of energy and matter between air and sea, thereby potentially exerting both short-term and long-term impacts on various Earth system processes, including biogeochemical cycling, production and uptake of radiately active gases like CO2 or DMS, thus ultimately climate regulation. As of 2017, processes occurring within the SML, as well as the associated rates of material exchange through the SML, remained poorly understood and were rarely represented in marine and atmospheric numerical models. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12264442 | 1,416,704 |
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