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118,732 | The College of Agriculture, Forestry, and Life Sciences (CAFLS) supports Clemson University's land-grant mission to provide education, research, and service to the public. CAFLS faculty members teach major subjects and core curricula while preparing students to be leaders, creative thinkers, and communicators. Emphasis is placed on engaging students in research, internships/coops, study abroad, and service learning. CAFLS research is focused on the sustainability of agriculture, forests, and natural resources; food and packaging systems to ensure a healthy and safe food supply, and biomedical sciences to improve human and non-human health. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=147456 | 118,685 |
361,975 | Acid digestion is a two-stage process, involving the use of up to 93% sulfuric acid at 210–230 °C. First, sulfuric acid in excess of 60% of the sand mass is added, thickening the reaction mixture as products are formed. Then, fuming sulfuric acid is added and the mixture is kept at the same temperature for another five hours to reduce the volume of solution remaining after dilution. The concentration of the sulfuric acid is selected based on reaction rate and viscosity, which both increase with concentration, albeit with viscosity retarding the reaction. Increasing the temperature also speeds up the reaction, but temperatures of 300 °C and above must be avoided, because they cause insoluble thorium pyrophosphate to form. Since dissolution is very exothermic, the monazite sand cannot be added to the acid too quickly. Conversely, at temperatures below 200 °C the reaction does not go fast enough for the process to be practical. To ensure that no precipitates form to block the reactive monazite surface, the mass of acid used must be twice that of the sand, instead of the 60% that would be expected from stoichiometry. The mixture is then cooled to 70 °C and diluted with ten times its volume of cold water, so that any remaining monazite sinks to the bottom while the rare earths and thorium remain in solution. Thorium may then be separated by precipitating it as the phosphate at pH 1.3, since the rare earths do not precipitate until pH 2. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30044 | 361,785 |
2,158,817 | The university's third chancellor, Daniel Edward Ferritor, continued and completed the restoration of Old Main, during his eleven-year term. Chief among Ferritor's accomplishments was the addition of another two million square feet in classroom and laboratory space at a cost of $120 million, as well as boosting annual giving to the university from three million to twenty million dollars. Following Ferritor was John A. White, perhaps best known for overseeing the Campaign for the 21st Century, which raised over one billion dollars for the university endowments over an eight-year period. White resigned in 2008 following the tempestuous release of Houston Nutt from his position as the head coach of the school's football program. In a unanimous vote, the board of trustees elected G. David Gearhart to be the fifth chancellor in school history. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23302106 | 2,157,585 |
1,044,211 | After assisting Congress in their earliest questions regarding the safety of the chemical preservatives then being employed in foods, Wiley was appropriated $5,000 in 1902 to study the effects of a diet including various preservatives, on human volunteers. These "poison squad" studies drew national attention to the need for a federal food and drug law. These tests were called Hygienic Table Trials. The subjects received $5 a month and free food to be systematically poisoned. 12 volunteers were chosen. One additive was added per trial but he struggled to find non-adulterated products to add the poisons to. First to be tested was borax which tightened old meat which was starting to decompose. The borax was fed to the men in meat and dairy products. Some were given borax and some were not in order to control the study. The volunteers became known as The Poison Squad. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=106250 | 1,043,667 |
1,367,882 | By 1991, besides the Chukha project, government installations included seven mini hydroelectric plants, each averaging 7,350 kilowatt capacity; 12 micro hydroelectric plants, each averaging 340 kilowatts capacity; and 8 diesel-powered generation stations, each averaging 6,000 kilowatts capacity. Because domestic consumption was low (just over 16 megawatts, more than 80 percent of which was consumed by industry), ample power was exported to India. The project not only halved domestic electricity costs, but also generated revenues from electricity sold to India nearly equal to the total government revenue from all domestic sources. Smaller enterprises, such as the 1.5-megawatt Gyetsha Mini-Hydel, which was inaugurated in 1989, brought badly needed power to Bumthang. Another major plant, a proposed 60-megawatt plant at Kurichu in eastern Bhutan, was included in the Sixth Development Plan (1987–92). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=33920837 | 1,367,126 |
1,699,230 | Doxycycline is a semi-synthetic tetracycline that has been studied for dental and medical applications. Its effects on diseases like periodontitis and cancer has been investigated. Doxycycline is nearly completely absorbed with a bioavailability about 95% in average and a 20% reduction with co-administration of food. Its volume of distribution is 50–80 L (0,7 L/kg). Protein binding is 82–93 %. It is excreted in urine and in feces. Doxycycline is available in oral and intravenous form. Doxycycline exhibited inhibitory activity on MMP-2 and MMP-9. The expression and activity of MMP-2 and MMP-9 are often elevated in human cancer. The increased expression and activity correlates with advanced tumor stage, increased metastasis and prognosis. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=16040932 | 1,698,276 |
217,612 | The SOHC eight-valve 4G54 (also known as the G54B) displaces , with bore & stroke at . The G54B for the US market had a cylinder head with additional jet valves to improve emissions (MCA-Jet system). The engine was fitted to various Mitsubishi models from 1978 to 1997 and to the American Chrysler K-cars and their derivatives between 1981 and 1987. It was primarily set up longitudinally for use in rear-wheel drive and all-wheel drive platforms but also as a transverse engine in the front-wheel drive platform of the Mitsubishi Magna and Chrysler K platform. Chrysler commonly marketed the engine "Hemi," whereas the Australian-made version was marketed as the "Astron II" and featured "Balance Shaft" technology, which was subsequently licensed to Porsche and other automakers. The original engine featured a Mikuni two-barrel carburetor with a secondary vacuum actuator; later versions adopted EFI. Chrysler commonly paired this engine with its A470 3-speed automatic transmission; in Australia, Mitsubishi adapted it to a 5-speed manual transmission and its "ELC" (Electronic Control) 4-speed automatic transmission, featuring electronic overdrive. Chrysler eventually replaced the 4G54 with its own 2.5 L engine, whereas Mitsubishi replaced it with a 2.4 L engine codenamed 4G64. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1255970 | 217,504 |
1,145,757 | In 2010, a forest pathologist at the University of Florida, Jason A. Smith, along with his graduate assistant, Aaron Trulock, published a Cooperative Extension Service "fact sheet" on Florida torreya that reported their discovery of the fungal cause of stem cankers. Resolution of the canker cause was crucial, as it was stem death (rather than periodic leaf death) that proved lethal to above-ground portions of torreya. Citing earlier work by Mark W. Schwartz, they framed the importance of their canker pathogen discovery: "The rapid nature of the decline during the period of 1938 to 1945 and numerous observations of disease symptoms provides ample evidence that a pathogen, possibly non-native, was involved." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2680498 | 1,145,156 |
76,081 | "Apperceptive prosopagnosia" has typically been used to describe cases of acquired prosopagnosia with some of the earliest processes in the face perception system. The brain areas thought to play a critical role in apperceptive prosopagnosia are right occipital temporal regions. People with this disorder cannot make any sense of faces and are unable to make same–different judgments when they are presented with pictures of different faces. They are unable to recognize both familiar and unfamiliar faces. In addition, apperceptive sub-types of prosopagnosia struggle recognizing facial emotion. However, they may be able to recognize people based on non-face clues such as their clothing, hairstyle, skin color, or voice. Apperceptive prosopagnosia is believed to be associated with impaired fusiform gyrus. Experiments on the formation of new face detectors in adults on face-like stimuli (learning to distinguish the faces of cats) indicate that such new detectors are formed not in the fusiform, but in the lingual gyrus. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=486429 | 76,052 |
942,341 | Despite the ubiquity of the usage of "basal", systematists try to avoid its usage because its application to extant groups is unnecessary and misleading. The term is more often applied when one branch (the one deemed "basal") is less diverse than another branch (this being the situation in which one would expect to find a basal taxon of lower "minimum" rank). The term may be equivocal in that it also refers to the direction of the root of the tree, which represents a hypothetical ancestor; this consequently may inaccurately imply that the sister group of a more species-rich clade displays ancestral features. An extant basal group may or may not resemble the last common ancestor of a larger clade to a greater degree than other groups, and is separated from that ancestor by the same amount of time as all other extant groups. However, there are cases where the unusually small size of a sister group does indeed correlate with an unusual number of ancestral traits, as in "Amborella" (see below). This is likely a source of the mis-use of the term. Other famous examples of this phenomenon are the oviparous reproduction and nipple-less lactation of monotremes, a clade of mammals with just five species, and the archaic anatomy of the tuatara, a basal clade of lepidosaurian with a single species. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11287648 | 941,839 |
1,502,701 | The 1970 series of the high school included 4 classes of 25 students each, with a program of 4 hours a day in the morning from 8:30 to 12:30. The first 2 years included an intensive specialized program, studying the internal structure of the computer, representation, organization and management of data, algorithms and logic schemes, computers, assembly languages (Asembler; Asiris), programming in Cobol, Fortran and a laboratory of digital electronics and programming of Fc15 Accounting Billing machines, etc. Starting in 1972, elements of general culture and economic and organizational sciences were introduced. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=28068850 | 1,501,855 |
1,540,318 | Motivated by her experiences in academia through the Radcliffe Institute, Kivelson joined UCLA in 1967 as an assistant research geophysicist. Kivelson quickly climbed through the ranks within the geophysics and space physics community becoming a full professor at UCLA's Department of Earth and Space Sciences in 1980. She chaired the Department of Earth and Space Sciences from 1984 to 1987 and from 1999 to 2000. From 1977 to 1983 Kivelson served on the Board of Overseers at Harvard College as well as NASA's Advisory council from 1987 to 1993, the National Research Council's Committee on Solar-Terrestrial Research from 1989 to 1992, and co-chaired the UCLA Academic Faculty Senate's Committee on Gender Equality issues from 1998 to 2000. In 2009 she became a Distinguished Professor of Space Physics, Emerita and in 2010 she also took a position as a research professor at the University of Michigan. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=40442898 | 1,539,445 |
549,144 | Greek city-state foundation myths are always tied to a particular place, foundation date and festival, sometimes to a civic ancestor - who might also be a heroic or divinised proto-founder, such as Heracles - and often, but not always, to a named deity. The problems involved in the identification of patron deities, and of the "poleis" as "poleis", can be complex. Versnel finds that the "image of gods as city patrons is theoretical rather than evidential". There is no formula that helps differentiate state cults from civic cults, or identify a protective or patron deity of the "poleis" within a given local pantheon. "Conversely, some "poleis" seem to have had several [patron deities], some to have changed their patron deity over time, and some to have had no patron god or goddess at all." Even Hestia can pose problems in the identification of a "polis"; according to Herman-Hansen, most archaeologists have identified as "prytaneion" any large, apparently public building containing a hearth, assuming it a sign of Hestia, not a commonplace kitchen utility. Herman-Hansen believe that a complete "prytaneon" should surely contain two hearths – one for Hestia and another for cooking at feasts, though no "second hearth" has been found in any building identified as a "prytaneon". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=40139134 | 548,856 |
1,081,371 | Also in 1936, Anderson and his first graduate student, Seth Neddermeyer, discovered a muon (or 'mu-meson', as it was known for many years), a subatomic particle 207 times more massive than the electron, but with the same negative electric charge and spin 1/2 as the electron, again in cosmic rays. Anderson and Neddermeyer at first believed that they had seen a pion, a particle which Hideki Yukawa had postulated in his theory of the strong interaction. When it became clear that what Anderson had seen was "not" the pion, the physicist I. I. Rabi, puzzled as to how the unexpected discovery could fit into any logical scheme of particle physics, quizzically asked "Who ordered "that"?" (sometimes the story goes that he was dining with colleagues at a Chinese restaurant at the time). The muon was the first of a long list of subatomic particles whose discovery initially baffled theoreticians who could not make the confusing "zoo" fit into some tidy conceptual scheme. Willis Lamb, in his 1955 Nobel Prize Lecture, joked that he had heard it said that "the finder of a new elementary particle used to be rewarded by a Nobel Prize, but such a discovery now ought to be punished by a 10,000 dollar fine." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=396485 | 1,080,815 |
1,198,065 | In the mid 1990s, a government agency in Massachusetts called Group Insurance Commission (GIC), which purchased health insurance for employees of the state, decided to release records of hospital visits to any researcher who requested the data, at no cost. GIC assured that the patient's privacy was not a concern since it had removed identifiers such as name, addresses, social security numbers. However, information such as zip codes, birth date and sex remained untouched. The GIC assurance was reinforced by the then governor of Massachusetts, William Weld. Latanya Sweeney, a graduate student at the time, put her mind to picking out the governor's records in the GIC data. By combining the GIC data with the voter database of the city Cambridge, which she purchased for 20 dollars, Governor Weld's record was discovered with ease. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50417566 | 1,197,424 |
1,704,667 | The "mitochondrial targeting signal" also known as "presequence" is a 10-70 amino acid long peptide that directs a newly synthesized protein to the mitochondria. It is found at the N-terminus end consists of an alternating pattern of hydrophobic and positively charged amino acids to form what is called an amphipathic helix. Mitochondrial targeting signals can contain additional signals that subsequently target the protein to different regions of the mitochondria, such as the mitochondrial matrix or inner membrane. In plants, an N-terminal signal (or "transit peptide") targets to the plastid in a similar manner. Like most signal peptides, mitochondrial targeting signals and plastid specific transit peptides are cleaved once targeting is complete. Some plant proteins have an N-terminal transport signal that targets both organelles often referred to as "dual-targeted" transit peptide. Approximately 5% of total organelle proteins are predicted to be dual-targeted however the specific number could be higher considering the variable degree of accumulation of passenger proteins in both organelles. The targeting specificity of these transit peptides depends on many factors including net charge and affinity between transit peptides and organelle transport machinery. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=36758926 | 1,703,711 |
1,008,535 | At the time, "SSH", "Secure Shell" and "ssh" had appeared in documents proposing the protocol as an open standard. Without marking these within the proposal as registered trademarks, Ylönen ran the risk of relinquishing all exclusive rights to the name as a means of describing the protocol. Improper use of a trademark, or allowing others to use a trademark incorrectly, results in the trademark becoming a generic term, like Kleenex or Aspirin, which opens the mark to use by others. After study of the USPTO trademark database, many online pundits opined that the term "ssh" was not trademarked, merely the logo using the lower case letters "ssh". In addition, the six years between the company's creation and the time when it began to defend its trademark, and that only OpenSSH was receiving threats of legal repercussions, weighed against the trademark's validity. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25490426 | 1,008,014 |
804,369 | Gatling guns were used by the U.S. Army during both the Spanish–American War and the Philippine–American War. A four-gun battery of Colt-made Model 1895 ten-barrel Gatling guns in .30 Army was formed into a separate detachment led by Lt. John "Gatling Gun" Parker. The detachment proved very effective, supporting the advance of American forces at the Battle of San Juan Hill. Three of the Gatlings with swivel mountings were used with great success against the Spanish defenders. Despite this, the Gatling's weight and cumbersome artillery carriage hindered its ability to keep up with infantry forces over difficult ground, particularly in Cuba and the Philippines, where outside the major cities there were heavily foliaged forests and steep mountain paths, and the roads were often little more than jungle footpaths. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=65681263 | 803,940 |
1,674,733 | The oldest microbiotheriid and microbiothere currently recognised is "Khasia cordillerensis", based on fossil teeth from Early Palaeocene deposits at Tiupampa, Bolivia. Numerous genera are known from various Palaeogene and Neogene fossil sites in South America. A number of possible microbiotheres, again represented by isolated teeth, have also been recovered from the Middle Eocene La Meseta Formation of Seymour Island, Western Antarctica. Finally, several undescribed microbiotheres have been reported from the Early Eocene Tingamarra Local Fauna in northeastern Australia; if this is indeed the case, then these Australian fossils have important implications for understanding marsupial evolution and biogeography. The distant ancestors of the monito del monte, it is thought, remained in what is now South America while others entered Antarctica and eventually Australia during the time when all three continents were joined as part of Gondwana. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=309241 | 1,673,791 |
1,034,270 | The oldest microbiothere currently recognised is "Khasia cordillerensis", based on fossil teeth from Early Palaeocene deposits at Tiupampa, Bolivia. Numerous genera are known from various Palaeogene and Neogene fossil sites in South America. A number of possible microbiotheres, again represented by isolated teeth, have also been recovered from the Middle Eocene La Meseta Formation of Seymour Island, Western Antarctica. Finally, several undescribed microbiotheres have been reported from the Early Eocene Tingamarra Local Fauna in northeastern Australia; if this is indeed the case, then these Australian fossils have important implications for understanding marsupial evolution and biogeography. The distant ancestors of the monito del monte, it is thought, remained in what is now South America while others entered Antarctica and eventually Australia during the time when all three continents were joined as part of Gondwana. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=223438 | 1,033,733 |
211,177 | Most force fields in chemistry are empirical and consist of a summation of bonded forces associated with chemical bonds, bond angles, and bond dihedrals, and non-bonded forces associated with van der Waals forces and electrostatic charge. Empirical potentials represent quantum-mechanical effects in a limited way through ad hoc functional approximations. These potentials contain free parameters such as atomic charge, van der Waals parameters reflecting estimates of atomic radius, and equilibrium bond length, angle, and dihedral; these are obtained by fitting against detailed electronic calculations (quantum chemical simulations) or experimental physical properties such as elastic constants, lattice parameters and spectroscopic measurements. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=198608 | 211,070 |
2,131,336 | "Erwinia papayae", the bacterial pathogen responsible for the disease, was first identified in 1931 in Java, Indonesia (Gardan "et al." 2004), and has since spread to papaya growing countries worldwide—from the Caribbean to South America to South East Asia (Ollitrault "et al." 2007). By the late 1960s, "E. papaya"e had appeared in the West Indies, where it obliterated all the yields of the papaya cultivar ‘Solo,’ which because of its high fruit yields and quality was the only one grown in the fields (Ollitrault "et al." 2007). Papayas are significant cash crops for the papaya-growing countries because of their rapid generation, high yields, and large market demand both locally and internationally (Ollitrault "et al." 2007). In Malaysia, where the disease has plagued farmers for over a decade, papayas have an export value of approximately 24-28 million USD per year (Maktar "et al." 2008). With bacterial crown rot affecting approximately 800 hectares of papaya on the Malaysian Peninsula alone (Maktar "et al." 2008), this results in a huge loss in profit for the agricultural industry. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=52516729 | 2,130,111 |
214,198 | While GOFAI systems often accept an explicit goal function, the paradigm can also be applied to neural networks and to evolutionary computing. Reinforcement learning can generate intelligent agents that appear to act in ways intended to maximize a "reward function". Sometimes, rather than setting the reward function to be directly equal to the desired benchmark evaluation function, machine learning programmers will use reward shaping to initially give the machine rewards for incremental progress in learning. Yann LeCun stated in 2018 that "Most of the learning algorithms that people have come up with essentially consist of minimizing some objective function." AlphaZero chess had a simple objective function; each win counted as +1 point, and each loss counted as -1 point. An objective function for a self-driving car would have to be more complicated. Evolutionary computing can evolve intelligent agents that appear to act in ways intended to maximize a "fitness function" that influences how many descendants each agent is allowed to leave. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2711317 | 214,090 |
1,087,742 | There was acrimonious debate among scientists over the thickness of the ice crust, and those who presented results indicating that it might be thinner than the proposed by the accredited scientists on the "Galileo" Imaging Team faced intimidation, scorn, and reduced career opportunities. The "Galileo" Imaging Team was led by Michael J. Belton from the Kitt Peak National Observatory. Scientists who planned imaging sequences had the exclusive right to the initial interpretation of the "Galileo" data, most which was performed by their research students. The scientific community did not want a repetition of the 1979 Morabito incident, when Linda A. Morabito, an engineer at the JPL working on "Voyager 1", discovered the first active extraterrestrial volcano on Io. The Imaging Team controlled the manner in which discoveries were presented to the scientific community and the public through press conferences, conference papers and publications. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13077 | 1,087,183 |
302,575 | Bitterman "et al." in 1986 and 1995 showed that darkness and caffeine would delay the onset of changes to brain electrical activity in rats. In the years since, research on central nervous system toxicity has centred on methods of prevention and safe extension of tolerance. Sensitivity to central nervous system oxygen toxicity has been shown to be affected by factors such as circadian rhythm, drugs, age, and gender. In 1988, Hamilton "et al." wrote procedures for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration to establish oxygen exposure limits for habitat operations. Even today, models for the prediction of pulmonary oxygen toxicity do not explain all the results of exposure to high partial pressures of oxygen. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=462421 | 302,414 |
1,564,597 | In 2009, Ellen Trief, Susan M. Bruce, Paul W. Cascella, and Sarah Ivy created a Universal Tangible Symbol System. They began by developing a survey to determine which tangible symbols were already in use, new activities and concepts for which tangible systems are needed, and participant preferences for tangible symbols from a pilot study. Participants included teachers and speech-language pathologists from four New York City schools. Following the survey, an advisory board consisting of directors of the New York City schools, speech-language pathologists, the designer and manufacturer of the symbols, a representative from the Perkins School for the Blind, college professors, and a graduate research assistant reviewed and discussed the results. This resulted in the establishment of the 55 universal tangible symbols seen in the chart below. However, this universal tangible symbol system should not replace a system already established for an individual. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20004766 | 1,563,710 |
533,328 | X-rays are generated by bombarding a high atomic number material with electrons. If the target is removed (and the beam current decreased) a high energy electron beam is obtained. Electron beams are useful for treating superficial lesions because the maximum of dose deposition occurs near the surface. The dose then decreases rapidly with depth, sparing underlying tissue. Electron beams usually have nominal energies in the range 4–20 MeV. Depending on the energy this translates to a treatment range of approximately 1–5 cm (in water-equivalent tissue). Energies above 18 MeV are used very rarely. Although the X-ray target is removed in electron mode, the beam must be fanned out by sets of thin scattering foils in order to achieve flat and symmetric dose profiles in the treated tissue. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=273470 | 533,049 |
1,518,874 | The early history of horse doping is unclear, although according to Euripides (480-406 BC), some horses were fed human flesh to make them faster and more savage. However, during Roman times, the use of hydromel for chariot race horses was punished by crucifixion. The evolution of horse doping is less well known over the following millennia, but in 1666, the use of "exciting substances and methods" was prohibited at horse races in Worksop, England. In 1533, there were reports of a substance, probably related to arsenic, being used as a stimulant. After 1800 there is an uptick in the records of horses being prevented from competing (then called "stopped"), and in 1812 a stable boy was hung on Newmarket Heath for arsenic doping of a horse. In 1903, UK law prohibited horse doping and by 1912, saliva tests were introduced for horses which tested for alkaloids such as theobromine, caffeine, cocaine, morphine, and strychnine. In most major racing countries, positive results automatically disqualified horses. Doping took off, however, in the US in 1933 when pari-mutuel betting was legalized. Estimates suggest as many as 50% of horses were doped during this time, leading to a higher incidence of injuries caused by insensitivity to pain and lack of proper muscle coordination - the principal drugs of the era were cocaine, heroin, strychnine, and caffeine. In the later half of the 20th century, anti-doping efforts increased and became standardized by the FEI. A crackdown on horse doping in 2020 motivated congress to pass the first law establishing national regulations for the sport of horse racing. This law was Horseracing Safety and Integrity Act, which will also create a new enforcement agency to enforce the law. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8763628 | 1,518,016 |
404,283 | This statistical theory, proposed by Alfred Saupe and Wilhelm Maier, includes contributions from an attractive intermolecular potential from an induced dipole moment between adjacent rod-like liquid crystal molecules. The anisotropic attraction stabilizes parallel alignment of neighboring molecules, and the theory then considers a mean-field average of the interaction. Solved self-consistently, this theory predicts thermotropic nematic-isotropic phase transitions, consistent with experiment. Maier-Saupe mean field theory is extended to high molecular weight liquid crystals by incorporating the bending stiffness of the molecules and using the method of path integrals in polymer science. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=17973 | 404,083 |
1,834,937 | Desert RATS began in 1997, reviving Apollo-style lunar exploration training from decades earlier. The field season takes place for around two weeks each year, usually in September, in planned locations surrounding Flagstaff, Arizona. Some tests have also been conducted near Meteor Crater. These activities are designed to exercise prototype planetary surface hardware and representative mission scenario operations in relatively harsh climatic conditions where long distance, multi-day traversing activities are achievable. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10503693 | 1,833,888 |
290,259 | The first manmade nuclear explosion occurred on July 16, 1945, at 5:50 am on the Trinity test site near Alamogordo, New Mexico, in the United States, an area now known as the White Sands Missile Range. The event involved the full-scale testing of an implosion-type fission atomic bomb. In a memorandum to the U.S. Secretary of War, General Leslie Groves describes the yield as equivalent to 15,000 to 20,000 tons of TNT. Following this test, a uranium-gun type nuclear bomb (Little Boy) was dropped on the Japanese city of Hiroshima on August 6, 1945, with a blast yield of 15 kilotons; and a plutonium implosion-type bomb (Fat Man) on Nagasaki on August 9, 1945, with a blast yield of 21 kilotons. Fat Man and Little Boy are the only instances in history of nuclear weapons being used as an act of war. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4380587 | 290,102 |
1,087,078 | The parasexual cycle, a process restricted to fungi and single-celled organisms, is a nonsexual mechanism of parasexuality for transferring genetic material without meiosis or the development of sexual structures. It was first described by Italian geneticist Guido Pontecorvo in 1956 during studies on "Aspergillus nidulans" (also called "Emericella nidulans" when referring to its sexual form, or teleomorph). A parasexual cycle is initiated by the fusion of hyphae (anastomosis) during which nuclei and other cytoplasmic components occupy the same cell (heterokaryosis and plasmogamy). Fusion of the unlike nuclei in the cell of the heterokaryon results in formation of a diploid nucleus (karyogamy), which is believed to be unstable and can produce segregants by recombination involving mitotic crossing-over and haploidization. Mitotic crossing-over can lead to the exchange of genes on chromosomes; while haploidization probably involves mitotic nondisjunctions which randomly reassort the chromosomes and result in the production of aneuploid and haploid cells. Like a sexual cycle, parasexuality gives the species the opportunity to recombine the genome and produce new genotypes in their offspring. Unlike a sexual cycle, the process lacks coordination and is exclusively mitotic. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12794834 | 1,086,520 |
535,322 | The name Spinosauroidea is sometimes used in place of Megalosauroidea. The superfamily Spinosauroidea was named in 1915 by Ernst Stromer. It is a synonym of Megalosauroidea in almost all modern phylogenetic analyses, and it is therefore redundant. Spinosauroidea was defined as a clade in 1998 by Paul Sereno as the node clade containing the common ancestor of "Spinosaurus" and "Torvosaurus" and all its descendants. Thomas Holtz in 2004 defined a branch clade with the same name containing all species closer to "Spinosaurus" than to "Passer domesticus". The ICZN holds that even clade names (which do not yet have any governing body) should be replaced if having a traditional taxon suffix and being synonyms of ranked taxa at or below the superfamily level. The seniority of Megalosauroidea was not followed in most paleontological literature during the 1990s and early 2000s. A series of papers supporting the validity of "Megalosaurus" as a genus, the relationships of megalosauroids, and the placement of "spinosauroids" among them, published between 2008 and 2010 argued that Megalosauroidea was in fact the valid name for the group. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3593098 | 535,043 |
604,369 | The use of force to prevent crime, including crimes against property, should be considered justifiable because of the utility to society, i.e. a police officer using reasonable force to lawfully arrest a criminal or suspect maximizes net utility. But, where the officers make mistakes, the law can be unpredictable. In "R v Dadson", a police officer shot and wounded an escaping thief. At the time, any degree of force could be used to arrest a fleeing felon but, when he fired the gun, he did not know who the thief was. He was convicted of intentionally causing grievous bodily harm because the thief was shot and the gun was fired by a man not caring whether the shot was lawful or not. That the thief was later proved to be a felon did not prevent a concurrence between "actus reus" and "mens rea" at the instant the shot was fired, i.e. no retrospective justification is allowed. It is noted that the death of Jean Charles de Menezes at the Stockwell tube station, south London, on 22 July 2005 resulted from the use of a then secret shoot-to-kill policy called Operation Kratos. English law has no general defence of superior orders, and the conduct of every police officer has to be judged on the facts as they believed them to be. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3736836 | 604,059 |
2,128,064 | Most JINA-CEE nuclear physics experiments are carried out at the Nuclear Science Laboratory at the University of Notre Dame, the National Superconducting Cyclotron Laboratory at Michigan State University and the ATLAS/CARIBOU facility at Argonne National Laboratory. JINA-CEE is heavily involved in observations with the Apache Point Observatory within the framework of extensions to the Sloan Digital Sky Survey, LAMOST in China, SkyMapper in Australia, and the Hubble Space Telescope. Among many other observational data, JINA-CEE also uses heavily X-ray observational data from BeppoSAX, RXTE, Chandra, XMM-Newton, and INTEGRAL. JINA stimulated the development of similar centers in other countries, and collaborates with a number of multi-institutional nuclear astrophysics centers in Germany, including NAVI, EMMI and the Universe Cluster in Munich. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8935386 | 2,126,841 |
545,612 | In 1888, Kaiser Wilhelm I died and his successor, the terminally ill Kaiser Friedrich III, remained on the throne for just 99 days before passing away as well. The new Kaiser, Wilhelm II, was an ardent supporter of the navy, which was to have profound impacts on the future of the service. Shortly thereafter, Caprivi resigned and was replaced by (Vice Admiral) Alexander von Monts in July; in March 1889, Wilhelm II reorganized the naval command structure, creating the (RMA), which was now in control of naval construction. The navy initially requested a pair of battleships in line with Hollmann's projected budget, but Wilhelm II intervened to demand four new ships for the 1889–1890 budget. German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck secured funding for the ships through the larger army expansion bill, though the delayed funding for the latter three members of the class. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10865795 | 545,326 |
1,086,886 | This speculative prediction and this lack of theoretical tools aroused the curiosity of Jean-Pierre Luminet and Brandon Carter of the Paris Observatory in the early 1980s who invented the concept of a TDE. Their first works were published in 1982 in the journal "Nature" and 1983 in "Astronomy & Astrophysics". The authors had managed to describe the tidal disturbances in the heart of active galactic nuclei (AGNs) based on the "stellar pancake outbreak" model, to use Luminet's expression, a model describing the tidal field generated by a supermassive black hole, and the effect they called the "pancake detonation" to qualify the radiation outbreak resulting from these disturbances. Later, in 1986, Luminet and Carter published in the journal "Astrophysical Journal Supplement" an analysis covering all the cases of TDE and not only the 10% producing "spaghettifications" and other "pancakes flambées". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=45273959 | 1,086,328 |
1,715,276 | On 18 August 1941, Payne-Scott joined the Radiophysics Laboratory of the Australian government's Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO). During World War II, she was engaged in top secret work investigating radar technology, becoming Australia's expert on the detection of aircraft using Plan Position Indicator (PPI) displays. After the war, in 1948, she published a comprehensive report on factors affecting visibility on PPI displays. She also made important contributions to prototype radar systems operating in the 25cm microwave band, achieving significant improvements. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1480531 | 1,714,309 |
862,223 | Double bonded compounds, alkene homologs, RE=ER are now known for all of the heavier group 14 elements. Unlike the alkenes these compounds are not planar but adopt twisted and/or trans bent structures. These effects become more pronounced for the heavier elements. The distannene (MeSi)CHSn=SnCH(SiMe) has a tin-tin bond length just a little shorter than a single bond, a trans bent structure with pyramidal coordination at each tin atom, and readily dissociates in solution to form (MeSi)CHSn: (stannanediyl, a carbene analog). The bonding comprises two weak donor acceptor bonds, the lone pair on each tin atom overlapping with the empty p orbital on the other. In contrast, in disilenes each silicon atom has planar coordination but the substituents are twisted so that the molecule as a whole is not planar. In diplumbenes the Pb=Pb bond length can be longer than that of many corresponding single bonds Plumbenes and stannenes generally dissociate in solution into monomers with bond enthalpies that are just a fraction of the corresponding single bonds. Some double bonds plumbenes and stannenes are similar in strength to hydrogen bonds. The Carter-Goddard-Malrieu-Trinquier model can be used to predict the nature of the bonding. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=254127 | 861,763 |
3,471 | As Edison expanded his direct current (DC) power delivery system, he received stiff competition from companies installing alternating current (AC) systems. From the early 1880s, AC arc lighting systems for streets and large spaces had been an expanding business in the US. With the development of transformers in Europe and by Westinghouse Electric in the US in 1885–1886, it became possible to transmit AC long distances over thinner and cheaper wires, and "step down" (reduce) the voltage at the destination for distribution to users. This allowed AC to be used in street lighting and in lighting for small business and domestic customers, the market Edison's patented low voltage DC incandescent lamp system was designed to supply. Edison's DC empire suffered from one of its chief drawbacks: it was suitable only for the high density of customers found in large cities. Edison's DC plants could not deliver electricity to customers more than one mile from the plant, and left a patchwork of unsupplied customers between plants. Small cities and rural areas could not afford an Edison style system at all, leaving a large part of the market without electrical service. AC companies expanded into this gap. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29778 | 3,471 |
1,832,733 | The first attempts of having a Brazilian science establishment were made around 1783, with the expedition of Portuguese naturalist Alexandre Rodrigues, who was sent by Portugal's prime minister, the Marquis of Pombal, to explore and identify Brazilian fauna, flora and geology. His collections, however, were lost to the French, when Napoleon invaded, and were transported to Paris by Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire. In 1772, the first learned society, the Sociedade Scientifica, was founded in Rio de Janeiro, but lasted only until 1794. Also, in 1797, the first botanic institute was founded in Salvador, Bahia. In the second and third decades of the twentieth century, the main universities in Brazil were organised from a set of existing medical, engineering and law schools. The University of Brazil dates from 1927, the University of São Paulo - today the largest in the Country - dates from 1934. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12082329 | 1,831,685 |
2,242,489 | In 1976, a shortened submachine gun version of the MP5A2 was introduced; the "MP5K" (K from the German word "Kurz" = "short") was designed for close quarters battle use by clandestine operations and special services. The MP5K does not have a shoulder stock (the receiver end was covered with a flat end cap, featuring a buffer on the inside and a sling loop on the outside), and the bolt and receiver were shortened at the rear. The resultant lighter bolt led to a higher rate of fire than the standard MP5 at around 900 rounds per minute. The barrel, cocking handle and its cover were shortened and a vertical foregrip was used to replace the standard handguard. The barrel ends at the base of the front sight, which prevents the use of any sort of muzzle device. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14297 | 2,241,218 |
942,403 | Thalamotomy (; ) is a surgical procedure in which an opening is made into the thalamus to improve the overall brain function in patients. First introduced in the 1950s, it is primarily effective for tremors such as those associated with Parkinson's disease, where a selected portion of the thalamus is surgically destroyed (ablated). Neurosurgeons use specialized equipment to precisely locate an area of the thalamus, usually choosing to work on only one side (the side opposite that of the worst tremors). Bilateral procedures are poorly tolerated because of increased complications and risk, including vision and speech problems. The positive effects on tremors are immediate. Other less destructive procedures are sometimes preferred, such as subthalamic deep brain stimulation, since this procedure can also improve tremors and other symptoms of PD. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1874888 | 941,901 |
890,977 | The helepolis was a transportation vehicle used to besiege cities. The vehicle had wooden walls to shield soldiers as they were transported toward the enemy’s walls. Upon reaching the walls, the soldiers would disembark at the top of the 15m tall structure and drop on to the enemy’s ramparts. To be effective in combat, the helepolis was designed to be self-propelled. The self-propelled vehicles were operated using two types of motors: an internal motor powered by humans, or a counterweight motor powered by gravity. The human-powered motor used a system of ropes that connected the axles to a capstan. It has been calculated that at least 30 men would be required to turn the capstan in order to exceed the force required to move the vehicle. Two capstans may have been used instead of just the one, reducing the amount of men needed per capstan to 16, for a total of 32 to power the helepolis. The gravity-powered counterweight motor used a system of ropes and pulleys to propel the vehicle. Ropes were wrapped around the axles, strung through a pulley system that connected them to a counterweight hanging at the top of the vehicle. The counterweights would have been made of lead or a bucket filled with water. The lead counterweight was encapsulated in a pipe filled with seeds to control its fall. The water bucket counterweight was emptied when it reached the bottom of the vehicle, raised back to the top, and filled with water using a reciprocating water pump, so that motion could again be achieved. It has been calculated that to move a helepolis with a mass of 40000 kg, a counterweight with a mass of 1000 kg was needed. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14901914 | 890,508 |
454,682 | Bharath Ramsundar wrote that deep learning is being coupled with "[i]mprovements in custom architecture". For example, machine learning systems have been implemented in the blockchain world, where Bitmain assaulted "many cryptocurrencies by designing custom mining ASICs (application-specific integrated circuits)" which had been envisioned as undoable. "Nvidia’s grand achievement however is in making the case that these improvement in architectures are not merely isolated victories for specific applications but perhaps broadly applicable to all of computer science." They have suggested that broad harnessing of GPUs and the GPU stack ("cf.," CPU stack) can deliver "dramatic growth in deep learning architecture." "The magic" of Huang’s law promise is that as nascent deep learning powered software becomes more availed, the improvements from GPU scaling and more generally from architectural improvements" will concretely improve "performance and behavior of modern software stacks." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=65380994 | 454,460 |
301,369 | An important aspect of modelling non-equilibrium real gas effects is radiative heat flux. If a vehicle is entering an atmosphere at very high speed (hyperbolic trajectory, lunar return) and has a large nose radius then radiative heat flux can dominate TPS heating. Radiative heat flux during entry into an air or carbon dioxide atmosphere typically comes from asymmetric diatomic molecules; e.g., cyanogen (CN), carbon monoxide, nitric oxide (NO), single ionized molecular nitrogen etc. These molecules are formed by the shock wave dissociating ambient atmospheric gas followed by recombination within the shock layer into new molecular species. The newly formed diatomic molecules initially have a very high vibrational temperature that efficiently transforms the vibrational energy into radiant energy; i.e., radiative heat flux. The whole process takes place in less than a millisecond which makes modelling a challenge. The experimental measurement of radiative heat flux (typically done with shock tubes) along with theoretical calculation through the unsteady Schrödinger equation are among the more esoteric aspects of aerospace engineering. Most of the aerospace research work related to understanding radiative heat flux was done in the 1960s, but largely discontinued after conclusion of the Apollo Program. Radiative heat flux in air was just sufficiently understood to ensure Apollo's success. However, radiative heat flux in carbon dioxide (Mars entry) is still barely understood and will require major research. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=45294 | 301,208 |
1,841,529 | The system is normally installed on fixed-wing airframes ranging from small, unmanned aerial systems (UAS) to long-range wide-bodies such as the Boeing 777 or Airbus A380. Upon completion of the installations scheduled for 2015, more than 6,000 daily soundings will be produced in North America, Europe, and Asia at more than 400 locations. Emphasis has been placed on equipping regional carriers as these flights tend to (i) fly into more remote and diverse locations and (ii) be of shorter duration thereby producing more daily vertical profiles while remaining in the boundary layer for longer durations. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7689095 | 1,840,477 |
61,180 | At the 1912 Salon d'Automne an architectural installation was exhibited that quickly became known as "Maison Cubiste" (Cubist House), with architecture by Raymond Duchamp-Villon and interior decoration by André Mare along with a group of collaborators. Metzinger and Gleizes in "Du "Cubisme"", written during the assemblage of the "Maison Cubiste", wrote about the autonomous nature of art, stressing the point that decorative considerations should not govern the spirit of art. Decorative work, to them, was the "antithesis of the picture". "The true picture" wrote Metzinger and Gleizes, "bears its "raison d'être" within itself. It can be moved from a church to a drawing-room, from a museum to a study. Essentially independent, necessarily complete, it need not immediately satisfy the mind: on the contrary, it should lead it, little by little, towards the fictitious depths in which the coordinative light resides. It does not harmonize with this or that ensemble; it harmonizes with things in general, with the universe: it is an organism...". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=37803 | 61,155 |
1,524,937 | Dr. ElBaradei, who was director of the International Atomic Energy Agency from 1997 to 2009, called for the establishment of a nuclear fuel bank to provide peaceful access to nuclear energy without raising questions about dual-use technology. "Every country that would like to get the fuel, that would like to get the technology, the reactor, will get that, but not necessarily developing their own enrichment facility. And assurance of supply mechanism should be reliable, should be apolitical, should be based solely on non-proliferation criteria," he said. In his acceptance of the 2005 Nobel Peace Prize, Dr. ElBaradei also said the establishment of an international fuel bank would remove the incentive for each country to develop its own fuel cycle. "We should then be able to agree on a moratorium on new national facilities, and to begin work on multinational arrangements for enrichment, fuel production, waste disposal and reprocessing," he said. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3103801 | 1,524,076 |
777,154 | During World War II, the Allies noticed that certain German officials were making radio broadcasts from multiple time zones almost simultaneously. Analysts such as Richard H. Ranger believed that the broadcasts had to be transcriptions, but their audio quality was indistinguishable from that of a live broadcast and their duration was far longer than was possible even with 16 rpm transcription discs. In the final stages of the war in Europe, the Allieds' capture of a number of German Magnetophon recorders from Radio Luxembourg aroused great interest. These recorders incorporated all the key technological features of modern analog magnetic recording and were the basis for future developments in the field. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=70912 | 776,738 |
1,423,413 | In response to feedback following the EarthLight Institute's "Mars Colony 2030" project at NewSpace 2012 and the announcement of Mars One, Eric Machmer proposed conjunction-class missions be planned with a bias to stay (if low gravity, radiation, and other factors present no pressing health issues), so that, if at the end of each 550-day period during a conjunction-class launch window no adverse health effects were observed, settlers would continue research and construction through another 550-day period. In the meantime, additional crews and supplies would continue to arrive, starting their own 550-day evaluation periods. Health tests would be repeated during subsequent 550-day periods until the viability of human life on Mars was proven. Once settlers determine that humans can live on Mars without negative health effects, emergency return vehicles would be recycled into permanent research bases. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25236027 | 1,422,612 |
854,722 | As the open access issue has continued to evolve, so too has the ACS's position. In response to a 2013 White House Office of Science and Technology Policy directive that instructed federal agencies to provide greater access to federally funded research, the ACS joined other scholarly publishers in establishing the Clearinghouse for the Open Research of the United States (Chorus) to allow free access to published articles. The ACS has also introduced several open access publishing options for its journals, including providing authors the option to pay an upfront fee to enable free online access to their articles. In 2015, the ACS launched the first fully open access journal in the society's history, "ACS Central Science". The ACS states that the journal offers the same peer-review standards as its subscription journals, but without publishing charges to either authors or readers. A second open access title, "ACS Omega", an interdisciplinary mega journal, launched in 2016. In December 2020, the ACS launched a series of 9 open access journals under the name "ACS Au" (chemical symbol for gold) which include | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=428508 | 854,267 |
1,323,474 | In February 2019, a reanalysis of the combined Kepler and Hubble observations recovered both a moon-like dip and similar transit timing variation signal. However, the authors suggested that the data could also be explained by an inclined hot-Jupiter in the same system that has gone previously undetected, which could be tested using future Doppler spectroscopy radial velocity measurements. A second independent reanalysis was published in April 2019, which recovered one of the two lines of evidence, the transit timing variation, but the not the second, the moon-like dip. The original discovery team responded to this soon after, finding that this re-analysis exhibits stronger systematics in their reduction which may be responsible for their differing conclusion. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54681026 | 1,322,748 |
647,963 | To direct the newly fledged project, a Community Advisory Board was announced on April 4, 2005: two were elected by the pilot community, two were employees appointed by Sun, and one was appointed from the broader free software community by Sun. The members were Roy Fielding, Al Hopper, Rich Teer, Casper Dik, and Simon Phipps. On February 10, 2006, Sun approved "The OpenSolaris Charter", which reestablished this body as the independent OpenSolaris Governing Board. The task of creating a governance document or "constitution" for this organization was given to the OGB and three invited members: Stephen Hahn and Keith Wesolowski (developers in Sun's Solaris organization) and Ben Rockwood (a prominent OpenSolaris community member). The former next-generation Solaris OS version under development by Sun to eventually succeed Solaris 10 was codenamed 'Nevada', and was derived from what was the OpenSolaris codebase and this new code was then pulled into new OpenSolaris 'Nevada' snapshot builds. ""While under Sun Microsystems' control, there were bi-weekly snapshots of Solaris Nevada (the codename for the next-generation Solaris OS to eventually succeed Solaris 10), and this new code was then pulled into new OpenSolaris preview snapshots available at Genunix.org. The stable releases of OpenSolaris are based on these Nevada builds."" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1178658 | 647,623 |
1,363,340 | In a 2001 federal study, the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL) measured and calculated the reduction in peak energy demand associated with a cool roof's surface reflectance. LBNL found that, compared to the original black rubber roofing membrane on the Texas retail building studied, a retrofitted vinyl membrane delivered an average decrease of in surface temperature, an 11% decrease in aggregate air conditioning energy consumption, and a corresponding 14% drop in peak hour demand. The average daily summertime temperature of the black roof surface was , but once retrofitted with a white reflective surface, it measured . Without considering any tax benefits or other utility charges, annual energy expenditures were reduced by $7,200 or $0.07/square foot.(This figure is for energy charges as well as peak demand charges). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3178571 | 1,362,587 |
1,340,010 | Fire and logging constitute the primary disturbances in this area, both of which are occurring at an increasing frequency. Illegal logging practices, along with a political climate more favorable to multinational logging corporations has drastically increased the amount of timber taken per year. The occurrence of Korean pine in dominant forests has been declining as more common and more intense wildfires start to take their toll on the species, limiting its ability to recover and changing areas that were once dominated by old growth Korean pine to Mongolian oak and birch forests. Above 700–800 meters in altitude, the forest type transitions from broadleaf to coniferous, dominated by Jezo spruce and Manchurian fir. The further to the north, the altitudinal gradient decreases with the increase in latitude, resulting in coniferous forests at sea level at 47° N latitude. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44519182 | 1,339,277 |
839,707 | In 1912, Oberth began the study of medicine in Munich, Germany, but at the outbreak of World War I, he was drafted into the Imperial German Army, assigned to an infantry battalion, and sent to the Eastern Front against Russia. In 1915, Oberth was moved into a medical unit at a hospital in Segesvár (German Schäßburg, Romanian Sighișoara), Transylvania, in Austria-Hungary (today Romania). There he found the spare time to conduct a series of experiments concerning weightlessness, and later resumed his rocketry designs. By 1917, he showed designs of a missile using liquid propellant with a range of to Hermann von Stein, the Prussian Minister of War. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=87012 | 839,258 |
1,917,996 | "Cycle" is primarily known for its role in the genetic transcription-translation feedback loop that generates circadian rhythms in "Drosophila". In the cell nucleus, the CYCLE protein (CYC) forms a heterodimer with a second bHLH-PAS protein, CLOCK (CLK). This CYC-CLK protein complex binds to E-box elements in promoter regions of the genes period and timeless, functioning as a transcription factor in the translation of the proteins PER and TIM. After the PER and TIM proteins accumulate in the cytoplasm and bind together, the PER-TIM complex translocates to the nucleus. The TIM protein in these complexes mediate the accumulation of the dimeric PER-TIM protein complex and their subsequent importation into the nucleus, where the PER protein in these complexes then mediates the release of CYC-CLK from the chromatin, repressing CYC-CLK dependent transcription. Thus, CLK and CYC act as positive factors and PER and TIM as negative factors. CYC also plays a role in the post-translational regulation of CLK in the cytoplasm. These four proteins of the feedback loop are later degraded by a casein kinase-mediated phosphorylation cycle, allowing fluctuations in gene expression according to environmental cues. This cycle is called the transcription-translation feedback loop as demonstrated in this video by the Howard Hughes Medical Institution. Though "cyc" is a clock gene and plays a role in setting and keeping rhythms, c"yc" is expressed constitutively (continuously) in Drosophila cells and is present in native Drosophila tissue culture cells, unlike "clk", "per", or "tim". Regulation thus occurs primarily through the negative feedback by the PER-TIM protein complex in the transcription-translation feedback loop described above. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39042642 | 1,916,896 |
1,827,896 | In 2015 the American Phytopathological Society (APS) launched a research framework, the Phytobiomes Initiative, to facilitate the organization of research into phytobiome. As part of this effort, in 2016 it launched "Phytobiomes Journal", an open-access journal. The journal focuses on transdisciplinary research that impacts the entire plant ecosystem. An overall research strategy has been published in the Phytobiomes Roadmap, a document developed by a group of scientific societies, companies, research institutes, and governmental agencies. It is intended to present a strategic plan to study phytobiomes and propose an action plan to apply phytobiome studies. The connected Phytobiomes Alliance is an international, nonprofit consortium of academic institutions, large and small companies, and governmental agencies coordinating public-private research projects on various aspects of agriculturally relevant phytobiomes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=51886508 | 1,826,857 |
821,618 | Two high schools in the United States, one in Palos Hills, Illinois, and the other in Stockton, California, and an elementary school in Chicago, Illinois, are named after Stagg. The NCAA Division III National Football Championship game, played in Salem, Virginia, is named the Stagg Bowl after him. The athletic stadium at Springfield College is named Stagg Field. The football field at Susquehanna University is named Amos Alonzo Stagg Field in honor of both Stagg Sr. and Jr. Stagg was also the namesake of the University of Chicago's old Stagg Field. At University of the Pacific in Stockton, California, one of the campus streets is known as Stagg Way and Pacific Memorial Stadium, the school's football and soccer stadium, was renamed Amos Alonzo Stagg Memorial Stadium on October 15, 1988. Phillips Exeter Academy also has a field named for him and a statue. A field in West Orange, New Jersey on Saint Cloud Avenue is also named for him. The Amos Alonzo Stagg Award is awarded annually to the "individual, group, or institution whose services have been outstanding in the advancement of the best interests of football." The winner of the Big Ten Football Championship Game, started in 2011, receives the Stagg Championship Trophy, named in his honor. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=332836 | 821,177 |
660,756 | Alpha-thalassemia (α-thalassemia) is defined by a lack of α-globin chain production in hemoglobin, and those who carry a mutation impacting the α-globin chain on only one chromosome are considered to have a “silent” α-thalassemia whereas, if the mutation is on both then it is considered an α-thalassemia trait. α-thalassemia is mostly found in sub-tropical and tropical areas, where individuals who carry the gene is 80-90% of the population. Like other hemoglobin related disorders (sickle cell and β-thalassemia), it is hypothesized that α-thalassemia is selected for within populations due to carriers being better protected against malaria falciparum. Most carriers of α-thalassemia are asymptomatic and are diagnosed if it is found after routine hematological analyses or before birth screenings. Single α-globin gene carriers usually have no profound fatigue or anemia because they have a compensating increase in the number of microcytic red blood cells. In contrast, mild α-thalassemia carriers could have symptoms of anemia due to other factors not related specifically to the disorder: poor diet, drop in hemoglobin levels due to blood loss, or other diseases. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1701330 | 660,411 |
1,913,982 | The main reason for having stationary batteries in one place away from the locomotive was so the batteries would not be damaged, which usually happened when the batteries were mounted in the moving vehicle. This toy electric train was sold as a scientific apparatus. The electric power was furnished by two Grove battery cells that were wired directly to the rails. The electric power to run the engine was picked up off the tracks through the steel wheels, with one track having the positive charge and the other track having the negative charge. In 1860 he exhibited on a circular track in Quincy Hall in Boston an advanced version of this model train called the "Volta" that was constructed like a steam locomotive. This time the direct current electric power was furnished from a dynamo generator instead of batteries and that machinery after the exhibition went to the physical laboratory at Harvard College. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=70581630 | 1,912,883 |
1,843,232 | The U.S. women's team established a new world record to defend their Olympic title in the event for the third consecutive streak. Leading the race from the start, Barbara Bedford (1:01.39), Megan Quann (1:06.29), Jenny Thompson (57.25), and Dara Torres (53.37) put together in a sterling time of 3:58.30 to clear the four-minute barrier and to smash China's six-year-old world record by 3.37 seconds. Capturing another relay title for the Americans, Thompson also picked up her eighth gold medal and tenth career as the nation's most successful female athlete in Olympic history. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12553636 | 1,842,179 |
44,719 | Sarcoidosis is a systemic inflammatory disease that can affect any organ, although it can be asymptomatic and is discovered by accident in about 5% of cases. Common symptoms, which tend to be vague, include fatigue (unrelieved by sleep; occurs in up to 85% of cases ), lack of energy, weight loss, joint aches and pains (which occur in about 70% of cases), arthritis (14–38% of cases), dry eyes, swelling of the knees, blurry vision, shortness of breath, a dry, hacking cough, or skin lesions. Less commonly, people may cough up blood. Sarcoidosis is also accompanied by psychological distress and symptoms of anxiety and depression, which are also associated with fatigue. The cutaneous symptoms vary, and range from rashes and noduli (small bumps) to erythema nodosum, granuloma annulare, or lupus pernio. Sarcoidosis and cancer may mimic one another, making the distinction difficult. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=287299 | 44,702 |
1,026,042 | If we rescale the formula_35th fundamental unit by a factor of formula_42, then formula_43 gets rescaled by formula_44, where formula_45 is the formula_32th entry of the dimensional matrix. In order to convert this into a linear algebra problem, we take logarithms (the base is irrelevant), yielding formula_47 which is an action of formula_48 on formula_49. We define a physical law to be an arbitrary function formula_50 such that formula_51 is a permissible set of values for the physical system when formula_52. We further require formula_53 to be invariant under this action. Hence it descends to a function formula_54. All that remains is to exhibit an isomorphism between formula_55 and formula_56, the (log) space of pi groups formula_57. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=51399 | 1,025,508 |
1,940,685 | There have been 21 astronomy professors in all; Steven Balbus, the professor , was appointed in 2012. Past professors include Christopher Wren (1661–73), architect of St Paul's Cathedral in London and the Sheldonian Theatre in Oxford; he held the professorship at the time of his commission to rebuild the cathedral after it was destroyed by the Great Fire of London in 1666. Three professors have been awarded the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society: Charles Pritchard (1870–93), Harry Plaskett (1932–60) and Joseph Silk (1999–2012). The two Savilian chairs have been linked with professorial fellowships at New College, Oxford, since the late 19th century. In the past, some of the professors were provided with an official residence, either near New College or at the Radcliffe Observatory, although this practice ended in the 19th century. The astronomy professor is a member of the Sub-Department of Astrophysics at Oxford. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3358868 | 1,939,574 |
109,276 | James Wall of "The Christian Century" describes the film's concentration on the father-son relationship as "at times painful to watch. There are no winners or losers when sons go their separate ways. "October Sky" does not illustrate good parenting; rather, it evokes the realization that since parents have only a limited vision of how to shape their children's future, the job requires a huge amount of love and a lot of divine assistance." However, some reviews, such as one from "Entertainment Weekly" and "TV Guide", claim that the movie's highlight was the acting of Jake Gyllenhaal and Chris Cooper. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1110047 | 109,231 |
925,805 | In 1980, Waterman joined Peters, and, along with Waterman's friend Tony Athos and Richard Pascale - both academics - came together at a two-day retreat in San Francisco to develop what would become known as the 7S Framework, the same framework that would organize "In Search of Excellence". In June 1980, Peters published an op-ed in the "Manager's Journal" section of the "Wall Street Journal" titled "The Planning Fetish." In this article, he "stressed the importance of execution and dismissed the whole idea of strategy." As strategy was McKinsey's main operation at the time, this was seen as a "frontal assault" on the company, leading Mike Bulkin, the head of the New York office, to demand that Daniel fire Peters. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=28247870 | 925,319 |
1,969,429 | Ethical practices in language documentation have been the focus of much recent discussion and debate. The Linguistic Society of America has prepared an Ethics Statement, and maintains an Ethics Discussion Blog which is primarily focused on ethics in the language documentation context. The morality of ethics protocols has itself been brought into question by George van Driem. Most postgraduate programs that involve some form of language documentation and description require researchers to submit their proposed protocols to an internal Institutional Review Board which ensures that research is being conducted ethically. Minimally, participants should be informed of the process and the intended use of the recordings, and give recorded audible or written permission for the audiovisual materials to be used for linguistic investigation by the researcher(s). Many participants will want to be named as consultants, but others will not - this will determine whether the data needs to be anonymized or restricted from public access. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50701110 | 1,968,295 |
257,343 | The degree of hyperglycemia can change over time depending on the metabolic cause, for example, impaired glucose tolerance or fasting glucose, and it can depend on treatment. Temporary hyperglycemia is often benign and asymptomatic. Blood glucose levels can rise well above normal and cause pathological and functional changes for significant periods without producing any permanent effects or symptoms. During this asymptomatic period, an abnormality in carbohydrate metabolism can occur, which can be tested by measuring plasma glucose. Chronic hyperglycemia at above normal levels can produce a very wide variety of serious complications over a period of years, including kidney damage, neurological damage, cardiovascular damage, damage to the retina or damage to feet and legs. Diabetic neuropathy may be a result of long-term hyperglycemia. Impairment of growth and susceptibility to certain infections can occur as a result of chronic hyperglycemia. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=78226 | 257,209 |
671,301 | On 19 May 2001, India's Union Minister for Human Resource Development, Science and Technology division, Murli Manohar Joshi, announced that the ruins of an ancient civilization had been discovered off the coast of Gujarat, in the Gulf of Khambhat. The site was discovered by NIOT while they performed routine pollution studies using sonar, and was described as an area of regularly spaced geometric structures. It is located from the Gujarat coast, spans , and can be found at a depth of . In his announcement, Joshi represented the site as an urban settlement that pre-dates the Indus Valley civilization. Further descriptions of the site by Joshi describe it as containing regularly spaced dwellings, a granary, a bath, a citadel, and a drainage system. However it was later on 22 May, reported that the discovery has not been dated and the discovery (for example, great baths) resembles the Harappan civilization dating 4,000 years ago. Furthermore, the Indus civilization port Lothal is located at the head, Gulf of Khambhat. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=26563 | 670,949 |
928,017 | Vacant urban lots are often victims to illegal dumping of hazardous chemicals and other wastes. They are also liable to accumulate standing water and "grey water", which can be dangerous to public health, especially left stagnant for long periods. The implementation of urban agriculture in these vacant lots can be a cost-effective method for removing these chemicals. In the process known as Phytoremediation, plants and the associated microorganisms are selected for their chemical ability to degrade, absorb, convert to an inert form, and remove toxins from the soil. Several chemicals can be targeted for removal, including heavy metals (e.g. Mercury and lead), inorganic compounds (e.g. Arsenic and Uranium), and organic compounds (e.g. petroleum and chlorinated compounds like PBCs). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=450257 | 927,529 |
1,045,154 | Civil air transportation contributes $1.8 trillion to the U.S. economy, supports nearly 11 million jobs, and makes up more than 5 percent of the U.S. gross domestic product. NextGen is delivering benefits to continue to support U.S. aviation. Air traffic controllers have better information to track and separate aircraft safely and efficiently. Pilots have more aeronautical, traffic, and weather information inside the cockpit. Airlines fly shorter, more direct routes to get passengers to their destinations more quickly while burning less fuel and producing fewer emissions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12942905 | 1,044,609 |
564,888 | Experimental investigations have shown, that "L. minor" is able to completely replace the add-on of soy bean in the diet of ducks. It can be cultivated directly on the farm resulting in low production costs. Therefore, using common duckweed as a food supplement in broiler diets is very profitable also from an economic point of view. An investigation showed, that the expensive sesame oil cakes in chicken diets could partially be replaced by cheap "L. minor" with increased growth performance of broiler. Nevertheless, because of a lower content of digestible proteins in "L. minor" (68.9% compared to 89.9% in sesame oil cake), common duckweed could only be used as a food supplement in broiler diets. Also when feeding lying hen partially with dried "L. mino"r (up to 150 g/kg fodder), hen showed the same performance like when being fed with fish meal and rice polish, while the yolk colour was positively affected by the duckweed diet. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13151201 | 564,598 |
144,117 | An accelerated climate simulation chamber was built that applied varying weather conditions to insulation to test its efficacy and durability faster than real time. Materials research into heat resistant ceramics for use in truck and high-tech car engines was performed, building upon the materials research that began in the nuclear reactors of the 1950s. In 1987 the High Temperature Materials Laboratory was established, where ORNL and industry researchers cooperated on ceramic and alloy projects. The materials research budget at ORNL doubled after initial uncertainty regarding Reagan's economic policy of less government expenditure. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38147 | 144,059 |
740,671 | After bearing three children, Émilie, Marquise du Châtelet, considered her marital responsibilities fulfilled and reached an agreement with her husband to live separate lives while still maintaining one household. In 1733, aged 26, Du Châtelet resumed her mathematical studies. Initially, she was tutored in algebra and calculus by Moreau de Maupertuis, a member of the Academy of Sciences; although mathematics was not his forte, he had received a solid education from Johann Bernoulli, who also taught Leonhard Euler. However by 1735 Du Châtelet had turned for her mathematical training to Alexis Clairaut, a mathematical prodigy known best for Clairaut's equation and Clairaut's theorem. Du Châtelet resourcefully sought some of France's best tutors and scholars to mentor her in mathematics. On one occasion at the Café Gradot, a place where men frequently gathered for intellectual discussion, she was politely ejected when she attempted to join one of her teachers. Undeterred, she returned and entered after having men's clothing made for herself. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1002045 | 740,279 |
284,905 | Based upon a review of other classical network models as a comparison, the Ising model on a closed Cayley tree was determined to be the first classical statistical mechanical model to demonstrate both local and long-range sites with non-vanishing spin-spin correlations, while at the same time exhibiting intermediate sites with zero correlation, which indeed was a relevant matter for large neural networks at the time of its consideration. The model’s behavior is also of relevance for any other divergent-convergent tree physical (or biological) system exhibiting a closed Cayley tree topology with an Ising-type of interaction. This topology should not be ignored since its behavior for Ising models has been solved exactly, and presumably nature will have found a way of taking advantage of such simple symmetries at many levels of its designs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=292744 | 284,751 |
1,400,297 | After World War II, the various U.S. military branches sent different models of their operational aircraft to the Ames Aeronautical Laboratory located at the Moffett Federal Airfield in Mountain View, California for evaluation of the planes' flight performance and flying qualities. The laboratory was operated by NACA, the predecessor of NASA. Most of the flights were conducted by George Cooper, Bob Innis, and Fred Drinkwater and took place at the remote test site at the Crows Landing Naval Auxiliary Landing Field in the central valley area east of Moffett Field. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6193204 | 1,399,510 |
458,801 | In 1859, Smith published an article using scientific findings and analysis to refute the former president Thomas Jefferson's theories of race, as expressed in his well-known "Notes on the State of Virginia" (1785). Dr. Vanessa Northington Gamble, a medical physician and historian at George Washington University, in 2010 noted, "As early as 1859, Dr. McCune Smith said that race was not biological but was a social category." He commented on the positive ways that ethnic Africans would influence U.S. culture and society, in music, dance, food, and other elements. His collected essays, speeches, and letters have been published as "The Works of James McCune Smith: Black Intellectual and Abolitionist" (2006), edited by John Stauffer. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=368042 | 458,577 |
1,038,641 | The old Milwaukee classification of biliary sphincter of Oddi dysfunction (SOD) used to divide the condition into three subtypes: but it is no longer in use. Type I included patients with biliary-type abdominal pain, with all of altered liver enzymes on blood testing, dilated biliary ducts on ultrasound or ERCP, and delayed bile clearance on HIDA scan. Type II included patients with biliary-type abdominal pain associated with at least one of the following: altered liver enzymes on blood testing, dilated biliary ducts on imaging tests, and delayed bile clearance on HIDA scan. Biliary-type pain in the absence of any sign of biliary or pancreatic alteration was the so-called Type III biliary SOD. The hypothesis that this pain could be linked to SOD has been studied in a large trial published in JAMA (2014) where patients were randomized to sphincterotomy or sham surgery. Contrary to expectations, patients who were not subjected to sphincterotomy fared better. Overall, the investigators found that only 23% of the patients who underwent sphincterotomy improved versus 37% of the control group. The EPISOD trial has substantiated the ineffectiveness of endoscopic sphincterotomy in patients with these symptoms and SOD Type III is no longer considered to be a clinical entity. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=24777432 | 1,038,100 |
385,318 | In recent years a focus of research has been the development of wireless-powered drone aircraft, which began in 1959 with the Dept. of Defense's RAMP (Raytheon Airborne Microwave Platform) project which sponsored Brown's research. In 1987 Canada's Communications Research Center developed a small prototype airplane called Stationary High Altitude Relay Platform (SHARP) to relay telecommunication data between points on earth similar to a communications satellite. Powered by a rectenna, it could fly at 13 miles (21 km) altitude and stay aloft for months. In 1992 a team at Kyoto University built a more advanced craft called MILAX (MIcrowave Lifted Airplane eXperiment). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=570662 | 385,123 |
1,727,548 | In July and August 2021 at the 2020 Summer Olympics held in Tokyo, Japan and postponed to 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Chupkov placed fourth in the 200 metre breaststroke final with a time of 2:07.24, fourth in the 4×100 metre medley relay swimming the breaststroke leg of the relay in 59.55 in the prelims heats, and 16th in the 100 metre breaststroke with a 59.93 in the semifinals. Along with all other Russian competitors at the Games in all sports, he was required to compete under the name Russian Olympic Committee with outfits and a song chosen by the International Olympic Committee in place of their country name, outfits, flag and anthem, all as part of a Court of Arbitration for Sport ban against such items for Russians at World Championships between 17 December 2020 and 16 December 2022. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=47103778 | 1,726,574 |
988,788 | Mathematically, linear least squares is the problem of approximately solving an overdetermined system of linear equations A x = b, where b is not an element of the column space of the matrix A. The approximate solution is realized as an exact solution to A x = b', where b' is the projection of b onto the column space of A. The best approximation is then that which minimizes the sum of squared differences between the data values and their corresponding modeled values. The approach is called "linear" least squares since the assumed function is linear in the parameters to be estimated. Linear least squares problems are convex and have a closed-form solution that is unique, provided that the number of data points used for fitting equals or exceeds the number of unknown parameters, except in special degenerate situations. In contrast, non-linear least squares problems generally must be solved by an iterative procedure, and the problems can be non-convex with multiple optima for the objective function. If prior distributions are available, then even an underdetermined system can be solved using the Bayesian MMSE estimator. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27118759 | 988,272 |
2,159,970 | Genetic linkage is the phenomenon where by alleles at different loci cosegregate in families. The strength of cosegregation is measured by the recombination fraction θ, the probability of an odd number of recombination. More complex pedigree provide higher power. Identity by descent (IBD) matrix estimation is a central component in mapping of Quantitative Trait Loci (QTL) using variance component models. Alleles have identity by type (IBT) when they have the same phenotypic effect. Alleles that are identical by type fall into two groups; those that are identical by descent (IBD) because they arose from the same allele in an earlier generation; and those that are non-identical by descent (NIBD) or identical by state (IBS) because they arose from separate mutations. Parent-offspring pairs share 50% of their genes IBD, and monozygotic twins share 100% IBD. What is relevant in linkage analysis is the inheritance (or coinheritance) of alleles at adjacent loci; therefore; it is critical importance to determine whether the alleles are identical by descent (i.e. copies from same parental alleles) or only identical by state (i.e. appearing same, but derived from two different copies of alleles). Therefore, there three categories of family-based linkage analysis – strongly modeled (the traditional lod score model), weakly model based (variance components methods), or model free. Variance component methods may be viewed as hybrids. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=34132734 | 2,158,738 |
944,737 | A further development was the Landing Ship, Tank designation, built to support amphibious operations by carrying significant quantities of vehicles, cargo, and landing troops directly onto an unimproved shore. The British evacuation from Dunkirk in 1940 demonstrated to the Admiralty that the Allies needed relatively large, ocean-going ships capable of shore-to-shore delivery of tanks and other vehicles in amphibious assaults upon the continent of Europe. The first purpose-built LST design was . To carry 13 Churchill infantry tanks, 27 vehicles and nearly 200 men (in addition to the crew) at a speed of 18 knots, it could not have the shallow draught that would have made for easy unloading. As a result, each of the three ("Boxer", "Bruiser", and "Thruster") ordered in March 1941 had a very long ramp stowed behind the bow doors. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19278672 | 944,235 |
1,621,516 | Permo-Carboniferous time, about 300 million years ago, was a period of significant glaciation. The widespread distribution of Permo-Carboniferous glacial sediments in South America, Africa, Madagascar, Arabia, India, Antarctica and Australia was one of the major pieces of evidence for the theory of continental drift, and led ultimately to the concept of a super-continent, Pangaea. Glacial activity spanned virtually the whole of Carboniferous and Early Permian time. Toward the end of the Carboniferous, around 290 million years ago, Gondwana, the southern part of Pangaea, was located near the south pole. Glacial centres expanded across the continents, producing glacial tillites and striations in pre-existing rocks. A complex centre of glaciation migrated across South America, Antarctica and South Africa between about 350 and 240 Ma. Chronological difficulties complicate the task of charting the evolution of the ice sheet over this interval. The Permo-Carboniferous ice sheet was so extensive that it would occupy a circle spanning 50 degrees of latitude centered on the pole. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1588123 | 1,620,601 |
831,630 | Because of those classificatory interdependences, the three trichotomies intersect to form ten (rather than 27) classes of signs. There are also various kinds of meaningful combination. Signs can be attached to one another. A photograph is an index with a meaningfully attached icon. Arguments are composed of dicisigns, and dicisigns are composed of rhemes. In order to be embodied, legisigns (types) need sinsigns (tokens) as their individual replicas or instances. A symbol depends as a sign on how it "will" be interpreted, regardless of resemblance or factual connection to its object; but the symbol's individual embodiment is an index to your experience of the object. A symbol is instanced by a specialized indexical sinsign. A symbol such as a sentence in a language prescribes qualities of appearance for its instances, and is itself a replica of a symbol such as a proposition apart from expression in a particular language. Peirce covered both semantic and syntactical issues in his theoretical grammar, as he sometimes called it. He regarded formal semiotic, as logic, as furthermore encompassing study of arguments (hypothetical, deductive, and inductive) and inquiry's methods including pragmatism; and as allied to but distinct from logic's pure mathematics. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=562907 | 831,181 |
1,717,053 | Although intertidal ecology has traditionally focused on these negative interactions (predation and competition), there is emerging evidence that positive interactions are also important. "Facilitation" refers to one organism helping another without harming itself. For example, salt marsh plant species of "Juncus" and "Iva" are unable to tolerate the high soil salinities when evaporation rates are high, thus they depend on neighboring plants to shade the sediment, slow evaporation, and help maintain tolerable salinity levels. In similar examples, many intertidal organisms provide physical structures that are used as refuges by other organisms. Mussels, although they are tough competitors with certain species, are also good facilitators as mussel beds provide a three-dimensional habitat to species of snails, worms, and crustaceans. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4334096 | 1,716,084 |
1,002,108 | The influence of the Jagiellonian dynasty in Central Europe had been on the rise. In 1471 Casimir's son Władysław became a king of Bohemia, and in 1490 also of Hungary. The southern and eastern outskirts of Poland and Lithuania became threatened by Turkish invasions beginning in the late 15th century. Moldavia's involvement with Poland goes back to 1387, when Petru I, Hospodar of Moldavia, seeking protection against the Hungarians, paid Jagiełło homage in Lviv, which gave Poland access to the Black Sea ports. In 1485 King Casimir undertook an expedition into Moldavia, after its seaports were overtaken by the Ottoman Turks. The Turkish controlled Crimean Tatars raided the eastern territories in 1482 and 1487, until they were confronted by King Jan Olbracht (John Albert), Casimir's son and successor. Poland was attacked in 1487–1491 by remnants of the Golden Horde. They had invaded into Poland as far as Lublin before being beaten at Zaslavl. King John Albert in 1497 made an attempt to resolve the Turkish problem militarily, but his efforts were unsuccessful as he was unable to secure effective participation in the war by his brothers, King Ladislaus II of Bohemia and Hungary and Alexander, the Grand Duke of Lithuania, and because of the resistance on the part of Stephen the Great, the ruler of Moldavia. More Ottoman Empire-instigated destructive Tatar raids took place in 1498, 1499 and 1500. John Albert's diplomatic peace efforts that followed were finalized after the king's death in 1503, resulting in a territorial compromise and an unstable truce. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=34960337 | 1,001,590 |
1,070,836 | The start point is a single steel tube of internal diameter slightly less than the desired calibre. The tube is subjected to internal pressure of sufficient magnitude to enlarge the bore and in the process the inner layers of the metal are stretched in tension beyond their elastic limit. This means that the inner layers have been stretched to a point where the steel is no longer able to return to its original shape once the internal pressure has been removed. Although the outer layers of the tube are also stretched, the degree of internal pressure applied during the process is such that they are not stretched beyond their elastic limit. The reason why this is possible is that the stress distribution through the walls of the tube is non-uniform. Its maximum value occurs in the metal adjacent to the source of pressure, decreasing markedly towards the outer layers of the tube. The strain is proportional to the stress applied within the elastic limit; therefore the expansion at the outer layers is less than at the bore. Because the outer layers remain elastic they attempt to return to their original shape; however, they are prevented from doing so completely by the new permanently stretched inner layers. The effect is that the inner layers of the metal are put under compression by the outer layers in much the same way as though an outer layer of metal had been shrunk on as with a built-up gun. This can be better understood by assuming thick walled tube as multilayer tube. The next step is to subject the compressively strained inner layers to a low-temperature treatment (LTT) which results in the elastic limit being raised to at least the autofrettage pressure employed in the first stage of the process. Finally, the elasticity of the barrel can be tested by applying internal pressure once more, but this time care is taken to ensure that the inner layers are not stretched beyond their new elastic limit. The end result is an inner surface of the gun barrel with a residual compressive stress able to counterbalance the tensile stress that would be induced when the gun is discharged. In addition the material has a higher tensile strength due to work hardening. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=972005 | 1,070,282 |
797,474 | Another deposition technique is vacuum thermal evaporation (VTE) which involves the heating of an organic material in vacuum. The substrate is placed several centimeters away from the source so that evaporated material may be directly deposited onto the substrate, as shown in Fig. 9(a). This method is useful for depositing many layers of different materials without chemical interaction between different layers. However, there are sometimes problems with film-thickness uniformity and uniform doping over large-area substrates. In addition, the materials that deposit on the wall of the chamber can contaminate later depositions. This "line of sight" technique also can create holes in the film due to shadowing, which causes an increase in the device series-resistance and short circuit. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18397250 | 797,049 |
354,720 | Electrodesiccation and curettage (EDC, also known as curettage and cautery, simply curettage) is accomplished by using a round knife, or curette, to scrape away the soft cancer. The skin is then burned with an electric current. This further softens the skin, allowing for the knife to cut more deeply with the next layer of curettage. The cycle is repeated, with a safety margin of curettage of normal skin around the visible tumor. This cycle is repeated 3 to 5 times, and the free skin margin treated is usually 4 to 6 mm. Cure rate is very much user-dependent and depends also on the size and type of tumor. Infiltrative or morpheaform BCCs can be difficult to eradicate with EDC. Generally, this method is used on cosmetically unimportant areas like the trunk (torso). Some physicians believe that it is acceptable to utilize EDC on the face of elderly patients over the age of 70. However, with increasing life expectancy, such an objective criterion cannot be supported. The cure rate can vary, depending on the aggressiveness of the EDC and the free margin treated. Some advocate curettage alone without electrodesiccation, and with the same cure rate. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=696132 | 354,537 |
848,903 | Electric cars and plug-in hybrids when operating in all-electric mode at low speeds produce less roadway noise as compared to vehicles propelled by an internal combustion engine, thereby reducing harmful noise health effects. However, blind people or the visually impaired consider the noise of combustion engines a helpful aid while crossing streets, hence plug-in electric cars and conventional hybrids could pose an unexpected hazard when operating at low speeds. Several tests conducted in the U.S. have shown that this is a valid concern, as vehicles operating in electric mode can be particularly hard to hear below for all types of road users and not only the visually impaired. At higher speeds the sound created by tire friction and the air displaced by the vehicle start to make sufficient audible noise. Therefore, in the 2010s laws were passed in many countries mandating warning sounds at low speeds. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23840623 | 848,453 |
1,366,777 | In the United Kingdom, following animal experiments and the recommendations of a government commissioned expert committee, the Human Fertilisation and Embryology (Research Purposes) Regulations were passed in 2001 regulating and allowing research into human embryos. In 2004, Newcastle University applied for a license to develop pronuclear transfer to avoid the transmission of mitochondrial diseases, and was granted the license in 2005. Following further research by Newcastle and the Wellcome Trust, scientific review, public consultations, and debate, the UK government recommended that mitochondrial donation be legalized in 2013. In 2015 parliament passed the Human Fertilisation and Embryology (Mitochondrial Donation) Regulations, which came into force on 29 October 2015, making human mitochondrial donation legal in the UK. The Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority (HFEA) was authorized to license and regulate medical centers which wanted to use human mitochondrial donation. In February 2016, the US National Academy of Sciences issued a report describing technologies then current and the surrounding ethical issues. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25416659 | 1,366,021 |
195,270 | Brazing has many advantages over other metal-joining techniques, such as welding. Since brazing does not melt the base metal of the joint, it allows much tighter control over tolerances and produces a clean joint without the need for secondary finishing. Additionally, dissimilar metals and non-metals (i.e. metalized ceramics) can be brazed. In general, brazing also produces less thermal distortion than welding due to the uniform heating of a brazed piece. Complex and multi-part assemblies can be brazed cost-effectively. Welded joints must sometimes be ground flush, a costly secondary operation that brazing does not require because it produces a clean joint. Another advantage is that the brazing can be coated or clad for protective purposes. Finally, brazing is easily adapted to mass production and it is easy to automate because the individual process parameters are less sensitive to variation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=331936 | 195,170 |
54,136 | Now the question remained open as to which formulation applies to bodies at rest. This was tackled by Einstein in his paper "Does the inertia of a body depend upon its energy content?", one of his Annus Mirabilis papers. Here, Einstein used to represent the speed of light in a vacuum and to represent the energy lost by a body in the form of radiation. Consequently, the equation was not originally written as a formula but as a sentence in German saying that "if a body gives off the energy in the form of radiation, its mass diminishes by ." A remark placed above it informed that the equation was approximated by neglecting "magnitudes of fourth and higher orders" of a series expansion. Einstein used a body emitting two light pulses in opposite directions, having energies of before and after the emission as seen in its rest frame. As seen from a moving frame, this becomes and . Einstein obtained, in modern notation: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=422481 | 54,116 |
823,748 | The opening was first analysed in depth in the 19th century, and received its name from the Berliners that examined its variations. Due to the defensive and drawish nature of the opening, it is sometimes referred to as the Berlin Wall. The opening was rarely used in high-level games and received little attention until the Classical World Chess Championship 2000, in which challenger Vladimir Kramnik used it as a drawing weapon against champion Garry Kasparov. Kramnik used the Berlin in games 1, 3, 9 and 13 in the match (each time as Black), all four of which were drawn. After losing the match, Kasparov cited Kramnik's superior opening preparation as a reason for his loss. In an interview with John Henderson, Kramnik described his use of the Berlin:The Berlin Defence suited my strategy for the match. I had a defensive strategy – Actually, I had in my pocket some other sharper stuff to fall back on – but first I wanted to try the defensive strategy with Black and it worked so well. This was all new to Kasparov – he probably expected me to fight for equality with Black.The 2000 match caused a resurgence of interest in the Berlin Defence at all levels of the game, such as its use by Magnus Carlsen and Viswanathan Anand in games 4, 6, 7 and 8 of the World Chess Championship 2013. It is now regarded as a opening for Black to use in order to achieve an endgame. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=60613150 | 823,305 |
765,976 | In some biological systems, self-healing occurs via chemical releases at the site of fracture, which initiate a systemic response to transport repairing agents to the fracture site. This promotes autonomic healing. To demonstrate the use of micro-vascular networks for autonomic healing, researchers developed a microvascular coating–substrate architecture that mimics human skin. Bio-inspired self-healing structural color hydrogels that maintain the stability of an inverse opal structure and its resultant structural colors were developed. A self-repairing membrane inspired by rapid self-sealing processes in plants was developed for inflatable lightweight structures such as rubber boats or Tensairity constructions. The researchers applied a thin soft cellular polyurethane foam coating on the inside of a fabric substrate, which closes the crack if the membrane is punctured with a spike. Self-healing materials, polymers and composite materials capable of mending cracks have been produced based on biological materials. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=45784 | 765,566 |
1,141,543 | Some planar types, notably microstrip, do not have a homogeneous dielectric; it is different above and below the line. Such geometries cannot support a true TEM mode; there is some component of the electromagnetic field parallel to the direction of the line, although the transmission can be "nearly" TEM. Such a mode is referred to as quasi-TEM. In a TEM line, discontinuities such as gaps and posts (used to construct filters and other devices) have an impedance that is purely reactive: they can store energy, but do not dissipate it. In most quasi-TEM lines, these structures additionally have a resistive component to the impedance. This resistance is a result of radiation from the structure and causes the circuit to be lossy. The same problem occurs at bends and corners of the line. These problems can be mitigated by using a high permittivity material as the substrate, which causes a higher proportion of the wave to be contained in the dielectric, making for a more homogeneous transmission medium and a mode closer to TEM. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39288501 | 1,140,949 |
1,110,832 | It was not before the early 1970s that the proteinaceous nature of the pyrenoid was elucidated, when pyrenoids were successfully isolated from a green alga, and showed that up to 90% of it was composed of biochemically active RuBisCO. In the following decade, more and more evidence emerged that algae were capable of accumulating intracellular pools of DIC, and converting these to CO, in concentrations far exceeding that of the surrounding medium. Badger and Price first suggested the function of the pyrenoid to be analogous to that of the carboxysome in cyanobacteria, in being associated with CCM activity. CCM activity in algal and cyanobacterial photobionts of lichen associations was also identified using gas exchange and carbon isotope isotopes and associated with the pyrenoid by Palmqvist and Badger et al. The Hornwort CCM was later characterized by Smith and Griffiths. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=419483 | 1,110,266 |
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