query stringlengths 2 47.3k | document stringlengths 1 679k | dataset stringclasses 25 values | shard int64 0 666 |
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A simplified fault currents analysis method considering transient of synchronous machine | The transient fault currents of a synchronous machine fault were mathematically analyzed by using the two-reaction theory, Clarke's components, etc. However, the methods were extremely complicated and the transient fault analysis of synchronous machine with a load was not carried out except for three-phase faults. This paper proposes a simplified fault currents analysis method considering synchronous machine transients. The method is based on the symmetrical components scheme. The advantages of the method are that the transient analysis is able to be accomplished more easily than the conventional method when the fault point is a synchronous machine terminal or a transmission line. The accuracy of the method is confirmed by comparing the analysis results with Electro-Magnetic Transient Program (EMTP) digital simulations. | s2orc_title_abstract | 65 |
Need help (pc music software for Casio CTK-4200) | Hi there!
I'm looking to write and edit some music with my pc and my Casio keyboard CTK-4200, but I don't know which music program to use.
I already connected the keyboard via USB cable, but there are so many music softwares I don't even know where to start looking.
It's a secondary hobby, so I'd prefer a free or really cheap program.
First time redditor, so thank you so much for your time, patience and knowledge :D | reddit_title_body | 230 |
Applying of Concrete-cored DCM Pile in Thick Soft Soil Foundation at Northeast Segment of Circle Express Way,Nanjing | As a new reinforcing method of soft soil in express way,Concrete-cored DCM(Deep Cement Mixing) pile has preferable economic and social benefit for its bearing capacity outclass DCM pile with the same diameter,and its cost is lower than corresponding concrete pile.It avoids slop pollution and has extensive applying foreground.This paper introduced the structure,effect mechanism,quality control,test mesures of Concrete-cored DCM pile connected with RY-DB3 bid of the Northeast segment of circle express way,Nanjing. | s2orc_title_abstract | 255 |
Terrific Vegetarian Tale | Herb the Vegetarian Dragon by Jules Bass and Debbie Harter A perfect book for any youngster and one of the scarce delightful resources for vegetarian families to enjoy reading to their children. The story is the carnivorous dragons are a menace to a town where the people fear the dragons will get their princess. The lonely and friendly vegetarian dragon, Herb, saves the day by convincing the meat-eaters not to raid the town anymore menacing the people but to plant a garden instead. The illustrations are adorable. You'll enjoy this one with its far-reaching implications for the future of our planet earth. | amazon_reviews | 359 |
[Gas] Igniter Is working and gas ignites but only on for 8 seconds | I have a Thermal Zone Model GM072K12A-S Serial number GM0991153535
When I turn on the heat the fan comes on, then the igniter glows for several seconds, the gas comes on and is ignited but stays on for less than 10 seconds. It will then shut down and repeat the process. Sometimes the fan shuts down completely and I get no heat at all.
Any help is appreciated as I'm currently quarantining after being exposed to Covid-19. (No symptoms) | reddit_title_body | 633 |
where did they bury the hatchet in 1761 | the phrase "bury the hatchet". Article 13 reads, in part, "The hatchet shall be forever buried, and the peace given by the United States, and friendship re-established between the said states on the one part, and all the Cherokees on the other, shall be universal; and the contracting parties shall use their utmost endeavors to maintain the peace given as aforesaid, and friendship re-established." The Burying the Hatchet ceremony happened in Nova Scotia on June 25, 1761. It ended more than seventy-five years of war between the British and the Mi'kmaq. Exactly 50 years after the Battle of Little Bighorn, | paq | 482 |
You can play music in the Bar/Club! | Ok, so Day 1 guardian here, and I was completely oblivious to the fact that you could play music in the bar located at the tower!
There must be others who haven't had the chance to jive to this futuristic music that gets all the guardians frisky.... right?!
Go up to the side wall in the bar, where the technician lady (who obviously doesn't know how to use technology) is fiddling a display in front of a large circular screen. Press square (on ps4) to play some music! There's a few different styles, so enjoy your dance party! | reddit_title_body | 144 |
what is the title of the tv series based on the novels by phryne fisher | Phryne Fisher "Murder on the Ballarat Train" as being a "private man with a doting family, who grew grevilleas and rare native orchids in his yard." Woman Police Constable Jones works for Detective Inspector Jack Robinson and is one of the few women in the police force. She frequently acts as a bait and decoy in investigations and has won a medal for Gallantry for baiting and capturing a suspect in a string of rapes. "Miss Fisher's Murder Mysteries" is a television costume drama series based on the novels, starring Essie Davis in the title role. The Australian Broadcasting Corporation and Every | paq | 191 |
Husband died and I need to get rid of this profile history | My husband passed away and his profile was the main profile. It makes me so sad everytime I go into it. I just want to erase the history, all of the history. They won't let you delete the main account profile or assign another one (as far as I can tell) then delete it. We've been with netflix from the beginning and it would take days to delete everything one at a time. It's heart breaking and I'd really like to erase it. Does anybody know how I could get this off my account? | reddit_title_body | 239 |
How do I convince someone to start one piece! | ALRIGHT GUYS, I need ur best pitch for someone to start one piece, my friend is super hesitant and as much as I try to convey the beautiful series that is One Piece it’s too hard to describe something so great into words. Figured I would come to the One Piece reddit for help. | reddit_title_body | 556 |
Is CPUSA filled with FBI informants? | I've been thinking about officially joining CPUSA but I'd rather not have the government watch me or be put on some list that will affect future employment etc.
Do you think that the American government still closely watches the far left? Is a large percentage of CPUSA made up of FBI informants? I know that in the past under Hoover a large percentage of CPUSA was made up of fbi informants. I'm just curious about what everyone thinks | reddit_title_body | 128 |
which nickname was given to lucy ball in the 1940 film ‘i love | I Love Lucy Goldwyn Studio and Columbia Pictures and then eventually at RKO Radio Pictures. It was at RKO that Ball received steady film work, first as an extra and bit player and eventually working her way up to co-starring roles in feature films and starring roles in second rate B pictures, collectively earning her the nickname "Queen of the B's". During her run at RKO, Ball gained the reputation for doing physical comedy and stunts that most other actresses avoided, keeping her steadily employed. In 1940, Lucy met Desi Arnaz, a Cuban bandleader who had just come off a successful run in | paq | 244 |
Arlo Baby disconnects randomly | Been using the Arlo Baby monitor overnight streaming to an iPad, and twice it disconnected.
Both devices are plugged in.
The wife is not pleased.
Anybody have experience with this or how to mitigate it? | reddit_title_body | 293 |
Design of Bi-directional DC-DC converter | A bi-directional DC-DC converter is a dual-quadrant DC-DC converter, which is a typical "dual-use" in one device. The concept and application of bi-directional DC-DC converter are introduced in this paper. Hardware of the system mainly includes the main control circuit, sampling circuit, auxiliary power supply circuit, and the Buck/Boost chopper circuit. Software of the system includes the core control algorithm and the PID (Proportion Integration Differentiation) algorithm. Experimental results are provided to realize the double closed-loop control of battery charging current and load voltage. | s2orc_title_abstract | 62 |
Analysis of a regularized model for the isothermal two-component mixture with the diffuse interface | Abstract A regularized system of equations describing a flow of isothermal two-component mixture with diffuse interface is studied. The equation of energy balance and its corollary, i.e., the law of non-increasing of the total energy are derived under general assumptions on the Helmholtz free energy of the mixture. Necessary and sufficient conditions for linearized stability of constant solutions are obtained (in particular case). A difference approximation of the problem is constructed in the two-dimensional periodic case on a nonuniform rectangular grid. The results of numerical experiments demonstrate a qualitative well-posedness of the problem and the applicability of the criterion of linearized stabilization in the original nonlinear formulation. | s2orc_title_abstract | 205 |
23 [M4F] Just a guy looking for a woman in the sea of dicks | Ha. So you made it in here. Guess I'll tell you what I want then. I'm looking for a woman that's willing to trade some photos back and forth, I'm open for a rp, and maybe if your awesome a special request? About me, I'm 23, scandinavian and quite fit/athletic; I love music, sports, hiking. . Generally an active guy. I'd love if we connected over something other then a dick, but hey I'm flexible ... Up for both short and long term. . Come say hello? Kik is mhmm_21 | reddit_title_body | 111 |
Quality‐oriented teamwork resolves aerospace manufacturer's critical path tooling crisis | Faced with the loss of a supply of essential aircraft parts, an aerospace manufacturer took rapid steps to clarify and communicate the problem and organize a cross-functional team of experts to address it. Working within a quality-focused framework, they brainstormed a number of viable options and then systematically reviewed each to identify the one that would meet all production, cost, scheduling, and customer service requirements, while keeping all stakeholders abreast of developments. In the end, they redesigned critical processes so that the parts supply operation could be transferred to a local site at modest cost, thus ensuring uninterrupted production and the attainment of the company's financial and quality objectives. For its efforts, the team earned an International Team Excellence silver-level award from the American Society for Quality in 2010. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. | s2orc_title_abstract | 31 |
Roscato Rosso Dolce vs Gold? | Has anyone tried the two? Just found the Gold and wondering how they compare | reddit_title_body | 648 |
on which label did thelonious monk work | Thelonious Monk Trio Thelonious Monk Trio is an album by American jazz pianist and composer Thelonious Monk. It was originally released in 1954 as Monk's first proper studio album and has been re-released numerous times, occasionally under the title Monk's Moods and with different track orders. The album features his earliest recordings for the Prestige label performed with bassist Gary Mapp (originally credited as "Gerry Mapp"), either Art Blakey or Max Roach on drums, and one track with Percy Heath replacing Mapp. It also contains the earliest recorded versions of the jazz standards "Blue Monk" and "Bemsha Swing". "Thelonious Monk | paq | 120 |
What units to prioritize when magnetizing? | Hi!
Just took my first step into WH40K and picked up a Start Collecting Craftworlds box.
Read about magnetizing and had already went and magnetized the 5x wraith guards and halfway through the magnetizing of the wraithlord.
However, I found that some weapons (especially the wrist mounted ones) do not look very good with magnets drilled into them.
Do you guys have any units that you would magnetize due to the frequency of changing their loadouts? Or are there any units that will almost always be running a certain loadout?
I'm looking at:
Wraith Guards
Wraithlords
Warwalker
I might be purchasing a couple of wave serpents and dire avengers in the near future.
Thanks for the help! | reddit_title_body | 473 |
[QUESTION] can't hear the sound when hammering on a note while playing a chord | So when I am playing my acoustic guitar and play a song that uses an open chord as well as hammering at the same time I notice that I can barely hear the sound when I am hammering on the note.
Is there a way to make it sound louder or is it because of my guitar | reddit_title_body | 644 |
when was waterford kamhlaba established in swaziland | Waterford Kamhlaba founded by a group of teachers, led by the young British teacher Michael Stern, as a multi-racial school in opposition to South Africa's apartheid policies. Stern had previously been head of a school in Johannesburg, but the educational policies of the apartheid government in South Africa drove him from the country to Swaziland where he was determined to create a new school in which students of all races could study together and cooperate in community service. The school was founded in 1963. Land on a hillside near Mbabane had been obtained through a grant from the King of Swaziland, and | paq | 441 |
What works better to lower the freezing point of water? | Which solution would lower the freezing point of water the? | wikianswers | 94 |
[Mod-Post] House Targaryen and Faith Applications | First, the mod team would like to thank /u/Rammy_Yawn and /u/GochCymru for their times as House Targaryen and The Faith. We wish you two the best in whatever you decide to do next!
We are now accepting applications for House Targaryen of Dragonstone and the Faith!
Applications will remain open for at least 48 hours. As a reminder, placeholder comments and any joke/non-application comments will be removed.
Please answer the following questions in your application:
* What inspires/interests you about this claim?
* What qualifies you as a player to lead a kingdom in this game?
* How equipped are you to take a leadership role not only in-character, but also in the community and the specific region, and what will you do to improve the environment there?
* Sample lore of the House is optional | reddit_title_body | 502 |
Question re: "Warcry" - Does it also buff you or just your team mates? | The wording of the "Warcry" ability isn't entirely clear to me, so I ask. Does it buff you and your team mates, or just your team mates? | reddit_title_body | 302 |
[Manga] The Promised Neverland Chapter 149 Fan Scans - Links and Discussion | ##Chapter 149
###You can find the chapter at these locations. Please support the official release!
Source | Status
---|---
Jaimini's Box | Online
MangaStream | Online
***
####Please use this thread to discuss the manga. Any other posts regarding this chapter during the next 24 hours will be removed!
####Join us on Discord! | reddit_title_body | 467 |
What process changes mRNA to a protein? | What is the process in which mRNA is decoded to form a protein? | wikianswers | 53 |
Frequency of chronic headaches in Japanese patients with multiple sclerosis : with special reference to opticospinal and common forms of multiple sclerosis | Headache in relapse and remission phases of multiple sclerosis: A case-control study | s2orc_citation_titles | 67 |
Great Read for Scots-Irish Family Historians | I've started researching my own paternal family history, which is Scots-Irish. I picked the book up based on other reviews to get a primer on how both traditional and genetic genealogy helped the author trace his paternal line across the pond. I was prepared for a dry read, but was very glad to find both detailed information that could guide my own research coupled with an engaging, page-turning (often funny) travelogue. The author has a compelling voice that draws you in to the story and gives life to Ireland and his ancestors. It made me thirsty for a pint of Guinness and chats with distant cousins with brogues. I recommend it. | amazon_reviews | 299 |
Semiconductor optical amplifier-based all-optical gates for high-speed optical processing | Semiconductor optical amplifiers are useful building blocks for all-optical gates as wavelength converters and OTDM demultiplexers. The paper reviews the progress from simple gates using cross-gain modulation and four-wave mixing to the integrated interferometric gates using cross-phase modulation. These gates are very efficient for high-speed signal processing and open up interesting new areas, such as all-optical regeneration and high-speed all-optical logic functions. | s2orc_title_abstract | 215 |
Small price to pay for clean air. | works great. quietest on the lowest mode for sleeping. noticeably different air in the rooms where we use it. not cheap to run (filter costs) but small price to pay for healthy air in oft-times air polluted Salt Lake City. | amazon_reviews | 275 |
who ranked harry james the jazz musician of the 1970s | other musicians. James released over 200 singles during his career, with nine songs reaching number one, 32 in the top ten, and 70 in the top 100 on the U.S. pop charts, as well as seven charting on the U.S. R&B chart. As of 2016, two recordings of Harry James had been inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame, a special Grammy award established in 1973 to honor recordings that are at least 25 years old, and that have "qualitative or historical significance." Metronome magazine conducted annual readers' polls ranking the top jazz musician on each instrument. The winners were | paq | 63 |
Reversible Energy Transfer and Fluorescence Decay in Solid Solutions | Abstract The article deals with the influence of reversible excitation energy transfer on the fluorescence decay in systems with random distribution of molecules. On the basis of a hopping model, we have obtained an expression for the Laplace transform of the decay function and an expression for the average decay time. The case of dipole-dipole interaction is discussed in detail. | s2orc_title_abstract | 120 |
good sealing against noise and easy tiny pouch bag | a little wick base frequency, good sealing against noise and easy tiny pouch bag. | amazon_reviews | 179 |
Merrell vapor glove 3 and 4, which size is for me? i wear vibram kso evo 44 eu/10.5-11 us/27.5cm | Dont have the option of testing the merrell out in a store, i currently have a pair of vibram kso evo which are size 44 eu/10.5-11 us/27.5cm which fit me just right. My actual foot length measured with a foot measuring plastic device i bought from aliexpress is around 27.6 cm long (i get around the same results measuring with a paper and pencil).
The Merrell vapor glove sizing chart state than a size 9.5 us is 27.5 JPN (cm), but im not sure thats the same thing as actual foot length (and if it is maybe the merrell arnt true to that size).
Does anyone else own a vibram five finger and a merrell vapor glove? what size do you have in each? What is your foot length heel to toe (and how you measured it - device or just paper and pencil)?
Curently looking to buy either a vapor glove 3 or 4, so any sizing info about either would be greatly appreciated. Thanks! | reddit_title_body | 455 |
Human experience of time exhibits systematic, context-dependent deviations from clock time; for example, time is experienced differently at work than on holiday. Here we test the proposal that differences from clock time in subjective experience of time arise because time estimates are constructed by accumulating the same quantity that guides perception: salient events. Healthy human participants watched naturalistic, silent videos of up to 24 seconds in duration and estimated their duration while fMRI was acquired. We were able to reconstruct trial-by-trial biases in participants' duration reports, which reflect subjective experience of duration, purely from salient events in their visual cortex BOLD activity. By contrast, salient events in neither of two control regions-auditory and somatosensory cortex-were predictive of duration biases. These results held despite being able to (trivially) predict clock time from all three brain areas. Our results reveal that the information arising during perceptual processing of a dynamic environment provides a sufficient basis for reconstructing human subjective time duration.Author summaryOur perception of time isn't like a clock; it varies depending on other aspects of experience, such as what we see and hear in that moment. Previous studies have shown that differences in simple features, such as an image being larger or smaller, or brighter or dimmer, can change how we perceive time for those experiences. But in everyday life, the properties of these simple features can change frequently, presenting a challenge to understanding real-world time perception based on simple lab experiments. To overcome this problem, we developed a computational model of human time perception based on tracking changes in neural activity across brain regions involved in sensory processing (using non-invasive brain imaging). By measuring changes in brain activity patterns across these regions, our approach accommodates the different and changing feature combinations present in natural scenarios, such as walking on a busy street. Our model reproducesPLOS COMPUTATIONAL BIOLOGYPLOS Computational Biology | https://doi.Data Availability Statement:Data and materials availability: The pre-registration document, along with all data and analysis code are freely available to download at osf.io/2zqfu. people's duration reports for natural videos (up to almost half a minute long) and, most importantly, predicts whether a person reports a scene as relatively shorter or longer-the biases in time perception that reflect how natural experience of time deviates from clock time.Predictions of subjective time from human BOLD PLOS Computational Biology | https://doi.Fig 1. Trial sequence and human behavioral results. (A) Participants viewed naturalistic videos (8-24 seconds in duration, 1 video per trial) of walking around a busy city or sitting in a quiet office while in the MRI scanner and reported the duration using a visual analogue scale. (B) Participant-wise relationship between report and duration (colored lines), mean relationship (solid black line), and the line of unity (dashed line). (C) Relative under-/over-estimation of duration by human participants for office/city videos. Error bars represent +/-within-subject SEM. |
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Introduction
How do we perceive time in the scale of seconds? We know that experience of time is characterized by distortions from veridical "clock time" [1]. These distortions are reflected in common expressions like "time flies when you're having fun" or "a watched pot never boils". That our experience of time varies so strongly in different situations illustrates that duration perception is influenced by the content of sensory experiences. This is true for low level stimulus properties, such as motion speed or rate of change [2][3][4], mid-level properties like complexity of task [5], and more complex natural scene properties such as scene type (e.g. walking around a busy city, the green countryside, or sitting in a quiet office; [6,7]). It is also well-established that perception of time differs if attending to time or not [7,8]. That disruptions in time experience (i) arise across these different levels of stimulus complexity and (ii) are based on internal properties of the perceiver (such as what they are attending to) suggests that an approach is required that considers what is common across the hierarchy of perceptual processing, not just at a single level. By identifying a measure that captures what is common across these features and levels of complexity and basing a model of subjective duration on it, our goal is to accommodate and bridge the many previously established relationships between content and time. Further, while many studies have attempted to find a mapping (usually in the form of a correlation or similar analyses) between single, simple stimulus features and time perception (e.g. speed or temporal frequency [2][3][4][5]), natural scenes contain varying proportions of any single feature and these proportions will vary over time. Therefore, modelling subjective time perception on the scale of natural stimulation will require an approach that jointly considers the contributions of these different features.
We recently proposed [6,7,9] that the common currency of time perception across processing hierarchies is change. In principle, this is not an entirely new idea, with similar notions having been suggested in philosophy [10] and in the roots of cognitive psychology of time [5,11,12]. However, in this more recent proposal, there is a strong distinction in that change is not considered only as a function of changes in the physical nature of the stimulus being presented to the observer, but rather change is considered in terms of how the perceptual processing hierarchy of the observer responds to the stimulation.
The advantage of taking an observer-, rather than experimenter-oriented approach is that we can accommodate the critical distortions that distinguish subjective duration from veridical 'clock' time. The potential of such an approach was previously demonstrated by Roseboom and colleagues [6], who used a deep convolutional neural network that had been trained to classify different images as a proxy for human visual processing. In that study, it was reported that simply by accumulating salient changes detected in network activity across network layers it was possible to replicate biases in human reports of duration for the same naturalistic videos. This finding supported the proposal that activity in human perceptual processing networks in response to natural stimulation could provide a sufficient basis for human time perception.
The neural network used in the previous study provided a reasonable stand in for human visual processing, demonstrating at least some of the useful functional properties of human visual processing hierarchy, such as its hierarchical arrangement, specialization of layers for different features, and increasing complexity of representations at higher layers [13,14]. There is ongoing debate about the degree and nature of similarities between such networks and biological vision, though relationships between classification performance and degree of representational similarity with primate visual processing can be found [15]. Nonetheless, a full assessment of the above proposal requires neural as well as behavioral evidence from human participants. Here, we put this proposal to a considerably stronger test, using a pre-registered, model-based analysis of human functional neuroimaging (BOLD), collected while participants estimated the duration of silent videos. In support of our proposal, we found that the modelbased analysis could produce trial-by-trial predictions of participants' subjective duration estimates based on the dynamics of their multi-layer visual cortex BOLD while they watched silent videos. Control models applied to auditory or somatosensory cortex could produce reasonable estimates of clock time, but these models did not predict participants' subjective trial-by-trial biases. Our model is, to our knowledge, the first that can predict trial-by-trial biases in subjective duration purely from measured human brain activity during ongoing naturalistic stimulation.
Results
Using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and a pre-registered preprocessing and model-based analysis pipeline (osf.io/ce9tp), we measured BOLD activation while 40 human participants watched silent videos of natural scenes (8-24 seconds each) and made duration judgements on a visual analogue scale ranging from 0 to 40 seconds (see Fig 1A). Half of the videos depicted busy city scenes with many things happening (e.g. cars or buses going past, many people on a busy street), and the other half, office scenes with relatively few (e.g. occasionally someone would leave or enter the office). While city versus office differed broadly in how busy the content was by design, there was also substantial natural variation within the scene types.
We reasoned that if subjective time is constructed from the accumulation of salient changes in the perceptual processing hierarchy, then we should be able to predict human over-or under-estimates of time from salient changes in visual cortex dynamics. We concentrated on over-or under-estimates of time rather than correspondence with clock time because the latter would be a particularly weak (and flawed) test of our hypothesis: the accumulation of any positive quantity-be it salient events in visual cortex dynamics while viewing a video or number of births in Brazil while reading this paper-will increase with and therefore positively correlate with elapsed time. Our hypothesis refers to visual cortex because our stimuli are silent videos. Put simply, we predict a correlation between human behavioral biases on the one hand, and biases constructed from salient changes in visual cortex dynamics on the other (i.e. model-predicted biases). At a coarse scale, according to previous neural network based results for this video set [6], city scenes should generally produce more salient changes in perceptual processing and be overestimated relative to office scenes.
For each trial, reported durations (in seconds) were transformed into our main behavioral measure: participants' bias towards under-or over-reporting of duration. This was quantified using a (pre-registered) normalized bias measure that we have used previously [6]. Normalized bias is a trial-by-trial measure that simply quantifies the percentage difference between each duration report and the participant's mean report for the video duration category. In this way, it tells us whether any given report was high or low as compared to typical reports by the participant made under comparable conditions. For each of the k trials in which the presented video duration was t, the bias on trial k was the report on trial k, minus the mean report for that duration, divided by the mean report for that duration:
bias t k ¼ x t k À � x t � x tð1Þ
Positive/negative values mean that individual duration reports were over-/under-estimated relative to the participant's mean for a given presented video duration. For example, on a given trial that is physically 8 seconds long, if normalized bias is -0.5, then the report on that trial was 50% less than the average for 8 second videos. If normalized bias is 0 then the report was equal to the mean, and if it is 0.5 then the report was 50% greater than the mean. Note that normalized bias takes highly similar values when calculated using the median instead of mean (for all participants r > 0.9). Because normalized bias does not take the true video duration as an input it is a bias (not accuracy) measure that reflects participant specific response patterns that are independent of clock time. This measure was then carried forward for subsequent analysis.
All inferential tests reported were preregistered unless specified otherwise.
Behavioral reports are biased by scene type
Participants could estimate duration well, as indicated by a strong correlation between presented (veridical) and reported (subjective) durations for each subject both when computed trial-by-trial (� r ¼ 0:76 � 0:02), and when averaged within duration categories (� r ¼ 0:96, Fig 1B).
Estimates generated by an artificial network model are biased by scene type
It has previously been shown that estimates of duration based on changes in activation across the hierarchy of an artificial image classification network can replicate human-like biases in duration reports for naturalistic stimuli [6,7]. Following from this work, we tested whether the effect of scene type for the stimuli used in our experiment and shown by our participants ( Fig 1C) could be reproduced by this same artificial perceptual classification network approach. As in the previous study [6], we fed the same video clips that participants had viewed to a pre-trained (i.e. not trained on our stimulus set) hierarchical image classification network, AlexNet [16]. For each network node, we computed frame-to-frame Euclidean distances in network activity. Then, separately for each network layer, each distance-or change in activation-was categorized as salient or not. Note that a salient change is not necessarily psychologically salient, nor even a salient change in the environment; it is simply a relatively extreme change in dynamics. Saliency categorization was achieved using an attention threshold with exponential decay that simply determined whether the change in node activation (the Euclidean distance) was sufficiently large to be deemed salient (see Methods). By decaying from the starting point to its minimum point, the threshold can adapt to local periods with few extreme changes. Following models of episodic memory [17] moments of threshold crossing are hereafter called 'salient events' (see also Discussion section "Surprise", time perception, and episodic memory and [7]). Salient events were accumulated at each layer and converted to estimates of duration in seconds via multiple linear regression, by mapping the number of accumulated salient events to the presented (clock time), not reported durations. This placed network predictions and human reports onto the same scale (seconds), and means that the model is attempting to reproduce clock time duration based on the input, rather than the more trivial task of training the model to directly reproduce human estimates. Therefore, any human-like biases in estimates can be attributed to the behavior of the network in response to the input stimuli, and not simply to the model being trained to specifically reproduce human biases.
As was the case with human behavior, and as expected, the artificial classification networkbased model produced duration reports that were significantly correlated with the video duration ρ(2329) = 0.73, p < 0.001 (Fig 2A). Like our human participants, the model underestimated longer durations. As explained in Roseboom et al [6], this 'regression to the mean' effect is likely a product of mapping "sensation" (here, the accumulated salient events) onto a scale for report (here, seconds).
More importantly, the model reproduced the pattern of subjective biases seen in human participants, despite being trained on presented video duration ( Fig 2B). Specifically, modelproduced estimates differed as a function of video type: estimation bias was greater (i.e. reports relatively over-estimated) for busy city scenes than for office scenes, M±SE office = -5.00 ± 0.66, M±SE city = 4.99 ± 0.55, 95%CI = [8.31, 11.67], t 2329 = 11.65, p < 0.001, d = 0.48. These results demonstrate that simply tracking the dynamics of a network trained for perceptual classification while it is exposed to natural scenes can produce the basis for human-like estimates of duration.
Reconstructing human-like duration reports from visual cortex BOLD
Here we put our proposal to the key test. Our proposal is that tracking changes in perceptual processing in the modality-specific human sensory hierarchy is sufficient to predict human trial-by-trial biases in subjective duration. Perceptual processing of visual scenes is achieved primarily in visual cortex, so to test our proposal we asked whether we could reproduce participants' estimation biases from salient events in visual cortex BOLD. In other words, instead of accumulating salient events in visual stimulation, we accumulated salient events in BOLD responses to that stimulation.
Coarse-level regional differences in BOLD were seen for both office versus city videos, and for videos (from either category) for which reports were strongly biased (GLM results, see S1 Fig and S4 Table). However, these results do not tell us about the relationship between duration biases and salient events in BOLD dynamics. If we can predict trial-by-trial subjective duration only from participants' BOLD responses in visual cortex (and not in other control regions), then we will have shown that the basis for human subjective duration judgements (when viewing natural visual scenes) can be constructed from brain activity associated with perceptual processing.
To do this, we defined a three-layer visual hierarchy a priori predicted to be involved in processing of the silent videos (see Fig 3 and S1 Table). We selected regions such that lower layers Three different three-layer perceptual hierarchies were defined: a visual hierarchy, an auditory hierarchy and a somatosensory hierarchy. The visual hierarchy constitutes our model of interest, while the auditory and somatosensory hierarchies constitute control models. The regions chosen for layers 1, 2 and 3 are colored in red, yellow and green respectively. Precise details of the regions are specified in S1 Table. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1010223.g003 reflect the processing of low-level features (e.g. edge detection in primary visual cortex; V1), and higher layers, object-related processing (e.g. lateral occipital cortex; LOC). For control analyses, analogous hierarchies were built for auditory cortex and somatosensory cortex (see S1 Table). Because the stimuli we used were silent videos, we predicted that only the model using the visual cortex hierarchy should reconstruct subjective human duration reports from accumulated salient events (see pre-registration at osf.io/ce9tp).
We ran our key analysis in two ways: one was confirmatory (i.e. pre-registered) and one was exploratory (i.e. not pre-registered). The analysis pipeline is illustrated in Fig 4. In both analyses, for each participant voxel-wise patterns of BOLD were extracted from each TR (slice, or time point) in each hierarchical layer. Voxel-wise changes between each TR were calculated and then summed over all voxels in the layer, resulting in one value per TR and layer. These 'change' values were standardized (z-scored) within-participant and compared to a criterion with exponential decay (and pre-registered parameters) to classify the change value as a salient event or not, giving us the number of salient events 'detected' by each layer for each video. Just as salient visual events would be expected to correspond to large changes in (layer-wise) visual cortical activity, salient auditory events would be expected to correspond to large changes in auditory cortex dynamics, and may be trigged by, for example, hearing (or possibly imagining) a loud sound, and similarly for somatosensory cortex. Note that psychologically salient events need not map to salient events in BOLD; see Discussion section Predictive processing as a potential mechanistic basis for time perception.
For the pre-registered analysis, change was quantified as Euclidean distance (as for the artificial network model), i.e. where X TR,v is activation in voxel v at slice TR. Note that (2) is mathematically equivalent to the L1 norm of the difference between BOLD at two successive TRs. However, we refer to (2) as Euclidean distances, summed over all voxels because we are proposing that the key compu-
D TR ¼ X v jX TR;v À X TRÀ 1;v jð2Þtation here is |X TR,v −X TR−1,v | and not X TR,v −X TR−1,v .
For the exploratory analysis, we tested an alternative algorithm for quantifying change:
D 0 TR ¼ X v ðX TR;v À X TRÀ 1;v Þð3Þ
which we refer to as the signed difference. The attention threshold used in this analysis was the same as that pre-registered for the confirmatory analysis. We chose this measure because, at least in sensory cortices, BOLD may already reflect perceptual changes [18], potentially in the form of "prediction errors". Therefore, while the model using Euclidean distance (Eq 2) as the change metric assumes that BOLD relates directly to neural activity (conceptually the same as "activation" of nodes in the artificial classification network), signed difference (Eq 3) is more closely aligned with the idea that BOLD (in early sensory networks in this case) indicates (computational) prediction error. Euclidean distance can only be positive valued (0 or above), while the signed difference can be positive or negative in value (above or below 0). We then used support vector regression with 10-fold cross-validation to predict the presented (i.e., clock time, not subjective/reported) video durations from accumulated salient events in layers 1, 2 and 3 for each perceptual hierarchy. This converted the accumulated salient events in the three layers to a model-predicted duration "report" in seconds so that they could be compared with human reports that were also made in seconds. Accordingly, the predicted durations in seconds by themselves are not the primary target of investigation. However, this regression step that involves an external metric of time was only necessary for directly comparing model output with human reports made in these units-as can be seen in Finally, biases in model predictions were compared to participants' duration estimation biases. For our pre-registered analysis, we pooled human participants' behavioral data together to create one 'super-subject', by standardizing behavioral duration reports within-participant and re-computing normalized bias using the combined behavioral dataset. For the exploratory analysis, human estimation bias was computed separately for each of the 40 participants because pooling participants' data reduced the effect of video type on (human) normalized bias (see S2B Fig). Model predictions were generated from pooled accumulated changes, regardless of whether the behavioral data were pooled or not. We did this because the use of long stimulus presentation intervals (up to 24 seconds) meant that for each participant we could only obtain relatively few trials-insufficient to generate brain-based model predictions on a purely participant-by-participant basis.
Using Euclidean distance, estimation bias but not effects of scene type can be reconstructed from visual cortex BOLD
Following (pre-registered) pooling into a super-subject, the z-scored reports remained correlated with video durations (S2A Fig) but did not significantly discriminate between office and city scenes (S2B Fig). The presented (clock time) video duration could be predicted from accumulated salient events in all three models (visual, auditory, and somatosensory) to a similar degree (10-fold cross validation, � r visual ¼ 0:93; � r auditory ¼ 0:95; � r somatosensory ¼ 0:94, S2C-S2E Fig). These results show that all models could reproduce clock time-the physical duration of the presented video-and therefore that the support vector regression model successfully mapped accumulated events to durations in units of seconds. This means we could use the regression model to further generate predictions of subjective duration biases from salient events in BOLD. It is important to note that the reproduction of presented duration is trivial because, all else being equal, longer intervals will have more salient events in the sensory cortex BOLD dynamics. Indeed, longer intervals will, on average, have a greater number any event, task-relevant or otherwise-heart beats, eye movements, planes taking off, etc-and so the cumulative sum of events will trivially correlate with physical duration. Another way to think about this is that taking any summary-the number of salient events, the length of a trajectory through a state space, etc-between a start-and end-point is a temporal metric, and so will correlate with clock time.
Because accumulated salient events will trivially correlate with clock time, testing our proposal necessitates comparing the model of interest (visual cortex) with control models in other modalities (auditory and somatosensory cortex). Contrasting against control models in other modalities allows us to demonstrate that it is not simply the accumulation of any cortical changes over time that predicts duration, but rather accumulation of specific changes in Only salient events in visual cortex distinguish between office and city scenes, and this holds for all three layers. The three rightmost columns (green lines) plot the difference lines, with shaded bounds depicting 95% CIs. These show that only accumulated salient events in visual cortex distinguish between scenes, because only these lines are above the zero line. This means that accumulated salient events, even prior to regression into standard units (seconds), distinguish between scene type in visual cortex, but not in auditory cortex or in somatosensory cortex.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1010223.g005 cortical activity related to the presented content that can predict human subjective duration judgements. To reinforce this point, it is because all of our models-visual cortex and the control models based on auditory or somatosensory cortex-do in fact provide reasonable estimates of clock time that our key analyses focus on reproducing the subjective biases present in the reports of human participants, since it is these biases that separate clock duration from subjective duration.
Our primary pre-registered hypothesis was that only the visual cortex model would be able to reproduce participants' duration biases. Supporting this, only the model trained on visual salient events significantly reproduced the duration biases (calculated from the pooled, human "super-subject" data) trial-by-trial, β 2328 = 1.51, p = 0.015; the models trained on salient events in auditory cortex, β 2328 = 0.87, p = 0.141, and somatosensory cortex, β 2328 = 0.30, p = 0.339, did not (S3 Fig). Using the visual cortex regression beta as our prior [19], evidence for these control model results was insensitive (auditory: BF H(0,1.51) = 1.22, RR = [-1, 7.56], somatosensory: BF H(0,1.51) = 0.60, RR = [-1, 3.14]).
Not only was the visual cortex regression coefficient a significant predictor of behavioral biases, the visual cortex regression model was also a better fit to the trial-by-trial behavioral biases than the auditory or somatosensory cortex models (S4 Fig). These results mean that biases in subjective estimates of time can be predicted from neural activity associated with modality-specific perceptual processing. The processing is modality-specific because the video stimuli were silent, with no auditory or tactile stimulation. While the visual model could reproduce participants' trial-by-trial biases, it did not reproduce the effect of video type (overestimation of duration for city scenes) despite a numerical trend in the predicted direction, M±SD diff = 0. ). Note that neither these t-tests nor the priors were pre-registered.
Using signed difference, estimation bias and effects of scene type can be reconstructed from visual cortex BOLD
Next, we analyzed the biases predicted from the exploratory model, in which salient events were determined from signed differences in voxel activity. Again, presented video duration could be (trivially) predicted from salient events in all three exploratory models to a similar degree (10-fold cross validation, � r visual ¼ 0:95; � r auditory ¼ 0:97; � r somatosensory ¼ 0:96, Fig 6A-6C). However, using the revised (exploratory) definition of a salient event, linear mixed models revealed the visual model biases did strongly discriminate between office and city scenes, M ±SD diff = 4.22 ± 3.37, 95% CI = [3.14, 5.30], χ 2 (1) = 85.06, p < .001 (Fig 6D).
Visual model biases also remained correlated with participants' trial-by-trial biases, β = 0.02 ±0.008, χ 2 (1) = 5.62, p = 0.018. This association is visualized in Fig 7A by Fig 7C and 7E). Note that priors for the Bayes factors were not pre-registered and were set as the fixed-effect coefficients from the corresponding visual cortex LMMs.
The correlational results were also robust across a range of threshold parameters for the visual model (Fig 7B). For the auditory model (Fig 7D), positive correlations between human and model-predicted biases were found only at implausible parameter values (where the threshold's upper bound was the mean). For the somatosensory model (Fig 7F), positive correlations were present in a small, localized region of the space indicating that those correlations were not robust to changes in threshold parameters, and likely spurious or artefactual (e.g., driven by head motion or eye movements).
In none of the auditory or somatosensory layers were there more salient events when watching city than office videos (Fig 5, middle and bottom rows). Further, our ability to predict subjective biases in duration does not trivially follow from differences in the videos themselves (e.g. more changes in city than office videos), because frame-by-frame changes in the videos are dissociable from both human and model-predicted biases (see S1 Text and S6 Fig). Taken together, these results underline the specificity of visual cortex activity in predicting subjective time for silent videos.
Discussion
We have shown that the basis for subjective estimates of duration can be constructed on a trial-by-trial basis from salient events in sensory cortex activity, where salient events are defined as relatively large changes in the neural responses to sensory stimulation across a perceptual hierarchy. Importantly, participants are not necessarily conscious of the events because they are events in the perceptual processing dynamics rather than in the stimulus. Salient events as we have defined them are not necessarily psychologically salient either.
In this study, for which stimuli were silent videos, successful prediction was obtained only for models trained on salient events in visual cortex BOLD, and not for control models based on somatosensory or auditory cortex BOLD. While we could trivially reconstruct clock time from activity in all three sensory regions (because those regions exhibited dynamic neural activity that trivially reflects video duration), only the information extracted by the stimulusrelevant sensory model-the visual model-was related to subjective duration estimates (as reflected in relative over-or under-estimates of duration). Our results were robust under a wide range of model parameter values (Fig 7B), and, in combination with previous findings [7,9], support the idea that human time perception is based in the neural processes associated with processing the sensory content from which time is being judged.
The reconstruction of clock time in all brain-based models was strong (correlations between model estimates and veridical video duration r > .92), and better than our human participants' performance (correlation between participant estimates and veridical video duration r~= .8). There are several reasons for this. First, as previously stated, the model predictions will trivially correlate with clock time because more salient events will be accumulated as epoch length increases. Second, we specifically trained these models to transform the number of salient events into clock time (by mapping them to the video durations), and accordingly they do so very well. With feedback, humans can reproduce clock time well also-indeed, even without training participants in this study exhibited a correlation of~.8 with clock time. Outside of the lab, in more natural cases duration estimation may often be worse: the task is harder, mappings from experience to standard units of report are contextual, feedback may be sparse (and not necessarily even incorporated), and is received over long time scales. In short, by virtue of simultaneous access to all information about the relationships between time sensation (salient events) and clock time, our models (in this case) have an unfair advantage versus humans, who could be doing similar computations (regression), but typically with less complete information.
Our visual cortex ROIs were chosen in such a way that our hierarchy was a highly simplified, "toy model" of human ventral vision. Of course, we by no means assert that other regions in visual cortex are unimportant for duration perception of visual stimuli [20]. Correspondences between stimulus features and neural responses have been shown in regions we have not included, and work that attempts to map the neural responses to temporal properties of visual stimuli has revealed a broad range of temporally responsive regions across the perceptual processing hierarchy, including dorsal visual stream and frontoparietal areas (see e.g. [21]). The present study suggests that for the specific stimulus content we utilized (silent videos) the ROIs we selected were sufficient to predict subjective time, but of course future work could test whether model performance would substantially improve by expanding the set of regions included.
We compared two different metrics for determining change in processing dynamics-Euclidean distance and signed difference, and used dynamic thresholds to classify changes as salient events, with these thresholds allowed to vary across layers of the perceptual hierarchy. We could predict human biases in duration judgements when using both metrics, but could only predict the video class (office scene vs. city scene) from the signed difference. It is notable that even these crude measures are sufficient for mapping processing dynamics within perceptual hierarchies to subjective time. Future work could attempt to optimise the metrics and thresholds according to differences in the known response properties of different visual areas [22,23].
A novel approach to modelling subjective time
Our model is the first which is able to predict trial-by-trial subjective reports of duration based on neural (BOLD) activity during naturalistic stimulation, and in so doing, advances our understanding of the neural basis of time perception. Our approach is conceptually related to a study by Ahrens and Sahani [24], who proposed that subjective time perception is constructed from estimates of input dynamics (akin to sensory input) and knowledge of the temporal structure of the input (second order input statistics), and presented an inference model that could account for several behavioural results. An important difference between their work and ours is that statistical "knowledge" in our model relates to knowledge of the perceptual processing network state. By contrast, knowledge in Ahrens and Sahani's model relates to prior temporal structure. This means that while Ahrens and Sahani propose a model dependent on processes dedicated to tracking temporal properties, we do not. Our results demonstrate that such knowledge is not strictly necessary for generating human-like duration estimates for natural stimuli.
Linking sensory content and subjective duration
In our approach, the neural processes that are engaged in the processing of sensory content (putatively ventral stream vision in our human participants and for our stimuli) are the same as those used to build the basis for estimates of time. In this way we provide an intuitive link between sensory content and subjective duration. Our conclusion is in support of the idea that time perception depends on distributed mechanisms [25], but that in each case subjective time is naturally linked to sensory content by virtue of being determined by those content-related processes.
It is common for studies in the time perception field to use highly constrained stimuli such as luminance contrast discs, Gabors, or random dot fields. The high level of control over stimulation permitted by such stimuli allows these studies to identify one-to-one mappings between a specific stimulus feature (e.g. contrast intensity, temporal frequency, or even stimulus size) and time perception. For example, a presented stimulus is reported as longer in duration in a condition where it is larger in size than in a condition where it is smaller [26]-a simple mapping between the feature of stimulus size and the corresponding duration judgements. A large literature exists showing how recent visual exposure [27,28] or adaptation to temporal properties of a stimulus can influence subjective time judgements [29][30][31]; that eye movements nearby brief stimuli can change the content of vision, and consequently perception of time [32][33][34]; how eye movements during stimulation change time estimates [35]; and how the precise temporal properties of a visual stimulus-temporal frequency or speed-relate to subjective duration reports [2,3,36]. Previous work has also shown how different parts of the processing hierarchy respond differently to temporal properties of stimuli, such as whether stimuli were composed of transient or persistent stimulation [23]. Further, recent work using direct mapping methods with simple, brief stimuli (intervals up to~2 seconds) has made substantial progress in describing the complex hierarchy of neural responses to temporal properties of visual stimulation [21,37].
The existing time perception literature, as described above, has been successful in characterising the relationship between visual response properties and subjective time. Our study extends this work by taking two key differences in approach. First, we did not directly look for a correspondence between temporal properties of stimulation and neural responses reflecting those temporal properties (i.e. we didn't look for neural regions that represent the temporal properties of the stimulation-'chronotopy'). Instead, we attempted to build a model that extracts relevant temporal properties from the neural activity associated with processing of perceptual content and produces estimates of duration based on that information-an indirect rather than direct mapping between the stimulus and neural response to stimulus on the one hand, and subjective duration on the other. The second key difference in our approach comes from our use of naturalistic scenes versus the simple, highly-controlled stimuli frequently used. Natural scenes contain a wide variety and combination of simple and complex features, some of which will be coded for in overlapping neural populations. These features vary in their combinations moment to moment, and so to build a successful model of time perception for natural stimulation it is necessary to consider their joint contributions. By using a measure based on extracted salient events across the perceptual processing hierarchy, our approach accomplishes this task without needing to fully characterise those joint contributions. We note that to do so would be a very difficult task indeed. While a complete understanding of how these features are identified, tracked and combined in cortex remains an important challenge for visual neuroscience, and progress has been made (as we review above), our approach is able to jointly accommodate the many stimulus features that vary during natural stimulation in a simple fashion, without needing to identify and track each pertinent feature independently, and then combine them in such a way that respects their interdependence (e.g. contrast drifts during configural changes).
There are interesting opportunities for future work at a greater level of specificity, which could attempt to fully specify the correspondences between all simple features and subjective duration, as well as their combinations. If successful, this detailed approach would allow very strong predictions about the precise, moment-to-moment contribution of some specific stimulus feature (and neural response to that specific feature) to subjective time perception. However, as our model demonstrates, having this complete understanding is not necessary for successfully modelling human distortions in subjective time.
Attention, emotion and time
In the time perception literature there are often appeals to the influence of factors like attention [38] or emotion [39,40]-sometimes used as the basis for rejecting the proposals of earlier cognitive psychologists such as Ornstein [5]. Our model provides a general basis on which to test any claims about any such influences by specifying a baseline hypothesis in each casenamely that the dynamics of the relevant sensory cortex (e.g. visual, auditory, interoceptive, etc) are sufficient to construct subjective duration estimates for that context. For example, regarding the potential influence of emotion on time perception [39,40], the degree to which stimulus-driven differences in network activation underlie any differences in duration estimates remains to be established. However, even if influences of emotion on time perception arise from internally generated sources (rather than processing of external stimulation), this influence may still be reflected in differences in measurable activity of perceptual processing networks (via e.g. BOLD) and therefore our model would reproduce differences in human duration reports. These possibilities are testable hypotheses, made available by our modelling approach.
Time perception for non-visual or multisensory cases
While we only tested whether subjective duration for visual stimuli could be constructed from salient events in visual cortex, we expect that salient events from auditory cortex would predict subjective time in auditory-only contexts, and similarly for other modalities [41]. Outside the laboratory we judge time in multisensory contexts and can estimate duration when our eyes are closed or even if clinically deaf. These observations do not expose a weakness of our approach, but generate specific and testable claims that require additional study to fully evaluate: does our model approach work equally well in other (combinations of) modalities? We see no reason why our proposal should fail for other modalities, and the success of similar network architectures for interpreting sensory processing in the auditory domain [42] supports this position. Furthermore, because we define 'salient events' as events in the dynamics of perceptual processing rather than in the external world, non-external stimulation like visual imagery could also contribute to experience of time. The model we present here is based on unimodal inputs, but for multisensory inputs we would predict that duration biases would be combined through some integration of accumulated salient events in modality-specific sensory cortices (e.g. for videos with sound, an integration of accumulated salient events in visual and auditory cortices). This may broadly follow what is understood about combination in other multisensory cases and may be consistent with Bayesian rules of combination [43,44].
It could be suggested that our approach only reproduces stimulus-driven biases rather than providing a general basis for time estimation because without stimulus input our model would have no "activity". This critique would be valid for the artificial network-based model in section Estimates generated by an artificial network model are biased by scene type but cannot be applied to the BOLD-based model because visual cortex activity remains present even when there is no sensory input (see also above point about imagery).
Biological plausibility
Our data do not speak to the question of how perceptual processing is achieved by the brain, and our results do not depend on the answer, beyond some key, uncontroversial assumptions (e.g. hierarchical processing). Whether the classification network used here (AlexNet) is closely matched to biological vision in how it processes information is not relevant here (see [13][14][15]) because the algorithmic approach to estimating duration from network activity (in either Alex-Net or estimated from BOLD in humans) produces outcomes consistent with the patterns seen in human subjective reports of time. Accordingly, we did not directly compare the predictions from the classification network and brain-based models. The crucial assumption is simply the existence of a hierarchical, specialized system for perceptual processing-the common interpretation of primate ventral visual stream [45][46][47]. Given this assumption, our model is compatible with a range of prominent theories on the specific computational processes that may contribute to how perception is achieved (predictive coding [48], population coding [49], Gibsonian affordances [50] etc.), and the mechanisms underlying how feature extraction/processing occurs (population receptive fields [51], feedback connections [52], surround suppression [53] etc). Our claim is simply that the dynamics of perceptual systems can be used to construct subjective duration, but is theory-neutral as to precisely which processes are most important for perception. This conclusion is best demonstrated by the fact that our model produced estimates consistent with subjective biases in human reports regardless of whether applied to activation patterns of AlexNet or to BOLD patterns recorded from human participants.
Predictive processing as a potential mechanistic basis for time perception
While we are theory-neutral regarding the specific neural basis of perceptual processing, our results may provide some evidence in favour of one potential mechanistic basis for time perception. We tested two metrics that could be used by the brain to link sensory content and time on a moment-to-moment basis: Euclidean distance (pre-registered) and signed difference (exploratory). Whereas the former assumes that BOLD activity indexes some raw quantity associated with sensory inputs, the latter assumes that BOLD already indexes change in sensory input, for example as perceptual prediction error. In our data, subjective duration was best reconstructed using signed difference: although both metrics generated duration estimates that correlated with human reports, only signed difference differentiated video type. The superiority of signed difference in predicting subjective time is consistent with (but not evidence for) the view that BOLD already indexes detected environmental changes. This is in line with literature evidencing "surprise" or "prediction error" responses in sensory [18,54,55] and even frontal [56,57] cortices, usually interpreted in the context of predictive processing [58] or predictive coding [42] theories of cortical function. Of course, this superiority of signed difference is not itself evidence for a role for prediction error in time perception, nor are the theories of predictive processing [58] or predictive coding [48] necessary for understanding or interpreting our results.
We also emphasize that the way in which we use "salience" and "surprise" is only tangentially, if at all, related to the psychological phenomena of something being salient or surprising. Here, salience is defined in terms of difference between successive network states (see Eqs 2 and 3). This means our notion of salience is close to a naïve prediction error [6]; naïve because the "prediction" is simply the previous network state rather than part of a prediction-update cycle (see [7]). While previous studies have suggested that predictability [59] or apparent salience [60] can affect subjective time perception [61], descriptions of "salience" and related terms at this cognitive level are not necessarily related to descriptions at the mechanistic level at which our model is articulated. Future work may wish to test whether "prediction error" as defined in a mechanistic sense maps onto psychological salience or surprise, but the question is outside the scope of the present study, and is certainly not restricted to investigations of time perception.
"Surprise", time perception, and episodic memory
The idea that our model may be based on an index of perceptual "surprise" is intriguing as it provides a natural link to the closely related topic of episodic memory (see [7]). In the episodic memory literature, prediction error, i.e. the difference between current sensory stimulation and expected stimulation, has been proposed as the basis for the construction of event boundaries [7,17,62]-transitions that segment some content (e.g. a cow) from some other content (e.g. a car) in continuous experience [63,64]. By emphasizing the importance of sensory content in time perception, our approach may provide a link between time perception and episodic memory that has been lost by content-free "clock" approaches. By providing a simple algorithm for how the stream of sensory processing is segmented into salient events, our approach may afford some insight into how low-level sensory information is transformed into the temporally sequenced form of memory associated with the activity of so-called "time cells", potentially linking the content of sensory processing with temporal properties of episodic memory within the powerful predictive coding approach [7,48,65].
Conclusions
In summary, we provide evidence for an algorithmic account of duration perception, in which information sufficient for the basis of subjective time estimation can be obtained simply by tracking the dynamics of the relevant perceptual processing hierarchy. In this view, the processes underlying subjective time have their neural substrates in perceptual and memory systems, not in systems specialized for time itself. We have taken a model-based approach to describe how sensory information arriving in primary sensory areas is transformed into subjective time, and tested this approach against human neuroimaging data. Our model provides a computational basis from which we can unravel how human subjective time is generated, encompassing every step from sensory processing to the detection of salient perceptual events, and potentially further on to the construction and ordering of episodic memory.
Materials and methods
Ethics statement
The study was approved by the Brighton and Sussex Medical School Research Governance and Ethics Committee (reference number ERA/MS547/17/1). All participants gave informed, written consent and were reimbursed £15 for their time.
Participants
Forty healthy, English speaking and right-handed participants were tested (18-43 years old, mean age = 22y 10mo, 26 females). Sample size was determined according to funding availability.
Procedure
The experiment was conducted in one sixty-minute session. Participants were placed in the scanner and viewed a computer visual display via a head-mounted eyetracker, placed over a 64-channel head coil. Eyetracker calibration lasted approximately five minutes and involved participants tracking a black, shrinking dot across nine locations: in the center, corners and sides of the visual display. Eyetracking data are not used in this manuscript due to technical failure.
Following calibration, we acquired six images reflecting distortions in the magnetic field (three in each of the posterior-to-anterior and anterior-to-posterior directions) and one T1-weighted structural scan.
Finally, functional echoplanar images (EPIs) were acquired while participants performed two to four blocks (time-permitting) of twenty trials, in which participants viewed silent videos of variable length and reported the duration of each video using a visual analogue scale extending from 0 to 40 seconds (see Fig 1A). A key grip was placed in each hand, and participants moved a slider left and right using a key press with the corresponding hand. The initial position of the slider was randomised trial-by-trial. Participants were not trained on the task prior to the experimental session.
Experimental design and trial sequence
Each experimental block consisted of 20 trials. On each trial a video of duration 8, 12, 16, 20 or 24 seconds was presented. For each participant, videos of the appropriate duration and scene category were constructed by randomly sampling continuous frames from the stimuli built for [6]. These videos depicted either an office scene or a city scene. Two videos for each duration and content condition were presented per block in randomized order. For one participant and one block, only 11/20 trials were completed giving a total of 2331 trials across the entire dataset.
MRI acquisition and pre-processing (confirmatory)
Functional T2 � sensitive multi-band echoplanar images (EPIs) were acquired on a Siemens PRISMA 3T scanner (2mm slices with 2mm gaps, TR = 800ms, multiband factor = 8, TE = 37ms, Flip angle = 52˚). To minimize signal dropout from parietal, motor and occipital cortices, axial slices were tilted. Full brain T1-weighted structural scans were acquired on the same scanner using the MPRAGE protocol and consisting of 176 1mm thick sagittal slices (TR = 2730ms, TE = 3.57ms, FOV = 224mm x 256mm, Flip angle = 52˚). Finally, we collected reverse-phase spin echo field maps, with three volumes for each of the posterior to anterior and anterior to posterior directions (TR = 8000ms, TE = 66ms, Flip Angle = 90˚). Corrections for field distortions were applied by building fieldmaps from the two phase-encoded image sets using FSL's TOPUP function. All other image pre-processing was conducted using SPM12 (http://www.fil.ion.ucl.ac.uk/spm/software/spm12).
The first four functional volumes of each run were treated as dummy scans and discarded. A standard image pre-processing pipeline was used: anatomical and functional images were reoriented to the anterior commissure; EPIs were aligned to each other, unwarped using the fieldmaps, and co-registered to the structural scan by minimizing normalized mutual information. Note that in accordance with HCP guidelines for multiband fMRI we did not perform slice-time correction [66]. After co-registration, EPIs were spatially normalized to MNI space using parameters obtained from the segmentation of T1 images into grey and white matter, then smoothed with a 4mm FWHM Gaussian smoothing kernel. Smoothed data were used for the GLM on BOLD only; unsmoothed data were used for the brain-based modelling.
Statistical analyses
All fMRI pre-processing, participant exclusion criteria, behavioral, imaging and computational analyses were comprehensively pre-registered while data collection was ongoing (osf.io/ce9tp/ ) but before it was completed. This analysis plan was determined based on pilot data from four participants, and was written blind to the data included in this manuscript. Analyses that deviate from the pre-registered analysis plan are marked as "exploratory". Pre-registered analyses are described as "confirmatory". Data are freely available to download at https://osf.io/2zqfu.
fMRI statistical analysis (confirmatory)
At the participant level, BOLD responses obtained from the smoothed images were timelocked to video onset. BOLD responses were modelled by convolving the canonical hemodynamic response function with a boxcar function (representing video presentation) with width equal to video duration. Videos of office and city scenes were modelled using one dummycoded regressor each. Each was parametrically modulated by normalized bias.
Data from each run was entered separately. No band-pass filter was applied. Instead, lowfrequency drifts were regressed out by entering white matter drift (averaged over the brain) as a nuisance regressor [57,67]. Nuisance regressors representing the experimental run and six head motion parameters were also included in the first level models. Because of the fast TR, models were estimated using the 'FAST' method implemented in SPM.
Comparisons of interest were tested by running four one-sample t-tests against zero at the participant level for each variable of interest (video scenes, office scenes, and their normalized bias parametric modulator). Next, group-level F tests were run on those one-sample contrast images to test for effects of video type and the interaction between video type and normalized bias slope. A one-sample t-test against zero at the group level tested the slope of the normalized bias-BOLD relationship. All group-level contrasts were run with peak thresholds of p < .001 (uncorrected) and corrected for multiple comparisons at the cluster level using the FWE method. Clusters were labelled using WFU PickAtlas software [68,69].
Model-based fMRI (confirmatory)
Our key prediction was that subjective duration estimates (for these silent videos) arise from the accumulation of salient (perceptual) events detected by the visual system, particularly within higher-level regions related to object processing. We tested this by defining a (pre-registered) three-layer hierarchy of regions to represent core features of the visual system: Layer 1 was defined as bilateral V1, V2v and V3v, Layer 2 was defined as bilateral hV4, LO1 and LO2, and Layer 3 as bilateral VO1, VO2, PHC1 and PHC2 (clusters are depicted in Fig 3).
For each layer, masks were constructed by combining voxels from each area, using the atlas presented in [70].
To determine events detected by the visual system over the course of each video, we extracted raw voxel activity for each TR in each layer from unsmoothed, normalized EPIs. Then, for each voxel v, change was defined as the Euclidean distance between BOLD activation x v at volume TR and TR-1. The amount of change detected by the layer at any time point, denoted Δ TR , was then given by summing the Euclidean distances over all voxels such that:
D TR ¼ X v jX TR;v À X TRÀ 1;v jð2Þ
This process furnishes one value per layer for each TR of each trial for each participant. The next step was to categorize each value as a "salient" event or not and convert it to an estimate of duration using an event detection, accumulation and regression model, as presented in Roseboom et al. [6]. Before converting accumulated salient changes to units of seconds, we first pooled participants' data by z-scoring the summed events Δ TR within each participant and layer. Pooling was performed to increase statistical power of subsequent regression analyses. Then, for each trial, TR-by-TR categorization of Δ TR was achieved by comparing against a criterion with exponential decay, corrupted by Gaussian noise ε:
W TR ¼ ae À TR þ ε; ε � N ð0; 0:05Þð4Þ
We chose the same criterion function used in [6]: while they found that constant (not decaying) thresholds can also produce human-like biases in duration estimates, the decaying threshold reflects the intuitive notion that classification of what is salient should adjust with fluctuations in the environment.
Only the parameter a took different values in each layer (see S2 Table): it took larger values at higher layers. In this way, the thresholds could accommodate different types of scene, e.g. scenes with more high-level configural changes, or scenes with more low-level changes. The criterion decayed with each TR until either an event was classified as salient or until the video finished, after each of which the criterion reset to its starting (i.e. maximal) point. Importantly, because the summed Euclidean distances Δ TR were z-scored, the criterion has meaningful units corresponding to SDs above or below the mean. The parameter a corresponds to the largest z-score above which a change was classified as salient, that is, the criterion's most conservative point. To account for potential head-motion artefacts, criterion updating ignored volumes where Δ TR was greater than 2.5 (i.e. more than 2.5 SDs from the mean).
The final modelling step was to convert the BOLD-determined accumulation of salient events into raw duration judgements (in seconds). This was achieved via Epsilon-support vector regression (SVR), implemented on python 3.0 using sklearn [71], to regress accumulated events in each of the three layers onto the duration of the presented video.
To evaluate whether the model could reproduce subjective reports of time from participants' BOLD activation, we converted the trial-by-trial model predictions (raw duration judgements in seconds) to normalized bias. These were then compared to a human "super-subject": participants' duration judgements were z-scored within participants, then all participant data were pooled and converted to normalized bias. We created a super-subject to mirror the data pooling performed before training our SVR.
Trial-by-trial normalized bias values were compared across model and human using linear regression, fitting the model :
behaviour t ¼ b 0 þ b 1 model tð5Þ
To test our a priori hypothesis that the model trained on visual cortex salient events positively correlates with subjective time, a (one-tailed) p-value for β 1 was calculated via bootstrapping, shuffling the behavioural data and refitting the regression line 10,000 times.
Control models (confirmatory)
To distinguish our proposal from the more trivial suggestion that the neural dynamics of any cortical hierarchy (or any neural ensemble) can be used to approximate elapsed clock time, simply because they are dynamic, we created two control models. While these models should all approximately reproduce clock time, the reproduced estimates should not be predictive of the specifically subjective aspects human participants' duration estimates (i.e., their biases). Analyses for these control hierarchies followed the steps above for the primary model, though based on different sensory regions.
The first control hierarchy was auditory cortex, which has previously been implicated in time perception but whose involvement in duration judgements should not be driven by visual stimuli, as in our study. Layers 1 and 2 were defined as Brodmann Area (BA) 41 and 42 respectively, both of which are located in primary auditory cortex. Layer 3 was posterior BA22 (superior temporal gyrus/Wernicke's Area).
The second control hierarchy was somatosensory cortex, which on our model should not be involved in duration judgements based on visual stimuli. Layer 1 was set as posterior and anterior BA 3, and layers 2 and 3 were set as BA 1 and BA 2 respectively. These Brodmann areas correspond to the primary somatosensory cortex.
Masks for these two control analyses were constructed using WFU PickAtlas atlases [68,69]. As for our empirical analyses using visual cortex, for each of the two controls we estimated the relationship between the trial-by-trial normalized bias based on the model's predictions and based on z-scored participant data by fitting a linear regression line.
To test whether the visual cortex model out-performed the somatosensory and auditory cortex models we compared their log-likelihoods, obtained from the Matlab function fitlm (see S4 Fig). This evaluation of model performance was not pre-registered.
Exploratory modelling
We also ran an exploratory (i.e. not pre-registered) set of models. This was identical to the preregistered analysis plan, apart from the following differences:
First, we transformed voxel-wise BOLD activation X to signed (i.e. raw) rather than unsigned changes:
D 0 TR ¼ X v ðX TR;v À X TRÀ 1;v Þð3Þ
Using SVR as before, for each hierarchy we obtained model-predicted duration estimates in seconds. To avoid pooling participants' reports together, human judgements were not standardized. Instead, for each of our 40 participants we computed human and model normalized biases from the human reports and model predictions associated with the set of videos associated with each participant. In other words, normalized bias was computed 'within-participant'.
To test the association between video-by-video human and model bias while accounting within-participant variability we used a linear mixed model approach. Using R with the lmer and car packages, we fit the following random-intercept model:
bias human � 1 þ bias model þ ð1jparticipantÞð6Þ
To determine whether model (bias model ) and human (bias human ) biases correlate, we used a chi-squared test (from the car function Anova) to compare Eq 5 to a reduced model without the fixed effect:
bias human � 1 þ ð1jparticipantÞð7Þ
To test the effect of video type (or scene) on model normalized bias, we fit the model:
bias human � 1 þ scene þ ð1jparticipantÞð8Þ
Again, we used a chi-squared test to compare Eq 8 to the reduced model that did not include scene (Eq 7)
To test whether the model trained on visual cortex events outperformed the somatosensory and auditory models, we compared the difference in AIC between the main (Eq 6 and Eq 8) and control (Eq 7) models for each hierarchy (see S5 Fig).
Robustness analysis (exploratory)
To examine the robustness of our exploratory analysis to criterion parameters we reran the above analysis pipeline under varying values of ϑ min and ϑ max . For layer 1 (where there should be most salient changes), ϑ min took 50 linearly-spaced values between 3 SD and 0 SD below the mean. ϑ max independently took 50 linearly-spaced values between 0 SD and 2.5 SD above the mean. We chose 2.5 SD because this was the highest value z-scored BOLD could take before being discarded as a head motion artefact. For each pair of ϑ min and ϑ max values for layer 1, the lower/upper bounds for layer 2 were ϑ min + 0.5 and ϑ max = 0.5 respectively. For layer 3, they were ϑ min + 1 and ϑ max + 1 respectively.
With these criteria, we obtained 250 datasets for each ROI. For each ROI and dataset, we tested the association between model-predicted bias and human bias by fitting the regression model:
bias human � b 0 þ b 1 � bias modelð9Þ
Heat maps depicted in Fig 7 correspond to one-tailed p-values for β 1 . This robustness analysis was not pre-registered.
Artificial classification network-based modelling
Frames from each video presented during the experiment were fed into the model presented in Roseboom et al [6]. Instead of accumulating events based on changes in BOLD amplitude, salient events in the video frames themselves were detected by analyzing activity in an artificial image classification network (AlexNet) [16]. We used nine network layers (input, conv1, conv2, conv3, conv4, conv5, fc6, fc7, and output, where fc corresponds to a fully connected layer and conv to the combination of a convolutional and a max pooling layer). Node-wise Euclidean distances for each node were computed, then summed over all nodes in the layer giving one value per video frame and layer. Each value was classified as a salient event or not using the same exponentially decaying criterion as before (see S3 Table for criterion values). Finally, accumulated salient events were mapped onto units of seconds using multiple linear regression.
Supporting information S1 Fig. Results from confirmatory GLM on BOLD (significant clusters only). A Higher BOLD for city than office scenes: R lingual gyrus; bilateral midcingulate area; R insula; bilateral SFG. B Higher BOLD for office than city scenes: R precuneus; bilateral precentral gyrus; L MFG; bilateral cerebellum; L paracentral lobule; R SFG. C Positive correlation with normalized estimation bias: bilateral precentral gyrus; L SMA; R superior occipital gyrus. D Negative correlation with normalized estimation bias: L angular frontal gyrus; L MFG; L posterior cingulate. See also S2 Table. (TIF) To test whether the visual, auditory or somatosensory models generated predicted durations that discriminated video type, we ran linear mixed models (LMMs) predicting model biases from the fixed effect video scene (city vs office). These were compared to control LMMs that did not have this fixed effect, using the log-likelihood ratio (LLR). The visual cortex LMM outperformed the auditory and somatosensory cortex LMMs as indicated by the greater LLR. Right. For each of the visual, auditory and somatosensory models, we constructed an LMM with human bias as the outcome and the model-predicted biases as a fixed effect. These LMMs tested the video-by-video correlations between predicted and human bias. These LMMs were compared to control models that did not have the model-predicted bias as a fixed effect, using LLR. The visual cortex LMM outperformed the auditory and somatosensory cortex LMMs, as indicated by the greater LLR. (TIF)
S6 Fig. Dissociation between human/fMRI-model duration estimates and stimulus properties.
We identified pairs of trials from the same participant, but from different video categories for which (A) human reports were very similar (the log ratio did not exceed 0.025) or (B) the reports predicted by the visual cortex model were very similar (the log ratio did not exceed 0.025). In both panels A and B, a dot represents a pair of trials. Dot colour represents the participant. For each pair, differences in report (human in panel A or model-predicted in panel B) are plotted against differences in the physical video differences, here quantified as the frame-to-frame Euclidean distance averaged over pixels. The difference in report/Euclidean distance between the two trials in a pair is expressed as log(city/office). These figures show that there were many trials pairs in our data where, despite being very different in terms of the pixel differences (up to 100s of times), human duration estimations (A) and visual cortexbased model predictions (B) were almost identical. (TIF) S1 Text. Supplementary results. Pixel-wise changes in stimulation are dissociable from both human and model-predicted report. (DOC) S1
Fig 2 .
2Artificial network model results. The same naturalistic videos (8-24 seconds in duration) that human participants viewed were input to an image classification network-based model to generate estimates of duration. (A) Relationship between presented and model-predicted video durations for this model, trained on accumulated salient events in video frames (solid line). The dashed line is the line of unity. (B) Relative under-/over-estimation of duration for office/city scenes for this model. Error bars represent SEM. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1010223.g002
Fig 3 .
3Perceptual hierarchies used for fMRI-based model analysis.
Fig 4 .
4Schematic of modelling analysis pipeline. (1) Following data collection, (2a) voxel-wise BOLD amplitude was extracted and (2b) TR-by-TR (i.e. time point-bytime point, TR = repetition time) changes (Euclidean distance or signed difference) computed. The example given here is for the visual hierarchy, where each shaded matrix X k illustratively represents voxel-wise BOLD amplitudes (shaded squares) at each slice. The same process was conducted for the auditory and somatosensory hierarchies (seeFig 3 and S1
Fig 5, accumulated salient events (defined according to Eq 3) in visual cortex already distinguish between video type prior to transformation into the units of this external metric of seconds.
Fig 5 .
5Accumulated salient events over video types, perceptual hierarchies (rows) and layers (columns). The three leftmost columns plot the mean (+/-SEM) number of accumulated salient events in each layer of each perceptual hierarchy as a function of city (blue lines) or office (yellow lines) scene.
19 ±13.96, 95%CI = [-0.94, 1.33], t 2329 = 0.33, p = 0.739, d = 0.01 (S2F Fig). The control models did not reproduce the effect of video type either (auditory: M±SD diff = -0.33 ±12.29, 95%CI = [-1.32, 0.67], t 2329 = -0.64, p = 0.522, d = -0.03, somatosensory: M±SD diff = -0.16 ±13.09, 95%CI = [-1.23, 0.90], t 2329 = -0.30, p = 0.762, d = -0.01, see S2G-S2H Fig). Setting a uniform prior between 0 and our behavioral effect of scene type (5.23%), Bayes factor analysis found evidence for the null in all three t-tests (visual: BF U(0,5.23) = 0.18, RR = [2.83, 1]), auditory: BF U(0,5.23) = 0.22, RR = [3.30, 1]), somatosensory: BF U(0,5.23) = 0.17, RR = [2.55, 1])
plotting mean model bias as a function of 25 quantiles of human normalized bias. The association held under a wide range of reasonable attention threshold parameters (Fig 7B), meaning that model performance in reproducing participant duration reports was robust to how salient events were categorized. Again, the visual model out-performed control models in predicting normalized bias (S5 Fig). While the model trained on accumulated visual cortex salient events reproduced patterns in human biases, biases from exploratory models trained on auditory and somatosensory salient events did not: they neither discriminated video type (auditory: M±SD diff = 0.35 ± 2.65, 95% CI = [-0.50, 1.19], χ 2 (1) = 0.43, p = 0.514, BF H(0,0.02) = 0.16, RR = [0.02, 1], somatosensory: M ±SD diff = -0.32 ± 2.56, 95% CI = [-1.13, 0.50], χ 2 (1) = 0.46, p = 0.499, BF H(0,0.02) = 0.06, RR = [0.01, 1] see Fig 6E and 6F), nor predicted trial-wise human normalized bias (auditory: β = -0.003 ± 0.006, χ 2 (1) = 0.20, p = 0.652, BF H(0,0.04) = 0.24, RR = [0.01, 1], somatosensory: β = 0.002 ± 0.007, χ 2 (1) = 0.11, p = 0.740, BF H(0,0.04) = 0.46, RR = [-1, 0.03] respectively,
Fig 6 .
6Computational neuroimaging analysis. (A-C) Trial-by-trial association between presented video duration and model-predicted duration reports obtained from the visual, auditory, and somatosensory models. Different dot colors represent different participants, and each dot is data from one trial. (D-F) Mean model-estimated normalized bias as a function of video type for the visual, auditory, and somatosensory models. Error bars represent +/-within-subject SEM. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1010223.g006
Fig 7 .
7Predicting trial-by-trial subjective time from human BOLD. (A) Mean normalized bias for the model trained on visual cortex activity, as a function of 25 quantiles of human bias. Colors represent x-axis values. Results show a positive association between human biases and model-predicted biases. (B) Heat map depicting p-values for the association between human bias and (visual cortex) model bias, as a function of minimum (x-axis) and maximum (y-axis) criterion values. Dark colors represent regions where the association was non-significant at α 0.05 or negative. Consistent results are found under a wide range of reasonable parameter values. (C,E). As for panel A, but for auditory and somatosensory cortex respectively. There is no association between human bias and model biases. (D,F). As for panel B, but for auditory and somatosensory cortex respectively. No significant positive correlation is found under alternative reasonable parameter values. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1010223.g007
S2
Fig. Brain-based modelling on the pre-registered pipeline. (A) Strong positive association between presented video durations and the z-scored reports we used to build the supersubject. (B) Normalized estimation bias computed on pooled ('super-subject') behavioral data, as a function of video scene. (C-E) Association between presented video duration and modelpredicted durations separately for visual, auditory and somatosensory Euclidean Distance models respectively. (F-H) Mean normalized bias of the visual, auditory and somatosensory models respectively, for office versus city scenes. Dot colors in the scatterplots represent different participants. Error bars in the bar charts represent SEM. (TIF) S3 Fig. Normalized bias predicted by models trained on salient events (Euclidean distance) in (A) visual, (B) auditory and (C) somatosensory hierarchies. On the x-axis is the 25 bins representing 25 quantiles of human super-subject bias, and on the y-axis is mean model bias for the trials that fell within in the respective bins. Error bars represent +/-SEM. (TIF) S4 Fig. Model fits for the regression of predicted durations onto presented durations (Euclidean Distance models), expressed as log-likelihood ratios. For each of the visual, auditory and somatosensory models, we regressed the model-predicted biases onto the human super-subject's biases. To compare the performance of the three regressions we compared their log-likelihoods to the null (intercept) model (higher values indicate better model fits). The visual cortex regression outperforms the other two, as indicated by its higher log-likelihood ratio. (TIF) S5 Fig. Model fits for the linear mixed models (Signed Difference analyses). Left.
salient events do indeed feel longer(Fig 1C.Our pre-registered prior for the Bayes factor came from the difference of 10.5 found in[6], seeFig 3G there). Note that this result shows that the amount of experienced time was lower for office videos, not necessarily that time passed faster for office videos.As predicted, durations of city scenes were relatively over-estimated and office scenes
under-estimated, M±SE diff = 5.23 ± 1.69 (normalized bias, %), 95% CI [1.81, 8.65], t 39 = 3.09,
p = 0.004, d = 0.50, BF H(0,10.5) = 33.8, confirming that natural scenes containing a higher den-
sity of
Table for
fordifferent hierarchies). (3) Total change in the layer/ROI at each TR was compared to a dynamic attention threshold (red line) that
categorized events as salient (red dots) or not (grey dots). The black line represents 0. An event was classified as salient if it took an equal or higher value than the
threshold. (4) Accumulated salient events were regressed onto seconds, (5a) predictions from the model were converted into normalized bias (5b) and compared across
condition and with human behavior.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1010223.g004
Table .
.Definition of hierarchies for each sensory cortex model. (PDF) S2Table. Criterion parameters for each hierarchical layer of the sensory cortex models. (PDF) S3 Table. Criterion parameters for the artificial network model. (PDF) S4 Table. Significant clusters revealed by confirmatory GLM on BOLD. (PDF) Writing -review & editing: Maxine T. Sherman, Zafeirios Fountas, Anil K. Seth, Warrick Roseboom.
PLOS Computational Biology | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1010223 July 7, 2022
AcknowledgmentsThank you to Charlotte Rae, Petar Raykov, Samira Bouyagoub, Chris Bird, Francesca Simonelli, and Mara Cercignani for their assistance with this project. Thanks also to Virginie van Wassenhove and Martin Wiener for comments on an earlier version of the manuscript.Author ContributionsConceptualization: Maxine T. Sherman, Zafeirios Fountas, Warrick Roseboom.
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| s2orc_abstract_body | 67 |
Is black dye craftable yet? | I can use admin panel to get it, but can it be crafted yet? | reddit_title_body | 313 |
who painted the front of wonderwall music | cited the Bombay sessions for "Wonderwall" as the inspiration for his 1974 collaborations with Shankar – namely, the Music Festival from India and their subsequent North American tour – both of which featured Indian musicians Harrison first worked with in January 1968. Apple commissioned American artist Bob Gill to produce a painting for the front cover of "Wonderwall Music". Gill recalls that he first attended a meeting at the company's headquarters, where the four Beatles emphasised the importance of the album for their new record label and outlined the concept behind the film. Gill painted a picture in the style | paq | 166 |
Why the new artist layout (mobile)? | If it ain't broke, Don't fix it. It is annoying, not logical, the album covers are minuscule pictures, the artist's "profile picture"(when you are on an artists homepage) is just a low resolution cropped version of the circular ones we had before (even the artist's name is in front of it, so you can't even see it). Also i hate how it shows popular releases first, like the other ones are less important. And you have to press a small button to get to the entire discography. It just seems so uninviting. Also you can't see all the full "fans Also like" list of bands when you tap on it. Instead it shows only a couple of well known bands/artists. It is hard finding new underground bands if they don't show up in the menu. I just hate how Spotify only cares about the masses. The mass of people who only care about like 20 artists or something and know only their most popular songs (nothing wrong with being like that of course i am a just a stupid music snob after all). maybe for them this update is not a problem, but as a music lover that listens to a lot of different music and also lots of smaller unknown bands, and also likes to try out their more unpopular stuff, this new layout just ruins the experience a lot for me. it is an unnecessary change, it adds nothing, it removes useful pages and features and fixes nothing (like the trash shuffle feature that plays a stupid algorithm). I really hate this new layout. This is just my own opinion, keep this in mind. Downvote me into Oblivion if you want but this update is just garbage.
If it ain't broke, Don't fix it. | reddit_title_body | 441 |
I thought these were great. Light but sturdy and a great size for ... | I thought these were great. Light but sturdy and a great size for our family. Will definitely order these again when my kids leave them all over the neighborhood lol. | amazon_reviews | 149 |
"cham hendon's ""slow motion form of action painting"" is said | Cham Hendon Hendon's work was marked by "a speculative and tenacious intelligence", and Russell went on to say that the paintings were good to look at, they had something to say and they were not taken from anyone else. That unique quality of Hendon's paintings defies classification. Some of his work has been called "narrative painting", but only a portion of his work fits that definition. His paintings have "affinities with Pop Art", but not the "dead-pan look of Pop Art". His method of painting is "akin to Jackson Pollock" and has been described as a "slow motion form of action painting", | paq | 443 |
Very nice shirt fits my body perfectly I will definitely be ... | Very nice shirt fits my body perfectly I will definitely be buying more of them in different colors and styles. | amazon_reviews | 129 |
where is his majesty's dragon published | His Majesty's Dragon His Majesty's Dragon, published in the UK as Temeraire, is the first novel in the "Temeraire" alternate history/fantasy series by American author Naomi Novik. It was first published in 2006. The story is set during an alternate-history version of the Napoleonic Wars, in which dragons not only exist but are used as a staple of aerial warfare in Asia and Europe. The dragons of the story are portrayed as sapient and intelligent, capable of logical thought and human speech. The series centers primarily on events involving Temeraire (the titular dragon) and his handler, Will Laurence. The first | paq | 92 |
when did the british take port royal from canada | This second settlement was seized by British military forces in 1710 in the Siege of Port Royal and was renamed Annapolis Royal in honour of Anne, Queen of Great Britain. Port Royal, Annapolis County, Nova Scotia Port Royal is a Canadian rural community in Annapolis County, Nova Scotia. It is situated on the north bank of the Annapolis Basin approximately downstream from the discharge point of the Annapolis River and the town of Annapolis Royal. Predominantly a farming community, Port Royal is also a significant tourist destination in Nova Scotia due to being the location of a historic French colonial | paq | 397 |
what percentage of manitoba's land is in the northern region | Northern Region, Manitoba Northern Manitoba is the most northerly region of the Canadian province of Manitoba, added to the province during the last major expansion of its boundaries in 1912. Forestry, mining and hydro-electric development are significant economic drivers with long-term consequences to the environment in the region. It is situated on the Canadian Shield and includes Manitoba's Hudson Bay coastline. The land area of the region is 438,491.51 km² (169,302.52 mi²), which encompasses 67% of Manitoba's total land area. The vast majority of the region is undeveloped wilderness. Manitoba's northern region is mostly within in the subarctic climate zone | paq | 331 |
Predictable and wordy | It was good if you are tired and just want something to read so you can fall asleep. Otherwise it was predictable and wordy. | amazon_reviews | 233 |
What is the total population of bradford? | What is the population of Bradford Ontario Canada? | wikianswers | 19 |
Francisco Tarrega, Schubert and Cole Porter | The fun of encores usually comes last, but we put it at the top of this hour. First, guitarist Pepe Romero playing a showcase of Spanish guitar sound and technique, "Recuerdos de la Alhambra" by Francisco Tarrega. It's an encore from Romero's concert this season at the 92nd Street Y in New York City. Then the Finnish Radio Symphony on tour in Tokyo, finishing with the Entr'acte No. 3 from Schubert's "Rosamunde." Sakari Oramo conducting. We'll finish with a lively encore pianist Mei-Ting Sun played at the University of Miami -- Cole Porter's "Begin the Beguine," in an arrangement by Art Tatum. | npr | 3 |
what did the castilians own after the battle of toro | Battle of Toro the Castilian chronicles also confirm the fact that the Castilians lost the Portuguese standard during the battle. However, the Castilian sources are contradictory in the details, and one of their chroniclers (Bernaldez) even wrote that the Portuguese ensign was killed, whereas he was captured and later returned to Portugal. In his Chronicle, Pulgar, the official chronicler of the Catholic Kings, made an important correction to a previous account that he had provided a few years ago in a letter sent to the city of Murcia, pretending that after the battle, the Castilians owned half of the Portuguese royal standard (after | paq | 213 |
An hereditary sensory and autonomic neuropathy transmitted as an X-linked recessive trait. | Five members of a single family presented with neuropathic deformities and ulceration of the feet developing in the first and second decades of life, and progressed slowly over many years. In this form of hereditary sensory and autonomic neuropathy, there was minimal tendon reflex impairment, cutaneous sensory impairment was restricted to the feet, and there was no autonomic dysfunction. The only neurophysiological abnormality was that of reduced or absent sural nerve sensory action potentials. Sural nerve biopsies taken from two affected family members showed changes of a chronic neuropathy with loss of myelinated fibres, particularly affecting those of small diameter. Unmyelinated fibres were present in normal numbers. This condition differed from other forms of hereditary sensory and autonomic neuropathy having an X-linked recessive mode of inheritance. | s2orc_title_abstract | 105 |
This stuff works great and won't damage paint | I use electrical tape to hang posters and things in my classroom. If you are a teacher then you understand how frustrating it can be with those cinder block walls. This stuff works great and won't damage paint. Love it! | amazon_reviews | 18 |
A rematch between Lee and Sasuke in Shippuden would've been awesome. | Just imagine, Lee has learned 8 Gates and takes on beginning/middle of the series Sasuke would be a cool fight. | reddit_title_body | 171 |
Do you need a visa to travel from ghana to malaysia? | Does a Ghana passport holder need a Visa to Malaysia? | wikianswers | 37 |
Metal is so much more sturdy and it has a metal hook as well | Bought this for my grand daughter who wanted to make pot holders. The previous one we had was plastic, and right off the bat, one of the teeth broke. Metal is so much more sturdy and it has a metal hook as well! Love this one! | amazon_reviews | 9 |
A fluorinated masked o-benzoquinone | Abstract A fluorinated masked o -benzoquinone has been prepared by oxidation 4-fluoro-2-methoxyphenol in methanol with phenyliodine diacetate. The fluorinated diene reacts in situ in normal Diels–Alder reactions with various dienophiles. The sequence provides new fluorinated building blocks for the synthesis of a variety of fluorinated compounds. | s2orc_title_abstract | 17 |
How to extend the life of a burnt out candle (pics in description) | If you like candles as much as I do, then you understand the frustration of the wick burning out when there’s still plenty of wax left in the jar (especially when it’s a candle you love).
With the remainder of the wax, run a knife around the perimeter of the jar, then take the knife through the wax to cut it into wedges. Pop one or two wedges into a wax warmer, and BAM! You get to use the extend the life of your candle!
Instructions with pictures | reddit_title_body | 336 |
Defective Auto Feature | I purchased 2 of these monitors for Christmas and the display is great. One of my monitors never allowed me to use the "Auto" function which is pretty annoying but I thought that it might be because I was running dual monitors. Recently I moved to using only one of them and the Auto function still doesn't work. If I could, I would return this defective one for a replacement. But overall, the monitor still works and looks good, just a defective Auto feature. | amazon_reviews | 285 |
Effect of some service conditions on the electrical resistivity of conductive styrene–butadiene rubber–carbon black composites | Factors influencing the resistivity–temperature behavior of carbon black filled isotactic polypropylene/high density polyethylene composites | s2orc_citation_titles | 74 |
Rammus really needs scaling CDR | After seeing Rammus at OGN it made me remember a point that I wanted to express about Rammus.
Looking at this lol wiki page ( he really really **REALLY** needs some sort of scaling cooldown reduction with his skills because of as right now, they are so static it makes Rammus as a tank very difficult after the initiation phase (assuming rammus initiates).
These are his cooldowns at **ALL** levels:
Powerball: 10 secs
Defensive Ball Curl: 14 sec
Puncturing Taunt: 12 secs
Tremors: 60 sec
Not one skill has a cd scaling at all. You can argue taunt has one since it increases the duration by 0.5 secs. But then 0.5 secs really is minuscule for any kind of cd scaling.
I feel Rammus is really limited because of this. In team fights, if you initiate, after you use your taunt you are rendered so useless for the rest of the fight. You basically use your ult and run around with no real peel or pressure on the enemy team.
I believe if Rammus gets some love on his CDRs and make them actually scale with level, he'll become a better tank who can actually do something after the initiation phase. Powerballing to peel or taunting more frequently can help Rammus, not to mention using defensive ball curl as well in those rough times.
It feels like when Rammus was FOTM ages ago, Riot simply nerfed but haven't really revised to see what makes Rammus so weak right now.
**TL;DR:** Rammus needs scaling CDs to peel for the team fight better and to have better presence after initiation phase. | reddit_title_body | 36 |
how many episodes of the elgin hour are there | Brodkin, a pioneering producer of early drama series that touched on social issues. The Elgin Hour The Elgin Hour (also known as The Elgin TV Hour) is a 60-minute live American anthology drama that aired from October 5, 1954 to June 14, 1955, on ABC, alternating with "The U.S. Steel Hour". There were a total of 19 episodes that featured actors John Cassavetes, Boris Karloff, Roddy McDowall, Kim Stanley, Teresa Wright, Joanne Woodward, and Robert Preston, among dozens of others. Its directors included the later notable feature directors, Daniel Petrie and Sidney Lumet. One of its writers was Reginald Rose, | paq | 493 |
Glad they added a couple of locks for thick socks ... | These sock locks are thicker and see stronger than the ones I bought in a sock store several years ago and have lasted about three years. Glad
they added a couple of locks for thick socks like woolens to keep together. They hold the socks together so they can be washed and dried
without any interference. When done, no hunting for the other sock or trying to match up pairs. | amazon_reviews | 206 |
Antimicrobial activity of sweet basil and thyme against salmonella enterica serotype Enteritidis in egg-based pasta | Salmonella enterica serotype Enteritidis is known as one of the most common pathogenic bacteria causing sal- monellosis in humans. Raw materials of animal origin (eggs, chicken meat) are frequent vectors that transmit this bacte- rium. Since eggs are used for the production of pasta, due to insufficient thermal treatment during pasta drying, they can be a potential risk to consumer health. Different essential oils of herbs can be used to reduce present pathogenic microor - ganisms. This paper compares a decrease in the number of Salmonella enterica serotype Enteritidis (D) ATCC 13076 and Salmonella enterica serotype Enteritidis isolated from outbreaks of salmonellosis in egg-based pasta under the influence of thyme and sweet basil essential oils. The results indicate that the utilized oils were more effective against the epidemic strain than the ATCC strain. In addition, thyme oil caused a more significant inhibition of Salmonella enterica serotype Enteritidis during the production process. | s2orc_title_abstract | 317 |
how many apartments are in st. catharines | than in 1998. St. Catharines also has a chronic shortage of social housing, causing hardship for low-income families. The Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation reported that construction began on 1,110 homes in 2011, up slightly from the 1,086 units started in 2010. Starts were lower for all housing types, except apartments. Apartment starts increased to 174 units from 41 units in 2010. All apartments started were rental. Single-detached starts decreased to 655 units in 2011 from the 714 homes started in 2010. The increase in apartment construction was attributed to baby boomers downsizing. According to Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation's | paq | 122 |
How feasible is it to repair damaged Play Arts joints? | My Tali'Zorah figure fell and her leg broke off today, and I wanna know if there's a more elegant solution than just forsaking articulation and super-gluing the leg back into its socket.
Googling around didn't provide very many solid answers, so I wasn't sure where else to turn, and I wasn't sure if these kinds of posts are allowed either, but any help you guys can provide would be very much appreciated. | reddit_title_body | 228 |
Nashville TN TIme Zone? | 'What time zone is Nashville TN'? | wikianswers | 65 |
A question about my non-verbal niece. | Hey everyone, I have a niece that turns 4 tomorrow. She doesn't talk at all... I've heard her say ... Maybe 4 words. For a little she could struggle to say "sit" when giving the dogs a treat. She said "two shoes" the other day. And a couple weeks ago she quietly said "abc song?" . The weird thing is... When she's asleep, she's said perfectly clear full sentences. "Can you pass the tablet please?" "Who are you" and "go away". On multiple cases over the last year. Has anyone else encountered this ? Some family has suggested it's a sign of autism, and some have suggested it's anxiety based. Does anyone have any helpful info? Thanks. | reddit_title_body | 498 |
what is the difference between applied computer science and computer science? | Traditionally, a computer science curriculum digs deeper into specialty areas such as compilers, graphics, artificial intelligence, and natural language processing (NLP). ... The applied program emphasizes using computer science theories and skills in a work setting to drive business decisions and operations. | gooaq | 6 |
How difficult would it be to find a Walter White/Gale Boetticher? Does it really take some kind of genius to cook high grade crystal meth with state-of-the-art equipment, or could most people with a BS in Chemistry do it? | Meth is quite easy to make if you have the chemicals, if you can follow a cooking recipe you can make meth. Having the knowledge to be able to use an industrial sized setup is another ballgame however and you'd want some sort of a chemistry background to use it all properly. The point of Walt's meth is that he gets it to an extremely high level of purity, which would require the diligent and precise work of an expert. So I don't know about genius, but certainly someone with a solid background in chemistry to make extremely good product on a large scale. Look into the synthesis of LSD, that requires some serious technical knowledge of organic chemistry and is very tricky to manufacture. | eli5 | 1 |
Abstract Objectives Eructation (belching) is a common symptom seen in clinical practice. Because either belching or heartburn may result from transient lower esophageal sphincter relaxations, it has been proposed that belching may be a manifestation of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). In this retrospective study we evaluated the prevalence of belching in dyspepsia and GERD and the relation of belching to acid reflux events documented by pH monitoring. Methods We examined the prevalence, frequency, and severity of belching and other GERD symptoms by use of standardized questionnaires in 180 GERD patients (group A) and 78 dyspeptic controls (group B) referred for evaluation at our institution. GERD was defined as either endoscopic esophagitis (or Barrett's esophagus) or positive DeMeester score (>14.2) on pH monitoring or both. Dyspeptic patients had normal endoscopy and pH studies. We also analyzed the relationship of belching to acid reflux events during the 24-h period of pH studies. Results Of 180 GERD patients, 132 (70%) reported belching during pH monitoring, versus 63 of 78 dyspeptic patients (80%) (p = ns). Similarly, 163 of 180 GERD patients (90%) reported heartburn versus 64 of 78 of dyspeptic patients (82%) (p = ns). Review of symptom questionnaires revealed no significant difference in belching severity between groups. However, heartburn and acid regurgitation were significantly more severe among GERD patients. There was a significantly higher correlation of both heartburn and belching with acid events in patients with GERD compared with patients with dyspepsia. In addition, although both belching and heartburn were significantly improved in patients with GERD, belching scores remained unchanged after proton pump inhibitor (PPI) therapy in patients with dyspepsia. Conclusions Belching is as common and as severe in patients with dyspepsia as it is in patients with GERD. Belching and heartburn in GERD patients are more likely correlated with episodes of pathological acid reflux. Because belching cannot be clinically used as a discriminatory symptom, ambulatory pH monitoring should be considered to elucidate the relationship of belching to acid reflux in patients with dyspepsia or GERD. | We studied the mechanism of belching with specific attention to the upper esophageal sphincter (UES) in 14 normal volunteers. Belching occurred by the following sequence of events: lower esophageal sphincter relaxation; gastroesophageal gas reflux, recorded manometrically as a gastroesophageal common cavity phenomenon; UES relaxation; esophagopharyngeal gas reflux; and restoration of intraesophageal pressure to baseline by a peristaltic contraction. Upper esophageal sphincter relaxations comparable to those associated with belches were induced by abrupt esophageal distention with air boluses. In contrast, fluid boluses injected into the midesophageal body either had no effect on UES pressure or increased UES pressure. Thus, the UES responded to esophageal body distention in two distinct ways: abrupt relaxation in response to air boluses and pressure augmentation in response to fluid boluses. Mucosal anesthesia did not alter the UES response to esophageal boluses of gas or liquid thereby making it unlikely that these substances are differentiated by a mucosal receptor. Rapid distention of the proximal esophagus with a cylindrical balloon (15 cm long) elicited UES relaxation. These findings suggest that the rapidity and spatial pattern of esophageal distention, rather than discrimination of the type of material causing the distention, determines whether or not UES relaxation occurs. | s2orc_abstract_citation | 38 |
24/7 Gyms in Queen Village? | I used to go to Optimal Gym on 3rd and bainbridge, but it doesn’t look 24/7 anymore (unless im mistaken). Anyone know of any in Queen Village or near here? Im weird and I like going 10pm-2am | reddit_title_body | 653 |
What do you think is the over/under on Liger being inducted in the WWE HoF? | With his appearance in WWE a few years, he could be in the same boat as Sting, who only ever made very limited appearances with WWE, and is still a HoFer. This could also mean Liger in a future WWE 2K game, as they fairly commonly slip some of the inductees into the new games. | reddit_title_body | 472 |
how many detectives are at the house in mapantsula | Mapantsula out that Sam has been hanging out with Duma, who is in hiding. Knowing Lucky is his brother, Panic goes to Lucky's. He gets nowhere, even after threatening him. Panic leaves, and we see that two detectives are staking out Lucky's house. Back at the police station, Panic is being humiliated by Stander, crouching naked in a locker room after insisting he does not know Duma. In another flashback, Panic is at Lucky's at night. He finds out Duma is there. Duma runs but Panic catches up with him and demands he leave Pat alone. The detectives staking out Lucky's | paq | 226 |
what is the title of the second album by the adventures in 1988 | The Sea of Love The Sea of Love is the second album by the Irish rock band The Adventures, released in May 1988. Entirely written by band member Pat Gribben, the album was produced by Pete Smith and Garry Bell. "The Sea of Love" featured the single "Broken Land", their only Top 40 hit in the UK, and also their only chart entry in the United States. Released on Elektra Records under a new contract, the album was their most successful, peaking at #30 on the UK Albums Chart and staying on the chart for 10 weeks. It was certified | paq | 464 |
the relaxation of haydn’s symphony 59 at the end of a sym | Symphony No. 59 (Haydn) 60 "Il Distratto") are inaccurate. The work is in standard four movement form and scored for two oboes, two horns, continuo (bassoon, harpsichord) and strings. The opening movement starts off energetically on an upbeat followed by octave drop. Following the initial outburst, the music dramatically relaxes and comes to a full stop. This was a technique he used to an even greater effect in his 48th symphony from about the same time period. The relaxation also appears at the end of the movement giving the listener the quiet curtain raising music that often occurs at the end of an opera | paq | 145 |
[NEWS] Transistrian Troops in Position and Ready | The army and police count of 650 will now be located in battallions in the outskirts of Tiraspol. They are ready to encounter enemy soldiers to defend the land of the Transnistrian Reich. | reddit_title_body | 124 |
where did harald fairhair win his first battle in 872 | Harald Fairhair historicity is not confirmed). In 872, after a great victory at Hafrsfjord near Stavanger, Harald found himself king over the whole country, ruling from his Kongsgård seats at Avaldsnes and Alrekstad. His realm was, however, threatened by dangers from without, as large numbers of his opponents had taken refuge, not only in Iceland, then recently discovered; but also in the Orkney Islands, Shetland Islands, Hebrides Islands, Faroe Islands and the northern European mainland. However, his opponents' leaving was not entirely voluntary. Many Norwegian chieftains who were wealthy and respected posed a threat to Harald; therefore, they were subjected to much | paq | 33 |
Windows 10 desktop and taskbar unresponsive after startup. | Ok so this occurred out of the blue 2 days ago. Whenever I start up my pc, the shortcuts on my desktop become unresponsive as well as my taskbar after a couple of seconds. Any apps i opened before it did would also run very slowly e.g my discord would be stuck trying to connect.
The only thing i did some time around this problem popped up was updating my nividia drivers and even then when i uninstalled it just now, the problem still persists.
I can still get it to work if i restart right when after i log in but i don't want to have to deal with this endeavor every time so please help. | reddit_title_body | 325 |
in calvino's version of the frog princess, what do the princes use instead | The Frog Princess cloth and baking bread. In every task, the frog far outperforms the two other lazy brides-to-be. In some versions, the frog uses magic to accomplish the tasks, and though the other brides attempt to emulate the frog, they cannot perform the magic. Still, the young prince is ashamed of his frog bride until she is magically transformed into a human princess. In Calvino's version, the princes use slings rather than bows and arrows. In the Greek version, the princes set out to find their brides one by one; the older two are already married by the time the youngest prince | paq | 466 |
Is there any incentive at all to keep playing the card game? | Bind and Divide. After you get the Gambler asterisk, is there any incentive to rank up at all? I know you get something for collecting all the cards but does anything happen as you rank up? Any side quests or game content that's of any consequence for playing this silly card game? | reddit_title_body | 610 |
Reviving the Rhetoric of Realism: Politics and Responsibility in Grand Strategy | In both disciplinary history and contemporary methodology, realism is conventionally cast as the antithesis of rhetoric. Born in reaction against the empty liberal rhetoric of interwar liberalism and espousing a robust materialism and rigorous rationalism, realism often seems the obstacle that rhetoric's focus on language, narrative, and social construction must inevitably confront and the challenge around which debates must again inevitably revolve. This article challenges this vision of the relationship between rhetoric and realism. Returning to the birth of international relations in the immediate post-war era, we demonstrate that early realists perceived rhetoric as central to action in domestic as well as international politics and that it was particularly important in the United States. This realist rhetoric is marked by an engagement with grand politics, with the relationship between rhetoric, political identity, social mobilization, political leadership, and foreign policy. Rather than taking eith... | s2orc_title_abstract | 58 |
Are there any other good weapons for the Flak Rakk Build ? | So im trying this new Rakk Build from this video:
I was just wondering are there any other good weapons or other equipment that go Well with this Build besides the few he showed and What anointements should i get on them (i figure that the 100% bonus Damage after Rakk is the best)
Or is there an even better Rakk Build that i should go for ?
Thanks | reddit_title_body | 575 |
Arden, Indianapolis | Arden is an affluent residential neighborhood on the north side of Indianapolis, Indiana. The neighborhood is about a 15-minute drive from downtown. It is bounded by 71st Street on the north, Pennsylvania Street on the west, College Avenue on the east, and the White River on the south. Arden is directly north of the Broad Ripple Village neighborhood and south of the community of Meridian Hills.
Arden sits on acreage which was originally part of the Walter Johnson farm. In 1910, were sold by the Johnsons to the Van Sants for their family estate. In 1922, the Van Sants platted a small subdivision on and the Johnsons platted a larger subdivision on of their farm. Both subdivisions failed and resulted in only a single house being built in 1927. Both subdivisions were vacated the following year. In 1929, were purchased from the Johnsons by the Arden Realty Group which subdivided the property. The first home in the Arden development was constructed in 1929, but construction ceased during the Depression. In 1931, a new show home was built and in a couple of years construction resumed in the Arden subdivision. Most homes were constructed during the neighborhood's first twenty years; however, there have been a handful of homes constructed more recently. Homes in Arden vary in size and are built in a mix of traditional styles and vary greatly in price from $175,000 for the most modest to nearly $3 million for the most grand.
Arden remains a quiet, established neighborhood where several residents have lived for two or more generations.
References
Indianapolis Star Communities Section, Arden Neighborhood
Arden Neighborhood Association, History of Arden
Neighborhoods in Indianapolis
Populated places established in 1922 | wikipedia | 9 |
Re-understanding of Asiatic Mode of Production | Asiatic Mode of Production is an important part of Marx's theory of social forms.There have always been controversial interpretations of Asiatic Mode of Production.The reasons behind these lie in the theoretical limitations and the impact of Soviet Marxism.To properly understand Asiatic mode of production is to regard it as a process of development and improvement.Not being suitable for China's actual conditions,Asiatic mode of production still has a profound and instructive significance for the construction of China's social form theory. | s2orc_title_abstract | 256 |
Myocardial alpha 1A-adrenoceptor subtypes in rabbit: differentiation by a selective antagonist, HV723. | The Alpha-1A Adrenergic Receptor in the Rabbit Heart | s2orc_citation_titles | 36 |
who did the wardrobe for scumbag movie | Scumbag (film) cutting room floor for the final version. The 1990s wardrobe styling was primarily done by Karmia Amarissa with the exception for a few actors from the East Coast location. Many of the actors took clothes directly from their own wardrobes. "Scumbag" was self-funded Roberge after raising a low initial amount by crowdfunding through Indiegogo which is the main reason the movie took a year to shoot. Principal photography for "Scumbag" began on 25 January 2015, in New York City at Nomad Editing Company's old office on 12 W. 21st St (12th floor) under Roberge's film production company, World Domination Pictures. | paq | 62 |
What are the charities for homeless people? | What charities are there for homeless people? | wikianswers | 10 |
so probably good for a normal ankle | I wish they were leather, but they don't look cheap. A little big on the ankle, but I have chicken legs, so probably good for a normal ankle. Great price, too | amazon_reviews | 323 |
what is the name of sarah kemble knight's diary | Sarah Kemble Knight and various fashions of the people of New York and New Haven, as well as the living conditions found in rural settlements between Boston and New York. Knight’s diary has also been important in the field of women’s history and literary recovery, both of which are movements that seek to recover narratives often forgotten or neglected in favor of more mainstream, canonized works. As a woman’s diary, "The Journal of Madam Knight" represents a deviation from the traditional masculine canon. While her status as a feminist figure remains open for debate, Knight’s diary has merited study for its record of | paq | 279 |
Mycorrhiza formation and function in Norway spruce stands affected by forest decline in Bavaria | Experimental evidence of a deleterious soil microflora associated with Norway spruce decline in France and Germany | s2orc_citation_titles | 48 |
Honestly this is the best knife I own | Honestly this is the best knife I own. It's a great everyday carry and is fine to wear on you just about anywhere because of its size. Nearly perfect. | amazon_reviews | 13 |
where did rizwan cheema play his first international match | Rizwan Cheema shortlist for the 2010 IPL contract auction; he is one of 51 people to do so from an original list of 97. On 3 June 2018, he was selected to play for the Winnipeg Hawks in the players' draft for the inaugural edition of the Global T20 Canada tournament. Cheema made his international debut at the age of 30 in the Scotia Bank ODI series in King City, Ontario in August 2008. Cheema came to notice with a 61-ball 89 against West Indies in his second ODI and in the same match also took 3 for 31 in 10 overs | paq | 144 |
AskMen, have you ever met/dated a girl who was 'hard' on the surface but was actually a sweetheart underneath? What did you think of them? | I know a girl who's known to be sarcastic, witty, and sort of aggressive on the outside, but due to actually knowing her well I know she's actually really into things that feminine girls would be into, and I'm pretty sure she loves the idea of romantic things being done for her, and things you would never expect from what you see on the surface. Have you known someone like this? If you dated someone like this, what was it like? | reddit_title_body | 49 |
Afzal Khan accused of conning customers and financial firms in US .
Federal agents hunting the 32-year-old fear he may have fled the country .
Flamboyant Khan, from Edinburgh, was known to his clients as 'Bobby'
He ran the Emporio Motor Group in New Jersey and appeared on reality TV . | A British-born businessman has been placed on the FBI's Most Wanted list over claims he conducted a multi-million pound luxury car scam. Afzal Khan is accused of conning a string of customers and financial firms at a motor dealership he ran in the US. Federal agents hunting the 32-year-old, originally from Edinburgh, fear he may have fled the country and have offered a $20,000 reward for information leading to his arrest. Afzal Khan (pictured) is accused of conning a string of customers and financial firms at a motor dealership he ran in the US . Federal agents hunting the 32-year-old, originally from Edinburgh, fear he may have fled the country and have offered a $20,000 reward for information leading to his arrest . Khan is accused of obtaining loans from a bank for cars that he never delivered, but for which the purchaser was still responsible . Flamboyant Khan, known to his clients as 'Bobby', opened the Emporio Motor Group in New Jersey in 2013 and maintained a high profile. He appeared on US reality series The Real Housewives Of New Jersey and counted members of the show's cast among his clients. He has now been accused of a massive fraud involving super cars including Lamborghinis, Bentleys and Rolls Royces. He is accused of obtaining loans from a bank for cars that he never delivered, but for which the purchaser was still responsible. He also obtained loans for cars that were delivered, but for which neither he nor Emporio had title documents. As a result, the purchasers of these cars were liable for the loan, but could not register the vehicles. Khan also offered to sell cars for customers, and then neither returned the cars nor provided any money from car sales. Flamboyant Khan, known to his clients as 'Bobby', opened the Emporio Motor Group in New Jersey in 2013 and maintained a high profile . One financial institution is said to have lost $1.6million from its dealings with Khan and 75 customers have come forward to make complaints against him. If convicted, he could face a maximum potential penalty of 20 years in prison and a multi-million dollar fine. Khan was born in Edinburgh to Pakistani parents and moved to America more than 20 years ago. Police and the FBI attempted to arrest him at his New Jersey home at the end of October but could not locate him. He has now been placed on the FBI's 10 Most Wanted 'white collar criminals' list. In an interview he gave when he opened his car dealership in 2013, Khan boasted that he had been selling luxury cars since he was 18 . He said: 'There's a waiting list for any car like this, because you can't find it, but the number of millionaires and billionaires grows every day. 'Everybody wants the next toy. This is a boutique dealership. It's like walking into a Gucci or a Fendi store.' The FBI wanted poster for Khan says he has ties to the United Arab Emirates, Canada, the UK and Pakistan, and may be found in those countries. He is described as 5 feet 10 inches and 180 pounds, with a scar on his right arm. Last week, Khan's brother Anil Iqbal was arrested by police in New Jersey investigating the alleged scam. Iqbal, 36, who was an employee at the dealership, has been charged with conspiracy to commit theft, theft by extortion, theft by deception and fencing. An FBI spokesman said: 'Afzal Khan is wanted for allegedly defrauding customers and financial institutions while he was the owner of Emporio Motor Group, a car dealership in Ramsey, New Jersey. 'From approximately December 2013 to September 2014, Khan allegedly obtained loans for vehicles that were never delivered, obtained loans for vehicles without proper title, and issued insufficient funds checks. 'Khan also allegedly offered to sell vehicles on consignment and then neither returned the vehicles nor provided any funds for the vehicle sales. 'A federal arrest warrant was issued for Khan on October 21, 2014, by the United States District Court, District of New Jersey, Newark, New Jersey, after he was charged with wire fraud. 'The FBI is offering a reward of up to $20,000 for information leading to the arrest of Afzal Khan.' | cnn | 2 |
who plays obsequius in i keano | I, Keano "Extra Time" at the Olympia for two weeks from 19 May 2008, playing its last ever performance on 31 May 2008 to standing ovations. In 2015, the Olympia revived the show again for a limited 6 week run from March 25th to May 2nd. The characters, and the real-life figures whom they parody, are: The lead role of Keano has been played by Mario Rosenstock and Pat Kinevane in 2005, Denis Foley in 2006, and Jamie Beamish in 2007 and 2008*. Two cast members have been ever-present: Dessie Gallagher (Macartacus) and Malachy McKenna (Obsequius); as has the musical director David | paq | 117 |
Met HBO-P naar universiteit? | Ik heb de havo zonder moeite afgerond, en zat nog te twijfelen om het vwo te doen. Uiteindelijk heb ik besloten om maar aan de hbo te beginnen, en nu zit te twijfelen om over te stappen naar de uni.
Ik studeer werktuigbouwkunde, en het gaat mij redelijk goed af. Ik sta momenteel een 7.7 gemiddeld, zonder veel moeite te doen. Maar ondanks dat een 7.7 een prima cijfer is geeft het totaal geen gevoel van voldoening, ik doe er immers vrij weinig voor. Ik heb op de site van de TU-delft gelezen dat er wordt afgeraden om met je HBO-P naar de uni te gaan. Waarom heb ik niet gevonden, hierdoor word ik wat onzeker, omdat ik geen zin heb als de uni mij niet lukt weer terug te gaan naar het HBO. Ook hoor ik mijn ouders eigenlijk alleen maar over het niveauverschil, en dat het waarschijnlijk te moeilijk is. Mijn vader heeft elektrotechniek HBO gedaan, en heeft geen referentie voor de uni, of ik hem dus kan vertrouwen weet ik eigenlijk niet. Mijn moeder denkt ook dat het te moeilijk voor mij is, maar zij is zo technisch als iets wat helemaal niet technisch is. (en ik ben zo goed met woorden als iemand die helemaal niet goed is met woorden)
Wat redenen waarom ik misschien naar de uni wil:
Ik denk dat ik uiteindelijk toch wel mijn master wil halen, deze route gaat sneller.
De vakken waar ik "wat meer moeite" voor moet doen vind ik leuker, omdat ik dan meer het gevoel heb dat ik iets heb geleerd. Ook merk ik dat als het wat uitdagender is ik gemotiveerder raak om meer tijd te besteden aan school.
Wanneer ik aan het leren ben voor de tentamens vind ik het eigenlijk best wel leuk om iets te doen voor school, maar tijdens de normale weken kan de de motivatie niet opbrengen om opdrachten te maken die ik toch wel de dag voor het tentamen kan maken en alsnog een goed cijfer halen.
Het werken aan de projecten vind ik niet super leuk, maar de theorie wel. Hierdoor vraag ik mij soms af of werktuigbouwkunde wel de goede studie voor mij is. Wanneer we een nieuw project krijgen wordt ik eerst enthausiast en begin ik er over na te denken, maar wanneer je er echt aan moet ben je de hele tijd bezig met allemaal shit schrijven waar je nooit meer naar terugkijkt. Het werken in de werkplaats is echt een drama, ik heb er totaal geen aanleg voor, en vind het bizar saai. Dit kan zijn omdat ik het ((hopgelijk) nog) niet kan, of het past gewoon niet bij mij.
Om het wat concreter te maken misschien wat vragen:
\* Weten jullie waarom wordt afgeraden met je HBO-P naar de uni te gaan?
\* Heeft iemand de overstap van HBO wtb naar uni wtb gemaakt, hoe was het niveauverschil?
\* Hoe gaan jullie om met weinig motivatie voor makkelijke vakken?
Dit was mijn verhaaltje wel denk ik, reageer als je wilt, als je dat niet wilt doe dat niet. | reddit_title_body | 632 |
how many commonhold residential developments were there in 2009 | and leaseholds (leases) on the other is that commonholds do not depreciate in value towards the end of their Term ("term", "term of years" or in extraneous documents sometimes "existence"). In the years since the 2002 Act became law, only a handful of commonholds have been registered, whilst hundreds of thousands of long leases have been granted during the same period. As of 3 June 2009, there were 12 commonhold residential developments comprising 97 units (homes) in England and one commonhold residential development comprising 30 units (homes) in Wales. Where freehold houses should be subjected to positive covenants which force | paq | 6 |
when did concord speedway stop hosting big 10 races | Concord Speedway now has three unique turns. Pit road entrance is located in the tri-oval prior to turn three. The track had seating for over 12,000 fans prior to a recent downsizing that saw the turn one grandstands converted to a dirt berm. The track has hosted the Big 10 series at two different times. Most recently super late models competed in the series from 2003-2005. Freddie Query is the track's all-time leader in wins and claimed the Big 10 series championship in 2004 and 2005. The track stopped weekly racing on the half-mile tri-oval in 2008 and only has the quarter | paq | 160 |
This stuff is amazing! It actually works at not just masking a ... | This stuff is amazing! It actually works at not just masking a smell but near fully eliminating it. Highly recommend. The fragrance is slightly herbal rather than typical floral or citrus. | amazon_reviews | 370 |
which bible did samuel bagster first bring out | Samuel Bagster the Elder edition. He first brought out a Hebrew Bible, which was followed by the Septuagint, both in foolscap octavo. The production of English bibles was a monopoly in the United Kingdom, confined in England to the king's printer and the two great universities, in Scotland to Sir D. H. Blair and John Bruce, and in Ireland to Mr. Grierson. It had been decided, however, that the patent did not apply to bibles printed with notes. In 1816 Bagster brought out "The English version of the polyglot bible" (with a preface by T. Chevalier), in foolscap octavo size, containing a selection of | paq | 192 |
Great replacement for power cable to tablets. | First this product was delivered very fast and it cam in quality packaging.
I bought this device as I needed a replace for my kids Nabi tablet because the power cable that came with it broke and the only other type that is out there for the Nabi is the one that has a built in cable to the power brick. This helps as I have plenty USB power chargers lying around from old phones or tablets. This worked perfect with the Nabi Tablet.
I received this product at discount or free. | amazon_reviews | 164 |