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= Strobilurus tenacellus =
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Strobilurus tenacellus , commonly known as the pinecone cap , is a species of agaric fungus in the family Physalacriaceae . It is found in Asia and Europe , where it grows on the fallen cones of pine and spruce trees . The fruit bodies ( mushrooms ) are small , with convex to flat , reddish to brownish caps up to 15 m... |
= = Taxonomy = =
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The species was first described as Agaricus tenacellus by Christian Hendrik Persoon in his 1796 Observationes Mycologicae . In its taxonomic history , it has been moved to the genera Collybia by Paul Kummer in 1803 , Marasmius by Jules Favre in 1939 , and Pseudohiatula by Georges MΓ©trod in 1952 . Rolf Singer transferr... |
The specific epithet tenacellus is a diminutive form of the Latin word tenax , meaning " tough " . Its British Mycological Society @-@ recommended common name is the " pinecone cap " . English botanist James Edward Smith called it the " dark fir @-@ cone Agaric " in his 1836 work The English Flora .
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= = Description = =
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The cap is initially convex before flattening out , sometimes retaining a small central papilla , and sometimes developing a central depression ; the cap diameter reaches 5 β 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 2 β 0 @.@ 6 in ) . The smooth cap is hygrophanous ( i.e. , it changes colour as it loses or absorbs moisture ) , and has shallow r... |
The spore print is white . Spores are roughly elliptical to tear @-@ shaped , with dimensions of 5 @.@ 0 β 7 @.@ 5 by 2 @.@ 4 β 4 @.@ 0 ΞΌm . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are four @-@ spored , and measure 20 β 40 by 7 β 11 ΞΌm . Cheilocystidia ( cystidia on the gill edge ) are thin walled , plentiful , spindl... |
= = = Similar species = = =
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Strobilurus esculentus and S. stephanocystis are similar in appearance to S. tenacellus . S. esculentus mushrooms have thin , sharp cap margins and only fruit on fallen spruce cones . S. stephanocystis has a yellow @-@ brown to reddish @-@ yellow cap that is not hygrophanous . Baeospora myosura is another small agaric... |
= = Habitat and distribution = =
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Strobilurus tenacellus is a saprobic wood @-@ rotting fungus . It fruits singly or in small groups on fallen and often partially buried cones of Scots pine ( Pinus sylvestris ) , European black pine ( Pinus nigra ) and sometimes spruce ( Picea ) in coniferous and mixed forests . It is found in Europe and Asia , where ... |
= = Bioactive compounds = =
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Two cyathane @-@ like diterpenoids , ( 12S ) -11Ξ± , 14Ξ± @-@ epoxy @-@ 13Ξ± , 14Ξ² , 15 @-@ trihydroxycyath @-@ 3 @-@ ene and ( 12R ) -11Ξ± , 14Ξ± @-@ epoxy @-@ 13Ξ± , 14Ξ² , 15 @-@ trihydroxycyath @-@ 3 @-@ ene , have been isolated and identified from the liquid culture of the fungus . These compounds inhibit the growth of ... |
Using a standard laboratory method to determine antimicrobial susceptibility , methanol @-@ based extracts of Strobilurus tenacellus fruit bodies were shown in a 2000 study to have low antibacterial activity against the bacterium Bacillus subtilis , and low to moderate activity against the fungi Candida albicans and A... |
= Gilbert de Clare , 8th Earl of Gloucester =
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Gilbert de Clare , 8th Earl of Gloucester , 7th Earl of Hertford , 10th Lord of Clare , 5th Lord of Glamorgan ( c . 10 May 1291 β 24 June 1314 ) was an English nobleman and a military commander in the Scottish Wars . In contrast to most English earls at the time , his main focus lay in the pursuit of war rather than i... |
Now one of Edward 's strongest supporters , he accompanied the king on a campaign to Scotland in 1314 , when several other nobles refused . He was killed at the Battle of Bannockburn on 24 June , under somewhat unclear circumstances . Gloucester was the most prominent of the casualties of the battle , which ended in a... |
= = Family background and early life = =
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Gilbert de Clare was the son of Gilbert de Clare , 7th Earl of Gloucester β known as Gilbert ' the Red ' β who in 1290 married Joan of Acre , daughter of Edward I. As a condition for the marriage , the earl had to surrender all his lands to the king , only to have them returned jointly to himself and his wife for the ... |
In 1297 , Joan secretly married Ralph de Monthermer , a knight in the late earl 's household . This enraged Edward I , who had other marriage plans for Joan . The king imprisoned Monthermer , but later relented , and sanctioned the marriage . Because of the previous settlement , Joan was still titled countess , and he... |
= = Early service under Edward II = =
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Gilbert 's first years as earl were predominantly concerned with the Scottish Wars . He had no personal interest in the region , but the Welsh Marches , where his landed interest lay , were largely pacified at the time , and Scotland presented a good opportunity to pursue military glory and reward . He was almost imme... |
This situation led to frustration among the English nobility . In addition to the Scottish issue , there was also discontent with the king 's treatment of his favourite , Piers Gaveston . Gaveston 's promotion from relative obscurity to Earl of Cornwall , combined with his arrogant behaviour , caused resentment among ... |
= = Escalation of the national conflict = =
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In spite of his participation in the baronial reform movement , Gloucester still maintained the trust of the king . He , Gaveston and the Earl of Warenne were the only earls to accompany the king on a Scottish campaign in 1310 β 11 . In March 1311 , while the Ordinances were still in the workings , Gloucester was appo... |
Gloucester remained in the inner circle around the king over the next months . In the summer of 1313 , he was again guardian of the realm while the king was in France , and in February 1314 , he was sent to France on a diplomatic mission regarding Gascony . The greatest problem of the reign , however , remained the un... |
= = Death at Bannockburn = =
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Gloucester was involved in a brief skirmish with the Scots on 23 June , the day before the main battle . While the king considered whether to camp for the night or to engage the Scots immediately , Gloucester and Hereford β either through insubordination or a misunderstanding β charged directly into the place called t... |
The most detailed account of the Earl of Gloucester 's death at the Battle of Bannockburn is the chronicle Vita Edwardi Secundi . This account is written as a moral tale , expounding on the earl 's heroism and the cowardly conduct of his companions . For this reason , its historical accuracy must be taken with some ca... |
After Gloucester was killed , the English army soon fell into disarray , and the battle resulted in a resounding victory for the Scots , and a humiliating withdrawal for the English . It was widely agreed that Gloucester , with his proud family history and valuable estates , was the most prominent of the many casualti... |
= = Dispersal of estates and aftermath = =
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Gloucester 's political importance did not end with his death ; his disappearance from the political scene had immediate consequences . In his Welsh lordship of Glamorgan , the uncertain situation caused by his death caused a short @-@ lived rebellion in 1316 . In Ireland , where he also held large possessions , the p... |
The lands went into royal possession while the matter of inheritance was being settled . By the entail of 1290 , the lands could only be inherited by direct descendants of the seventh earl and Joan of Acre . Maud managed to postpone the proceedings by claiming to be pregnant , but by 1316 it was clear that this could ... |
Not content with his part , Despenser used his relationship with the king to impinge on the lands of other Marcher lords . This caused resentment among such men as Hereford and Roger Mortimer , who rose up in rebellion in 1321 . The rebellion was crushed , but resistance continued under the Marcher lords ' ally Thomas... |
= = Ancestry = =
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= Romeo and Juliet =
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Romeo and Juliet is a tragedy written by William Shakespeare early in his career about two young star @-@ crossed lovers whose deaths ultimately reconcile their feuding families . It was among Shakespeare 's most popular plays during his lifetime and , along with Hamlet , is one of his most frequently performed plays ... |
Romeo and Juliet belongs to a tradition of tragic romances stretching back to antiquity . The plot is based on an Italian tale translated into verse as The Tragical History of Romeus and Juliet by Arthur Brooke in 1562 , and retold in prose in Palace of Pleasure by William Painter in 1567 . Shakespeare borrowed heavil... |
Shakespeare 's use of his poetic dramatic structure ( especially effects such as switching between comedy and tragedy to heighten tension , his expansion of minor characters , and his use of sub @-@ plots to embellish the story ) has been praised as an early sign of his dramatic skill . The play ascribes different poe... |
Romeo and Juliet has been adapted numerous times for stage , film , musical and opera venues . During the English Restoration , it was revived and heavily revised by William Davenant . David Garrick 's 18th @-@ century version also modified several scenes , removing material then considered indecent , and Georg Benda ... |
= = Characters = =
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= = Synopsis = =
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The play , set in Verona , Italy , begins with a street brawl between Montague and Capulet servants who , like their masters , are sworn enemies . Prince Escalus of Verona intervenes and declares that further breach of the peace will be punishable by death . Later , Count Paris talks to Capulet about marrying his daug... |
Meanwhile , Benvolio talks with his cousin Romeo , Montague 's son , about Romeo 's recent depression . Benvolio discovers that it stems from unrequited infatuation for a girl named Rosaline , one of Capulet 's nieces . Persuaded by Benvolio and Mercutio , Romeo attends the ball at the Capulet house in hopes of meetin... |
Tybalt , meanwhile , still incensed that Romeo had sneaked into the Capulet ball , challenges him to a duel . Romeo , now considering Tybalt his kinsman , refuses to fight . Mercutio is offended by Tybalt 's insolence , as well as Romeo 's " vile submission " , and accepts the duel on Romeo 's behalf . Mercutio is fat... |
Montague argues that Romeo has justly executed Tybalt for the murder of Mercutio . The Prince , now having lost a kinsman in the warring families ' feud , exiles Romeo from Verona , under penalty of death if he ever returns . Romeo secretly spends the night in Juliet 's chamber , where they consummate their marriage .... |
Juliet visits Friar Laurence for help , and he offers her a potion that will put her into a deathlike coma for " two and forty hours " . The Friar promises to send a messenger to inform Romeo of the plan , so that he can rejoin her when she awakens . On the night before the wedding , she takes the drug and , when disc... |
The messenger , however , does not reach Romeo and , instead , Romeo learns of Juliet 's apparent death from his servant Balthasar . Heartbroken , Romeo buys poison from an apothecary and goes to the Capulet crypt . He encounters Paris who has come to mourn Juliet privately . Believing Romeo to be a vandal , Paris con... |
= = = Modern form = = =
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Luigi da Porto ( 1485 β 1529 ) adapted the story as Giulietta e Romeo and included it in his Historia novellamente ritrovata di due Nobili Amanti , written in 1524 and published posthumously in 1531 in Venice . Da Porto drew on Pyramus and Thisbe , Boccacio 's Decameron , and Salernitano 's Mariotto e Ganozza , but it... |
Da Porto gave Romeo and Juliet most of its modern form , including the names of the lovers , the rival families of Montecchi and Capuleti , and the location in Verona . He named the friar Laurence ( frate Lorenzo ) and introduced the characters Mercutio ( Marcuccio Guertio ) , Tybalt ( Tebaldo Cappelleti ) , Count Par... |
In 1554 , Matteo Bandello published the second volume of his Novelle , which included his version of Giuletta e Romeo , probably written between 1531 and 1545 . Bandello lengthened and weighed down the plot , while leaving the storyline basically unchanged ( though he did introduce Benvolio ) . Bandello 's story was t... |
In his 1562 narrative poem The Tragical History of Romeus and Juliet , Arthur Brooke translated Boaistuau faithfully , but adjusted it to reflect parts of Chaucer 's Troilus and Criseyde . There was a trend among writers and playwrights to publish works based on Italian novelles β Italian tales were very popular among... |
Christopher Marlowe 's Hero and Leander and Dido , Queen of Carthage , both similar stories written in Shakespeare 's day , are thought to be less of a direct influence , although they may have helped create an atmosphere in which tragic love stories could thrive .
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= = Date and text = =
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It is unknown when exactly Shakespeare wrote Romeo and Juliet . Juliet 's nurse refers to an earthquake she says occurred 11 years ago . This may refer to the Dover Straits earthquake of 1580 , which would date that particular line to 1591 . Other earthquakes β both in England and in Verona β have been proposed in sup... |
Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet was published in two quarto editions prior to the publication of the First Folio of 1623 . These are referred to as Q1 and Q2 . The first printed edition , Q1 , appeared in early 1597 , printed by John Danter . Because its text contains numerous differences from the later editions , it ... |
The superior Q2 called the play The Most Excellent and Lamentable Tragedie of Romeo and Juliet . It was printed in 1599 by Thomas Creede and published by Cuthbert Burby . Q2 is about 800 lines longer than Q1 . Its title page describes it as " Newly corrected , augmented and amended " . Scholars believe that Q2 was bas... |
The First Folio text of 1623 was based primarily on Q3 , with clarifications and corrections possibly coming from a theatrical promptbook or Q1 . Other Folio editions of the play were printed in 1632 ( F2 ) , 1664 ( F3 ) , and 1685 ( F4 ) . Modern versions β that take into account several of the Folios and Quartos β f... |
= = Themes and motifs = =
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