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wiki_38_chunk_6 | Atlas Autocode | When AA was ported to the English Electric KDF9 computer, the character set was changed to International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and that compiler has been recovered from an old paper tape by the Edinburgh Computer History Project and is available online, as is a high-quality scan of the original Edinbur... | wikipedia |
wiki_38_chunk_7 | Atlas Autocode | Keywords in AA were distinguishable from other text by being underlined, which was implemented via overstrike in the Flexowriter (compare to bold in ALGOL). There were also two stropping regimes. First, there was an "uppercasedelimiters" mode where all uppercase letters (outside strings) were treated as underlined lowe... | wikipedia |
wiki_38_chunk_8 | Atlas Autocode | As in ALGOL, AA allowed spaces in variable names, such as integer previous value. Spaces were not significant and were removed before parsing in a trivial pre-lexing stage called "line reconstruction". What the compiler would see in the above example would be "iftoken=ifthenresult=token". Spaces were possible due partl... | wikipedia |
wiki_38_chunk_9 | Atlas Autocode | The syntax for expressions let the multiplication operator be omitted, e.g., 3a was treated as 3*a, and a(i+j) was treated as a*(i+j) if a was not an array. In ambiguous uses, the longest possible name was taken (maximal munch), for example ab was not treated as a*b, whether or not a and b had been declared. In the ori... | wikipedia |
wiki_39_chunk_0 | Annals of Mathematics | The Annals of Mathematics is a mathematical journal published every two months by Princeton University and the Institute for Advanced Study. History | wikipedia |
wiki_39_chunk_1 | Annals of Mathematics | The journal was established as The Analyst in 1874 and with Joel E. Hendricks as the founding editor-in-chief. It was "intended to afford a medium for the presentation and analysis of any and all questions of interest or importance in pure and applied Mathematics, embracing especially all new and interesting discoverie... | wikipedia |
wiki_39_chunk_2 | Annals of Mathematics | An important period for the journal was 1928–1958 with Solomon Lefschetz as editor. During this time, it became an increasingly well-known and respected journal. Its rise, in turn, stimulated American mathematics. Norman Steenrod characterized Lefschetz' impact as editor as follows: "The importance to American mathemat... | wikipedia |
wiki_39_chunk_3 | Annals of Mathematics | Princeton University continued to publish the Annals on its own until 1933, when the Institute for Advanced Study took joint editorial control. Since 1998 it has been available in an electronic edition, alongside its regular print edition. The electronic edition was available without charge, as an open access journal, ... | wikipedia |
wiki_39_chunk_4 | Annals of Mathematics | Editors
The current editors of the Annals of Mathematics are Nick Katz, Sergiu Klainerman, Fernando Codá Marques, Assaf Naor, Peter Sarnak and Zoltán Szabó (all from Princeton University, with Peter Sarnak being also a Professor at the Institute for Advanced Study). | wikipedia |
wiki_39_chunk_5 | Annals of Mathematics | Abstracting and indexing
The journal is abstracted and indexed in the Science Citation Index, Current Contents/Physical, Chemical & Earth Sciences, and Scopus. According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2020 impact factor of 5.246, ranking it third out of 330 journals in the category "Mathematics". ... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_0 | Astrobiology | Astrobiology, known as exobiology, is an interdisciplinary scientific field that studies the origins, early evolution, distribution, and future of life in the universe. Astrobiology is the multidisciplinary field that investigates the deterministic conditions and contingent events with which life arises, distributes, ... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_1 | Astrobiology | Astrobiology makes use of molecular biology, biophysics, biochemistry, chemistry, astronomy, physical cosmology, exoplanetology, geology, paleontology, and ichnology to investigate the possibility of life on other worlds and help recognize biospheres that might be different from that on Earth. The origin and early evol... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_2 | Astrobiology | This interdisciplinary field encompasses research on the origin of planetary systems, origins of organic compounds in space, rock-water-carbon interactions, abiogenesis on Earth, planetary habitability, research on biosignatures for life detection, and studies on the potential for life to adapt to challenges on Earth a... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_3 | Astrobiology | Biochemistry may have begun shortly after the Big Bang, 13.8 billion years ago, during a habitable epoch when the Universe was only 10–17 million years old. According to the panspermia hypothesis, microscopic life—distributed by meteoroids, asteroids and other small Solar System bodies—may exist throughout the universe... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_4 | Astrobiology | Current studies on the planet Mars by the Curiosity and Perseverance rovers are searching for evidence of ancient life as well as plains related to ancient rivers or lakes that may have been habitable. The search for evidence of habitability, taphonomy (related to fossils), and organic molecules on the planet Mars is n... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_5 | Astrobiology | Overview
The term was first proposed by the Russian (Soviet) astronomer Gavriil Tikhov in 1953. Astrobiology is etymologically derived from the Greek , astron, "constellation, star"; , bios, "life"; and , -logia, study. The synonyms of astrobiology are diverse; however, the synonyms were structured in relation to the ... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_6 | Astrobiology | Another term used in the past is xenobiology, ("biology of the foreigners") a word used in 1954 by science fiction writer Robert Heinlein in his work The Star Beast. The term xenobiology is now used in a more specialized sense, to mean "biology based on foreign chemistry", whether of extraterrestrial or terrestrial (po... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_7 | Astrobiology | While it is an emerging and developing field, the question of whether life exists elsewhere in the universe is a verifiable hypothesis and thus a valid line of scientific inquiry. Though once considered outside the mainstream of scientific inquiry, astrobiology has become a formalized field of study. Planetary scientis... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_8 | Astrobiology | Advancements in the fields of astrobiology, observational astronomy and discovery of large varieties of extremophiles with extraordinary capability to thrive in the harshest environments on Earth, have led to speculation that life may possibly be thriving on many of the extraterrestrial bodies in the universe. A partic... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_9 | Astrobiology | Missions specifically designed to search for current life on Mars were the Viking program and Beagle 2 probes. The Viking results were inconclusive, and Beagle 2 failed minutes after landing. A future mission with a strong astrobiology role would have been the Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter, designed to study the frozen moo... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_10 | Astrobiology | The European Space Agency's astrobiology roadmap from 2016, identified five main research topics, and specifies several key scientific objectives for each topic. The five research topics are: 1) Origin and evolution of planetary systems; 2) Origins of organic compounds in space; 3) Rock-water-carbon interactions, organ... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_11 | Astrobiology | In November 2011, NASA launched the Mars Science Laboratory mission carrying the Curiosity rover, which landed on Mars at Gale Crater in August 2012. The Curiosity rover is currently probing the environment for past and present planetary habitability of microbial life on Mars. On 9 December 2013, NASA reported that, ba... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_12 | Astrobiology | The European Space Agency is currently collaborating with the Russian Federal Space Agency (Roscosmos) and developing the ExoMars astrobiology rover, which was scheduled to be launched in July 2020, but was postponed to 2022. Meanwhile, NASA launched the Mars 2020 astrobiology rover and sample cacher for a later return... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_13 | Astrobiology | When looking for life on other planets like Earth, some simplifying assumptions are useful to reduce the size of the task of the astrobiologist. One is the informed assumption that the vast majority of life forms in our galaxy are based on carbon chemistries, as are all life forms on Earth. Carbon is well known for the... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_14 | Astrobiology | The presence of liquid water is an assumed requirement, as it is a common molecule and provides an excellent environment for the formation of complicated carbon-based molecules that could eventually lead to the emergence of life.
Some researchers posit environments of water-ammonia mixtures as possible solvents for hy... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_15 | Astrobiology | A third assumption is to focus on planets orbiting Sun-like stars for increased probabilities of planetary habitability. Very large stars have relatively short lifetimes, meaning that life might not have time to emerge on planets orbiting them. Very small stars provide so little heat and warmth that only planets in ver... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_16 | Astrobiology | Since Earth is the only planet known to harbor life, there is no evident way to know if any of these simplifying assumptions are correct. Communication attempts Research on communication with extraterrestrial intelligence (CETI) focuses on composing and deciphering messages that could theoretically be understood by ano... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_17 | Astrobiology | While some high-profile scientists, such as Carl Sagan, have advocated the transmission of messages, scientist Stephen Hawking warned against it, suggesting that aliens might simply raid Earth for its resources and then move on. Elements of astrobiology Astronomy | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_18 | Astrobiology | Most astronomy-related astrobiology research falls into the category of extrasolar planet (exoplanet) detection, the hypothesis being that if life arose on Earth, then it could also arise on other planets with similar characteristics. To that end, a number of instruments designed to detect Earth-sized exoplanets have b... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_19 | Astrobiology | The goal of these missions is not only to detect Earth-sized planets but also to directly detect light from the planet so that it may be studied spectroscopically. By examining planetary spectra, it would be possible to determine the basic composition of an extrasolar planet's atmosphere and/or surface. Given this know... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_20 | Astrobiology | An estimate for the number of planets with intelligent communicative extraterrestrial life can be gleaned from the Drake equation, essentially an equation expressing the probability of intelligent life as the product of factors such as the fraction of planets that might be habitable and the fraction of planets on which... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_21 | Astrobiology | where:
N = The number of communicative civilizations
R* = The rate of formation of suitable stars (stars such as our Sun)
fp = The fraction of those stars with planets (current evidence indicates that planetary systems may be common for stars like the Sun)
ne = The number of Earth-sized worlds per planetary system
... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_22 | Astrobiology | However, whilst the rationale behind the equation is sound, it is unlikely that the equation will be constrained to reasonable limits of error any time soon. The problem with the formula is that it is not used to generate or support hypotheses because it contains factors that can never be verified. The first term, R*, ... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_23 | Astrobiology | Another active research area in astrobiology is planetary system formation. It has been suggested that the peculiarities of the Solar System (for example, the presence of Jupiter as a protective shield) may have greatly increased the probability of intelligent life arising on our planet. Biology | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_24 | Astrobiology | Biology cannot state that a process or phenomenon, by being mathematically possible, has to exist forcibly in an extraterrestrial body. Biologists specify what is speculative and what is not. The discovery of extremophiles, organisms able to survive in extreme environments, became a core research element for astrobiolo... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_25 | Astrobiology | Until the 1970s, life was thought to be entirely dependent on energy from the Sun. Plants on Earth's surface capture energy from sunlight to photosynthesize sugars from carbon dioxide and water, releasing oxygen in the process that is then consumed by oxygen-respiring organisms, passing their energy up the food chain. ... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_26 | Astrobiology | Biologists have found extremophiles that thrive in ice, boiling water, acid, alkali, the water core of nuclear reactors, salt crystals, toxic waste and in a range of other extreme habitats that were previously thought to be inhospitable for life. This opened up a new avenue in astrobiology by massively expanding the nu... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_27 | Astrobiology | Jupiter's moon, Europa, and Saturn's moon, Enceladus, are now considered the most likely locations for extant extraterrestrial life in the Solar System due to their subsurface water oceans where radiogenic and tidal heating enables liquid water to exist. | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_28 | Astrobiology | The origin of life, known as abiogenesis, distinct from the evolution of life, is another ongoing field of research. Oparin and Haldane postulated that the conditions on the early Earth were conducive to the formation of organic compounds from inorganic elements and thus to the formation of many of the chemicals common... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_29 | Astrobiology | The cosmic dust permeating the universe contains complex organic compounds ("amorphous organic solids with a mixed aromatic-aliphatic structure") that could be created naturally, and rapidly, by stars. Further, a scientist suggested that these compounds may have been related to the development of life on Earth and said... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_30 | Astrobiology | More than 20% of the carbon in the universe may be associated with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), possible starting materials for the formation of life. PAHs seem to have been formed shortly after the Big Bang, are widespread throughout the universe, and are associated with new stars and exoplanets. PAHs are ... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_31 | Astrobiology | In October 2020, astronomers proposed the idea of detecting life on distant planets by studying the shadows of trees at certain times of the day to find patterns that could be detected through observation of exoplanets. Astroecology Astroecology concerns the interactions of life with space environments and resources, i... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_32 | Astrobiology | Experimental astroecology investigates resources in planetary soils, using actual space materials in meteorites. The results suggest that Martian and carbonaceous chondrite materials can support bacteria, algae and plant (asparagus, potato) cultures, with high soil fertilities. The results support that life could have ... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_33 | Astrobiology | On the largest scale, cosmoecology concerns life in the universe over cosmological times. The main sources of energy may be red giant stars and white and red dwarf stars, sustaining life for 1020 years. Astroecologists suggest that their mathematical models may quantify the potential amounts of future life in space, al... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_34 | Astrobiology | Astrogeology is a planetary science discipline concerned with the geology of celestial bodies such as the planets and their moons, asteroids, comets, and meteorites. The information gathered by this discipline allows the measure of a planet's or a natural satellite's potential to develop and sustain life, or planetary ... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_35 | Astrobiology | An additional discipline of astrogeology is geochemistry, which involves study of the chemical composition of the Earth and other planets, chemical processes and reactions that govern the composition of rocks and soils, the cycles of matter and energy and their interaction with the hydrosphere and the atmosphere of the... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_36 | Astrobiology | The fossil record provides the oldest known evidence for life on Earth. By examining the fossil evidence, paleontologists are able to better understand the types of organisms that arose on the early Earth. Some regions on Earth, such as the Pilbara in Western Australia and the McMurdo Dry Valleys of Antarctica, are als... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_37 | Astrobiology | The various organic functional groups, composed of hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, and a host of metals, such as iron, magnesium, and zinc, provide the enormous diversity of chemical reactions necessarily catalyzed by a living organism. Silicon, in contrast, interacts with only a few other atoms, and th... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_38 | Astrobiology | Life in the Solar System | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_39 | Astrobiology | People have long speculated about the possibility of life in settings other than Earth, however, speculation on the nature of life elsewhere often has paid little heed to constraints imposed by the nature of biochemistry. The likelihood that life throughout the universe is probably carbon-based is suggested by the fact... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_40 | Astrobiology | Discussion on where in the Solar System life might occur was limited historically by the understanding that life relies ultimately on light and warmth from the Sun and, therefore, is restricted to the surfaces of planets. The four most likely candidates for life in the Solar System are the planet Mars, the Jovian moon ... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_41 | Astrobiology | Mars, Enceladus and Europa are considered likely candidates in the search for life primarily because they may have underground liquid water, a molecule essential for life as we know it for its use as a solvent in cells. Water on Mars is found frozen in its polar ice caps, and newly carved gullies recently observed on M... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_42 | Astrobiology | Another planetary body that could potentially sustain extraterrestrial life is Saturn's largest moon, Titan. Titan has been described as having conditions similar to those of early Earth. On its surface, scientists have discovered the first liquid lakes outside Earth, but these lakes seem to be composed of ethane and/o... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_43 | Astrobiology | Phosphine has been detected in the atmosphere of the planet Venus. There are no known abiotic processes on the planet that could cause its presence. Given that Venus has the hottest surface temperature of any planet in the solar system, Venusian life, if it exists, is most likely limited to extremophile microorganisms ... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_44 | Astrobiology | Measuring the ratio of hydrogen and methane levels on Mars may help determine the likelihood of life on Mars. According to the scientists, "...low H2/CH4 ratios (less than approximately 40) indicate that life is likely present and active." Other scientists have recently reported methods of detecting hydrogen and methan... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_45 | Astrobiology | Complex organic compounds of life, including uracil, cytosine and thymine, have been formed in a laboratory under outer space conditions, using starting chemicals such as pyrimidine, found in meteorites. Pyrimidine, like polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), is the most carbon-rich chemical found in the universe. Ra... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_46 | Astrobiology | The Rare Earth hypothesis postulates that multicellular life forms found on Earth may actually be more of a rarity than scientists assume. According to this hypothesis, life on Earth (and more, multi-cellular life) is possible because of a conjunction of the right circumstances (galaxy and location within it, solar sys... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_47 | Astrobiology | Research The systematic search for possible life outside Earth is a valid multidisciplinary scientific endeavor. However, hypotheses and predictions as to its existence and origin vary widely, and at the present, the development of hypotheses firmly grounded on science may be considered astrobiology's most concrete pra... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_48 | Astrobiology | , no evidence of extraterrestrial life has been identified. Examination of the Allan Hills 84001 meteorite, which was recovered in Antarctica in 1984 and originated from Mars, is thought by David McKay, as well as few other scientists, to contain microfossils of extraterrestrial origin; this interpretation is controver... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_49 | Astrobiology | Yamato 000593, the second largest meteorite from Mars, was found on Earth in 2000. At a microscopic level, spheres are found in the meteorite that are rich in carbon compared to surrounding areas that lack such spheres. The carbon-rich spheres may have been formed by biotic activity according to some NASA scientists. | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_50 | Astrobiology | On 5 March 2011, Richard B. Hoover, a scientist with the Marshall Space Flight Center, speculated on the finding of alleged microfossils similar to cyanobacteria in CI1 carbonaceous meteorites in the fringe Journal of Cosmology, a story widely reported on by mainstream media. However, NASA formally distanced itself fro... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_51 | Astrobiology | On 17 March 2013, researchers reported that microbial life forms thrive in the Mariana Trench, the deepest spot on the Earth. Other researchers reported that microbes thrive inside rocks up to below the sea floor under of ocean off the coast of the northwestern United States. According to one of the researchers, "You... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_52 | Astrobiology | Methane In 2004, the spectral signature of methane () was detected in the Martian atmosphere by both Earth-based telescopes as well as by the Mars Express orbiter. Because of solar radiation and cosmic radiation, methane is predicted to disappear from the Martian atmosphere within several years, so the gas must be acti... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_53 | Astrobiology | Planetary systems
It is possible that some exoplanets may have moons with solid surfaces or liquid oceans that are hospitable. Most of the planets so far discovered outside the Solar System are hot gas giants thought to be inhospitable to life, so it is not yet known whether the Solar System, with a warm, rocky, metal-... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_54 | Astrobiology | Planetary habitability Efforts to answer questions such as the abundance of potentially habitable planets in habitable zones and chemical precursors have had much success. Numerous extrasolar planets have been detected using the wobble method and transit method, showing that planets around other stars are more numerous... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_55 | Astrobiology | Extremophiles
Studying extremophiles is useful for understanding the possible origin of life on Earth as well as for finding the most likely candidates for future colonization of other planets. The aim is to detect those organisms that are able to survive space travel conditions and to maintain the proliferating capac... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_56 | Astrobiology | Thermophilic species G. thermantarcticus is a good example of a microorganism that could survive space travel. It is a bacterium of the spore-forming genus Bacillus. The formation of spores allows for it to survive extreme environments while still being able to restart cellular growth. It is capable of effectively prot... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_57 | Astrobiology | Some locations on Earth are particularly well-suited for astrobiological studies of extremophiles. For example, Valeria Souza and colleagues proposed that the Cuatro Ciénegas basin in Coahuila, Mexico, could serve as an "astrobiological Precambrian park" due to the similarity of some of its ecosystems to an earlier tim... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_58 | Astrobiology | By understanding how extremophilic organisms can survive the Earth's extreme environments, we can also understand how microorganisms could have survived space travel and how the panspermia hypothesis could be possible. Missions
Research into the environmental limits of life and the workings of extreme ecosystems is on... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_59 | Astrobiology | The two Viking landers each carried four types of biological experiments to the surface of Mars in the late 1970s. These were the only Mars landers to carry out experiments looking specifically for metabolism by current microbial life on Mars. The landers used a robotic arm to collect soil samples into sealed test cont... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_60 | Astrobiology | Beagle 2 Beagle 2 was an unsuccessful British Mars lander that formed part of the European Space Agency's 2003 Mars Express mission. Its primary purpose was to search for signs of life on Mars, past or present. Although it landed safely, it was unable to correctly deploy its solar panels and telecom antenna. EXPOSE
EXP... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_61 | Astrobiology | Mars Science Laboratory
The Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) mission landed the Curiosity rover that is currently in operation on Mars. It was launched 26 November 2011, and landed at Gale Crater on 6 August 2012. Mission objectives are to help assess Mars' habitability and in doing so, determine whether Mars is or has ev... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_62 | Astrobiology | Tanpopo
The Tanpopo mission is an orbital astrobiology experiment investigating the potential interplanetary transfer of life, organic compounds, and possible terrestrial particles in the low Earth orbit. The purpose is to assess the panspermia hypothesis and the possibility of natural interplanetary transport of micro... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_63 | Astrobiology | ExoMars rover ExoMars is a robotic mission to Mars to search for possible biosignatures of Martian life, past or present. This astrobiological mission is currently under development by the European Space Agency (ESA) in partnership with the Russian Federal Space Agency (Roscosmos); it is planned for a 2022 launch. Mars... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_64 | Astrobiology | Mars 2020 successfully landed its rover Perseverance in Jezero Crater on 18 February 2021. It will investigate environments on Mars relevant to astrobiology, investigate its surface geological processes and history, including the assessment of its past habitability and potential for preservation of biosignatures and bi... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_65 | Astrobiology | Europa Clipper
Europa Clipper is a mission planned by NASA for a 2025 launch that will conduct detailed reconnaissance of Jupiter's moon Europa and will investigate whether its internal ocean could harbor conditions suitable for life. It will also aid in the selection of future landing sites. Proposed concepts | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_66 | Astrobiology | Icebreaker Life
Icebreaker Life is a lander mission that was proposed for NASA's Discovery Program for the 2021 launch opportunity, but it was not selected for development. It would have had a stationary lander that would be a near copy of the successful 2008 Phoenix and it would have carried an upgraded astrobiology s... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_67 | Astrobiology | Journey to Enceladus and Titan
Journey to Enceladus and Titan (JET) is an astrobiology mission concept to assess the habitability potential of Saturn's moons Enceladus and Titan by means of an orbiter. Enceladus Life Finder
Enceladus Life Finder (ELF) is a proposed astrobiology mission concept for a space probe intende... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_68 | Astrobiology | Life Investigation For Enceladus
Life Investigation For Enceladus (LIFE) is a proposed astrobiology sample-return mission concept. The spacecraft would enter into Saturn orbit and enable multiple flybys through Enceladus' icy plumes to collect icy plume particles and volatiles and return them to Earth on a capsule. The... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_69 | Astrobiology | Oceanus
Oceanus is an orbiter proposed in 2017 for the New Frontiers mission No. 4. It would travel to the moon of Saturn, Titan, to assess its habitability. Oceanus objectives are to reveal Titan's organic chemistry, geology, gravity, topography, collect 3D reconnaissance data, catalog the organics and determine where... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_70 | Astrobiology | Explorer of Enceladus and Titan
Explorer of Enceladus and Titan (E2T) is an orbiter mission concept that would investigate the evolution and habitability of the Saturnian satellites Enceladus and Titan. The mission concept was proposed in 2017 by the European Space Agency. See also Astrobiology.com Top ranked news sour... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_71 | Astrobiology | Bibliography
The International Journal of Astrobiology, published by Cambridge University Press, is the forum for practitioners in this interdisciplinary field.
Astrobiology, published by Mary Ann Liebert, Inc., is a peer-reviewed journal that explores the origins of life, evolution, distribution, and destiny in the ... | wikipedia |
wiki_40_chunk_72 | Astrobiology | Andy Weir's best-selling 2021 novel, Project Hail Mary, centers on astrobiology. Dealing with climate change caused by space-dwelling microbes, an astronaut finds that another civilization is suffering from the same problem. External links Astrobiology.nasa.gov
UK Centre for Astrobiology
Spanish Centro de Astrobiolog... | wikipedia |
wiki_41_chunk_0 | AIM (software) | AIM (AOL Instant Messenger) was an instant messaging and presence computer program created by AOL, which used the proprietary OSCAR instant messaging protocol and the TOC protocol to allow registered users to communicate in real time. | wikipedia |
wiki_41_chunk_1 | AIM (software) | AIM was popular by the late 1990s, in United States and other countries, and was the leading instant messaging application in that region into the following decade. Teens and college students were known to use the messenger's away message feature to keep in touch with friends, often frequently changing their away messa... | wikipedia |
wiki_41_chunk_2 | AIM (software) | In June 2015, AOL was acquired by Verizon Communications. In June 2017, Verizon combined AOL and Yahoo into its subsidiary Oath Inc. (now called Yahoo). The company discontinued AIM as a service on December 15, 2017. | wikipedia |
wiki_41_chunk_3 | AIM (software) | History
In May 1997, AIM was released unceremoniously as a stand-alone download for Microsoft Windows. AIM was an outgrowth of "online messages" in the original platform written in PL/1 on a Stratus computer by Dave Brown. At one time, the software had the largest share of the instant messaging market in North America,... | wikipedia |
wiki_41_chunk_4 | AIM (software) | During its heyday, its main competitors were ICQ (although AOL acquired ICQ in 1998), Yahoo! Messenger and MSN Messenger. AOL particularly had a rivalry or "chat war" with PowWow and Microsoft, starting in 1999. There were several attempts from Microsoft to simultaneously log into their own and AIM's protocol servers. ... | wikipedia |
wiki_41_chunk_5 | AIM (software) | Official mobile versions of AIM appeared as early as 2001 on Palm OS through the AOL application. Third-party applications allowed it to be used in 2002 for the Sidekick. A version for Symbian OS was announced in 2003 and others for BlackBerry and Windows Mobile After 2012, stand-alone official AIM client software incl... | wikipedia |
wiki_41_chunk_6 | AIM (software) | Usage decline and product sunset
Around 2011, AIM started to lose popularity rapidly, partly due to the quick rise of Gmail and its built-in real-time Google Chat instant messenger integration in 2011 and because many people migrated to SMS or iMessages text messaging and later, social networking websites and apps for ... | wikipedia |
wiki_41_chunk_7 | AIM (software) | As of June 2011, one source reported AOL Instant Messenger market share had collapsed to 0.73%. However, this number only reflected installed IM applications, and not active users. The engineers responsible for AIM claimed that they were unable to convince AOL management that free was the future. | wikipedia |
wiki_41_chunk_8 | AIM (software) | On March 3, 2012, AOL ended employment of AIM's development staff while leaving it active and with help support still provided. On October 6, 2017, it was announced that the AIM service would be discontinued on December 15; however, a non-profit development team known as Wildman Productions started up a server for olde... | wikipedia |
wiki_41_chunk_9 | AIM (software) | The AIM mascot was designed by JoRoan Lazaro and was implemented in the first release in 1997. This was a yellow stickman-like figure, often called the "Running Man". The mascot appeared on all AIM logos and most wordmarks, and always appeared at the top of the buddy list. AIM's popularity in the late 1990s and the 200... | wikipedia |
wiki_41_chunk_10 | AIM (software) | In 2014, a Complex editor called it a "symbol of America". In April 2015, the Running Man was officially featured in the Virgin London Marathon, dressed by a person for the AOL-partnered Free The Children charity. | wikipedia |
wiki_41_chunk_11 | AIM (software) | Protocol
The standard protocol that AIM clients used to communicate is called Open System for CommunicAtion in Realtime (OSCAR). Most AOL-produced versions of AIM and popular third party AIM clients use this protocol. However, AOL also created a simpler protocol called TOC that lacks many of OSCAR's features, but was s... | wikipedia |
wiki_41_chunk_12 | AIM (software) | In January 2008, AOL introduced experimental Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol (XMPP) support for AIM, allowing AIM users to communicate using the standardized, open-source XMPP. However, in March 2008, this service was discontinued. In May 2011, AOL started offering limited XMPP support. On March 1, 2017, AOL... | wikipedia |
wiki_41_chunk_13 | AIM (software) | Privacy
For privacy regulations, AIM had strict age restrictions. AIM accounts are available only for people over the age of 13; children younger than that were not permitted access to AIM. Under the AIM Privacy Policy, AOL had no rights to read or monitor any private communications between users. The profile of the us... | wikipedia |
wiki_41_chunk_14 | AIM (software) | If public content was accessed, it could be used for online, print or broadcast advertising, etc. This was outlined in the policy and terms of service: "... you grant AOL, its parent, affiliates, subsidiaries, assigns, agents and licensees the irrevocable, perpetual, worldwide right to reproduce, display, perform, dist... | wikipedia |
wiki_41_chunk_15 | AIM (software) | AIM's security was called into question. AOL stated that it had taken great pains to ensure that personal information will not be accessed by unauthorized members, but that it cannot guarantee that it will not happen. | wikipedia |
wiki_41_chunk_16 | AIM (software) | AIM was different from other clients, such as Yahoo! Messenger, in that it did not require approval from users to be added to other users' buddy lists. As a result, it was possible for users to keep other unsuspecting users on their buddy list to see when they were online, read their status and away messages, and read ... | wikipedia |
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