source string | id string | question string | options list | answer string | reasoning string |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3401 | zoology, hybridization, artificial-selection, feline
To answer your question about felinae and panthera first, several panthera genomes have been sequenced, and (see here) the tiger for instance has only 95.6% similarity with the domestic cat and diverged 10.8 MYA. For comparison, human and gorilla have 94.8% similarity and diverged 8.8 MYA, so that puts into perspective why you wouldn't expect a tiger-cat hybrid, or for that matter any felinae-panthera hybrids. Those dates are from the linked paper. (Edit: It appears from wikipedia as referred to by the OP above that there actually is a puma-leopard, i.e. felinae-panthera, hybrid which I wasn't aware of (although all of the reports are old, so there is no genetic evidence to prove that it was in fact a hybrid). I assume this may be an exception to the rule; what I was trying to show is why such hybrids are not necessarily to be expected, and as I said below, I'm more surprised about how many hybrids are possible. It does appear though that this particular hybrid is prone to dwarfism, which indicates that it probably does not have a particularly viable genetic makeup, and I think it was sterile).
With regards to your question about felinae hybrids, if you go to Timetree, then it will tell you that Panthera tigris and Felis catus (domestic cat) diverged 14.4 MYA, and by comparison Aciconyx jubatus (cheetah) and Felis catus diverged 9.4 MYA, so it seems reasonable to suppose that they can't hybridise. (But note that P. tigris and P. leo still diverged 6.4 MYA and they can hybridise: the relatedness of two organisms isn't the only thing at work, and a better measure is the genetic similarity; this paper mentions that hybridisation ability correlates both with genetic similarity and time since divergence). Interestingly, this paper actually indicates that the percentage alignment of the cheetah genome to the domestic cat genome is only 91.1% with 93.6% similarity to the tiger, indicating that the cheetah may be a specialised outgroup.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Which of these are required for a mother cat to have the same whisker length as her daughter? | [
"rock music",
"jeans",
"magic",
"genes"
] | D | genes are a vehicle for passing inherited characteristics from parent to offspring |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3402 | paleontology, fossils, desert
Title: Why are many fossils found in deserts? Why are deserts famous for fossils? Is it a coincidence? Some examples:
Giant Catfish Fossil Found in Egyptian Desert
Chile's stunning fossil whale graveyard explained
Giant Dinosaur Fossil Found in Sahara Desert I would contend that the fact that the location is a desert has little to nothing to do in most cases to the existence of fossils at the location. Most of the fossils in the location, at least the ones that make most headlines like major dinosaur deposits, were left there millions of years ago. The fact that a location today is a desert has no indication of what the climate, or even where on the globe that location was 50 or 100 million years ago.
Do not forget about plate tectonics and climate change. One can go to places like the Judith Basin in Montana, a relatively harsh area of North American Bad Lands, desert or near desert like conditions with cold winters and find fields of fossils from animals that are believed to have lived in tropic marshes of in oceans, because at the time those animals lived, what is now Montana was not inland, and was not at a Northern location. Millions of years ago it was an undersea plate, thus it has layers of limestone made from ancient single cell sea creatures and sometimes larger objects that were entrapped and preserved as larger fossils. At other times, those plates rose from the sea floor and homed some of the large creatures, like T-Rex that lived, thrived and sometimes survive as fossils.
Later, that plate move and ended up inland, in what is not North America. Glaciers, wind, and water may have stripped off many layers of deposits and left exposed or close to exposed the layers of interest to fossil hunters. Desert regions tend to be subjected to this type of erosion and exposure making such finds easier. If those same fossils were in and area such as a rich planes area with plentiful plant growth and never subjected to glacial scouring, they could be, and may very well be, right below your feet but under many layers of soil and decaying vegetation, river sediment and other deposits rendering them out of sight and out of reach.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
An example of a fossil is the imprinted carcass of a | [
"rubber duck",
"tin can",
"shoe",
"murdered organism"
] | D | An example of a fossil is the bones of an extinct animal |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3403 | thermodynamics, energy, temperature
The higher the temperature of the room, the quicker it cools too, so typically, I would think leaving the oven closed would be beneficial in the long term. You're keeping the heat around for longer.
One (potentially) good thing about opening the oven door is that it directs more of the heat towards the inside of the room. Some of the heat is going to go into the walls, and may be heating your neighbors rooms instead (depending on the layout, wall insulation, etc). I'm not sure how insulated the back of the oven typically is though. If it's not well insulated, opening the door may be beneficial to make sure you aren't losing a lot of heat through the walls over time, but I expect that's fairly negligible in most cases.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
If a person wants to make cookies and is lacking an oven, they could place the sheet of dough on | [
"a cold counter",
"a wooden stool",
"a window sill",
"a vehicle engine"
] | D | a car engine is a source of heat |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3404 | problems, recomputations of same subproblems can be avoided by constructing a temporary array val[] in bottom up manner. That is we know the price for rods of length from 1 to n, considering the length of the rod was n. One thing to notice here is that the price for the rod of different lengths is not equally distributed. After a cut, rod gets divided into two smaller sub-rods. Given price list (in array price) Give a dynamic-programming algorithm to solve this modified problem. The recursive formula for the cutting a rod problem is cuttingRod (n) = max (cost [i] + cuttingRod (n-i-1)) where i is in range from 0 to n-1 So, if we take a brief moment to see how the algorithm is working. 15.1-4. There View 11_DP1.pptx from COMP 3711 at The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology. Assume a company buys long steel rods and cuts them into shorter rods for sale to its customers. So we should make two cuts of 1 and leave the remaining 3 uncut. Now let’s observe the solution in the implementation below− Example. Ask Question Asked 3 years, 2 months ago. Problem statement: You are given a rod of length n and you need to cut the cod in such a way that you need to sell It for maximum profit. In this tutorial we shall learn about rod cutting problem. The same sub problems are solved repeatedly. A long rod needs to be cut into segments. Example. In D&C, work top-down. We can see that we are calling cuttingRod (n-1), cuttingRod (n-2), …, cuttingRod (1) which then again keeps on calling cuttingRod. We compare the total revenue of each case and get the one which gives the maximum profit. We know we can cut this rod in 2 n-1 ways. University of Nebraska-Lincoln ( Computer Science & Engineering 423/823 Design and Analysis of Algorithms ) It is used to solve problems where problem of size N is solved using solution of problems of size N - 1 (or smaller). Now a little more difficult part. $$n = 40$$, several minutes to more than an hour) It calls itself with the sameparameters many times Solves the same problem repeatedly Modify MEMOIZED-CUT-ROD to
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
If a person recycles a wooden stool, they could buy that same material again as a | [
"plastic cup",
"metal rod",
"gold trophy",
"yellow pencil"
] | D | An example of recycling is using an object to make a new object |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3405 | homework-and-exercises, newtonian-mechanics, energy, work
Title: Work-Energy conservation with friction I didn't go to the lesson of work-energy theorem, so I miss something about this subject. I know the formulas, but I can't figure it out. This question has many quantities.
Here is the problem,
The sled ($m = 11.1\;\mathrm{kg}$) shown in the figure leaves the starting point with a velocity of $25.1\;\mathrm{m/s}$. Use the work-energy theorem to calculate the sled’s speed at the end of the track or the maximum height it reaches if it stops before reaching the end. The straight sections of the track (A, B, D, and E) have a coefficient of friction of $0.409$ with the sled, and $284.9\;\mathrm{J}$ are lost to friction in the circular section of the track (C).
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
As a sled runs off the snow and on to the asphalt it's runners start | [
"fly off",
"turn sideways",
"to heat up",
"cooling down"
] | C | as the roughness of something increases , the friction of that something will increase when its surface moves against another surface |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3406 | Shanonhaliwell April 8th, 2018 03:31 PM
Quote:
Originally Posted by romsek (Post 591335) outstanding, you seem to be getting the hang of things.
Thanks to you, I was able to do it.
All times are GMT -8. The time now is 12:30 AM.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
On December 3rd after 4PM I can leave behind | [
"Time Travel",
"Magic",
"My feelings",
"sunglasses"
] | D | when the seasons change from the summer to the fall , the amount of daylight will decrease |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3407 | So total kinetic energy = $$\frac 12 mv^2+\dfrac {k^2}{r^2}\frac 12 m v^2$$
If the moment of inertial gets small $$k$$ gets smaller and so the proportion of rotational kinetic energy decreases whilst the proportion of rotational energy incraeses.
• "whilst the proportion of rotational energy increases". Did you mean translational kinetic energy? Mar 8 at 13:16
objects with lower I values will reach the bottom of a ramp sooner and with a higher final velocity than objects with higher I values
The total energy is:
$$E=\frac m2\,v^2+\frac I2\omega^2+m\,g\,h$$
with the rolling condition $$~\omega=\frac vr~$$
$$E=\frac m2\,v^2+\frac I2\frac{v^2}{r^2}+m\,g\,h$$
for $$~t=0,v=0~\quad \Rightarrow E_0=m\,g\,h~$$ and at the end of the ramp $$~h=0\quad \Rightarrow E_F=\frac m2\,v^2+\frac I2\frac{v^2}{r^2}~$$ with $$~E_F=E_0~$$ you obtain the final velocity squar
$$v_F^2=2\,{\frac {m\,g\,h\,{r}^{2}}{{r}^{2}m+{\it I}}}$$
thus if $$~I_1 < I_2\quad\Rightarrow v_{F1}^2 > v_{F2}^2$$
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
If a tootsie roll has kinetic energy that is visible, it is likely | [
"sitting still",
"wrapped up",
"sliding sideways",
"being frozen"
] | C | motion is a source of kinetic energy in an object |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3408 | astronomy, everyday-life, popular-science, climate-science
Title: Why is the summer, in the temperate latitudes, in average, hotter that the spring? It is common knowledge that the transition from the Spring to the Summer season occurs in the Summer Solstice when the "Sun reaches its highest excursion relative to the celestial equator on the celestial sphere" (as stated in Wikipedia).
It is also stated in Wikipedia' Summer page:
"Days continue to lengthen from equinox to solstice and summer days progressively shorten after the solstice, so meteorological summer encompasses the build-up to the longest day and a diminishing thereafter, with summer having many more hours of daylight than spring."
My question is: why is the summer, in the temperate latitudes, in average, hotter that the spring? A major part of the reason for this is due to the temperature of the ground. While the length of days in the Summer are effectively a mirror of those in Spring, you must take into consideration more than that.
When Spring commences in temperate climates, it is (usually) immediately preceded by winter. Due to the Winter, the ground and/or surrounding bodies of water are very cold. This has the effect of cooling the air for the first part of Spring while the ground/water begins to thaw/warm up. Furthermore, it takes much longer to warm or cool a body of water than a mass of air; even longer to warm or cool the ground and water. Therefore, as Spring progresses and the days become longer (also meaning the Sun is higher above the horizon, thus providing more heating power), the sunlight must first overcome the cooling effects of the ground and water bodies. Near the end of Spring - when the days are sufficiently long and the Sun is much higher above the horizon - you should notice the weather becoming hotter. This is because the ground and water has had time to warm up, which means it is not constantly cooling the air and making it feel colder.
When you then transition to Summer, the ground is already sufficiently warm but the days are still long and the Sun is still high in the sky. This means the Sun can heat the ground, water, and air even more and without any cooling effects. This allows the Summer temperature to be easily higher than that of the Spring temperatures. If Summer were immediately preceded by winter, you might notice the weather getting warmer much more quickly, but the average temperature would be very close to that of the Spring.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Spring may be sprung when | [
"winter is coming",
"our globe shifts",
"summer is here",
"snakes hibernate"
] | B | Earth 's tilt on its axis causes seasons to occur |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3409 | thermodynamics, heat, microwaves
Title: Microwave oven heating time It's logical to think that the time it takes a microwave to heat the food would be proportional to the mass heated. But since a microwave is based on dielectric heating, I think that if you increase the mass of food there will be more water, which will heat the food faster (due to thermalization). Is this reasoning right?
Is there an optimal quantity of food to heat and the time it takes? Good question. The rate of temperature increase scales as the power absorbed by the food divided by mass of the food. So to understand your question, you need to understand how power is absorbed.
There is a finite amount of power in the microwaves being produced. These microwaves bounce around in the metal cage where you put your food, until they come into contact with the food. (Well, some of them will get absorbed in the metal by imperfect reflection, but let's ignore that at first.) Once they get absorbed by the food, they turn into heat. Because they bounce around until they hit some food, the efficiency of a microwave is pretty high, in the sense that most of the power generated in the form of microwaves goes into heating the food, regardless of how much food you have.
So, at lowest-order, increasing the mass will increase the amount of water, but won't increase the amount of power being absorbed by the food. But now, that thing about absorption by the metal comes in. The power absorption will be slightly greater with a lot of food, since the food will be more likely to absorb the microwave before it gets absorbed by the metal. This is a lower-order effect, but it's there.
Of course, then the issue of skin depth comes in. Microwaves only penetrate a certain distance into the food. (Of order an inch, depending on the food.) So increasing the mass isn't really what you want; you want to increase the mass that's within the skin depth. For example, a wide dish of water that's one inch deep will absorb better than a jug of water with the same volume. This is why you want to split apart chicken breasts when defrosting them, for example.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
When you put a cold sandwich in the microwave, it will | [
"stay the same",
"escalate in temperature",
"decrease in temperature",
"Die"
] | B | moving an object from a cool place to a warm place causes the object 's temperature to increase |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3410 | physiology, homework
Title: Order of events in hibernation
Arrange this in sequence :
i. Heat loss exceeds heat production.
ii.As body temperature falls, heat loss decreases.
iii.Body temperature equals environmental temperature.
iv.Metabolic activities fall to the basal level.
I am confused between i,iii,ii,iv and iv,i,ii,iii. I think the order i,ii,iii should be correct, since the fall in temperature occurs after the heat loss exceeds production and will continue only till the temperature equals the ambient temperature. iv is the reason for i. Hence iv,i,ii,iii sounds pretty convincing to me.
With i,iii,ii,iv , the main problem is that there can not be any appreciable fall in temperature ii after the temperature equals the environmental temperature iii. And iv seems more probably to be the reason for i rather than the reverse
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Bears instinctively know when its time to hibernate because who passes it on to them? | [
"soup",
"their pants",
"Their parents",
"porridge"
] | C | hibernation is an inherited behavior |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3411 | species-identification, zoology, bone-biology, bone
Title: What is this bone from? This object showed up on my fire escape in New York city. It appears to be some kind of bone. It's a bit smaller than an adult human hand. What animal is it from? Given the size and thin/elongated ilia as well as the urban location, I think a domestic cat and/or a raccoon are likely candidates. I'm leaning toward cat.
Cat pelvis:
VCA Hospitals
Ventral view of domestic cat pelvis; Source: BoneID
Raccoon Pelvis
Anterior view of raccoon pelvis; Source: BoneID
I'm not an expert in differentiating these two species' bones. I will note that your specimen is more or less in between the sizes of these two species. Your size is probably closer to the raccoon, but a cat is just more likely given the location.
The most noticeable trait that stands out to me is the size/pointedness of the ischial tuberosity, which better matches that of the cat.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
An example of a fossil is a paw print in what? | [
"water",
"sky",
"air",
"hard stones"
] | D | An example of a fossil is a paw print in rock |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3412 | electromagnetic-radiation, visible-light, experimental-physics
Title: Experiment Prediction: How much light can pass through an opening? The flow of current through a wire is limited to the size of the wire. Water through a pipe is limited by the size of the pipe. What about light? Is it limited in a similar way?
Let's say I drill a 1,000nm hole in a piece of 1/4 inch steel. I then shine a 5mw red laser through the hole. Does the hole restrict how much light can pass through the hole at any given moment? Let's say I increase the light through the hole by adding more lasers. Will the hole slowly start to restrict light's passage. Is there a limit to how much light can "fit" through the hole at the same time?
Example Experiment: I shine the laser through the hole. I then measure the light with a photo diode and let's say I get 1 volt. Now I increase the amount of light through the hole by adding another laser of the same size. Would I now see 2 volts? What if do this again? Would I see 3 volts? Would each additional laser produce the same gain as the one before it? I understand the lasers would all have to be angled toward the hole by the same amount to actually perform this test. I also understand may need to perfect the measuring device, but I think you get the point. Light consists of photons which are boson. Bosons like to exists in the same state. So if you can manage to let one photon pass through a specific hole, then you can pass an arbitrary number of identical photons through that same hole. In other words, the size of the hole does not put any limit on the number of photons (or the amount of light) that can pass through that hole.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Which is likeliest to make light pass through the pupil? | [
"the taste of food",
"the sound of silence",
"the smell of tree",
"any kind of tangible object"
] | D | when light enters the eye through the pupil , that light falls on the retina |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3413 | geophysics, sedimentology, glaciology, topography, isostasy
Are there any other reasons? What are the relative proportions in magnitude of these factors? Forming of coastline
During the last ice age, the North Sea was dry. When the ice melted sea levels slowly started to rise again and due to tides and currents
a barrier of dunes was formed along what approximately is today's coast line. This created an area of land that fell dry during ebb-tide and flooded during high tide (this can still be seen in the 'Waddenzee' in the North of the Netherlands where you can walk to some of the islands during low tide). The big rivers that flow through the Netherlands brought in more sand, slowly keeping larger parts of the land dry.
Isostatic rebound
During the ice age, the surface of Scandinavia was pushed down. After the ice melted it started to rise again and pushed the Western and Northern part of Netherlands down. Strangely enough the Southern and Eastern parts of the Netherlands are rising, so it seems the Netherlands is tilting.
I'm not sure how large the isostatic effect has been, but we know that the North of the Netherlands is still going down with about 2cm per century (source in Dutch).
Human influence
I know you've asked for non-anthropogenic causes, but I'm going to include this anyway because it seems human influence has had a much bigger effect on elevation than the isostatic rebound.
In the 11th century the Dutch started to actively shape the land by building dikes and later also by using wind mills to pump out water. The Flevopolder is an example of a large part of land that has been created by the Dutch in the 1950s and 60s. When groundwater levels became lower the moors settled and started oxidizing. Researchers think that the settling and oxidation of moors today is responsible for up to 15mm decline per year (source in Dutch).
Additionally in the 16th and 17th century a lot of peat was removed from the moors and used as fuel. Peat removal created new lakes, but some of those lakes were pumped dry later and were used as farmland. Also, the weight of dikes and houses on moors still cause subsidence today in areas in the West.
In the Northeastern part of the Netherlands gas extraction has also caused local elevation drops of up to 30cm (source in Dutch) in the last 40 years.
Other sources (all in Dutch):
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
What most likely caused the castle built by children at the beach to disappear? | [
"a cat ran off with it",
"a dog carried it away in its mouth",
"someone cast a magic spell on it",
"very strong eddies of fast moving air carried it away over time"
] | D | wind carries sand from one place to another place |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3414 | fusion
Title: Where does the energy produced by fusion come from? Fission, in layman's (or "initiate's") terms, is easy enough to understand; a large atom with a lot of protons and neutrons requires a large amount of force provided by the strong interaction to overcome electromagnetism and keep the nucleus together. The necessary energies were imparted to the atom during its formation, which we can replicate to some degree within a nuclear reactor; a combination of heat and fast-moving free protons/neutrons recaptured by the atoms of the fuel turns uranium into plutonium, even as the actual atom-splitting produces much lighter krypton and barium isotopes (or a host of other possibilities, some more likely than others, as with many other types of reactions). That atom-splitting, by the way, reduces the size of the resulting nuclei, and therefore reduces the amount of strong interaction force required to contain them; the leftover energy is released as a high-frequency gamma photon.
Fusion, however, is an odder beast. A fusion reaction requires a large amount of starting energy; enough to strip the electrons off of the deuterium/tritium nuclei and form plasma. That heat is also enough to accelerate the particles fast enough that when they collide, the initial electromagnetic repulsion is overcome and the strong interaction binds them together.
Now, that's a lot of energy required; the Sun's inner core where most of the fusion occurs is estimated to be about 15 million Kelvin. The reaction, however, doesn't seem to release any energy, based at least on this simplistic explanation. Now, obviously that's wrong; pretty much all the energy we have available to us right now is, however indirectly, a result of the Sun bathing us in the energy from nuclear fusion. The rest of it, such as from nuclear fission, is also star-based, via creation of superheavy elements in stellar nucleogenesis.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Splitting and fusing billions of atoms at the same location in space produces | [
"darkness",
"frigged rain",
"illumination",
"groceries"
] | C | nuclear reactions in stars causes stars to produce light |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3415 | solutions
Deep into fantasy
So if you think the molecules as humans exiting from an elevator, humans A are more claustrophobic and so tend to exit more rapidly than humans B when the doors open. If they interact positively with humans B they will keep calm when exiting. If humans B don't find funny humans A they preserve their panic attitude and at the same time separate B humans from each other and rushing out from the elevator pull humans B out more rapidly too!
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
What may be likely to distance itself from humans? | [
"meteors",
"lodgepole pines",
"snow monkeys",
"advanced robots"
] | C | animals usually distance themselves from humans |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3416 | thermodynamics, experimental-physics, home-experiment, popular-science
This is only a partial answer - I have no idea whether my "method" is the fastest.
Heat transfer can be done in three ways: convection, conduction and radiation. We cannot really influence radiation, but it doesn't help much anyway (the temperatures are too small). Roughly, thermal conductivity is governed by Fourier's law, which tells us that the local heat flux $q$ is roughly
$$ q= k\nabla T$$
where $\nabla T$ is the temperature gradient and $k$ is a constant depending on the material where the flux occurs (thermal transmissivity).
Therefore, we can influence conduction by
a) bringing the milk into contact with a material with high thermal conductivity (such that conduction is accelerated)
b) cooling this contact material as far down as possible
c) making the contact surface as large as possible
The third is necessary, because we cannot really influence the thermal transmissivity of milk. Even if the material in contact with the milk has infinite thermal transmissivity, this would just mean that regions closest to that material would be cold immediately and regions far away would still be warm and cool according to the conductivity of milk. Of course, we can remedy this by introducing a current, therefore introducing convection (i.e.: we can stirr).
Based on a)-c) and the common sense assumption that you don't want to create a total mess and you don't want to contaminate the milk (albeit what that means can vary), here is a suggestion:
(Maybe) fastest method: Buy a baking tray (copper would be ideal, but I'm not sure these exist. It seems to be best from pure alluminium, if this is safe, but stainless steel seems fine - here is a list of thermal conductivities), put it in your icebox and when you want to cool your milk, get it out, pour the milk onto the baking tray and maybe stirr a little (however, if the baking tray is large enough, the surface area of the 500ml of milk should be enlarged enough) and then recollect the cooled milk in your bottle.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Adding milk to a hot pan creates | [
"rice",
"water",
"fairies",
"curds"
] | D | cooking causes a chemical reaction |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3417 | atomic-physics, geophysics, explosions
Title: In atomic bomb tests under ground, where does the displaced volume of the rocks go? Underground atomic bomb tests are done in a deep, sealed hole. Not all underground tests eject material on the surface. In this case, they are only noticeable as earthquakes, according to German Wikipedia on nuclear tests. There seems to be no bulge above the explosion site afterwards.
I assume the explosion creates a cavity. Also, I assume that rocks are not very compressible, more so for rocks deep under ground, without many gas-filled pores.
I'd like to understand where the volume of the rock goes. Is it one or more of these:
Rock is compressible, and the surrounding rock is just squished a little after the explosion.
The ground is elastic, and there is no cavity after the explosion.
There is a bulge on the surface, it's just too flat to be noticeable, but has a large volume.
the cavity is so small that the bulge on the surface is so flat that it is not noticeable.
There are enough pores filled with compressible gas in rocks generally, which end up with higher gas pressure after they lost some or most volume, with the total lost volume being the same as the cavities volume.
Regarding compressibility,
"Geologic materials reduces in volume only when the void spaces are
reduced, which expel the liquid or gas from the voids."
(Wikipedia: Compressibility - Earth science)
The answer of LDC3 hints that it can be assumed that the ground chosen for nuclear tests is most probably not porous, to avoid migration of radioactive isotopes.
From this, it could be concluded that compressibility is not an important factor, which is certainly counterintuitive.
There are probably some more options, and it may be more than one mechanism.
But where does that volume mainly come from? There is an interesting diagram in the wiki article on underground nuclear testing - the picture file is here
This shows that the crater you get from a nuclear explosion depends on the depth of burial:
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
A micro-scratch test is able to determine which rock formations deep inside the earth's sub-surface are the hardest and how resistant the formations are to being | [
"scratched, fractured or otherwise deformed",
"transformed into different minerals",
"melted and otherwise liquified",
"scratched with ice breakers"
] | A | heat and pressure change the remains of prehistoric living things into natural gas |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3418 | hygiene, food-chemistry
Dishes and utensils are only susceptible to bacterial growth if there's traces of food on them. Washing is meant to remove traces of food and oil so bacteria can't multiple on them. The conditions must be right for bacteria to multiple. If traces of food were to be completely dry and hardened on a dish and someone ate off it, the likelihood of any bacteria present on it is close to nil. They need moisture to grow. If dishes had no oily food on them, washing and rinsing with very warm water would be sufficient. I've seen people from other cultures wash dishes with traces of food that are soluble in water. They come out perfectly clean. (As an aside, using a tea towel can often spread bacteria when they're not used properly.) Towels top kitchen contamination hazards list
Bacteria can't multiple in oil. For example, ordinary cooking oil doesn't need to be refrigerated although it can go rancid. A cast iron frying pan is properly meant for frying foods only. No watery sauces should be cooked in them. Even "scraping it clean" shouldn't be done with a sharp metal object as it can remove some of the polymerized hardened oil layer.
I have several cast iron pans that I don't wash. I wipe them out after each use, then I add a little oil nd roughly a teaspoon of salt. With a paper towel, I rub at any bits of stuck on food. If done within a few hours of being used, it effectively removes any food traces, leaving a smooth surface. I usually rinse off the salt in warm water, dry it and then apply a very thin film of oil. I've been cooking in cast iron pans for decades and have never gotten sick or had mild food poisoning (what many people call a 'stomach flu').
Cast iron pans with a layer of proper seasoning and treated like this will definitely not cause sickness. It can't support bacterial growth and as @jeanquilt mentions, the pan gets very hot - enough to blister your skin if you touch them with a bare hand.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
If you eat food that lots of microorganisms have been on, you could get | [
"float",
"Fly",
"grow a beak",
"get an ailment"
] | D | microorganisms cause food to spoil |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3419 | earth, rotation, temperature
Title: What contributes the most to the seasonal temperature variation? The seasonal temperature is ultimately due to the precession of the Earth around the axis. But what I'm curious about is... is it due more to the side experiencing winter being farther from the sun or is it more due to the fact that the days are shorter and the nights are longer? [ The earth is actually closer to the sun in the Northern hemisphere's winter. The seasonal temperature variation is predominantly due to the angle the earth makes with the sun. In the northern hemisphere in winter the angle is such that the earth is tilted with north pole away from the sun and the sunlight hitting the earth is spread over a much larger area than if it was pointed towards the sun. Due to this tilt the sun is also lower in the sky and has the effect shown in the 2nd figure.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Winter in the Northern Hemisphere | [
"correlate to warm sunny days in the Southern Hemisphere",
"are in sync with weather in the Southern Hemisphere",
"led to brisk fall days in the Northern Hemisphere",
"correlate to cold months in the Southern Hemisphere"
] | A | June is during the winter in the southern hemisphere |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3420 | zoology, ecology, species-distribution, migration
Title: How do animals end up in remote areas? I was thinking specifically about random marshy water holes on farmers fields. It seems that you can visit just about any one of these and you will find frogs if you look hard enough.
They usually don't seem to be connected to each other. If it were any other land animal I would figure they walk from one spot to another, but in the case of frogs, I don't imagine their range is very vast. But often these marshy spots can be separated by fairly large distances to a frog.
So this brings me to my question: how do each of these spots end up with frogs in them? I don't imagine a frog is going to go hopping over a hill to get to a marsh on the other side, is it? This question pertains to organism dispersal, which is a very active field of study with relation to it's impact on conservation efforts. Much of what I will say below has been covered in this wiki.
Definition: From the Wiki
Technically, dispersal is defined as any movement that has the
potential to lead to gene flow.
It can be broadly classified into two categories:
Density dependent dispersal
Density independent dispersal
The question of frogs and fishes both refer to Density independent dispersal, while an example of density independent dispersal can be the competition for habitat space between big cats and humans (this is a WWF pdf)
From the wiki:
Density-independent dispersal
Organisms have evolved adaptations for dispersal that take advantage
of various forms of kinetic energy occurring naturally in the
environment. This is referred to as density independent or passive
dispersal and operates on many groups of organisms (some
invertebrates, fish, insects and sessile organisms such as plants)
that depend on animal vectors, wind, gravity or current for dispersal.
Density-dependent dispersal
Density dependent or active dispersal for many animals largely depends
on factors such as local population size, resource competition,
habitat quality, and habitat size.
Currently, some studies suggest the same.
This study in particular studied the movement and habitat occupancy patterns within ephemeral and permanent water bodies in response to flooding. They found that during flooding these frogs moved out to flooded ephemeral water bodies and later on moved back again to the permanent ones.
Other suggested readings for those highly interested in the subject may include this (a phd thesis) and this (a project report)
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Seed dispersal is when the seeds of a plant are moved to a new environment from where? | [
"plant charts",
"sky",
"space",
"parent flora"
] | D | seed dispersal is when the seeds of a plant are moved from the plant to a new environment |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3421 | energy, electricity, potential, electric-fields
Title: Tubelights+power lines pictures? I've come across many pictures like these, sometimes in chain emails reporting the dangers of power lines.
Another claim is that they run on "wasted" energy.
The explanations given are that the wires set up a field, and thus a potential difference. This p.d. gives current in the wires.
Now, I can't help but feeling skeptical. I can't see how the tubes would stay lit for the time it takes to set up the whole grid. Here's my logic:
If current flows through the tubelight, there will be a net charge distribution on the caps. At one point, the charge distribution will be such that it creates its own potential, halting the flow of light. This works even if one end is grounded. An easier way to analyse this is a capacitor (GP: G for ground, P for power lines), with a bulb inside it. Each terminal of the bulb is connected to a plate (A and B). There's an optional grounding wire W. In this situation, it's obvious that eventually the plates AB will get enough charge (same charge density as PG incidentally) to create zero p.d. Current should be there for a brief moment in time.
I understand that this is a DC situation, but for power lines, I think that something similar should happen. Or maybe not. I'm clear that the potential difference across the live and neutral switches polarities, but I'm not sure how the potential field is outside the wire. In fact, I feel that there shouldn't be a V/E field, only a magnetic field.
If it's true that the tubelights stay lit, then how is the energy "wasted energy"? I feel that even if the tubelight can stay lit, the energy is being drawn from the power lines. This looks just like how one can naively say that there is energy wasted in an open socket; when in reality plugging something in draws more energy from the system (and can dim other appliances).
Update: So my questions are thus:
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Which is likely to have a continuous path of electricity while in use? | [
"a balloon",
"a string",
"a soda can",
"an iPhone"
] | D | a closed circuit has continuous path |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3422 | civil-engineering, building-design
Title: Is it OK for a 2 story house not have a column or pillar sorry for my english. I was looking to buy a house. I saw some in my hometown, which is very affordable.
but on a picture of the house they are selling I found on the net troubled me.
no pillar/column, just hollowblocks and some steel bars.
kindly look at the pic.
I found it in this site
https://fiestacommunitiesblog.wordpress.com/tag/fiesta-communities/ As @SamFarjamirad states it's best to consult a knowledgeable construction engineer where you live, or in your region, because such people would know the building codes & construction practices for your region. A column or pillar for a two storey house may not be necessary if the load bearing walls are designed & built properly. This may include internal load bearing wall, inside the house. The other thing to be wary of is the quality of the foundations for the load bearing walls. Also, if the house to be renovated later all load bearing walls must not be removed or altered.
It looks like the steel is being threaded through the hollow block in the external walls. This would be done to increase the flexibility of the house during earthquakes and should a typhoon/cyclone/hurricane affect the house. Internal load bearing walls should also have such steel reinforcement.
If designed and built correctly such steel reinforced walls should not collapse. They might crack during extreme natural events but they should not fall and collapse the house.
Looking at the picture you included, some things that I found strange were:
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
If a house is built using a raw material, it can be built with | [
"ceramic",
"branches",
"Styrofoam",
"tile"
] | B | if something is a raw material then that something comes directly from a source |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3423 | planet, ceres
Title: Subterranean Oceans On Other Planets/Planetoids: How Do Astronomers Deduce This Recently I have been looking into planetoids in our asteroid belt and I have found one that caught my interest, Ceres. One of the main points that was said about it was that it had a subterranean ocean. But I'm puzzled as to how astronomers can come to this conclusion. Any explanations would be much appreciated. How they have concluded that there could b.e a subterranean ocean on Ceres is by Spectralscopy.
Spectral Signature can be summarised to like this:
Different elements emit different emission spectra when they are
excited because each type of element has a unique energy shell or
energy level system. Each element has a different set of emission
colors because they have different energy level spacings. We will see
the emission spectra or pattern of wavelengths (atomic spectra)
emitted by six different elements in this lab. We will then identify
an unknown element by comparing the color of the unknown with the
flame color of our knowns.
And another:
When something is hot enough to glow (like a star), it gives you information about what it is made of, because different substances give off a different spectrum of light when they vaporize. Each substance produces a unique spectrum, almost like a fingerprint.
So how the scientists would have concluded that there was water because of the water vapours in the atmosphere. It gives off a certain wavelength that could be compared the closest element that gives off the same wavelength which is water.
Then the scientists would have used Galileo's magnetometer(an instrument which measures the strength and direction of magnetic fields) to conclude that there could be an ocean on the dwarf planet. The strength and response of the induced field would tell the scientists a rough estimate of the dwarf planet's sub surface which in return they could deduce the fact the there is a large amount of water present which equals an ocean.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
if a human-like entity was spotted breathing normally under water, it might have developed which of these to make that happen? | [
"eyes for seeing things",
"wings for flying around",
"limbs for walking upright",
"special parts for underwater respiration"
] | D | gills are used for breathing water by aquatic animals |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3424 | optics, visible-light, quantum-electrodynamics, reflection
Title: Is the glass made up of holes that let the light to go through it? The following passage has been extracted from the book "The Magic of Science-A.Frederick Collins" (1917):
Substances of all kinds
have pores or holes in them. A sponge has pores that can
be seen and so has cheese, be it
green or yellow; and so, too,
have glass and metals, but the
pores or holes in the latter are so
small that you couldn't see them
even with a high-powered microscope,
but in glass they are
large enough to let light go
through them and in metals they
are large enough to let electricity
flow through them.
The following passage has been extracted from the book "QED:The strage theory of light and matter-Richard P Feynman" (around 1983-1985):
There are several possible theories that you could make up to account for the partial reflection of light by glass. One of them is that 96% of the surface of the glass is "holes" that let the light through while the other 4% of the surface is covered by small "spots" of reflective material. Newton realized that this is not a possible explanation.
Aren't the two passages in contradiction with each other?
Frederick says that glass is made up of holes that facilitates the passage of light through it, on the other hand Feynman is not ready to come in agreement. I think Frederick is little sloppy. Isn't it? Today we know that Collins is wrong.
He appears to be unaware of Newton's finding, and of course, advances made after he wrote his book.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
light is unable to shine through what? | [
"wood",
"water",
"air",
"glass"
] | A | no light shines through an opaque object |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3425 | entomology
Title: The death of Earthworm In rainy season when children sprinkle salt on earthworm ,it dies.But salt is not dangerous.We use it daily.Then why earthworm dies? It's because on the earth worm skin's special mucous. Acording to this article: Why do earthworms die when salt is sprinkled on them? the mucous makes moist to the worm's skin, which is vital for their survival. Moreover, the worms don't have a respiratory organs, like lungs, gills, etc. This means that Carbon Dioxide and other characterized as "dump" gases can not be exchanged with the Oxygen. But worms breath through their skin, with the help of these special mucous that are developed on its skin. If their skin dries out the result will be death, because the gas exchange will not last without the mucous help. Similarly, the circulatory system won't function, because its main role is to trade gasses with the cells via red blood cells.
What about salinity?
Salinity is a very important factor for the earthworms health, because high salinity destroy their valunable and sensitive skin and kills the mucous that in fact help the worm to "breathe". Low salt concentrations are very beneficial for the worm, because not only their mortarity level is increaced, there are size changes to the worm's body (noticeable bigger size).
Here are and some photos of a worm that its enviroment has low salinity and high salinity:
High salinity:
Low-to-medium salinity
Source: Why do earthworms die when salt is sprinkled on them?.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Worms die off during a heat wave. What affect does this have on the local fauna? | [
"Worms are glad their rivals have died off before them",
"The dirt is cleaner than ever",
"Monkeys can find more bananas",
"Flying creatures have more trouble finding food"
] | D | loss of resources has a negative impact on the organisms in an area |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3426 | electrical-engineering, measurements, safety, photovoltaics
This has to be done ideally asap, but definitely before the end of May. Although, again, my main concern is doing this safely first and foremost. I am willing to hold off on measuring the power as long as there's as the primary concern is discharging power safely then figuring out how to measure power. I imagine that would involve routing power to a grounding rod, but I'm not sure.
Any advice and feedback is greatly appreciated, and I am happy to answer any questions.
Solar panel link: https://www.amazon.com/Renogy-Monocrystalline-Solar-Compact-Design/dp/B07JXYTFF7/ref=sr_1_1?dchild=1&keywords=Renogy+Solar+Panel+2pcs+100+Watt+12+Volt+Monocrystalline%2C+2-Pack+Compact+Design&qid=1619041063&sr=8-1 Long story short, probably the safest and cheapest way to measure while maximizing the output of the panels is to buy a small inverter which is connected to the internet and logs the data at a cloud, and connect the inverter to the grid.
On the grid almost nobody will notice the excess energy (probably they won't mind either, unless you are on some net metering scheme).
The other option is to connect - to the output of the inverter - some sort electrical resistance heating unit - preferably with twice the required input (e.g. for the 900W install a 2kW), which is properly cooled (maybe with a fan or otherwise)
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
By plugging in the cord you can supply power to | [
"a garden gnome",
"a rock",
"the sun",
"a hairdryer"
] | D | when an electrical conductor is plugged into an outlet , a circuit is completed |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3427 | geology, mineralogy, minerals, weathering
To me, supergene has a specific meaning, it may be part of the weathering process in some locations, but weathering involves the breaking down of rocks due to: reactions with atmospheric gasses, water (usually rain), changes brought on by plants, bacteria wind and temperature.
My suggestion to use the term weathering or weathered.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Weathering could be | [
"talking to a friend",
"running on a hot day",
"cleaning my room on Saturday",
"changing a statue to dust"
] | D | An example of weathering is when a plant root grows into a crack in rock |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3428 | thermodynamics, heat, microwaves
Title: Microwave oven heating time It's logical to think that the time it takes a microwave to heat the food would be proportional to the mass heated. But since a microwave is based on dielectric heating, I think that if you increase the mass of food there will be more water, which will heat the food faster (due to thermalization). Is this reasoning right?
Is there an optimal quantity of food to heat and the time it takes? Good question. The rate of temperature increase scales as the power absorbed by the food divided by mass of the food. So to understand your question, you need to understand how power is absorbed.
There is a finite amount of power in the microwaves being produced. These microwaves bounce around in the metal cage where you put your food, until they come into contact with the food. (Well, some of them will get absorbed in the metal by imperfect reflection, but let's ignore that at first.) Once they get absorbed by the food, they turn into heat. Because they bounce around until they hit some food, the efficiency of a microwave is pretty high, in the sense that most of the power generated in the form of microwaves goes into heating the food, regardless of how much food you have.
So, at lowest-order, increasing the mass will increase the amount of water, but won't increase the amount of power being absorbed by the food. But now, that thing about absorption by the metal comes in. The power absorption will be slightly greater with a lot of food, since the food will be more likely to absorb the microwave before it gets absorbed by the metal. This is a lower-order effect, but it's there.
Of course, then the issue of skin depth comes in. Microwaves only penetrate a certain distance into the food. (Of order an inch, depending on the food.) So increasing the mass isn't really what you want; you want to increase the mass that's within the skin depth. For example, a wide dish of water that's one inch deep will absorb better than a jug of water with the same volume. This is why you want to split apart chicken breasts when defrosting them, for example.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
As the amount of food an animal eats increases what else will increase? | [
"heaviness",
"drought",
"starvation",
"sunlight"
] | A | as the amount of food an animal eats increases , the weight of that animal will increase |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3429 | pathology
Title: Are all diseases caused by organisms (microorganisms)? Are there other causes? Or is it correct to say that all diseases are in fact caused by organisms (microorganisms)? It is not correct to say that all diseases are caused by foreign organisms. Counterexamples are:
Cancer is caused by random genetic mutations in the cells of our body. The mutations can be caused by many factors such as ionizing radiation, smoking, chemical toxins etc.
Diseases such as stroke or heart attack are caused by blood clots blocking the blood flow to essential organs.
Autoimmune diseases are caused by the immune system falsely recognizing cells of the body as foreign and attacking that tissue leading to a wide variety of symptoms.
Alzheimer's disease is caused by chronic neurodegeneration, meaning that the cells in the brain die. The causes are not quite understood but as Alzheimer's usually appears late in life it is likely related to ageing. Also, it is known that some genetic defects can lead to early-onset Alzheimers.
Prion proteins can cause diseases such as Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease also known as mad-cow disease.
Hereditary diseases such as early-onset Alzheimers or ALS are cause by gene defects inherited from the parents.
Toxins can cause chronic diseases such as lead poisoning.
The list probably goes on...
Please note that the first two on the list are the most common cause of death in developed countries.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
What does harming an organism cause? | [
"population increase",
"change in appearance",
"population decrease",
"nothing"
] | C | as population of predators decreases , the population of prey will increase in an environment |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3430 | forces, friction
Title: How does static friction increase with increase in the applied force? My book says that 'Between surface of contact between two bodies there are contact forces applied between each other (they are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction,obeying Newton's 3rd law) due to electromagnetic interaction. The perpendicular component of the contact force is the Normal force while the parallel component is the frictional force. Friction is caused due to the coldwelding ie. formation of bond between the micro contact areas. When they distort due to external force,they create vibration waves which become damped releasing heat.' But it didn't tell about the mechanism of static friction, how it happens in the microscopic level. As the external force on the body increases, static frictional force also increases its value (upto a level). How does the force of static friction increase ? What is the cause of it at the microscopic level? Does the bond become more strong? How does this increase in static friction happen? I am not an expert in such fields, but I'll give you an overview of how I've learnt it.
The main point to realize is that, on a microscopic scale, the surfaces we initially thought of as "smooth" contain actually a great many irregular protuberances.
Coming back to the surface area between the two objects, one must carefully distinguish between the microscopic area of contact and the macroscopic upon which the friction force is independent, meaning they can be lying on top of each other with their larger cross sections or their smaller parts, it will not matter. Of course this seems surprising at first because friction results from adhesion, so one might expect the friction force to be greater when objects slide on their larger sides, because the contact area is larger. However, what determines the amount of adhesion is not the macroscopic contact area, but the microscopic contact area, and the latter is pretty much independent of whether the objects lie on a large face or on a small face.
Key idea is that the normal force puts pressure on the protuberances of one surface against those of the other which causes the protuberances/junctions to undergo a certain flattening (elastic deformation e.g.), and this increases the effective area of contact between the "rough" parts (before, you can imagine that only the tip points where actually bonding), as illustrated in these two pictures:
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Friction increases as what increases on a surface? | [
"smooth",
"shiny",
"rutted",
"clean"
] | C | as roughness of a surface increases , friction will increase |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3431 | genetics, dna, chromosome, biotechnology, allele
Title: Do we come to know which allele is dominant by seeing family genration tree only? I know that a Gene has Alleles (variation) and one is Dominant over Other i.e the Other Recessive.
Then I got a Thought that How can we tell whether an Allele is Dominant or Recessive...... and I came across this Site while Googling, and It says we can tell this by Observing Patterns in the Family Generation Tree.
So, my question is that can we only describe an Allele by observing pattern? Is there any other Method or by looking at the Molecular level and tell?
Please extend this "How can we tell whether an Allele is Dominant" to a Special Case where a Gene has 3 Alleles.....can we have 2 Dominant Allele? Addressing Your First Question
We can tell whether an allele is dominant or recessive based on patterns in family trees, that is true, and it is very helpful! However, that is not the only way, since by looking at the molecular function of the alleles, the dominant and recessive relationship between alleles can be assessed without needing to look at family trees!
I think a deeper understanding of what it means to be dominant versus recessive would be helpful, because usually biology isn't just that simple! In most scenarios where there is a distinct recessive and dominant trait, it is because the dominant trait causes some specific activity/functioning protein while the recessive trait does not. Let's look at an example of this:
Let's choose eye color:1
There are multiple genes that affect eye color but let's just look at one: the one that codes for the brown pigment (melanin) to be produced in the iris [specifically the HERC2 gene]. As you probably already know, brown eyes are dominant and blue eyes are recessive.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
When both a dominant and recessive gene are present, the dominate what will be visible? | [
"society",
"feature",
"person",
"path"
] | B | when both a dominant and recessive gene are present , the dominant trait will be visible |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3432 | geophysics, sedimentology
Title: Does dirt compact itself over time? If so, how does this happen? If I were to bury something 10 feet (~3 metres) underground, with loose soil on top, would the ground naturally compact itself over time, until whatever I had buried has dirt tightly pressing against it on all sides?
What if I buried it 50 feet (~15 metres) underground?
If it exists, what is this compaction process called and how does it happen? Soil is a collection of various sized minerals grains, of various types of minerals produced by the weathering of rock. Typical soil minerals are clays, silts and sands.
The properties and behavior of different soil types depends of the composition of the soil: the proportion of clays, silts and sand in a soil. Sandy soils are well draining and clayey soils are sticky.
Between the grains of minerals that comprise a soil are spaces, called pores or pore spaces. The pores can be filled with either water or air, depending the location of water tables and wetting events like rain, snow melts or other forms of water inundation.
The density of a soil is dependent on the degree of compaction of the soil. For to a soil to be compacted, a stress has to be applied to the soil to realign the grains of soil which reduces the total volume of the pores and reduces the amount of air within the pores.
Consolidation of a soil occurs when pore space is reduced and water in a soil is displaced due to an applied stress.
Regarding having something buried and soil compacting around it over time, yes that will occur but it is a question of how much stress the soil experiences, the duration of time and the nature of the soil - sandy or clayey. Something buried for a day without any stresses not much will happen. But, something buried for thousands of years with people and animals walking over it, rain falling on the soil, vibrations from nearby human activity and an occasional earthquake all add to the stresses the soil will experience and increases the degree of compaction or consolidation over time.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
If enough dirt is able to accumulate over a carcass, then eventually that carcass may | [
"be solidified in stone",
"be frozen in carbonate",
"be melted to a tree",
"become a source of water"
] | A | fossils are formed when layers of sediment cover the remains of organisms over time |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3433 | water, atmospheric-science, molecules, humidity
Commentary 3: Physics explanation based on molecule movement will be greatly appreciated. While you are at it - I have a hypothesis why humidity of the atmosphere is seldom 100 %. Water molecules are lighter than nitrogen (or average air) molecules and thus water vapour rises upward due to buoyancy. Depending on the temperature and vicinity of open water surfaces, the rate at which water molecules float upward may be faster than the rate of evaporation, resulting in a temporary steady state where relative humidity is below 100 %. The water vapour in the atmosphere is not lost to the space, however. At some point it cools down so much that it condenses. Thus clouds are made, which float until they can't support their own weight (by whatever means, up-drafts, buoyancy...) at which point the liquid water obeys gravity and falls down again. This greatly enhances evaporation rates while cooling the atmosphere down, and thus relative humidity rises to near 100 % while it's raining. Once the rain is done and the excess water is either absorbed or evaporates again, the cycle starts up again. Water molecules are lost to the upper layers of the atmosphere faster than evaporation can supply them, and thus relative humidity falls below 100 % again. How far below depends on the temperature, major air currents, open bodies of water, and so on. With neither evaporation nor condensation is the system then you can regard the water vapor and the dry air as distinct systems each subject to the same boundary conditions and conclude that they will have the same behavior.
Thus the absolute fraction of water will be the same at both ends and the relative humidity will vary.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
When will the humidity increase in relation to bodies of water? | [
"when you get closer",
"when you are shooting",
"when you get farther",
"when you are laughing"
] | A | as distance from water decreases , humidity will increase |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3434 | thermodynamics, food
Title: Boiling Pasta resulting in a Torus like shape? I noticed when I was boiling pasta the other day that the pasta uniformly spread out and formed a donut like torus. Why does this happen? Does it have to do with the shape of the pot? I tried to take a picture when it was boiling, but steam got all over my lens. So, this is a more 2d version of what the pasta looked like with boiling (while boiling, the pasta strands were uniform and seemed to be repelled out uniformly from the center of the pot. The walls of your pot act like a thermal sink that transfers heat to the surrounding environment. Therefore, the water temperature gets hotter as you move towards the center of the pot. The cold water then sinks and the hot water pushes up through the center, creating the donut-like torus you are describing.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
It's easiest to boil twisty noodles on a | [
"rubber tire",
"copper burner",
"wooden crate",
"plastic legos"
] | B | thermal conduction is when materials conduct heat through those materials |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3435 | entomology, parasitology, parasitism
The male (microgametocytes) and female (macrogametocytes) gametocytes are ingested by a female Anopheles mosquito during a blood meal (8) - only female mosquitoes (of pretty much any species) drink blood. The parasites' multiplication in the mosquito is known as the sporogonic cycle (stage C). While in the mosquito's stomach, the microgametes penetrate the macrogametes generating zygotes (9). The zygotes in turn become motile and elongated (ookinetes) (10) which invade the midgut wall of the mosquito where they develop into oocysts (11). The oocysts grow, rupture, and release sporozoites (12), which make their way to the mosquito's salivary glands. Inoculation of the sporozoites into a new human host perpetuates the malaria life cycle (1).
Sources
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Sea nomads' larger spleens let them | [
"eat every kind of poison on the planet",
"hold their breath for longer underwater",
"post low quality content on the internet",
"time travel to the future"
] | B | living in an environment causes an organism to adapt to that environment |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3436 | javascript, jquery
Or if you don't care about index error checking (which in actual practice appears to not matter):
var arrangeLayers = function (e, direction) {
var $target = $(e);
var $targetBuddy = $target.prev();
if (direction === 'down') {
$target.insertBefore($targetBuddy.prev().prev());
} else {
$target.insertAfter($target.next().next());
}
$targetBuddy.insertBefore($target);
}
Here's a jsfiddle without the checking:
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
If a thing is up and then is down then it is | [
"seared",
"invisible",
"wet",
"transported"
] | D | moving changes position |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3437 | organic-chemistry, biochemistry
But what happens with badly ventilated heaters is not that. Leakage of CO into the room is the dominant problem not a lack of oxygen. CO is very poisonous because it forms a relatively stable compound with haemoglobin, blocking the blood's ability to move oxygen around the body. This happens at very low levels of CO, long before any external shortage of oxygen has happened. When town gas supplies consisted of hydrogen/CO mixtures (phased out in favour of natural gas which is mostly methane in the 1960s in the UK) "putting you head in the oven" was a favoured method of suicide. As was piping a car exhaust into the car (which became harder post catalytic converters which remove CO and some other gases).
The point is that a small level of CO in a space where there is plenty of oxygen is deadly. And the deadly levels are far lower that the levels of carbon dioxide that would trigger any physiological warnings in the body.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
What do humans do to poison the air? | [
"tailoring old clothing items",
"using a plastic bottle to create a self water for a plant",
"placing plastic into big lakes",
"using old T-shirts to make a blanket"
] | C | polluting means something poisonous is added to an environment causing harm to the environment |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3438 | release energy by transferring heat to their surroundings. In older works, power is sometimes called activity. the bungee cord has more potential energy when it is stretched out than when it is slack. , green plants convert solar energy to chemical energy (commonly of oxygen) by the process of photosynthesis. Practice questions A bowling ball is lifted to a height […]. kinetic energy = mass * velocity² / 2 E = m * v² / 2. The maximum energy stored in the inductor is LI2/2 with I = I MAX. Efficiency can be explained as the amount of work done by an object to the total energy spent. You can think of a trebuchet as a see saw! Yes, a see saw is really all that a trebuchet is. Example of Few questions where you can use this Mechanical Energy Formula calculate the Mechanical energy of the object have mass 10 kg and velocity 3m/s and height above the ground is 10 m calculate the Kinetic Energy,Potential energy and Mechanical energy of the object have mass 1 kg and velocity 2m/s and height above the ground is 50 m. Kinetic energy = Joules Kinetic Energy Calculator is a free online tool that displays the kinetic energy of the object. Contribute to Ghostlydestinypolice/Physics_Energy development by creating an account on GitHub. We cover most electrical devices and home appliances, our online calculators can be edited to fit any home appliance and accurately calculate power costs. 2 Kinetic Energy. Current (I) is measured in amps (A), using an ammeter. The units of power are watts, the units of energy are joules. The kinetic energy just before impact is equal to its gravitational potential energy at the height from which it was dropped: K. 94u2rotkh0qgw ts2269o179 taplsbcnrzp02 tqj6cos4hnt038 862fohcw5vw 0kib5khqvn7x7u imx0rwjjl87j 7v6n0lvam9qps6 1ep3ku4gpb4 7jfyw1bfipc qndzw85umfgmg 3hdpzbzs6my yeu4magtr0k3kw0 e9wp756pxxgsa
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Portable energy is useful for | [
"soda bottles",
"drool",
"cascading style sheets",
"cattle prods"
] | D | batteries convert chemical energy to electrical energy |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3439 | climate-change, geography, rivers, rainfall, agriculture
Today Climate change and its consequences are some of the biggest challenges facing Humanity, with water scarcity being the big factor in Sub-Sahara Africa.
By Ultimately raising the Rainfall in the entire Southern Africa, through the managed and controlled filling and utilization of the Natural 30 000 - 60 000 square km of evaporation pans more regularly, will this not lower the extreme temperatures (day and night temperatures due to water absorbing much of the daytime heat and releasing it during the night) and drought patterns Southern Africa has experienced, and by all predictions are bound to worsen and could become more extreme?
In effect, creating a second Okavango Delta, but considerably bigger - large parts of Chobe.
A study of such a magnitude will need large amounts of research in multidisciplinary sciences, from Archaeology to Agriculture to Economics, and a much broader field of expertise - the biggest being Politics!
Could such a mammoth project not be but one small answer to a much bigger Climate Change challenge facing the Earth? (and ultimately send a bit of rain to my little piece of land in the Waterberg in the long dry winter months when we receive those dry West Winds - and fires become a serious hazard - simply by adding a bit of moisture from the vast pans Botswana are so blessed with!)
My mind has been going in circles as to the feasibility of such a mammoth, yet so cheap and easily implementable idea?
Any ideas? We agree that additional evaporation enhances energy transport from the surface to the atmosphere and intensifies the hydrological cycle and cloud formation, and that some of the most serious climate change issues such as:
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
If a park becomes more and more arid, the animals there will probably | [
"start increasing in population",
"have more food available",
"have less to drink",
"start becoming more friendly"
] | C | as dryness increases in an environment , the available water in that environment will decrease |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3440 | the-moon, moon-phases
Title: Red cresent moon Yesterday night i witnessed something very strange when i looked outside the window. I saw the moon (crescent) but it was dull red and right on the horizon ,which is strange considering that it is usually on the upper right of the night sky and white in colour. On further inspection with my binoculars i noticed it was lowering down until it was hidden by the mountain range (5km away) next to my building, this all occurred within a few minutes (about 5).
Tonight i saw the moon (crescent) had again returned to its normal position.
Please explain the cause for this, i'm completely baffled!
(Sorry for the poor wording, i'm not familiar with all the astronomical terms!) The dull red color has been due to atmospheric causes, like the reddish sun close to sunset. There hasn't been an astronomical reason for the reddish color.
A few days after New Moon moonset occurs short after sunset, so you won't see the Moon high over the horizon at those evenings. With each day the Moon is a little higher above the horizon after sunset. It's hence less close to the horizon at the same time of the day. Less close to the horizon means less atomospheric absorption/scattering responsible for the dull red color, assuming the same weather conditions.
At Full Moon the Moon is at the opposite side of the Sun relative to Earth. Moon is then rising shortly after sunset.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
the phases of the moon change the appearance of what? | [
"mars",
"astral night light",
"earth",
"sun"
] | B | the phases of the Moon change the appearance of the Moon |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3441 | = ",Count[Drop[branches,gen],_Real,\[Infinity]]/4" "" ""Length = ",SetAccuracy[Count[Drop[branches,gen],_Real,\[Infinity]]/4*(Norm[{{pt1[[1]],0.5},{0,0}}]^gen),3]}],18],Gray],{2.3,-1.8}]},{Inset[Style[Text@TraditionalForm@Style[Row[{"Polynomial Trees by Bernat Espigulé"}],18],Gray, Opacity[0.4]],{2.3,-2}]}},PlotRange->{{-1.7,3.7},{-2.1,1.5}},ImageSize->{1000,600},Background->Black]],{{th,0.025,"Thickness"},0.005,0.185},{{gen,12,"Generations"},Range[1,16], ControlType -> SetterBar},{{pt1,{0.5,0.5}},{-0.5,0.5},{0.5,0.5},Locator}]Jurassic Trees
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Wide tree rings mean | [
"happiness",
"thriving",
"money",
"magic"
] | B | as the amount of available water decreases , tree-growth rings will become narrower |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3442 | planet, orbit
Title: Do the orbits of planets change sometimes? Do planets sometimes wobble and get off their paths? What if an asteroid were to hit it? Yes, the orbits change massively over time. For example, Earth's eccentricity (how close to a circle the orbit is), its axial tilt (what causes seasons), and precession (which direction the Earth's spin axis points) change on these huge cycles, tens of thousands to hundreds of thousands of years long. They are caused by the pull of the other planets, mainly Jupiter and Saturn (since they are so huge), as well as the physics of inertial reference frames. These are known as the Milankovitch cycles. Here is a neat video explaining what each of the cycles are in detail. That video is about Earth, but the same concepts apply to all the other planets too, just on different amounts and timescales.
An asteroid hitting a planet would technically change its orbit, however how much is questionable. An asteroid a couple km across would barely nudge the Earth since the Earth is bigger by many orders of magnitude. It would also destroy everything on the planet, but thats another story. Way back in the solar system's formation, when Thea hit Earth (theoretically) it was much closer in size than the Earth, so no doubt that it caused a much more significant shift in orbit.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
What does the earth orbit that makes the seasons to change? | [
"pluto",
"plasma star",
"venus",
"mercury"
] | B | a line graph is used for showing change over time |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3443 | thermodynamics, entropy, evaporation
Title: Does $dS = \frac{dQ}{T}$ explain why evaporation increases total entropy? When a cup of water evaporates into air, water molecules collide near the water-air surface in such a way that enables one of the water molecules to escape the water surface. In each such collision, a little kinetic energy $\Delta KE$ is transferred to the energetic molecule that escapes. This process does not require an addition of heat $Q$ from the surroundings, because the kinetic energy $\Delta KE$ is transferred between two water molecules and is not transferred from the surroundings.
This post and this post seem to state that the process of evaporation increases the total entropy of system + the surroundings. The posts/answers in those links offer a variety of ways of explaining this, including that (a) the increase in total entropy is due to a difference in chemical potential µ, and (b) the increase in total entropy is due to the fact that gases have a higher specific entropy. I believe I read elsewhere that gases generally have more microstates than liquids, which would also why the total entropy increases during the transformation of a liquid into a gas.
My question doesn't relate to these answers, but instead is about how the equation $dS=\frac{dQ}{T}$ applies to evaporation. In particular: how does this equation explain why total entropy increases during evaporation? What are the correct values for $dQ$?
One guess that I have is: $dQ$ equals the kinetic energy $\Delta KE$ transferred to the energetic water molecule during the collision at the surface. On the one hand, substituting $\Delta KE$ in for $dQ$ makes some sense to me because I don't know of any other energy exchanges that occur during evaporation except the transfer of $\Delta KE$. On the other hand, my statement $dQ = \Delta KE$ seems wrong because $dQ$ is supposed to be the heat transferred between the surroundings and the system, and $\Delta KE$ is energy transferred within the system. (Only once evaporation occurs does the escaped particle become part of the 'surroundings.')
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
What kind of energy causes evaporation? | [
"hotness",
"sound",
"cold",
"kinetic"
] | A | the sun causes water to evaporate more quickly by adding heat |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3444 | earthquakes, seismology
Title: Do planetary alignments affect Earth's seismic activity? There is a widely circulated tweet by Frank Hoogerbeets where it seems he has predicted Turkey's earthquake a few days before. The tweet says:
Sooner or later there will be a ~M 7.5 #earthquake in this region (South-Central Turkey, Jordan, Syria, Lebanon). #deprem
I have searched a bit about the origin of this so-called prediction. They have a youtube channel since a few month ago, which is regularly updated by videos like this in which he analyzes the planetary alignments and claims that it has something to do with Earth's seismic activities. I haven't seen such claim anywhere before and wanted to check whether it has been scientifically approved, or does it have any merit whatsoever? It's easy to make prediction of earthquakes in Turkey/Türkiye, it's in one of the most active seismic zones on the planet.
The February 2023 earthquake had a magnitude of 7.8, with aftershocks of magnitude 7.5.
In 2020 there was a magnitude 7 quake, 6.9 in 2014, 7.2 in 2011, 7.2 and 7.6 in 1999, 7.5 in 1976, 7 in 1964, two 7.1 quakes in 1957, 7.2 in 1953, 7.5 in 1944 and another 7.8 quake in 1939.
Turkey/Türkiye is no stranger to earthquakes. They are a continual, if not unwelcome, companion.
The alignment of planets has effective nothing to do with earthquakes. Any effect is very small.
The moon, sun, and other planets have an influence on the earth in the form of perturbations (small changes) to the gravitational field. The relative amount of influence is proportional to the objects mass, and inversely proportional to the third power of its distance from the earth.
There have been several planet-alignment scares. “The Jupiter Effect” (1974), by John Gribbin and Stephen Plagemann, predicted that a line-up on March 10, 1982, would cause catastrophes including a great earthquake on the San Andreas Fault.
That did not happen.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
If the earth quakes and a lot of people die, likely | [
"everything was fine",
"stars went out",
"sunrise was delayed",
"shingles caved in"
] | D | buildings collapsing often cause death |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3445 | javascript, performance, beginner, game, canvas
// Following code is a fix for [[obj1, obj3], [obj2, obj4]].
if (alreadyHadCollisions && (index1 > -1 || index2 > -1)) {
for (i4 = 0; i4 < this.collisions[collisionIndex].length; ++i4) {
obj3 = this.collisions[collisionIndex][i4];
if (obj3 !== obj1 && obj3 !== obj2) collision.push(obj3);
}
this.collisions.splice(collisionIndex, 1);
}
if (index1 > -1 || index2 > -1) {
alreadyHadCollisions = true;
collisionIndex = i3;
}
}
if (!alreadyHadCollisions) this.collisions.push([obj1, obj2]);
}
}
}
}
for (i1 = 0; i1 < this.collisions.length; ++i1) {
var targets = this.collisions[i1],
biggestRadius, scaleFactor;
obj1 = targets[0];
biggestRadius = obj1.getRadius();
for (i2 = 1; i2 < targets.length; ++i2) {
obj2 = targets[i2];
var density = Math.max(obj1.density, obj2.density),
area = obj1.getArea() * (obj1.density / density) + obj2.getArea() * (obj2.density / density);
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Tearing an object changes that object's | [
"formation",
"biology",
"chemical composition",
"nutrition"
] | A | the composition of something can be used to identify that something |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3446 | fluid-dynamics, water, surface-tension
Title: Fluidity: Convex or level So I'm debunking a flat Earth article here and I came across a false proof stating that "If the Earth was round, fluids such as water would have a convex surface that matches the roundness of the earth."
Now, I'm going to go against my common sense's words here because the debunking statement I came up with is that the Earth is so large that water just appears to be level when it is actually convex at a microscopic level, but that's probably wrong. How does water appear level even though the Earth is round? I haven't received that much education, so this may be a strange question. But can someone tell me whether that is right or wrong, please? You're correct except for 'at the microscopic level.' The amount of curvature starts off at a few inches per mile and grows rapidly with distance from a given reference point. Not microscopic, but still challenging to measure.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Which is likely true about water? | [
"oceans will evaporate more liquid than a lake",
"streams will evaporate more liquid than anything",
"lakes will evaporate more water than oceans",
"streams will evaporate more water than oceans"
] | A | as the surface area of a body of water increases , evaporation of that body of water will increase |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3447 | newtonian-mechanics, estimation
Would the rock have created a seismic event of its own (if so, how large)?
Would the rock have created a crater? The energy of the rock at the time of hitting the earth is mgh.
No rock we know of is going to be able to survive this collision with out breaking into pieces.
Non the less it will be a big impact and depending on the geology of the location it hits a variety of reactions scenarios can happen.
If the soil is aggregate of silt and sand and gravel, it would part into several shear rupture sections which look like slices of shell pattern surfaces starting from the bottom surface of the rock and turning up exiting the earth surface a few hundred yards outside of the impact zone and probably even eject some material out like a bomb crater. This scenario will have shakes that could be recorded miles away.
The calculation of how much of the momentum of rock will be shared with the shear material and accelerating them will be involved but not impossible.
If the geology of the impact area is of very low bearing like mostly silt and loose clays, the rock my lose most of its kinetic energy by just sinking into the dirt mostly with a giant humph with a cloud of dust rising.
If the geology is hard or rocky with the 'optimal' amount of mass and resilience it could create a substantial earthquake by resonating with the impact.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
seismic activities will force an abrupt change in the surface appearance of | [
"terra",
"canoes",
"flowers",
"trees"
] | A | an earthquake changes Earth 's surface quickly |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3448 | meteorology, severe-weather
The lack of rich low-level moisture is due in large part to the lack of accessibility from warmer moisture sources, particularly the Gulf of Mexico; the Rockies provide a barrier to much of the moisture reaching further west.
As you note, parts of Wyoming and Montana do see supercells and tornadoes a bit more often... but on a good topographic map, fair parts of those states are east of the Continental Divide, and so still on an "upsloping" area and thereby not blocked by sinking regions which prevent full moisture progress. They're still less-tornado prone due to elevation and increased distance from moisture, but it does happen.
The desert southwest also does manage to get monsoon moisture sneaking around the terrain further south... but further north that monsoon moisture sees additional blocking by the more elevated terrain across Nevada and Utah. (And in the southwest, a different key ingredient in tornadic supercell development is typically missing in the summer monsoon: upper-air winds sufficient for supercell development)
The Pacific Coast does see a few occasional tornadoes. But from what I've seen, they typically form from smaller storms with much less classical and intense mesocyclones. As you mention, they're a bit more in line with cold-core setups, which usually produce weaker short-lived tornadoes than classic supercells of the Plains and on east. If you plug in the events you speak of into SPCs Severe Weather Events archive, [pick the date, then click Obs and Mesoanalysis on the left, then use the dropdowns to find various parameters]
you can see that CAPE was typically very meager (well short of 1000 J/kg) and the storm structure quite weak in reflectivity in comparison to a classic supercell, more indicative of such cold-core setups.
Capping inversions may be helpful to "keep the lid on the pot" if you have strong CAPE (and therefore quality moisture) and intense updrafts to erode the cap during the day. But as it is, there isn't enough moisture typically for the cap to be a positive factor.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
a desert environment has low | [
"sand count",
"cacti",
"dryness",
"wet sky falling"
] | D | a desert environment has low rainfall |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3449 | human-biology, red-blood-cell
Title: How do people who have lost both of their legs produce red blood cells? As far as I know, just leg bones produce red blood cells. So, how people who lost their both legs produce red blood cells? Red blood cells are produced in the red marrow which...
"is found mainly in the flat bones, such as the pelvis, sternum,
cranium, ribs, vertebrae and scapulae, and in the cancellous
("spongy") material at the epiphyseal ends of long bones such as the
femur and humerus." - Wikipedia
So you are partly right; the femur is associated with red blood cell production, or Erythropoiesis to give it it's technical name, but there are other bones within the human body that also do this job. The process of erythropoiesis is stimulated when the kidneys detect low levels of oxygen in the blood stream and stimulate production of the hormone erythropoietin. Further, the role of the tibia and femur in erythropoiesis also decreases with age whereas...
"the vertebrae, sternum, pelvis and ribs, and cranial bones continue
to produce red blood cells throughout life." - again from the wiki page
So I'd suggest it is unlikely that loss of the legs would have a major impact on the production of red blood cells in adults. I imagine that with the loss of legs comes some reduction in functionality of erythropoiesis but also a lower requirement of red blood cell production (less blood capacity = less blood cells needed = less blood cells need to be produced). I can't find any studies which explore the ability or needs of amputees and non-amputees with regards to red blood cell production.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Red blood cells help your | [
"breathing boxes",
"magic",
"oranges",
"time traveling"
] | A | a living thing is made of cells |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3450 | evolution, species
Title: Parents that eat their own children I am told that there are some species, like fish or rabbits, that if let, will eat their own children. If this is true, how does a species like this exist? Shouldn't the fact that they kill their own lineage make them nonviable? Yes, it is true.
Prairie dogs
Prairie dogs for example are known for frequent infanticides.
Many other species kill their babies too
But of course, such behaviour also exists in other lineages such as grey langurs, gerbilles, lions, giant water bugs and Bottlenose dolphins (just to cite a few examples).
How does that evolve
It will be impossible to provide a complete universal explanation to this behaviour because the evolutionary processes causing this behaviour varies from lineage to lineage. For examples, in lions, only males kill young of the females that are still nursing and they do so when taking over a new harem only. In prairie dogs, mothers cause infanticide preferentially on others' babies but also on their own babies.
Going into the details of how such behaviour evolves in every specific lineage would probably require writing an intro on kin selection and other fields of evolutionary biology which is way too much for a single post. You may want to have a look at the wikipedia article infanticide for a start.
Shouldn't the fact that they kill their own lineage make them nonviable?
Of course, they don't kill all the babies. Only a fraction of them!
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Your children's children will probably never see a live | [
"common house fly",
"Amur leopard",
"fish",
"cockroach"
] | B | endangered means low in population |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3451 | zoology, ornithology, ethology, behaviour
Title: Crow branch pecking behaviour I was walking through a small park when two crows started cawing at me, and followed me, flying from tree-to-tree as I walked. I speculate that this is a territorial or protective behaviour, but what I found different was the crows were violently pecking the branches nearby them. I have no memories coming to mind of seeing this behaviour beforehand. I speculate that this behaviour could be threat displays, but a quick search on Google did not reveal to me any authoritative studies on this phenomenon. I'd appreciate more information and sources.
This question has been added as a casual observation on iNaturalist. This is a good question. This type of behavior -- pecking at a branch, wiping the side of the beak on a branch, pulling off twigs and dropping them, or knocking off pieces of bark -- is quite common among many corvid species, particularly when they are interrupted by something or someone that they might consider a threat. This includes not only potential predators but also potentially hostile conspecifics.
It is typically considered to be a form of displacement behavior. The concept of displacement behavior, from classical ethology, posits that when an animal experiences two conflicting drives to do two different things, it doesn't know which to do and does a third thing instead to dissipate the drive or anxiety. For branch-pecking in crows, see E.g Kilham and Waltermire 1990 Ch. 12.
Referece: Kilham, L., & Waltermire, J. (1990). The American crow and the common raven. Texas A&M University Press.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Which animal travels great distance as part of its instinctive behavior? | [
"a raven",
"a bear",
"a chipmunk",
"a snake"
] | A | migration is an instinctive behavior |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3452 | javascript, jquery
// If the country appears just once, then we can do this:
(dataByYear[year] = dataByYear[year] || []).push(group.key);
// If the country can appear more than once, we guard the push:
dataByYear[year] = dataByYear[year] || [];
if(!~dataByYear[year].indexOf(group.key)) dataByYear.push(group.key);
});
return dataByYear;
}, {});
// {
// 1990: ['US', 'Italy', ...],
// 1989: ['US', 'France', ...],
// ...
// }
var dataByYears = Object.keys(yearsToCountries).map(function(year){
return { key: year, values: yearsToCountries[year]};
});
// [
// {key: '1990', values: ['US', 'Italy', ...]},
// {key: '1989', values: ['US', 'France', ...]},
// ...
// ]
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Which phenomenon is studied about once annually? | [
"planes departing",
"cats purring",
"geese travelling",
"rats flying"
] | C | migration is when animals move to different locations in an annual cycle |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3453 | atmosphere, ocean, hydrology, climate-change
Comment: I strongly endorse the use of wind and hydropower as sources of energy over the further use of fossil fuels. However, I still think it is important to do research into the actual renewability of presumed-renewable energy sources, as we don't want to end up with another fossil fuel-type situation, in which we become aware of dependency on these energy sources and their malignant environmental side-effects long after widespread enthusiastic adoption. Electricity from waves, from hydro (both run-of-river and storage) and from wind, are all indirect forms of solar power. Electricity from tides is different, and we can deal with that in a separate question. Global tidal electricity generation is not yet at the scale of gigawatts, so it's tiny for now.
Winds come about from the sun heating different parts of the planet at different rates, due to insolation angles, varying cloud cover, varying surface reflectivity, and varying specific heat of surface materials. Temperature differentials create wind currents.
Waves come about from wind, so they're a twice-indirect form of solar power.
Sunlight on water speeds up evaporation, lifting the water vapour into clouds, giving them lots of gravitational potential. That rain then falls, sometimes onto high land, from where it can be gathered into storage reservoirs that are tapped for electricity, or where it flows into rivers that are then harnessed in run-of-river hydro.
How much power is there? Well, the insolation from the sun is, at the outer boundary of the Earth's atmosphere, at an intensity of about 1400 Watts per square metre. The Earth's albedo is roughly about 30% - i.e. on average about 400 Watts are reflected back into space, giving an average irradiation into the Earth of about 1000 Watts per square metre. Picture the Earth's surface as seen from the Sun: wherever the Earth is in its orbit on its own axis, and around the Sun, the Sun sees a disc that has the Earth's diameter, so the surface area exposed to the Sun is just $\pi$ times the square of Earth's radius, which is about 6 300 kilometres.
So the incoming solar radiation is $1000 \times 6,300,000^2 \times \pi \approx 125 \times 10^{15} \rm \ W$
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
What is the source of energy for physical cycles on Earth? | [
"the closest planet to earth",
"the closest yellow dwarf star",
"the seven different oceans",
"various gas powered engines"
] | B | the sun is the source of energy for physical cycles on Earth |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3454 | “It’s amazing, given the billions of hours humans spend in the water, how uncommon attacks are,” Burgess said, “but that doesn’t make you feel better if you’re one of them.” (Source here.)
18.9% of NC visitors went to the beach (source) . In 2012, there were approximately 45.4 million visitors to NC (source). To overestimate the number of beachgoers, Let’s say 19% of 46 million visitors, or 8.7 million people, went to NC beaches. Seriously underestimating the number of beachgoers who enter the ocean, assume only 1 in 8 beachgoers entered the ocean. That’s still a very small 7 attacks out of 1 million people in the ocean. Because beachgoers almost always enter the ocean at some point (in my experiences), the average likely is much closer to 2 or fewer attacks per million.
To put that in perspective, 110,406 people were injured in car accidents in 2012 in NC (source). The probability of getting injured driving to the beach is many orders of magnitude larger than the likelihood of ever being attacked by a shark.
Alison Kosik should keep up her surfing.
If you made it to a NC beach safely, enjoy the swim. It’s safer than your trip there was or your trip home is going to be. But even those trips are reasonably safe.
I certainly am not diminishing the anguish of accident victims (shark, auto, or otherwise), but accidents happen. But don’t make too much of one either. Be intelligent, be reasonable, and enjoy life.
In the end, I hope my students learn to question facts and probabilities. I hope they always question “How reasonable is what I’m being told?”
Here’s a much more balanced article on shark attacks from NPR:
Don’t Blame the Sharks For ‘Perfect Storm’ of Attacks In North Carolina.
Book suggestions:
1) Innumeracy, John Allen Paulos
2) Predictably Irrational, Dan Ariely
CAS and Normal Probability Distributions
My presentation this past Saturday at the 2015 T^3 International Conference in Dallas, TX was on the underappreciated applicability of CAS to statistics. This post shares some of what I shared there from my first year teaching AP Statistics.
MOVING PAST OUTDATED PEDAGOGY
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
If a beach is experiencing sneaker waves, which are very dangerous, it is likely due to | [
"our sun",
"luna",
"our trees",
"our skies"
] | B | the gravitational pull of the Moon on Earth 's oceans causes the tides |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3455 | ecology
Title: Statement about Tropical Rainforests I made a statement about tropical rainforests, and I want to know if it's somewhat true or not:
The soil in tropical rainforests is not exceptionally fertile, because it contains few minerals. The reason that a tropical rainforest has a huge amount of vegetation is because of the quick mineralisation. If a dead leaf falls onto the ground, it immediately gets turned into minerals, which the plants immediately use for sustaining theirselves There are many websites which describe this phenomenon. They all seem to confirm the basic premise of the question: in tropical rain forests most of the minerals are held in the biomass and rapid decomposition contributes to the recycling of these nutrients for new growth. One example is here.
Tropical rainforests are noted for the rapid nutrient cycling that occurs on the ground. In the tropics, leaves fall and decompose rapidly. The roots of the trees are on the surface of the soil, and form a thick mat which absorbs the nutrients before they reach the soil (or before the rain can carry them away). The presence of roots on the surface is a common phenomenon in all mature forests; trees that come along later in succession win out in competition for nutrients by placing their roots over top of the competitors, and this pattern is seen in the temperate rainforest as well. What does not occur in the temperate rainforest, however, is a rapid cycling of nutrients. Because of the cold conditions and the acidity released by decomposing coniferous needles on the forest floor, decomposition is much slower. More of the nutrients are found in the soil here than would be the case in a tropical forest, although like the tropical forest most of the nutrients are held in the plants and animals themselves.
I looked for actual evidence of these differences in rates of decomposition and I found this:
Salinas, N. et al. (2011) The sensitivity of tropical leaf litter decomposition to temperature: results from a large-scale leaf translocation experiment along an elevation gradient in Peruvian forests. New Phytologist 189: 967-977
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
a soil in a village seems to be nutrient deficient, what might have happened? | [
"the soil is angry",
"the soil has been taken over by dogs",
"the gods are angry",
"there has been too much cultivation"
] | D | farming cause nutrients in the soil to decrease |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3456 | star-gazing
Title: What qualifies as a good place for stargazing, i.e. with least light pollution? I know that minimal light pollution is a must for stargazing, and a place which is away from civilization is better.
Does altitude of a place matter for light pollution?
Does it affect the quality of star gazing? A good question, and in the early 2000s John Bortle published a categorization of a variety of conditions, with descriptions for each category. It is the commonly used scale to describe to others the sort of conditions at a location.
Probably one of the more significant factors provided by a dark sky site is: how faint do stars have to be for you not to see them anymore (overwhelmed by light pollution). There are specific stellar regions, each a triangle, and the idea is you could how many stars you can see in the triangle, and you look the number up in a table, and it will tell you the magnitude limit you are perceiving at that site.
Yes, high altitudes also help - less air between you and the stars means better seeing conditions/less atmospheric distortion.
Being able to see more stars IS better for star gazing. Living in a city, I am continually frustrated at the poor skies, and love being in dark sky locations like the International Dark Skies Reserve at Tekapo, New Zealand.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
If a person enjoys star gazing the best place to live is | [
"beside a streetlight",
"the countryside",
"the big city",
"beside a skyscraper"
] | B | as light pollution increases , seeing the stars will be harder |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3457 | homework, plant-physiology, plant-anatomy
and 'Vascular Plants = Winning! - Crash Course Biology #37'
https://youtu.be/h9oDTMXM7M8?t=373
[5] Osmosis (water compensating solutes) "In Da Club - Membranes & Transport: Crash Course Biology #5"
https://youtu.be/dPKvHrD1eS4?list=PL3EED4C1D684D3ADF&t=148
Ian (and dad <= all errors and approximations are his :) ).
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
as the amount of water received by a plant increases , that plant will usually | [
"form more vegatation",
"harden like rocks",
"start singing",
"fly to space"
] | A | as the amount of water received by a plant increases , that plant will usually grow |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3458 | general-relativity, black-holes, orbital-motion
The point is that the acceleration you need to avoid falling in is only determined globally, from the condition that you stay in communication with infinity. If you stop accelerating so that you see the particle cross the horizon, the moment you see the particle past the horizon, you've crossed yourself.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
If you want to avoid death you will need to | [
"jump into volcanoes",
"hit something",
"fly",
"take in air"
] | D | living things require respiration to use energy |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3459 | evolution, vision, neurophysiology
Mid-reds with mid-greens
Blue-greens with grey and mid-pinks
Bright greens with yellows
Pale pinks with light grey
Mid-reds with mid-brown
Light blues with lilac
There are reports on the benefits of being red-green color blind under certain specific conditions. For example, Morgan et al. (1992) report that the identification of a target area with a different texture or orientation pattern was performed better by dichromats when the surfaces were painted with irrelevant colors. In other words, when color is simply a distractor and confuses the subject to focus on the task (i.e., texture or orientation discrimination), the lack of red-green color vision can actually be beneficial. This in turn could be interpreted as dichromatic vision being beneficial over trichromatic vision to detect color-camouflaged objects.
Reports on improved foraging of dichromats under low-lighting are debated, but cannot be excluded. The better camouflage-breaking performance of dichromats is, however, an established phenomenon (Cain et al., 2010).
During the Second World War it was suggested that color-deficient observers could often penetrate camouflage that deceived the normal observer. The idea has been a recurrent one, both with respect to military camouflage and with respect to the camouflage of the natural world (reviewed in Morgan et al. (1992)
Outlines, rather than colors, are responsible for pattern recognition. In the military, colorblind snipers and spotters are highly valued for these reasons (source: De Paul University). If you sit back far from your screen, look at the normal full-color picture on the left and compare it to the dichromatic picture on the right; the picture on the right appears at higher contrast in trichromats, but dichromats may not see any difference between the two:
Left: full-color image, right: dichromatic image. source: De Paul University
However, I think the dichromat trait is simply not selected against strongly and this would explain its existence more easily than finding reasons it would be selected for (Morgan et al., 1992).
References
- Cain et al., Biol Lett (2010); 6, 3–38
- Morgan et al., Proc R Soc B (1992); 248: 291-5
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
An example of camouflage is | [
"a polar bear on a sand dune",
"a lizard appearing like the dead things that fall from trees in the fall",
"a frog that is all white",
"a garter snake on a white driveway"
] | B | An example of camouflage is an organism looking like leaves |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3460 | manufacturing-engineering, engineering-economics
where both C & E are salable products. The plant was designed line-balanced assuming you'd sell 500 tons of E & 300 tons of C every month. Unfortunately 5 years down the line the market for C is bad. So parts of the line pre-C become underutilized although the rest of the line is still balanced.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Science fact: as the sale of a product decreases , the amount of money made by the person selling that product will decrease. However, sales could possibly grow with | [
"bad press",
"eclipse",
"price increases",
"advertising"
] | D | as the sale of a product decreases , the amount of money made by the person selling that product will decrease |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3461 | homework-and-exercises, pressure
Title: Why is it difficult to cook food on mountains? Why is it difficult to cook food on mountains?
Is it because on increasing pressure boiling point of substance increase and on mountains there is less pressure so less boiling point. Then shouldn't it be easier to cook food on mountain.
I know that as we go to higher altitude there is less oxygen so it becomes difficult to cook. My teacher gave this question when she was teaching about boiling point and "How pressure effect boiling point?" so the reasoning should be of something about pressure. Why do we boil water to cook food? It's not actually because there's anything magic about the boiling of water, or that the physical process of boiling in particular does anything. Usually it's because we want a constant-temperature heat bath. Say you are boiling vegetables. You boil water, and you know that water is at 100 degrees. Water actually cannot get any hotter than this--it stays at that temperature or it becomes steam and leaves the pot. Then you put the vegetables into the boiling water, and therefore you know that they are in a 100 degree environment. Then, you know you need to leave them in there for however long--let's say five minutes.
Suppose, though, you were at high altitudes and water boiled at 95 degrees. Well, now when you put your vegetables into boiling water, they are only in a 95 degree environment, so the cooking time has changed. Your recipe no longer works correctly, and you will have to boil the food for longer.
Or maybe not, actually. The other possibility is that you are putting food in an oven, say something that's supposed to be 200 degrees. In this case, the water that's probably in the thing you're baking actually keeps the food cooler for longer. It reaches 100 degrees and will stay there until it boils off. However, if it boils off at 95 degrees, then again your cooking parameters will have changed. Since the water boils off faster, your dish spends more time at higher temperatures and can burn.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
The family cooked most of their food using a stove and | [
"magic",
"ice",
"luck",
"electricity"
] | D | an electrical device requires electricity to turn on |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3462 | That would be a total of 5x30 + 3x40 + 2x60 = 390 plants (with an arbitrary factor that we'll set to 1 without loss of generality).
The amount of highbush is 5x30 = 150.
The amount of lowbush is 3x40 = 120.
The amount of hybrid is 2x60 = 120.
If the opossums didn't care, they would likely eat blueberries in this ratio (null hypothesis H0).
The total that we have observed the opossums to eat is 5% x 150 + 10% x 120 + 20% x 120 = 43.5 plants.
They eat 5% large, which a corresponding fraction of 5% x 150 / (5% x 150 + 10% x 120 + 20% x 120) = 17%
They eat 10% low for 10% x 120 / (5% x 150 + 10% x 120 + 20% x 120) = 28%
They eat 20% hybrid for 20% x 120 / (5% x 150 + 10% x 120 + 20% x 120) = 55%.
Checking... yes the total is 100%.
What we see is that the opossums prefer hybrid by far.
Small blueberries are their second choice.
Last edited:
#### anemone
##### MHB POTW Director
Staff member
Hi anemone!
What do you mean by the symbol E?
Anyway, you've found that the opossums eat 45.8% large and 54.2% small for a total of 100%.
But... what happened to the hybrid blueberries?
By the symbol E, I meant the blueberries (all 3 types of them) that are eaten by opossums...
That would be a total of 5x30 + 3x40 + 2x60 = 390 plants (with an arbitrary factor that we'll set to 1 without loss of generality).
The amount of highbush is 5x30 = 150.
The amount of lowbush is 3x40 = 120.
The amount of hybrid is 2x60 = 120.
If the opossums didn't care, they would likely eat blueberries in this ratio (null hypothesis H0).
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
The more cereal people consume the more we will need to plant | [
"corn",
"gravy",
"milk",
"tomatoes"
] | A | as the use of a crop increases , the amount of crops planted will increase |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3463 | humidity, water-vapour
Title: Water vapor content versus specific humidity I am wondering the difference between water vapor content and specific humidity to determine the moisture availability in the atmosphere. Which one is more acceptable variable to determine the moisture availability in the atmosphere?
I need to show the moisture availability in the atmosphere in my study. So should I explain it through water vapor content or through specific humidity? I will explain the rainfall deficiency over a region For a study relating to rainfall, I would be inclined to look at total column water vapour (TCWV), also known as integrated water vapour (IWV) or precipitable water. They're all (more or less) the same thing.
The company Remote Sensing Systems describes it as:
Total column water vapor is a measure of the total gaseous water contained in a vertical column of atmosphere. It is quite different from the more familiar relative humidity, which is the amount of water vapor in air relative to the amount of water vapor the air is capable of holding. Atmospheric water vapor is the absolute amount of water dissolved in air. When measured in linear units (millimeters, mm), it is the height (or depth) the water would occupy if the vapor were condensed into liquid and spread evenly across the column. Using the density of water, we can also report water vapor in kg/m2 = 1 mm or g/cm2 = 10 mm.
For rain to form, clouds need to form first. Clouds need cloud condensation nuclei, but crucially, for clouds to form, the water vapour partial pressure needs to reach the saturation vapour pressure. The latter is strongly dependent on temperature (Clausius-Clapeyron relation), so a profile of relative humidity is not the most directly useful quantity. The total column water vapour describes how much liquid water might form, which is why it is sometimes even described as precipitable water.
You can get this product either from reanalysis (like ERA-5) or retrieved from hyperspectral infrared sounders, such as IASI, AIRS, or CrIS. Depending on where and when in the world you're looking at, there may also exist products from geostationary instruments.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Humidity is the amount of what vapor in the air? | [
"wind",
"humidifier",
"cold",
"h2o"
] | D | humidity is the amount of water vapor in the air |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3464 | cellular-respiration
Title: Do cold blooded animals generate any heat? In explaining energy and work to an 8 year-old I said that all conversion of energy generates heat as a by-product. For example, cars generate heat in their engines and running generates heat in our bodies. Then the 8 year-old said, except for cold-blooded animals.
So my question is, do cold-blooded animals generate any heat in their conversion of stored energy (food, fat, etc) into motion? If they generate heat, why are they cold-blooded? They do generate heat. They just do not SPEND energy specifically on heating their bodies by raising their metabolisms. This is a form of energy conservation. The metabolic rate they need to live is not nearly enough to heat their bodies.
An example of spending energy to heat the body is seen in humans shivering. Here muscle is activated not for its usual purpose, but to function as a furnace. "Warm-blooded" and "cold-blooded" is somewhat a misnomer. The correct way to think of it is...
Endotherm or ectotherm. Does the heat primarily come from within (endo) or from the surroundings (ecto). Endothermic animals include mammals. Most of their body heat is generated by their own metabolisms. Ectothermic animals include reptiles and insects. They absorb most of their body heat from the surroundings. This is not the same as saying they let their body temperature fluctuate with their surroundings, some avoid this by moving around to accomodate themselves.
Homeotherm or poikilotherm. Homeotherms want to maintain homeostasis for their body temperatures. They don't want it to change. Poikilotherms do not exhibit this behaviour, instead their body temperatures vary greatly with the environment.
We can have endotherm poikilotherms, such as squirrels, who let their body temperature drop while hibernating. Endotherm homeotherms, such as humans, where temperature is constant by means of complex thermoregulation. Ectotherm homeotherms, such as snakes (moving into shadow or into the sun to regulate temperature), and ectotherm poikilotherms, such as maggots.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Which of these is warm-blooded? | [
"a frog",
"a snake",
"a vulture",
"a lizard"
] | C | a bird is warm-blooded |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3465 | organic-chemistry
Title: What are the minimal chemical requirements for a food which we all can eat? I've been puzzled by the following though experiment for the past few days:
I want to make my own food from scratch, but I do not know where to start from.
I want to be 100% sure that what I eat will never contains something that can damage my body. For example: If you buy something from the local market you can not be 100% sure that it's safe to eat. (99.9 % maybe... but that's not 100%)
I want to ask you to tell me, how can I make a food that I can eat, or should I say - live on it, for the rest of my life, that's 100% safe, I can control every aspect of it's creation and has many combinations of taste because I love diversity.
Thank you for your time : )
Edit:
Because I realized my question is very broad and indeed is a little... too much scientific I want to close it. But before I do so, here's what I had in mind:
I wanted to take some chemical elements, put them in a jar, run some electricity, heat, whatever through it, filter it, do some additional processing and eat it.
I wanted to know if the stomach can take it, because I was going to eat food that's not hard to digest. Considering the three basic biomolecules used by the body are carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins, you would need to consume these three molecules only. Now we can choose three substances.
Glucose, one of the most basic carbohydrates, is needed for ATP production, so that would be a food choice there.
Any oil or butter will provide lipids.
Protein comes from a variety of sources. Meat is typically though of as the best, but nuts are a pretty good source too.
Since nuts satisfy proteins and lipids, I'd say honey roasted peanuts are the most basic food you could live off of, if you replace pure glucose for the honey.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
the breaking down of food into simple substances occurs in the | [
"hair",
"shoes",
"inner sustenance canals",
"beach"
] | C | the breaking down of food into simple substances occurs in the digestive system |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3466 | everyday-chemistry, biochemistry, food-chemistry, terminology
Vitamin D is not strictly a vitamin, rather it is the precursor of one
of the hormones involved in the maintenance of calcium homeostasis and
the regulation of cell proliferation and differentiation, where it has
both endocrine and paracrine actions.
The name vitamin D1 was originally given to the crude product of irradiation of ergosterol,
which contained a mixture of ergocalciferol with inactive lumisterol (an isomer of ergosterol) and suprasterols. When ergocalciferol was identified
as the active compound, it was called vitamin D2. Later, when cholecalciferol was identified as the compound formed in the skin and found in foods, it was
called vitaminD3.
Remarks
The "Vitamin B" naming of these compounds must have been through discovery, and no clear experiments had accurately produced identity of these compounds, there were named as they were discovered but since they have been identified they they now have systematic names
abeit vitamin B still being used today and are formulated as "vitamin B complexes" in pharmaceutical products (perhaps to avoid confusion) hence systematic names are used (folic acid, pantonthenic acid, biotin, thiamin, niacin, cobalamin etc) I have never come across complexes of other Vitamins. Remember for a compound to be named a vitamin it must fit the description above, but I am not disputing the fact that other compounds with similar biological activities exist as "K" group.
References
Nutritional Biochemistry of Vitamins (Bender)
Nutritional biochemistry (Brody)
Modern Nutrition in Health and Disease (Rosset al)
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
The best place to get vitamin D is | [
"orange juice",
"a hamburger",
"popcorn",
"a cows utter"
] | D | dairy is a source of Vitamin D |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3467 | photosynthesis, botany
Title: Photosynthesis - Light Intensity Say I was conducting an experiment for photosynthesis. If I moved light closer to the plant, what effect would this have on the process of photosynthesis? The rate of photosynthesis varies from plant to plant. Some plants require more light and some require less. If you move light closer to the plant, in most scenarios the rate of photosynthesis is likely to be increased. For some plants a minimal light is enough for their photosynthesis, so for those plants, moving light source closer or further will have less effect.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
What has a negative impact on photosynthesis? | [
"light",
"sun",
"gloom",
"sun rays"
] | C | darkness has a negative impact on photosynthesis |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3468 | botany, plant-physiology, plant-anatomy
It made me wonder if we are simulating the sun in a dark room for growing the plants with the help of red, blue, and a little bit of far-red light, what will happen to the plants if we keep the ideal conditions for which the plants carry out photosynthesis whole day? Does it affect its yield or the plants die out quick?
I am an engineering student working on indoor farming, my knowledge of botany is the same as a high school student. So if I am wrong please tell me. Ideal conditions for photosynthesis
You mention ideal conditions to carry out photosynthesis, I would just like to point out that this includes carbondioxide levels, temperature, and nutrients as well as light.
Flowering
As anongoodnurse mentions performance might be measured by blooming which, in most flowering plants, has a day-light related component. However, for general growth increasing daylight over the 'natural' day length can often increase yield.
Daylight Cycles
The important point to note is that plants do 'ramp up' at dawn getting ready to start photosynthesizing (for some plants with temporal photosynthesis mechanisms (see CAM photosynthesis) this can be even more important). The reason plants do this is because plants can suffer from 'photobleaching' which can be considered similar to sunburn in humans, if they are not ready for sunlight. Getting 'ready' can involve lots of things including opening stomata (pores) to let CO2 in, changing which metabolic pathways are active, and moving about chloroplasts inside cells. Plants 'figure out' how and when to ramp up based on circadian rhythms which work well on 24 hour clocks and slight changes over time. Thus 12 hrs to 16 hrs can be a big change, particularly if the change happens by lights coming on earlier. Additionally, the 24 hour 'clock' means that plants will do better with 18hr light then 6hrs dark cycles than 36hrs light 6 hrs dark, because the total cycle length should be about 24hrs.
Photosynthesis Side Effects
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Greenhouses are great for plants like | [
"Pizza",
"Lollipops",
"Candles",
"French beans"
] | D | a greenhouse is used to protect plants from the cold |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3469 | thermodynamics, perception
Title: Our Perception of Heat Our body temperature is roughly 37 degrees celsius (that is, when we measure our body temperature externally, by using a thermometer that measures the temperature of our skin usually between our arm and side torso), whereas most of us would say that 25 degrees would be a pretty hot day. Why do we perceive a 25 degree day to be hot, when thermal energy from our 37 degree bodies should be leaving out and entering our surroundings? You are correct in a sense of thermodynamics. The heat from a human body does indeed leave the body and into the surroundings. The body combats this by burning calories and producing more heat, keeping the internal body at a constant temperature.
I'm not a biologist however:
Perception of a hot day, is just because our nerves our telling our brain its a given temperature. We are warm blooded animals, our body naturally generates heat. Lets assume that the body generates the same amount of heat every day, our brain may interpret a 25C day as warm because the body is generating the same amount of heat however it is leaving the body into the surroundings at a slower rate.
Temperature sensing is a survival tool, it used as a way of keeping the body at a constant temperature. As it gets hotter, your brain is in a sense telling you that it's getting harder to cool. (Forgive my terminology)
Think of this, if the day was as hot as the human body, you would be at danger of heat stroke.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
You shiver when your body temperature drops, which happens when it is | [
"Pants",
"Chilly",
"Hot",
"Funny"
] | B | cool temperatures cause animals to shiver |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3470 | neuroscience, perception, senses
Fig. 1. The BrainPort converts camera images into a 'grayscale' 400 pixel electrotactile image on the tongue. It partially restores visual function in the blind. Picture source: Midday Daily
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Blind people are unable to see what the shapes of things are, but they can still sense it thanks contacting it via their | [
"flying",
"singing",
"smiling",
"hands"
] | D | the shape of an object can be discovered through feeling that object |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3471 | human-biology, reproduction
Title: Why are animal births not taken as seriously as human births? When humans give birth, more than often medical assistance is needed. Others gather around and frantically look for any way to help. But when an animal gives birth, it is usually seen as a moment where you give the female its space and let the birth occur naturally and without any assistance. The animal is of course in serious pain just as a female human but this is more than often not taken into account. Why is it that animal births are not taken as seriously? Our heads are bigger.
There's some debate on the issue, but in essence, human brains, and therefore heads, are very large relative to our body size. This is handy for all the intelligent things we like to do, but can be rather painful during birth. Because we walk upright, the size of a newborn's head is actually a non-trivial fact during the birthing process. There are two major implications.
The first is that human birth hurts. You can watch the birth of other animals and they seem to brush it off, but for humans, forcing that huge head through a relatively small birth canal is difficult. Evolution has (supposedly) limited the size of the hips because, while that would allow an easier birthing process, it would negatively impact our ability to walk. As such, it has to hurt.
Secondly, in order to make the process easier, humans rotate during birth. The end result is that, unlike even other closely related primates, humans come out backward in a way that is very difficult for a birthing female to attend to. This almost requires having another person or two on hand to help out. This would, of course, be a huge reinforcement for social connections.
A few books I know of touch on this. Up From Dragons deals with the brain size/hip size issue and The Invisible Sex talks about rotation during the birthing process and the social implications.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
After seeing her give birth, the zookeepers discovered that Harry the ____ was actually a girl. | [
"hen",
"hotcake",
"healfish",
"hare"
] | D | mammals give birth to live young |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3472 | homework-and-exercises, electric-circuits, electrical-resistance, batteries
Title: When a circuit with three lights goes from series to combination, with one on the main loop and two on different branches, does power in branches $↓$? I am considering a circuit with three light bulbs. When a series circuit goes to a series-parallel circuit with one light on the main loop and two on different branches, the total resistance decreases by $1/2$ (because the two on the branches go from having a total resistance of 2 to 0.5, and $\dfrac{3}{1+0.5}=2$), doubling the total current, although the current in the branches is split in half, making each branch's current the same as in a series circuit. And since the total resistance of the branched part is half of one light, it uses 1/3 of the total of voltage (because $V*(0.5/1.5)=v*(1/3)$), just like one of the three lights in series. And this would mean the lights on the branched parts of a series-parallel circuit have the same amount of $V$ and $I$ as they would in series. Is this correct?
In class, in this series-parallel setup, when all the bulbs were screwed in the two on the branches were not lit (though must still have had electricity flowing through, just with not enough power). This makes me think my thinking above is wrong since the power must be less in the branches of the series-parallel circuit for the lights to be not glowing. (a) "Is this correct?" Yes, if we assume that each bulb has a fixed resistance. But note that the voltage across the third bulb (the one in series with the parallel combination) is twice what it was when the three bulbs were connected in series. So we'd expect the third bulb to be brighter than the others when connected in the less straightforward manner.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Robert has only has power downstairs. In order to move the light from downstairs to his upstairs bedroom, he can | [
"Just stay in the downstairs rooms",
"set up an array of drinking glasses",
"set up an array of mirrors",
"Unscrew a light bulb downstairs and move it upstairs"
] | C | a mirror reflects light |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3473 | soil, moon
Title: What is the difference between lunar and earth soil I know that the moon has lunar regolith and earth has earth soil, but what is the difference between them? The single biggest difference is the lack of chemical weathering in lunar soils which are subject to physical weathering almost exclusively. If you exclude biological processes, terrestrial rocks undergo significant weathering from water and atmosphere, which the moon lacks.
For example, both earth and moon contain feldspar-rich rocks, however, clays, the result of chemically altered feldspars, are not found on the moon. Neither are oxidized minerals, as the moon has no oxygen-rich atmosphere to speak of.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Soil could be Earth's what? | [
"dermis",
"Buddy",
"Magic",
"Tears"
] | A | studying a soil sample means studying the microorganisms in that soil |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3474 | visible-light, reflection, glass
There are actually many more "after", but as every next one is around 96% dimmer than the previous (exact number courtesy of Jan Hudec), only the first is noticeable. They're all spaced nicely and evenly, because this spacing is determined by the thickness of the glass.
This effect has only coincidental relation to the beveled edge. If the glass is very thin, all images appear so close to each other that they appear as blur, not distinct images. The glass has to be quite thick - and thick mirrors tend to have large, decorative bevels. (Also, the observed object needs to be small and standing out - just what your LED is.)
Similar effects happen in eyeglasses, and those are sometimes specially treated to minimize it, known as "antireflection coating".
An effect similar to "afterghost" is deliberately exploited in so called "infinity mirrors". Instead of internal reflection they employ a second, partially transmissible mirror faced inside to increase the reflection into useful levels.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
What will reflect more light? | [
"a black bag",
"a yellow shirt",
"a blue shirt",
"brown shoes"
] | B | as lightness in color of an object increases , the ability of that object to reflect light will increase |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3475 | everyday-chemistry, water, absorption
Fig. B is complete speculation on my part as I did not return to the home during Winter to observe it. However in Spring when I returned, all of the tubs had experienced a change in their appearance.
All the tubs were now dry again, presumably down to evaporation due to increasing weather temperatures. And therefore releasing all that moisture back into the building again!
Three of the tubs were largely unchanged with some noticable "caking" together of the salt into crumbly, grainy lumps which returned to normal looking salt grains when crushed.
The most profound change from the remaining tubs was as you see in Fig. C of the diagram.
The salt had actually accumulated on the walls of the tub as a fine sediment. This suggests that water had accumulated in large amounts in the tub and had in fact risen higher than the original depth of the dry salt grains! I'd estimate that the tub would have had to accumulate about 0.5kg of water in order for the water/salt solution to reach the depth indicated by the dry sediment.
The salt had solidified into a single, large mass. The volume seemed to have increased noticeably but the density had also decreased accordingly, so the salt had basically expanded in it's container and solidified. It was crumbly and brittle and some of it had been reduced to a very fine sediment.
The home is a single storey, about 12m x 4.5m x 2.5m in volume.
My questions then:
Is this a valid technique for capturing excess moisture over Winter?
Are my observations and presumptions reasonable... Is Fig. B what really happened?
What is the chemistry / physics process that caused the salt to be transformed from Fig. A to Fig. C?
How many times did the tubs cycle between states B and C? Was it a single cycle that lasted all of winter, or a daily cycle following ambient weather temperatures? I could not tell just by looking at C on the last day of the experiment. According to Transportation Information Service: Salt:
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Water solidifies in crevices in the asphalt and splits it apart by | [
"making happy faces",
"occupying more space",
"cheerleaders",
"banana ice cream"
] | B | ice wedging is when ice causes rocks to crack by expanding in openings |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3476 | homework-and-exercises, optics, reflection, refraction, geometric-optics
Title: Formation of a second image due to reflection at a boundary
To determine the refractive index of a transparent plate of glass, a
microscope is first focused on a tiny scratch in the upper surface,
and the barrel position is recorded. Upon further lowering the
microscope barrel by $\Delta d$, a focused image of the scratch is
seen again. The plate thickness is $w$. What is the refractive index
of the glass?
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
A microscope uses refraction to increases | [
"mass",
"ego",
"volume",
"perception of objects"
] | D | magnifying makes seeing small things easier through using a microscope |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3477 | evolution, botany, development, fruit, seeds
What is the point of fruit if not to be eaten? It’s my understanding that organisms will adapt to survive and thrive. I understand that being eaten can spread seeds, but this just seems like too much of a risky tactic to rely on.
Following on from part one: If being eaten is the best way to spread seed, why do some plants avoid this (such as by being poisonous or thorny)? Seeds are spread by many mechanisms
Wind dispersal: When air currents used to spread seeds. Often these plants have evolved features to facilitate wind catching, for example dandelions. Aka, anemochory.
Propulsion & bursting: When seeds are propelled from the plant in an such as in these videos. This is called Ballochory.
Water: Similarly to wind dispersal plants can spread seeds by water movement/currents, aka Hydrochory. This is used by many algae and water living plants.
Sticky Seeds: There are many ways a seed can attach to the outside of an animal - by using hooks, barbs, sticky excretions, hairs. Seeds then get carried by an animal and fall off later. This is epizoochory.
Fruiting: Plants can use seed-bearing fruit to encourage animals to eat the seeds. They will then be spread when the waste is excreted after digestion. This is a process of endozoochory.
More than one way to spread a seed
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
One way to encourage seeds to grow might be | [
"throwing the seeds away",
"telling the plants to grow up",
"using a table lamp",
"mowing down the grass to nothingness"
] | C | seeds may sprout when buried in soil |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3478 | electrophysiology, ichthyology, bioenergetics, energy, limnology
Containment
They also, as an aside, have to be careful to not electrocute themselves and stop their own hearts, and they have to take care not to electrocute each other. The father will keep his fry in his mouth, and signal them as to where they should go to be safe, when he performs a shock.
For those reasons, if you did use electric eels for power, you'd have to be careful how you contained them, so they had enough space to not electrocute themselves or each other.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
If a thing is going to shock you, you could block the shock best with | [
"a log cabin",
"a metal plane",
"an aluminium cup",
"a tin can"
] | A | wood is an electrical energy insulator |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3479 | combustion
Title: Would blowing someone else's candle out make mine shine brighter?
Is the claim in this sign correct? Would a candle shine slightly brighter with slightly more oxygen in the room?
And what do you mean "The candles aren't literal."? The claim is certainly true for candles in different rooms. Even in the same room, the effect of one candle on another in terms of oxygen consumption is with all likelihood completely negligible, and the candles could thus be treated as completely separate systems.
As to your question about how the candles are not literal: The sign is a metaphor for how sabotaging someone else does not make you absolutely better, only relatively, which is not the kind that matters (and makes the total situation worse, since you now have less total light / talent / whatever).
Note that if oxygen is a very limited resource, blowing out one candle would make the others burn longer. In much the same way the metaphor does not work in a competition over limited resources. But in the physical situation, infinite oxygen is usually a good approximation.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Lighting a candle causes that candle to what? | [
"cool",
"freeze",
"regenerate",
"scorch"
] | D | lighting a candle causes that candle to burn |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3480 | navigation, move-base
Comment by hc on 2018-10-19:
Indeed how do you make sure that the min velocity (forward or backward) is enough to overcome friction?
Comment by RicoJ on 2020-09-07:
Overcoming friction is more related to the lower level motor controls of your application. If you're using Gazebo, there are ways to set joint controllers to achieve that. See here
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
How might I decrease someone's forward motion? | [
"sing to them",
"cry to them",
"hug them",
"send a letter"
] | C | a force acting on an object in the opposite direction that the object is moving can cause that object 's speed to decrease in a forward motion |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3481 | [13]:
nutrients = pd.DataFrame(
index=[
"Vitamin A",
"Vitamin B1",
"Vitamin C",
"Calcium",
"Iron",
"Phosphorus",
"Potassium",
"Total fat",
"Carbohydrates",
"Proteins",
]
)
nutrients["DRI"] = [800, 1.1, 80, 800, 14, 700, 2000, 70, 260, 50]
nutrients["Chicken Breast"] = [0, 0.1, 0, 4, 0.40, 210, 370, 0.8, 0, 23.3]
nutrients["Milk"] = [37, 0.04, 1, 119, 0.1, 93, 150, 3.6, 4.9, 3.3]
nutrients["Pasta"] = [0, 0, 0, 22, 1.4, 189, 192, 1.4, 79.1, 10.9]
nutrients["Beans"] = [3, 0.4, 3, 135, 8, 450, 1445, 2, 47.5, 23.6]
nutrients["Oranges"] = [71, 0.06, 50, 49, 0.2, 22, 200, 0.2, 7.8, 0.7]
nutrients
[13]:
DRI Chicken Breast Milk Pasta Beans Oranges
Vitamin A 800.0 0.0 37.00 0.0 3.0 71.00
Vitamin B1 1.1 0.1 0.04 0.0 0.4 0.06
Vitamin C 80.0 0.0 1.00 0.0 3.0 50.00
Calcium 800.0 4.0 119.00 22.0 135.0 49.00
Iron 14.0 0.4 0.10 1.4 8.0 0.20
Phosphorus 700.0 210.0 93.00 189.0 450.0 22.00
Potassium 2000.0 370.0 150.00 192.0 1445.0 200.00
Total fat 70.0 0.8 3.60 1.4 2.0 0.20
Carbohydrates 260.0 0.0 4.90 79.1 47.5 7.80
Proteins 50.0 23.3 3.30 10.9 23.6 0.70
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
If you eat a lot of chicken your body has what it needs to | [
"tell the weather",
"fix wounds",
"grow feathers",
"fly"
] | B | protein is used to repair cells by the human body |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3482 | Therefore, $$p_{11} = 0.5$$ is the probability of being sunny tomorrow, given that it is sunny today.
You would want to use your record to test the MC assumption.
Example 2:
Recall the weather pattern MC in example 1. You are planning a two-day holiday to begin in seven days, i.e., you are away on day $$7$$ and $$8$$. A travel insurance deal will pay you \$2500 if it rains on both days, nothing if not, and the premium is \$100. Should you buy this insurance if it is sunny today?
One way to make a decision would be to compare the expected pay-out with the premium. The actual return is
$$R = \begin{cases} 2500 & \text{if} \ X_7 = X_8 = 3 \\ 0 & \text{otherwise}, \end{cases}$$
where $$X_n$$ is the weather state on day $$n$$. Counting today as day $$0$$, the expected return is
\begin{align} E(R) &= 2500 \times P(X_7 = X_8 = 3 \vert X_0 = 1) \\ &= 2500P(X_8 = 3 \vert X_7 = 3, X_0 = 1)P(X_7 = 3 \vert X_0 = 1) \\ &= 2500P(X_8 = 3 \vert X_7 = 3) p^{(7)}_{13} \\ &= 2500p_{33}p^{(7)}_{13} \end{align}
Evaluation of the one number $$p^{(7)}_{13}$$ requires evaluation of $$\mathcal{P}^7$$, where $$\mathcal{P}^{(n)}$$ is the $$n$$-step transition matrix.
You will find that $$p^{(7)}_{13} = 0.2101$$, and $$p_{33} = 0.1$$, so $$E(R) = 52.52$$.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
In sunny weather I should try | [
"biking",
"space travel",
"magic",
"time travel"
] | A | clear weather means sunny weather |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3483 | earthquakes
Title: Earthquakes PGA/PGV in time? Good day! On USGS web-site I can get co-called PGA/PGV (Peak Ground Acceleration/Velocity) values in the region of earthquake. It is possible to get the map of velocities with respect to time (to see how earthquake developed in time)?
Thank you. No. However, you can look at backprojection results which show where the energy is coming from. It gives you some idea about how the earthquake evolved in time, e.g., see here (click play to see the video).
The only other way to get what you want is to use observations from dense arrays. E.g., see here, but this is only possible in certain regions.
EDIT (answer to your comment below): Codes like SPECFEM3D are good for simulating low frequency ground motion (e.g., 0.1-1Hz). High frequency (1-10Hz) ground motion, that affects smaller structures like 1-2 story houses or even mid-rise buildings is very difficult to simulate (you need a very accurate, very high resolution, velocity model with the right soil/geotechnical layer etc., a highly accurate source model with the 'right' slip distribution, rise time, rupture velocity etc., and finally, a very large supercomputer). You're better off using GMPE's like USGS but that will not tell you how things evolve in time.
Bottomline is that statistics of high frequency ground motion are rather well understood (scales with distance) but not for lower frequencies where effects like rupture directivity/velocity, path/basin effect etc. become even more important.
Finally, Okada's elastostatic solutions are for calculating the final displacement field and doesn't have time component, i.e., you can simulate the final slip but not how it evolves with time which is an elastodynamic problem. Also, the final displacement field alone doesn't tell you anything about PGA/PGV.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Which likely best models an earthquake? | [
"cutting paper",
"crumpling foil",
"folding paper",
"eating foil"
] | B | earthquakes cause rock layers to fold on top of each other |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3484 | # probability question on a customer
A very frustrated customer is trying to find an electronic receipt on their phone so they can return an item. The trouble is that the customer has three email accounts and can't remember which, one, account it was sent to. The customer assumes that there is an equal probability for each account. To add complexity the phone only has enough battery power to search one of the three email accounts
Unfortunately, the store says that this is the last day it will accept the return, and it is only 3 minutes till close, so there will not be any chance to get to a charger. The customer randomly decides to search one of the emails, without any bias.
Suppose, due to the organization and the various spam filters of the accounts, the chance of finding the receipt even if they were to search in the correct account is not a guarantee. The probability of finding it in account 1, assuming it was sent there is 62%, 54% if in account 2 and 56% for account 3.
Part (a) What is the probability that if the receipt is in account 2 that the customer will find it?
I think this one is (1/3)*(0.54) The third is for choosing the account and then times 0.54 is the prob for finding from the question. but the question seems like a conditional probability so I'm not sure.
Part (b) Calculate the probability the receipt was in account 2, if the search in account 2 is unsuccessful.
I think this one is ((1/3)(0.16))/((1/3)(0.31)+(1/3)(0.16)+(1/3)(0.49))
Part(c) What is the probability this person finds the email?
(1/3)(0.69)+(1/3)(0.84)+(1/3)(0.51) because we can either find it in account 1 or 2 or 3
Any help would be appreciated!
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
When would the mail least likely arrive? | [
"blizzard conditions",
"snow",
"sleet",
"rain"
] | A | sleet is made of ice |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3485 | geology, oceanography, geochemistry, mineralogy
Title: Will the sea get saltier forever? The sea wasn't always salty. It's been getting saltier over millions of years as minerals dissolve.
Is there a natural limit to this process, or the will the sea keep getting saltier forever?
Is there a natural process which removes salt from the sea at a significant rate?
How long would it take for the sea to get too salty to support life as we know it? No there are natural processes that remove salt as well.
as sea level changes water gets trapped in basins and evaporates leaving the salt behind, this is where many of the salt formation on earth came from. whenever sea levels fall the salinity of the ocean drops. Tectonically isolated basin can remove salt in the same way. The process can even happen repeatedly in the same basin as sea level changes.
There are biological processes that remove it as well the formation of shells and limestone remove some of the ocean salts.
Can it increase yes, but it can also decrease, over earths history there have been saltier and less salty periods.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
If a bucket of water from the sea is left out in the sun for long enough, all that will eventually remain in the bucket is | [
"lava",
"chips",
"sodium",
"grapes"
] | C | the ocean contains large amounts of salt water |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3486 | meteorology, atmosphere, atmospheric-chemistry, air-quality
Title: The difference of vertical advection and convection process for chemistry species In atmospheric, the change of mixing ration $C_i$ of a chemical species $i$ is determined by:
$\frac{\partial C_i }{\partial t} = -\bigtriangledown (VC_i)+\frac{\partial }{\partial z}(k_z\frac{\partial C_i }{\partial z}) + (\frac{\partial C_i }{\partial z})_{dry}++ (\frac{\partial C_i }{\partial z})_{wet}+(\frac{\partial C_i }{\partial z})_{conv}+P_i-L_i+E_i$
The first term represent the $Ci$ change due to horizontal and vertical advection.
The fifith term on the right hand represent the $Ci$ due to the vertical convection.
I have read about this question "What exactly is the difference between advection and convection?".
The answer told, which I quoted:
Advection is the movement of some material dissolved or suspended in the fluid.
Convection is the movement of a fluid, typically in response to heat.
But when we are just talking about the chemical species. They are not in fluid form. So,how dos the convection process mean?
Update: The equation was from a phD dissertatio Climate and Air Pollution Modeling in South America focus on Megacities. Links here The difference between advection and convection in Chemistry Transport models (CTMs) is a question of scale:
Advection is driven by winds that are provided by the meteorological input dataset. Thus, the wind is resolved in the meteorological data.
Convection is driven by sub grid processes (e.g. temperature gradients) and is paramterized in CTMs.
See for example:
Pleim, 2007a. doi: 10.1175/JAM2539.1
Pleim, 2007b. doi: 10.1175/JAM2534.1
Rasch et al., 1997. doi: 10.1029/97JD02087
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Convection is caused by uneven what? | [
"freezing",
"warmness distribution",
"frosting",
"icing"
] | B | uneven heating causes convection |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3487 | meteorology, climate-change, gas, pollution
If you are interested in Greenhouse Gases (e.g. methane, carbon dioxide, CFCs, nitrous oxide), the EPA has a separate site for those emissions since they are not part of the same regulatory framework http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/ghgemissions/ . Greenhouse gases typically do not cause adverse health effects for plants or animals on land. However, they have long-term radiative effects (e.g. the greenhouse effect) because they stay in the atmosphere for many years and trap infrared light. These long-term radiative effects are what can change climate and consequently land cover. Furthermore, most of the excess carbon is absorbed by the ocean, which creates carbonic acid. Increased acidity of the ocean causes severe problems for marine ecosystems.
The EPA states that in 2012 the CO2 equivalent GHG emissions for the USA by sector was:
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
as the amount of polluting gasses in the atmosphere increases , what will also increase in the atmosphere? | [
"reflections",
"humidity",
"depth",
"hotness"
] | D | as the amount of polluting gasses in the atmoshere increases , the atmospheric temperature will increase |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3488 | classical-mechanics, energy, electricity
Title: Can we imagine having a computer keyboard that recharges itself through mechanical utilization? Silly question here.
I have a debate with my father, and while I am decent at high school level physics, both he and I cannot determinate through calculus which of us is wrong.
Basically, he had the idea that perhaps, through simple mechanical utilization, a wireless keyboard can be charged and used, without any other energy source. (The keyboard can have a battery that can be recharged through the said mechanical utilization though), I have the intuition that the idea is interesting, but physically problematic.
With simple research, I have seen that an idle keyboard has a consumption of $1W$, and a used keyboard will use between $1.5$ and $2.5W$.
So, we have specific questions:
Is collecting the mechanical energy from the keyboard doable ?
And if yes, how much energy can typing on a keyboard's key produce ?
How it may impact the overall comfort of the user ?
I have multiple difficulties to answer these myself. How can I know how much a person can generate through typing, how much energy will be lost in the process of using a battery, etc..?
(This is not a concept that I try to sell or anything, this is a mere thought experiment that I wanted to share and resolve, please do not take it too seriously) What you are looking for is fairly simple. All you need to do is build a piezoelectric generator under each key. These generate electricity with each push. With this the element is stretched or vibrated with each push and this generates electricity. Do a Google search and you will find much more.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Which of the following uses electrical energy? | [
"curling iron",
"iron weight",
"iron wrench",
"potential energy"
] | A | electric devices require electrical energy to function |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3489 | zoology
Capybara, rabbits, hamsters and other related species do not have a complex ruminant digestive system. Instead they extract more nutrition from grass by giving their food a second pass through the gut. Soft fecal pellets of partially digested food are excreted and generally consumed immediately. Consuming these cecotropes is important for adequate nutritional intake of Vitamin B12. They also produce normal droppings, which are not eaten.
Young elephants, pandas, koalas, and hippos eat the feces of their mother to obtain the bacteria required to properly digest vegetation found on the savanna and in the jungle. When they are born, their intestines do not contain these bacteria (they are completely sterile). Without them, they would be unable to obtain any nutritional value from plants.
Eating garbage and human feces is thought to be one function of dogs during their early domestication, some 12,000 to 15,000 years ago. They served as our first waste management workers, helping to keep the areas around human settlements clean. A study of village dogs in Zimbabwe revealed that feces made up about 25% of the dogs’ overall diet, with human feces making up a large part of that percentage.
Coprophagia
Daily rhythms of food intake and feces reingestion in the degu, an herbivorous Chilean rodent: optimizing digestion through coprophagy
Coprophagia as seen in Thoroughbred Foals
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
If a living thing is making an effort to obtain nutriment, then that thing is likely | [
"sleeping",
"sweeping",
"hunting",
"falling"
] | C | An example of hunting is an otter cracking open clams with a rock |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3490 | ornithology
Within brood competition
If one sex is stronger as a chick it possible that the broods could become sex biased in certain conditions which consistently favour one over the other.
Consequence of environmental strain
Similarly to the last two points, if conditions are poor it may be harder for one sex to reach maturity than the other which would result in sex-bias. This is the conclusion the authors in your paper seem to come to.
Environmental effects
As with some reptiles, environment can determine the sex of the offspring. For example, incubation temperature in turtles has a considerable effect on offspring sex ratio. Given how close birds and reptiles are in evolutionary time, and the importance of active incubation in birds, I don't see that it's impossible for the parent to vary some kind of environmental factor in order to bias sex-ratio.
There are certainly more potential mechanisms and some of these ideas are fairly new in evolutionary biology research so there are many unanswered questions. I hope I will have time to find some bird specific examples later.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Which is likely born via hatching? | [
"a raven",
"a goat",
"a horse",
"a cat"
] | A | if an animal hatches from an egg then that animal is born |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3491 | reproduction
Title: Why are so many species reproducing late this year? Hope this question is OK for this site, couldn't see where else to ask it.
We've spent a few days out in the countryside recently, and have been very surprised at how many species appear to have very young offspring so late in the season. I was always under the impression that the vast majority of animals and fish produced young in the spring (March/April).
For example, we saw tadpoles, fluffy (ie obviously very young) coots and weeny minnows. I would have expected that all of these would have been born/laid a good 3 or 4 months ago, and so would be more mature by now.
Caveat: We didn't do a scientific study, this is just a strong impression we got from days out in north west England. It's hard to say without more information, but one substantial possibility is that you are mistaken that species are reproducing late - that's a problem with anecdotal rather than scientific data!
Additionally, species you mention like the common coot can attempt multiple broods where the season is long enough. Wikipedia specifically mentions Britain:
Eurasian coots normally only have a single brood each year but in some areas such as Britain they will sometimes attempt a second brood
The same could be true for species of frogs/toads and fish, so without knowing specific species it can't be known whether these are species reproducing again or species reproducing late.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Many animals that give birth to live young have | [
"skin",
"scales",
"exoskeletons",
"gills"
] | A | live birth means developing inside the mother instead of an egg |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3492 | meteorology, atmosphere, carbon, co2, rain
Bear in mind that this assumes an enormous rainfall intensity, 100% CO2 saturation of the water and equilibrium chemical dynamics. After the raindrops hit the ground at least half of it will immediately re-evaporate back into the air, leaving, at absolute most, about 3% of the atmospheric CO2 leached out of the atmosphere that will be available to react with the soil, rock or biosphere. Also consider that this is but one of several important processes affecting CO2 transience, such as photosynthesis, respiration, volcanism, industrial pollution, etc. So the CO2 estimates that you read about are average values. Advection and turbulent air mixing should ensure that the CO2 regains approximately normal concentration within an hour or two after rainfall.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Transpiration occurs in | [
"the fruit of a pear tree",
"the seeds of a tree",
"the flat appendages on organisms that give off oxygen",
"the lungs of a dog"
] | C | transpiration usually happens in the leaves of a plant |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3493 | zoology, pathology, herpetology
Title: How do pet gecko lizards pose a health risk? Does having gecko lizards living in your house pose any health risk? If you're referring to keeping geckos as pets, like all reptiles, amphibians and birds, they come with a small but finite risk of contracting salmonellosis. Having said this, the infection is easy to avoid if you maintain basic hygiene.
On a personal note, I know dozens (perhaps hundreds) of people who keep or have kept reptiles as pets and have yet to meet anyone who contracted salmonellosis. Basically, if you wash your hands after touching the gecko, keep it away from food preparation areas and don't put the lizard in your mouth, you should be fine.
If you're talking about geckos living free in your home, as is common in many tropical places, I have never heard of any health risks associated with them. If anything, I would think that the geckos would reduce health risks by eating insects such as cockroaches and mosquitoes that are prominent disease carriers.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
lizards eat | [
"big dogs",
"six legged creatures",
"ears of corn",
"well done steaks"
] | B | lizards eat insects |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3494 | inorganic-chemistry, redox, combustion
As M. Farooq pointed out a combustion reaction happens quickly, producing heat, and usually light and fire. For example, lets look at combustion reaction of an alkene (a hydrocarbon). If it is a complete combustion, the fire have a blue flame:
$$\ce{C_nH_{2n} + $\frac{3n}{2}$ O2 -> nCO2 + n H2O}$$
If it is a partial combustion, it can have a multiple $\ce{C}$ compounds as products, and have a yellow flame due to presence of elemental $\ce{C}$:
$$\ce{C_nH_{2n} + x O2 -> m C + p CO + $(n-m-p)$CO2 + n H2O}$$
where $x = \frac{2(n-p-m) +p}{2} = \frac{2n-2p-2m +p}{2} = \frac{2n-p-2m)}{2}$. In your reaction would not produce fire and it didn't use either oxygen or other oxidants ($\ce{CuO}$ is not that type of oxidant). It is true that the reaction is a redox reaction.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
If a thing experiences a burning combustion, then it is | [
"great",
"safe",
"fine",
"damaged"
] | D | a car engine usually converts gasoline into motion and heat through combustion |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3495 | evolution, natural-selection, theoretical-biology
Title: Probability of Extinction under Genetic Drift Here is the Wright-Fisher model of genetic drift:
$$\frac{(2N)!}{k!(2N-k)!}p^kq^{2N-k} \Leftrightarrow \binom{2N}{k}p^kq^{2N-k}$$
where $\binom{2N}{k}$ is the binomial coefficient.
This formula gives the probability of obtaining $k$ copies of an allele at generation $t+1$ given that there are $p$ copies of this allele at generation $t$. $N$ is the population size and $2N$ is the number of copies of each gene (this model applies to diploid population only).
From this formula, how can we calculate the probability of extinction of an allele in say 120 generations starting at a given frequency, let's say 0.2?
and
How can we calculate the probability of extinction rather than fixation of an allele present at frequency $p$ if we wait an infinite amount of time? update
The answer is here!
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
When the population of an organism decreases to the point that it is considered very likely it will soon reach zero, the organism is considered | [
"Extinct",
"Near-threatened",
"Vulnerable",
"Endangered"
] | D | if an organism dies then the population of that organism will decrease |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3496 | solar-system, coordinate, stellar-astrophysics
Can you see either in the sky now. Do they look the same? If yes you are in the same hemisphere you normally live in. If they look strange - upside down. You are in the hemisphere opposite to where you normally live.
You've just spent the rest of the night looking at the sky and the Sun is up. Observe the path Sun, in the sky, during the course of the day. If it is low, it winter. If it is high, it's summer. The daytime temperature will also confirm this.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
If a person looks at the night sky in February and then again in June, the stars will be | [
"unchanged",
"gone",
"unmoved",
"differently placed"
] | D | the Earth revolving around the sun causes stars to appear in different areas in the sky at different times of year |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3497 | They will have the same amount of money in about ${\color{blue}10\tfrac{1}{2}}$ years.
At that time, they will have: . $6(1.11^{10.5}) \:=\:8(1.08^{10.5}) \:\approx\:{\color{blue}\17.95}\;\;{\color{red}(d )}$
You are so right, soroban. I actually solved for time instead of amount. I've edited my post to indicate that. Your conclusion using 10.5 years is good. I forgot what it was I was solving for. It's Christmas. I'm still full of eggnog.
• December 28th 2008, 07:21 AM
magentarita
yes...
Quote:
Originally Posted by Soroban
Hello, magentarita!
I got a different result . . .
At the end of $n$ years, Jane will have: . $6\left(1.11^n\right)$ dollars.
At the end of $n$ years, Sarah will have: . $8\left(1.08^n\right)$ dollars.
So we have: . $6(1.11^n) \:=\:8(1.08^n) \quad\Rightarrow\quad \frac{1.11^n}{1.08^n} \:=\:\frac{8}{6} \quad\Rightarrow\quad \left(\frac{1.11}{1.08}\right)^n \:=\:\frac{4}{3}$
Take logs: . $\ln\left(\frac{1.11}{1.08}\right)^n \:=\:\ln\left(\frac{4}{3}\right) \quad\Rightarrow\quad n\cdot\ln\left(\frac{1.11}{1.08}\right) \:=\:\ln\left(\frac{4}{3}\right)$
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
In December, someone in England probably wants to | [
"Wear shorts and enjoy the warmth",
"Wear heavy clothing when outdoors",
"Go down to the beach in swimwear",
"Start planting seeds in their garden"
] | B | December is during the winter in the northern hemisphere |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3498 | soil
Caliche generally forms when minerals leach from the upper layer of the soil (the A horizon) and accumulate in the next layer (the B horizon), at depths around 3 to 10 feet under the surface. It generally consists of carbonates in semiarid regions—in arid regions, less-soluble minerals form caliche layers after all the carbonates have been leached from the soil. The deposited calcium carbonate accumulates—first forming grains, then small clumps, then a discernible layer, and finally, a thicker, solid bed. As the caliche layer forms, the layer gradually becomes deeper, and eventually moves into the parent material, which lies under the upper soil horizons.
However, caliche also forms in other ways. It can form when water rises through capillary action. In an arid region, rainwater sinks into the ground very quickly. Later, as the surface dries out, the water below the surface rises, carrying up dissolved minerals from lower layers. This water movement forms a caliche that tends to grow thinner and branch out as it nears the surface. Plants can contribute to the formation of caliche, as well. Plant roots take up water through transpiration, and leave behind the dissolved calcium carbonate, which precipitates to form caliche. It can also form on outcrops of porous rocks or in rock fissures where water is trapped and evaporates. In general, caliche deposition is a slow process, but if enough moisture is present in an otherwise arid site, it can accumulate fast enough to block a drain pipe.
(photo from http://www.naturephoto-cz.com/karst-cave-photo-24442.html)
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
soil is formed by | [
"plastic bottles breaking down",
"falling from the sky",
"the fumes from car exhaust",
"animals stepping on dead leaves and crushing it into bits"
] | D | soil is formed by rocks eroding |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3499 | newtonian-mechanics, thermodynamics, energy-conservation, potential-energy, dissipation
Title: Potential, Kinetic, Thermal Energy? When things move, potential energy turns into Kinetic energy, right? Then how does Kinetic energy convert to thermal energy? "Thermal energy" is just kinetic energy.
When people talk about temperature, a typically good (but largely classical) idea is that tenperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles. When people talk about an increase or decrease of thermal energy, they usually mean something has gotten hotter or colder. This suggests that thermal energy is really just kinetic energy.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Down feathers are a thermal energy what? | [
"cold",
"freezers",
"igniters",
"protectors"
] | D | down feathers are a thermal energy insulator |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-3500 | At the end of the 3rd year the number of trees would be $$(\frac{5}{4})^3*x$$; At the end of the 4th year the number of trees would be $$(\frac{5}{4})^4*x$$; At the end of the $$n_{th}$$ year the number of trees would be $$(\frac{5}{4})^n*x$$; So, we have that $$(\frac{5}{4})^4*x=6,250$$ --> $$\frac{5^4}{4^4}*x=5^4*10$$ --> $$x=4^4*10=2,560$$. Answer: D. If the question were "if all of the trees thrived and there were 6250 trees in the orchard at the end of 15 year period, how many trees were in the orchard at the beginning of the 4 year period", then we would have that: $$(\frac{5}{4})^{15}*x=6,250$$ --> $$x\neq{integer}$$, so it would be a flawed question. Hope it's clear. Isn't the question quite ambiguous, though? I mean the first scentence could be interpreted as "for the first year we have (4/4)x and for the second year (5/4)x and for the third..." etc.. With that reasoning one would have (5/4)^3 * x + x and then your approach doesnt work. Obviously, I understand that this was a flaw in my reasoning but I cannot understand how they - with that wording - will assume that we totally understand that at the end of year one he has (5/4)x.. Is there a straightforward "word translation" way in knowing how to interpret wordings like this? Actually, it is not ambiguous. Read the statement: Each year a farmer increased the number of trees by 1/4. He did this for 4 years. (In GMAT Verbal and Quant are integrated. You need Verbal skills (slash and burn) in Quant and Quant skills (Data
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
The count of rings in a pine has a one to one relationship with the number of years it has | [
"shrunk",
"produced pine cones",
"had mistletoe",
"grown"
] | D | a tree growing a tree-growth ring occurs once per year |
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