source string | id string | question string | options list | answer string | reasoning string |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4801 | telescope, earth, optics
Title: Angular diameter of the Sun's reflection from the ocean, seen from Sun-Earth L1? I'm trying to understand how smooth the reflecting ocean surface would need to be to produce such a small bright spot as seen from the DSCOVR satellite at Sun-Earth L1. It appears to be only about 8E-05 rad, or about 0.3 arcminutes.
My question is primarily about the geometrical optics involved in the reflection of light from the Sun off of the Earth. Interpretation of the apparent size and comparing to the image is secondary.
At a distance of 151.3 million km from Earth, the 1.391 million km diameter Sun has an angular width of 0.009196 radians. The DSCOVR satellite is 1.586 million km from the Earth looking at the Sun's reflection from somewhere around the Sun-Earth L1 point. It's close to the Earth-Sun axis (the Sun-Earth-DSCOVR angle is about 7.6 degrees) so let's simplify and assume it sits on-axis.
The Earth's radius is 6378 km; as a convex mirror its focal length is $f=-r/2$ or -3189 km.
Question: What would be the angular size of the Sun seen from DSCOVR reflecting in a spherical mirror model for the Earth in this configuration?
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Which can view an ocean? | [
"bogs",
"logs",
"pogs",
"dogs"
] | D | eyes are used for seeing by animals by sensing light |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4802 | zoology, psychology
Title: Fear in elephants It has been noted that elephants trained for war, as was done occasionally in earlier times, have still shown a tendency to panic in battle much more often when compared to a war horse trained for the same purpose. However, is this due to an innate quality of elephant behavior, or a result of poorer training methods due to humans simply having less experience training elephants than horses? Are elephants naturally more fearful creatures than horses or other beasts of war? I doubt if a comparison between these two animals in war situation is in order. These two animals serve different roles.
Here is a reference to an article in Wikipedia on War Elephants. Elephants have been used in war for thousands of years pretty effectively till the enemies discover their weakness and use it to their advantage. Making the elephant panic is one of the ways to counter them. Here is a list of methods from the above article:
Elephants had a tendency to panic themselves: after sustaining painful wounds or when their driver was killed they would run amok
One famous historical method for disrupting elephant units was the war pig......
At the Megara siege during the Diadochi wars, for example, the Megarians reportedly poured oil on a herd of pigs, set them alight, and drove them towards the enemy's massed war elephants. The elephants bolted in terror from the flaming squealing pigs.
It is for sure that many horses also panic in war situations. However a panicked elephant can cause more havoc than a horse. It appears that to prevent a panicked elephant from running amuck back into the ranks
The driver, called a mahout, was responsible for controlling the animal. In many armies, the mahout also carried a chisel-blade and a hammer to cut through the spinal cord and kill the animal if the elephant went berserk.
In recent times elephants in temple festivals in india do occasionaly panic and run amuck when the high explosive fire works are set of. However most of the elephants seem to tolerate it.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Elk are protected where? | [
"dogs",
"nat'l parks",
"cats",
"statues"
] | B | national parks limit hunting |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4803 | java, role-playing-game
//This is where the critter attack goes
/*
* d100();
*
* if (d100Result >= 0 && d100Result <= 20) {
*
* } else if (d100Result >= 21 && d100Result <= 40) {
*
* } else if (d100Result >= 41 && d100Result <= 100) {
*
* } else {
* System.out.println(there is an error here!");
* }
*
*/
d3();
switch (d3Result) {
case 1:
critterOffensive = true;
critterDefensive = false;
critterEvasive = false;
System.out.println("The " + critterName + " charges!");
System.out.println("Your children and the " + critterName + " are evenly matched!");
break;
case 2:
critterDefensive = true;
critterOffensive = false;
critterEvasive = false;
System.out.println("The " + critterName + " protects itself!");
System.out.println("Your children crush the " + critterName + "'s defenses!");
System.out.println("The " + critterName + " takes damage!");
critterHealth -= 1 * missionWorkerDrones + (missionWarriorDrones * 2);
break;
case 3:
critterEvasive = true;
critterDefensive = false;
critterOffensive = false;
System.out.println("The " + critterName + " moves quickly!");
System.out.println("Your children are outflanked by the " + critterName + "!");
System.out.println("One of your drones falls from it's wounds!");
d2();
switch (d2Result) {
case 1:
if (missionWarriorDrones > 0) {
killWarrior();
} else if (missionWarriorDrones <= 0) {
killWorker();
}
break;
case 2:
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
It is illegal to kill animals in | [
"Yosemite",
"space",
"Bluerock",
"eleven"
] | A | national parks limit hunting |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4804 | geophysics, sedimentology
Title: Does dirt compact itself over time? If so, how does this happen? If I were to bury something 10 feet (~3 metres) underground, with loose soil on top, would the ground naturally compact itself over time, until whatever I had buried has dirt tightly pressing against it on all sides?
What if I buried it 50 feet (~15 metres) underground?
If it exists, what is this compaction process called and how does it happen? Soil is a collection of various sized minerals grains, of various types of minerals produced by the weathering of rock. Typical soil minerals are clays, silts and sands.
The properties and behavior of different soil types depends of the composition of the soil: the proportion of clays, silts and sand in a soil. Sandy soils are well draining and clayey soils are sticky.
Between the grains of minerals that comprise a soil are spaces, called pores or pore spaces. The pores can be filled with either water or air, depending the location of water tables and wetting events like rain, snow melts or other forms of water inundation.
The density of a soil is dependent on the degree of compaction of the soil. For to a soil to be compacted, a stress has to be applied to the soil to realign the grains of soil which reduces the total volume of the pores and reduces the amount of air within the pores.
Consolidation of a soil occurs when pore space is reduced and water in a soil is displaced due to an applied stress.
Regarding having something buried and soil compacting around it over time, yes that will occur but it is a question of how much stress the soil experiences, the duration of time and the nature of the soil - sandy or clayey. Something buried for a day without any stresses not much will happen. But, something buried for thousands of years with people and animals walking over it, rain falling on the soil, vibrations from nearby human activity and an occasional earthquake all add to the stresses the soil will experience and increases the degree of compaction or consolidation over time.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
What loosens soil? | [
"gopher homes",
"wind",
"heat",
"bird nests"
] | A | tunnels in soil loosen that soil |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4805 | botany
Title: Do plants absorb toxins from the soil? Consider a plant like Aloe Vera that grows up in a toxic environment where the concentration of pesticides, and materials like lead, mercury, cadmium, arsenic etc is very high(e.g. Marshland dumping yard ). Would that mean that the extract from these plants would contain all these toxic elements. Not "all of them". But yes, plants suck up water from the soil, with everything dissolved in this water - nutrients, heavy metals, poisons. And also they breathe air, and absorb stuff via this route.
There probably are some toxins which will not enter the plant, because their molecules are too large and/or fragile. For example, should a plant root come in contact with snake venom, I cannot imagine that any venom will end up stored in the plant leaves.
Plants also have their own metabolism, so they will change/deactivate some toxins. I've seen claims that some plants "purify" formaldehyde, although I don't trust the sources enough to be sure of that.
But the smaller the poison molecule, and the less similar to stuff which is usually digested in nature, the more likely that it will enter the plant and stick around instead of being broken down. The heavy metals you mentioned are prime candidates. If they are present in the groundwater - or also lead from air pollution, before we banned leaded gasoline - they end up in plants, including food plants. And mushrooms are even more at risk.
Growing food near waste dumps is a known problem in farming, and sometimes makes the news, for example here:
http://bigstory.ap.org/article/mafia-toxic-waste-dumping-poisons-italy-farmlands
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Loose dirt in a garden may be from | [
"creation myths",
"moon phases",
"buzzards",
"voles"
] | D | tunnels in soil loosen that soil |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4806 | experimental-physics
Title: Examples of a measurement slowly converging on the correct result after an initial eronious experiment? I remember hearing of cases where some initial measurement of a constant gives a value that is wildly inaccurate (either too high or too low). Subsequent experimental measurements, instead of disregarding the first and giving something close to the correct answer, tend to be within the margin of error of the first experiment but (somewhat) closer to the correct result. This process repeats itself until finally after many years the correct result is obtained.
The problem is I can't find any examples of this actually occurring. Is this one of those thing that people say as lore but are not actually true?
I thought that I heard of it happening with measurement of the speed of light, but looking back at the history it doesn't look like this happened with the historical data I can find. Several examples are given in Jeng's "A selected history of expectation bias in physics". The example you may have heard about, which became particularly well known after Richard Feynman remarked upon it, is Millikan's measurement of elementary charge.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Which is an example of measuring? | [
"a fisherman using a fishing rod",
"a runner using a pedometer",
"a cat playing with a mouse",
"a dog using a stick"
] | B | An example of collecting data is measuring |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4807 | mechanical-engineering, mechanical-failure, product-testing, failure-analysis
This leaves us with 3 "factors" that we now want to evaluate (and which also seem reasonable):
Temperature of the Water
Amount of salt added
Time spent boiling.
Once a DOE is set up, we would define a number of different experiments where we boiled an egg while varying those parameters in known amounts. Eventually we'd end up with some data that we could statistically analyze to help us understand what input factors we want to control. We'd end up finding that the temperature of the water is somewhat influenced by the amount of salt added. We'd also learn that the amount of time we needed to boil was correlated with the temperature. Eventually, through our analysis, we'd likely come to the conclusion that while temperature is important, the amount we raise it by adding an acceptable amount of salt, doesn't impact the way our egg end up nearly as much as does the time we actually spend boiling it! Not long enough and we end up with raw egg. Too long and we turn it to dried rubber. Our DOE has helped us identify that, when we now go to boil eggs, controlling the time we boil is the best way to guarantee us an egg made exactly the way we want it!
Now, while this may seem a super trivial example, hopefully you can envision how the concept of a DOE as a "tool" could be extremely useful. And just as there were multiple different tools for performing RCA, the same exits for design analysis!
Hope this helps to better understand how these tools relate.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
A thing which is measured, such as a bucket of salt, needs to first be | [
"evaded",
"burned",
"gathered",
"lost"
] | C | An example of collecting data is measuring |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4808 | Hey, thanks for your help guys. For a minute there, I thought that this theoretical person could not safely expect to live to be 82 years old.
9. Jun 16, 2012
### SW VandeCarr
In fact, on a purely probabilistic basis, for any finite time no matter how large, there is a non zero probability that a person would survive that long. So for a sufficiently large population, there would be a theoretic person that would live 100,000 years. This, of course, has no basis in biology.
In terms of the probability of being murdered, the model would not hold for the 100,000 year old person. In terms of the model, probably the best one can do is assume the proportion of causes of death would be constant. The calculation above needs to be corrected for overall survival in terms of death from any cause.
Last edited: Jun 16, 2012
10. Jun 16, 2012
### viraltux
Interesting... but 0.37% is not that small percentage, don't you think? That means, roughly speaking, that a community of around 300 persons can expect that one of them will be murdered.
If you consider that the number of people we know plus acquaintances can easily be around 300 persons that would mean that most 82 year old persons know of someone in their circles who has been murdered. Mmm... that might be an interesting survey.
11. Jun 16, 2012
### SW VandeCarr
As I said in my previous post, this is a misapplication of statistics. You have to consider survival in terms of all cause death. If you just consider the murder rate, then at some point nearly everyone gets murdered.
12. Jun 16, 2012
### moonman239
I know that.
This person will not die until he reaches age 82, if he is not murdered. As mentioned before, this person has a 68% chance of living to be 82.
13. Jun 16, 2012
### D H
Staff Emeritus
The probability of living to 82 per this problem is 99.63%, not 68%. You missed the decimal point on the 0.37%.
14. Jun 16, 2012
### SW VandeCarr
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Who is most likely to die of old age? | [
"adults",
"children",
"infants",
"reasonable high-school students"
] | A | adulthood is a stage in the life cycle process |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4809 | species-identification, arachnology
Title: Request for an ID of two spider species found in Australia, NT These two spiders were found in the Northern Territory in Australia in July (winter time). Both arachnids were shot during the night (I suspect them to be nocturnal), and both were found close to the ground. They do not build webs I think (way too big).
The upper spider is quite big, pretty much hand-sized, and about as big as a bird-eating spider. I think the guy with us told us it was a species of wolf spider (if I recall correctly - I'm unsure). The bottom hairy spider with its nice camouflage is somewhat smaller (if I recall correctly), but still well sized.
I have been searching for their names, but the amount of spider species is overwhelming and Australians tend to focus online resources on the poisonous ones. I'm fairly sure these two are harmless. The bottom one is most certainly a Huntsman. Something akin to a Holconia immanis, aka the Sydney Huntsman. The picture is difficult but a characteristic Huntsman typically has 2 front legs that are longer than the back legs. And of course they tend to be larger spiders.
Holconia immanis. source: Wikipedia
The top one looks like a type of brushed trapdoor spider (family Barychelidae), typically composed of such species as Idiommata scintillans, which are known as silverbacks or goldbacks depending on the color of the hair on their head (ref).
Idiommata sp., the 'Silverback'. source: Archne.org.au
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
A nightcrawler will most likely reside and consume nearest | [
"a rain cloud",
"an un-raked yard",
"a river rapids",
"a mountain avalanche"
] | B | animals live and feed near their habitats |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4810 | behaviour, language, genetic-code
Title: How does DNA encode high level features like animal behaviour and language? We know there are complex features which animals supposed to develop based on their genes as opposed to learning from the environment and the collective, also sometimes being very specific to certain species:
Concepts how to build homes
Animal languages including social insect interactions responsible for information transmission (or do they have to learn them through an acquisition process, let's exclude languages of ape tribes where "term" creation has been demonstrated?)
Valid answer: if already known, one or to examples to corresponding research.
Constraint: we are not talking about genes responsible for some sort of tendencies in behaviour but situations where there seems to be a more or less complex "blue print". I suppose we are yet very far from understanding these things. Relation of genotype to phenotype is teh subject of much contemporary research, but it is mainly limited to simple phenotypic features, explainable by action of a few genes, such as the colors of zebra fish mutants: see, e.g., this paper and the related publications by Nüsseln-Vollhardt group. Perhaps closer to your question is circadian rythms, which also have genetic determinants.
The complex behaviors are likely a result of the complex interactions of many genes, which are a very interesting, but also a very difficult problem to solve.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Which is true about zebrafish? | [
"the zebrafish live in every habitat",
"the zebrafish stays in the habitat for food",
"the zebrafish leaves the habitat for food",
"the zebrafish eats nothing but caviar"
] | B | animals live and feed near their habitats |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4811 | evolution, human-evolution
Title: Can there be significant new changes in physical features of Humans due to evolution in 10000 years of span? Humans migrated from Africa about 60000 years. And in these years humans physical features undergone significantly in terms of skin color, hair, eye color and facial features.
So, with this we can say that given 10000 years of span we can see a significant noticeable new changes in physical features of humans? like some humans with new skin color (apart from today's white, black and brown), new color eye balls, big heads etc.? Yes & perhaps (or probably?) no, depending on what you define as significant changes.
Less than 10,000 years ago everyone in the british isles & the rest of europe were dark skinned so the answer if (unlike me) you consider the change in skin color a significant change is obviously a resounding yes.
Here's what English people looked like 10,000 years ago
Darker skinned than you were expecting perhaps.
If as suggested in this article white skin arrived in Europe around 5,000 years ago that only leaves 2,000 years before early Greek & Roman art we have available which shows it as ubiquitous, so it perhaps took only 2,000 years or so (maybe less) to become dominant in europe, that's fast.
Using 20 years as the measure of a generation that's only 100 generations, so, very fast.
Timeline of human prehistory
The first reconstruction in the link below is a reconstruction of a Neanderthal woman found in a cave in Gibraltar. She died at least 30,000 years ago.
Here she is, the skin tone may not be accurate but we do know from gene's recovered from Neanderthal remains that they were relatively light skinned.
Personally I don't consider her appearance to be significantly different from modern humans.
29 Reconstructed Faces Of Ancient People
So my answer based on what I consider significant changes would be no.
But for you or others the answer may well be yes.
And of course a mutation for a new eye colour could appear at any time in one individual & spread like wildfire practically overnight just because we think it's unusual & 'cool' (aka sexual selection) so if eye color ticks your boxes it's a very definite yes.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
A lizard that passed away centuries ago may be viewed most easily today in some ways through | [
"globes",
"mirrors",
"telescopes",
"sediment"
] | D | An example of a fossil is a footprint in a rock |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4812 | entomology
Title: Constantly wiggling moth pupa - will it emerge soon? Today I found a moth pupa in the soil in my garden in western Sweden. It's about 15 mm long.
I have found similar ones before, but this one is wiggling a lot more, even after I put it down and put a bit of dirt over it. It's been moving for more than an hour now, but less now than in the beginning.
I was hoping to see it emerge, but if it will take more than a day or so, I will probably put it back. So, what I'm wondering is if this wiggling is any indication of how soon it will emerge. Or if there are other ways to tell.
Update: an hour later it has stopped moving. Maybe it was just very disturbed by my presence. I'm keeping it in a jar with soil and a stick for climbing up on, and I'll decide what to do with it tomorrow.
Update: 12 hours later and it seems very still. But I'm letting the question remain since I really want to know if there are any signs to look for.
Final update: After 16 days it had turned almost black, and was still very active when handled.
And after 17 days this moth came out: I posted the same question on tumblr and got an answer:
It depends on the species. This one looks like a Noctuid. I’d give it
two weeks to a month or so. You may be able to see its wings showing
through the darkening pupal case when the time draws near! Just make
sure you give it somewhere to climb up and expand its wings when it
ecloses.
After keeping it until the moth emerged, I now know that wiggliness is not an indication of maturity, but turning dark is.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Which has a child that will miss out on being a pupa? | [
"an ant",
"a bee",
"a butterfly",
"a giraffe"
] | D | the pupa stage is a stage in the metamorphosis process of some animals |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4813 | 5,224 views
In a certain town, the probability that it will rain in the afternoon is known to be $0.6$. Moreover, meteorological data indicates that if the temperature at noon is less than or equal to $25°C$, the probability that it will rain in the afternoon is $0.4$. The temperature at noon is equally likely to be above $25°C$, or at/below $25°C$. What is the probability that it will rain in the afternoon on a day when the temperature at noon is above $25°C$?
1. $0.4$
2. $0.6$
3. $0.8$
4. $0.9$
Answer is C) $0.8$
$P$(rain in afternoon) $= 0.5\times P($rain when temp $\leq 25) + 0.5 \times P($ rain when temp $> 25 )$
$0.6 = 0.5\times 0.4 + 0.5\times P($ rain when temp $> 25 )$
so,
$P$( rain when temp $> 25$ ) $= 0.8$
This is a question of Total Probability where after happening on one event E1, the probability of another event E2 happening or not happening is added together to get the probability of happening of Event E2.
Given P(Rain in noon) =0.6 (This is total probability given).
"The temperature at noon is equally likely to be above 25°C, or at/below 25°C."
means P(Temp less than or 25) = P(Temp >25) =0.5
P(Rain in noon) = P(Temp $\leq$ 25) * P(Rain | Temp $\leq$ 25) + P(Temp $>$ 25) * P(Rain| Temp $>$ 25)
0.6= (0.5*0.4) + (0.5*X)
X=0.8 Ans (C)
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
if something is outside during the day then that something will receive what? | [
"astral beams",
"steam",
"gratitude",
"night light"
] | A | if something is outside during the day then that something will receive sunlight |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4814 | desert
Title: When was the first not-icy desert formed? For how long have deserts existed and which one would be the first to be created? I'm talking about arid, dry deserts, not the Antarctic or Arctic or any other icy deserts. Deserts have existed since at least the Permian period (299-251 million years ago) when the world's continents had combined into the Pangaea supercontinent. Stretching from pole to pole, this land mass was large enough that portions of its interior received little or no precipitation, according the University of California Museum of Paleontology.
Pangaea broke into smaller land masses which were moved across the surface by tectonic forces, a process that both changed global climate patterns and the climate those continents were exposed to. As a result, current desert regimes date back to no more than 65.5 million years, according to this Encyclopedia Britannica article:
The desert environments of the present are, in geologic terms,
relatively recent in origin. They represent the most extreme result of
the progressive cooling and consequent aridification of global
climates during the Cenozoic Era (65.5 million years ago to the
present), which also led to the development of savannas and scrublands
in the less arid regions near the tropical and temperate margins of
the developing deserts. It has been suggested that many typical modern
desert plant families, particularly those with an Asian centre of
diversity such as the chenopod and tamarisk families, first appeared
in the Miocene (23 to 5.3 million years ago), evolving in the salty,
drying environment of the disappearing Tethys Sea along what is now
the Mediterranean–Central Asian axis.
Which would put the oldest of "modern" desert somewhere in the region of what later became North Africa or South Asia.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
How long did it take the Grand Canyon to form? A | [
"few amount of days",
"very lengthy amount of time",
"couple of billion dollars",
"very few amount of minutes"
] | B | a canyon forming occurs over a period of millions of years |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4815 | proteins, digestive-system
Title: Why do humans cook animal meat Why do humans "need" to cook animal meat?
It seems there's an aspect of safety to it: are other animals (eg, house cats, dogs) not vulnerable to the same diseases we get from modern food processing of meats?
But it also seems there's something else to it: is raw animal flesh is harder to digest for us, no matter how fresh or processed?
I've read so many conflicting things about it, like how cooking is really a way to avoid disease, but that the human body is capable of processing protein from raw meat just the same. An example is how other countries eat raw meats that Americans would not. But then I've also read things about how cooking meat is what allowed humans an energy advantage early in our development as a species (I'm not clear how more calories are "unlocked" by cooking) or how denatured protein plays some role in usability. I also know that my person experience with raw meats doesn't help me understand it, because sushi seems to be fine but raw eggs will upset my stomach. Humans do not "need" to cook food, but in general cooking food facilitate digestion and absorption of nutrients.
Heat cause denaturation of proteins. Once denatured, proteins are more susceptible to the enzymatic digestion. Thus, more nutrients are absorbed. There are also macroscopic phenomena in play, for example, a cooked piece of meat is more tender than the raw one, making mastication easier and less energy consuming.
The fact that you may feel your stomach upset because of raw food is probably due to the fact that you were never used to it. Your intestinal flora has been selected during the year to deal with the food you usually eat, any "new" food may cause the same symptoms. Humans that eat regularly raw food will not feel the same way.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
In order to safely eat meat, you need to do what to it? | [
"boost its temperature",
"raise its kids",
"heat its ice",
"lower its temperature"
] | A | if food is cooked then heat energy is added to that food |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4816 | geology
Title: Where do riverbed stones come from? Have they always been here since the river was formed? Are some newer than others? Riverbed 'stones' - I assume you mean things like pebbles, boulders, etc. are pieces of rock that have weathered out and been deposited in the river. Some come from rock that is very close to where they are located and some have been transported from very far away. In general (and it is a very broad generalization) the rounder the stone, the longer it has been in the river and the more likely it is to have come from far away. Of course that depends on the hardness of the rock, and other factors, too.
Some rocks are newer than others. Some have been formed quite recently and some are billions of years old.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
A riverbank is made of what? | [
"animals",
"oceans",
"loam",
"bones"
] | C | a riverbank is made of soil |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4817 | evolution, biochemistry, plant-physiology, plant-anatomy, life
Title: Plants without bacteria? is it theoretically possible? I know from school, that all live on the Earth need bacteria as low-level "machines" that break down/extract/convert/produce chemical elements and combinations, other high-level organisms needed. But it is a natural way.
But is it possible to have a world with plants (without mammals or microorganisms and without bacteria) that could exist in the long term. Saying the atmosphere of these world has already enough nitrogen, oxygen and CO2, and of course there is water.
What could break this artificially created world with such conditions (say the world created not from low-level living structures)?
Could bacteria emerge in the world? This is the sort of question that should be considered from more than one perspective. Since this is speculation, take it as a given that there is a lot of 'what if' here.
I doubt most animals and plants can do entirely without bacteria - as you say most of the essential nutrients come from bacteria, who fix nitrogen. If only plants were left on earth, eventually the plants would use up all the nitrogen and they would have to find a way to fix more.
Can bacteria emerge from just a world of plants? I don't think viruses arise spontaneously, but since genomes often have viruses embedded in them, over the course of a billion years or so, its possible since bacteria and viruses continue to be impressed upon our genomes. Would it happen in time? Most would be skeptical whether that timing could work out.
In practice it would be hard to create a world like this. I would be interested to see whether you could sterilize the microorganisms off of seeds without killing the plant for instance. If you're asking about a small sterile environment with only plants, you could do it by adding the nutrients the plants need and giving them sunlight. Such self sustaining systems have been made with cyanobacteria and i'd be surprised if plants could not be included. But these are closed systems and judged by limited amounts of time, so whether this is an answer to your question is not clear. Here it looks like some water plants and fish have been done. If there was a plant that created CO₂ at an adequate rate its possible.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Plants are like all other organisms, in that they need what to survive? | [
"sustenance",
"shoes",
"games",
"internet"
] | A | an plant requires food for survival |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4818 | earth-history, mass-extinction, geobiology, evolution, ecology
Title: Why haven't weeds overtaken the entire planet? Given how rapidly weed plants spread and grow, choking out all other plant life, how come after millions of years we haven't ended with forests full of thistle or pokeweed, as opposed to pines or oak trees? A weed is just a plant where you do not want it. Totally a matter of context. Tumbleweeds are non-native, introduced centuries ago. I assume you mean the invasive species of plants that have been spread by humans and are disrupting ecologies throughout most of the world
Until recently, these plants we consider weeds were limited in their range to home environments simply by geographic barriers and surrounding unfriendly environments. And the natural consumers, parasites and competitors in the home environments had adjusted to these plants and kept them in check.
When non-native plants are introduced into a new environment by humans, most of them do not thrive, but occasionally a plant is wildly successful. Eventually the potential consumers, parasites and competitors in that new environment will adjust through evolution. But the tragedy is that many or most of the original species will be destroyed before that balance is restored in a new, way more simplified form. The landscape itself may be totally changed. Removal of a key original species can cause great change too: How Wolves Change Rivers.
Not only will many ecologies be reduced to much simpler versions, even if they eventually conquer the invasive plant, those simplified ecologies will closely resemble each other, if their geography is similar, even if on the other side of the world. If humans were to totally stop transplanting invasive species (collapse of civilization?), diversity would return after millions of years. We know this from Extinction Events.
So to answer you question, weeds before human intervention generally did not take over in their home environments because the potential weeds and their natural consumers, parasites and competitors all evolved together in a quasi-equilibrium. Now, however, most ecologies throughout the world are out of equilibrium because of environmental change and/or invasive species. This will inevitably lead to simplified, usually less robust, weedy ecologies throughout the world. That reduction in diversity might as well be considered a permanent situation compared to the timescale of civilization.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
If a thistle is going to expand, it requires | [
"hay",
"nutriment",
"cattle",
"seashells"
] | B | an plant requires food for survival |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4819 | ai-design, profession, computational-complexity
For additional up-front work on project feasibilty and scope, if you are concerned about risk to yourself as a freelancer (because customer expects these as a pre-sale effort), you could propose to bill for that as consultancy work, prior to starting project proper. You would likely need to produce something like a project proposal document in order that the paying customer received something for spending this money. Producing such a document might even show both you and the customer that the project is not feasible without additional work - in whch case you could note the steps needed to make it feasible (e.g. customer needs to source 10,000 more training images without the flaws noticed in existing images).
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
To create paper you will first have to acquire a supply of | [
"stardust",
"sand",
"pens",
"pulp"
] | D | creating paper requires cutting down trees |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4820 | soft-question, research-practice, writing, paper-review, conferences
However, that doesn't mean that you have to partition your work into least publishable units as you describe your coworkers doing, and it also doesn't mean that saving up multiple small results into a single paper is a good way of making your papers stronger. It's certainly possible to publish papers like that but to my mind the better ones are often the ones that have a single strong main result, perhaps with additional results on the side not to strengthen the paper but rather to provide more complete coverage of its subject.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
A consequence of creating thousands of notebooks is | [
"longer days",
"habitat change",
"lush landscapes",
"shorter days."
] | B | creating paper requires cutting down trees |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4821 | heat, wavelength
Title: Is carbon dioxide a greenhouse gas?
Possible Duplicate:
What experiments prove the greenhouse effect?
I am seeking for a proof that CO2 is a greenhouse gas. I posted this on Skeptic.SE recently but found no help in seeking for proof:
I assisted to a physicist conference in my university a few years ago
against the case that carbon dioxide was a cause of global warming.
The main point was that CO2 is not a greenhouse gas. I did a
research to find evidence for either side and found absolutely
nothing.
So, is carbon dioxide a greenhouse gas? If yes, has it been
demonstrated in a scientific paper?
Here are some discussion articles describing arguments against CO2
being a greenhouse gas:
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Which is a cause of greenhouse gases? | [
"elephants",
"pears",
"boulders",
"oaks"
] | A | animals exhale carbon dioxide from their lungs into the air |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4822 | food, decomposition
Title: Worm compost cannot have cooked food I live in the Netherlands and it is getting fashionable to compost with worms. After investigating a few websites I noticed that most websites suggested that I cannot feed the worms leftovers from citrus fruits. This seems logical. I then started noticing that people advise against feeding the worms cooked food.
I'm no biologist but I cannot imagine a reason why cooked food is bad for the worms. Could anybody explain why this might be in layman’s terms? There are a few reasons for not feeding cooked foods to worms (Eisenia spp.) in a smaller household size worm farm. It's not because the food is cooked but what it often contains.
The earthworm used in vermiculture is usually Eisenia fetida (red wigglers) though other Eisenia species are sometimes used. All Eisenia are epigeic species meaning they live in the junction of decomposing organic matter (such as leaf litter, aging manure, rotted fallen trees) and their natural food is decaying plant matter and bacteria that are also digesting the organic matter. They don't make use of small dead animals (meat and fat).
In large scale commercial vermiculture operations, leftover and past-due-date foods from restaurants, institutions, nursing homes and schools are used along with plant matter and carboard and paper. I'm not sure how they balance cooked foods but possibly much less is used than plant matter.
The fact food is cooked isn't the problem but what's in it and/or what happens to it when added to the bin. If you have leftover vegetables and fruit that's been cooked with no added salt, it's perfectly acceptable. A certain amount of sweetened cooked fruit is also fine as the worms will eat that too. But ready-made foods usually have preservatives, salt, fats and spices added. Either worms won't eat it, leading to odour caused by mouldy rotten food, or it can make them unthrifty and even killing off your worms if it's fed them repeatedly.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Which of the following actions qualifies as cooking food? | [
"setting it in the sun",
"shaking it up and down",
"putting it in the freezer",
"running it under water"
] | A | cooking food requires adding heat energy |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4823 | python, beginner, python-3.x
run()
new_item = input("Add recipe to meal planner?:\n > ")
with open("recipe.txt", "r") as recipe_file:
recipes = recipe_file.read()
recipes = recipes + new_item + "\n"
with open("recipe.txt", "w+") as recipe_file:
recipe_file.write(recipes) This is a good beginner project and a good API to practice writing a client.
Add type hints to your function signatures. Python has a weak type system, and the more you can do to strengthen it, the more you'll be able to perform meaningful static analysis and write self-documenting code.
Your program doesn't actually do what you intended. meal_type and Health aren't sent to the API, and even if they were, they would both be the string yes. You need to separate the "yes/no" variable from the "what" variable; the latter you are not assigning at all.
Consider using Edamam's V2 recipe API.
Pay attention to error values that the API may return, the easiest way being raise_for_status.
Delete your else: pass. Or, more likely, once you fix your health and meal assignments, the else will assign the default value for these variables, probably None.
From new_item onward, this is fairly puzzling: it might as well be an entirely separate program, as it doesn't use any of the results from your search to store in the file. It would probably a good feature to add: have the user enter the title of their chosen recipe, and store the entire rendered text of the recipe to the file.
Don't read the entire file; just open the file in append mode.
Suggested
from typing import Any
import requests
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
cooking food requires adding what? | [
"frozen water",
"scorching power",
"coldness",
"air"
] | B | cooking food requires adding heat energy |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4824 | rainfall, tropical-cyclone
But perhaps to visualize the scale involved in creating a catastrophic largescale flood such as Harvey, this plot, created from a base image from pivotalweather.com, best shows the conditions around the storm (from the GFS model):
Basically the atmosphere of the entire Gulf (and beyond) is being pumped into the southeast Texas area. So although the air can only hold a couple inches (some 50 mm) of water, and evaporation rates are typically only a fraction of an inch (several mm) per day... bringing that together from such a large source region, and focusing it down into one small area... can lead to these awful extreme deluges.
Addendum: It should also be highlighted that the NHC adds in their report on Harvey that rising motion was also enhanced by a front which had stalled in the area. Air being advected in by Harvey's flow would naturally rise over that layer of cooler air when moving inland (a process called isentropic lift), which proves particularly efficient in condensing out the (abundant) moisture en masse into rainfall. Most substantial regional floods require similar existence of a significant broad lifting mechanisms overlaid with such a relentless inflow of warm, moist air.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Tropical storms get their fuel from the | [
"super market",
"ocean",
"gas station",
"mexico"
] | B | an ocean is a source of heat and moisture for a hurricane |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4825 | zoology, ecology, diet, predation
Cheetahs have been reported to suffer from intraguild competition by lions Panthera leo, spotted hyenas Crocuta crocuta and occasionally leopards Panthera pardus. These larger predators represent a threat to the smaller-bodied cheetahs as they can affect their food intake by limiting access to high resource areas or kleptoparasitism (e.g. 10–12% of kills are kleptoparasitized in Serengeti National Park (SNP)), and reduce population sizes via increased cub mortality (e.g. 73% of cub mortality was due to predation in the SNP). In response, cheetahs often demonstrate avoidance behavior to minimize interactions with dominant carnivores , with spatial and temporal partitioning regarded as the principal behavioral mechanisms by which this is achieved. Accordingly, cheetahs have been described as a refugial species that seeks competition refuges within the landscape with low densities of lions and spotted hyenas.
Rostro-García S, Kamler JF, Hunter LT. To kill, stay or flee: the effects of lions and landscape factors on habitat and kill site selection of cheetahs in South Africa. PLoS One. 2015;10(2):e0117743. Published 2015 Feb 18. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0117743
(removed the citations)
The definition of the terms used in the above citation:
Intraguild predation, or IGP, is the killing and sometimes eating of a potential competitor of a different species. This interaction represents a combination of predation and competition, because both species rely on the same prey resources and also benefit from preying upon one another. - Wikipedia
Kleptoparasitism, literally meaning parasitism by theft, is a form of resource acquisition where one animal takes resources from another. Although kleptoparasitism of food (i.e., kleptoparasitic foraging) is the best known example, the stolen resources may be food or another resource such as nesting materials. - Sciencedirect.com
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Lions and zebras live | [
"in different environments",
"near each other",
"in different habitats",
"far from Earth"
] | B | most predators live near the same environment as their prey |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4826 | powershell, ms-word
$word.Quit()
$word = $null
[gc]::collect()
[gc]::WaitForPendingFinalizers()
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
We will eventually exhaust our supply of | [
"water",
"coal",
"air",
"time"
] | B | coal is a nonrenewable resource |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4827 | species-identification, marine-biology
Title: help identify this fish
I came across this washed up fish in Panama City, Florida in November 2015. I'm guessing it's a puffer fish but I can't find anything like it online.
Thanks. This is a kind of trunkfish. (They have different names, this could be a smooth or spotted trunkfish.). It's really a lovely and comical little fish when observed alive in coral reefs. It has the ability to change its coloration depending on whether it's excited or calm, or to minimize its contrast to the background. It is related to puffer fish.
It has a boxy, triangular body shape, and propels itself with relatively tiny, delicate fins. Like pufferfish, they are toxin producers.
In death, the body shape and coloration are different, of course. Never saw a dead one before; sad. The juveniles are adorable:
Members of this family occur in a variety of different colors, and are notable for the hexagonal or "honeycomb" patterns on their skin. - Wikipedia
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Which organism would eat fish and live in marshland? | [
"a tree",
"a whale",
"a warthog",
"an alligator"
] | D | alligators eat fish |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4828 | metabolism, ecology, photosynthesis
Title: Why isn't phosphorus or nitrogen a limiting nutrient for animals? Nitrogen and Phosphorus are usually the limiting nutrient for plants, especially for algae. Phosphorus is used for DNA, ATP and phospholipids, and Nitrogen is used for pretty much every protein a cell might want to produce. That is, their need for biological processes is not tied specifically to photosynthesis: anything that lives is going to need them, pretty much for anything it might want to do. It would make sense for them to be a limiting nutrient for almost anything that's trying to grow, plant or animal.
Yet for animals the limiting "nutrient" seems to always be energy, ie: food. Why aren't animals limited by lack of nutrients in the same way that plants are? Obviously animals need these nutrients, too. Or to reverse the question, why do plants need so much more phosphorus/nitrogen than animals do?
My best guess is that an animal's digestion of plant material is relatively inefficient energy-wise but relatively efficient nutrient-wise. So for an animal to eat enough food to have sufficient energy to survive, it's probably eaten more than enough Nitrogen and Phosphorus for its needs. But I'm just guessing and I can't find any data that would back up that guess. Phosphorus
Your suggestion that if we are meeting our calorific requirement we will be getting enough is true for phosphorus.
Most foods contain lots of phosphorus. The maximum dietary requirement occurs during adolescent growth, estimated at 1250 mg per day. Assuming a calorie intake of 2500 kcal we can calculate a 2500 kcal equivalent phosphorus content for various foods:
skimmed milk contains 7,400 mg phosphorus per 2500 kcal
roasted chicken breast contains 7,500 mg phosphorus per 2500 kcal
cooked white rice contains 3840 mg per 2500 kcal
(Calculations are based upon values obtained via this site.)
Nitrogen
Our requirement for nitrogen is met by our protein intake: inadequate protein intake manifests as kwashiorkor which is essentially due to a dietary deficiency of essential amino acids. In other words, the only way to achieve a nitrogen-deficient diet is to not eat protein, and this would not be alleviated by any inorganic source of nitrogen, even if we could consume enough of such a N source.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Without photosynthesis, animals that rely on plants for this would be out of luck. | [
"selling food",
"nothing",
"kissing",
"sustenance"
] | D | green plants provide food for consumers by performing photosynthesis |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4829 | the-sun, space, stellar-atmospheres
However, when you have something the Sun or even fog, the optical depth varies with the distance you're looking into that object. I'll talk about fog since it's familiar, but the same idea applies to the Sun's atmosphere. Say you're standing in a forrest and its very foggy out. There's a tree 1 meter away from you that you can see. You could measure your optical depth, $\tau$, of the fog between you and tree and might find that $\tau = 0.15$. Since $\tau$ is less than one, that implies you can see the tree, but the value of $\tau$ also implies how well you can see it. If $\tau = 0$, there's nothing between you and the tree to impede your ability to see it. Let's say there's another tree that's 5 meters away. Now there's more fog between you and the tree and while you can still see it, it is harder to see it. The optical depth of the fog between you and the tree 5 meters away might be $\tau = 0.75$. It's still less than one, implying the tree is visible, but because there's more fog between you and the tree, the optical depth is higher. Finally, there may be a tree 10 meters away with so much fog between you and the tree that the optical depth is $\tau = 1.5$. You can't see this tree because there's too much fog in the way. Hopefully you now realize that anything which is at a distance where $\tau > 1$ is not visible to you. That effectively defines a "surface" around you precisely when $\tau = 1$. Anything beyond that point is not visible and anything closer is visible.
If you're talking about the Sun, you can look at the Sun, but you'll only see light which originates from a point where $\tau < 1$. There are countless photons bouncing around inside the Sun, but you can't see them because they're in an opaque part of the Sun. Astronomers use the optical depth as a metric for defining the "surface" of the Sun.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
If you wanted to see the source of sunshine you would look at | [
"TV",
"the yellow dwarf",
"volcanoes",
"the moon"
] | B | the sun is a source of light called sunlight |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4830 | the-sun, earth
Title: If the Sun got larger, but maintained its luminosity, would the Earth get hotter or colder? A recent question If the Sun were bigger but colder, Earth would be hotter or colder? asked - if the Sun got bigger and cooler, would the Earth heat up or cool down. I think the answer to that is mainly that it depends on the final luminosity.
However, what I want to know here (hypothetically), is if the Sun got larger and it's effective temperature decreased such that it's luminosity was unchanged; how would that affect the equilibrium temperature of the Earth? I suspect the answer may involve the wavelength dependence of the albedo, emissivity and atmospheric absorption of the Earth.
Another, less hypothetical, way of asking this is, if you put an Earth-like planet at different distances from stars with a variety of temperatures, such that the total flux incident at the top of the atmosphere was identical, how would the temperatures of those planets compare? The key issue is the opacity of the atmosphere, because I presume the question is about the temperature at the solid surface of the Earth. The atmospheric opacity can be seen from https://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/135260/can-someone-explain-to-me-the-concept-of-atmosphere-opacity, where you can see that the "rainbow" of maximum heat flux from the Sun happens to hit a kind of hole in atmospheric opacity. That has a significant warming effect on the Earth, and is exacerbated by the Greenhouse effect. If sunlight was further into the infrared, the graph shows that much more of it would be intercepted in the atmosphere. That would make the surface significantly colder, though certainly not a factor of 2 colder.
No doubt the question is of more than passing interest, because M dwarfs are the most numerous main-sequence stars and are therefore interesting for life. To have life near an M dwarf, the planet would need to be closer than Earth is to the Sun, but the effect of moving the planet closer and shrinking and cooling the star would be similar to leaving Earth where it is and making the star cooler and larger. So the nature of atmospheric opacity for wet atmospheres must be of great significance for understanding the prospects for life around M dwarfs.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Which is likely to be hotter? | [
"steaming coffee",
"the ocean",
"the forest",
"tepid water"
] | A | as the temperature of a liquid increases , the rate of evaporation of that liquid will increase |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4831 | temperature, density
Title: Is it faster to get warmer in warm vapor or in warm liquid? Is it faster to get warmer in warm water vapor or in warm water in liquid form? Assuming they are at the same temperature, you will get warmer faster in the liquid. The heat transfer between the liquid/gas and your body in this case is caused by fast moving liquid/gas molecules colliding with your body and transferring some kinetic energy to the molecules in your skin. In a liquid there would be more collisions per second between the gas and your body and so heat would transfer faster.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
The hotter a liquid gets, the faster | [
"it turns into animals",
"it transform to gas",
"it turns into seven",
"it turns into frogs"
] | B | as the temperature of a liquid increases , the rate of evaporation of that liquid will increase |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4832 | conductors, power
Title: Hollow conductor for transmission line A hollow conductor can transfer almost the same current when compared to a solid conductor with less material requirement due to the skin effect. But still, we use solid stranded conductors for a transmission line. Why is it so? The high power lines often use multiple cables with spacers. The thickness of the layer of conductive strands in each cable approximates the skin depth. So, they achieve the efficient use of material you seek by different means.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
What requires an electrical conductor? | [
"cording",
"rocks",
"winds",
"fires"
] | A | wiring requires an electrical conductor |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4833 | planets, orbital-motion, stars
Title: Could there be a star orbiting around a planet? I wonder if there ever could be a star (really small) which may orbit around a planet (really big)? One thing to keep in mind is that objects that are bound gravitationally actually revolve around each other around a point called a barycenter. The fact that the earth looks like its revolving around the sun is because the sun is much more massive and its radius is large enough that it encompasses the barycenter. This is a similar situation with the Earth and Moon. If there were three bodies, where two bodies were of similar size (like a binary star system plus a massive planet) then an analysis of three body systems shows that there are stable configurations where the objects will be in very complicated orbits where it would be difficult to say one orbits the other.
Update: The short answer is yes, it is possible when you look at the complete dynamical system, for the reasons stated above. More evidence of this can be found in the study of regular star orbits where very complicated orbits are possible and can be stable. Currently the cut off for classification of a planet and a brown dwarf is 13 Jupiter masses, which is arbitrary to some degree. The lightest main sequence stars have a mass of 75 Jupiters. This will put the barycenter well outside the radius of either body for binary systems.
A quick check of the two body system using the equation:
$$R = \dfrac{1}{m_1 + m_2}(m_1r_1 + m_2r_2)$$
Setting $m_1 = 75$, $r_1 = 1$, $m_2 = 13$, $r_2 = 2$ gives:
$$\dfrac{75 + 26}{75+13} = 1.147$$
Indicating a barycenter at roughly $\dfrac{1}{7}$ the distance between the objects. More bodies will cause more complicated orbits, where again, it would be difficult to say which object orbits which. It should be noted that if the system was composed of 3 objects, 2 of which had similar mass, it would be possible to develop a system that appears to have two larger objects orbiting a third smaller object. A quick check reveals:
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
A planet that revolves around a star is exposed to what? | [
"mountains",
"oceans",
"solar rays",
"moons"
] | C | a planet is exposed to the heat of the star around which it revolves |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4834 | evolution, reproduction, terminology, population-genetics, fitness
Title: What's the difference between evolution fitness and reproductive success? What's the difference biological fitness and reproductive success in the biological terminology? The concepts are very similar but there are a few differences.
Firstly, fitness is usually applied to alleles or genotypes, reproductive success to individuals.
Secondly (and partially as a consequence of this), fitness is an average or idealised/expected property across a population; but actual reproductive success per individual is stochastic. Individuals possessing an allele with a relative fitness of "2" will on average have twice as many offpsring as their competitors, all else being equal, but individual reproductive success will vary as a consequence of other factors such as predation, parasitism, starvation etc.
Finally, absolute fitness relates to the proportional representation of a genotype in a population. Reproductive success relates to offspring per individual. For example, in a growing population a genotype could be simultaneously declining in proportion while it is increasing in absolute number, if other genotypes are increasing in number more rapidly.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Which is successful reproduction? | [
"A clay tablet splits into two identical halves",
"A bird chirps to its mate",
"A doe runs beside her fawn",
"A smaller iceberg splits from a larger one"
] | C | reproduction produces offspring |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4835 | evolution, species
Title: Parents that eat their own children I am told that there are some species, like fish or rabbits, that if let, will eat their own children. If this is true, how does a species like this exist? Shouldn't the fact that they kill their own lineage make them nonviable? Yes, it is true.
Prairie dogs
Prairie dogs for example are known for frequent infanticides.
Many other species kill their babies too
But of course, such behaviour also exists in other lineages such as grey langurs, gerbilles, lions, giant water bugs and Bottlenose dolphins (just to cite a few examples).
How does that evolve
It will be impossible to provide a complete universal explanation to this behaviour because the evolutionary processes causing this behaviour varies from lineage to lineage. For examples, in lions, only males kill young of the females that are still nursing and they do so when taking over a new harem only. In prairie dogs, mothers cause infanticide preferentially on others' babies but also on their own babies.
Going into the details of how such behaviour evolves in every specific lineage would probably require writing an intro on kin selection and other fields of evolutionary biology which is way too much for a single post. You may want to have a look at the wikipedia article infanticide for a start.
Shouldn't the fact that they kill their own lineage make them nonviable?
Of course, they don't kill all the babies. Only a fraction of them!
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
The only way for mammals to have a family is to | [
"steal children",
"adopt",
"lay eggs",
"reproduce"
] | D | reproduction produces offspring |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4836 | genetics, botany, seeds
Title: What DNA does a self-fertile plant's seedling have? Some plants are said to be self-fertile. An example is Prunus tomentosa.
Assuming that no cross-pollination happened with other plants, if a self-fertile plant such as prunus tomentosa produces a seedling, what DNA will the seedling have? Is the seedling's DNA an exact copy of the parent plant's DNA, or do the genes get rearranged? Selfing (aka self-fertilizing) differs from cloning. When selfing occurs, the offspring is not an exact copy of the parent. When cloning occurs, the offspring is an exact copy (except for a few mutations) of the parent.
Selfing implies that an individual will produce two gametes (typically a spermatozoid and an ovule but that might be a bit more complicated) and these two gametes are fusing to give the zygote (egg or offspring if you prefer).
As a consequence, when selfing, meiosis is occurring (and therefore segregation and recombination) so that the offspring is not an exact clone of the parent but rather some kind of a rearrangement of the parent genome (with a few mutations of course).
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
reproduction is when an organism passes genetic information from itself to its what? | [
"feet",
"child support",
"brain",
"younglings"
] | D | reproduction is when an organism passes genetic information from itself to its offspring |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4837 | electrical-engineering, ethics, sales, safety
But all of those steps are going way above and beyond what you're obligated to do in this particular case. This is especially so when there is a safe usage for the product along with an unsafe approach. And any of those actions are likely to irreparably damage your relationship with that client. Damaging the relationship will impair your credibility with them and make it less likely that they'll listen to your concerns.
So your obligation is to lay it out to them in unambiguous terms that you believe they need to stop using the product in their "preferred" manner and that your firm will no longer provide any support whatsoever regarding future use of that product in that configuration.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
A company which causes long lasting products will likely? | [
"Sell less",
"Produce more",
"Produce Less",
"Sell more"
] | A | as the time a tool lasts increases , the number of tools discarded will decrease |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4838 | botany, plant-anatomy
Title: Is it possible to grow any kind of plant soilless (hydroponics)? Hydroponics is a subset of hydroculture and is a method of growing plants using mineral nutrient solutions, in water, without soil. [wikipedia]
My question is if is it possible to grow any kind of plant soilless (hydroponics)? Yes, There are a few i know of, a quick "air plant" google search will get you quiet a lot.
wiki 1
wiki 2
Edit: I just glanced through the hydroponics article, and now I wonder if my answer actual answers your question.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
What requires soil to grow? | [
"lakes",
"car engine",
"daffodils",
"cows"
] | C | a plant requires soil for to grow |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4839 | human-biology, biochemistry, molecular-biology, cell-membrane, pulmonology
Title: How does lipoid pneumonia lead to acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS)? How does lipoid pneumonia lead to acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS)?
The vaping illnesses that have been happening on the news in the United States are being caused by the federal prohibition on marijuana. Smugglers will legally go to recreational marijuana dispensaries in legal states and purchase cartridges that contain about a gram of "wax". Proper cartridges will use polyethylene glycol, polypropylene glycol, or vegetable glycerin to suspend the THC for vaporizing, but the smugglers have been known to open up the tank and remove some of the wax and refill the remaining volume with Vitamin E Oil. These tampered cartridges are then sold on the black market to recreational and medical consumers in illegal states.
The CDC Report: "Outbreak of Lung Injury Associated with the Use of E-Cigarette, or Vaping, Products"
Edit: So, I was on some conspiracy shtuff when I wrote this post because I was worried about impurities in my vapes killing me. I don't want to take this down because I want my cognitive distortion to remain visible as a reminder of how we can succumb to biased reasoning. Also, the answer I marked correct contextualized the fragmented information of which I was aware and attempted to give me an improved framework for understanding the terms I was using incorrectly as a layman. There are several ways to get ARDS (sepsis, pneumonia, trauma, pancreatitis, etc). Pathophysiologically, they all converge at alveolar insult. So however it happens, there's alveolar insult, cytokine release that recruits neutrophils, and the activated neutrophils release toxic mediators that destroy the alveolar membranes. So for your question specifically, the mineral oil in the vape cartridges (theoretically) is instigating an inflammatory reaction that destroys alveolar membranes.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
The function of your lungs be impaired on | [
"a small sailboat",
"Saturn's rings",
"a windswept beach",
"a pleasant meadow"
] | B | the respiratory system transfers oxygen to the circulatory system |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4840 | palaeontology, herpetology
Title: How big can cold-blooded animals get? It seems impossible to have reptiles the size of dinosaurs, just because they are really big! Did they have different systems of maintaining body temperature or maybe they weren't the exact type of animals that we today call reptiles? Answer is quite simple as from @Alan Boyd link. They are cold blooded and thus, can go out for hunt in cold, they need to stay put till they get some prey.
So, it mainly depend on the temperature of the outside, I found this interesting paper on relation of body sizes and latitude.
Body sizes of poikilotherm vertebrates at different latitudes
Maximum sizes of 12,503 species of poikilotherm vertebrates were
analyzed for latitudinal trends, using published data from 75 faunal
studies. A general trend appears which may be summarized by the rule
"among fish and amphibian faunas the proportion of species with large
adult size tends to increase from the equator towards the poles". The
rule holds for freshwater fish, deepsea fish, anurans, urodeles, and
marine neritic fish arranged roughly in order of decreasing clarity of
the trend). In general the rule applies not only within these groups
of families but also within single families. In reptile groups, the
rule holds weakly among snakes and not at all among lizards or
non-marine turtles. Possible explanations include an association
between small size and greater specialization in the tropics; the
possibility in poikilo-therms of heat conservation or of some other
physiological process related to surface/volume ratio; selection for
larger size in regions subject to winter food shortages; and an
association between large adult size and high reproductive potential
in cold regions. Other suggestions can be advanced, but all are
conjectural and few are subject to test. Global size - latitude trends
should be looked for in other living groups.
Cite: Lindsey, C. C., 1966: Body sizes of poikilotherm vertebrates at
different latitudes. Evolution: 456-465
Now lets compare some of the largest cold blooded Animals:
Reptiles
Amphibians
Fishes (Pisces)
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Jackrabbits excel at staying cool because of | [
"their adaptations",
"a courthouse",
"a frozen tundra",
"an ocean"
] | A | long ears are used for releasing heat by a jackrabbit |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4841 | material-science
Title: Optimal material for a hammer head I was watching a TV show in which a gold hammer was mentioned. It was not serious but caused me to wonder whether gold would be a good material and, if not, what else might be. An attraction of gold is that it has a high density but that advantage is probably negated by being more malleable than steel. So, I started to wonder what properties I need to consider. Some materials may be hard but liable to shatter on impact.
Let's suppose that the dimensions of the hammer are fixed: a fixed handle and a fixed size and shape for the head. The objective is to drive steel nails into a variety of hard substances.
Cost is not a factor, nor ease of construction, nor safety. It will need to last long enough to be used so francium and various heavy elements are not suitable. If depleted uranium is a good material then this would be acceptable. It is used for armour piercing shells presumably because of its density but there are denser materials. Is it that it is cheaper than gold or osmium?
What properties should I be researching?
Additional: to make the question more manageable, I will require a homogenous pure material for the head not an alloy. I hope that this makes me more a question of physics rather than engineering. This is a thought experiment rather than a real project. What the optimal hammer head material is depends on what we are optimizing for.
A standard hammer has a hard head that has high density, held by a strong but usually light handle. If it has length $l$ and is accelerated at some acceleration $a$ set by user muscle strength it will reach a velocity $v$ after having traversed a distance $\sim l$; that is, $l=at^2/2$ gives $t=\sqrt{2l/a}$ and $v=\sqrt{2la}$. The kinetic energy will be $K_e\approx mla$. So a long and heavy hammer will be able to drive a nail more deeply (to a depth $K_e/F$ where $F$ is the resisting force). So more mass and length seems good... but obviously not too much either.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
If you had a hammer, you would find ____ nails made of ____ | [
"wood; wood",
"iron; wood",
"wood; iron",
"iron; iron"
] | D | iron nails are made of iron |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4842 | cellular-respiration
Title: Do cold blooded animals generate any heat? In explaining energy and work to an 8 year-old I said that all conversion of energy generates heat as a by-product. For example, cars generate heat in their engines and running generates heat in our bodies. Then the 8 year-old said, except for cold-blooded animals.
So my question is, do cold-blooded animals generate any heat in their conversion of stored energy (food, fat, etc) into motion? If they generate heat, why are they cold-blooded? They do generate heat. They just do not SPEND energy specifically on heating their bodies by raising their metabolisms. This is a form of energy conservation. The metabolic rate they need to live is not nearly enough to heat their bodies.
An example of spending energy to heat the body is seen in humans shivering. Here muscle is activated not for its usual purpose, but to function as a furnace. "Warm-blooded" and "cold-blooded" is somewhat a misnomer. The correct way to think of it is...
Endotherm or ectotherm. Does the heat primarily come from within (endo) or from the surroundings (ecto). Endothermic animals include mammals. Most of their body heat is generated by their own metabolisms. Ectothermic animals include reptiles and insects. They absorb most of their body heat from the surroundings. This is not the same as saying they let their body temperature fluctuate with their surroundings, some avoid this by moving around to accomodate themselves.
Homeotherm or poikilotherm. Homeotherms want to maintain homeostasis for their body temperatures. They don't want it to change. Poikilotherms do not exhibit this behaviour, instead their body temperatures vary greatly with the environment.
We can have endotherm poikilotherms, such as squirrels, who let their body temperature drop while hibernating. Endotherm homeotherms, such as humans, where temperature is constant by means of complex thermoregulation. Ectotherm homeotherms, such as snakes (moving into shadow or into the sun to regulate temperature), and ectotherm poikilotherms, such as maggots.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Like humans, when some animals get hot, they do what in order to lower their body temperature | [
"spend money",
"raise blood temperature",
"fly away",
"perspire"
] | D | sweat is used for adjusting to hot temperatures by some animals |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4843 | experimental-chemistry, safety
Title: What components of safety should be included in a chemistry laboratory experiment conclusion?
The focus of my question here is this: In a laboratory there is a Bunsen burner, a hot plate, hydrochloric acid, and concentrated ammonia. What would you mention about safety precautions?
As students of chemistry and science, we often need to write detailed conclusions about our laboratory experiments. This eventually becomes second-nature, but to have an an idea of which of the safety measures taken to include are often useful to ensure ourselves that we have not left anything out.
I believe that the following are some of the the most important components of any well written conclusion in a lab entry, something that your lab instructor will read and grade you on.
Purpose: Explain the goal and purpose of the experiment in a clear and concise manner.
Findings: Presents a reasonable interpretation of, and logical explanation for all findings pertaining to the problem and stated purpose.
Discussion: Discusses possible sources of error in detail, including their effect on the results and ways of avoiding them in the future.
Referencing experimental findings and explaining the known/expected results we were looking for. Mentioning and discussing reasons for trends, if any.
In particular my instructors last year were often interested in:
Safety: This is often what I always got marked down for. I would explain that hydrochloric acid is a caustic substance and should be treated with care to not get on your tissue by wearing clothing that does not expose skin and closed toe shoes, and to always carry out the experiment with safety goggles securely fastened. It never seems to be enough for them, even if I mention eye flush and chemical shower in case of emergencies. Should I mention to not snort or freebase it? /end sarcasm
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
When working with chemicals in the lab, avoid getting hurt by | [
"trying to set fire to all of the chemicals",
"mixing things together without knowing what they are",
"drinking a sample of each of the chemicals",
"keeping your eyes covered"
] | D | chemical splashing can cause harm to the eyes |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4844 | java, multithreading, thread-safety
// Retrieves the requested resource with a _write_ lock.
private void retrieveResourceSafely(Path file) {
final ReadWriteLock fileLock = getLockFor(file);
try {
fileLock.writeLock().lock();
if (!Files.exists(file)) {
retrieveResource(file);
}
} finally {
fileLock.writeLock().unlock();
}
}
The drawback of this approach that I already see is that downloadLocks map will be progressively filled with references to all the resources that were accessed. Emptying this map from time to time would be a solution, but I don't have an idea of the logic of resources handling in your cache.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Which uses a nonrenewable resource? | [
"wind chimes",
"solar-powered car",
"a B52 Bomber",
"a bicycle"
] | C | oil is a nonrenewable resource |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4845 | botany, plant-anatomy
Title: Is it possible to grow any kind of plant soilless (hydroponics)? Hydroponics is a subset of hydroculture and is a method of growing plants using mineral nutrient solutions, in water, without soil. [wikipedia]
My question is if is it possible to grow any kind of plant soilless (hydroponics)? Yes, There are a few i know of, a quick "air plant" google search will get you quiet a lot.
wiki 1
wiki 2
Edit: I just glanced through the hydroponics article, and now I wonder if my answer actual answers your question.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Soil is an example of what type of resource for growing plants? | [
"Recycled Resource",
"Natural Resource",
"Renewable Resource",
"Abundant Resource"
] | C | oil is a nonrenewable resource |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4846 | homework-and-exercises, pressure
Title: Necessary air pressure in flexible vessel to lift a certain mass I have the following situation in mind:
A big airtight bag of arbitrary shape with a person standing on it. The bag gets inflated with air to lift the person.
Assuming that the bag is much larger than the persons footprint, how do I find the minimal overpressure in the bag that I need to lift the person of the ground?
I was thinking of just dividing the normal force of the standing person by the footprint area, but I am not sure on that approach
$$F_n = 80×9.81 = 784\text{ N}$$ $$P_n = \frac{784}{0.2×0.3} = 13066\text{ Pa}$$
I have the feeling that the bag dimensions play a role as well, as intuitively I would say that to do this, a small bag would work better than a big bag, but again I'm not sure... It is just as simple as you suggest. At the moment my feet are exerting a pressure on the ground of my weight divided by whatever the area of my shoes is and the pressure exerted by the ground on me is what keeps me stationary. Exactly the same applies to your air bag. once the air pressure is the same as the pressure you exert on the bag it will support you.
But there are a couple of extra things to consider. When you stand on the bag you will compress the air in it and you'll sink until the air is compressed enough to match the pressure of your shoes. So the initial pressure can be lower than your shoe pressure and the bag can still keep you off the ground.
You mention the bag size, it's probably easier to compress the gas a lot in a small bag than in a large bag, so a small bag would probably work better. There's nothing especially fundamental about this; it's just that a large bag allows more room for the air to move into as your feet compress it.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Which is least likely to need to take in air? | [
"a cat",
"a canary",
"a bear",
"a zooplankton"
] | D | the respiratory system takes in oxygen from the air |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4847 | human-biology, biophysics, skin, light, uv
Title: Can UV radiation be safe for the skin? It is well known that UV radiation can damage the DNA and generally harm our skin.
We also know that UV radiation helps on the production of melanin and Vitamin D.
From what I could find, the DNA absorption spectrum goes to almost zero for wavelengths higher than 300 nm. This seems to suggest that we would be safe to use UV radiation between 300 and 340 nm in our skin (as long as the power or exposure is not too high/long to make burns), for therapeutic purposes such as the stimulation of Vitamin D production.
Is this assumption correct? Are there any evidences that we could use this UV wavelength range safely? You're talking about long-wave UV, or UV-A radiation. In the 80s, experts claimed that this was a safe wavelength. Protection against UV-A was not part of sunscreen in the early days. Consequently, UV-A was (and still is) used in tanning beds due to its perceived safety over UV-B. However, a lot of research has been done since.
UV-A is well understood now to also be unsafe in unreasonable amounts. Currently, UV-A protection is a typical feature of sunscreen and tanning beds are still not a healthy alternative to moderate, healthy doses of sun. Here is a recent review covering some of the aspects comparing different UV range effects on skin. I really suggest you put a search engine to good use here; it makes little sense for us to expound on the literature when it is so clear and easily available.
In summary,
UVA certainly contributes to the development of skin cancer.
UVA penetrates deeper into the skin than UV-B (which is largely responsible for 'burning' of the topmost layer of skin, without directly affecting the deeper layers). For this reason, UV-B is associated primarily with burning and UV-A is primarily associated with aging and aging diseases like cancer.
It is important to note that 95% of UV light in every day life is UV-A, because it does not vary seasonally and can penetrate clouds and windows. Therefore, in spite of the fact that short wavelengths carry more energy per photon, the ratios of UV-A and UV-B exposure are far from equal.
These are only a few of the explanations as to why we observe an incidence of aging and skin damage and disease upon UV-A exposure.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
If I want to avoid too much ultraviolet rays I can | [
"wear a bikini",
"wear shorts",
"wear nothing",
"wear thick socks"
] | D | tinted lenses reflect ultraviolet rays |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4848 | newtonian-mechanics, conservation-laws
So generally the plate will move : it could translate and also rotate. Constraining forces (and torques) would be needed to keep it in place. If it is released it will move.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Which would likely need a hot plate? | [
"physics class",
"chemistry class",
"english class",
"math class"
] | B | a hot plate is a source of heat |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4849 | thermodynamics
Also, if anyone thinks the scoop is going to explode, please mention that too.
Thanks!
*I don't want to use ice because it will water down the coffee. I don't want to use coffee ice cubes because I'm lazy and also I don't have room in my freezer for an extra tray. I don't want to use metal ice cubes or Coffee Joulies™ or stuff that I have to fish out of my glass because, well just because. I don't want to buy a cold plate like for beer kegs. Let's just go with the premise. TLDR; Get a heavy mug and chill it.
The paraffin in the scoop is functioning as a heat capacitor more than a heat conductor. A solid aluminum scoop of the same dimensions would conduct heat almost as well for large temperature gradients, and better for small temperature gradients (the difference here is whether the temperature gradient can drive significant convective flow). When you first put the scoop in the coffee, the convection will be going like crazy, but my estimation below makes me suspect that the temperature gradient will have become very small before the coffee reaches the desired temperature. It sounds to me like you are looking for a method to reach your desired temperature very quickly, so I will ignore heat exchange with the surroundings, which occurs more slowly.
To simplify the math, lets say you are cooling the coffee from 100 degrees C and the scoop is initially chilled to 0 degrees C. Lets also assume that there is 200 g of coffee, 100 g of aluminum, and 50 g of paraffin (I have the scoop you linked and weighed it). The heat capacity of the paraffin is about 2.5 J/gK, that of the aluminum is about 0.9 J/gK while that of the coffee is about 4.1 J/gK. So without exchanging heat with the surroundings, the system will reach a temperature of about 79 degrees C. That's progress, but it's still pretty hot!
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
A person has a cup of coffee in a ceramic cup. The coffee inside of the cup has chilled, so to increase the temperature, the person | [
"puts the cup into the refrigerator",
"uses paper towels to wrap the cup in",
"sets the cup on an electric dish",
"makes the cup better by adding ice"
] | C | a hot plate is a source of heat |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4850 | quantum-spin, atoms
The bonds between the atoms are obviously split when the paper is torn, but is there a way to put them back together?
the answer is yes, because this is precisely why paper recycling works. The incoming used paper is washed, to remove ink and other contaminants, and then left to soak in a particular solution (the composition of which partly determines the color, consistency, strength, etc. of the resulting paper), where it eventually turns into a slurry. Paper is made of long fibers of cellulose arranged essentially randomly; when immersed in water, those fibers spread out throughout the solution. Then the slurry is rolled into sheets and left to dry; as the water leaves, the cellulose fibers end up weakly attracted to each other (the "weak" part is important; it's why you can easily tear a piece of paper in the first place), which leads to a similar kind of random arrangement of weakly-bonded cellulose fibers that we start with.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Paper suitable for recycling is often used to produce | [
"aluminum cans",
"plastic bottles",
"cellulose nanofibers",
"glass bottles"
] | C | paper is recyclable |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4851 | homework, plant-physiology, plant-anatomy
and 'Vascular Plants = Winning! - Crash Course Biology #37'
https://youtu.be/h9oDTMXM7M8?t=373
[5] Osmosis (water compensating solutes) "In Da Club - Membranes & Transport: Crash Course Biology #5"
https://youtu.be/dPKvHrD1eS4?list=PL3EED4C1D684D3ADF&t=148
Ian (and dad <= all errors and approximations are his :) ).
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
In a plant such as a cactus, water is held within | [
"the spikes on the stem",
"the lines of a stem",
"the inside of the leaves",
"the series of tubes in the body"
] | D | a plants require water for to grow |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4852 | thermodynamics, entropy
$$$$
We can move around on a $pV$ diagram all over the place, and go from one condition to another. In other words, we could say the gas is in a certain condition $a$,
and then it goes over to some other condition, $b$, and we will require that this
transition, made from $a$ to $b$, be reversible. Now suppose that all along the path
from $a$ to $b$ we have little reservoirs at different temperatures, so that the heat $dQ$ removed from the substance at each little step is delivered to each reservoir at the temperature corresponding to that point on the path. Then let us connect all these reservoirs, by reversible heat engines, to a single reservoir at the unit temperature. When we are finished carrying the substance from $a$ to $b$, we shall bring all the reservoirs back to their original condition. Any heat $dQ$ that has been absorbed from the substance at temperature $T$ has now been converted by
a reversible machine, and a certain amount of entropy $dS$ has been delivered at
the unit temperature as follows: $$dS=d Q /T.$$
Let us compute the total amount of entropy which has been delivered. The
entropy difference, or the entropy needed to go from $a$ to $b$ by this particular
reversible transformation, is the total entropy, the total of the entropy taken out
of the little reservoirs, and delivered at the unit temperature:
$$S_a-S_b=\int_{a}^{b} \frac{dQ}{T}.$$
Feynman said in this chapter that if a system absorbs (rejects) an amount of heat $d Q$ at a temperature $T$, then we say the entropy of the system increased (decreased) by an amount $dS=d Q /T$.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
If a warmth is relocated from one thing to another, and one of the things is the producer of the heat, the source is the most likely to be | [
"a stone",
"a vent",
"the moon",
"the sun"
] | D | the sun transfers solar energy from itself to the Earth through sunlight |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4853 | galaxy
Luminosity could be more likely a factor than gravity, as a sun with 100 solar masses would be about a million times as luminous as our sun, and 1 million solar luminosity, to equal the solar output from our sun it would only need to pass within 1,000 AU or 1/60th of a light-year, and a sun that bright would put out lots of UV light. But even so, fly-bys that close would be very rare, but we would still be more likely to be cooked by a large star than orbitally perturbed by one. Smaller stars would need to fly much closer to have an effect, but smaller stars are also much more common.
Outer planets would be more vulnerable and oort cloud objects even more so, to near fly-bys and orbital perturbations, but again, that kind of near fly-by wouldn't happen often.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Which likely could replace the sun in our solar system? | [
"another star",
"the moon",
"Jupiter",
"Venus"
] | A | the sun transfers solar energy from itself to the Earth through sunlight |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4854 | newtonian-mechanics, conservation-laws
So generally the plate will move : it could translate and also rotate. Constraining forces (and torques) would be needed to keep it in place. If it is released it will move.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Plate shifting likely directly created | [
"oxygen",
"the Alps",
"human life",
"ocean spray"
] | B | the Alps were formed by rock folding |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4855 | geology, mountains, geomorphology
Title: Why are the mountains predominately grey or dark brown? Observing many photos of mountains one can assume that most of the mountains are grey or brown. See also the mountain article at Wikipedia.
There are however several ways a mountain can form, which allow for exposure of various rocks, still mountains are mostly grey/brown.
Why is it so?
Why isn't there a single mountain out of Olivine, Pyrite, Tourmaline or, say, Autunite, or any other brightly coloured rock?
...which allow for exposure of various rocks, still mountains are mostly grey/brown.
The colourful minerals are apparent when you look up close. When you look from far away, the minerals are all mixed in your vision. My 2-year old daughter prepared a wonderful example of how this works:
Take a bunch of beautiful bright water colours, mix them together, and you end up having a greyish brown, dull colour.
Take another example. Sand, or sandstone. Boring yellow, white, or brown. But it's basically quartz. Finely divided quartz, unlike any of the beautiful quartz crystals you see for sale. Grain size is an important factor of the perception of colour.
That said, one of the skills geology undergraduates learn in their first year of university, is distinguishing colours in a geological context. What to the untrained eye may seem brown or grey, appears like a world of colour. I still remember that when I just started my geology B.Sc about 10 years ago, we were given a bunch of rocks that all looked grey. After one year, they did not look grey any more. They were red-grey, brown-grey, blue-grey, green-grey, etc.
Mountains can be coloured. Here are some pictures that I took myself a while ago:
On a closer look I'm certain you will see that there are many colours in there: green, yellow, orange, pink, red, brown, white, black. No need for geological education to see that.
Why isn't there a single mountain out of Olivine, Pyrite, Tourmaline
or, say, Autunite, or any other brightly coloured rock?
Most rocks are not composed of a single mineral. However, there are rocks composed only of olivine. They're call "dunites". Here's one:
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
the alps were formed by rock what? | [
"growing",
"melting",
"erupting",
"creasing"
] | D | the Alps were formed by rock folding |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4856 | desert
Title: When was the first not-icy desert formed? For how long have deserts existed and which one would be the first to be created? I'm talking about arid, dry deserts, not the Antarctic or Arctic or any other icy deserts. Deserts have existed since at least the Permian period (299-251 million years ago) when the world's continents had combined into the Pangaea supercontinent. Stretching from pole to pole, this land mass was large enough that portions of its interior received little or no precipitation, according the University of California Museum of Paleontology.
Pangaea broke into smaller land masses which were moved across the surface by tectonic forces, a process that both changed global climate patterns and the climate those continents were exposed to. As a result, current desert regimes date back to no more than 65.5 million years, according to this Encyclopedia Britannica article:
The desert environments of the present are, in geologic terms,
relatively recent in origin. They represent the most extreme result of
the progressive cooling and consequent aridification of global
climates during the Cenozoic Era (65.5 million years ago to the
present), which also led to the development of savannas and scrublands
in the less arid regions near the tropical and temperate margins of
the developing deserts. It has been suggested that many typical modern
desert plant families, particularly those with an Asian centre of
diversity such as the chenopod and tamarisk families, first appeared
in the Miocene (23 to 5.3 million years ago), evolving in the salty,
drying environment of the disappearing Tethys Sea along what is now
the Mediterranean–Central Asian axis.
Which would put the oldest of "modern" desert somewhere in the region of what later became North Africa or South Asia.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
An arid sandy place has very little | [
"sustenance",
"sand",
"sun",
"heat"
] | A | a desert environment contains very little food |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4857 | food, nutrition, energy-metabolism
Title: What are the bare minimum nutrients required to survive as a human? I am trying to determine the bare minimum nutritional requirements to survive as a human, ignoring energy (caloric) requirements. Another way to ask this question is: What elements can humans not live without? I am not inquiring solely about what nutrients are needed, but also their approximate amounts.
Imagine pills that a person can take that covers all their base nutritional needs and that after taking this pill the person can eat whatever they want to meet their caloric requirements. Hypothetically, this pill could have some amount (how much?) fat, carbohydrates, protein, fiber, minerals, and vitamins, and the person could subsequently eat any other food to meet their caloric requirements knowing their nutritional needs would already be otherwise met. Lets ignore the possibility of the person suffering from health issues due to eating too much of any specific food to meet their caloric requirements (e.g., taking the magic pills and then eating only butter).
A person in this situation could think "Ok I've got most of my bases covered, now I just need to ingest another 1000 calories of (almost) anything I want).
What nutrients are absolutely necessary for humans to survive indefinitely, and how much of these nutrients are required?
I am hoping for a complete list with approximate amounts (e.g., 20g fat, 20g carbohydrates, 1mg Vitamin X, .05mg Vitamin Y, 10mg mineral X). Essential nutrients include (NutrientsReview):
Water
9 amino acids: histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine,
phenylalanine, tryptophan, threonine, valine
2 fatty acids (alpha linolenic and linoleic acid)
Vitamins: A, B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, folic acid, biotin, B12, C,
D, E and K (and choline, which is considered a vitamin-like substance)
Minerals: calcium, chromium, chloride, copper, iodine, iron,
manganese, molybdenum, phosphorus, potassium, selenium, sodium, zinc
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Which likely needs the least food? | [
"a cat",
"a snake",
"a shark",
"a dog"
] | B | a desert environment contains very little food |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4858 | newtonian-mechanics, forces, buoyancy, fluid-statics, weight
Keep in mind that a body loses weight in a liquid which is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by it/equal to the buoyant force.
As for the bonus question, look into the answer to this question -
https://physics.stackexchange.com/a/296537/134658
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
if a body of water loses all water then that body of water is what? | [
"thriving",
"defunct",
"flowing",
"growing"
] | B | if a body of water loses all water then that body of water does not exist any more |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4859 | inorganic-chemistry, redox, aqueous-solution, transition-metals
Even if $\ce{CrO3}$ would form, as you suggested, it reacts rather well with water via
$$\ce{CrO3 + H2O \rightarrow H2CrO4, \\ 2CrO3 + H2O \rightarrow H2Cr2O7,}$$
and hydroxides:
$$\ce{CrO3 + 2NaOH \rightarrow Na2CrO4 + H2O}.$$
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
If water gets _____, it may cause a chemical reaction | [
"hotter",
"empty",
"air",
"afraid"
] | A | adding heat to an object sometimes causes chemical reactions |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4860 | reaction-mechanism
It is generally said that reactants react so that they can achieve a
lower energy state. Then why does a reversible reaction occur in the
first place?
Good question. Remember that we can always add energy to make an unfavorable reaction proceed. For example, the sodium ion, which is isoelectronic with neon, is stable with a full octet of electrons. However, we can still take away more electrons. It just takes a rather sizable application of energy.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
If a thing reacts in a situation, the most likely reason for the chemical reaction is | [
"steam is removed gently",
"upper temps are applied slowly",
"deer are fed tenderly",
"bees are introduced carefully"
] | B | adding heat to an object sometimes causes chemical reactions |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4861 | aircraft, relative-motion, equilibrium
Further edit: I almost forgot that when I first started using the Microsoft Flight Simulator, the plane wouldn't go where I pointed it, which made it very hard to land. It would always drift off center.
Later I learned a fundamental difference between cars and planes.
Cars go where they are pointed.
Planes go where they are carried.
There's always some sort of wind, so the way you get where you're going is by looking at the ground to see where you're being carried.
If you are going to the right of where you want to go, you adjust your heading to the left, and vice versa.
You never do it by pointing the plane at your destination, except in a general sense.
I only mention this because not having that understanding could have led to the OP's question.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
A plane travels through what? | [
"gas layers",
"plains",
"oceans",
"time"
] | A | a plane travels through the atmosphere |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4862 | control, ros, drone, tum-simulator, ardrone
# fly to right
rostopic pub -r 10 /cmd_vel geometry_msgs/Twist '{linear: {x: 0.0, y: -1.0, z: 0.0}, angular: {x: 0.0,y: 0.0,z: 0.0}}'
# fly up
rostopic pub -r 10 /cmd_vel geometry_msgs/Twist '{linear: {x: 0.0, y: 0.0, z: 1.0}, angular: {x: 0.0,y: 0.0,z: 0.0}}'
# fly down
rostopic pub -r 10 /cmd_vel geometry_msgs/Twist '{linear: {x: 0.0, y: 0.0, z: -1.0}, angular: {x: 0.0,y: 0.0,z: 0.0}}'
# counterclockwise rotation
rostopic pub -r 10 /cmd_vel geometry_msgs/Twist '{linear: {x: 0.0, y: 0.0, z: 0.0}, angular: {x: 0.0,y: 0.0,z: 1.0}}'
# clockwise rotation
rostopic pub -r 10 /cmd_vel geometry_msgs/Twist '{linear: {x: 0.0, y: 0.0, z: 0.0}, angular: {x: 0.0,y: 0.0,z: -1.0}}'
# stop
rostopic pub -r 10 /cmd_vel geometry_msgs/Twist '{linear: {x: 0.0, y: 0.0, z: 0.0}, angular: {x: 0.0,y: 0.0,z: 0.0}}'
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
A fixed wing aircraft can fly | [
"high in space",
"in the troposphere",
"inside an amoeba",
"deep underwater"
] | B | a plane travels through the atmosphere |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4863 | meteorology, tropical-cyclone, extreme-weather
Title: Why would Google's map of areas affected by Hurricane Harvey have advisories for the west coast and other far away areas?
What behavior of this hurricane would lead to advisories for the west coast and even parts of Canada and Alaska, when the hurricane is in the South?
I have little experience in meteorology or any of the earth sciences really, so I am interested in how this would affect the weather or other conditions far away from where the hurricane is severe. It seems like there is more than just a hurricane going on. According to the National Weather Service there are excessive heat advisories, gale warnings, etc.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
When the weatherman says to expect a storm, he most-likely is telling you to watch for | [
"downpour conditions",
"nothing",
"flying cats",
"Water parks"
] | A | An example of stormy weather is rain |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4864 | everyday-chemistry
Title: How does a fire start? I know that fire in a few words is the exothermic reaction of a fuel with an oxidizing agent, but I can't fully understand what exactly happens to piece of wood when it is ignited. How do molecules start producing a flame? In other words, what is the chemistry behind the production of flame? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B0E4PX3e3RE It feels somewhat weird to answer my own question but I think this video describes exactly what I wanted. As it supports, when heat is applied to a piece of wood, some bonds of the molecules that make up wood, break and thus different compounds are formed. These compounds are not held back by some force and so they are released in the air. When these compounds meet atmospheric oxygen, under heat (=energy), they burn and thus more heat is released along with carbon dioxide and water. That stage can be described as ignition. Finally, this produced heat is able to preserve the fire.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Wildfire is when what catches fire? | [
"timberland",
"farms",
"cities",
"winds"
] | A | wildfire is when a forest catches fire |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4865 | zoology
Capybara, rabbits, hamsters and other related species do not have a complex ruminant digestive system. Instead they extract more nutrition from grass by giving their food a second pass through the gut. Soft fecal pellets of partially digested food are excreted and generally consumed immediately. Consuming these cecotropes is important for adequate nutritional intake of Vitamin B12. They also produce normal droppings, which are not eaten.
Young elephants, pandas, koalas, and hippos eat the feces of their mother to obtain the bacteria required to properly digest vegetation found on the savanna and in the jungle. When they are born, their intestines do not contain these bacteria (they are completely sterile). Without them, they would be unable to obtain any nutritional value from plants.
Eating garbage and human feces is thought to be one function of dogs during their early domestication, some 12,000 to 15,000 years ago. They served as our first waste management workers, helping to keep the areas around human settlements clean. A study of village dogs in Zimbabwe revealed that feces made up about 25% of the dogs’ overall diet, with human feces making up a large part of that percentage.
Coprophagia
Daily rhythms of food intake and feces reingestion in the degu, an herbivorous Chilean rodent: optimizing digestion through coprophagy
Coprophagia as seen in Thoroughbred Foals
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Mammals can breathe thanks to | [
"organisms with roots",
"volcanoes",
"rainbows",
"oxygen tanks"
] | A | plants are a source of oxygen through photosynthesis |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4866 | atmosphere, atmosphere-modelling, air-pollution, air-quality
Title: Why are "ground level" air quality monitors really on rooftops? There are many papers that talk about the air quality at ground-level in cities, observed by air quality monitors. Some monitors are located above the building(not actually on the ground). For example, my lab's equipment was located on the 5th floor of the building (~ 15m).
My questions are:
Is it appropriate to represent air quality using measurement data on a building roof?
What's the difference between air quality on the ground & the roof? And what matters? In order to put your question in perspective, you need to consider atmospheric mixing and the size of the system you are curious about. The troposphere is several kilometers thick and the mixed layer of atmosphere above the ground can occupy a significant fraction of the troposphere. Granted, during cold events, the temperature of the air can be so cold that the lack of convective motion creates a very shallow (e.g. 10s of meters) mixing layer. Though, 15 meters above the ground will virtually always be within the mixed layer near the ground, despite cold weather events.
Some people do measure air quality at the ground level, but it is generally done in the context of studying biogenic emissions (e.g. soil emissions or below-canopy tree emissions). However, those are special field studies, which have different objectives than typical air quality monitor sites.
Typical air quality monitor sites are relatively sparse, and even large cities have just a few monitors. Generally, monitors are located in such a way that they are observing well mixed air, so that it represents air quality in the region. It is imperative that you put your air quality monitor high enough above the ground so that it isn't being directly influenced by emission sources (e.g. your neighbors wood stove, or a car's tailpipe). Otherwise, if you put the monitor literally on the ground, you will often be observing much more variance, with higher peaks that represent that specific location only. See this post for more info on how monitor locations are selected. You can also see this EPA handbook on siting monitors which notes:
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
If a space that is lacking walls or a roof is continuously dampened from above, data may be collected to inform those living there about the results. The information would be | [
"measuring distance",
"creating rain",
"measuring dampness",
"enjoying nature"
] | C | rainfall is the amount of rain an area receives |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4867 | climate-change, geography, rivers, rainfall, agriculture
Today Climate change and its consequences are some of the biggest challenges facing Humanity, with water scarcity being the big factor in Sub-Sahara Africa.
By Ultimately raising the Rainfall in the entire Southern Africa, through the managed and controlled filling and utilization of the Natural 30 000 - 60 000 square km of evaporation pans more regularly, will this not lower the extreme temperatures (day and night temperatures due to water absorbing much of the daytime heat and releasing it during the night) and drought patterns Southern Africa has experienced, and by all predictions are bound to worsen and could become more extreme?
In effect, creating a second Okavango Delta, but considerably bigger - large parts of Chobe.
A study of such a magnitude will need large amounts of research in multidisciplinary sciences, from Archaeology to Agriculture to Economics, and a much broader field of expertise - the biggest being Politics!
Could such a mammoth project not be but one small answer to a much bigger Climate Change challenge facing the Earth? (and ultimately send a bit of rain to my little piece of land in the Waterberg in the long dry winter months when we receive those dry West Winds - and fires become a serious hazard - simply by adding a bit of moisture from the vast pans Botswana are so blessed with!)
My mind has been going in circles as to the feasibility of such a mammoth, yet so cheap and easily implementable idea?
Any ideas? We agree that additional evaporation enhances energy transport from the surface to the atmosphere and intensifies the hydrological cycle and cloud formation, and that some of the most serious climate change issues such as:
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
What will be more available in an area when rainfall increases? | [
"air",
"fire",
"H2O",
"dirt"
] | C | rainfall is the amount of rain an area receives |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4868 | Suppose A and B are statements of interest. Suppose we want to say in a short sentence that “whenever A is true, B is true, and that when A is false, we do not claim anything about the truth of B”. We use the word “implies” and state for short that “A is true implies B is true”, and mean the truth relations in the truth table you wrote. For this truth table, it wouldn't be meaningful for a good definition of "implies" to have A is false, B is true, "implies" is true. This would mean we are stating that B is always true, which is a valid claim to make, but not very helpful for a suitable definition of "implies".
Keep in mind we could state a different claim, namely, that “whenever A is true, B is true, and whenever A is false, B is false”. Here we are interested in claiming something about the truth of B when A is false. In this case we use the relation “iff” for short. We use this relation make the brief statement: “A is true if and only if B is true” and mean a different set of truth relations. In particular, A is false, B is false, the relation “iff” is true. Further, A is false, B is true, "iff" is false.
Now when you substitute “real” phrases for A and for B, you have to understand clearly what you are stating. Let’s say A is “Sticking a fork in an electrical outlet” and B is “you will get hurt”. Stating “A implies B” is the same as claiming that “if you stick a fork in an electrical outlet, you will get hurt”. This claim may not in reality be true, but that point is irrelevant to the statement from a logical point of view. The key point is that you are claiming nothing about getting hurt if you don’t stick a fork in the outlet. So in short, at this point it’s a matter of defining suitable definitions for useful relations, not about physical reality. Later of course we can do experiments, observe Nature, etc. to test if our claims hold up.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Which relationship is true? | [
"wind is renewable; metal is nonrenewable",
"wind is recyclable, metal is other",
"wind is happy, metal is other",
"wind is nonrenewable; metal is renewable"
] | A | metal is a nonrenewable resource |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4869 | atoms
Title: Conversion atom to another One child has claimed to have find a solution to all physical problems. On asking for details, he said that all periodic elements has common components, i.e. electrons, protons, neutrons.
The child has suggested a solution: convert atom to another by adding electron. This way one can get substance like $\ce{H2O, Au, He}$ in abundance.
How can it be done? While what you suggest may sound nice on paper, it has some serious problems.
Getting the elements. Let's say that we're talking about purifying water to remove toxic elements such as Hg or Cd. Extracting the elements out of the water is a feat by itself, for example using reverse osmosis methods. This is a method used for seawater desalination - to turn them from salt water filled with all kinds of elements into drinkable water. This process is very expensive, and a very polluting one as well. Desalination just the amount of water you need for drinking water is complicated, so desalinating an entire reservoir is simply not going to happen.
Let's say you did somehow manage to extract the element in question. Now you need nuclear reactions to transmute one element to another. Not all are possible. For some elements, like Tc or Am this is the only way you can produce them. However, you are going to end up with radioactive nuclear waste.
To sum it up, even if it was possible, you would need so much power and to do it and you will produce some much pollution that it's simply not worth it. Just going and mining the gold will be orders of magnitude cheaper (and probably cleaner) than producing it using nuclear reactions.
If you do manage to somehow extract the the polluting elements, you usually do something else with them (aka recycling) and you do not attempt being an alchemist. Another example is soils contaminated with lead. The solution is to just dig it up, put it somewhere where it is not hazardous to anyone and replace it with clean soil.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
it's important to recycle metals because they are | [
"dangerous to produce",
"nonrenewable",
"hard to mine",
"expensive"
] | B | metal is a nonrenewable resource |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4870 | evolution, zoology, taxonomy, phylogenetics
The apomorphy that defines the tetrapods is "paired limbs". You have Amphibia to the left and Amniota to the right, whose apomorphy is " egg with extraembrionic membranes". Inside them, you have Reptilia, whose apomorphies are "skull with upper and lower fenestra and beta-keratin in epidermis". Turtles came from an ancestor with these characteristics. So, turtles belong to the monophyletic group of "Reptiles".
Post scriptum: You wrote that "turtles (specifically sea turtles) live on both land and water, very much like amphibians". Just a curiosity: the reason why sea turtles leave the water (sea) from time to time shows exactly that they are not amphibians! Amphibians, being non-amniotes, have eggs that survive under water (actually, with few exceptions, they need to be under water). Turtles, on the other hand, are amniotes, and the amniotic egg cannot be laid under water. That's why the turtles have to leave the water to lay eggs: because, contrary to the amphibians, they cannot lay eggs under water.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
reptiles lay what? | [
"live young",
"rocks",
"dirt",
"oval whites"
] | D | reptiles lay eggs |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4871 | meteorology, mesoscale-meteorology
In a sense, the fact pressure at one elevation induces changes\motion in another elevation maybe shouldn't seem any less weird than the fact that a low-level low pressure system can affect the wind and weather hundreds of miles away from it horizontally. This isn't spooky action at a distance, this is a continuous fluid where changes to one part of it causes impacts on another part.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
What type of aspect can be made from the moving winds? | [
"snow",
"wood",
"bananas",
"electricity"
] | D | wind is a source of energy |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4872 | atmosphere, ocean, hydrology, climate-change
Comment: I strongly endorse the use of wind and hydropower as sources of energy over the further use of fossil fuels. However, I still think it is important to do research into the actual renewability of presumed-renewable energy sources, as we don't want to end up with another fossil fuel-type situation, in which we become aware of dependency on these energy sources and their malignant environmental side-effects long after widespread enthusiastic adoption. Electricity from waves, from hydro (both run-of-river and storage) and from wind, are all indirect forms of solar power. Electricity from tides is different, and we can deal with that in a separate question. Global tidal electricity generation is not yet at the scale of gigawatts, so it's tiny for now.
Winds come about from the sun heating different parts of the planet at different rates, due to insolation angles, varying cloud cover, varying surface reflectivity, and varying specific heat of surface materials. Temperature differentials create wind currents.
Waves come about from wind, so they're a twice-indirect form of solar power.
Sunlight on water speeds up evaporation, lifting the water vapour into clouds, giving them lots of gravitational potential. That rain then falls, sometimes onto high land, from where it can be gathered into storage reservoirs that are tapped for electricity, or where it flows into rivers that are then harnessed in run-of-river hydro.
How much power is there? Well, the insolation from the sun is, at the outer boundary of the Earth's atmosphere, at an intensity of about 1400 Watts per square metre. The Earth's albedo is roughly about 30% - i.e. on average about 400 Watts are reflected back into space, giving an average irradiation into the Earth of about 1000 Watts per square metre. Picture the Earth's surface as seen from the Sun: wherever the Earth is in its orbit on its own axis, and around the Sun, the Sun sees a disc that has the Earth's diameter, so the surface area exposed to the Sun is just $\pi$ times the square of Earth's radius, which is about 6 300 kilometres.
So the incoming solar radiation is $1000 \times 6,300,000^2 \times \pi \approx 125 \times 10^{15} \rm \ W$
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
All of the following but which would be considered renewable energy sources? | [
"Solar",
"Wind",
"Natural Gas",
"Hydropower"
] | C | wind is a source of energy |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4873 | human-biology, senses
Olfaction (smell, as carried out by neurons in the nasal epithelium; e.g. smell of vanilla, and smell of bad food)
Gustation (taste, as carried out by neurons on the tongue; e.g. salt, sugar)
Antigen chemosensing (chemical sensing, as carried out by, for instance, immune antigen receptors on B cells)
Hormonal signaling chemosensing (chemical sensing of hormones such as insulin, as carried out for instance by myocytes)
Starch sensing? (amylase in saliva can be used as a test for digestable starch)
Visual system, at the retina?
Visible light (sensing electromagnetic radiation on the order of a few hundred nanometers in wavelength)
Internal methanol sensing (the visual system as a sensor for methanol, which disproportionately affects myelin surrounding the optic nerve)
Pressure sensing (see phosphenes)
The vestibular system
Gravity sensing
Balance
Coordination
Motion sensor
Head position sensor
Spatial orientation
Skin
thermosensation (touching a hot kettle!)
Nociception (pain sensing)
allergen sensing
sensor for gamma rays, X-rays and UV light (indicated by radiation burns, development of skin cancer, sunburns, etc.)
Bones and muscles?
Kinesthetic and bodily proprioception
Brain/mind/mental/social senses?
mental pain
boredom
mental or spiritual distress
sense of self and other, including friendship, power, place in social hierarchy, reputation, companionship
motivation and love (oxytocin, dopamine, etc. in limbic systems and other neural correlates)
I'm sure some would agree, and some would disagree about the specific cases I provide. Thus the definition of senses, or sensing, seems to be opinion-based or at the very least very sensitive to an agreed-upon operational definition, for which there is none.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Feeling is when a living thing senses through what? | [
"sight",
"smell",
"contact",
"taste"
] | C | feeling is when an living thing senses through touch |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4874 | zoology, ethology, behaviour, psychology, death
I can't prove it to you, but I know that my Beagle had a rich emotional life. I know this because I spent huge amounts of time with him. He was a close friend of mine. I would just as soon question whether my wife has real emotions as my dog. I can't prove that my wife's emotions are real either, but I don't have to. It would be silly to assume that everything she shares with me is some sort of evolutionary programming, and not real emotion. Now, when I extend this to cetaceans, I must admit that I don't have any friends in those circles. So I can only guess.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
When a creature experiences feeling, they are likely | [
"making really good choices",
"taking the next train",
"sensing a thing's texture",
"dead from complete exhaustion"
] | C | feeling is when an living thing senses through touch |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4875 | meteorology, climate-change, gas, pollution
If you are interested in Greenhouse Gases (e.g. methane, carbon dioxide, CFCs, nitrous oxide), the EPA has a separate site for those emissions since they are not part of the same regulatory framework http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/ghgemissions/ . Greenhouse gases typically do not cause adverse health effects for plants or animals on land. However, they have long-term radiative effects (e.g. the greenhouse effect) because they stay in the atmosphere for many years and trap infrared light. These long-term radiative effects are what can change climate and consequently land cover. Furthermore, most of the excess carbon is absorbed by the ocean, which creates carbonic acid. Increased acidity of the ocean causes severe problems for marine ecosystems.
The EPA states that in 2012 the CO2 equivalent GHG emissions for the USA by sector was:
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Which have a positive impact on the environment? | [
"driving gas guzzlers",
"canvas grocery sacks",
"littering",
"unchecked consumerism"
] | B | recycling has a positive impact on the environment |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4876 | thermodynamics, energy, temperature, estimation
Title: What would happen if a 10-kg cube of iron, at a temperature close to 0 kelvin, suddenly appeared in your living room? What would be the effect of placing an object that cold in an environment that warm? Would the room just get a little colder? Would it kill everyone in the room like some kind of cold bomb? What would happen?
Don't think about how the cube got there, or the air which it would displace. Nothing overly dramatic, though it would be cool to look at. The cube would very quickly become covered by a layer of nitrogen/oxygen ice as the air which came into contact with it froze. Further away, you'd see condensation of water vapor into wispy clouds, which would swirl around the block due to the air currents generated by the sudden pressure drop.
Other than that, as long as you aren't in immediate thermal contact with the block, you wouldn't notice much other than that the room cools down. Here's a video I took of a vacuum can that was just removed from a dewar of liquid helium at 4 kelvin. It's maybe 5 kg of copper, not 10 kg of lead, but I'd say that's close enough to get the idea.
You can see one of my coworkers climbing down into a pit below it; he had to be careful not to bump his head on it, which would have really ruined his day, but there was no fatal cold bomb :)
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
something in a cold place becomes what? | [
"warmish",
"toasty",
"hot",
"chilly"
] | D | something in a cold place becomes cold |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4877 | rocks, remote-sensing, archaeology, ground-truth
Together, #1, #2, and #3 tell us that it's probably early summer just after the river ice has broken up.
The tooth-like features in the left image are simply erosional remnants sticking out of the riverbank. They could be bedrock (not likely), ice wedges, unmelted permafrost, or simply dirt. They are on the outside of a meander, so the river is actively cutting into them, and so the river-facing faces are quite sheer and high compared to the slopes in between. The right side might be white because the conditions there had left the snow unmelted when the image was taken. And of course their shadows are longer because the river channel is at the bottom of the bluff.
If you use Google Maps or Earth to go downriver a bit (up and to the left), you will see similar features sticking out of the riverbank, but because they're at a different angle from the features in your image, the fact that they're natural is more readily apparent.
Although the terrain is much less regular on the right side of the image, again the long shadows tell the tale. There are some round lumps that may be pingoes. The shadow that looks like a man is just a coincidental jumble of shadows from the broken terrain. If you look closely at the lump that is supposed to be the "man" (which would technically be an inunnguaq) does not have any protrusions that correspond to the "arms". The "arms" are the shadow of a little cliff or shelf past the lump, which is overlapped by the lump's larger shadow.
It's similar in effect to the infamous misinterpretation of a Viking orbiter image of a natural feature on Mars as a "Face on Mars".
This is a good example of the complications of image interpretation, specifically, understanding the conditions under which the image was taken. It's also a good time to emphasize the importance of doing ground truth when interpreting images. So when you go there, let us know what you find.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
A glacier is made from | [
"the same stuff as pencils are made from",
"the same stuff as steam",
"the same stuff as the gas that lights up signs",
"the same stuff as the gas that fills up balloons"
] | B | a glacier is made of ice |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4878 | rocks, remote-sensing, archaeology, ground-truth
Together, #1, #2, and #3 tell us that it's probably early summer just after the river ice has broken up.
The tooth-like features in the left image are simply erosional remnants sticking out of the riverbank. They could be bedrock (not likely), ice wedges, unmelted permafrost, or simply dirt. They are on the outside of a meander, so the river is actively cutting into them, and so the river-facing faces are quite sheer and high compared to the slopes in between. The right side might be white because the conditions there had left the snow unmelted when the image was taken. And of course their shadows are longer because the river channel is at the bottom of the bluff.
If you use Google Maps or Earth to go downriver a bit (up and to the left), you will see similar features sticking out of the riverbank, but because they're at a different angle from the features in your image, the fact that they're natural is more readily apparent.
Although the terrain is much less regular on the right side of the image, again the long shadows tell the tale. There are some round lumps that may be pingoes. The shadow that looks like a man is just a coincidental jumble of shadows from the broken terrain. If you look closely at the lump that is supposed to be the "man" (which would technically be an inunnguaq) does not have any protrusions that correspond to the "arms". The "arms" are the shadow of a little cliff or shelf past the lump, which is overlapped by the lump's larger shadow.
It's similar in effect to the infamous misinterpretation of a Viking orbiter image of a natural feature on Mars as a "Face on Mars".
This is a good example of the complications of image interpretation, specifically, understanding the conditions under which the image was taken. It's also a good time to emphasize the importance of doing ground truth when interpreting images. So when you go there, let us know what you find.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
If a large inanimate thing is moving across arctic seas, it is likely | [
"freshwater fish",
"oily stones",
"hardened dampness",
"old sheep"
] | C | a glacier is made of ice |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4879 | fusion, neutrons, x-rays
We can look at some old papers [1-3], or use the Ramsauer model to estimate it. Whatever we decide to do, an important thing to note is that the cross section decreases with increasing energy (most pronounced for low energies, for high energies, it can be approximated as constant). As a rough estimation of any of the above mentioned methods, we get something like $\sigma \approx 3\,\mathrm{barn}$ (maybe 1, maybe 5, so let's say 1). $1\,\mathrm{barn}$ corresponds to $1\cdot10^{-28}\,\mathrm{m}^2$.
Using those values, we can approximate the mean free path to
$$\lambda \approx (10^{20}\mathrm{m}^{-3} \cdot 10^{-28}\,\mathrm{m}^2)^{-1}=10^8\,\mathrm{m}.$$
Which is indeed rather large. Similar to the sun, as mentioned in the comments by @CuriousOne (note, however, that the number density in the sun is much larger).
Keep in mind that those are rough estimations, but you get the idea.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Disregarding nuclear holocausts, how many suns will be in the sunset? | [
"2",
"1",
"20",
"42"
] | B | the sun setting occurs once per day |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4880 | newtonian-mechanics, waves, earthquake
The group of curves inside the envelope but outside (2)
As the quake starts to show up, the pendulum notes down every fractional increase of the it's magnitude. And so, the inclination of the ellipses totally curve out (perpendicularly) thereby forming new ellipses at right angles to the previous ones. Now you might ask me a question...
Why are the perpendicular ellipses confined to a small region and do not spread out?
As you can see in the image, each and every fringe in the larger ellipses are equidistant (somewhat) from each other. As the magnitude increases, the fringes begin to compress which could be noticed in the small ellipses. This shows that the quakes weren't too smooth. As the pendulum starts the ellipse, the quake forces it to wiggle in the exactly opposite direction. For this reason,
The group of intertwined curves at the center
This is very very simple than the others. The earthquake has increased to its utmost magnitude. Now, the ground has shaken in every direction which has confused the pendulum to oscillate everywhere. Luckily, it has also made a rose by its random twist & twirl...
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Earthquakes can shake | [
"fish",
"flying birds",
"clouds",
"smoke"
] | A | an earthquake causes the ground to shake |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4881 | newtonian-mechanics, estimation
Would the rock have created a seismic event of its own (if so, how large)?
Would the rock have created a crater? The energy of the rock at the time of hitting the earth is mgh.
No rock we know of is going to be able to survive this collision with out breaking into pieces.
Non the less it will be a big impact and depending on the geology of the location it hits a variety of reactions scenarios can happen.
If the soil is aggregate of silt and sand and gravel, it would part into several shear rupture sections which look like slices of shell pattern surfaces starting from the bottom surface of the rock and turning up exiting the earth surface a few hundred yards outside of the impact zone and probably even eject some material out like a bomb crater. This scenario will have shakes that could be recorded miles away.
The calculation of how much of the momentum of rock will be shared with the shear material and accelerating them will be involved but not impossible.
If the geology of the impact area is of very low bearing like mostly silt and loose clays, the rock my lose most of its kinetic energy by just sinking into the dirt mostly with a giant humph with a cloud of dust rising.
If the geology is hard or rocky with the 'optimal' amount of mass and resilience it could create a substantial earthquake by resonating with the impact.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
An earthquake causes the ground to do what? | [
"rain",
"erupt",
"calm",
"quiver"
] | D | an earthquake causes the ground to shake |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4882 | planet, orbit
Title: Do the orbits of planets change sometimes? Do planets sometimes wobble and get off their paths? What if an asteroid were to hit it? Yes, the orbits change massively over time. For example, Earth's eccentricity (how close to a circle the orbit is), its axial tilt (what causes seasons), and precession (which direction the Earth's spin axis points) change on these huge cycles, tens of thousands to hundreds of thousands of years long. They are caused by the pull of the other planets, mainly Jupiter and Saturn (since they are so huge), as well as the physics of inertial reference frames. These are known as the Milankovitch cycles. Here is a neat video explaining what each of the cycles are in detail. That video is about Earth, but the same concepts apply to all the other planets too, just on different amounts and timescales.
An asteroid hitting a planet would technically change its orbit, however how much is questionable. An asteroid a couple km across would barely nudge the Earth since the Earth is bigger by many orders of magnitude. It would also destroy everything on the planet, but thats another story. Way back in the solar system's formation, when Thea hit Earth (theoretically) it was much closer in size than the Earth, so no doubt that it caused a much more significant shift in orbit.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
What does the earth orbit that causes the seasons to change? | [
"venus",
"pluto",
"neptune",
"plasma star"
] | D | An example of a seasonal change is an animal growing thick fur for keeping warm in the winter |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4883 | zoology
Capybara, rabbits, hamsters and other related species do not have a complex ruminant digestive system. Instead they extract more nutrition from grass by giving their food a second pass through the gut. Soft fecal pellets of partially digested food are excreted and generally consumed immediately. Consuming these cecotropes is important for adequate nutritional intake of Vitamin B12. They also produce normal droppings, which are not eaten.
Young elephants, pandas, koalas, and hippos eat the feces of their mother to obtain the bacteria required to properly digest vegetation found on the savanna and in the jungle. When they are born, their intestines do not contain these bacteria (they are completely sterile). Without them, they would be unable to obtain any nutritional value from plants.
Eating garbage and human feces is thought to be one function of dogs during their early domestication, some 12,000 to 15,000 years ago. They served as our first waste management workers, helping to keep the areas around human settlements clean. A study of village dogs in Zimbabwe revealed that feces made up about 25% of the dogs’ overall diet, with human feces making up a large part of that percentage.
Coprophagia
Daily rhythms of food intake and feces reingestion in the degu, an herbivorous Chilean rodent: optimizing digestion through coprophagy
Coprophagia as seen in Thoroughbred Foals
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Shelter is one of the basic human needs along with food, water, and | [
"companionship",
"art",
"tools",
"music"
] | A | shelter can protect humans from weather |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4884 | data-analysis, kepler
It is quite likely that the material available to form planets is correlated with the stellar mass - in other words there is a correlation between stellar mass and protoplanetary disc mass. In which case it could be quite difficult for smaller stars to have the requisite protoplanetary disc density to form giant planets before the disc disperses.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
The more matter a planet is made up, the more likely other bodies are to | [
"Triangle it",
"kiss it",
"punch it",
"be dragged in"
] | D | the mass of a planet causes the pull of gravity on that planet |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4885 | optics, visible-light, reflection, refraction
As apparently we are able to see blue and weak, but clear violet stripe in the rainbow, my understanding is wrong. So why don't we get red, yellow, green and blue light in it as well? Why do we see spectrum as if we were using prism, not the "cumulative spectrum"? With the addition of some good diagrams I think I now understand your question.
This diagram does not show a key feature of the reflections.
The intensity of the reflected rays varies and so you do not observe a uniform cone of reflected light.
Here is a gif animation to show you what I mean.
[Individual images were taken from an Atmospheric Optics webpage and combined to produce a gif file.]
Parallel rays are coming in at the top of a water droplet and refracted, reflected and refracted again to emerge from the bottom half of the drop.
What you should note is that for a given range of impact parameters of the incident rays the highest concentration of emergent rays occurs occurs around an angle of $137.5^\circ$, ie that is where the emergent light is brightest and light from around that angle swamps the light from that emerging at other angles.
So you diagram should show a high intensity of red light around a particular direction and and much lower elsewhere.
Here is a ray diagram to illustrate the "bunching" of light rays along a particular direction.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Reflectors are used to reflect light on | [
"cardboard",
"paint",
"buses",
"birds"
] | C | a reflector is used to reflect light especially on vehicles |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4886 | water, metals
The tragedy was that by attempting to avoid the collision they scraped the iceberg (most of which was underwater - there's the physics bit) and it cut open five consecutive compartments (actually - the force of the collision popped the rivets). This led to a lack of buoyancy which caused the ship to tilt - and the flooding water ended up above the level of the watertight compartments (which didn't go all the way to the top) so other compartments could flood.
It is probably true that leaving the watertight doors between compartments open slowed the process of tilting. Once the ship reached a certain angle, stresses became too large (bending force from the front trying to sink and the back trying to float). It is believed that the boilers (remember this was a huge steam ship) broke loose and "fell" through the length of the ship, punching a hole as they picked up speed. The hull may also have snapped in half as the bending stresses were far greater than she was designed to withstand. At this point, the electricity generators failed, the hole in the hull became massively bigger, and the whole thing was over in seconds.
Source: My recollection from reading "A Night to Remember"
I just realized I am writing this on the 102nd anniversary of the sinking... That may be why you just saw the documentary.
UPDATE
The question "what if they had not tried to steer away" was still lingering in the back of my mind. Here is what I know:
During sea trials they did an "emergency stop": from full power ahead (21 knots) to full power astern, it took 195 seconds to come to a stop; in that time they covered 850 yards
It took the officer in command of the bridge 37 seconds to react to the "iceberg ahead" warning: he shut off propulsion and put the helm hard to port. Because of the size of the rudder, Titanic had (steam powered) power steering.
When he responded, the distance remaining was estimated at 900 feet, and the velocity was about 22 knots: close to the maximum velocity (which was 24 knots). Remember they were going for the Atlantic speed record...
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
The BP disaster caused what to go into what? | [
"fuel into Gulf",
"satellites into space",
"lightning into forests",
"lava into park"
] | A | offshore oil platforms might cause oil to leak into the water |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4887 | general-relativity, time, reference-frames
Note, though, that the effects are really tiny in this case:
The problem is that by relativistic standards we are still moving incredibly slow, only about 3E-5 times the speed of light (this number is usually referred to as beta). For small beta, the time dilation effect that causes clocks to move slower goes as beta squared over 2, or about 5E-10,which is a really, really small effect.
The author found a figure of roughly 0.007 seconds after 6 months in orbit.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
A thing which moves very little over quite a lot of time is a | [
"pack of wolves",
"racing horses",
"falling rocks",
"giant ice brick"
] | D | a glacier moves slowly |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4888 | everyday-chemistry, biochemistry, food-chemistry, terminology
Vitamin D is not strictly a vitamin, rather it is the precursor of one
of the hormones involved in the maintenance of calcium homeostasis and
the regulation of cell proliferation and differentiation, where it has
both endocrine and paracrine actions.
The name vitamin D1 was originally given to the crude product of irradiation of ergosterol,
which contained a mixture of ergocalciferol with inactive lumisterol (an isomer of ergosterol) and suprasterols. When ergocalciferol was identified
as the active compound, it was called vitamin D2. Later, when cholecalciferol was identified as the compound formed in the skin and found in foods, it was
called vitaminD3.
Remarks
The "Vitamin B" naming of these compounds must have been through discovery, and no clear experiments had accurately produced identity of these compounds, there were named as they were discovered but since they have been identified they they now have systematic names
abeit vitamin B still being used today and are formulated as "vitamin B complexes" in pharmaceutical products (perhaps to avoid confusion) hence systematic names are used (folic acid, pantonthenic acid, biotin, thiamin, niacin, cobalamin etc) I have never come across complexes of other Vitamins. Remember for a compound to be named a vitamin it must fit the description above, but I am not disputing the fact that other compounds with similar biological activities exist as "K" group.
References
Nutritional Biochemistry of Vitamins (Bender)
Nutritional biochemistry (Brody)
Modern Nutrition in Health and Disease (Rosset al)
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Vitamin D heals what? | [
"vision",
"human frame",
"sadness",
"brain damage"
] | B | Vitamin D heals bones |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4889 | cell-biology, nutrition, blood-circulation, liver
Title: How do nutrients get to the cells they need to get to? I understand the basics of digestion. I know that nutrients get absorbed by the microvilli, enter the bloodstream and travel to the liver but after all that, what is the biological mechanism that guides these nutrients to the proper receiving location? Broadly speaking, nutrients that enter the blood from the gut, and those that are released into the blood by the liver, are available to any cells that require them. So there is no "guiding to the correct location" in the sense that you suggest.
Lipids for example are present in the various lipoproteins and can be acquired from these by all cells. Iron is bound to transferrin, and any cell with transferrin receptors can internalise the transferrin and take the iron. Glucose is available in solution in the plasma, and free fatty acids are bound to serum albumin in the blood. During starvation the liver produces ketones ("ketone bodies") which are taken up by many different tissues/cell types.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
This organ will help in providing nutrients to your body | [
"lungs",
"esophagus",
"kidney",
"bladder"
] | B | the digestive system breaks food into nutrients for the body |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4890 | species-identification, botany
Title: Can you identify this (possibly waterstoring) plant? My son brought home a sapling, and after 4 years in a pot it is now about 30 cm or a foot high (from the "ground" to the top of the "stem"). It doesn't need a lot of water and can go weeks without being watered, in fact it seems to me as if it is storing water in the thicker upper part of its stem. When I water it "too much", new leaves start to grow. There are tiny "blossoms" along the stem, and every now and then small, dark brown, spherical seeds about 2 mm in diameter pop out from the "blossom" and are thrown across the room as far as a meter (about a yard) or two.
What plant is this?
I believe that it is not native to my European home but some kind of decorative plant imported and sold through a florist or imported privately, but I'm not sure. It is an Euphorbia leuconeura (Madagascar Jewel), which is native to Madagaskar. The leaves and the thick (waterstoring) stem with a narrow base is very typical.
The plant is cool in the sense that it easily produces seeds (also as potted) which it can shoot away from the plant. I've had it myself and you can sometimes hear seeds hitting the window or floor. Even if it is easy to grow and to reproduce it is actually considered threatened in its native habitat (IUCN Red-listed as Vulnerable) due to habitat loss
The flowers are very small and found directly on the stem, see below:
(picture from Wikipedia)
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
A creature native to a place with vines and canopies, when compared to a creature native to a space with prickly plants and hot soil, will | [
"spend more time wet",
"live in a desert",
"spend more time dry",
"live in an arid climate"
] | A | a forest environment receives more rainfall than a desert |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4891 | species-identification, mycology
Title: What is these mushrooms in my indoor pot? I am living in Japan and in summer, it's very hot and humid even inside my room.
Today, I've found two mushrooms in the pot of a plant.
What is this species? It's very surprising than within one day they grew like this. They do look a lot like a common mushroom called "shaggy mane" mushroom (Coprinus comatus). This may not be a correct identification though, so do not eat them. They are widespread around the world, but usually grow outside.
Yes it is amazing how rapidly the fruiting body of many fungi can grow. I am providing an interesting Wikipedia link with more information. You can also search to find other images using Google images online.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coprinus_comatus
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Where do mushrooms thrive? | [
"the Amazon",
"the arctic",
"international space station",
"the Sahara"
] | A | a forest environment receives more rainfall than a desert |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4892 | reference-request
*Teached is a form that isn't taught anywhere and is no part of STANDARD ENGLISH. But it sometimes appears –
and offers some examples of it appearing by mistake in American newspaper articles.
The en.wiktionary entry for teached labels it as “nonstandard, colloquial, dialectal” and offers some dialectal examples.
In short, use taught, not teached. But note that rather than referring to a robot “replaying a collection of taught poses”, more often one refers to it “replaying a collection of learned poses”, making the viewpoint that of the taught instead of of the teacher.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Which is taught? | [
"walking upright",
"red hair",
"avoiding unpleasant smells",
"mopping the floor"
] | D | doing chores is a learned characteristic |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4893 | It just turns out nicely for C that he is one of the people whose hat colors D and C both know about.
To introduce a modified challange: if the task were to yell out C's hat color right away, D would know for certain, C would have the increased probability of $2/3$ and A and B would be stuck with the random guess of $1/2$. D still knows more.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
A learned behavior is exhibited when | [
"squinting in bright light",
"nailing up a picture frame",
"blinking and gulping air",
"inhaling and exhaling during sleep"
] | B | doing chores is a learned characteristic |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4894 | fluid-dynamics, everyday-life, aerodynamics, aircraft
Title: Effects of altitude on paper airplanes If one were to fly a paper airplane at the Dead Sea (400 meters below sea level) and another identical paper airplane at the peak of Mount Everest (8800 meters above sea level) would there be any noticeable effects on the flight of the airplane? Assume still air with no thermals and flight far from surfaces such as the ground of rock formations.
The effects I'm interested in are the differences in air pressure and temperature on the flight of a conventional paper airplane. Would humidity affect this as well? I've heard of how Reynolds number affects paper airplanes differently than jet airliners, and this number seems to depend on properties of the air as well as properties of the airplane.
Note that this question was translated into English by my father, who is the one typing it. I'm thirteen years old and I don't use SE unsupervised. To answer this question, consider Bernouli's equation:
$P= \frac{1}{2}\rho v^2$
which is the pressure the wind will exert on the wings to generate lift.
So how would the paper plane perform? The faster you throw the plane (the faster the wind speed below and above the plane, and assuming the existing wind speeds are negligible) will determine how fast and how long the plane will fly. If we rearrange this equation,
$v = \sqrt \frac{2P}{\rho}$
we can see that (how fast you throw the plane $v$ increasing the performance is obvious) the value of the pressure $P$ and density $\rho$ will be the determining factors. So what this means is if you were to throw the plane with the same strength at the Dead Sea (high pressure) as you would at the peak of Mount Everest (low pressure), we can see that the plane will perform much better at the Dead See. Of course a change in humidity would have an affect, but a change in humidity accompanies a change in pressure, so once again we are back to pressure being the important factor.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
As altitude increases, the air temperature will do what? | [
"rise",
"go up",
"nosedive",
"elevate"
] | C | as altitude increases , the temperature of the air will decrease |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4895 | thermodynamics, thermal-conductivity
Indeed, $1kg$ of silver would feel much closer to body temperature than $1kg$ of diamond (that's alot of diamond!) despite diamond having a higher heat capacity.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
You're more likely to shiver on a | [
"seaside coast",
"high mountain peak",
"ocean island",
"sunny beach"
] | B | as altitude increases , the temperature of the air will decrease |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4896 | air-pollution
Title: Less pollution: moving hurricane debris to other regions for use, or burning? When a big hurricane hits, it can create debris on the scale of $\mathrm{10^8 yd^3}$. Cities in Florida, Texas, and other affected areas are struggling to hire enough trucks and drivers to pick it up quickly. But aside from that, I noticed many of the areas have started to burn the debris once it starts building up.
Got to wondering... typically mulch comes in modestly pricey, and when free mulch is offered, it often goes quickly.
So assuming a fair portion of debris is mulchable and is of interest to other areas, and that we can acquire typical transportation resources, then we'll set up transfer from collection sites to those other regions rather than burning it. What would be the net pollution result?
If removed for mulch and such: trucking pollution + decomposition (- trees saved locally??)
If burned: the burning pollution.
Obviously it's about approximation rather than exacts, it's probably hard to appraise the different byproducts from burning versus decomposition, and a lot probably depends upon the way it is burned. But as a whole, can we get a rough estimate of comparable quantities/damage done... is it less pollution/damage even to truck it an average of 3000 miles? 1000 miles? 100 miles? 10 miles? Should it be burned on the spot (if done safely)? Would think there's got to be some way to get a very rough idea.
Certainly the best option if viable might be leaving it in place to decompose. But considering how upset people are getting at having debris around these parts a month later, exclude that option from the possibilities.
Trucking or burning, how do they compare? As the question was changed, my answer attempts to evaluate only the difference between burning and transporting. Please correct my values if my quickly found sources are inaccurate or you find more representing. I know there is quite a few unwritten assumptions that simplify this problem.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Doing this in national parks and many other wooded areas is illegal because it harms the environment | [
"existing",
"talking",
"wasting your time",
"ditching your junk"
] | D | humans discarding waste in an environment causes harm to that environment |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4897 | food-chemistry
popcorn (kernels)
honey (jar of)
sugar (most forms)
alcohol (spirits like vodka, whiskey)
dried beans, dried lentils
I would not be planning to eat any of these stored for 25 years myself. And in general I'd suggest testing the items before trying them after 25 years or more (if you feel you must).
I would not expect cans or glass or plastic bottles of soda to be in good shape after anything like 25 years. The plastic might not survive without degrading. The can and plastic might react with the liquid over that timescale and the glass would survive but I'd be less optimistic about a sugar laced chemical soup like soda or cola not undergoing some changes. Hard to say.
If you want more info on this try this website.
Will it be ok to drink it, if it won't explode?
I would not try it. At best it soda would be flat and possibly not taste the same (chemical changes over that timescale ?) and at worst it could actually be harmful.
Exploding seems very unlikely.
Also, what about Snickers or a hamburger in a ziploc package with air sucked out of it with vacuum cleaner?
Air isn't the issue. There are bacteria that will happily live (and increase in numbers) on what's in the food. Well, it is food, after all. There are bacteria that will survive refrigeration as well. Over the timescale you're talking about I'd say it's all bets are off territory.
So: will Snickers, Hamburger in a ziploc, Bottle (or can) of Cola, all not opened, go crazy in 25 years? In 50 years?
All of those could be dangerous over such a long time period, IMO. At the very least they'd taste bad and at worst they'd kill you if you consumed them.
If so, can they go out of their packages and ruin the contents of the time capsule? If not, will it be safe to consume one of them?
Depends on the packaging. Glass would last indefinitely baring physical force or extreme of hot and cold (which might possibly cause fatigue cracking). The other wrappers would last pretty well (structurally), but 25 years is way past their design intentions. It would be a dice throw.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
If someone has a bag of old sandwich wrappers, they way that they can do damage to the area they live in is to | [
"recycle them",
"re-purpose them",
"discard them",
"reuse them"
] | C | humans discarding waste in an environment causes harm to that environment |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4898 | ecology
Title: Do invasive species cause long-term damage to ecosystems they invade? Growing up in the U.S., I was warned at various times of the dire consequences of a variety of introduced pests (usually insects).
Japanese beetles, gypsy moths, and most recently the brown marmorated stink bug are all introduced pests that, at various times, were described as serious threats to our ecology.
These threats aren't confined to arthropods, either. The giant African land snail is causing a stir in Florida (indeed, Florida seems to suffer from an excessive variety of introduced species.
"Lack of native predators" is frequently cited as the primary reason many invasive species are considered such a risk to the ecology.
I understand that these introduced species can place tremendous pressure on native species that fill similar ecological niches, and may even push these species out of the region due to competition for food and habitat. However, do the overall ecologies that these species are introduced to adjust over long periods of time?
The numbers of Japanese beetles and gypsy moths don't seem anywhere as high as when I was a child. Has the ecosystem adjusted, or has the overpopulation self-corrected as the species ran low on food through over-consumption? Or are the populations still just as problematic now as they were 30 years ago, and I just am not seeing the bigger picture?
What is the long-term impact that we've seen from invasive, introduced species? Is there a significant difference on the long-term impact between introduced flora, arthropods, or mammals? The answer really depends on how you think of invasive. One extreme answer is to say that all things are relative, and that the concepts of local and invasive are all relative. This matters to a certain extent because ecologists draw a fuzzy line between invasive and naturalized. You could start with some basic species that we all think of as either good, local, or neutral. Take the earthworm. Most people think of it as a common native species, but the earthworm is actually an invasive species that has radically changed much of North America that came over with the Europeans. Similarly, brown trout are also invasive, coming to the US in the 1800's.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Which of these could contribute to a species' demise? | [
"An abundance of vegetation",
"A good supply of prey",
"Adequate shelter and companionship",
"A long period without rainfall"
] | D | the decrease of something required by an organism has a negative impact on that organism 's survival |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4899 | 2. You are lucky and you find the car with your second choice ( $P(B\mid A) = \frac{1}{n-2}$ )
So the probability of winning by changing your mind is the product $$P(A\cap B) = P(A)\cdot P( B\mid A ) = \frac{n-1}{n}\cdot \frac{1}{n-2} = \frac{n-1}{n(n-2)} > \frac{1}{n}$$ Since $\frac{n-1}{n-2} \to 1$ when $n\to \infty$, we notice that Monty's help is not that useful in the case of many many windows.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Which likely would win in a race? | [
"a slug",
"a sardine",
"an Olympic swimmer",
"an orca"
] | D | large fins can be used to move quickly through water |
OpenBookQA | OpenBookQA-4900 | physiology, neurophysiology, respiration, breathing, pulmonology
Title: Is breathing a reflex action or is it an intrinsic process? The process of breathing is controlled by respiratory centers in the brain stem. Do these centers have an innate activity, i.e., just send out signals to breathing muscles intrinsically, and have the rate and manner in which they do so modified by various regulatory factors?
Or are they driven by imbalances (in levels of oxygen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen ions) like a reflex? Let's say that hypothetically these levels remain static in an acceptable state such that this reflex is no longer needed, would breathing stop since there's no longer a driving motive or would it continue because the respiratory centers have an intrinsic activity? While the ultimate purpose of breathing could be considered to be the maintainance of a balance of the substances you are referring to (such as blood oxygen, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen ions), the blood levels of these substances do not directly control the production of action potentials within the motor neurons that promote the contraction of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles.
The propagation of these action potentials is initiated by signals from the medullary respiratory center, specifically the neurons in the dorsal respiratory group (DRG) and the ventral respiratory group (VRG). In the VRG, a complex of neurons known pre-Bötzinger complex is responsible for generating the signals that cause the rhythmic muscle contractions involved in breathing:
The respiratory rhythm generator is located in the pre-Bötzinger complex of neurons in the upper part of the VRG. This rhythm generator appears to be composed of pacemaker cells and a complex neural network that, acting together, set the basal respiratory rate.
The following is multiple choice question (with options) to answer.
Breath includes which of the following? | [
"Energy",
"Chemical",
"Vapor",
"Cells"
] | C | breath contains water vapor |
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