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Apart from poor physical health, there are many socio-cultural barriers to physical activity which are predominantly related to modern lifestyles. These include lack of time, lack of opportunities, and lack of money for sports and leisure activities [69]. Others have also described how body dissatisfaction [6], and the... |
Furthermore, research has highlighted several factors influencing sedentary behaviour. Owen et al. [13] name - among others – age, socio-economic status, and psychological-behavioural factors as facilitators of and barriers to sedentary behaviour [13]. Importantly, Owen and colleagues also argue that especially environ... |
In this regard, researchers have also studied how social networks may either encourage physical activity, or sedentary behaviour [15]. Some researchers have suggested that those who have low levels of physical activity have a much stronger influence on the physical activity behaviours of peers, as compared to those who... |
Socio-cultural factors play an important role in body type preference and body presentation [1719]. From a symbolic interactionist perspective, cultural representations form individuals’ perceptions of how individual behaviour and appearance in a certain social contexts should be [20, 21]. Culture offers guidelines for... |
The phenomenon that people follow cultural guidelines although they could in principal behave differently can be explained by the mechanisms of collective behaviour. Individuals have the tendency to bond with others who are similar to them [27]. In this regard, culture is a construct that has a very strong bonding forc... |
What is less clear from existing research, is how social and group dynamics influence engagement in ‘unsupervised’ physical activity in informal settings [32]. Furthermore, despite an acknowledgement that cultural factors may influence the way in which social groups interact in different environments, we know of very f... |
1. 1. |
How do social group dynamics influence physical activity and inactivity in informal social environments? |
2. 2. |
Which factors encourage or prevent individual group members from engaging in activity? |
3. 3. |
Do different socio-cultural settings influence physcial activity and inactivity in different ways? |
Many studies about physical activity in leisure time are based on self-reports. Furthermore, there is a lack in research about “unsupervised physical activity” [32]. Correspondingly, McKenzie and van der Mars state that physical activity “does not occur in a vacuum, but is place-based, and to fully understand it […], t... |
This paper presents the qualitative data collected within a mixed method, covert participant observation study. This mixed method study consisted of two parallel ongoing data collections. The aim of the quantitative study component was to identify contrast groups of activity behaviour using complex statistical procedur... |
Following the suggestions by Sedlmeier and Renkewitz [34], we kept observational notes in order to record typical, regular patterns regarding the physical activity related behaviour of groups in the two study sites in Germany and Hawai’i. |
Research settings |
Both research sites were selected because they are sized appropriately for an observation: they are not too large, so observers are easily able to keep groups within sight. Yet, both research sites still offer enough space in order to give sufficient opportunities for various physical activities as well as inactive and... |
Table 1 |
Activity characteristics of the research sites |
Champagne Pond Pool and Entringen Pool |
• Swimming (lap swimming as well as play) |
• Diving activities (competitive and play) |
• Aqua jogging (usually with swim noodle or inflatable mattress) |
• Teasing one another and dunking each other under water, water splashing and water bombs (mostly children and adolescents) |
• Treading through pool with long breaks at the edge of pool (cooling off in water when it is very sunny and hot) |
• Ballgames in water/pool or on lawn (passing or shooting off friends) |
• Wild, playful running, walking around (mostly young children) |
• Slow/moderate walking around/playing with children by parents |
• Playful jumping into pool or water |
Entringen Pool |
• Table-tennis, beach volleyball, football (mostly ball passing) |
Champagne Pond Pool |
• Snorkelling (usually while swimming slowly, sometimes supported by swim noodles) |
• Stand up paddle boarding |
• Canoeing |
• Surfing and wakeboarding (outside the lava stone wall of pool) |
For images of both research sites please click on the following link: |
Data collection and sample |
In order to achieve observational “data credibility” [33] for the study, author (AT) developed an observer training protocol, and trained the other observers. The observers had to learn about the specifics of the planned observation and our research project at large. They also had to be instructed on “ethical issues, t... |
Table 2 |
Results of rating |
Sample n |
Images n excluded |
(bad quality) |
Sample n used for rating |
Mean Age |
Mean BMI |
Total ratings by all observers: 471 |
Error Rates Total: |
Age Category Correct |
96,60 % |
Age Category Errors |
Age Category Error Rate |
3,40 % |
Mean Deviation (in years) |
Body Shape Category Correct |
97,24 % |
Body Shape Category Errors |
Body Shape Category Error Rate |
2,76 % |
Mean Deviation (BMI) |
Data was collected by author (AT) and author (ST) in Hawai’i, and author (HKT) and author (OS) in Germany. Field notes were made in German at both sites. Recorded notes were frequently discussed between observers. During the observations at the Entringen Pool, author (HKT) and author (OS) received continuous supervisio... |
At each research site, the observers initially spent around one week in order to establish relevant categories for the coding. We developed initial ‘primary’ categories before recording started. During the data collection period, more ‘secondary’ observational categories were added. Primary and secondary observational ... |
Table 3 |
Observational categories |
Primary observational categories |
Physical activity level of group |
Observed physical activity behaviour of all members of a group. We recorded all observed aspects concerning physical activity and inactivity. Furthermore, we differentiated between ‘very active’/‘moderately active’/‘rather passive, sometimes in the water, with a maximum of two short active exceptions’/and ‘extremely pa... |
Research setting |
Champagne Pond or Entringen Pool |
Gender composition of group |
Male only/female only/mixed |
Combination of group concerning age |
Concerning age, we differentiated between ‘children’/‘adolescents’/‘young adulthood’/‘middle adulthood’/and ‘seniors’. |
Combination of group concerning body shape |
Concerning body shape, we differentiated between ‘lean, normal-weight, and slightly overweight’/‘clearly overweight’/and ‘athletic’. |
Group size |
In this category, we differentiated between small groups including two or three members/middle size including four or five members/large groups including six or more. |
Additional equipment |
We observed whether groups had equipment such as chairs, sun loungers, barbecues, cooling boxes, sunshades, etc. or not. |
Communication level within group |
We observed the verbal communication of group members, e.g. loud or quiet. Moreover, we differentiated between frequent and lively verbal communication between most group members/occasional verbal communication/almost no verbal communication among group members. |
Food and drinking behaviour |
We recorded whether groups brought food and drinks to the sites. |
Secondary observational categories |
Design of resting site |
We observed, how groups organised their resting site, for example how they arranged their equipment, how they furnished their site etc. |
We observed in-/out-group constellations, age combinations at the site and group compositional changes. |
Social contagion |
In this context, we looked at the spread of activity within groups and between groups. |
Area of rest and movement |
We observed where members of groups spent the majority of their time resting and the other areas they moved to. |
Promoting physical activity |
We used this category for coding all factors which appeared to promote physical activity. |
Hindering physical activity |
We used this category for coding all factors which hindered physical activity. |
Subsequently, one week (with daily visits of location) of explorative observation took place in order to give observers the opportunity to receive “live field-based practice” [33] before the recording started. The (recorded) observations at the Champagne Pond Pool took place on both week days and weekends from August 1... |
On the days when recording took place, the observers spent – depending on the weather – between one to four hours at the respective location, constantly moving around the site to ensure that they were not obviously seen as collecting data. Attending the research sites alone or in pairs was not unusual. Therefore, obser... |
Data interpretation |
Data interpretation was led by author (AT) and author (HKT). We started with a first data interpretation whilst data collection in order to extend observational categories. The main systematic data interpretation took place after data collection. The first steps in interpreting the qualitative field notes involved seve... |
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