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IVl9TKzWkZMu4Ufj | 9.25: Twin law | 9.25: Twin law
The twin law is the set of twin operations mapping two individuals of a twin. It is obtained by coset decomposition of the point group of the twin lattice with respect to the intersection group of the point groups of the individuals in their respective orientations. Each operation in the same coset is a possible twin operation that, from the lattice viewpoint, is equivalent to any other operation in the same coset. Any of these can be taken as coset representative and indicated by the symbol of the twin element: \(\bar 1\), [ uvw ] and ( hkl ) for the centre ( inversion twin ), direction of the rotation axis ( rotation twin ) and Miller indices of the mirror plane ( reflection twin ), in the order. Except when one refers to a specific plane or direction, the symbols { hkl } or < uvw > have to be be used to indicate all the planes or directions which belong to the same coset and are therefore equivalent under the point group of the individual.
In case of TLQS twinning the equivalence of the operations in a coset is only approximate. | 254 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Online_Dictionary_of_Crystallography_(IUCr_Commission)/09%3A_Twinning/9.25%3A_Twin_law | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:28438 | https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Online_Dictionary_of_Crystallography_(IUCr_Commission)/09%3A_Twinning/9.25%3A_Twin_law |
ufXQc8OnHut87VPh | My Academic Journey | Simulation Debrief Assignment 2
NRSG 247 Skills Lab II: In- Lab Simulation Reflective Debrief Assignment
The purpose of this reflective debrief assignment is to engage in reflective practice to identify personal practice strengths and areas for growth. During the simulation experiences, one week you will be assigned a participant role, and the other week you will be assigned an observer role. Regardless of your role each week, you should take the opportunity to complete the reflective debrief activity.
Please note: While details of the scenario are important to include in your reflection to inform your learning, to maintain confidentiality of the scenario, please do not include names of your peers in your reflection.
The reflective activities are graded out of 10, please see the attached rubric for clarification of marks. Each reflective activity is worth 2.5% of your overall grade. Completed debriefs are due by midnight on the Friday following simulations in week 13 and week 14 respectively (April 7th and April 14th).
Please refer to the questions on the following pages to complete your reflective practice. Please note you need only complete the appropriate section based on your role this week.
Debrief Exercise
Simulation Week: Week 14
My role this week: Observer
If you were the participant this week, please complete the following section. If you were the observer, please skip to the next section.
Section 1: Participant Debrief
- Reflecting upon your simulation experience this week, identify two (2) things that you feel that you did well in the simulation.
Click or tap here to enter text.
- What are two (2) key pieces of learning that you will incorporate into your practice moving forward? How will you achieve this?
Click or tap here to enter text.
- Consider how the participants in your functioned as a team. What did your team do well? What is one piece of learning about team functioning that you will bring forward with you?
Click or tap here to enter text.
- Please include any additional thoughts and reflections that you would like to include.
Click or tap here to enter text.
Section 2: Observer Debrief
- Reflecting on the simulation that you observed this week, what are two (2) strengths that you can identify from your peers’ practice? You do not need to include participant names, but please provide specific details about what you observed.
Two streghts that of my peers were the ability to identify what the problem was and calling a physician for an order.
- If you had been assigned the participant role this week, what do you feel like you would have done differently in the given scenario?
A couple of thing I would have done differently would be once I see that patient is still struggling to breath after the efforts that were done to allow for breathing to be easier I would have immediately put the oxygen on, I would have also make sure that one of us would be with the patient at all times in the hopes of reducing the stress the patient may be feeling at the moment.
- What are two (2) key pieces of learning that you will incorporate into your practice moving forward? How will you achieve this?
The first piece of leaning I will incorporate is oxygenation and the amount allowed without an order, the second I will incorporate is being able to identify where the problem really is despite the appearance or the symptoms for example in this weeks skm the problems showed in the face but the real problem was lower in the body.
- Please include any additional thoughts and reflections that you would like to include about your simulation experience.
It was interesting to see how different things seem when you are observing. I am the other observer where discussing different things and theories while our peers where jn the simulation, knowing that it probably would be different if we were in there. Also it was difficult to watch our peers struggling and not be able to help if we thought we had an idea, we could only help if they asked and sometimes we got ideas after they asked. | 904 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/journeyebook/chapter/in-lab-simulation-debrief-submission-2/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:67988 | https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/journeyebook/chapter/in-lab-simulation-debrief-submission-2/ |
eaFsm4P9d6NqTDvP | 15.1: Introduction | 15.1: Introduction
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Learning Outcomes
After reading this chapter, you should be able to answer these questions:
- What is money, what are its characteristics and functions, and what are the three parts of the U.S. money supply?
- How does the Federal Reserve manage the money supply?
- What are the key financial institutions, and what role do they play in the process of financial intermediation?
- How does the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) protect depositors’ funds?
- What roles do U.S. banks play in the international marketplace?
- What trends are reshaping financial institutions?
EXPLORING BUSINESS CAREERS
Michelle Moore
Bank of America Technology continues to change every facet of daily life, including how consumers interact with banks and other financial institutions. Whether large or small, banks have to stay one step ahead of the competition when it comes to providing top-notch service to their customers, including digital and mobile channels. Michelle Moore, head of digital banking at Bank of America, has worked in various parts of the company for more than 14 years. Regardless of her role within the organization, Moore has consistently demonstrated her obsession with exceptional service and how best to make sure the bank is providing customers with products and features that will make their lives easier, keep them loyal to the organization, and ultimately increase sales.
While overseeing the bank’s call center operations, Moore was asked to take on the bank’s mobile initiatives, a request that befuddled her. Moore is the first to tell you she is no techy—she admits she kept her beloved flip phone too long before opting for a smartphone. Yet, her people skills and her drive to provide the best customer service made her the perfect person to take on the bank’s digital and mobile efforts.
Like other major financial institutions, Bank of America did not have a stellar reputation when it came to digital or mobile banking. Although customers used the bank’s digital offerings, the services were basic, even as the smartphone revolution changed many of life’s daily activities. Once Moore and her digital team got the bank’s mobile app up to speed, they began to figure out how to make it better. The team started to add features to the app, making sure that nearly everything customers can do at a bank branch they can do on the new and improved app. In addition, Moore and her group created a digital assistant feature that uses artificial intelligence and predictive analytics to provide customers with the same level of advice and expertise that previously would have been reserved for customers with high-end wealth-management accounts.
A play on the word “America,” the app called Erica recently debuted to the public, and customer reaction has been positive. But Moore is never satisfied with the status quo. She encourages her team to constantly ask how customers will use the app and what will it take to make and keep them happy with the digital assistant’s features. For example, after Moore read an article on the success of Apple’s Siri and Amazon’s Alexa, she wondered, “Why can’t our banking app talk to clients?” She pushed her team to add a voice feature to Erica, which gives the digital assistant a competitive edge over other banking mobile apps for now.
Moore knows that customer sentiment is critical to the bank’s success, especially in mobile banking. She continues to be obsessed by customer reviews and how the bank can increase customer satisfaction quickly and efficiently, and she knows that agility is critical in an ever-changing bank environment. Her efforts are paying off. Several years ago, Bank of America had 6 million mobile banking users; today, that number has jumped to more than 22 million. In a recent three-month period, mobile banking customers logged in to their accounts more than 967 million times—more than double the number of desktop logins. And when customers need to visit a local bank branch, more and more of them are booking appointments via the mobile app each week. Although she knows there is more work to do, Moore’s common-sense approach to listening to customers while leveraging technology will help Bank of America increase sales and stay ahead of the competition.
Sources: Robert Barba, “Digital Banker of the Year: B of A’s Michelle Moore,” American Banker, https://www.americanbanker.com , May 31, 2017; Robert Barba, “Mom, Marathoner, App Maker: B of A’s Michelle Moore,” American Banker, https://www.americanbanker.com , May 31, 2017; Ayoub Aouad and Jaime Toplin, “Bank of America Boosts Digital Banking Segment,” Business Insider, http://www.businessinsider.com , April 19, 2017; Michelle Moore, “Leading the Way in Digital Banking,” The Financial Brand, the financial brand.com, February 20, 2017; Hilary Burns, “Michelle Moore on the Latest for BofA’s Digital Operations,” Charlotte Business Journal, https://www.bizjournals.com , December 21, 2016.
Advanced technology, globalization of markets, and the relaxation of regulatory restrictions continue to accelerate the pace of change in the financial services industry. These changes are giving businesses and consumers new options for conducting their financial transactions. The competitive landscape for financial institutions is also changing, creating new ways for these firms to increase their market share and boost profits.
This chapter focuses on the role of financial institutions in U.S. and international economies. It discusses different types of financial institutions, how they are set up and how they function internally, and government oversight of their operations. Because financial institutions connect people with money, this chapter begins with a discussion of money, its characteristics and functions, and the components of the U.S. money supply. Next, it explains the role of the Federal Reserve System in managing the money supply. Then it describes different types of financial institutions and their services and the organizations that insure customer deposits. The chapter ends with a discussion of international banking and trends in financial institutions. | 1,263 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://biz.libretexts.org/Courses/Coastline_College/BUS_C100%3A_Introduction_to_Business_(White)/15%3A_Understanding_Money_and_Financial_Institutions/15.01%3A_Introduction | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:4379 | https://biz.libretexts.org/Courses/Coastline_College/BUS_C100%3A_Introduction_to_Business_(White)/15%3A_Understanding_Money_and_Financial_Institutions/15.01%3A_Introduction |
WMbKKMUWFBSXXMqH | 4.30: Reading- Creating the Marketing Strategy | 4.30: Reading- Creating the Marketing Strategy
Inputs That Inform Marketing Strategy
To a great extent, developing the marketing strategy follows the same sequence of activities used to define the corporate strategy. The chief difference is that the marketing strategy is directly affected by the corporate strategy, as well as by the other functions within the organization. As a result, the marketing strategy must always involve monitoring and reacting to changes in the corporate strategy and objectives.
In order to be effective, a marketing strategy must capitalize on the resources at its disposal within the company, but also take advantage of the market forces that are outside the company. One way to assess these different factors, or inputs, is by conducting a situation analysis (also called a SWOT analysis). A SWOT analysis includes a review of the company’s internal strengths and weaknesses and any external opportunities and threats that it faces. We will discuss the SWOT analysis and other strategic planning frameworks in more detail later in this module.
Centering on the Target Customer
The marketing strategy defines how the marketing mix can best be used to achieve the corporate strategy and objectives. The centerpiece of the marketing strategy is the target customer. While the corporate strategy may have elements that focus on internal operations or seek to influence external forces, each component of the marketing strategy is focused on the target customer.
Recall the following steps of determining who your target customer is:
- Identify the business need you will address, which will be driven by the corporate strategies and objectives;
- Segment your total market, breaking down the market and identifying the subgroup you will target;
- Profile your target customer, so that you understand how to provide unique value;
- Research and validate your market opportunity.
Focusing the marketing strategy on the target customer seems like a no-brainer, but often organizations get wrapped up in their own strategies, initiatives, and products and forget to focus on the target customer. When this happens the customer loses faith in the product or the company and turns to alternative solutions.
Aligning Corporate and Marketing Strategies
As we discussed before, objectives can create alignment between the corporate and marketing strategies. If the corporate objectives are clearly defined and communicated, then they become a calibration tool for every step of the marketing planning process.
How would good corporate-level objectives inform the marketing strategy and objectives? Consider the following examples:
- Imagine completing a market segmentation process. You find a target market that will find unique value in your offering. The decision to pursue that target market will depend on whether that segment is large enough to support the corporate objectives for market growth.
- How many new products should the company launch this year? The answer should be informed by the corporate objectives for growth and profitability.
- The marketing function has identified a customer relationship management campaign that would create greater customer loyalty. Does the cost of the campaign and its expected returns align with the company objectives?
As you can see, company objectives provide important guidance to the marketing planning process. Likewise, marketing objectives ensure that the goals of the marketing strategy are defined, communicated, and measured.
Contributors and Attributions
- Revision and adaptation. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
- Chapter 1: Introducing Marketing, from Introducing Marketing . Authored by : John Burnett. Project : The Global Text Project. License : CC BY: Attribution | 751 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://biz.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Marketing/Principles_of_Marketing_(Lumen)/04%3A_Marketing_Strategy/4.30%3A_Reading-_Creating_the_Marketing_Strategy | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:5256 | https://biz.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Marketing/Principles_of_Marketing_(Lumen)/04%3A_Marketing_Strategy/4.30%3A_Reading-_Creating_the_Marketing_Strategy |
wDr9OCAVk26wFP2i | Broccoli and Chocolate: A Beginner’s Guide to Journalism News Writing | 8 Chapter 6: Interviews and Quotes
Interviewing
In journalism school, a professor told me that a good interview should feel like an enjoyable conversation with a good friend instead of an awkward first date. But when I was a student journalist talking to sources for the Mustang Daily, the campus newspaper of Cal Poly San Luis Obispo, my interviews never reached that level of ease.
I did not experience an effective interview until I applied for a job at a local newspaper and sat down with the editor. He looked like any small-town editor, rumpled and graying with a messy desk.
But he zeroed in on me and started asking me questions in such a casual but effective manner that the time flew by, and I left the conversation feeling heard and understood.
This level of skill takes time and requires a lot of practice. But here are some tips to get you started.
Journalist Dana Dwyer wrote a paper in 1996 about journalistic interviewing techniques that’s still relevant today.
She begins by introducing two types of interview questions, the directive and the nondirective. Directive interviews seek specific information and often include brief questions that require short answers.
Example:
- Did you find the class helpful?
- What did you like best about the class?
- What did you like least about the class?
Nondirective interviews consist of open-ended questions that let the interviewee choose the conversation’s direction.
Example:
- How can we improve?
- What does the future hold?
- What do you think of your school?
Dwyer writes that journalists should use both kinds of questions: “Short questions with short easy answers give the (source) confidence and flesh out the bones of the information. Nondirective questions allow for new perspectives and interesting anecdotes.”
Dwyer also advises interviewers to start with a purpose. Ask yourself: What information do I want from the source?
Write down the answer to the purpose question and let the source know. Dwyer also recommends telling the source why you picked them in the first place.
“Remember to build self-esteem,” she writes. “If you choose this (source) deliberately for the value of his or her knowledge, say so, clearly and often.”
Dwyer suggests five practical options for how to structure an interview:
- Time sequence: Rank questions in order of importance.
- Topical sequence: Start by focusing on who, what, when, where, why and how.
- Spatial sequence: Focus on where people or things are physically.
- Cause-to-effect sequence: Move from analysis of causes to the possible effects.
- Problem-solution: Begin with problems and asks about viable solutions.
Dwyer encourages interviewers to actively listen and find interesting stories among the answers. The best way to practice active listening is by trying to summarize what the person said at the end of each response. Active listening and appropriate questions can bring out details and emotion from your source that improve news writing.
The Interviewing Process
It’s time to practice interviewing. Here’s how to conduct an interview in seven steps.
- Step 1: Research
- Learn as much as you can before the interview.
- Find your source on LinkedIn and other social media sites. A good reporter knows a lot about the person before they conduct the interview.
Step 2: Create a list of questions
- The research you conducted in Step 1 will help determine what you need to ask that person.
- Make your questions short and precise. Multi-part questions are tough for sources.
- Circle the priority questions to remind you which ones you must get answered.
Step 3: Pick a place
- In-person interviews are ideal because you can build a better rapport and learn more about a person by observation.
- A good second choice is a Zoom interview with the cameras on.
- A phone interview is your third-best option because the natural flow of a spoken conversation is best for quoting and follow-up questions.
- An email or messaging interview should be your last resort as it is more work for the source to type out answers versus talking to you. It also often makes the quotes sound too formal.
Step 4: Pick a way to record
- You’ll need to have a plan to keep track of the interview responses.
- If you are meeting in person, veteran journalists recommend taking notes and recording the session for clarity.
- Remember to ask the source’s permission to record and get them to agree on the recording.
- For a Zoom or phone interview, recording is recommended with source permission.
Step 5: Prepare for the interview
- Give visual cues to your professionalism.
- Dress appropriately. Try to match the source’s general attire to help build a connection.
- Limit distractions during the interview.
Step 6: Conduct the interview
- Thank the source for meeting with you and ask for name (including spelling), title and age. Write them down.
- Start with easy questions as a warmup. Consider questions on childhood, education, family, pets.
- Save tough questions for last as they could cause the source to end the interview abruptly.
- If your subject is talking too fast, ask them to slow down.
- Remember to observe your source as well as listen. You can note objective manners in a news story.
- For example, “I love this city,” said the mayor while showing her collection of framed city logos.
- For a chatty source, you might need to interrupt them respectfully to get them back on track.
- For a shy source, consider these techniques:
- Use open-ended questions
- “Tell me more about that.”
- “I didn’t quite get that; could you explain it again?”
- “Describe what you did next.”
- “Why?”
- Consider the 2-year-old test. If you ever have spent time with a toddler, they ask “why” a lot. It can be tedious but it’s an effective way to get information. Asking “why” forces your source to elaborate.
- Consider silence. If they give you a short answer and you need more, don’t say anything. Let the silence stretch out and see if they fill it.
- Use open-ended questions
- Remember the questions that every news story should be trying to answer:
- What sort of impact does this have?
- What does it mean for society?
- Why should the reader care?
Step 7: Wrap up
- End every interview with these two questions:
- Is there anything else I should know about this?
- Is there anyone else you think I should talk to about this?
- Thank the source for their time.
- Get their contact information in case of follow-up questions.
Transparency With Sources
Sources always should be treated fairly. In a March 2022 article, NPR writer Emma Grazado encouraged journalists to be overly transparent with their sources: “When interviewing people who aren’t accustomed to talking to the press, transparency is key to avoiding confusion, disappointment or even anger.”
Grazado breaks down the recommendations into three areas:
- Explain the basics of your media organization and how reporting works.
- Clarify the pre-interview process. This is needed for audio or video recording, but is helpful for any interview. Sources need to understand that a reporter might not use all – or any — of the interview.
- Set boundaries before the interview begins. Reiterate that everything is on the record or explain the other options of background, deep background or off the record.
The Associated Press has weighed in on the same topic. “When relevant, stories should provide information about the setting in which a quotation was obtained – for example, a press conference, phone interview or hallway conversation with the reporter,” according to its website. “The source’s affect and body language – perhaps a smile or deprecatory gesture – is sometimes as important as the quotation itself.”
The AP site also mentions the importance of honoring regional dialects in a way that doesn’t degrade sources. And it reminds journalists that if they are translating quotes from another language, that should be noted as well.
Levels of background
On the record
- Can use all information
- Can identify the source
- Can run actual quotes
Off the record
- Can’t use any information
- Can’t identify the source
- Can’t run actual quotes
On background
- Can use all information
- Can’t identify the source by name
- Can run actual quotes
On deep background
- Can use the information
- Can’t identify the source
- Can’t run actual quotes
NPR stresses that while you should be transparent with sources, you shouldn’t let them see the material before it’s published. But NPR reporters can tell their sources in general what parts of an interview they might use if sources are concerned.
Quotations
Once an interview is finished, the writing begins. But first, a news writer needs to consider what quotes might be used.
Why use quotes at all?
Think of a long meeting or speech where your attention drifts. If the speaker changes, your attention will be drawn back. The same concept applies to your stories. The more voices you have, the more interesting your story will be to the reader. In a broccoli story, quotes are the seasoning and oil that makes each bite more flavorful.
Types of Quotes
News writing needs quotes, and news writers have three options for them:
- Direct quotes are when a source’s exact words are used in a news story and set apart by quotation marks. For example: “I am not a crook,” President Richard Nixon said.
- Indirect quotes occur in a story when a reporter takes a quote and rewrites it without quotation marks. It is still attributed to the source. For example: President Richard Nixon said he has not broken the law.
- Partial quotes are a combination of direct and indirect quotes. A source’s remarks are mostly paraphrased, but a small part is left verbatim with quotation marks. For example: President Richard Nixon denied that he is a “crook.”
How to choose which type of quote to use? Consider these rules of thumb:
Direct quotes
- Use when the reporter cannot write the words better
- Use when the quote includes something important or controversial
- Use to show emotion or color to elevate a story
- Use to provide new information
Indirect quotes
- Use to replace a weak quote
- Use to replace a confusing response
- Use to replace a lengthy response with a concise quote
- Use to get rid of jargon
- Example: The mayor said he will discuss raising taxes. Instead of: “We plan to dialogue on the proposal to consider increasing the tax rate in this wonderful city,” the mayor said.
Partial Quotes
- Use for controversial or essential information
- Typically avoid as it’s easy to take the quote out of context
- Don’t use for ordinary statements like the sky is “blue.” This format is confusing for readers.
Changing quotes
There’s debate about when or if journalists should change a quote. Some like to remove the inevitable ums and uhs that come with natural speech. Others take out profanity or slang.
Roy Peter Clark, a senior scholar at the Poynter Institute, writes about this in a 2015 post:
“In the almost 40-year history of the Poynter Institute, there have been few topics that generate as much debate among journalists as how to handle quotes. I love it when a dogmatic reporter argues, ‘I only use the exact words that a person says, nothing more or less.’ Then comes my cross-examination: ‘Do you include every time the source says “like” or “you know”? If the mayor says “gonna” do you ever change it to “going to”?’ The reporter grumbles. It’s my Perry Mason moment.”
Clark advises reporters never to change the meaning of a quote.
“Quotes should be faithful to the words and intended meaning of the speaker. My goal is not to trap the source into making a mistake. It is to make public a meaningful statement.”
He acknowledges that every quote is taken from a larger conversation, which means it can be tough to keep the right meaning without the context. If the quote doesn’t make sense without the rest of the answer, don’t use it.
Clark also warns against using slang without a good command of its meaning. Every reporter should strive for a variety of quotes and a diversity of speech.
If the quote has grammar issues, he advises journalists to change it. “Tidy up the quote rather than make someone sound stupid,” Clark writes. “Too many journalists have a double standard: They may clean up the mayor, but not the cranky old lady complaining to City Council.”
If there’s profanity in a quote, check with your editor. Professional news organizations tend to be more prudish about grammar than college media. Quote accordingly.
Quote Grammar
Ellipses in quotes
A quote ellipse is three dots that signify that words were taken out of a direct quote. This should not be used often in direct quotes and should be applied with the utmost care. It’s easy to misconstrue the meaning of a direct quote if the wrong words are removed. Instead, use an ellipse to remove unrelated tangents that take away from a quote’s original meaning.
Example:
- Original direct quote: “When I ran for the City Council and won, although everyone said I would lose, I vowed never to raise taxes. Now I am going to keep that promise,” Councilman Don Donaldson said.
- Quote using an ellipse: “When I ran for the City Council and won … I vowed never to raise taxes. Now I am going to keep that promise,” Councilman Don Donaldson said.
Capitalizing and punctuating quotations
Grammar rules for quotes are much like they are for any writing. Capitalize complete sentences with direct quotes.
Example:
- He said, “Life is a frustrating but rewarding journey.”
Do not capitalize partial quotes. Follow typical grammar rules.
If you need to quote within another quote, AP style dictates you use single quotation marks.
Example:
- “He said to me, ‘You need to make this right,’ ” Joe Blue said.
If the attribution comes before the quote and the quote is one full sentence, use a comma.
Example:
- Sami Susan said, “This is the best college in the state.”
If the attribution comes before the quote and the quote is two or more sentences, use a colon.
Example:
- Coco Coal said: “My favorite animal is a cat. They are easier to care for than dogs.”
Quote Attribution
Attribution is documenting the name of a source who provided a quote or other information for a news story. In a journalistic news story or feature, everything that is not an undisputed fact must be attributed.
For example, it’s unnecessary to attribute where your college is located, but you do need to attribute a source for enrollment numbers. Attribution can be people, documents or publications, but not places such as cities or schools. Your college cannot talk. Its officials can.
Placing Attribution
It is essential that your reader easily can discern who gave a quote. Attribution must be placed before, in the middle of or after a quoted phrase.
“My student loan debts are overwhelming me,” said Jane Doe, a graduate student. “When I think of the amount I owe, I begin to panic.”
The word “said” typically is placed after the name of the source for the reader’s ease of understanding.
“President Joe Biden said” flows better than “said President Joe Biden.” Sometimes, though, the word “said” must go first.
If you have a source with a long title, start with the attribution, such as “said Joe Smith, the dean of Academic Affairs at Grossmont College.”
Attribution Word Choice
When I was a reporter at a daily newspaper, I got creative with attribution. I wrote that my sources “replied” and “maintained” and added “retorted” when I was feeling saucy.
Then a scary editor came over to my desk and barked, “What do you have against the word said?”
Why didn’t I write “Jane Doe said” when crediting a quote?
Well, it’s boring. But “said” is an objective and clear word that avoids adding emotion that can sway the reader.
Listen to my scary editor and banish fancy verbs from your attribution. Instead, stick with “said” and use “added” for longer attributions.
Avoid these subjective choices: explain, warn, maintain, declare, state, urge, counter, point out, insist and reply.
There might be times when a different word choice is necessary. If a source is objectively yelling, you can say that. Consider the example: “We will not leave,” he shouted at the police.
If a source tells you how they feel, make sure the reader understands that as well. Do not write, “She felt sad.” You can’t know how she felt, but you can tell the reader what she said. Write “she said she felt sad” for a more appropriate structure.
Key Takeaways
- The two types of interviews are the directive and the nondirective.
- Directive interviews seek specific information.
- Nondirective interviews consist of open-ended questions.
- There are seven steps to a good interview.
- Step 1: Research
- Step 2: Create a list of questions
- Step 3: Pick a place
- Step 4: Pick a way to record
- Step 5: Prepare for the interview
- Step 6: Conduct the interview
- Step 7: Wrap up
- There are three types of quotes to use in a news story.
- A direct quote is a source’s exact words put in quotations.
- An indirect quote is a quote that is rewritten without quotation marks.
- A partial quote is a combination of direct and indirect quotes.
Chapter Exercise
This exercise is designed to help you practice finding good quotes. Watch this 10-minute YouTube interview between Jennifer Hudson and Matthew McConaughey. Listen and jot down at least two examples of each of the following types of quotes. Remember to review the quote characteristics to help you in this exercise.
- Direct quotes
- Indirect quotes
- Partial quotes | 3,929 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://pressbooks.pub/introjournalism/chapter/chapter-6-interviews-and-quotes/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:23980 | https://pressbooks.pub/introjournalism/chapter/chapter-6-interviews-and-quotes/ |
EvJj0iJAlCd6Yuiu | 7: Stoichiometry of Chemical Reactions | 7: Stoichiometry of Chemical Reactions
This chapter will describe how to symbolize chemical reactions using chemical equations, how to classify some common chemical reactions by identifying patterns of reactivity, and how to determine the quantitative relations between the amounts of substances involved in chemical reactions—that is, the reaction stoichiometry .
Contributors
-
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BqqVUx3T5Ar2UvqF | 15.4: Physiologic Adaptations during Labor and Birth | 15.4: Physiologic Adaptations during Labor and Birth
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Explain the physiologic changes of the person during the first stage of labor
- Explain the physiologic changes of the person during the second stage of labor
- Explain the physiologic changes of the person during the third stage of labor
- Explain the physiologic changes of the person during the hour after birth
The pregnant body undergoes a great deal of change during labor and birth, including many physiologic changes that enable the fetus to maneuver through the birth canal and be born. These physiologic alterations differ in each stage of labor and should be monitored by the nurse while the person is laboring and birthing.
Physiologic Adaptations during the First Stage of Labor
The shift from term pregnancy to the first stage of labor occurs when contractions lead to cervical change. During this shift, the body also prepares for the changes necessary for labor, birth, and the postpartum period. The alterations in nearly all body systems allow for the focus to move from pregnancy to birth during these hours or days. The nurse needs to understand how labor and birth impact body systems to be able to anticipate normal changes and identify deviations from normal that indicate the need for nursing intervention or consultation with the provider.
Vital Signs
The laboring person’s heart rate increases during contractions, and the baseline can increase or decrease. Sustained increases in heart rate warrant an investigation for possible signs of infection and excessive blood loss.
Blood pressure (BP) increases during contractions and returns to baseline between contractions. Slow increases in BP can be noted with the experience of pain; however, significant increases (>140/90 mm Hg) should be investigated for the presence of hypertensive disorders of pregnancy, which can occur during pregnancy, labor, birth, and the postpartum period (ACOG, 2020). Any hypotension should be investigated as possible infection, anesthesia side effects, or a sign of a concealed hemorrhage.
The laboring person’s temperature can increase with exposure to misoprostol (Cytotec) as well as epidural anesthesia , but any increase above 100.4° F (38° C) warrants investigation for possible infection.
The respiratory rate can increase, especially in unmedicated labor due to breathing techniques used as a coping mechanism.
The laboring person’s oxygen saturation can decrease with epidural anesthesia, especially if the medication gets above recommended levels, or when magnesium sulfate is administered for preeclampsia .
Fetal Descent
The pregnant person’s body continues to facilitate the labor process with contractions causing downward pressure on the presenting fetal part, which leads to descent through the pelvis. This typically occurs with internal rotation of the fetus combined with the physical pressure of uterine contractions and changes in pelvic diameters through maternal positioning in labor. During the first stage, the fetus is typically not engaged in the pelvis with a station of −1 to −3, but can be lower if fetal head engagement occurred prior to labor or rapidly during labor (see Figure 15.3(c)).
Cardiovascular
Cardiac output increases an additional 10 percent to 15 percent in the first stage of labor (Martin et al., 2022). This is likely related to increased stroke volume from the sensation of pain and/or the work of the body even when adequate anesthesia is present. The body is also protecting vasodilation around the uterine muscle to allow for perfusion of the fetus during the work of labor, which will need to abruptly switch to vasoconstriction after birth.
Musculoskeletal
Pelvic floor anatomy is stretching to accommodate the descent of the fetus in labor. The pelvis is affected by relaxing and position changes to increase diameters and allow passage of the fetus (Cohen & Friedman, 2023). The sacrum will often become more pronounced, especially when the laboring person is in an upright position, as the presenting part of the fetus engages into the pelvis and places internal pressure on the sacrum.
Gastrointestinal
Gastric emptying and motility are further slowed during labor. Slowed gastrointestinal function combined with intense pain and abdominal pressure can increase the likelihood of nausea and vomiting in labor, especially in the active phase of the first stage of labor. This can explain why many people in labor without anesthesia do not have the desire to eat, but those with epidural anesthesia may experience hunger. The physical exertion of labor requires nutritional support, and current recommendations are to consider oral hydration, electrolyte support through oral or intravenous replacement, and light solid food intake. The oral intake of hydration and nutrition is controversial in labor due to a history of fear surrounding the risk of aspiration in the rare event that general anesthesia is indicated during labor. Restriction of oral intake is not currently supported by research for low-risk labors, but protocol has been slow to change in many anesthesia orders and facilities (Singata et al., 2013).
Physiologic Adaptations during the Second Stage of Labor
The second stage of labor requires extensive maternal effort and fetal tolerance to achieve a spontaneous vaginal birth. To support this, the body prepares to adapt to these needs with certain changes. Contractions may space, or pause, to allow for greater rest between pushing efforts, blood pressure and heart rate increase for increased perfusion potential, the pelvis must remain mobile with consistent changes to allow for passage of the passenger , and other body processes may slow to divert energy to necessary functions for birth. Nurses can support patients by promoting these changes and offering reassurance of normality as well as monitoring for any pathologic changes that are outside the physiologic ones.
Contraction Pattern
Contractions during the second stage can space, or pause, immediately prior to the urge to push or during pushing efforts. This may be protective of the fetal acid-base balance. The increased force of the contractions combined with maternal expulsive efforts decreases oxygen perfusion to the fetus.
Vital Signs
In the second stage, blood pressure increases by another 10 mm Hg during active pushing, and both heart rate and respiratory rate increase as well.
Cardiovascular
As noted precedingly, heart rate and blood pressure increase in the second stage. Maternal exhaustion can be impacted by this, and appropriate rest or breaks between pushing efforts may be necessary if exhaustion or abnormal vital signs occur.
Musculoskeletal
Continued position changes and shifts in pelvic diameters or change in fetal position allow for fetal descent following the cardinal movements of vaginal birth. The birthing person will also often have an adrenaline surge, causing significant shaking or tremors during the end of the first stage and second stage of labor (Gicheru et al., 2019). These appear similar to chills experienced during a fever and will typically resolve in 1 to 2 hours after birth.
Gastrointestinal
Continued slowing of gastric emptying could be a contributing factor to the nausea and vomiting experienced during the second stage of labor. Increased acidity of the slowed gastric contents may lead to acid reflux or “heartburn” being reported by the birthing person. Epidural use is associated with less slowing of gastric emptying and may contribute to lower risk for aspiration in the use of general anesthesia (Bataille et al., 2014).
Physiologic Adaptations during the Third Stage of Labor
After birth of the fetus has occurred, the body makes significant shifts to accommodate for and limit blood loss. The body suddenly shifts from perfusing the fetus through the time of highest need to rapid vasoconstriction of the pelvic vasculature to prevent hemorrhage (Smith, 2020). The presence of the placenta prevents the completion of this process. Until the placenta is expelled, it interrupts vasoconstriction and prevents necessary hormonal shifts.
Uterus and Cervix
The term uterus is significantly distended and well perfused with purposeful vasodilation through the second stage of labor. The delivery of the fetus and drainage of remaining amniotic fluid that occurs with birth results in a rapid decrease in the internal pressure exerted on the uterine wall from within. In response to this, there is rapid vasoconstriction of the vessels that supply the pelvic floor. The 500 mL of blood flow routed to that area during labor is shunted back to the central circulation to compensate for expected blood loss of the same amount (Smith, 2020). Uterine contractions continue to shorten the muscle fibers and further decrease the uterine size, which can lead to placental detachment and subsequent delivery. The cervix will decrease in dilation and effacement as well but will remain partially dilated until the placenta delivers, typically around 5 cm dilation/50 percent effacement at this stage (Martin et al., 2022).
Cardiovascular
Rapid decrease in heart rate and blood pressure to prelabor levels may be noted or can occur slowly over the first 2 weeks postpartum. Hypotension and tachycardia are late symptoms of significant blood loss and warrant precise identification and treatment of the site of the bleeding. The shift of blood volume following uterine involution can increase the risk of cardiac complications such as cardiomyopathy and pulmonary edema, especially in those with preexisting heart conditions or hypertensive disorders in pregnancy (Martin et al., 2022).
Medications Prescribed during the Process of Labor and Birth
Medications prescribed for the discomfort of labor and birth are classified as analgesics and anesthetics. Both of these classifications are described in detail in 17.2 Pharmacological Pain Management.
Medications prescribed for the induction or augmentation of labor and to manage postpartum bleeding are classified as uterotonics and are described in detail in 18.3 Nursing Care During the Third Stage of Labor.
Physiologic Adaptations during the Fourth Stage of Labor
The fourth stage of labor is a very vulnerable time for the birthing person due to the rapid shifts occurring in many body systems as well as the risk for postpartum hemorrhage. Postpartum hemorrhage is one of the leading causes of maternal morbidity and mortality across the world. Postpartum hemorrhage is defined as blood loss greater than 1,000 mL following childbirth (ACOG, 2017b). See 20.1 Physiologic Changes During the Postpartum Period and 21.2 Postpartum Hemorrhage for more in-depth nursing care and management of postpartum hemorrhage. The nursing role of monitoring and educating during this vulnerable time is one of the most crucial tools available in reducing the risk of adverse outcomes in birthing people.
Vital Signs
In the fourth stage, the blood pressure and pulse may be slightly elevated or return to normal Significant or symptomatic decreases in blood pressure and heart rate call for careful assessment for blood loss, which can be overt or concealed. The respiratory rate returns to normal. Temperature may be slightly elevated (up to 100.4° F or 38° C) or normal (Martin et al., 2022).
Uterus and Cervix
Uterine involution continues during the fourth stage of labor. The fundus is expected to be firm, midline, and located near the umbilicus. Cervical dilation resolves, leading to a closed cervix shortly after delivery of the placenta (Martin et al., 2022).
Lochia
Bright or dark red lochia are expected for the entire fourth stage of labor. Continued measurement of this bleeding for a total quantitative blood loss can be useful in monitoring for the potential need for intervention. Quantitative blood loss is measured via calculation of the weight of blood-filled material with the weight of the material subtracted. Fundal assessment should produce only a small amount of bleeding. If continued leaking of streams of blood is noted or large clots are expressed during the fundal assessment, prompt consultation, increased monitoring, and interventions in collaboration with the health-care provider are indicated (Martin et al., 2022).
Perineum
Tenderness, edema, and a burning sensation along lacerations are to be expected. Topical sprays, ice, rest, anti-inflammatory medications, and use of a peri-bottle during urination to dilute urine can be useful tools to promote comfort during this time. Significant bruising or severe pain should be evaluated by the provider because of the risk for hematoma formation. Perineal sitz baths can also be utilized for pain control and promotion of healing. These are also available commercially if patients prefer to use them at home after discharge.
Bladder
Some postpartum patients experience decreased bladder sensation after birth. In those cases, the nurse should encourage the patient to attempt to void at regular intervals until the urge to void returns. The nurse should evaluate the patient’s bladder for distention, especially after epidural use. Some increase in voids can be seen as the body eliminates excess fluids in the first 2 weeks postpartum. Any bladder distention or decrease in urine output should be promptly reported to and evaluated by the provider. A distended bladder is one of the leading causes of postpartum uterine atony and can lead to postpartum hemorrhage (Martin et al., 2022).
Musculoskeletal
The work of labor can cause significant aches and pains that should be treated with rest, ice or heat, and support for ambulation as needed (Martin et al., 2022). If epidural anesthesia was used, it may be several hours before the birthing person is able to ambulate without assistance. The nurse should be sure to assess fall risk and call for assistance when supporting ambulation the first time after an epidural is discontinued.
Gastrointestinal
Bowel health can generate intense fear in the birthing person. The nurse should support bowel health with oral hydration, quality dietary intake with appropriate fiber, and the administration of a stool softener for any person with severe perineal tearing, hemorrhoids, cesarean birth, or those using narcotic pain medications (Martin et al., 2022).
Differentiating between Normal Adaptation and Early Warning Signs of Complications
Take action: Identify transition to tachycardia and assess for other chorioamnionitis symptoms.
When caring for a patient in the second stage of labor, an increase in heart rate can be expected due to the significant maternal effort required. When this increase becomes sustained and above 120 bpm, the nurse notes the change in the maternal vital signs. The nurse then obtains a full set of vitals, including a repeat temperature, and assesses the fetal heart rate for any changes as well. The maternal temperature is now 100.6° F with a heart rate of 140. The nurse discontinues pushing efforts and calls the provider to report the change in vitals. The provider orders an IV fluid bolus, a complete blood count (CBC), and antibiotics. The provider also orders the nurse to resume pushing efforts while the provider is en route to bedside management of the patient because this second stage of labor has increased in complexity. | 3,113 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Nursing/Maternal-Newborn_Nursing_(OpenStax)/15%3A_Process_of_Labor_and_Birth/15.04%3A_Physiologic_Adaptations_during_Labor_and_Birth | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:41056 | https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Nursing/Maternal-Newborn_Nursing_(OpenStax)/15%3A_Process_of_Labor_and_Birth/15.04%3A_Physiologic_Adaptations_during_Labor_and_Birth |
dGssJyNxfrNHDN33 | Noteworthy Families (Modern Science)
An Index to Kinships in Near Degrees between Persons Whose Achievements Are Honourable, and Have Been Publicly Recorded | E-text prepared by Suzanne Lybarger, Laura Wisewell, and the Project
Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team (https://www.pgdp.net/)
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NOTEWORTHY FAMILIES
(MODERN SCIENCE)
An Index to Kinships in Near Degrees
between Persons Whose Achievements
Are Honourable, and Have Been
Publicly Recorded
by
FRANCIS GALTON, D.C.L., F.R.S., HON. D.Sc (CAMB.)
and
EDGAR SCHUSTER
Galton Research Fellow in National Eugenics
VOL I
of the Publications of the Eugenics Record Office
of the University of London
London
John Murray, Albemarle Street
1906
CONTENTS
PAGE
I. INTRODUCTORY NOTE vii
PREFACE ix
CHAPTER
GENERAL REMARKS ix
II. NOTEWORTHINESS xi
III. HIGHEST ORDER OF ABILITY xiv
IV. PROPORTION OF NOTEWORTHIES TO THE GENERALITY xviii
V. NOTEWORTHINESS AS A STATISTICAL MEASURE OF ABILITY xx
VI. NOMENCLATURE OF KINSHIPS xxvi
VII. NUMBER OF KINSFOLK IN EACH DEGREE xxviii
VIII. NUMBER OF NOTEWORTHY KINSMEN IN EACH DEGREE xxxiii
IX. MARKED AND UNMARKED NOTEWORTHINESS xxxv
X. CONCLUSIONS xxxix
NOTEWORTHY FAMILIES:
OF SIXTY-SIX F.R.S.'S WHO WERE LIVING IN 1904 1
APPENDIX:
FATHERS OF SOME OF THE SIXTY-SIX F.R.S.'S CLASSIFIED
BY THEIR OCCUPATIONS 80
INDEX 85
INTRODUCTORY NOTE
The brief biographical notices of sixty-six noteworthy families
printed in this book are compiled from replies to a circular issued
by me in the spring of 1904 to all living Fellows of the Royal
Society. Those that first arrived were discussed in "Nature," August
11, 1904.
On Mr. Schuster's appointment by the University of London, in
October, 1904, to the Research Fellowship in National Eugenics, all
my materials were placed in his hand. He was to select from them
those families that contained at least three noteworthy kinsmen, to
compile lists of their achievements on the model of the
above-mentioned memoir, to verify statements as far as possible, and
to send what he wrote for final approval by the authors of the
several replies.
This was done by Mr. Schuster. The results were then submitted by him
as an appendix to his Report to the Senate last summer.
After preliminary arrangements, it was determined by the Senate that
the list of Noteworthy Families should be published according to the
title-page of this book, I having agreed to contribute the preface,
Mr. Schuster's time being fully occupied with work in another branch
of Eugenics.
So the list of "Noteworthy Families" in this volume is entirely the
work of Mr. Schuster, except in respect to some slight alterations
and additions for which I am responsible, as well as for all the
rest.
FRANCIS GALTON.
PREFACE
CHAPTER I.--GENERAL REMARKS.
This volume is the first instalment of a work that admits of wide
extension. Its object is to serve as an index to the achievements of
those families which, having been exceptionally productive of
noteworthy persons, seem especially suitable for biographical
investigation.
The facts that are given here are avowedly bald and imperfect;
nevertheless, they lead to certain important conclusions. They show,
for example, that a considerable proportion of the noteworthy members
in a population spring from comparatively few families.
The material upon which this book is based is mainly derived from the
answers made to a circular sent to all the Fellows of the Royal
Society whose names appear in its Year Book for 1904.
The questions were not unreasonably numerous, nor were they
inquisitorial; nevertheless, it proved that not one-half of those who
were addressed cared to answer them. It was, of course, desirable to
know a great deal more than could have been asked for or published
with propriety, such as the proneness of particular families to
grave constitutional disease. Indeed, the secret history of a family
is quite as important in its eugenic aspect as its public history;
but one cannot expect persons to freely unlock their dark closets and
drag forth family skeletons into the light of day. It was necessary
in such a work as this to submit to considerable limitations, while
turning to the fullest account whatever could be stated openly
without giving the smallest offence to any of the persons concerned.
One limitation against which I still chafe in vain is the
impracticability of ascertaining so apparently simple a matter as the
number of kinsfolk of each person in each specific degree of near
kinship, without troublesome solicitations. It was specially asked
for in the circular, but by no means generally answered, even by
those who replied freely to other questions. The reason must in some
cases have been mere oversight or pure inertia, but to a large extent
it was due to ignorance, for I was astonished to find many to whom
the number of even their near kinsfolk was avowedly unknown.
Emigration, foreign service, feuds between near connections,
differences of social position, faintness of family interest, each
produced their several effects, with the result, as I have reason to
believe, that hardly one-half of the persons addressed were able,
without first making inquiry of others, to reckon the number of their
uncles, adult nephews, and first cousins. The isolation of some few
from even their nearest relatives was occasionally so complete that
the number of their brothers was unknown. It will be seen that this
deficiency of information admits of being supplied indirectly, to a
considerable degree.
The collection of even the comparatively small amount of material now
in hand proved much more troublesome than was anticipated, but as the
object and limitations of inquiries like this become generally
understood, and as experience accumulates, the difficulty of similar
work in the future will presumably lessen.
CHAPTER II.--NOTEWORTHINESS.
The Fellowship of the Royal Society is a distinction highly
appreciated by all members of the scientific world. Fifteen men are
annually selected by its council out of some sixty candidates, each
candidate being proposed by six, and usually by more, Fellows in a
certificate containing his qualifications. The candidates themselves
are representatives of a multitude of persons to whom the title would
be not only an honour but a material advantage. The addition of the
letters "F.R.S." to the names of applicants to any post, however
remotely connected with science, is a valuable testimonial and a
recognised aid towards success, so the number of those who desire it
is very large. Experience shows that no special education, other than
self-instruction, is really required to attain this honour. Access to
laboratories, good tuition, and so forth, are doubtless helpful, so
far that many have obtained the distinction through such aid who
could not otherwise have done so, but they are far from being
all-important factors of success. The facts that lie patent before
the eyes of every medical man, engineer, and the members of most
professions, afford ample material for researches that would command
the attention of the scientific world if viewed with intelligence and
combined by a capable mind.
It is so difficult to compare the number of those who might have
succeeded with the number of those who do, that the following
illustration may perhaps be useful: By adding to the 53 registration
counties in England, the 12 in Wales, the 33 in Scotland and the 32
in Ireland, an aggregate of 130 is obtained. The English counties,
and the others in a lesser degree, have to be ransacked in order to
supply the fifteen annually-elected Fellows; so it requires more than
eight of these counties to yield an annual supply of a single Fellow
to the Royal Society.
It is therefore contended that the Fellows of the Royal Society have
sufficient status to be reckoned "noteworthy," and, such being the
case, they are a very convenient body for inquiries like these. They
are trained to, and have sympathy with, scientific investigations;
biographical notices are published of them during their lifetime,
notably in the convenient compendium "Who's Who," to which there will
be frequent occasion to refer; and they are more or less known to one
another, either directly or through friends, making it comparatively
easy to satisfy the occasional doubts which may arise from their
communications. It was easier and statistically safer to limit the
inquiry to those Fellows who were living when the circulars were
issued--that is, to those whose names and addresses appear in the
"Royal Society's Year Book" of 1904. Some of them have since died,
full of honours, having done their duty to their generation; others
have since been elected; so the restriction given here to the term
"Modern Science" must be kept in mind.
Another and a strong motive for selecting the F.R.S. as subjects of
inquiry was that so long ago as 1863-1864 I had investigated the
antecedents of 180 of those who were then living, who were further
distinguished by one or other of certain specified and recognised
honours. My conclusions were briefly described in a Friday evening
lecture, February 27, 1864, before the Royal Institution. These,
together with the data on which they were founded, were published in
the same year in my book "English Men of Science." Readers who desire
fuller information as to the antecedents conducive to success that
are too briefly described further on should refer to the above book.
The epithet "noteworthy" is applied to achievements in all branches
of effort that rank among the members of any profession or calling as
equal, at least, to that which an F.R.S. holds among scientific men.
This affords a convenient and sufficiently definite standard of
merit. I could think of none more appropriate when addressing
scientific men, and it seems to have been generally understood in
the desired sense. It includes more than a half of those whose names
appear in the modern editions of "Who's Who," which are become less
discriminate than the earlier ones. "Noteworthiness" is ascribed,
without exception, to all whose names appear in the "Dictionary of
National Biography," but all of these were dead before the date of
the publication of that work and its supplement. Noteworthiness is
also ascribed to those whose biographies appear in the "Encyclopædia
Britannica" (which includes many who are now alive), and, in other
works, of equivalent authority. As those persons were considered by
editors of the last named publications to be worthy of note, I have
accepted them, on their authority, as noteworthy.
CHAPTER III.--HIGHEST ORDER OF ABILITY.
No attempt is made in this book to deal with the transmission of
ability of the very highest order, as the data in hand do not furnish
the required material, nor will the conclusions be re-examined at
length that I published many years ago in "Hereditary Genius." Still,
some explanation is desirable to show the complexity of the
conditions that are concerned with the hereditary transmission of the
highest ability, which, for the moment, will be considered as the
same thing as the highest fame.
It has often been remarked that the men who have attained pinnacles
of celebrity failed to leave worthy successors, if any. Many
concurrent causes aid in producing this result. An obvious one is
that such persons are apt to be so immersed in their pursuit, and so
wedded to it, that they do not care to be distracted by a wife.
Another is the probable connection between severe mental strain and
fertility. Women who study hard have, as a class--at least, according
to observant caricaturists--fewer of the more obvious feminine
characteristics; but whether this should be considered a cause or a
consequence, or both, it is difficult to say. A third, and I think
the most important, reason why the children of very distinguished
persons fall sometimes lamentably short of their parents in ability
is that the highest order of mind results from a fortunate mixture of
incongruous constituents, and not of such as naturally harmonize.
Those constituents are _negatively_ correlated, and therefore the
compound is unstable in heredity. This is eminently the case in the
typical artistic temperament, which certainly harmonizes with
Bohemianism and passion, and is opposed to the useful qualities of
regularity, foresight, and level common sense. Where these and
certain other incongruous faculties go together in well-adjusted
proportions, they are capable of achieving the highest success; but
their heritage is most unlikely to be transmitted in its entirety,
and ill-balanced compounds of the same constituents are usually of
little avail, and sometimes extraordinarily bad. A fourth reason is
that the highest imaginative power is dangerously near lunacy. If
one of the sanest of poets, Wordsworth, had, as he said, not
unfrequently to exert strength, as by shaking a gate-post, to gain
assurance that the world around him was a reality, his mind could not
at those times have been wholly sane. Sanity is difficult to define,
except negatively; but, even though we may be convinced of the truths
of the mystic, that nothing is what it seems to be, the
above-mentioned conduct suggests temporary insanity. It is sufficient
to conclude, as any Philistine would, that whoever has to shake a
gate-post to convince himself that it is not a vision is dangerously
near madness. Mad people do such things; those who carry on the work
of the world as useful and law-abiding citizens do not. I may add
that I myself had the privilege of hearing at first hand the
narrator's own account of this incident, which was much emphasized by
his gestures and tones. Wordsworth's unexpected sally was in reply to
a timid question by the late Professor Bonamy Price, then a young
man, concerning the exact meaning of the lines in his famous "Ode to
Immortality," "not for these I raise the song of praise; but for
those obstinate _questionings of sense and outward things_," etc.
I cannot speak from the present returns, but only from my own private
knowledge of the somewhat abnormal frequency with which eccentricity,
or other mental unsoundness, occurs in the families of very able
scientific men. Lombroso, as is well known, strongly asserted the
truth of this fact, but more strongly, as it seems to myself, than
the evidence warrants.
It is, therefore, not in the highest examples of human genius that
heredity can be most profitably studied, men of high, but not of the
highest, ability being more suitable. The only objection to their use
is that their names are, for the most part, unfamiliar to the public.
The vastness of the social world is very imperfectly grasped by its
several members, the large majority of the numerous persons who have
been eminent above their far more numerous fellows, each in his own
special department, being unknown to the generality. The merits of
such men can be justly appreciated only by reference to records of
their achievements. Let no reader be so conceited as to believe his
present ignorance of a particular person to be a proof that the
person in question does not merit the title of noteworthy.
I said what I have to say about the modern use of the word "genius"
in the preface to the second edition of my "Hereditary Genius." It
has only latterly lost its old and usual meaning, which is preserved
in the term of an "ingenious" artisan, and has come to be applied to
something akin to inspiration. This simply means, as I suppose,
though some may think differently, that the powers of unconscious
work possessed by the brain are abnormally developed in them. The
heredity of these powers has not, I believe, been as yet especially
studied. It is strange that more attention has not been given until
recently to unconscious brain-work, because it is by far the most
potent factor in mental operations. Few people, when in rapid
conversation, have the slightest idea of the particular form which a
sentence will assume into which they have hurriedly plunged, yet
through the guidance of unconscious cerebration it develops itself
grammatically and harmoniously. I write on good authority in
asserting that the best speaking and writing is that which seems to
flow automatically shaped out of a full mind.
CHAPTER IV.--PROPORTION OF NOTEWORTHIES TO THE GENERALITY.
The materials on which the subject of this chapter depends are too
various to lead to a single definite and trustworthy answer. Men who
have won their way to the front out of uncongenial environments owe
their success principally, I believe, to their untiring energy, and
to an exceptionally strong inclination in youth towards the pursuits
in which they afterwards distinguished themselves. They do not seem
often to be characterized by an ability that continues pre-eminent on
a wider stage, because after they have fully won a position for
themselves, and become engaged in work along with others who had no
early difficulties to contend with, they do not, as a rule, show
greatly higher natural ability than their colleagues. This is
noticeable in committees and in other assemblies or societies where
intellects are pitted against one another. The bulk of existing
noteworthies seem to have had but little more than a fair education
as small boys, during which their eagerness and aptitude for study
led to their receiving favour and facilities. If, in such cases, the
aptitudes are scholastic, a moderate sum suffices to give the boy a
better education, enabling him to win scholarships and to enter a
University. If they lie in other directions, the boy attracts notice
from some more congenial source, and is helped onwards in life by
other means. The demand for exceptional ability, when combined with
energy and good character, is so great that a lad who is gifted with
them is hardly more likely to remain overlooked than a bird's nest in
the playground of a school. But, by whatever means noteworthiness
is achieved, it is usually after a course of repeated and
half-unconscious testings of intelligence, energy, and character,
which build up repute brick by brick.
If we compare the number of those who achieved noteworthiness through
their own exertions with the numbers of the greatly more numerous
persons whose names are registered in legal, clerical, medical,
official, military, and naval directories, or in those of the titled
classes[A] and landed gentry, or lastly, of those of the immense
commercial world, the proportion of one noteworthy person to one
hundred of the generality who were equally well circumstanced as
himself does not seem to be an over-estimate.
[A] By a rough count of the entries in Burke's "Peerage, Baronetage
and Knightage," I find that upwards of 24,000 ladies are of
sufficient rank to be included by name in his Table of
Precedence.
CHAPTER V.--NOTEWORTHINESS AS A MEASURE OF ABILITY.
Success is the joint result of the natural powers of mind and body,
and of favourable circumstances. Those of the latter which fall into
definite groups will be distinguished as "environment," while the
others, which evade classification, will be called "accidental."
The superstitions of old times cling so tenaciously to modern thought
that the words "accident" and "chance" commonly connote some
mysterious agency. Nothing of the kind is implied here. The word
"accident" and the like is used in these pages simply to express the
effect of unknown or unnoted causes, without the slightest
implication that they are unknowable. In most cases their neglect has
been partly due to their individual insignificance, though their
combined effect may be very powerful when a multitude work in the
same direction. Moreover, a trifling pressure at the right spot
suffices to release a hair-trigger and thereby to cause an explosion;
similarly, with personal and social events, a trifling accident will
sometimes determine a career.
Noteworthiness and success may be regarded statistically as the
outcome of ability and environment and of nothing else, because the
effects of chance tend to be eliminated by statistical treatment. The
question then becomes, How far may noteworthiness be accepted as a
statistical measure of ability?
Ability and environment are each composed of many elements that
differ greatly in character. Ability may be especially strong in
particular directions as in administration, art, scholarship, or
science; it is, nevertheless, so adaptive that an able man has often
found his way to the front under more than one great change of
circumstance. The force that impels towards noteworthy deeds is an
innate disposition in some men, depending less on circumstances than
in others. They are like ships that carry an auxiliary steam-power,
capable of moving in a dead calm and against adverse winds. Others
are like the ordinary sailing ships of the present day--they are
stationary in a calm, but can make some way towards their destination
under almost any wind. Without a stimulus of some kind these men are
idle, but almost any kind of stimulus suffices to set them in action.
Others, again, are like Arab dhows, that do little more than drift
before the monsoon or other wind; but then they go fast.
Environment is a more difficult topic to deal with, because
conditions that are helpful to success in one pursuit may be
detrimental in another. High social rank and wealth conduce to
success in political life, but their distractions and claims clash
with quiet investigation. Successes are of the most varied
descriptions, but those registered in this book are confined to such
as are reputed honourable, and are not obviously due to favour.
In attacking the problem it therefore becomes necessary to fix the
attention, in the first instance, upon the members of some one large,
special profession, as upon artists, leaders in commerce,
investigators, scholars, warriors, and so forth, then to divide these
into subclasses, until more appears to be lost through paucity of
material than is gained through its increasing homogeneity.
Whatever group be selected, both ability and environment must be
rated according to the requirements of that group. It then becomes
possible, and it is not difficult, to roughly array individuals under
each of these two heads successively, and to label every person with
letters signifying his place in either class. For purposes of the
following explanation, each quality will be distributed into three
grades, determined not by value, but by class place--namely, the
highest third, the medium third, and the lowest third. In respect to
ability, these classes will be called A, B, and C. In respect to
environment, the grades will refer to its helpfulness towards the
particular success achieved, and the classes will be called E, F, G.
It must be clearly understood that the differences between the grades
do not profess to be equal, merely that A is higher than B, and B
than C; similarly as to E, F, and G. The A, B, C may be quite
independent of E, F, G, or they may be correlated. Both cases will
be considered.
Ability and Environment being mutually helpful towards success, the
successes statistically associated with AE will be reckoned higher
than those associated with AF. Again, for simplicity of explanation
only, it will here be assumed that Ability and Environment are
equally potent in securing success. Any other reasonable relation
between their influences may be substituted for the purpose of
experiment, but the ultimate conclusion will be much the same.
TABLE I.--COMBINATIONS OF ABILITY AND ENVIRONMENT.
+-------------+-------------+-------------+
| AE. I. | AF. I. | AG. II. |
+-------------+-------------+-------------+
| BE. I. | BF. II. | BG. III. |
+-------------+-------------+-------------+
| CE. II. | CF. III. | CG. III. |
+-------------+-------------+-------------+
First, suppose Ability and Environment to be entirely independent, A
being as frequently associated with E as it is with F or with G;
similarly as regards B and C, then the nine combinations shown in
Table I. will be equally frequent. These tabular entries fall into
three equal groups. The three that lie in and about the upper
left-hand corner contain the highest constituents--namely, either
_high_ combined with _high_, or one _high_ with one _medium_. They
produce Successes of Grade I. The three in the middle diagonal band
running between the lower left and the upper right corners are either
one _high_ and one _low_, or both are _medium_; they will produce
Successes of Grade II. The three in and about the right-hand corner
are either one _medium_ with one _low_, or both are _low_; they will
produce Successes of Grade III. This is still more clearly seen by
sorting the results into Table II., from which it is clear that a
high grade of Success is statistically associated with a high, but
less, grade of Ability, a medium with a medium, and a low grade of
Success with a low, but less low, grade of Ability.
TABLE II.--ABILITY INDEPENDENT OF ENVIRONMENT.
_____________________________________________________________________
| | | |
| Grades of | | |
| Success. | Contributory Combinations. | Corresponding Abilities. |
|___________|_____________________________|___________________________|
| | | | | | | |
| I. | AE | AF | BE | 2 of A | 1 of B | -- |
| II. | AG | BF | CE | 1 of A | 1 of B | 1 of C |
| III. | CG | BG | CF | -- | 1 of B | 2 of C |
|___________|_________|_________|_________|_________|________|________|
Secondly, suppose A, B, C to be correlated with E, F, G, so that A is
more likely to be associated with E than it is with F, and much more
likely than with G. Similarly, C is most likely to be associated with
G, less likely with F, and least likely with E. The general effect of
these preferences will be well represented by divorcing the couples
which differ by two grades--namely, AG and CE, by re-mating their
constituents as AE and CG, and by re-sorting them, as in Table III.
The couples that differ by no more than one grade are left
undisturbed. The results now fall into five grades of Success, in
four of which each grade contains two-ninths of the whole number, and
one, the medium Grade 3, contains only one-ninth.
As remarked previously, the grades are not supposed to be separated
by equal steps. They are numbered in ordinary numerals to distinguish
them from those in Table II.
TABLE III.--ABILITY CORRELATED WITH ENVIRONMENT.
_____________________________________________________________________
| | | |
| Grades of Success. | Contributory | Corresponding Abilities. |
| | Combinations. | |
|____________________|_______________|________________________________|
| | | | | | |
| 1 | AE | AE | 2 of A | -- | -- |
| 2 | AF | BE | 1 of A | 1 of B | -- |
| 3 | BF | -- | -- | 1 of B | -- |
| 4 | BG | CF | -- | 1 of B | 1 of C |
| 5 | CG | CG | -- | -- | 2 of C |
|____________________|_______|_______|__________|__________|__________|
It clearly appears from this table that the effect of correlation
between Ability and Environment is to increase, and not to diminish,
the closeness of association between Success and Ability. Indeed, if
the correlation were perfect, Success would become an equal measure
_both_ of Ability and of Favourableness of Environment.
These arguments are true for each and every branch of Success, and
are therefore true for all: Ability being construed as Appropriate
Ability, and Environment as Appropriate Environment.
The general conclusion is that Success is, statistically speaking, a
magnified, but otherwise trustworthy, sign of Ability, high Success
being associated with high, but not an equally high, grade of
Ability, and low with low, but not an equally low. A few instances to
the contrary no more contradict this important general conclusion
than a few cases of death at very early or at very late ages
contradict the tables of expectation of life of a newly-born infant.
CHAPTER VI.--NOMENCLATURE OF KINSHIP.
Specific kinships are such as "paternal uncle" or "maternal uncle,"
as distinguished from the general term "uncle." The phrase "first
cousin" covers no less than eight specific kinships (four male and
four female), not taking the issue of mixed marriages into account.
Specific kinships are briefly expressed by a nomenclature in which
_fa_, _me_, _bro_, _si_, _son_, _da_, _Hu_, _Wi_, stand respectively
for _father_, _mother_, _brother_, _sister_, _son_, _daughter_,
_Husband_, _Wife_. Each of these syllables is supposed to have the
possessive _'s_ added to it whenever it is followed by another
syllable of the set, or by the word _is_ when it is not. _Example_:
Let the person from whom the kinships are reckoned be called _P_, and
let _Q_ and _R_ be two of _P_'s kinsfolk, described respectively as
_fa bro_ and _me si son_. That means that _P's father's brother_ is
_Q_, and that _P's mother's sister's son_ is _R_. It is a simple and
easily intelligible nomenclature, and replaces intolerable verbiage
in the description of distant kinships. My correspondents used it
freely, and none of them spoke of any difficulty in understanding it.
Its somewhat babyish sound is soon disregarded.
TABLE IV.--ABBREVIATIONS.
______________________________________________________________________
| | |
| Males. | Females. |
|_________________________________|____________________________________|
| | |
| Grandfather, paternal _fa fa_ | Grandmother, paternal _fa me_ |
| " maternal _me fa_ | " maternal _me me_ |
| Father _fa_ | Mother _me_ |
| Uncle, paternal _fa bro_ | Aunt, paternal _fa si_ |
| " maternal _me bro_ | " maternal _me si_ |
| | |
| Brother _bro_ | Sister _si_ |
| | |
| Son _son_ | Daughter _da_ |
| Nephew, brother's son _bro son_ | Niece, brother's daughter _bro da_ |
| Nephew, sister's son _si son_ | Niece, sister's daughter _si da_ |
| | |
| Male first cousins: | Female first cousins: |
| 1. Son of paternal | 1. Dau. of paternal |
| uncle _fa bro son_ | uncle _fa bro da_ |
| 2. Son of maternal | 2. Dau. of maternal |
| uncle _me bro son_ | uncle _me bro da_ |
| 3. Son of paternal | 3. Dau. of paternal |
| aunt _fa si son_ | aunt _fa si da_ |
| 4. Son of maternal | 4. Dau. of maternal |
| aunt _me si son_ | aunt _me si da_ |
|_________________________________|____________________________________|
Those relationships that are expressed by different combinations of
these letters differ _specifically_; therefore, in saying, in the
next chapter, that each person has "roughly, on the average, one
fertile relative in each and every form of specific kinship," it
means in each and every combination of the above syllables that is
practically possible.
Relationship may also be expressed conveniently for some purposes in
Degrees of remoteness, the number of the Degree being that of the
number of syllables used to express the specific kinship.
CHAPTER VII.--NUMBER OF KINSFOLK IN EACH DEGREE.
The population may be likened to counters spread upon a table, each
corresponding to a different individual. The counters are linked
together by bands of various widths, down to mere threads, the widths
being proportional to the closeness of the several kinships. Those in
the first degree (_father_, _mother_, _brother_, _sister_, _son_,
_daughter_) are comparatively broad; those in the second degree
(_grandparent_, _uncle_, _aunt_, _nephew_, _niece_, _grandchild_) are
considerably narrower; those in the third degree are very narrow
indeed. Proceeding outwards, the connections soon become thinner than
gossamer. The person represented by any one of these counters may be
taken as the subject of a pedigree, and all the counters connected
with it may be noted up to any specified width of band. In this book
one of the counters is supposed to represent a Fellow of the Royal
Society, whose name appears in the "Year-Book" of that Society for
1904, and the linkage proceeds outwards from him to the third degree
inclusive. Usually it stops there, but a few distant kinships have
been occasionally inserted chiefly to testify to a prolonged
heritage of family traits.
The intensity with which any specified quality occurs in each or any
degree of kinship is measured by the proportion between the numbers
of those who possess the quality in question and the total number of
persons in that same degree. Particular inquiries were made on the
latter point, but, as already stated, the answers were incomplete.
There is, however, enough information to justify three conclusions of
primary importance to the present inquiry--namely, the _average_
number (1) of brothers of the subject, (2) of brothers of his father,
and (3) of brothers of his mother.
The number of Fellows to whom circulars were addressed was 467. The
number of those who gave useful replies was 207, a little more than
one-half of whom sent complete returns of the numbers of their
brothers and uncles; some few of these had, however, placed a query
here or there, or other sign of hesitation. As the number of
completely available returns scarcely exceeded 100, I have confined
the following tables to that number exactly, taking the best of the
slightly doubtful cases. It would have been possible, by utilizing
partial returns and making due allowances, to have obtained nearly
half as many again, but the gain in numbers did not seem likely to be
compensated by the somewhat inferior quality of the additional data.
The first three lines of Table V. show that there is no significant
difference between the average numbers of brothers and sisters, nor
between those of fathers' brothers and fathers' sisters, nor again
between those of mothers' brothers and mothers' sisters; nor is there
any large difference between those of male and female cousins, but it
is apparently a fact that the group of "brothers" is a trifle smaller
than that of uncles on either side. It seems, therefore, that the
generation of the Subjects contains a somewhat smaller number of
individuals than that of either of their Parents, being to that
extent significant of a lessening population so far as their class is
concerned.
TABLE V.--NUMBER OF KINSFOLK IN ONE HUNDRED FAMILIES WHO
SURVIVED CHILDHOOD.
______________________________________________________________________
| | | | | |
| Generic | Specific | Number of | Specific | Number of |
| Kinships. | Kinships. | Persons. | Kinships. | Persons. |
|_______________|_______________|___________|______________|___________|
| | | | | |
|Brothers and | _bro_ | 206 | _si_ | 207 |
| sisters | | | | |
|_______________|_______________|___________|______________|___________|
| | | | | |
|Uncles and | _fa bro_ | 228 | _fa si_ | 207 |
| aunts | _me bro_ | 219 | _me si_ | 238 |
|_______________|_______________|___________|______________|___________|
| | | | | |
| | Mean | 224 | Mean | 223 |
|_______________|_______________|___________|______________|___________|
| | | | | |
|First cousins, | _fa bro son_ | 265 | _fa bro da_ | 302 |
| male and | _fa si son_ | 184 | _fa si da_ | 208 |
| female | _me bro son_ | 236 | _me bro da_ | 266 |
| | _me si son_ | 237 | _me si da_ | 246 |
|_______________|_______________|___________|______________|___________|
It may seem at first sight surprising that a brother and a sister
should each have the same average number of brothers. It puzzled me
until I had thought the matter out, and when the results were
published in "Nature," it also seems to have puzzled an able
mathematician, and gave rise to some newspaper controversy, which
need not be recapitulated. The essence of the problem is that the sex
of one child is supposed to give no clue of any practical importance
to that of any other child in the same family. Therefore, if one
child be selected out of a family of brothers and sisters, the
proportion of males to females in those that remain will be, _on the
average_, identical with that of males to females in the population
at large. It makes no difference whether the selected child be a boy
or a girl. Of course, if the conditions were "given a family of three
boys and three girls," each boy would have only two brothers and
three sisters, and each girl would have three brothers and two
sisters, but that is not the problem.
Subject to this explanation, the general accuracy of the observed
figures which attest the truth of the above conclusion cannot be
gainsaid on theoretical grounds, nor can the conclusions be ignored
to which they lead. They enable us to make calculations concerning
the average number of kinsfolk in each and every specified degree in
a stationary population, or, if desired, in one that increases or
decreases at a specified rate. It will here be supposed for
convenience that the average number of males and females are equal,
but any other proportion may be substituted. The calculations only
regard its fertile members; they show that every person has, on the
average, about one male fertile relative in each and every form of
specific kinship.
Kinsfolk may be divided into direct ancestry, collaterals of all
kinds, and direct descendants. As regards the direct ancestry, each
person has one and only one ancestor in each specific degree, one
_fa_, one _fa fa_, one _me fa_, and so on, although in each _generic_
degree it is otherwise; he has two grandfathers, four
great-grandfathers, etc. With collaterals and descendants the average
number of _fertile_ relatives in each specified degree must be
stationary in a stationary population, and calculation shows that
number is approximately _one_. The calculation takes no cognizance of
infertile relatives, and so its results are unaffected by the detail
whether the population is kept stationary by an increased birth-rate
of children or other infertiles, accompanied by an increased
death-rate among them, or contrariwise.
The exact conclusions were ("Nature," September 29, 1904, p. 529),
that if 2_d_ be the number of children in a family, half of them _on
the average_ being male, and if the population be stationary, the
number of fertile males in each specific ancestral kinship would be
_one_, in each collateral it would be _d_-½, in each descending
kinship _d_. If 2_d_ = 5 (which is a common size of family), one of
these on the average would be a fertile son, one a fertile daughter,
and the three that remained would leave no issue. They would either
die as boys or girls or they would remain unmarried, or, if married,
would have no children.
The reasonable and approximate assumption I now propose to make is
that the number of fertile individuals is not grossly different to
that of those who live long enough to have an opportunity of
distinguishing themselves. Consequently, the calculations that apply
to fertile persons will be held to apply very roughly to those who
were in a position, so far as age is concerned, to achieve
noteworthiness, whether they did so or not. Thus, if a group of 100
men had between them 20 noteworthy paternal uncles, it will be
assumed that the total number of their paternal uncles who reached
mature age was about 100, making the intensity of success as 20 to
100, or as 1 to 5. This method of roughly evading the serious
difficulty arising from ignorance of the true values in the
individual cases is quite legitimate, and close enough for present
purposes.
CHAPTER VIII.--NUMBER OF NOTEWORTHY KINSMEN IN EACH DEGREE.
The materials with which I am dealing do not admit of adequately
discussing noteworthiness in women, whose opportunities of achieving
distinction are far fewer than those of men, and whose energies are
more severely taxed by domestic and social duties. Women have
sometimes been accredited in these returns by a member of their own
family circle, as being gifted with powers at least equal to those of
their distinguished brothers, but definite facts in corroboration of
such estimates were rarely supplied.
The same absence of solid evidence is more or less true of gifted
youths whose scholastic successes, unless of the highest order, are a
doubtful indication of future power and performance, these depending
much on the length of time during which their minds will continue to
develop. Only a few of the Subjects of the pedigrees in the following
pages have sons in the full maturity of their powers, so it seemed
safer to exclude all relatives who were of a lower generation than
themselves from the statistical inquiry. This will therefore be
confined to the successes of fathers, brothers, grandfathers, uncles,
great-uncles, great-grandfathers, and male first cousins.
Only 207 persons out of the 467 who were addressed sent serviceable
replies, and these cannot be considered a fair sample of the whole.
Abstention might have been due to dislike of publicity, to inertia,
or to pure ignorance, none of which would have much affected the
values as a sample; but an unquestionably common motive does so
seriously--namely, when the person addressed had no noteworthy
kinsfolk to write about. On the latter ground the 260 who did not
reply would, as a whole, be poorer in noteworthy kinsmen than the 207
who did. The true percentages for the 467 lie between two limits:
the upper limit supposes the richness of the 207 to be shared by the
260; the lower limit supposes it to be concentrated in the 207, the
remaining 260 being utterly barren of it. Consequently, the upper
limit is found by multiplying the number of observations by 100 and
dividing by 207, the lower by multiplying by 100 and dividing by 467.
These limits are unreasonably wide; I cannot guess which is the more
remote from the truth, but it cannot be far removed from their mean
values, and this may be accepted as roughly approximate. The
observations and conclusions from them are given in Table VII., p. xl.
CHAPTER IX.--MARKED AND UNMARKED DEGREES OF NOTEWORTHINESS.
Persons who are technically "noteworthy" are by no means of equal
eminence, some being of the highest distinction, while others barely
deserve the title. It is therefore important to ascertain the amount
of error to which a statistical discussion is liable that treats
everyone who ranks as noteworthy at all on equal terms. The problem
resembles a familiar one that relates to methods for electing
Parliamentary representatives, such as have been proposed at various
times, whether it should be by the coarse method of one man one vote,
or through some elaborate arrangement which seems highly preferable
at first sight, but may be found on further consideration to lead to
much the same results.
In order to test the question, I marked each noteworthy person whose
name occurs in the list of sixty-six families at the end of this book
with 3, 2, or 1, according to what I considered his deserts, and soon
found that it was easy to mark them with fair consistency. It is not
necessary to give the rules which guided me, as they were very often
modified by considerations, each obvious enough in itself, but
difficult to summarize as a whole. Various provisional trials were
made; I then began afresh by rejecting a few names as undeserving any
mark at all, and, having marked the remainder individually, found
that a total of 657 marks had been awarded to 332 persons; 117 of
them had received 3 marks; 101, 2 marks; 104, 1 mark; so the three
subdivisions were approximately equal in number. The marks being too
few to justify detailed treatment, I have grouped the kinsmen into
first, second, and third degrees, and into first cousins, the latter
requiring a group to themselves. The first degree contains father and
brothers; the second, grandfathers and uncles; the third,
great-grandparents and great-uncles. The results are shown in Table
VI. The marks assigned to each of the groups are given in the first
line (total 657), and the number of the noteworthy persons in each
group who received any mark at all is shown in the third line (total
329). In order to compare the first and third lines of entries on
equal terms, those in the first were multiplied by 329 and divided by
657, and then entered in the second line. The closeness of
resemblance between the second and third lines emphatically answers
the question to be solved. There is no significant difference between
the results of the marked and the unmarked observations. The reason
probably is that the distribution of triple, double, and single marks
separately is much the same in each of the groups, and therefore
remains alike when the three sets of marks are in use at the same
time. It is thus made clear that trouble taken in carefully marking
names for different degrees of noteworthiness would be wasted in such
a rough inquiry as this.
TABLE VI.--COMPARISON OF RESULTS WITH AND WITHOUT
MARKS IN THE SIXTY-FIVE FAMILIES.
___________________________________________________________________
| | | | | | |
| | First | Second | Third | First | Total |
| | Degree.| Degree.| Degree.| Cousins.| |
|______________________|________|________|________|_________|_______|
| | | | | | |
|Number of marks | 225 | 208 | 102 | 122 | 657 |
| assigned | | | | | |
|______________________|________|________|________|_________|_______|
| | | | | | |
|Number of marks | | | | | |
| reduced | | | | | |
| proportionately | 113 | 104 | 51 | 61 | 329 |
|Number of individuals | | | | | |
| unmarked | 110 | 112 | 46 | 61 | 329 |
|______________________|________|________|________|_________|_______|
| | | | | | |
| Mean | 111 | 108 | 49 | 61 | 329 |
|______________________|________|________|________|_________|_______|
Table VII., in the next chapter, affords an interesting illustration
of the character of the ignorance concerning the noteworthiness of
kinsmen in distant degrees, showing that it is much lessened when
they bear the same surname as their father, or even as the maiden
surname of their mother. The argument is this: Table V. has already
shown that _me bros_ are, speaking roughly, as frequently noteworthy
as _fa bros_--fifty-two of the one to forty-five of the other--so
noteworthiness is so far an equal characteristic of the maternal and
paternal lines, resembling in that respect nearly all the qualities
that are transmitted purely through heredity. There ought, therefore,
to be as many persons recorded as noteworthy in each of the four
different kinds of great-grandparents. The same should be the case in
each of the four kinds of great-uncles. But this is not so in either
case. The noteworthy great-grandfathers, _fa fa fa_, who bear the
same name as the subject are twice as numerous as the _me fa fa_ who
bear the maiden surname of the mother, and more than five times as
numerous as either of the other two, the _fa me fa_ and _me me fa_,
whose surnames differ from both, unless it be through some accident,
whether of a cross marriage or a chance similarity of names. It is
just the same with the great-uncles. Now, the figures for
great-grandfathers and great-uncles run so closely alike that they
may fairly be grouped together, in order to obtain a more impressive
whole--namely, two sorts of these kinsmen, bearing the same name as
the Subject, contain between them 23 noteworthies, or 11.50 each; two
sorts having the mother's maiden surname contain together 11
noteworthies, or 5.50 each; four sorts containing between them 7
names, or an average of 1.75 each. These figures are self-consistent,
being each the sum of two practically equal constituents, and they
are sufficiently numerous to be significant. The remarkable
differences in their numbers, 11.50, 5.50, 1.75, when they ought to
have been equal, has therefore to be accounted for, and the
explanation given above seems both reasonable and sufficient.
CHAPTER X.--CONCLUSIONS.
The most casual glance at Table VII. leaves no doubt as to the rapid
diminution in the frequency of noteworthiness as the distance of
kinship to the F.R.S. increases, and it would presumably do the same
to any other class of noteworthy persons.
In drawing more exact conclusions, the returns must be deemed to
refer not to a group of 207 F.R.S., because they are not a fair
sample of the whole body of 467, and, for reasons already given, they
are too rich in noteworthiness for the one and too poor for the
other. They will, therefore, be referred to the number that is the
mean of these two limits--namely, to 337. I am aware of no obvious
guidance to any better hypothesis.
The value of the expectation that noteworthiness would be found in
any specified kinsman of an F.R.S., of whom nothing else is known,
may be easily calculated from Table VII. on the two hypotheses
already mentioned and justified: (1) That the figures should be taken
to refer to 337, and not to 207; (2) that 1 per cent. of the
generality are noteworthy--that is to say, there are 3.37
noteworthies to every 337 persons of the generality.
TABLE VII.--NUMBER OF NOTEWORTHY KINSMEN RECORDED
IN 207 RETURNS.
__________________________________________________________
| | || | |
| Kinship. | Numbers || Kinship. | Numbers |
| | Recorded.|| | Recorded. |
|_________________|__________||________________| __________|
| | || | |
| _fa_ | 81 || --- | --- |
| _bro_ | 104 || --- | --- |
| | || | |
| _fa fa_ | 40 || _fa fa fa_ | 11 |
| _me fa_ | 42 || _fa me fa_ | 2 |
| _fa bro_ | 45 || _me fa fa_ | 5 |
| _me bro_ | 52 || _me me fa_ | 1 |
| | || | |
| _fa bro son_ | 30 || _fa fa bro_ | 12 |
| _me bro son_ | 19 || _fa me bro_ | 2 |
| _fa si son_ | 28 || _me fa bro_ | 6 |
| _me si son_ | 22 || _me me bro_ | 2 |
|_________________|__________||________________|___________|
Thus, for the fathers of F.R.S., 81 are recorded as noteworthy,
against 3.37 of fathers of the generality--that is, they are 24.1
times as numerous. For the first cousins of F.R.S. there are 99
noteworthies, divided amongst four kinds of male first-cousins, or
24.75 on an average to each kind, against the 3.37 of the
generality--that is, they are 7.3 times as numerous.
On this principle the expectation of noteworthiness in a kinsman of
an F.R.S. (or of other noteworthy person) is greater in the following
proportion than in one who has no such kinsman: If he be a father, 24
times as great; if a brother, 31 times; if a grandfather, 12 times;
if an uncle, 14 times; if a male first cousin, 7 times; if a
great-great-grandfather on the paternal line, 3½ times.
The reader may work out results for himself on other hypotheses as to
the percentage of noteworthiness among the generality. A considerably
larger proportion would be noteworthy in the higher classes of
society, but a far smaller one in the lower; it is to the bulk, say,
to three-quarters of them, that the 1 per cent. estimate applies, the
extreme variations from it tending to balance one another.
The figures on which the above calculations depend may each or all of
them be changed to any reasonable amount, without shaking the truth
of the great fact upon which Eugenics is based, that able fathers
produce able children in a much larger proportion than the
generality.
The parents of the 207 Fellows of the Royal Society occupy a wide
variety of social positions. A list is given in the Appendix of the
more or less noteworthy parents of those Fellows whose names occur in
the list of sixty-six families. The parents are classified according
to their pursuits. Many parents of the other Fellows in the 207
families were not noteworthy in the technical sense of the word, but
were reported to be able. It was also often said in the replies that
the general level of ability among the members of the family of the
F.R.S. was high. Other parents were in no way remarkable, so the
future Fellow was simply a "sport," to use the language of
horticulturists and breeders, in respect to his taste and ability. It
is to be remembered that "sports" are transmissible by heredity, and
have been, through careful selection, the origin of most of the
valuable varieties of domesticated plants and animals. Sports have
been conspicuous in the human race, especially in some individuals of
the highest eminence in music, painting, and in art generally, but
this is not the place to enter further into so large a subject. It
has been treated at length by many writers, especially by Bateson and
De Vries, also by myself in the third chapter of "Natural
Inheritance" and in the preface to the second edition of "Hereditary
Genius."
NOTEWORTHY FAMILIES OF
FELLOWS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY
LIVING IN 1904.
#AVEBURY#, Lord. See LUBBOCK.
#BALFOUR#, Right Hon. Arthur James (b. 1848), P.C., etc., F.R.S.,
Leader of the House of Commons, 1895; Prime Minister, 1902;
President of the British Association, 1904; author of "The
Foundations of Belief." [For fuller references, see "Who's Who"
and numerous other biographies.]
_bro_, Francis Maitland BALFOUR (1851-1882), F.R.S., Professor of
Animal Morphology at Cambridge; brilliant investigator in embryology;
gold medal, Royal Society, 1881; killed by a fall in the Alps.
_bro_, Right Hon. Gerald W. BALFOUR (b. 1853), P.C., Fellow of
Trinity College, Cambridge; President of the Board of Trade, 1902.
_si_, Eleanor Mildred (Mrs. Henry SIDGWICK), Principal of Newnham
College, Cambridge.
_si_, Evelyn, wife of LORD RAYLEIGH, F.R.S., and mother of Hon.
Robert John STRUTT, F.R.S. (q.v.).
_me bro_, 3rd Marquis of SALISBURY, Robert A.T. GASCOIGNE-CECIL
(1830-1903), K.G., P.C., etc., F.R.S.; eminent statesman; Prime
Minister, 1885-1886, 1886, 1895-1903; Chancellor of the University of
Oxford; President of the British Association, 1894; in earlier life
essayist and critic; also an experimenter in electricity.
It is difficult to distinguish those in the able family of the Cecils
whose achievements were due to sheer ability from those who were
largely helped by social influence. A second _me bro_ and five _me
bro sons_ are recorded in "Who's Who."
Sir Robert Stawell #BALL#, LL.D., F.R.S. (b. 1840), Lowndean Prof.
of Astronomy and Geometry, Cambridge; Fellow of King's College,
Cambridge; Member of the Council of the Senate; Director of the
Cambridge Observatory since 1892; Royal Astronomer of Ireland,
1874-1892; Ex-President of Royal Astronomical Soc., Mathematical
Assoc., and of Royal Zoological Soc. of Ireland; author of many
works on astronomical, mathematical, and physical
subjects.--["Who's Who."]
_fa_, Robert BALL (1802-1857), Hon. LL.D., Trinity Coll.,
distinguished naturalist; Secretary of Royal Zoological Soc. of
Ireland; President of Geological Soc. of Ireland; Director of
Trinity Coll. Museum, 1844.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_bro_, Valentine BALL, LL.D., C.B., F.R.S. (1843-1895); on staff of
Geological Survey of India, 1864-1880; Prof. of Geology and
Mineralogy in the University of Dublin, 1880-1882; Director and
Organizer of National Museum, Dublin, 1882-1895; author of "Jungle
Life in India," of an elaborate treatise on the economic geology of
India, and of "Diamonds and Gold of India."--["Obit. Notice, P.R.S.,"
1895.]
_bro_, Sir Charles Bent BALL, M.D., M.Ch., F.R.C.S.I., Hon. F.R.C.S.,
England; Regius Professor of Surgery, Univ. of Dublin; Surgeon to Sir
Patrick Dun's Hospital, and Honorary Surgeon to the King in Ireland;
author of various surgical works.--["Who's Who."]
_me bro son_, Ames HELLICAR, the successful manager of the leading
bank in Sydney, N.S.W.
Thomas George #BARING#, first Earl of NORTHBROOK (1826-1904), P.C.,
D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.; Under-Secretary of State for India, Home
Department, and for War; Viceroy of India, 1872-1876; First Lord
of the Admiralty, 1880-1885.--["Who's Who," and "Ency. Brit."]
_fa fa fa_, Sir Francis BARING (1710-1810), Chairman of East India
Company, 1792-1793; created baronet 1793.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_fa fa bro_, Alexander BARING, first Baron ASHBURTON (1774-1848),
financier and statesman; head for many years of Baring Brothers and
Co.; member of Sir Robert Peel's Cabinet of 1835; raised to peerage
1835; Commissioner to U.S.A., 1842, for Settlement "Ashburton Treaty"
of Boundary Dispute.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_me me_, Hon. Lady GREY, née WHITBREAD (1770-1858), prominent in
every work of Christian philanthropy during twenty-four years in the
Commissioner's house in Plymouth, afterwards in Ireland.--["Record"
newspaper, May 26, 1858.]
_fa_, Francis Thornhill BARING (1786-1866), first Baron NORTHBROOK,
double first at Oxford, 1817; First Lord of the Admiralty.--["Dict.
N. Biog."]
_fa bro_, Thomas BARING (1799-1873), financier; refused
Chancellorship of Exchequer, also a peerage; head for many years of
Baring Brothers and Co.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_fa bro_, Charles BARING (1807-1879), double first at Oxford, 1829;
Bishop of Gloucester and Bristol, 1856, of Durham, 1861.--["Dict. N.
Biog."]
_fa fa bro son_, Evelyn BARING (b. 1841), first Earl CROMER, P.C.,
son of H. Baring, M.P.; passed first into staff college from Royal
Artillery; made successively Baron, Viscount, and Earl, for services
in Egypt.--["Who's Who," and "Ency. Brit."]
_fa fa si son_, Henry LABOUCHERE (1798-1869), first Baron TAUNTON,
first-class "Greats" at Oxford; Cabinet Minister under Lord Melbourne
and Lord John Russell; raised to peerage 1859.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_me bro_, Sir George GREY (1799-1882), Home Secretary 1846-1852,
1855-1858, 1861-1866; carried the Bill that abolished transportation.
_me fa bro_, Charles GREY (1764-1845), second Earl GREY, Prime
Minister; carried the Reform Bill.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_me si son_, Sir Edward JENKINSON (b. 1835), K.C.B., Private
Secretary to Lord Spencer when Lord Lieutenant of Ireland.--["Who's
Who."]
Descended from _fa fa fa bro_, Rev. S. BARING-GOULD (b. 1834),
author of numerous novels and works on theology and history.--["Who's
Who."]
William Thomas #BLANFORD#, LL.D., F.R.S.; (1832-1905), on staff of
Geological Survey of India, 1855-1882; accompanied Abyssinian
Expedition and Persian Boundary Commission; sometime President of
Geological Society and of Asiatic Soc. of Bengal, also of
Geological Section British Assoc.; author of works dealing with
the geology and zoology of Abyssinia, Persia, and India.--["Who's
Who."]
_fa_, William BLANFORD, established a manufacturing business in
London, and was a founder, and for many years Chairman, of the Thames
Plate Glass Company.
_me bro_, Alfred SIMPSON, established a large and successful
manufacturing business in Adelaide, S. Australia.
_bro_, Henry Francis BLANFORD, F.R.S., for many years at the head of
the Indian Meteorological Department, which he originally organized.
Right Hon. Charles #BOOTH# (b. 1840), P.C., F.R.S., economist and
statistician; President of the Royal Statistical Soc., 1892-1894;
originated and carried through a co-operative inquiry in minute
detail into the houses and occupations of the inhabitants of
London, which resulted in the volumes "Life and Labour of the
People of London"; author of memoirs on allied subjects. ["Ency.
Brit.," xxvi. 306; "Who's Who."]
_fa fa_, Thomas BOOTH, successful merchant and shipowner at
Liverpool.
_fa bro_, Henry BOOTH (1788-1869), railway projector; co-operated
with Stephenson in applying steam to locomotion, published much
relating to railways, and invented mechanical contrivances still in
use on railways; secretary and then railway director.--["Dict. N.
Biog.," v. 382.]
_fa bro_, James BOOTH (1796-1880), C.B., Parliamentary draughtsman;
became Permanent Secretary to the Board of Trade.
_me si son_, Charles CROMPTON, Fourth Wrangler, Q.C., and for some
years M.P. for the Leek Division of Staffordshire.
_me si son_, Henry CROMPTON, a leader in the Positivist Community;
authority on Trades Union Law, and author of "Industrial
Conciliation."
_me si son_, Sir Henry Enfield ROSCOE, F.R.S. (q.v.)
Robert Holford Macdowall #BOSANQUET#, F.R.S. (b. 1841). Fellow of
St. John's Coll., Oxford; author of many mathematical and
physical memoirs, chiefly in the "Philosophical Magazine."
_fa fa bro_, Sir John Bernard BOSANQUET (1773-1847), Judge of Common
Pleas, 1830; Lord Commissioner of Great Seal, 1835-1836.--["Dict. N.
Biog."]
_bro_, Bernard BOSANQUET (b. 1848), Prof. of Moral Philosophy, St.
Andrews, since 1903; formerly Fellow of University Coll., Oxford;
worked in connection with Charity Organization Society; author of
many books on philosophy.--["Who's Who."]
_bro_, Vice-Admiral Day Hort BOSANQUET (b. 1843),
Commander-in-Chief West Indian Station since 1904; previously
Commander-in-Chief East Indian.--["Who's Who."]
_fa son_, Charles Bertie Pulleine BOSANQUET (b. 1834), a founder
and the first secretary of the Charity Organization Society.
_me fa bro_, Hay MACDOWALL (d. 1806), Commander-in-Chief of Madras
Presidency.
_fa son son_, Robert Carr BOSANQUET (b. 1871), archæologist,
director of British School of Archæology at Athens.
_me si son_, Ralph DUNDAS, head of large and influential firm of
Dundas and Wilson, Writers to the Signet, Edinburgh. His relatives on
his father's side include his--
_fa_, John DUNDAS, worked up the business of Dundas and Wilson
into its present position.
_fa fa son_, Sir David DUNDAS (1799-1877), Judge-Advocate-General
and Privy Councillor, 1849.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_fa fa son_, George DUNDAS, Judge in Scotch Courts under the
title of Lord MANOR.
_fa fa son son_, David DUNDAS, K.C. (b. 1854), Judge in Scotch
Courts under the title of Lord DUNDAS; Solicitor-General for
Scotland, 1903.--["Who's Who."]
James Thomson #BOTTOMLEY# (Hon. LL.D., Glasgow), D.Sc., F.R.S.,
electrical engineer (1870-1899); Arnott and Thomson, Demonstrator
in the University of Glasgow.--["Who's Who."]
_me fa_, James THOMSON.
_me bro_, William THOMSON, Lord Kelvin, F.R.S.
_me bro_, James THOMSON, F.R.S.
See THOMSON for the above.
Sir Dietrich #BRANDIS# (b. 1824), K.C.I.E., F.R.S., Superintendent
of Forests, British Burmah, 1856-1864; Inspector-General of
Forests to the Government of India, 1864-1883.--["Who's Who."]
_fa fa_, Joachim Dietrich BRANDIS, born at Hildesheim, where his
ancestors had governed the town as Burgemeister for centuries;
practised medicine at Brunswick, Driburg, and Pyrmont; Professor of
Pathology at Kiel; ultimately physician to the Queen of Denmark.
_fa_, Christian August BRANDIS, secretary of the Prussian Legation in
Rome, 1818; afterwards Professor of Philosophy at Bonn; went to
Athens, 1837-1839, as confidential adviser to King Otho, partly with
regard to the organization of schools and colleges in Greece; author
of a "History of Greek Philosophy."
_me bro_, Friedrich HAUSMANN, Professor of Mineralogy and Geology at
Göttingen; author of a "Handbook of Mineralogy."
_bro_, Johannes BRANDIS, for many years Kabinetsrath of H.M. Empress
Augusta, Queen of Prussia.
_me si son_, Julius VON HARTMANN, commanded a cavalry division in the
Franco-German War; after the war was Governor of Strasburg.
Alexander Crum #BROWN# (b. 1838), M.D., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.,
Professor of Chemistry at Edinburgh University since 1869;
president of the Chemical Soc., London, 1892-1893.--["Who's
Who."]
_fa fa fa_, John BROWN (1722-1787), of Haddington, Biblical
commentator; as a herd boy taught himself Latin, Greek, and learned
Hebrew with the aid of a teacher, at one time a pedlar; served as a
soldier in the Edinburgh garrison, 1745; minister to the Burgher
congregation at Haddington, 1750-1787; acted as Professor of Divinity
to Burgher students after 1767.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_fa fa_, John BROWN (1754-1832), Scottish divine; minister of Burgher
church at Whitburn, 1776-1832; wrote memoirs of James Hervey, 1806,
and many religious treatises.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_fa_, John BROWN (1784-1858), minister of Burgher church at Biggor,
1806; of Secession Church at Edinburgh, 1822; D.D., 1830; Professor
of Exegetics Secession Coll., 1834, and in United Presbyterian Coll.
1847; author of many exegetical commentaries.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_me bro_, Walter CRUM, F.R.S., manufacturer at Thornliebank, near
Glasgow; a successful man of business and a very able chemist.
_fa son_, John BROWN (1810-1882), M.D., practised in Edinburgh with
success; author of "Horæ Subsecivæ," "Rab and his Friends."--["Dict.
N. Biog."]
_fa si son_, Robert JOHNSTONE (b.1832), D.D., LL.B., Professor of
New Testament Literature and Exegesis in the United Free Church
Coll., Aberdeen; has published works on the New Testament.--["Who's
Who."]
_si son_, Charles STEWART-WILSON, Postmaster-General, Punjab, since
1899.--["India List."]
_me bro son_, Alexander CRUM, managing director of the "Thornliebank
Co.," for some time M.P. for Renfrewshire.
Sir James Crichton #BROWNE# (b. 1840), M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Lord
Chancellor's Visitor in Lunacy since 1875; Vice-President and
Treasurer Royal Institution since 1889; author of various works
on mental and nervous diseases.--["Who's Who."]
_me fa_, Andrew BALFOUR, successful printer in Edinburgh;
collaborated with Sir David Brewster in production of the "Edinburgh
Encyclopædia," the forerunner of the "Ency. Brit."; one of the
leaders of the Free Church disruption.
_fa_, William Alexander Francis BROWNE, F.R.S.E., physician; largely
instrumental in introducing humane methods for the treatment of the
insane into Scotland; was appointed First Scotch Commissioner in
Lunacy; author of works on mental diseases.
_me bro_, John Hutton BALFOUR (1808-1884), M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. and
F.R.S.E., Professor of Botany at Glasgow, 1841; and at Edinburgh,
1845; wrote botanical text-books.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_bro_, John Hutton BALFOUR-BROWNE, K.C. (b. 1845), Leader of the
Parliamentary Bar; Registrar and Secretary to Railway Comm., 1874;
author of numerous legal works.--["Who's Who."]
_me bro son_, Isaac Bayley BALFOUR, M.D., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. (b.
1853), King's Botanist in Scotland; Regius Keeper of Royal Botanic
Garden, Edinburgh; Professor of Botany at Glasgow and at Oxford, and
since 1888 at Edinburgh.--["Who's Who."]
Sir John Scott #BURDON-SANDERSON#, Bart., cr. 1899, M.D., D.C.L.,
LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.; held a succession of important offices,
beginning with Inspector Med. Dep. Privy Council, 1860-1865;
Superintendent Brown Institution, 1871-1878; Professor of
Physiology University Coll., London, 1874-1882; in Oxford,
1882-1895; President Brit. Assoc., 1893; Regius Professor of
Medicine at Oxford, 1895-1904; served on three Royal Commissions;
author of many physiological memoirs.--["Ency. Brit.," xxvi. 464;
"Who's Who."]
_fa fa_, Sir Thomas BURDON, Kt., several times Mayor of Newcastle,
knighted for his services in quelling a riot.
_me fa_, Sir James SANDERSON, Bart., M.P., Lord Mayor of London; a
successful merchant.
_fa_, Richard BURDON-SANDERSON, graduated first class and gained
Newdigate prize; Fellow of Oriel Coll., Oxford; was Secretary to Lord
Chancellor Eldon.
_bro_, Richard BURDON-SANDERSON, the first promoter of the
"Conciliation Board" of coal-owners and colliers at
Newcastle-on-Tyne, and of the first reformatory in Northumberland.
_si son_, Rt. Hon. Richard Burdon HALDANE (b. 1856), P.C., M.P.,
high honours at Edinburgh and three other Scotch universities; author
of "Life of Adam Smith" and of "Memoirs on Education."--["Who's
Who."]
_si son_, John Scott HALDANE (b. 1860), q.v., M.D., F.R.S.,
University Lecturer on Physiology at Oxford; joint editor and founder
of "Journal of Hygiene."--["Who's Who."]
_si da_, Elizabeth Sanderson HALDANE (q.v.).
_More distant kinsmen and connections:_
_fa me bro_, John SCOTT, first Earl of ELDON (1751-1838), famous Lord
Chancellor of England.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_fa me bro_, William SCOTT (1745-1836), first Baron STOWELL, eminent
maritime and international lawyer; judge of High Court of Admiralty,
(1798-1828).--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_wife's bro_, FARRER, first Lord HERSCHELL, Lord Chancellor of
England.
Charles #CHREE#, Sc.D. (Camb.), LL.D. (Aberdeen), F.R.S. (1860),
Superintendent Observatory Department, National Physical Lab.;
graduated Aberdeen, 1879, obtaining gold medal awarded to the
most distinguished graduate in Arts of the year; Sixth Wrangler,
Cambridge, 1883; first division Math. Tripos, Part III.; first
class Natural Sciences Tripos, Part II.; and Fellow of King's
College, 1885; re-elected as Research Fellow, 1890.--["Who's
Who."]
_fa_, Charles CHREE, Hon. D.D. Aberdeen University; for many years
clerk to Presbytery of Meigle, and convener of committee for
examining divinity students in St. Andrew's University. Had
considerable reputation in Church of Scotland for general
scholarship, and especially for knowledge of Hebrew.
_bro_, William CHREE, after graduating with first class mathematical
honours at Aberdeen University, obtained a "Fullerton" mathematical
scholarship. In addition to prizes in mathematics and physics at
Aberdeen, obtained also prizes in Latin, natural history, and moral
philosophy. At Edinburgh University was awarded either first or
second prizes in Scots Law, conveyancing, civil law, public law, and
constitutional history. Practises as advocate at Scotch Bar.
_bro_, Alexander Bain CHREE, died young, having graduated at Aberdeen
University with first class honours in mathematics, obtaining prizes
in mathematics, physics, Latin, Greek, moral philosophy, and natural
history.
_si_, Jessie Search CHREE, obtained two prizes and honours in at
least four subjects (French, logic, Latin, physics) in the Edinburgh
University local examinations.
Arthur Herbert #CHURCH# (b. 1834), F.R.S., D.Sc., Professor of
Chemistry at Royal Academy of Arts since 1879; discoverer of
turacin, also of churchite and other new minerals; President of
the Mineralogical Society, 1898-1901; author of various works on
English pottery and porcelain, on precious stones, on food, and
on the chemistry of paints and painting.--["Who's Who."]
_bro_, Henry Francis CHURCH (1824-1899), solicitor, Chief Clerk in
Chancery, and Master of the High Court of Judicature.
_bro_, Alfred John CHURCH (Rev.), (b. 1829), Headmaster of Henley
and of Retford Grammar Schools; Professor of Latin at Univ. Coll.,
London, 1880-1888; prize poem, Oxford, 1883; author of various works
dealing with classical subjects.--["Who's Who."]
_fa si da son_, Sir John R. SEELEY, K.C.M.G. (1834-1895), Professor
first of Latin at Univ. Coll., London, and afterwards of Modern
History at Cambridge; published in 1865 "Ecce Homo," a work which
attracted immediate attention and provoked a storm of controversy;
also works on history and political science.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
Sydney Monckton #COPEMAN#, F.R.S., M.D. (Camb.), Medical Inspector
Local Government Board; Member of Council of Epidemiological
Society; Research Scholar and Special Commissioner British
Medical Association; recipient of many gold medals and prizes of
importance.--["Who's Who."]
_fa fa fa_, Peter COPEMAN, founder, with his brother Robert, of
Copeman's Bank, Aylsham, Norfolk (now incorporated with Barclay's);
successful merchant.
_fa_, Arthur Charles COPEMAN, M.B., London; gold medallist in anatomy
and physiology, University of London; entered Army Medical Service on
the nomination of the Chancellor of the University; subsequently
entered the Church, and became Hon. Canon of Norwich Cathedral; for
many years Chairman of Norfolk and Norwich Hospital, and of Norwich
School Board and Board of Guardians.
_fa bro_, Edward COPEMAN, M.D., Aberdeen; President British Medical
Association; consulting physician to Norfolk and Norwich Hospital;
author and inventor of gynæcological instruments and of special
methods of operation.
James Henry #COTTERILL#, F.R.S. (b. 1836), Lecturer and
subsequently Vice-Principal of the Royal School of Naval
Architecture, South Kensington; Professor of Applied Mechanics at
the Royal Naval Coll., Greenwich, 1873-1897.--["Who's Who."]
_fa bro_, Thomas COTTERILL, eminent clergyman at Sheffield; A.B.,
Cambridge, 1801.--["Grad. Cant."]
_bro_, Joseph Morthland COTTERILL, D.D. (hon. causa), St. Andrew's
University.
_fa son_, Henry COTTERILL, Senior Wrangler, 1835; second classic,
Fellow of St. John's Coll., Cambridge; Bishop of Edinburgh.--["Grad.
Cant."]
_bro son_, Joseph M. COTTERILL (b. 1851), Surgeon to Edinburgh
Royal Infirmary, Lecturer at Edinburgh School of Medicine.--["Who's
Who."]
_bro son_, Arthur COTTERILL, Head of Permanent Way Department
Egyptian Railway Administration.
_fa bro son_, Thomas COTTERILL, third wrangler, 1832; fellow of St.
John's Coll., Cambridge; one of the earliest members of the London
Mathematical Soc., to which he contributed many papers of
importance.--["Grad. Cant."]
George Howard #DARWIN# (b. 1845), F.R.S., second wrangler, 1868;
Plumian Professor of Astronomy and Experimental Philosophy,
Cambridge; author of many papers in the "Philosophical
Transactions" relating to tides, physical astronomy, and cognate
subjects; President of British Association in 1905 at Cape
Town.--["Who's Who."]
_fa fa fa_, Erasmus DARWIN, M.D., F.R.S. (1731-1802), physician,
poet, and philosopher; author of "Botanic Garden," "Zoonomia," and
other works, in which he maintained a view of evolution subsequently
expounded by Lamarck.--["Life," by Ch. R. Darwin, and "Dict. N.
Biog."]
_fa fa_, Robert Waring DARWIN (1766-1848), M.D., F.R.S., sagacious
and distinguished physician; described by his son, Charles R. Darwin,
as "the wisest man I ever knew."--["Life and Letters of Charles R.
Darwin," i. 10-20.]
_fa fa bro_, Charles DARWIN (1758-1778), of extraordinary promise,
gained first gold medal of Æsculapian Society for experimental
research; died from a dissection wound, aged twenty; many obituary
notices.--["Life and Letters of Charles R. Darwin," i. 7.]
_fa bro_, Erasmus DARWIN. (See Carlyle's inexact description, and the
appreciations of him by his brother and others, in "Life and Letters
of Charles R. Darwin," i. 21-25.)
_fa_, Charles Robert DARWIN (1809-1882), F.R.S., the celebrated
naturalist. The dates of his works are "Voyage of the _Beagle_,"
1840; "Origin of Species," 1859; followed by a succession of eight
important volumes ranging from 1862 to 1881, each of which confirmed
and extended his theory of descent. Among the very numerous
biographical memoirs it must suffice here to mention "Life and
Letters," by Francis Darwin, and "Dict. N. Biog."
_me me fa_, Josiah WEDGWOOD, F.R.S. (1730-1795), the famous founder
of the pottery works.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_me me bro_, Thomas WEDGWOOD (1771-1805), an experimenter in early
life, and in one sense the first to create photography; a martyr to
ill-health later. Sydney Smith knew "no man who appeared to have
made such an impression on his friends," his friends including many
of the leading intellects of the day.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_me fa fa_ (she was her husband's _fa bro dau_), Josiah WEDGWOOD,
F.R.S.; see above.
_me bro_, Hensleigh WEDGWOOD (1803-1891), author of "Etymological
Dictionary" and of other works, partly mathematical.--["Dict. N.
Biog."]
_me bro dau_, Julia WEDGWOOD, essayist.
_bro_, Francis DARWIN (b. 1848), F.R.S., botanist; biographer of
his father; reader in botany at Cambridge, 1876-1903; foreign sec.
Royal Society. Author of botanical works and memoirs.--["Who's Who."]
_bro_, Major Leonard DARWIN (b. 1850), late R.E., second in the
examination of his year for Woolwich; served on several scientific
expeditions, including transit of Venus of 1874 and 1882; Staff
Intelligence Dep. War Office, 1885-1890; M.P. for Lichfield,
1892-1895. Author of "Bimetallism," "Municipal Trade."--["Who's
Who."]
_bro_, Horace DARWIN (b. 1851), F.R.S., engineer and mechanician;
joint founder of the Cambridge Scientific Instrument Company and its
proprietor. It is now a limited company, of which he is
chairman.--["Who's Who."]
_More distant relation:_
_fa fa si son_, Francis GALTON, F.R.S. (q.v.).
Sir John #EVANS# (b. 1823), K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., Sc.D., F.R.S.,
President of the Royal Numismatic Society since 1874; trustee of
the British Museum; treasurer and vice-president of the Royal
Society during twenty years; has been president of numerous
learned societies; author of works on the coins of the Ancient
Britons, and on their stone and bronze implements.--["Who's Who,"
and "Ency. Brit."]
_fa fa_, Lewis EVANS (1755-1827), F.R.S., F.A.S., mathematician;
first Mathematical Master of R.M.A., Woolwich.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_fa_, Arthur Benoni EVANS (1781-1854), D.D., miscellaneous writer;
Professor of Classics and History, R.M.C., 1805-1822; headmaster of
Market Bosworth Grammar School, 1825-1854.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_me bro_ and _wi fa_, John DICKINSON (1782-1869), F.R.S., inventor of
paper-making machine.
_bro_, Sebastian EVANS, LL.D., poet, artist, and author.
_si_, Anne EVANS (1820-1870), poet and musician, composer.--["Dict.
N. Biog."]
_son_, Arthur John EVANS (b. 1851), D.Litt. (Oxon), Hon. D.Litt.
(Dublin), Hon. LL.D. (Edinburgh), F.R.S., Keeper of Ashmolean Museum,
Oxford, since 1884; in 1893 started investigations in Crete, which
resulted in the discovery of the pre-Phoenician script; in
1900-1905 excavated the prehistoric palace of Knossos.--["Who's
Who."]
_me bro son_ and _wi bro_, John DICKINSON (1815-1876), writer on
India, and founder of Indian Reform Society, 1853.--["Dict. N.
Biog."]
Right Hon. Sir Edward #FRY# (b. 1827), D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Judge
of High Court, Chancery Division, 1877-1883; Lord Justice of
Appeal, 1883-1892; President of the Royal Com. on the Irish Land
Acts, 1897-1898; Chairman of the Court of Arbitration under the
Metropolitan Water Act, 1902; member of the Permanent Court of
International Arbitration at the Hague; author of a "Treatise on
the Specific Performance of Contracts," of "British Mosses," and
"The Mycetozoa."--["Who's Who."]
_fa bro_, Francis FRY (1803-1886), member of the firm of J.S. Fry and
Co., Bristol; a great authority on bibliography.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_bro_, Right Hon. Lewis FRY (b. 1832), M.P. for Bristol, 1878-1885;
N. Bristol, 1885-1892, and 1895-1900.--["Who's Who."]
_bro_, Joseph Storrs FRY, has maintained and extended a large
manufacturing business, and taken an active part in philanthropic
work.
_fa fa fa_, Joseph FRY (1728-1787), practised medicine in Bristol,
afterwards manufactured cocoa and chocolate; started type-founding
business with William Pine, 1764.--["Dic. N. Biog."]
_fa fa bro_, Edmund FRY (1754-1835), M.D. of Edinburgh; devoted his
life to the business of type-founding, and to the philological
studies connected with it.--["Dic. N. Biog."]
_wife_, Mariabella, née HODGKIN, _dau_ of the historian.
Francis #GALTON# (b. 1822), D.C.L., Hon. Sc.D. (Camb.), F.R.S.,
traveller, anthropologist and biometrician; author of many works
and memoirs on these and analogous subjects, including
meteorology, heredity, identification by fingerprints; latterly a
promoter of the study of Eugenics. Gold medal R. Geog. Soc.,
1853, for travels in Damaraland, S. Africa; Royal medal, 1886,
and Darwin medal, 1903, of the Royal Soc., for applications of
measurement to human faculty; Huxley medal of the Anthropol.
Institute, 1901.--["Ency. Brit.," and "Who's Who."]
_fa si_, SCHIMMELPENNINCK (1778-1856), Mrs. Mary Anne, author of
various works, mostly theological, and on the Port Royalists and
Moravians.--["Dic. N. Biog."]
_fa fa fa_, Samuel GALTON (1720-1799), cultured Quaker
philanthropist, contractor and banker.--[See life of above M.A.S.,
and the "Annual Register."]
_fa me ½ bro_, Robert Barclay ALLARDICE (1779-1854), commonly known
as Capt. BARCLAY of Ury, pedestrian, noted for his walking feats,
agriculturist.--["Dic. N. Biog."]
_me fa_, Erasmus DARWIN, M.D., F.R.S.--See DARWIN.
_me ½ bro son_, Charles Robert DARWIN, F.R.S., the naturalist.--See
DARWIN.
_si son_, Edward G. WHELER (b. 1850), a founder and president of
the Land Agents' Society; commissioner and estate agent during
sixteen years for 155,000 acres of various descriptions of property.
_fa bro son_, Sir Douglas GALTON (1822-1901), K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D.,
F.R.S., passed from Woolwich to Royal Engineers with the best
examination then on record, obtaining first prize in every subject,
1840; Inspector of Railways, and Secretary of Railway Dept., Board of
Trade, 1856; Assistant Inspector-General of Fortifications, 1860;
designed and constructed the Herbert Hospital at Woolwich; Director
of Public Works and Building in H.M. Works, 1870-1875; General
Secretary of British Assoc., 1870-1895; President of it, 1895;
authority on hospital construction, and on the sanitation,
ventilation, etc., of public buildings.--["Dict. N. Biog.," Suppl.
ii.]
_His kindred by his mother's side are:_
_me fa fa_, Jedediah STRUTT (1726-1797), hosiery manufacturer and
cotton spinner; inventor of machine for making ribbed stockings;
partner of Sir Richard Arkwright.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_me fa_, Joseph STRUTT (1765-1844), first Mayor of Derby, 1835,
and donor of the arboretum; great friend of the poet Thomas
Moore.--["Dict. N. Biog.," and "Life and Letters" of T. Moore.]
_me fa bro_, William STRUTT (1756-1830), ingenious mechanician
and inventor; friend of Erasmus Darwin, R.L. Edgeworth, Robert
Owen, Joseph Lancaster, Samuel Bentham Dalton, etc.; originator
and designer of the first Derby Infirmary.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_me fa bro son_, Edward STRUTT (1801-1880), created Baron BELPER,
1856; M.P., F.R.S.; a philosophical Radical, intimate with
Bentham, the Mills, and Macaulay; Chancellor of the Duchy of
Lancaster, 1852-1854; President of University Coll., London,
1871.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_me fa bro son_, Anthony STRUTT (1791-1875), ingenious
mechanician.
_me me si son_, Sir Charles FOX (1810-1874), constructing
engineer of London and Birmingham Railway; knighted after
designing Exhibition buildings in Hyde Park, 1851; made first
narrow-gauge line in India; built Berlin Waterworks.--["Dict. N.
Biog."]
Sir Archibald #GEIKIE# (b. 1835), F.R.S., and many foreign
distinctions; Director-General Geological Survey of United
Kingdom, and Director Museum Practical Geology in Jermyn Street,
1882-1901; medallist of the Royal and other societies; Secretary
of the Royal Society; author of numerous works on geology, also
of biographies of David Forbes, Sir R. Murchison, and Sir A.
Ramsay.--["Who's Who," "Ency. Brit."]
_fa_, James Stewart GEIKIE (1811-1883), musician and musical critic;
author of much psalmody, and of several well-known Scottish melodies,
such as "My Heather Hills."
_fa bro_, Walter GEIKIE (1795-1837). R.S.A., painter and draughtsman;
author of "Etchings Illustrative of Scottish Character and
Scenery."--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_me bro_, William THOMS, master mariner; subsequently teacher of
navigation in New York; author of an elaborate treatise on
navigation.
_bro_, James GEIKIE (b. 1839), LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.; Professor of
Geology and Mineralogy since 1882, and Dean of the Faculty of Science
Edinburgh; author of many works on geology, and of "Songs and Lyrics
by Heinrich Heine."--["Who's Who," and "Ency. Brit."]
_fa bro son_, Cunningham GEIKIE (b. 1824), LL.D., D.D., a
clergyman; author of many religious works.--["Who's Who."]
_fa bro son_, Walter Bayne GEIKIE, Professor of Anatomy, and Dean of
Medical Faculty, Trinity Coll., Toronto.
Lieutenant-Colonel Henry Haversham #GODWIN-AUSTEN# (b. 1834),
F.R.S., geologist; Topographical Assistant to the Trigonometric
Survey of India; surveyed the high country and glaciers of
Kashmir and by Ladak, also between Darjeeling and Punakha;
numerous scientific memoirs.--["Who's Who."]
_fa fa fa_, Robert AUSTEN, archæologist and coin collector; he was
one of the few in his time who understood the value of local maps; a
good surveyor of his own property and neighbourhood.
_fa fa_, Sir Henry E. AUSTEN, interested in forestry, and planted
largely on his estate; he also knew the value of maps, and had
excellent ones of his property.
_fa_, Robert Alfred C. GODWIN-AUSTEN (1808-1884), F.R.S., geologist,
took additional surname of Godwin; wrote important papers on the
geology of Devonshire, Southern England, and parts of France.
--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_me fa_, Major-General Sir Thomas H. GODWIN (1784-1853), K.C.B.,
served in Hanover and the Peninsula, Commander-in-Chief in second
Burmese War.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_bro_, Harold GODWIN-AUSTEN, Assistant-Commissioner to the Andaman
Islands for thirteen years; was selected by Ney Elias to accompany
him on a mission to Yarkand and Kashmir; is now a Deputy Commissioner
in S. India.
_me_, Maria Elizabeth GODWIN-AUSTEN, was certainly above the average
of women of her time; interested in natural history; drew well in pen
and pencil; was an accomplished musician.
_si son_, Bertram H.M. HEWETT, civil engineer; surveyed the great
glaciers of the Mustakh Range, Kashmir, and elsewhere; is now in sole
charge of main shaft of tunnel under the river in New York.
Francis #GOTCH# (b. 1853), D.Sc, F.R.S., Waynflete Professor of
Physiology at Oxford; formerly Holt Professor of Physiology at
University Coll., Liverpool; author of many scientific
papers.--["Who's Who."]
_me fa_, Ebenezer FOSTER, founder of well-known banking firm of
Messrs. Foster, Cambridge.
_fa_, Fredrick William GOTCH, LL.D., late President of Baptist
College, Bristol; Hebrew scholar; member of committee for the
authorized version of the Old Testament.
_fa bro son_, Thomas Cooper GOTCH (b. 1854), well-known
painter.--["Who's Who."]
_wi bro_, Sir Victor HORSLEY (q.v.)
Right Hon. Sir Mountstuart Elphinstone #GRANT DUFF# (b. 1829),
G.C.S.I., P.C., F.R.S., sometime Under-Secretary of State for
India and the Colonies, and Governor of Madras; has been Lord
Rector of Aberdeen University, and president of many learned
societies; King's Trustee of British Museum since 1903; author
of political, literary, and biographical works.--["Who's Who."]
_fa_, James GRANT DUFF (1789-1858), while still a lieutenant, aged
twenty-eight, reduced the Sattara State to order after the overthrow
of the Peishwa, and restored it to the descendant of its ancient
princes, whom he guided as resident till his health broke down at the
age of thirty-three. Returning to this country, he wrote the "History
of the Mahrattas."--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_me fa_, Sir Whitelaw AINSLIE (1767-1837), surgeon in the East India
Company's service, 1788-1815; published "Materia Medica of
Hindoostan," and other works.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_son_, Arthur Cuninghame GRANT DUFF (b. 1861), lately First
Secretary to H.M.'s Legation, Mexico.
_son_, Evelyn Mountstuart GRANT DUFF (b. 1863), First Secretary to
H.M.'s Legation, Persia.
_son_, Adrian GRANT DUFF (b. 1869), Staff-Captain (Intelligence
Dept.) Army Headquarters.
John Scott #HALDANE# (b. 1860), F.R.S., University Lecturer in
Physiology, Oxford; joint editor and founder of "Journal of
Hygiene"; has served on several departmental committees, and
carried out special inquiries for Government departments; author
of "Blue Books on the Cause of Death in Colliery Explosions,"
1895; "Ankylostomiasis in Mines," 1902-1903, etc.--["Who's Who."]
_fa fa_, James Alexander HALDANE (1768-1851), in the East India
Company's naval service till 1797; then devoted himself to itinerary
evangelization in Scotland; author of several theological
treatises.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_fa fa bro_, Robert HALDANE (1764-1842), in the Royal Navy till 1797;
sold his estate in Stirlingshire to devote the proceeds to missions
in India, but was prevented by the Government from carrying out this
scheme. Carried on evangelistic work in Geneva and the South of
France, and co-operated in Scotland with his brother, endowing places
of worship and training young ministers. Wrote several theological
treatises.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_fa bro_, Daniel Rutherford HALDANE (1824-1887), M.D., LL.D.,
President of Edinburgh College of Physicians.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_me bro_, Sir John BURDON-SANDERSON, Bart, M.D., F.R.S.,
etc.--(q.v.)
_bro_, Rt. Hon. Richard Burdon HALDANE, P.C., M.P., LL.D., a
distinguished politician; author of books on philosophy.--["Who's
Who."]
_si_, Elizabeth Sanderson HALDANE, authoress of "Life of Ferrier,"
translator of Hegel's "History of Philosophy"; promoter of education
and of reforms in Scotland.
_fa bro son_, Alexander Chinnery HALDANE, LL.D., Bishop of Argyll and
the Isles.
_fa bro son_, Lieutenant-Colonel James Aylmer Lowthorpe HALDANE (b.
1862), D.S.O., served with distinction in Chitral, Tirah, and South
Africa, and has won rapid promotion; author of "How we Escaped from
Pretoria."--["Who's Who."]
_me fa me bro_, John SCOTT, first Earl of ELDON (1751-1838), famous
Lord Chancellor of England.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_me fa me bro_, William SCOTT, first Baron STOWELL (1745-1836), Judge
of High Court of Admiralty.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_fa fa me bro_, Adam DUNCAN (1731-1804), cr. Viscount DUNCAN of
CAMPERDOWN 1797, after the Battle of Camperdown, in which he defeated
the Dutch Admiral, De Winter.--["Dict. N. Biog.," and "Life," by his
great-grandson, the present Earl of Camperdown.]
_fa me me bro_, Sir Ralph ABERCROMBY (1734-1801), General; served
with distinction in Flanders, 1795; commanded expedition against
French in West Indies, 1795; commanded troops in Mediterranean, 1800;
defeated French at Alexandria, where he died of his wounds.--["Dict.
N. Biog."]
_fa me me bro_, Sir Robert ABERCROMBY (1740-1827), General; Governor
and Commander-in-Chief, Bombay, 1790; reduced Tippoo Sultan, 1792;
conducted second Rohilla War.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
William Abbott #HERDMAN# (b. 1858), D.Sc., F.R.S., P.L.S., General
Secretary of British Association, Professor of Natural History,
University of Liverpool, since 1881; has worked particularly at
marine biology; was one of the founders of the Port Erin
Biological Station, and of the seafish hatchery at Piel; was sent
to Ceylon 1901-1902 to investigate the pearl oyster fishery for
the Government (results published by the Royal Society,
1903-1905); author of numerous zoological works.--["Who's Who."]
_fa me_, Sophia HERDMAN, great ability and strength of character
shown by the way she brought up her four sons, after having been left
a widow early in life.
_fa_, Robert HERDMAN (1829-1888), R.S.A., well known in Scotland as a
portrait and historical painter; also a good Greek scholar, an
antiquary, and student of Shakespearian literature.--["Dict. N.
Biog."]
_fa bro_, William HERDMAN, Presbyterian minister at Rattray; an
antiquary, good botanist, and geologist.
_fa bro_, James Chalmers HERDMAN, D.D. (hon.), Presbyterian minister
of Melrose; a popular preacher and convener of foreign missions.
_fa bro son_, James Chalmers HERDMAN, D.D. (hon.), occupies a leading
position in the Scottish Church in Canada.
Sydney John #HICKSON# (b. 1859), F.R.S., D.Sc., Professor of
Zoology, Owens Coll., Manchester, since 1894; author of "A
Naturalist in North Celebes," "The Fauna of the Deep Sea," "The
Story of Life in the Seas," and many scientific memoirs.--["Who's
Who."]
_fa bro_, William Edward HICKSON (1803-1870), educational writer;
author of "Time and Faith," etc.; editor of "Westminster Review,"
1840-1852.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_me bro_, Sir Sydney Hedley WATERLOW (b. 1822), K.C.V.O., first
Bart., Lord Mayor of London, 1872-1873; M.P. for co. Dumfries,
1868-1869; Maidstone, 1874-1880; Gravesend, 1880-1885; very active
philanthropist.--["Who's Who."]
_me bro son_, Sir Ernest WATERLOW (b. 1850), R.A., President Royal
Society Painters in Water-colours.--["Who's Who."]
_fa si da_ and _me bro da_, Mrs. Ruth HOMAN, educationalist; member
of London School Board; co-opt. member Education Committee L.C.C.
Leonard #HILL#, F.R.S. (b. 1866), Hunterian Professor Royal College
Surgeons, previously Demonstrator of Physiology, Oxford, and
Assistant-Professor of Physiology, University Coll., London;
author of books and memoirs on physiology.--["Who's Who."]
_fa fa_, Arthur HILL, headmaster of Bruce Castle School; reformer of
education.
_fa_, G. Birkbeck HILL, author of many books on eighteenth-century
literature.
_fa bro_, Edward Bernard Lewin HILL (b. 1834), C.B., retired as
senior Assistant-Secretary-General Post Office.--["Who's Who."]
_fa bro_, Sir John Edward Gray HILL (b. 1839), President of the
Incorporated Law Society, and of the International Law Association,
1903-1904; author of "With the Beduins" and papers on various
subjects connected with maritime law, etc.--["Who's Who."]
_me bro_, Sir John SCOTT (b. 1841), K.C.B., judge in the High
Court, Bombay; appointed to reform administration of criminal law in
Egypt.--["Who's Who."]
_bro_, Norman HILL, Secretary to the Shipping Association; a
distinguished Liverpool lawyer, and writer and authority on the
Economics of Shipping.
_fa fa fa_, Thomas Wright HILL (1736-1851), school-master and
stenographer.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_fa fa bro_, Sir Rowland HILL (1795-1879), inventor of penny postage;
as Chairman of the Brighton Railway introduced express and excursion
trains, 1843-1846.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_fa fa bro_, Edwin HILL (1793-1876), inventor and author; supervisor
of stamps at Somerset House; with Mr. De la Rue invented machine for
folding envelopes; exhibited 1851.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_fa fa bro_, Matthew Davenport HILL (1792-1872), first recorder of
Birmingham; reformer of criminal law and of the treatment of
criminals.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
Sir Joseph Dalton #HOOKER# (b. 1817), G.C.S.I., F.R.S., President
Royal Society, 1872-1877, eminent botanist and traveller;
director of the Royal Gardens, Kew, 1855-1865; naturalist to
H.M.S. "Erebus" in Antarctic expedition, 1839-1843; botanical
travels in the Himalaya, 1847-1851; Morocco and Atlas in 1871;
California and Rocky Mountains, 1877; many botanical
publications, including "Genera Plantarum."--["Ency. Brit.,"
xxix., 324; "Who's Who."]
_me fa_, Dawson TURNER, F.R.S. (1775-1858).--See PALGRAVE.
_fa_, Sir William Jackson HOOKER (1758-1865), F.R.S., eminent
botanist; director of the Royal Gardens, Kew, which he greatly
extended and threw open to the public, and where he founded the
museum of economic botany; Regius Professor of Botany, Glasgow, 1820;
knighted 1847; many botanical publications.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_me si sons_, the four brothers PALGRAVE.--See PALGRAVE.
Sir Victor A. Haden #HORSLEY#, F.R.S., M.D. (b. 1857), eminent
surgeon and operator; Professor-Superintendent of Brown
Institution, 1884-1890; Professor of Pathology University
College, 1893-1896.
_fa fa_, William HORSLEY (1774-1858), Mus. Bac. Oxford, musical
composer, especially of glees, and writer on musical topics.
--["Dict. N. Biog.," and Grove's "Dict. of Music."]
_me fa_, Charles Thomas HADEN, a rising London physician, who
initiated a treatment for gout, much noted at the time (d. young in
1823).--[Unpublished information.]
_fa_, John Callcott HORSLEY, R.A., distinguished painter.--["Who's
Who."]
_fa bro_, Charles Edward HORSLEY (1822-1876), composer of oratorios;
best known in America; author of "Text-book of Harmony."--["Dict. N.
Biog.," and Grove's "Dict. of Music."]
_me bro_, Sir F. Seymour HADEN (b. 1818), surgeon. Founder and
President of the Royal Society of Painter-Etchers. A well-known
sanitarian, especially in respect to the disposal of the dead. Grand
Prix, Paris, 1889 and 1900; many publications.--["Who's Who."]
_fa si son_, Isambard BRUNEL, Chancellor to the Diocese of Ely;
ecclesiastical barrister.
_Ancestors in more remote degrees:_
_fa me fa_, John Wall CALLCOTT (1766-1821), composer, mainly of glees
and catches; published "Musical Grammar," 1806.--["Dict. N. Biog.,"
and Grove's "Dict. of Music."]
_fa me fa bro_, Sir Augustus Wall CALLCOTT, R.A. (1779-1844),
distinguished painter, mainly of landscapes; knighted, 1837.--["Dict.
N. Biog."]
_me fa fa_, Thomas HADEN, the principal doctor and three times Mayor
of Derby.--[Unpublished information.]
_wife_, née BRAMWELL.
_wife's fa_, Sir Frederick BRAMWELL, Bart. (1818-1903), F.R.S.,
eminent engineer; President British Association, 1888; Pres.
Institution of Civil Engineers, 1884-1885; Hon. Sec. Royal
Institution.--["Who's Who."]
_wife's fa bro_, Lord BRAMWELL (1808-1902), Judge, 1856; Lord
Justice, 1876-1881; raised to peerage, 1882.--["Dict. N. Biog.,"
Suppl. i.]
John #JOLY# (b. 1858), D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Geology and
Mineralogy in the University of Dublin since 1897; has published
many contributions to the Royal Soc., Royal Dublin Soc.,
etc.--["Who's Who."]
_fa fa_, Henry Edward JOLY, divine and physician; is credited with
scientific medical views in advance of his time.
_me fa_, Frederick, Comte de LUSI, statesman, author and linguist;
resident Minister of the King of Prussia in London, St. Petersburg,
Greece, etc.; made one of the earliest ascents of Mont Blanc, in
1816.
_fa_, John Plunket JOLY (Rev.), accomplished as a painter of bird,
insect, and plant life; left a remarkable collection of pictures
behind him; died early.
_me bro_, Frederick, Comte de LUSI, soldier; distinguished himself
in the German-Danish War of 1848; decorated for valour in saving the
life of General Halkett.
_fa bro_, Jasper Robert JOLY, remarkable precosity as a boy; obtained
distinguished college successes in classics in his thirteenth year at
Trinity Coll., Dublin. Devoted his life to the collection of Hogarth
and Bewick, upon whom he was an authority.
_fa si_, Mary JOLY, died young; left a remarkable collection of
minutely accurate paintings of birds and flowers.
_me fa fa_, Spiridion, Comte de LUSI, the founder of the de Lusi
family, ennobled by Frederick the Great for statesmanship.--["Percy
Anecdotes."]
#KELVIN#, Lord.--See WILLIAM THOMPSON.
Alfred Bray #KEMPE# (b. 1849), F.R.S., Chancellor of the Dioceses
of Newcastle, Southwell, and St. Albans; Treasurer and
Vice-President of the Royal Society from 1899; has published
works on mathematics.--["Who's Who."]
_fa fa_, Alfred John KEMPE (1784-1846), distinguished antiquary;
published works on Holwood Hill, Kent, and St. Martin-le-Grand
Church, London.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_fa_, John Edward KEMPE (b. 1810), late Rector of St. James's,
Piccadilly; Hon. Chaplain to the King since 1901.--["Who's Who."]
_bro_, John Arrow KEMPE, C.B. (b. 1846), Comptroller and
Auditor-General.--["Who's Who."]
_bro_, Harry Robert KEMPE (b. 1852), Principal Technical Officer of
the Postal Telegraph Department; author of "Handbook of Electrical
Testing," and other works which have gone through many editions; for
many years editor of "Electrical Review."--["Who's Who."]
_bro son_, Edward KEMPE, Captain and Gold Medallist, Radley School;
scholar of Lincoln Coll., Oxford; editor of "The Huia," New Zealand.
_fa fa si_, Anna Eliza BRAY, née KEMPE (1790-1883), historical
novelist; completed "Monumental Effigies of Great Britain," commenced
by her first husband, Charles Alfred Stothard.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
[For further particulars see "A History of the Kempe and Kemp
Families."]
Edwin Ray #LANKESTER# (b. 1847), LL.D., F.R.S., celebrated
zoologist; Director of Natural History Departments, British
Museum, since 1898; Fullerian Professor of Physiology and
Comparative Anatomy, Royal Inst., 1898-1900; Linacre Professor of
Comparative Anatomy, Oxford, 1891-1898; numerous other
distinctions.--["Who's Who."]
_fa_, Edwin LANKESTER (1814-1874), M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Natural
History, New Coll., London, 1850; Medical Officer of Health for
parish of St. James's, Westminster, and Coroner for Central
Middlesex; joint editor of "Q.J.M.S.," etc.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_me_, Phebe LANKESTER (1825-1900), authoress of "Wild Flowers Worth
Notice"; the popular portion of Sowerby's "British Botany," and many
other publications; also wrote weekly in a newspaper for many years
under the signature of "Penelope."
_me bro_, Samuel POPE, Q.C., successful leader of the Parliamentary
Bar.
_bro_, E. Forbes LANKESTER, first class in "Greats," Oxford, 1877;
successful barrister.--["Oxf. Reg."]
_bro_, S. Rushton LANKESTER, H.M. Consul, Batavia.
_si_, Fay LANKESTER, Secretary of National Health Society.
_si_, Marion VATCHER, wife of Rev. Sydney Vatcher, Vicar of St.
Philip's, Stepney. Both well known in connection with East London
organization of help to the poor.
_si_, Nina LANKESTER, Superintendent of Female Clerks in Money Order
Department of Post Office.
Joseph #LISTER# (b. 1827), created Baronet, 1883; Baron #LISTER#,
1897; F.R.S., P.C., O.M., and numerous other distinctions;
President Royal Soc., 1896-1900; Professor of Surgery, Glasgow,
1860-1869, Edinburgh University, 1869-1877, King's Coll., London,
1877-1893; famous for discovery of antiseptic treatment in
surgery.--["Ency. Brit.," and "Who's Who."]
_fa_, Joseph Jackson LISTER (1786-1869), F.R.S., optical
investigator, especially in connection with the principles of the
achromatic microscope, also author of contributions to Zoology, Phil.
Trans.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_bro_, Arthur LISTER (b. 1830), F.R.S.; botanist; author of
monograph on the Mycetozoa.--["Who's Who."]
_bro son_, Joseph Jackson LISTER, F.R.S., biologist; Fellow of St.
John's Coll., Cambridge.--["Who's Who."]
_bro son_, Arthur Hugh LISTER, Ass. Phys., Aberdeen Infirmary;
obtained "three stars" at University examination, Aberdeen.
_bro da_, Gulielma LISTER, contributed papers to "Linnæan Journal,"
and, in connection with her brother, to "Journal of Botany."
Sir Oliver #LODGE# (b. 1851), F.R.S., D.Sc., London, Oxon, and
Vict., LL.D., St. Andrews and Glasgow; Principal of the
University of Birmingham since 1900; Professor of Physics,
University Coll., Liverpool, 1881-1900; author of various works
on physics, and of articles in the "Hibbert Journal."--["Who's
Who."]
_fa bro_, Robert J. LODGE, for many years Secretary of the Marine
Insurance Company, and reckoned a man of considerable ability in the
city.
_bro_, Richard LODGE (b. 1855), Professor of History, Edinburgh,
since 1899; First Professor of History, Glasgow University; author
of "Student's Modern Europe," "Richelieu" (in Foreign Statesmen
Series), and "The Close of the Middle Ages."--["Who's Who."]
_bro_, Alfred LODGE, Professor of Pure Mathematics at Cooper's Hill.
_si_, Eleanor Constance LODGE, Sub-head and Lecturer on History in
Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford.
_fa bro son_, George E. LODGE, well-known animal painter and
engraver.
Right Hon. Sir John #LUBBOCK# (b. 1834), created Baron #AVEBURY#,
1900, P.C., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., banker, head of Robarts,
Lubbock and Co., well known for the part he has taken in public
affairs; has been a member of many Royal Commissions; For. Sec.
R.A., German Order of Merit, Commander Legion of Honour.
Biologist, President at various times of many learned societies;
author of over 100 memoirs in the Transactions of the Royal Soc.,
and of numerous literary, scientific, and popular scientific
works.--["Who's Who," and "Ency. Brit."]
_fa fa_, Sir John LUBBOCK, a leading banker and governor of the Royal
Exchange Assurance Corporation.
_fa_, Sir John William LUBBOCK (1803-1865), F.R.S., astronomer and
mathematician; Treasurer and Vice-President of the Royal Soc.; First
Vice-Chancellor of the London University; Deputy Governor of Royal
Exchange Ass. Corp.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_bro_, Sir Neville LUBBOCK, K.C.M.G., Chairman West India Committee;
Governor of the Royal Exchange Ass. Corp.; Chairman of New Colonial
Company, etc.--["Who's Who."]
_bro_, Edgar LUBBOCK, LL.B., director of the Bank of England; law
scholar of University of London; passed first, and obtained
Clifford's Inn prize in Law Soc. Exam.--["Who's Who."]
Sir Francis Leopold #MCCLINTOCK# (b. 1819), K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D.,
F.R.S.; Admiral retired; Elder Brother of Trinity House; served
in four Arctic voyages; discovered fate of Franklin's expedition,
1859; author of "The Fate of Sir John Franklin" and "The Voyage
of the _Fox_."--["Who's Who."]
_fa me_, Patience MCCLINTOCK, née FOSTER, came of a family which
showed in most of its branches a high level of ability, and had
several distinguished members. Thus, reckoning relationships from
her, we find her:
_fa_, John William FOSTER, M.P.
_fa bro_, Anthony FOSTER (d. 1778), M.P., Chief Baron of
Exchequer, Ireland.
_fa bro son_, John FOSTER, Baron ORIEL (1740-1828); Speaker of
Irish House of Commons up to the time of the Union.--["Dict. N.
Biog."]
_fa bro son_, William FOSTER (d. 1797), D.D., Bishop
successively of Cork, Kilmore, and Clogher.
_fa bro son son_, John Leslie FOSTER (d. 1842), F.R.S., Irish
Judge; M.P. for Dublin University, etc.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_fa bro son son_, Sir Augustus John FOSTER (1780-1848), Bart.,
P.C., M.P.; Minister to United States, Denmark, and
Turin.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_fa bro son son son_, Vere Henry Lewis FOSTER (1819-1900),
philanthropist and educationalist.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_bro_, Alfred Henry MCCLINTOCK (d. 1881), M.D., LL.D., President
Royal College of Physicians, Ireland.
_fa bro son_, John MCCLINTOCK, M.P. for Co. Louth for many years;
created Baron RATHONDELL for long political services.
_me fa_, Ven. George L. FLEURY, Archdeacon of Waterford.
_me bro_, Rev. Charles Marley FLEURY, a celebrated preacher in
Dublin.
_son_, Henry Foster MCCLINTOCK, Assistant Private Secretary to Lord
Stanley, Postmaster-General; served with Army Post-Office Corps in
South Africa, and was mentioned in despatches.
_son_, John William Leopold MCCLINTOCK, Commander Royal Navy; passed
second into the "Britannia."
_son_, Robert Singleton MCCLINTOCK, Brevet-Major R.E.; scholar at
Charterhouse; served on Sir G. Willcocks' staff in the relief of
Coomassie, 1900, and was mentioned in despatches.
Sir Clements R. #MARKHAM# (b. 1830), K.C.B., F.R.S., President for
many years of the Royal Geograph. Soc.; served in Arctic
Expedition, 1850-1851; travelled in Peru, 1852-1854, bringing
thence cinchona-bearing trees for cultivation in India;
geographer to the Abyssinian Expedition; author and editor of
numerous geographical works.--["Ency. Brit.," xxx. 544; "Who's
Who."]
_fa fa_, William MARKHAM (1760-1815), scholar; secretary to Warren
Hastings in India.
_fa bro son_, Lieutenant-General Sir Edwin MARKHAM (b. 1833),
K.C.B., R.E., constant active service.--["Who's Who."]
_fa bro son_, Admiral Sir Albert MARKHAM (b. 1841), K.C.B.,
Commander of the "Alert" in Arctic Expedition, 1875-1876; various
high naval appointments, besides unprofessional work when unemployed
on naval duties.--["Who's Who."]
_me bro son_, Right Hon. Sir Frederick MILNER, Bart. (b. 1849),
P.C., politician.--["Who's Who."]
_me si son_, Right Hon. Francis FOLJAMBE (b. 1830), P.C.,
politician.--["Who's Who."]
_me si son_, Right Hon. Sir Edwin EGERTON (b. 1841), P.C.,
G.C.M.G., Ambassador at Madrid, then at Rome.--["Who's Who."]
_fa fa fa_, William MARKHAM (1719-1807), P.C., Archbishop of York;
one of the best scholars of the day; Headmaster of Westminster
School, 1753-1765; Dean of Christ Church; Preceptor to the Royal
Princes, 1771; Archbishop and Lord High Almoner, 1777.--["Dict. N.
Biog.," xxxvi. 172.]
_fa fa bro_, Admiral John MARKHAM (1761-1827); many services at sea;
twice on Admiralty Board; M.P. for Portsmouth during seventeen years;
proposed and carried appointment of Commission on dockyard abuses,
1806.--["Dict. N. Biog.," xxxvi. 171.]
_fa fa bro_, George MARKHAM (1763-1823), Dean of York; scholar and
numismatist.
Mervyn Herbert Nevil Story #MASKELYNE# (b. 1823), F.R.S., Hon.
D.Sc., Oxon. Distinguished mineralogist; formerly Keeper of
Minerals in British Museum; Professor of Mineralogy at Oxford,
1856-1895; M.P. for Cricklade, 1880-1885; for North Wilts,
1885-1892.--["Who's Who."]
_me fa_, Nevil MASKELYNE (1732-1811), D.D., F.R.S., Astronomer Royal
for forty-seven years; was the first man to weigh the earth; the
originator of the Nautical Almanac.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_fa_, Anthony Mervyn Reeve STORY, F.R.S., gained a double
first-class in Lit. Hum. and Mathematics, when nineteen years of age,
at Oxford, in 1810.--["Oxf. Reg."]
_si son_, John Story MASTERMAN, gained a first-class in Lit. Hum.,
1872; Fellow of Brasenose, Oxford.--["Oxf. Reg."]
_si son_, Herbert Warington SMYTH, Secretary, Mining Dept.,
Transvaal; Secretary, Siamese Legation, 1898-1901; Order White
Elephant of Siam, 1897; author of "Five Years in Siam," etc.--["Who's
Who."]
_si son_, Major Nevill Maskelyne SMYTH, obtained V.C. at Battle of
Khartoum.--["Who's Who."]
_wife_, née Dillwyn LLEWELYN.
_wi fa fa_, Lewis Weston DILLWYN (1778-1855), F.R.S., well known
as a botanist; established Cambrian Pottery Works at Swansea;
M.P. for Glamorganshire, 1832-1841.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_wi fa_, John Dillwyn LLEWELYN, F.R.S., early experimenter in
photography.
_wi fa si son_, Traherne MOGGRIDGE, author of "Flora of Mentone,"
"Harvesting Ants," and "Trapdoor Spiders."
_wi me bro_, Christopher Rice Mansel TALBOT, first-class
mathematics, Oxford, 1823; Lord-Lieutenant of Glamorganshire,
M.P., "Father of the House of Commons."--["Oxf. Reg."]
_wi me me si son_, William Henry Fox TALBOT (1800-1877), F.R.S.,
independent inventor of photography, his (wet) processes,
talbotype, etc., being those which have survived in various
forms. He also discovered the direct method of printing by the
autotype process. A distinguished mathematician, he furthermore
was one of the earliest interpreters of cuneiform writing; M.P.
for Chippenham, 1833-1834.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
Raphael #MELDOLA# (b. 1849), F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in
Finsbury Technical Coll.; discoverer of many new products and
processes in the manufacture of coal-tar dyes; also well known as
a naturalist; has been President of the Entomological Soc. and of
the Essex Field Club.--["Who's Who."]
_fa fa_, Raphael MELDOLA (1754-1828), invited to London, in 1805, on
account of his fame as a theologian, to preside as High Rabbi over
the London congregation of British Jews belonging to the Spanish and
Portuguese community; author of many theological works.--["Dict. N.
Biog."]
_fa bro_, David MELDOLA, succeeded his father as chief of the
community, though not given the same high rank; author of theological
works.
_me bro_, Joseph ABRAHAM, founded a large and successful firm in
Bristol; took a prominent part in municipal affairs, and became the
first Jewish mayor of Bristol.
_fa si son_, Abram DE SOLA, Professor of Oriental literature in
McGill Coll., Montreal; the only Jewish divine ever invited to open
Congress by the U.S. Government; erudite scholar, and author of
theological works.
_me bro son_, Harry ABRAHAM, a man of business, and councillor and
Mayor of Southampton.
Louis C. #MIALL# (b. 1842), F.R.S., Professor of Biology,
University, Leeds; Fullerian Professor of Physiology, Royal
Inst.; President Zool. Sec. British Assoc., 1897; author of
memoirs and books on natural history.--["Who's Who."]
_fa_, James Goodeve MIALL (Rev.), Chairman of Congregational Union.
_fa bro_, Edward MIALL (1809-1881), Independent minister at
Leicester, 1834; established and edited the "Nonconformist," 1841;
M.P., Rochdale, 1852-1857, Bradford, 1869-1874; strove for
Disestablishment of Church.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_me bro_, Charles MACKENZIE, a well-known Haymarket actor
(stage-name, Henry COMPTON).
_me bro son_, Sir Morell MACKENZIE (1837-1892), celebrated physician;
specialist on diseases of the throat.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_me bro son_, Sir Stephen MACKENZIE (b. 1844), senior physician,
London Hospital; consulting Physician, Poplar Hospital, etc.--["Who's
Who."]
_son_, Stephen MIALL, first in solicitors' examination, Clement's
Inn, and "Daniel Reardon" prizeman, 1896; first-class honours, LL.B.
and LL.D., London.
Henry Alexander #MIERS# (b. 1858), D.Sc., F.R.S., Waynflete
Professor of Mineralogy, Oxford, since 1895; author of many
scientific papers, "Mineralogy," etc.--["Who's Who."]
_fa me fa_, Francis PLACE (1771-1854), Radical reformer and writer;
started life as leather-breeches maker; succeeded in getting the laws
against combinations of workmen repealed.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_fa fa_, John MIERS (1789-1879), F.R.S., engineer and botanist;
accompanied Lord Cochrane to Chile, 1818; made collections of birds,
insects, and plants; author of many scientific papers.--["Dict. N.
Biog."]
_fa_, Francis Charles MIERS, engineer and successful man of business.
_bro_, Edward John MIERS, zoologist; author of a volume on Brachyura
in "Challenger Reports," etc.
Alfred #NEWTON# (b. 1829), F.R.S., Professor of Zoology and
Comparative Anatomy, Cambridge; has been very active in promoting
the protection of wild birds; has been Vice-President of the
Royal and Zoological Societies; gold medal of the Royal and of
the Linnæan Societies; author of many works dealing principally
with birds.--["Who's Who."]
_me fa_, Richard Slater MILNES, M.P. for York; took a prominent part
in county business.
_fa_, William NEWTON, M.P. for Ipswich.
_me bro_, Robert Pemberton MILNES, M.P. for Pontefract; prominent in
county business.
_bro_, General William Samuel NEWTON.
_bro_, Robert Milnes NEWTON, Recorder of Cambridge; metropolitan
police magistrate.
_bro_, Lieutenant-General Horace Parker NEWTON, first of his year in
R.M.A., Woolwich.
_bro_, Sir Edward NEWTON, K.C.M.G., Colonial Secretary of Mauritius;
Lieutenant-Governor of Jamaica; author of several zoological papers
in scientific journals.
_bro son_, Arthur William NEWTON, H.M. Inspector of Schools.
_bro son_, Francis James NEWTON (b. 1857), C.M.G.; Treasurer of
Southern Rhodesia, 1902; some time Administrator of British
Bechuanaland, and Colonial Secretary British Honduras and
Barbadoes.--["Who's Who."]
_me bro son_, Richard Monckton MILNES (1809-1885), first Baron
HOUGHTON; M.P. for Pontefract, 1837; distinguished in literary
society; author of poems and critical essays. Did much to secure
Copyright Act; assisted in the preparation of the "Tribune," 1836;
established the "Philobiblon Soc.," 1853.--["Dict. N. Biog.," and
"Life" by Wemyss Reid.]
_me bro son son_, Robert Offley Ashburton CREWE-MILNES, first Earl of
CREWE, son of Lord Houghton; Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland,
1892-1895.--["Who's Who."]
#NORTHBROOK#, Earl.--See BARING.
Robert Harris Inglis #PALGRAVE# (b. 1827), F.R.S., economist and
statistician; editor of the "Economist"; also of "Dictionary of
Political Economy."--["Who's Who."]
_me fa_, Dawson TURNER (1775-1858), F.R.S., botanist and
antiquary.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_me fa bro_, Joseph TURNER, Senior Wrangler, 1768.
_fa_, Sir Francis PALGRAVE (1788-1861) (son of Meyer COHEN, adopted
the name Palgrave in 1823), historian; deputy-keeper, and assisted in
the publication, of H.M. Records. Author of the "Rise and Progress of
the English Commonwealth," 1832; "History of England and Normandy,"
1851; and other works; greatly promoted study of mediæval history;
knighted, 1832.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_me_, Elizabeth, née Dawson TURNER, assisted her husband in his
literary work.--[Unpublished information.]
_me bro_, Dawson William TURNER (1815-1885), D.C.L., philanthropist
and educational writer; Demy of Magdalen Coll., Oxford.
_bro_, Francis Turner PALGRAVE (1824-1897), poet and art critic;
first-class Lit. Hum.; Professor of Poetry at Oxford; editor of
"Golden Treasury"; author of many critical essays and other
publications.--["Dict. N. Biog.," Suppl. iii.]
_bro_, W. Gifford PALGRAVE (1826-1888), traveller and diplomatist;
at twenty years of age gained first-class Lit. Hum. and second-class
Math.; became Roman Catholic, and travelled as Jesuit missionary in
Syria and Arabia, disguised for the purpose. Author of "A Year's
Journey through Eastern and Central Arabia." Severed his connection
with the Jesuits in 1865, and thenceforward served as English
diplomatist in various distant countries.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_bro_, Sir Reginald F.D. PALGRAVE (1829-1904), K.C.B., Clerk of the
House of Commons. Author of "Oliver Cromwell the Protector,"
etc.--["Who's Who."]
_me si son_, Sir Joseph Dalton HOOKER, F.R.S. (q.v.).
Lawrence #PARSONS# (b. 1840), fourth Earl of ROSSE, D.C.L., LL.D.,
Camb. and Dublin, F.R.S.; Chancellor of University of Dublin;
author of "Memoirs of Heat of Moon and Stars" (based on
experiments with the famous reflecting telescope made by his
father), and on other subjects.--["Who's Who."]
_fa_, William PARSONS (1800-1867), third Earl of ROSSE, Pres. R.S.;
constructor of the great reflecting telescope at Parsonstown, and
first discoverer by its means of nebulæ and other celestial
phenomena.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_bro_, Charles Algernon PARSONS (b. 1854), D.Sc., F.R.S.; notable
in the development of turbine navigation; proprietor and director of
electrical and engineering works.
William Matthew Flinders #PETRIE# (b. 1853), D.C.L., Lit.D., LL.D.,
Ph.D., F.R.S.; Edwards Professor of Egyptology, University Coll.,
London, since 1892. Principal discoveries: Greek settlements at
Naucratis and Daphnæ; prehistoric Egyptian at Koptos and Naqada;
inscription of Israelite War at Thebes; Kings of the earliest
dynasties at Abydos; has published much on these
subjects.--["Who's Who," and "Ency. Brit."]
_fa fa fa_, Martin PETRIE, Commissary-General; good administrator.
_fa fa_, William PETRIE, Commissary-General.
_me fa_, Matthew FLINDERS (1774-1813), naval captain; assisted George
Bass to survey the coast of New South Wales and Van Dieman's Land,
1795-1800; in command of the "Investigator," and afterwards of the
"Porpoise" and "Cumberland"; made the first survey of a large part of
the Australian coast, 1801-1803.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_fa_, William PETRIE, civil engineer; first exhibitor of electric
light on a large scale, 1848; inventor of various apparatus for that
and chemical industries.
_me_, Ann FLINDERS PETRIE, writer of some books and articles
popularizing mineralogy, about 1840; learned both Hebrew and Greek
without a teacher.
Percival Spencer Umfreville #PICKERING# (b. 1858), F.R.S., director
of the Woburn Experimental Fruit Farm; investigator in chemical
physics; editor of "Memoirs of Anna Maria Pickering," and author
of 150 papers on chemical and physical subjects.--["Who's Who."]
_me fa_, John Spencer STANHOPE, F.R.S., and Membre de l'Institut at
twenty-eight years of age; a man of considerable classical
attainments, and author of "Platæa and Olympia" and other
topographical studies in Greece.
_me me_, Elizabeth, née COKE, a woman of considerable artistic
ability.
_me me fa_, Thomas William COKE (1752-1842), of Holkham, was created
Earl of LEICESTER; M.P. for Norfolk, 1776-1806, and 1807-1832;
favoured Protection and Parliamentary Reform; introduced modern
methods into agriculture; a famous improver of stock.--["Dict. N.
Biog."]
_fa_, Percival Andrée PICKERING, Q.C., Fellow of St. John's Coll.,
Cambridge; Judge of Passage Court; Attorney-General for County
Palatine; author of classical essays and works on Parliamentary law.
_me_, Anna Maria Wilhelmina, née SPENCER STANHOPE, of decided
literary and classical ability; author of "Memoirs" recently
published.
_fa bro_, Edward Hayes PICKERING, Captain of Montem, Eton; Fellow of
St. John's Coll., Cambridge; died young.
_me bro_, Sir Walter Thomas William SPENCER STANHOPE (b. 1827),
K.C.B., first-class in Mathematics, Oxford, 1848; M.P. West Riding of
Yorkshire, S. division, 1872-1880, and 1882-1890.--["Who's Who."]
_me bro_, John Roddam SPENCER STANHOPE, artist.
_si_, Mary Evelyn DE MORGAN artist.
_si_, Anna Maria Diana Wilhelmina STIRLING, author of novels and
tales under the name of Percival PICKERING.
Sir William #RAMSAY# (b. 1852), K.C.B., LL.D., D.Sc., Ph.D.,
F.R.S., F.C.S.; Professor of Chemistry, University Coll., London,
since 1887; sometime Professor of Chemistry and Principal of
University Coll., Bristol; has published numerous important
scientific papers.--["Who's Who."]
_fa fa_, William RAMSAY, manufacturing chemist; first made acetic
acid from wood; discovered bi-chrome; President of the first Chemical
Society, Glasgow, 1796, which was merged in the Glasgow Philosophical
Society, 1802.
_fa bro_, Sir Andrew Crombie RAMSAY (1814-1891), F.R.S., Professor of
Geology, University Coll., London, 1847; Director-General of the
Geological Survey, 1871.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_mo bro_, Robert ROBERTSON, editor of a daily London paper (about
1835).
#RAYLEIGH#, Lord.--See STRUTT.
Clement #REID#, F.R.S., District Geologist on Survey of England and
Wales; author of many works on Geology.--["Who's Who."]
_si_, Margery Anna REID, B.Sc., London; science mistress at Ladies'
Coll., Cheltenham; very successful as a teacher.
_me bro son_, Harold Leslie BARNARD, surgeon, and inventor of
apparatus for testing blood-pressure.
_me me bro_, Michael FARADAY (1791-1867), F.R.S., Fullerian Professor
Royal Institution; famous chemist and electrician; started his
scientific career as assistant to Sir Humphry Davy.--["Dict. N.
Biog."]
_me fa bro_, George BARNARD, landscape artist and author of many
books on drawing and painting.
_me fa bro son_, Frederick BARNARD (1846-1896), artist and
caricaturist; illustrator of Dickens, contributor to "Punch,"
etc.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
Sir Henry Enfield #ROSCOE#, Ph.D., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Professor
of Chemistry Owens College, Manchester, 1857-1887; President
Society of Chemical Industry, 1881; of Chemical Society, 1882;
knighted, 1884; M.P. for S. division of Manchester, 1885-1895;
President of Brit. Assoc., 1887; Vice-Chancellor of the
University of London, 1896-1902; author of many memoirs and works
on chemistry.--["Who's Who."]
_fa fa_, William ROSCOE (1753-1831), historian, poet, and
philanthropist; author of "Lives of Lorenzo de' Medici," of "Leo X.,"
and of several volumes of verse; M.P. for Liverpool, 1806-1807;
promoter and first President of its Royal Institution.--["Dict. N.
Biog."]
_fa_, Henry ROSCOE (1800-1836), biographer, including Life of his
father.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_fa bro_, Thomas ROSCOE (1791-1871), miscellaneous writer and
translator.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_fa bro_, William Stanley ROSCOE, poet.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_fa bro_, Robert ROSCOE, poet, wrote "King Alfred."
_me_, Maria, née FLETCHER, artist and authoress, wrote "Life of
Vittoria Colonna."
_me si_, Harriet FLETCHER, authoress of "Tales for Children."
_fa bro son_, William Caldwell ROSCOE (1822-1859), poet and
essayist.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_fa si son_, William Stanley JEVONS (1835-1882), F.R.S., economist
and logician; Professor of Logic and Political Economy at Owens
Coll., 1866-1879; at University Coll., London, 1876-1880; influential
writer.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_me si son_, Rt. Hon. Charles BOOTH, P.C., F.R.S. (q.v.).
_me si son_, Charles CROMPTON.--See BOOTH.
_me si son_, Henry CROMPTON.--See BOOTH.
#ROSSE#, fourth Earl of.--See PARSONS.
Edward John #ROUTH# (b. 1831), Sc.D., Camb., Sc.D. (hon.), Dublin,
LL.D. (hon.) Glasgow, F.R.S., Senior Wrangler and Smith's prize,
1854; Adams prize, 1877; has had twenty-seven Senior Wranglers
and more than forty Smith's Prizemen for pupils. Author of
several books on theoretical dynamics and of many mathematical
papers.--["Who's Who."]
_fa_, Sir Randolph Isham ROUTH (1782-1858), K.C.B., 1848;
Commissary-General; saw much foreign service, and was senior
commissariat officer at Waterloo.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_me bro_, Hon. Jean Thos. TASCHEREAU, Judge of King's Bench in
Canada.
_me bro_, His Eminence Elzear Alexandre TASCHEREAU (b. 1820), son
of the above; Cardinal-Priest of the Roman Catholic Church, and
Archbishop of Quebec.
_me bro son_, Hon. Sir Henri Thomas TASCHEREAU (b. 1841), Judge of
the Supreme Court of Canada.
_me bro son_, Hon. Henri Elzear TASCHEREAU (b. 1836), Judge of the
Supreme Court of Canada; author of many works on law. (For the
Taschereau family see "Canadian Men and Women of the Time.")
_fa son ½ bro_, C.H.F. ROUTH, eminent London physician.
_fa son son_, Amand J. McC. ROUTH, M.D., F.R.C.P., obstetric
physician to Charing Cross Hospital, consulting obstetric physician
to three other hospitals; author of numerous papers and articles on
Midwifery and Gynæcology.--["Who's Who."]
_wife's fa_, Sir George B. AIRY (1801-1892), K.C.B., F.R.S., eminent
mathematician and astronomer; Senior Wrangler, 1823; Astronomer
Royal, 1835-1881.
Dukinfield Henry #SCOTT# (b. 1854), F.R.S., Hon. Keeper Jodrell
Lab., Royal Gardens, Kew; Botanical Sec. of the Linnæan Soc.;
President of the Royal Microscopical Soc.; author of "An
Introduction to Structural Botany," "Studies in Fossil Botany,"
and various papers in "Phil. Trans.," etc.--["Who's Who."]
_fa fa fa_, Thomas SCOTT (1747-1821), Chaplain of Lock Hosp., London,
afterwards Rector of Aston Sandford; produced a commentary on the
Bible in weekly parts from 1788-1792; author of many religious
writings.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_fa fa_, Thomas SCOTT (1780-1835), Queen's Coll., Cambridge; author
of many religious works.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_fa_, Sir George Gilbert SCOTT (1811-1878), R.A., restoring architect
to Ely, Hereford, Lichfield, Salisbury, and Ripon Cathedrals;
architect of Indian, Home and Colonial Offices, the Nicolaikirche at
Hamburg, St. Mary's Cathedral, Edinburgh, etc.; President Royal
Inst. Brit. Architects, 1873-1876; Professor of
Architecture.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_fa bro_, Ven. Melville H. SCOTT, Archdeacon of Stafford.
_bro_, George Gilbert SCOTT, architect of Roman Catholic Cathedral,
Norwich; first in Moral Science Tripos, Cambridge; Burney Prize
Essay; author of "History of English Church Architecture."--["Who's
Who."]
_bro son_, Giles Gilbert SCOTT, architect of New Liverpool Cathedral,
by competition at the age of twenty-two.
_bro son_, Henry George SCOTT, Director of Mines and Geology to the
Siamese Government at the age of twenty-four.
_fa bro son_, Canon Thomas SCOTT (b. 1831), Whewell University
prizeman; first in first-class Moral Science Trip., 1854.--["Who's
Who."]
_fa bro son_, Ven. Edwin A. SCOTT, Archdeacon of Christchurch, New
Zealand.
Robert Henry #SCOTT# (b. 1833), D.Sc., F.R.S., classical scholar
Trin. Coll., Dublin, 1853; first Senior Mod. Exp. Physics, 1855;
Superintendent Meteorological Office 1867-1900.--["Who's Who."]
_fa fa_, John Pendred SCOTT, resident at the Court of Oude.
_me fa_, Charles BRODRICK, Archbishop of Cashel, Ireland.
_fa_, James Smyth SCOTT, gold medallist Trin. Coll., Dublin.
_me bro_, William John BRODRICK, seventh Viscount MIDLETON, Dean of
Wells.
_bro_, Charles BRODRICK SCOTT, Senior Classic, Cambridge, 1848;
Headmaster of Westminster School.
_bro_, James George SCOTT, Archdeacon of Dublin, Chancellor of St.
Patrick's, Dublin.
_bro_, Edward Ashley SCOTT, Fellow of Trinity Coll., Cambridge.
_bro son_, George Digby SCOTT, first-class Classical tripos,
Cambridge.
_bro son_, Charles William SCOTT, engineer to Irish Lights Board.
_fa bro son_, Edward William SCOTT, General Bengal Artillery; for
many years secretary to the Military Board, Bengal.
_me bro son_, George C. BRODRICK (d. 1903), D.C.L., Warden of
Merton Coll., Oxford; brilliant college career; connected with the
"Times," 1860-1873; author of "Political Studies" (1879), "Memorials
of Merton College" (1885), "Memoirs and Impressions" (1900).--["Who's
Who."]
_me si son_, Charles Brodrick BERNARD, Bishop of Tuam, Ireland.
_me bro son son_, William St. John BRODRICK, P.C., Secretary of State
for War, 1900-1903; subsequently for India.--["Who's Who."]
Thomas Roscoe Rede #STEBBING# (b. 1835) (Rev.), F.R.S., naturalist;
authority on Crustacea; prepared the report on the Amphipoda of
the "Challenger" expedition; author of many works on natural
history.--["Who's Who."]
_fa_, Henry STEBBING (1799-1883), D.D., F.R.S., poet, preacher, and
historian; editor of the "Athenæum" almost from its commencement,
1828; published a continuation to Hume and Smollet's history, "Lives
of the Italian Poets," etc.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_me bro_, William GRIFFIN, Vice-Admiral.
_bro_, William STEBBING, Scholar of Lincoln Coll., scholar and Fellow
of Worcester Coll., Oxford, first-class Mods., 1852; first-class Lit.
Hum., 1853, first-class Law and History, 1854; for nearly thirty
years on the staff of the "Times" as leader writer, and second to the
late Mr. Delane in the editorship.--["Who's Who."]
G. Johnstone #STONEY# (b. 1826), D.Sc. F.R.S.; Professor of Natural
Philosophy in late Queen's University, Ireland; memoirs on the
"Physical Constitution of the Sun and Stars," on the "Internal
Motion of Gases," etc.--["Who's Who."]
_me bro_, William Bindon BLOOD, Professor of Engineering; author of
professional papers.
_me bro son_, Sir Bindon BLOOD (b. 1842), K.C.B., Commander of the
Forces in Punjab; distinguished in Chitral Expedition and in Boer
War.--["Who's Who."]
_bro_, Bindon Blood STONEY, LL.D., F.R.S., Engineer, especially
marine; numerous engineering works and publications of great
originality.--["Who's Who."]
_si son_, Maurice FITZGERALD, Professor of Engineering, Queen's
Coll., Belfast.
_si son_, George Francis FITZGERALD (1891-1903), F.R.S., Professor of
Nat. and Exper. Philosophy; Principal of School of Engineering,
Dublin University. His scientific writings have been edited since his
death by Dr. Larmor.
_son_, Gerald STONEY, one of the principal engineers in the work of
the Parson's Steam Turbine Company.
Lieutenant-General Sir Richard #STRACHEY# (retired 1875), G.C.S.I.,
R.E., LL.D., F.R.S., Cambridge. Secretary of Government Central
Provinces of India during Mutiny, 1857-1858; Public-Works
Secretary to Government of India, 1862; Legislative Member of
Governor-General's Council, 1869-1870; Member of Council of
India, 1875-1889; Acting Financial Member of Governor-General's
Council, 1878; Chairman of East Indian Railway from 1889;
Chairman of Meteorological Council from 1883; President of Royal
Geographical Soc., 1888-1890; Royal Medal of Royal Soc., 1897.
Publications: "Lectures on Geography"; "Finances and Public
Works of India" (jointly with his brother, Sir John S.); various
scientific memoirs.--["Ency. Brit.," and "Who's Who."]
_fa fa_, Sir Henry STRACHEY (1736-1810), Bart., private secretary to
Lord Clive in India; Joint Under-Secretary of State for the Home
Department, 1782; cr. Baronet, 1801.--["Dict. N. Biog.," Suppl. iii.]
_me fa_, Lieutenant-General KIRKPATRICK, W. (1754-1812), Orientalist;
military secretary to Marquess Wellesley; Resident at Poona;
translated Persian works; expert in Oriental tongues and in Indian
manners, customs, and laws.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_fa_, Edward STRACHEY (1774-1832), Chief Examiner of correspondence
to the India House, the other two being Peacock and James Mill
(secretaries' work, writing despatches, etc.).
_fa bro_, Sir Henry STRACHEY, Bart. (1772-1858), distinguished Indian
Civilian, described by James Mill ("Hist. Brit. India," vol. vi.,
chap, vii.) as "the most intelligent of the Company's servants."
_fa bro_, Richard STRACHEY, Resident at Lucknow and Gwalior.
_me si_, Isabella Barbara BULLER, a well-known centre of literary and
political society.
_bro_, Sir John STRACHEY, G.C.S.I., eminent Indian statesman;
Lieutenant-Governor of the N.W. Provinces; Financial Member of
Governor-General's Council; Member of Council of India. Publications:
"Finance and Public Works of India," 1882 (jointly with his brother,
Sir Richard S.); "Hastings and the Rohilla War," 1892; "India," 1888,
third edition, 1903.--["Ency. Brit.," and "Who's Who," 1904.]
_bro_, Colonel Henry STRACHEY, Tibetan explorer, gold medal of Royal
Geographical Soc., 1852.
_bro_, Sir Edward STRACHEY (d. 1904), Bart., author of "Hebrew
Politics in the Time of Sargon and Sennacherib."
_bro_, George STRACHEY (1873-1890), Chargé d'Affaires and Minister
Resident at Dresden.
_bro son_, Sir Arthur STRACHEY (1858-1901) [son of Sir John S. and of
Katherine, daughter of George BATTEN], Chief Justice Allahabad, æt.
thirty-nine; d. æt. forty-three.
_bro son_, John St. Loe STRACHEY (b. 1860) [son of Sir Edward S.
and Mary, sister of John Addington SYMONDS, writer and critic],
editor of the "Spectator."--["Who's Who."]
_me si son_, Charles BULLER (1806-1848), distinguished politician,
sent as secretary with Lord Durham to Canada, 1838; Chief Poor-Law
Commissioner.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_me si son_, Sir Arthur BULLER, Judge of the Supreme Court, Calcutta.
_fa fa bro_, John STRACHEY, LL.D. Cambridge, Archdeacon of Suffolk,
Prebendary of Llandaff, preacher at the Rolls.
_fa fa fa fa_, John STRACHEY (1671-1743), F.R.S., geologist, said to
have first suggested theory of stratification in his "Observations on
Different Strata of Earths and Minerals," 1727.--["Dict. N. Biog.,"
Suppl. iii.]
_Wife and her kinsfolk:_
_wi_, Jane Maria, née GRANT, second wife, authoress of "Lay
Texts," "Poets on Poets," "Memoirs of a Highland Lady,"
etc.--["Who's Who," 1904.]
_wi fa fa_, Sir J.P. GRANT (1774-1848), Chief Justice of Supreme
Court, Calcutta.--["Dict. N. Biog.," xxii. 398.]
_wi fa_, Sir J.P. GRANT, G.C.M.G., K.C.B. (1807-1893), Indian and
Colonial Governor; Member of Council; Lieutenant-Governor of
Central Provinces of India; Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal;
Governor of Jamaica (1866-1873).--["Dict. N. Biog.," Suppl. iii.
341.]
_wife's me bro son_, Sir Trevor Chichele PLOWDEN, K.C.S.I.,
Resident at Kashmir, Hyderabad, and Baghdad.
_wife's me bro son_, Sir Henry Meredith PLOWDEN, Senior Judge of
Chief Court, Punjab (1880-1894).--["Who's Who," 1904.]
_son_, Giles Lytton STRACHEY, Scholarship at Trinity Coll.,
Cambridge; Chancellor's medal for English verse.
_son_, Oliver STRACHEY, Eton scholarship.
_son_, James Beaumont STRACHEY, scholarship at St. Paul's School.
_da_, Joan Pernel STRACHEY, lecturer on Old French at Royal Holloway
College.
_da_, Marjorie Colvile STRACHEY, prize offered in 1904 by the
British Ambassador in Paris to male and female undergraduates of all
colleges in Great Britain, for examination in French; scholarship at
Royal Holloway College, 1904.
Aubrey #STRAHAN# (b. 1852), F.R.S., district geologist on the
Geological Survey of England and Wales; author of geological
memoirs on Chester, Rhyl, Flint, Isle of Purbeck, Weymouth, South
Wales Coalfield, etc., and contributions to scientific
journals.--["Who's Who."]
_me fa_, Sir George FISHER, General of Royal Artillery; Commandant of
Woolwich Arsenal.
_bro_, George STRAHAN, second for Pollock Medal at Addiscombe; Dep.
Surveyor-General of the Trigonometrical Survey of India, 1889;
Colonel of Bengal Engineers.
_bro_, Charles STRAHAN, Lieutenant-General of Bengal Engineers;
Surveyor-General of India, 1895.
_fa bro son_, Herbert KYNASTON (b. 1835), D.D., Camden Medallist
and Browne Medallist, 1855; bracketed Senior Classic, 1857; Fellow of
St. John's Coll., Cambridge, 1858; Principal of Cheltenham Coll.,
1874-1888; Professor of Greek and Classical Literature, University of
Durham, 1889.--["Who's Who."]
John William #STRUTT# (b. 1842), third Baron #RAYLEIGH#, D.C.L.
(Hon. Oxon.), LL.D., O.M., F.R.S., Hon. Sc.D. (Cambridge and
Dublin), Professor of Natural Philosophy, Royal Inst., since
1887; Senior Wrangler and Smith's Prizeman, 1865; Professor of
Experimental Physics, Cambridge, 1879-1884; Secretary Roy. Soc.,
1887; author of "Theory of Sound," and many scientific
papers.--["Who's Who," and "Ency. Brit."]
_bro_, Hon. Edward Gerald STRUTT, successful land-agent and surveyor.
_me si son_, Ronald Montague BURROWS (b. 1867), Professor of Greek
in the University Coll. of S. Wales and Monmouthshire.--["Who's
Who."]
_son_, Hon. Robert John STRUTT (b. 1875), F.R.S., Fellow of Trinity
Coll., Cambridge; author of papers on radium, etc.--["Who's Who."]
_me fa bro_, Major-General Edward VICARS, R.E., distinguished himself
under Lord John Hay on North Coast of Spain; brevet majority and
Spanish orders for gallantry before San Sebastian in 1836; selected
for special duty with the fleet in 1854, but taken ill on the way
out, and retired on full pay.
_wife_, see BALFOUR.
William #THOMSON# (b. 1824), Baron #KELVIN# (1892), P.C., O.M.,
F.R.S., and numerous other distinctions; eminent mathematical
physicist; inventor of mirror galvanometer, of siphon recorder
in connection with submarine telegraphy, of a new form of
mariner's compass, etc.; acted as electrical engineer for many
submarine cables; President of British Assoc., 1871, of Royal
Soc., 1890-1895, and four times of Royal Soc., Edinburgh; author
of numerous mathematical and physical memoirs.--["Who's Who," and
"Ency. Brit."]
_fa_, James THOMSON (1786-1849), son of a small farmer in co. Down;
commenced the study of mathematics on his own initiative; became
Professor of Mathematics at Belfast, 1815, then at University of
Glasgow, 1832; also a good classical scholar and astronomer; wrote
the authorized mathematical text-books of the Commissioners of
National Education in Ireland.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_bro_, James THOMSON (1822-1892), F.R.S., Hon. LL.D., Glasgow and
Dublin, Professor of Civil Engineering, first at Queen's Coll.,
Belfast, 1857-1873, then at Glasgow, 1873-1889. Invented the "vortex
water-wheel," 1850; numerous memoirs on physical
investigations.--["Dict. N. Biog.," and "Ency. Brit."]
_bro_, John THOMSON, died young, having contracted hospital fever
during medical study at Glasgow. Considered as able as his brothers.
_si son_, James Thomson BOTTOMLEY, F.R.S. (q.v.).
_si son_, George KING, actuary and mathematician; author of many
original papers, and of an authoritative work on actuarial subjects.
Sir John Isaac #THORNYCROFT# (b. 1843), LL.D., F.R.S.,
Vice-President of Inst. of Naval Architecture, etc.; founded
shipbuilding works at Chiswick, 1866; introduced improvements in
naval architecture and marine engineering, which have promoted
high speeds at sea.--["Who's Who."]
_me fa_, John FRANCIS (1780-1861), sculptor, pupil of Chantrey;
exhibited at the Royal Academy, 1820-1856; his works include busts of
Miss Horatio Nelson, Queen Victoria, Prince Albert, and the Duke of
Wellington.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_fa_, Thomas THORNYCROFT (1815-1885), sculptor; executed the group of
Commerce on the Albert Memorial, and other statues.--["Dict. N.
Biog."]
_me_, Mary THORNYCROFT (1814-1895), sculptor.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_bro_, William Hamo THORNYCROFT (b. 1850), R.A., sculptor. His
works include national monument to General Gordon in Trafalgar Square
and in Melbourne; John Bright in Rochdale; Lord Granville in Houses
of Parliament; and very many others.--["Who's Who."]
Charles Sissmore #TOMES# (b. 1846), F.R.S., late lecturer on dental
anatomy at Dental Hosp. of London; Crown nominee on General
Medical Council, 1898, etc.; author of a "Manual of Dental
Anatomy, Human and Comparative," and of many memoirs on
odontology in "Phil. Trans.," etc.--["Who's Who."]
_fa_, Sir John TOMES (1815-1895), F.R.S., dental surgeon; invented
dental forceps; memoirs on histology of bone and teeth; delivered
lectures at Middlesex Hosp., which marked new era in dentistry;
induced Royal Coll. of Surgeons to grant license in dental surgery;
one of the chief founders of the Odontological Soc., 1856, and of the
Dental Hosp., 1858; secured passing of Dentists Act, 1878; wrote
well-known treatise on "Dental Surgery," and other works.--["Dict. N.
Biog."]
_fa bro_, Robert Fisher TOMES (1824-1904), authority on insectivora
and chiroptera; edited Bell's "British Quadrupeds"; wrote natural
history sections for his own and neighbouring county histories.
_me bro_, George SIBLEY, C.E.I., went out to India as a civil
engineer, and without influence rose to be chief engineer of the East
Indian Railways, and did much important work in bridge-building.
James William Helenus #TRAIL# (b. 1851), F.R.S., Regius Professor
of Botany, University of Aberdeen, since 1877; naturalist of an
exploring expedition in N. Brazil, 1873-1875; has been largely
occupied in the administrative work of the University and of
other educational bodies in N. Scotland; has published numerous
botanical and zoological papers in scientific journals.--["Who's
Who."]
_fa_, Samuel TRAIL, LL.D., D.D. (both hon.), obtained Hutton
Scholarship in Aberdeen as the most distinguished graduate of his
year, 1825; Professor of Systematic Theology, University of Aberdeen,
1867; Moderator of Church of Scotland, 1874.
_me bro_, Hercules SCOTT, LL.D., Professor of Moral Philosophy in the
King's Coll. and University, Old Aberdeen, 1820-1860; said to have
taken a large part in the administration of the University.
_bro_, John Arbuthnot TRAIL, LL.D., Writer to the Signet in
Edinburgh; prominent in administration connected with the University
of Edinburgh, the Church of Scotland, and other public bodies.
_me si son_, David BROWN, General; formerly Commissioner of Lower
Burmah.
John #VENN# (b. 1834), D.Sc., F.R.S., Fellow of Caius Coll.,
Cambridge; President, 1903; for many years lecturer on Moral
Philosophy at Cambridge; author of many works on logic, and of "A
Biographical History of Gonville and Caius Coll."--["Who's Who."]
_fa fa_, John VENN (1759-1813), scientific and mechanical interests;
one of the first to adopt vaccination, applying it to his own
children, and recommending it in the parish of Clapham, where he was
rector in 1800; the principal founder of the Church Missionary Soc.,
1798, the rules of which he sketched out much as they are still
retained.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_fa_, Henry VENN (1796-1873), Wrangler and Fellow of Queens' Coll.,
Cambridge; for many years secretary and practically manager of the
Church Missionary Soc., the income of which increased under his
guidance to over £100,000 per annum; vicar of Drypool, 1827, and of
St. John's, Holloway, London, 1834-1846.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_fa bro_, John VENN (1802-1890), Wrangler and Fellow of Queens'
Coll., Cambridge; much practical skill and success in philanthropic
schemes in his parish of St. Peter's at Hereford; he started a steam
corn-mill, which was so successful that it led to many other
developments in the way of aiding the industrious--e.g., a loan
department, which, by 1848, had advanced some £18,000 to various poor
and struggling persons, and an extensive experimental garden for
teaching garden allotment and small farm work, etc.
_fa si son_, Sir James Fitzjames STEPHEN (1829-1894), distinguished
judge; in earlier life journalist, essayist, and reviewer; then Legal
Member of the Council of the Governor-General of India; author of
legal works.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_fa si son_, Sir Leslie STEPHEN (1832-1904), K.C.B., Litt.D., at one
time famous as a mountaineer; eminent literary editor and critic;
President of the Ethical Soc.; editor of the earlier volumes of the
"Dictionary of National Biography"; author of many works, including a
biography of his brother.
_fa fa fa_, Henry VENN (1725-1797), an evangelical divine, a man of
remarkable energy and force of character; Fellow of Queens' Coll.,
Cambridge, 1749-1757; curate of Clapham, 1754; vicar of Huddersfield,
1759; rector of Yelling, 1771-1797; author of the "Complete Duty of
Man."--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_fa fa fa fa_, Richard VENN (1691-1740), a learned divine; rector of
St. Antholin's, London, 1725-1739. He acquired some prominence
by publicly objecting to the appointment of Dr. Rundle, a
latitudinarian, to the bishopric of Gloucester, on the ground of
unorthodox views.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_fa si da_, Emelia BATTEN, afterwards Mrs. Russell Gurney;
distinguished by her artistic taste and accomplishments; author of
"Dante's Pilgrims' Progress."--["Letters," with a brief biography, by
Ellen Gurney, 1902.]
_me fa bro_, Daniel SYKES (1766-1832), F.R.S., Fellow of Trinity
Coll., Cambridge; Recorder and M.P. for Hull; prominent as an early
supporter of the Reform Movement.
_me fa fa_, Joseph SYKES (1723-1805), large and successful merchant
in Hull, where he was the principal founder of the trade in Swedish
iron; Mayor and Sheriff of Hull, and D.L. of the E. Riding.
For further particulars of the Venn family, see "Venn Family Annals,"
by Dr. John Venn (Macmillan and Co., 1904).
Robert #WARINGTON# (b. 1838), F.R.S., Examiner in Agricultural
Science to the Board of Education since 1894; Professor of Rural
Economy, Oxford, 1894-1897; author of twenty-six papers in the
"Transactions" of the Chemical Soc., "The Chemistry of the Farm"
(seventeenth edition), "Lectures on the Rothamsted Experiments,"
and "Lectures on the Physical Properties of the Soil."--["Who's
Who."]
_fa_, Robert WARINGTON (1807-1867), F.R.S., chemist, pharmacist, and
naturalist; founded in 1841, and was for ten years secretary of the
Chemical Soc.; originator of the Aquarium; the author of many papers
on chemical and natural history subjects.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_me fa_, George JACKSON (1792-1861), medical practitioner and
inventor; Society of Arts medal for improvements in an apparatus for
obtaining light; invented a dividing machine for ruling micrometers,
which is still in use; introduced several improvements into the
microscope; and was President of the Royal Microscopical Soc.
_bro_, George WARINGTON, B.A., first-class Natural Science Tripos,
Cambridge; died at the age of thirty-three, but had already made a
considerable reputation as an author, critic, teacher, and speaker.
_fa si son_, John BROWN, C.M.G.; engineer-in-chief to Cape Government
railways.
General Sir Charles #WARREN# (b. 1840), K.C.B., G.C.M.G., R.E.,
F.R.S. Conducted excavations at Jerusalem, and reconnaissance of
Palestine for the Pal. Expl. Fund, 1867-1870; Administrator and
Commander-in-Chief, Griqualand West; commanded troops Northern
Border Expedition, 1879; Bechuanaland Expedition, 1884-1885;
Suakim, 1886; Commissioner Metropolitan Police, 1886-1888;
commanded troops Straits Settlements, 1889-1894;
Lieutenant-General in command of 5th Div. South African Field
Force, 1899-1900. Author of works concerning the archæology of
Jerusalem; also of "On Veldt in the Seventies," and of "The
Ancient Cubit and Our Weights and Measures."--["Who's Who."]
_fa fa_, John WARREN (1767-1838), Dean of Bangor, N.W.
_fa fa bro_, Frederick WARREN (1775-1848), Vice-Admiral; defeated
Danish gunboat flotilla in the Belt, 1809; Commander-in-Chief
at the Cape, 1831-1834; Admiral-Superintendent at Plymouth,
1837-1841.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_fa fa bro_, Pelham WARREN (1778-1835), M.D., F.R.S., Physician at
St. George's Hosp.; Harveian orator, 1826; Physician to the
King.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_fa_, Sir Charles WARREN (1798-1866), K.C.B., Major-General; served
in India, 1840-1848; in China, 1841-1844; in the Crimea,
1854-1856.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_fa bro_, John WARREN (1796-1852), F.R.S., mathematician; Fellow and
Tutor of Jesus Coll., Cambridge; Chancellor of Bangor.--["Dict. N.
Biog."]
_son_, Richard WARREN (b. 1876), first-class honours, Natural
Science, Oxford; scholarship in Anatomy and Physiology, London Hosp.;
Radcliffe Travelling Fellow, Oxford; house physician, house surgeon,
and senior resident accoucheur, London Hosp.
_fa fa fa_, Richard WARREN (1731-1797), M.D., F.R.S., Fellow of Jesus
Coll., Cambridge; Physician to George III., and to George, Prince of
Wales.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
Bertram Coghill Alan #WINDLE# (b. 1858), F.R.S., President of
Queen's Coll., Cork; M.D., D.Sc., Dublin; late Dean of the
Medical Faculty and Professor of Anatomy and Anthropology,
University of Birmingham; author of scientific papers, books on
anatomy, anthropology, and literature, "Tyson's Pygmies of the
Ancients," "Life in Early Britain," etc.--["Who's Who."]
_me bro_, Colonel Kendal COGHILL (b. 1832), C.B., served in Burmah,
1853-1855; Adjutant of 2nd European Bengal Fusiliers during Indian
Mutiny, 1857-1858; commanded 19th Hussars in Egyptian Campaign,
1882.--["Who's Who."]
_me fa_, Admiral Sir J. COGHILL.
_me me fa_, Charles Kendal BUSHE (1767-1843), Solicitor-General
for Ireland, 1805-1822; Chief Justice of King's Bench, 1822-1841.
--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_me bro son_, Seymour Coghill Hort BUSHE (b. 1853), K.C., Senior
Moderator and Berkeley gold medallist; gold medallist in oratory,
Dublin; Senior Crown Prosecutor for County and City of Dublin,
1901.--["Who's Who."]
_me si son_, Herbert Wilson GREENE, well-known fellow and lecturer,
Magdalen Coll., Oxford; author of version of "Rubayat" of Omar
Khayum, etc.
_me si son_, Boyle SOMERVILLE, Commander, R.N., author of papers on
the ethnology of the Polynesian race in the "Anthropological
Journal."
_me si da_, Edith Oenone SOMERVILLE, M.F.H., author of
"Reminiscences of an Irish R.M.," "All on the Irish Shore," and other
novels.
Horace Bolingbroke #WOODWARD# (b. 1848), F.R.S., Assistant Director
Geological Survey of England and Wales; author of "Geology of
England and Wales," and other works.--["Who's Who."]
_fa fa_, Samuel WOODWARD (1790-1838), geologist and antiquary; clerk
in Gurney's Bank, Norwich, 1820-1838; studied history and archæology;
formed collection of fossils and antiquities, and published works
relating to Norfolk.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_fa_, Samuel Pickworth WOODWARD (1821-1865), Professor of Geology
and Natural History at Royal Agricultural Coll., Cirencester, 1845;
first-class assistant in department of geology and mineralogy,
British Museum, 1848-1865; author of "Manual of the Mollusca"
(1851-1856).--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_fa bro_, Bernard Bolingbroke WOODWARD (1816-1869), librarian in
ordinary to Queen Victoria at Windsor.--["Dict. N. Biog."]
_fa bro_, Henry WOODWARD (b. 1832), LL.D., F.R.S., President of
Palæontographical Soc. since 1896; Vice-President of Royal
Microscopical Soc.; late Keeper Geological Department, British Museum
(Natural History); author of many works on palæontology, zoology,
etc.--["Who's Who."]
_bro_, Bernard Henry WOODWARD, Director of Museum at Perth, W.
Australia.
_bro_, Herbert Willoughby WOODWARD, Archdeacon of Magila, Zanzibar.
_fa bro son_, Harry Page WOODWARD (b. 1858), Government Geologist
for W. Australia, 1887-1895.
_fa bro son_, Martin Fountain WOODWARD, Demonstrator of Biology,
Royal Coll. of Science (obituary in "Nature").
APPENDIX
32 NOTEWORTHY FATHERS OF 38 F.R.S.
(TAKEN FROM THE PRINTED LIST OF 66 FAMILIES, AND CLASSIFIED BY
OCCUPATIONS)
ASTRONOMY.
Sir J.W. #LUBBOCK#, F.R.S., Treasurer and Vice-President of the Royal
Soc.
_son_, Lord AVEBURY, F.R.S. (Lubbock).
Third Earl of #ROSSE#, President Royal Soc. (1800-1867), constructor
of the great reflecting telescope.
_son_, fourth Earl of ROSSE, F.R.S.
_son_, C.A. PARSONS, F.R.S.
GEOLOGY.
Professor #BALL#, Dublin (1802-1857).
_son_, Sir Robert BALL, F.R.S.
_son_, Valentine BALL, F.R.S.
Sir J. #EVANS#, F.R.S., President of Geological and many other
societies; Treasurer of the Royal Soc. for many years.
_son_, Arthur EVANS, F.R.S.
#GODWIN-AUSTEN#, F.R.S. (1808-1884).
_son_, H.H. GODWIN-AUSTEN, F.R.S.
Professor #WOODWARD#, Cirencester (1821-1865).
_son_, H.B. WOODWARD, F.R.S.
PHYSICS AND MATHEMATICS.
J.J. #LISTER#, F.R.S. (----), optical investigator.
_son_, Lord LISTER, O.M., President Royal Soc.
_son_, Arthur LISTER, F.R.S.
Lord #RAYLEIGH#, F.R.S., O.M.
_son_, Hon. R. STRUTT, F.R.S.
Professor James #THOMSON#, Belfast (1786-1849).
_son_, Lord KELVIN, O.M., President Royal Soc.
_son_, James THOMSON, F.R.S.
CHEMISTRY.
R. #WARINGTON#, F.R.S. (1807-1867), ten years Secretary of the
Chemical Soc.
_son_, Robert WARINGTON, F.R.S.
ENGINEER.
W. #PETRIE#, inventor of various apparatus for electric and chemical
industries.
_son_, W.M. FLINDERS-PETRIE, F.R.S.
BIOLOGY.
Charles #DARWIN#, F.R.S. (1809-1865), the great naturalist.
_son_, Professor G. DARWIN, F.R.S.
_son_, Francis DARWIN, F.R.S.
_son_, Horace DARWIN, F.R.S.
Edwin #LANKESTER#, F.R.S. (1814-1874), Professor of Natural History,
New Coll., London.
_son_, E. Ray LANKESTER, F.R.S.
BOTANY.
Sir William #HOOKER#, F.R.S. (1758-1865), Director of Kew Gardens.
_son_, Sir Joseph HOOKER, F.R.S.
MEDICINE.
W.A.F. #BROWNE#, F.R.S.E. (----), First Commissioner in Lunacy for
Scotland.
_son_, Sir J. Crichton BROWNE, F.R.S.
Sir J. #TOMES#, F.R.S., eminent in dental surgery.
_son_, C.S. TOMES, F.R.S.
DIVINITY.
J. #BROWN# (1784-1858), Professor of Exegetics, Secession Coll., and
after in the United Presbyterian Coll.
_son_, A. Crum BROWN, F.R.S.
J.E. #KEMPE#, late Rector of St. James, Piccadilly; Hon. Chaplain to
the King.
_son_, A.B. KEMPE, F.R.S.
J.G. #MIALL#, Chairman of the Congregational Union.
_son_, L.C. MIALL, F.R.S.
S. #TRAIL# (----), Professor Systematic Theology, University,
Aberdeen.
_son_, J.W.H. TRAIL, F.R.S.
H. #VENN# (1796-1873), for many years Secretary and practically
manager of the Church Missionary Soc.
_son_, J. VENN, F.R.S.
PHILOSOPHY.
C.A. #BRANDIS#, Professor of Philosophy at Bonn.
_son_, Sir D. BRANDIS, F.R.S.
LAW.
P.A. #PICKERING#, Q.C., Judge Passage Court, Attorney-General, County
Palatine.
_son_, P.S.U. PICKERING, F.R.S.
PUBLIC SERVICES.
E. #STRACHEY# (1774-1832), Chief Examiner of Correspondence at India
House (Secretary's work, writing despatches).
_son_, Sir Richard STRACHEY, F.R.S.
HISTORIANS AND BIOGRAPHERS.
J. #GRANT DUFF# (1789-1858), "History of the Mahrattas," written
after a brief but brilliant career in India.
_son_, Sir Mountstuart GRANT DUFF, F.R.S.
Sir Francis #PALGRAVE# (1788-1861), "Rise and Progress of the English
Commonwealth."
_son_, R.H.I. PALGRAVE, F.R.S.
Henry #ROSCOE#, biographer.
_son_, Sir H.E. ROSCOE, F.R.S.
Henry #STEBBING#, D.D., F.R.S. (1799-1883), "Continuation to Hume and
Smollet's History," "Lives of the Italian Poets," etc.
_son_, T.R.R. STEBBING, F.R.S.
PAINTERS.
Robert #HERDMAN# (1829-1888), portrait and historical painter.
_son_, W.A. HERDMAN, F.R.S.
J. Calcott #HORSLEY#, R.A.
_son_, Sir Victor A.H. HORSLEY, F.R.S.
SCULPTOR.
T. #THORNYCROFT# (1815-1885).
_son_, Sir J.I. THORNYCROFT, F.R.S.
ARCHITECT.
Sir G. Gilbert #SCOTT#, R.A. (1811-1878), President Royal Institute
British Architects, Professor of Architecture.
_son_, Dukinfield H. SCOTT, F.R.S.
SUMMARY OF THE OCCUPATIONS OF THE 32 FATHERS
11 | PHYSICAL SCIENCE: Astronomy, 2; geology, 4;
| physics and mathematics, 3; chemistry, 1;
| engineer, 1.
5 | BIOLOGY: Biology, 2; botany, 1; medicine, 2.
6 | DIVINITY AND PHILOSOPHY: Divinity, 5; philosophy, 1.
2 | LAW AND PUBLIC SERVICE: Law, 1; public service, 1.
4 | HISTORIANS: Historians, 4.
4 | ARTISTS: Painters, 2; sculptor, 1; architect, 1.
---|
32 |
I gather from this that about 21 of the 38 sons have followed the
same pursuits as their parents, and that the remaining 17 have
followed different ones; but the distinction is not always clear, so
other persons may form slightly different estimates. Anyhow, it
appears that the two characteristics of (1) general ability and (2) a
passion for a particular pursuit are transmitted more or less
independently.
INDEX
ABILITY, HIGHEST ORDER OF, xiv How far can noteworthiness be
accepted as a statistical measure of, xxi; nature of, xxi;
relation between this and environment in producing noteworthiness,
xxi-xxv
Abercromby, Sir Ralph, 30
Sir Robert, 30
Abraham, Harry, 48
Joseph, 47
Abstention in replying to circular, suggested reasons for, xxxiv
Abydos, kings of earliest dynasties at, 53
Abyssinian Expedition, 5, 44
Accident, definition of, xx
Achromatic microscope, 40
"Adam Smith, Life of," 13
Adelaide, South Australia, 6
Ainslie, Sir Whitelaw, 28
Airy, Sir George B., 59
Albert, bust of Prince, 70
Memorial, 70
"Alert," 44
Alexandria, defeat of French at, 30
Allardice, Robert Barclay, 22
"All on the Irish Shore," 78
Ancestry, direct, xxxii
"Ancient Cubit and our Weights and Measures," 76
"Ankylostomiasis in Mines," 28
"Antiseptic Treatment in Surgery," 39
Ashburton, first Baron, 4
"Ashburton Treaty," 4
"Arabia, A Year's Journey through Eastern and Central," 52
Archæology, British School of, at Athens, 7
Arctic Voyages, 42-44
Arkwright, Sir Richard, 3
Artistic Temperament and Bohemianism, xv
"Athenæum," 62
Augusta, H.M. Empress, 9
Austen, Sir Henry E, 26
Robert, 26
Autotype process, 47
Avebury, Lord, 41, 80
Balfour, Andrew, 11
Isaac Bayley, 11
John Hutton, 11
Right Hon. A.J., 1
Professor F.M., 1
Right Hon. Gerald, 1
Balfour-Browne, John Hutton, 11
Ball, Sir Charles B., 3
Sir Robert S., 2, 80
Robert, 2, 80
Valentine, 3, 80
Bangor, Dean of, 76
Barclay, Capt., of Ury, 22
Barnard, Frederick, 56
George, 56
Harold L., 56
Baring Brothers and Co., 4
Alexander, 4
Charles, 4
Evelyn, 4
Sir Francis, 3
Francis Thornhill, 4
Thomas, 4
Thomas George, 3
Baring-Gould, Rev. S., 5
Bass, George, 53
Batten, Emelia, 74
George, 65
Bateson, xlii
"_Beagle_, Voyage of," 18
"Beduins, With the," 33
Belper, Lord, 24
Bell's "British Quadrupeds," 71
Bentham, Samuel, 24
Berlin waterworks, 24
Bernard, Charles B., Bishop of Tuam, 61
Bewick, 37
"Biography, Dictionary of National," xiv
Blanford, H.F., 6
William, 5
W.T., 5
Blood, Professor W. Bindon, 62
General Sir Bindon, 62
Bohemianism and artistic temperament, xv
Bonamy Price, Professor, xvi
Booth, Right Hon. Charles, 6, 57
Henry, 6
James, 6
Thomas, 6
Bosanquet, Bernard, 7
C.B.P., 7
Vice-Admiral Day Hort, 7
Sir John Bernard, 7
Robert C., 7
R.H.M., 7
"Botanic Garden," 17
Bottomley, James Thomson, 8, 69
Bramwell, Lord, 36
Sir Frederick, 36
Brandis, C.A., 9, 83
Sir Dietrich, 8, 83
Joachim D., 9
Johannes, 9
Bray, Anna Eliza, 38
Brewster, Sir David, 11
Bright, statue of John, 70
Britons, Ancient, 20
Brodrick, Charles, Archbishop of Cashel, 60
George C. (Warden of Merton), 61
Right Hon. William St. J., 61
W.J., seventh Viscount Midleton, 61
Brodrick Scott, Charles, 61
Brothers, average number of, for any person, xxxi
Brown, Professor A. Crum, 9, 82
General David, 72
John, of Haddington (1722-1787), 9
John, of Whitburn (1754-1832), 10
John, of Biggor (1784-1858), 10, 82
John, M.D., 10
John (engineer), 75
Browne, Sir J. Crichton, 11, 82
W.A.F., 11, 82
Brunel, Isambard, 35
Buller, Sir Arthur, 65
Charles, 65
Isabella B., 64
Burdon, Sir Thomas, 12
Burdon-Sanderson, Sir John S., 12, 29
Richard, 12
Burke's "Peerage," xix
Burrows, Professor R.M., 68
Bushe, Charles Kendal, 78
Seymour Coghill Hort, 78
Calcott, Sir Augustus Wall, 35
John Wall, 35
Cambrian Pottery Works, 46
Camperdown, Earl of, 30
Viscount Duncan of, 30
"Canadian Men and Women of the Time," 58
Candidates for Fellowship of Royal Society, number of, xi
Caricaturists on women who study hard, xv
Cashel, Archbishop of, 60
Cecil, family of, 2
"Celebes, Naturalist in North," 32
Celebrity, reasons why men who have attained to the highest, fail to
leave worthy successors, if any, xv
Cerebration, unconscious, xviii
Ceylon pearl fisheries, 31
Chance, xx
Chantrey, 70
"Challenger Reports," 49, 62
Charity Organization Society, 7
"Charles R. Darwin, Life and Letters of," 18, 19
Chree, Alex. B., 14
Charles, D.D., 14
Charles, F.R.S., 13
Jessie S., 14
William, 14
Christchurch, New Zealand, Archdeacon of, 60
Church, Professor A.H., 15
Rev. A.J., 15
H.F., 15
"Church Architecture, History of English," 60
Church Missionary Society, 72, 73
Cinchona-bearing trees, 44
Circular sent to Fellows of Royal Society, ix, xxviii
Clive, Lord, 64
Clogher, Bishop of, 43
Cochrane, Lord, 49
Coghill, Admiral Sir J., 78
Colonel Kendal, 77
Cohen, Meyer (Sir F. Palgrave), 51
Coke, Elizabeth, 54
Thomas W., 54
Collaterals, xxxii
"Colliery Explosions, Cause of Death in," 28
Colonial Office, 59
COMPARISON OF RESULTS WITH AND WITHOUT MARKS IN THE SIXTY-FIVE
FAMILIES, xxxvii
Compton, Henry, 48
CONCLUSIONS, xxxix
Constituents, incongruous, in highest order of mind, xv
Constitutional disease, proneness of particular families to, x
"Contracts, Specific Performance of," 21
Conversation, rapid, xviii
Coomassie, relief of, 44
Copeman, A.C., 16
Edward, 16
Peter, 16
S.M., 15
Copyright Act, 50
Cork, Bishop of, 43
Correlation, negative, between constituents of highest order of
mind, xv
Cotterill, Arthur, 17
Henry (Senior Wrangler), 17
Professor J.H., 16
Joseph M. (surgeon), 17
Joseph M., D.D., 17
Rev. Thomas, 16
Thomas (mathematician), 17
Counties in England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, number required
to provide one F.R.S. annually, xii
Cousins, first, of F.R.S., xl
Crewe, first Earl of, 50
Crewe-Milnes, R.O.A., first Earl of, 50
Crete, 20
Cromer, first Earl, 4
Crompton, Charles, 6, 57
Henry, 6, 57
"Cromwell, Oliver, the Protector," 52
Crum, Alexander, 10
Walter, 10
Cuneiform writing, 47
Dalton, 24
Danish gunboat flotilla, defeat of, in the Belt, 76
Daphnæ, Greek settlements at, 53
Darjeeling, 26
Darwin, Charles (medical student), 18
Charles R. (author of "Origin of Species," etc.), 18, 23, 81
Erasmus (author of "Zoonomia," etc.), 17, 23
Erasmus (grandson of the author of "Zoonomia") 18
Professor Francis, 19, 81
Professor G.H. (now Sir George), 17, 81
Horace, 19, 81
Major Leonard, 19
Robert W., 18
Davy, Sir Humphry, 56
Degrees of eminence in "noteworthy" persons, xxxv
of remoteness of kinship, xxviii
De la Rue, 33
Delane, 62
Denmark, Queen of, 9
"Dental Anatomy, Manual of," 70
"Dental Surgery," 71
Dentists Act, 71
Descendants, direct, xxxii
De Vries, xlii
Devonshire, geology of, 26
De Winter, Admiral, 30
Dickens, illustrations to, 56
Dickinson, John, F.R.S., 20
John, 21
"Dictionary of National Biography," xiv
Dillwyn, Lewis Weston, 46
Diminution of frequency of noteworthiness with increase of distance
of kinship, xxxix
Dundas and Wilson, 8
Sir David, 8
David, 8
George, 8
John, 8
Lord, 8
Ralph, 7
Duff, _vide_ Grant Duff
Duncan, Adam, Viscount Duncan of Camperdown, 30
Durham, Bishop of, 4
Lord, 65
"Ecce Homo," 15
Eccentricity in families of able scientific men, xvi
"Economist," 51
Edgeworth, R.L., 24
"Edinburgh Encyclopædia," 11
"Education, Memoirs on," 13
Egerton, Right Hon. Sir Edwin, 45
Egypt, 4
Elias, Ney, 26
Eldon, first Earl of, 13, 30
"Electrical Testing, Handbook of," 38
"Electrical Review," 38
Eminence, degrees of, in "noteworthy" persons, xxxv
"Encyclopædia Britannica," xiv
Energy as a factor in success, xviii
"England and Normandy, History of," 51
Number of counties of, xii
"English Men of Science," xiii
"Environment," xx
Nature of, xxi; relation between this and ability in producing
noteworthiness, xxi-xxv
"Etymological Dictionary," 19
Eugenics, vii, xli, 22
Evans, Anne, 20
Arthur Benoni, 20
Arthur J., 20, 80
Sir John, 20, 80
Lewis, 20
Sebastian, 20
Excursion trains, 33
Exhibition buildings in Hyde Park, 24
Expectations of noteworthiness, xxxix
Express trains, 33
Faraday, Michael, 56
"Farm, The Chemistry of the," 75
Farrer, Lord Herschell, 13
Fathers of F.R.S., xl
"Fauna of the Deep Sea," 32
F.R.S., reasons for selecting, as subject for inquiry, xiii;
circulars sent to, xxviii; number of replies sent to circulars,
xxix
Fellowship of Royal Society, distinction of, xi; material value of,
xi; number of candidates for, xi
"Ferrier, Life of," 29
Fertile relatives, number of in each degree, xxxii
Fertility, connection between, and severe mental strain, xv
Finger-prints, identification by, 22
Fisher, Sir George, 67
Fitzgerald, Professor G. Francis, 63
Professor Maurice, 63
Fletcher, Harriet, 57
Maria, 57
Fleury, Rev. Charles M., 43
Ven. George L., 43
Flinders, Matthew, 53
Foljambe, Right Hon. Francis, 44
Forbes, David, Biography of, 25
Foster, Anthony, 42
Sir Augustus J., 43
Ebenezer, 27
John, Baron Oriel, 42
John Leslie, 43
John William, M.P., 42
Vere H.L., 43
William, D.D., 43
"Fossil Botany, Studies in," 59
"Foundations of Belief," 1
"_Fox_, The Voyage of the," 42
Fox, Sir Charles, 24
France, Geology of, 26
Francis, John, 70
Franco-German War, 9
"Franklin, The Fate of Sir John," 42
Fry, Edmund, 21
Right Hon. Sir Edward, 21
Francis, 21
Joseph, 21
Joseph Storrs, 21
J.S. and Co., 21
Right Hon. Lewis, 21
Galton, Sir Douglas, 23
Francis, 19, 22
Samuel, 22
Geikie, Sir A., 24
Cunningham, 25
James, 25
James Stewart, 25
Walter, 25
Walter Bayne, 25
"Genius, Hereditary," xiv, xvii
Genius, definition of, xvii; heredity of, xvii
"Genera Plantarum," 34
"Geography, Lectures on," 64
"Geology of England and Wales," 78
Gloucester and Bristol, C. Baring, Bishop of, 4
Godwin, Major-General Sir Thomas H., 26
Godwin-Austen, Harold, 26
Lieutenant-Colonel H.H., 26, 80
Maria E., 26
R.A.C., 26, 80
"Gonville and Caius Coll., A Biographical History of," 72
"Golden Treasury," 51
Gordon, statue of General, 70
Gotch, Professor F., 27
Fredrick W., 27
Thomas Cooper, 27
Grant, Jane Maria, 66
Sir J.P. (Indian Judge), 66
Sir J.P. (Indian and Colonial Governor), 66
Grant Duff, Adrian, 28
Arthur C., 28
Evelyn M., 28
James, 28, 83
Right Hon. Sir M.E., 27, 83
Granville, statue of Lord, 70
Greene, H.W., 78
Grey, second Earl, 5
Hon. Lady, 4
Charles, 5
Sir George, 5
Griffin, Vice-Admiral William, 62
Gurney, Ellen, 74
Mrs. Russell, 74
Haden, Dr. Charles T., 35
Sir F. Seymour, 35
Dr. Thomas, 35
Hague, Court of International Arbitration at the, 21
Haldane, Alex. Chinnery, 29
Daniel R., 29
Elizabeth Sanderson, 13, 29
James A., 29
Lieutenant-Colonel J.A.L., 29
J.S., 13, 28
Robert, 29
Right Hon. R.B., 13, 29
Halkett, General, 37
"Harmony, Textbook of," 35
Hartmann, Julius von, 9
"Harvesting Ants," 46
"Hastings and the Rohilla War," 65
Hastings, Warren, 44
Hausmann, Friedrich, 9
"Heather Hills, My," 25
"Hebrew Politics in the Time of Sargon and Sennacherib," 65
Hegel's "History of Philosophy," 29
"Heine, Heinrich, Songs and Lyrics by," 25
Hellicar, Ames, 3
Herbert Hospital at Woolwich, 23
"Hereditary Genius," xiv, xvii, xlii
Herdman, J.C. (senior), 31
J.C. (junior), 31
Robert, 31, 84
Sophia, 31
William, 31
Professor W.A., 30, 84
Herschell, first Lord, 13
Hewett, Bertram H.M., 27
"Hibbert Journal," 40
Hickson, Professor S.J., 31
W.E., 32
HIGHEST ORDER OF ABILITY, xiv
"Highland Lady, Memoirs of a," 66
Hill, Arthur, 32
Edward B.L., 33
Edwin, 33
G. Birkbeck, 32
Sir John E.G., 33
Professor Leonard, 32
Matthew Davenport, 33
Norman, 33
Sir Rowland, 33
Thomas W., 33
"Hindoostan, Materia Medica of," 28
Hodgkin, maiden name of Lady Fry, 22
Hogarth, 37
Homan, Mrs. Ruth, 32
Home Office, 59
Hooker, Sir Joseph D., 34, 82
Sir William J., 34, 82
Horsley, Charles E., 35
John Callcott, 35, 84
Sir V., 27, 34, 84
William, 34
Houghton, Lord, 50
"Huia, The," 38
Ignorance concerning noteworthiness of kinsmen in distant degree,
xxxviii
Imaginative power near to lunacy, xv
"Immortality, Ode to," xvi
Incongruous constituents in highest order of mind, xv
"India," 65
"India, Finances and Public Works of," 64
India Office, 59
Indian Meteorological Department, 6
"Industrial Conciliation," 7
Intensity of any specified quality in each or any degree of kinship,
how measured, xxix
"Internal Motion of Gases," 62
Ireland, number of counties of, xii
"Italian Poets, Lives of," 62
Jackson, George, 75
Jenkinson, Sir Edward, 5
Jevons, W. Stanley, 57
Jerusalem, archæology of, 76
Johnstone, Professor Robert, 10
Joly, Henry Edward, 36
Jasper Robert, 37
John, 36
Rev. John P., 36
Mary, 37
"Journal of Hygiene," 13, 28
Kashmir, 26, 27
"Kempe and Kemp Families, A History of the," 38
Kempe, Alfred Bray, 37, 82
Alfred John, 37
Edward, 38
Harry Robert, 38
John Arrow, 38
John E., 37, 82
Kelvin, Lord, 68
Khartoum, Battle of, 46
Kilmore, Bishop of, 43
"King Alfred," 57
King, George, 69
KINSFOLK, NOTEWORTHY, NUMBER OF IN EACH DEGREE, xxxiii
NUMBER OF IN EACH DEGREE, xxviii
NUMBER OF IN 100 FAMILIES, WHO SURVIVED CHILDHOOD, xxx
of each person, difficulty of obtaining number of, x; reasons for
difficulty, x
KINSMEN, NUMBER OF NOTEWORTHY, RECORDED IN 207 RETURNS, xl
KINSHIP, NOMENCLATURE OF, xxvi
Kirkpatrick, Lieutenant-General, 64
Knossos, Palace of, 20
Koptos, prehistoric Egyptian at, 53
Kynaston, Professor Herbert, 67
Labouchere, Henry, 4
Lamarck, 17
Lancaster, Joseph, 24
Lankester, Edwin, 38, 81
E. Forbes, 39
Professor E. Ray, 38, 81
Fay, 39
Nina, 39
Phebe, 39
S. Rushton, 39
Larmor, Dr., 63
"Lay Texts," 66
Leicester, Earl of, 54
"Leo X.," 57
"Life in Early Britain," 77
Liverpool Cathedral, 60
Lister, Lord, 39, 81
Arthur, 40, 81
Arthur H., 40
Gulielma, 40
J.J. (biologist), 40
J.J. (optical investigator), 40, 81
Llewelyn, John Dillwyn, 46
Lodge, Alfred, 41
Eleanor C., 41
George E., 41
Sir Oliver, 40
Richard, 40
Robert J., 40
Lombroso, xvi
"London, Life and Labour of People of," 6
"Lorenzo de' Medici, Life of," 57
Lubbock, Edgar, 42
Sir John, 41, 80
Right Hon. Sir John, 41
Sir John William, 41, 80
Sir Neville, 42
Lunacy and imaginative power, xvi
Lusi, Frederick, Comte de (soldier), 37
Frederick, Comte de (statesman), 36
Spiridion, Comte de, 37
Macaulay, 24
McClintock, Alfred H., 43
Sir Francis L., 42
H.F., 43
John, Lord Rathdonell, 43
J.W.L., 43
Patience, 42
R.S., 44
Macdowall, Hay, 7
Mackenzie, Charles, 48
Sir Morell, 48
Sir Stephen, 48
"Mahrattas, History of the," 28
Manor, Lord, 8
Mariner's compass, 69
Markham, Admiral Sir Albert, 44
Sir Clements R., 44
Lieutenant-General Sir Edwin, 44
George, 45
Admiral John, 45
William (Archbishop of York), 45
William, 44
Marks applied to degree of noteworthiness, xxxvi
Maskelyne, M.H.N. Story, 45
Nevil, 45
Masterman, J. Story, 46
Material on which book is based, ix
Melbourne, Lord, 4
Meldola, David, 47
Raphael F.R.S., 47
Raphael (High Rabbi), 47
"Mentone, Flora of," 46
Merit, standard of, xiii
"Merton Coll., Memorials of," 61
Miall, Edward, 48
Rev. J.G., 48, 82
Lewis C., 48, 82
Stephen, 48
Micrometers, machine for ruling, 75
Miers, Edward J., 49
Francis Charles, 49
Professor H.A., 49
John, 49
"Middle Ages, Close of," 41
Midleton, seventh Viscount, 61
Mill, 24
James, 64
Milner, Right Hon. Sir Frederick, 44
Milnes, R. Monckton, Lord Houghton, 50
R. Pemberton, 50
R.S., 49
"Mineralogy," 49
"Modern Science," restriction to term as used on title-page, xiii
Moggridge, Traherne, 46
"Mollusca, Manual of," 79
"Monumental Effigies of Great Britain," 38
"Moon and Stars, Memoirs of Heat of," 52
Moore, Thomas, 24; "Life and Letters of," 24
Morgan, M.E. de, 55
"Mosses, British," 21
Murchison, Sir R., Biography of, 25
"Musical Grammar," 35
"Mycetozoa," 21
Monograph on, 40
Naqada, prehistoric Egyptians at, 53
"National Biography, Dictionary of," xiv
"Nature," xxxi, xxxii
Naucratis, Greek settlements at, 53
Nautical Almanac, 45
Nebulæ, discovery of, 52
Nelson, bust of Miss Horatio, 70
Newton, Professor Alfred, 49
A.W., 50
Sir Edward, 50
F.J., 50
Lieutenant-General H.P., 50
R. Milnes, 50
William, 49
General W.S., 50
New York, tunnel under river in, 27
NOMENCLATURE OF KINSHIP, xxvi
"Nonconformist," 48
Northbrook, first Baron, 4
first Earl of, 3
Norwich, Roman Catholic Cathedral at, 60
NOTEWORTHY KINSFOLK, NUMBER OF IN EACH DEGREE, xxxiii
Noteworthy, use of term in present work, xiii, xiv
NOTEWORTHIES, PROPORTION OF TO THE GENERALITY, xviii
NOTEWORTHINESS, xi
MARKED AND UNMARKED DEGREES OF, xxxv
AS A MEASURE OF ABILITY, xx
Noteworthiness as achieved, xix; statistically the outcome of ability
and environment, xxi; in women, xxxiii; diminution of frequency of,
with increase of distance of kinship, xxxix; expectation of, xxxix
NUMBER OF KINSFOLK IN EACH DEGREE, xxviii
OF KINSFOLK IN 100 FAMILIES WHO SURVIVED CHILDHOOD, xxx
OF NOTEWORTHY KINSFOLK IN EACH DEGREE, xxxiii
NUMBER OF NOTEWORTHY KINSMEN RECORDED IN 207 RETURNS, xl
"Ode to Immortality," xvi
Oriel, Lord, 42
"Origin of Species," 18
Otho, King, 9
Owen, Robert, 24
Palestine, Reconnaissance of, 76
Palgrave, Elizabeth (née Dawson Turner), 51
Sir Francis, 51, 83
Francis Turner, 51
Sir Reginald F.D., 52
R.H.I., 51, 83
W. Giffard, 52
Parliamentary representatives, methods for electing, xxxv
Parsons, Charles A., 52, 80
Lawrence, fourth Earl of Rosse, 52, 80
William, third Earl of Rosse, 52, 80
Peacock, 64
Peel, Sir Robert's, Cabinet, 4
"Penelope," 39
Penny postage, 33
Percy anecdotes, 37
Persian Boundary Commission, 5
Petrie, Anne Flinders, 53
Martin, 53
Matthew, 53
William, 53, 81
Professor W.M. Flinders, 53, 81
"Philobiblon Society," 50
Pickering, Anne Maria, 54
Edward Hayes, 54
Percival, 55
Percival Andrée, 54, 83
P.S.U., 54, 83
Piel seafish hatchery, 31
Pine, William, 21
Place, Francis, 49
"Platæa and Olympia," 54
Plowden, Sir Henry Meredith, 66
Sir Trevor Chichele, 66
Plymouth, 4
"Poets on Poets," 66
"Political Economy, Dictionary of," 51
Political life, factors conducive to noteworthiness in, xxi
"Political Studies," 61
Polynesian race, 78
Pope, Samuel, 39
Port Erin Biological Station, 31
Positivist Community, 7
Price, Professor Bonamy, xvi
PROPORTION OF NOTEWORTHIES TO THE GENERALITY, xviii
Prussia, Queen of, 9
Punakha, 26
"Punch," 56
"Q.J.M.S.," 39
Radium, 68
Ramsay, Sir Andrew C., 55
Sir William, 55
William, 55
Rathdonell, Lord, 43
Rayleigh, third Baron, 68, 81
Lady, 2
Reform Bill, 5
Movement, 74
Reid, Clement, 56
Margery A., 56
"Reminiscences of an Irish R.M." 78
Remoteness of kinship, degrees of, xxviii
Repute, built up by repeated testings of intelligence, energy, and
character, xix
"Richelieu," 41
"Rise and Progress of English Commonwealth," 51
Robarts, Lubbock and Co., 41
Robertson, Robert, 55
Roscoe, Henry, 57, 83
Sir Henry E., 7, 56, 83
Robert, 57
Thomas, 57
William, 57
W. Caldwell, 57
William Stanley, 57
Rosse, third Earl of, 52, 80
fourth Earl of, 52, 80
"Rothamsted Experiments, Lectures on the," 75
Routh, Dr. Amand J. McC., 59
Dr. C.H.F., 58
Edward J., 58
Sir Randolph I., 58
Royal Exchange Assurance Corporation, 41, 42
Royal Institution, Francis Galton's lecture before, in 1864, xiii
"Royal Society's Year Book," xiii, xxviii
Russell, Lord John, 5
"Rubayat" of Omar Khayum, 78
Salisbury, third Marquis of, 2
Sanderson, Sir James, 12
Sattara State, 28
Schimmelpenninck, 22
Scholastic successes, a doubtful indication of future performance, xxxiv
Scotland, number of counties of, xii
Scott, Charles Brodrick, 61
Charles William, 61
Dukinfield Henry, 59, 84
Edward Ashley, 61
General Edward William, 61
Ven. Edwin A., Archdeacon of Christchurch, New Zealand, 60
Professor Hercules, 72
George Digby, 61
Sir George Gilbert, 59, 84
George Gilbert, 60
Giles Gilbert, 60
Henry George, 60
James George, Archdeacon of Dublin, 61
James Smyth, 61
John, Lord Eldon, 13, 30
Sir John, 33
John Pendred, 60
Ven. Melville H., Archdeacon of Stafford, 60
Robert Henry, 60
Canon Thomas, 60
Thomas (Biblical commentator), 59
Thomas (of Queen's College, Cambridge), 59
William, Lord Stowell, 13, 30
"Scottish Character and Scenery, Etchings Illustrative of," 25
Secret history of family, importance of, x
Seeley, Sir John R., 15
Sex of one child no clue of importance to that of any other child in
same family, xxxi
Sibley, George, 71
Sidgwick, Mrs. Henry, 1
Simpson, Alfred, 5
Siphon recorder, 68
Sisters, average number of, for any person, xxxi
Social rank, effects of, in producing noteworthiness, xxi
world, vastness of, xvii
"Soil, Physical Properties of the," 75
Sola, Abram de, 47
Somerville, Comm. Boyle, 78
E.O., 78
"Sound, Theory of," 68
Smyth, H. Warington, 46
Major N. Maskelyne, 46
Specific kinship, forms of, xxvi; abbreviation for, xxvi
"Spectator," 65
Spencer, Lord, 5
Spencer Stanhope, A.M.W., 54
John, 54
John R., 55
Sir Walter, 55
Sports, xlii
Stafford, Archdeacon of, 60
Standard of merit used, xiii
Stanhope, John Spencer, 54
Stanley, Lord, 43
Stebbing, Rev. Henry, 62, 83
Rev. T.R.R., 62, 83
William, 62
Stephen, Sir James Fitzjames, 73
Sir Leslie, 73
Stephenson, 6
Stewart-Wilson, Charles, 10
Stirling, Anna M.D.W., 55
Stoney, Bindon Blood, 63
Gerald, 63
G. Johnstone, 62
Story, A.M.R., 45
Stothard, Charles A., 38
Stowell, first Baron, 13, 30
Strachey, Sir Arthur, 65
Edward, 64
Sir Edward, 65, 83
George, 65
Giles Lytton, 66
Colonel Henry, 65
Sir Henry (first Bart.), 64
Sir Henry (second Bart.), 64
Sir John, 64
Joan Pernel, 66
John, F.R.S. (geologist), 65
John, Archdeacon of Suffolk, 65
John, St. Loe, 65
J. Beaumont, 66
Marjorie Colvile, 67
Oliver, 66
Lieut.-General Sir Richard, 63, 83
Richard, 64
Strahan, Aubrey, 67
Charles, 67
George, 67
Strain, severe mental, connection between this and fertility, xv
Stratification, theory of, 65
"Structural Botany, Introduction to," 59
Strutt, Edward, Baron Belper, 24
Hon. E.G., 68
Jedediah, 23
Joseph, 25
William, 24
Strutt, John W., Lord Rayleigh, 68, 81
Hon. Robert J., 68, 81
"Student's Modern Europe," 41
Success in obtaining Fellowships of Royal Society, xii; how achieved,
xviii, xix; factors producing, xx
"Sun and Stars, Physical Constitution of," 62
Surnames as affecting knowledge of distant kinsmen, xxxviii
Sykes, Daniel, 74
Joseph, 74
Symonds, John Addington, 65
TABLES:
I. Combinations of Ability and Environment, xxiii
II. Ability Independent of Environment, xxiv
III. Ability Correlated with Environment, xxv
IV. Abbreviations, xxvii
V. Number of kinsfolk in One Hundred Families who survived
Childhood, xxx
VI. Comparison of Results with and without Marks in the Sixty-five
Families, xxxvii
VII. Number of Noteworthy Kinsmen recorded in 207 Returns, xl
"Tales for Children," 57
Talbot, C.R.M., 46
W.H.F., 46
Talbotype process, 47
Taschereau, Cardinal E.A., 58
Hon. H.E., 58
Hon. J.T., 58
Hon. Sir Henri T., 58
Taunton, first Baron, 4
Telescope, reflecting, at Parsonstown, 52
Thames Plate Glass Company, 5
Thebes, Israelite War at, 53
Thoms, William, 25
Thomson, Professor James (civil engineer), 8, 69, 81
Professor James (mathematician), 8, 69, 81
John, 69
William, Lord Kelvin, 68, 81
"Thornliebank Co.," 11
Thornycroft, Mary, 70
Sir John I., 70, 84
Thomas, 70, 84
W. Hamo, 70
"Time and Faith," 32
"Times," 61, 62
Tippoo Sultan, reduction of, 30
Tomes, Charles S., 70, 82
Sir John, 71, 82
Robert Fisher, 71
Trail, John Arbuthnot, 72
Professor James W.H., 71, 82
Samuel, 71, 82
Transportation, Bill abolishing, 5
"Trapdoor Spiders," 46
"Tribune," 50
Tuam, Bishop of, 61
"Tyson's Pygmies of the Ancients," 77
Unconscious brain-work, abnormally developed powers of genius, xvii
Vatcher, Marion, 39
Rev. Sydney, 39
"Veldt in the Seventies, On the," 76
"Venn, Family Annals," 74
Venn, Henry (1725-1797), 73
Henry (1796-1873), 73, 82
John (1759-1813), 72
John (1802-1890), 73
John (b. 1834), 72, 82
Richard, 74
Vicars, Major-General Edward, 68
Victoria, bust of, 70
"Vittoria Colonna, Life of," 57
"Vortex water-wheel," 69
Wales, number of counties of, xii
Warington, George, 75
Robert, 75, 81
Professor Robert, 75, 81
Warren, Major-General Sir Charles (1798-1866), 76
General Sir Charles (b. 1840), 76
Vice-Admiral Frederick, 76
John (Dean of Bangor), 76
John (mathematician), 77
Dr. Pelham, 76
Dr. Richard (1731-1797), 77
Dr. Richard (b. 1876), 77
Waterford, Archdeacon of, 43
Waterloo, Battle of, 58
Waterlow, Sir Ernest, 32
Sir Sydney H., 32
Wealth, effects of, in producing noteworthiness, xxi
Wedgwood, Hensleigh, 19
Josiah, 18, 19
Julia, 19
Thomas, 18
Wellesley, 64
Wellington, bust of Duke of, 70
Wells, Dean of, 61
"Westminster Review," 32
Wheler, Edward G., 23
Whitbread, maiden name of the Hon. Lady Grey, 4
"Who's Who," xii, xiv
"Wild Flowers Worth Notice," 39
Willcocks, Sir G., 44
Windle, Professor B.C.A., 77
Women who study hard, characteristics of, xv; noteworthiness in, xxxiii
Woodward, Bernard Bolingbroke, 79
Bernard Henry, 79
Henry, 79
H.B., 78, 81
H.P., 79
H.W., 79
M.F., 79
Samuel, 78
Samuel Pickworth, 79, 81
Wordsworth, xvi
Work, possibility of extension of, ix; object of, ix
Yarkand, 26
York, Archbishop of, 45
Dean of, 45
"Zoonomia," 17
THE END
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London: John Murray, Albemarle Street, W. | 40,252 | common-pile/project_gutenberg_filtered | 17128 | project gutenberg | project_gutenberg-dolma-0001.json.gz:2177 | https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/17128.txt.utf-8 |
mdJGqoWu1T9z01lz | 3.4.2: Characteristics of Nonmetals | 3.4.2: Characteristics of Nonmetals
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Skills to Develop
- List some characteristics of nonmetals
- Contrast metals and nonmetals
Remember that non-metals are on the right and top of the periodic table. Based on the periodic trends in the last 4 sections, this means that they are usually smaller, more likely to gain electrons, and less likely to lose electrons, than the metals.
Elemental Properties
In the elemental form, non-metals can be gas, liquid or solid. They aren't shiny (lustrous) and they don't conduct heat or electricity well. Usually their melting points are lower than for metals, although there are exceptions. The solids usually break easily, and can't bend like metals. It's a general pattern that the closer an atom is to the noble gas electron configuration, the fewer bonds it makes. Non-metals are close to the noble gas configuration, so they usually make a few bonds to a few neighbors. The noble gases make no bonds, and are monatomic (single atoms); halogens make 1 bond to 1 other atom, etc. This means that they don't usually form extended structures (except diamond and graphite). Instead, they form separate molecules. These molecules aren't held together tightly, so solids can easily melt or break. The electrons are held tightly by just 1 - 2 atoms, so they can't conduct electricity.
Reaction Patterns
Non-metals can react with each other to form compounds in which electrons are shared. These compounds have some of the same characteristics as the elementals forms: usually they melt or boil at relatively low temperature and don't conduct heat or electricity. When non-metals react with metals, they usually gain electrons to form anions. The cations are then attracted to the anions, so the result are ionic or sort of ionic compounds. The more a non-metal wants to gain electrons, the more reactive it is. Thus, the halogens are all reactive, but iodine is pretty safe, while bromine, chlorine and especially fluorine are really nasty and dangerous! Oxygen only seems safe and friendly to us because we are adapted to it. When oxygen first appeared in the atmosphere due to photosynthesis, most of the early life forms probably died from it; we descended from the survivors. | 483 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://chem.libretexts.org/Under_Construction/Purgatory/AUCHE_212_General_Chemistry_II_Part_1_(Minhas)/03%3A_Periodic_Trends/3.04%3A_Periodic_Trends/3.4.02%3A_Characteristics_of_Nonmetals | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:14422 | https://chem.libretexts.org/Under_Construction/Purgatory/AUCHE_212_General_Chemistry_II_Part_1_(Minhas)/03%3A_Periodic_Trends/3.04%3A_Periodic_Trends/3.4.02%3A_Characteristics_of_Nonmetals |
3C2iHK5W_4Zu3nMY | 7.3.2: Fill in the Blanks Workarounds | 7.3.2: Fill in the Blanks Workarounds
Overall Usability
Usable with Workarounds: most users will be able to use the activity.
Fill in the Blanks Workarounds
Task Description
Example Task description :
Complete the blanks with the present tense of the verbs in bold .
The Task description field is intended to provide instructions for the activity. However, the Task description field also acts as the label for each Line of text. These labels are used by assistive technology. While visually, the Task description only appears once, in an activity with multiple Lines of text, users of assistive technology encounter the Task description repeated as many times as there are Lines of text in the activity.
The Task description should be short because it is also the label used by assistive technology for each Line of text. While the Task description field includes text formatting options, the text formatting is not part of the label used by assistive technology.
Do not use italics, links, lists, headings, or any other text formatting options in the Task description field if the text formatting conveys structure or meaning.
Text Blocks and Lines of Text
Example Line of text:
Every day, I (to wake up, to put on) early because (to study, to attend) classes at the university in the morning.
Fill in the Blanks activities are organized by Text blocks called Lines of text. Each Line of text has limited content formatting options. Content authors can use Lines of text to separate activity questions. However, Text blocks do not support numbered or bulleted lists or headings within each Line of text. The text formatting in Lines of text should be limited to normal text as much as possible. Bold text can be used when the use and meaning are described in the activity Task description.
Activity Instructions
Example activity instructions: The verbs appear before each blank space. Some of the subjects are in brackets. Example: Dr. Pérez (to work) works in the Los Angeles clinic. The Fill in the Blank activity does not provide an accessible option to include detailed instructions for the activity and correctly label activity elements for assistive technology. Detailed instructions should be added in the first Line of text instead of the Task description.
Blanks
Example Blanks:
Every day, I (to wake up, to put on) early because (to study, to attend) classes at the university in the morning. The Blanks in the Fill in the Blanks activities are edit fields. The information associated with each Blank should always appear before the Blank. This way the information associated with each Blank can serve as a text label. When the text labels for Blanks have multiple options, use a comma instead of a slash to separate the options. Commas are easier to read with assistive technology than slashes.
Textual Tips
Example Textual tip: (to wake up, to put on) to wake up, to put on Blanks are automatically labeled for assistive technology as “blank number of total blanks.” “Blank number” is the order of the Blank and “total blanks” is the total number of Blanks in the entire activity. If an activity has 16 Blanks as answers, then the first Blank is labeled “blank 1 of 16.”
To be accessible, the label for the Blanks should provide users of assistive technology with enough information to understand how to interact with the edit field. The information related to each Blank appears in parenthesis before the Blank but is not associated with the label for the Blank.
Since “blank 1 of 16” is not descriptive enough, a workaround is to include the information related to each Blank as a Textual tip .
The Textual tip should include the answer options in the text label. These will usually be the options in parenthesis. The Textual tip should also include any additional text related to the Blank. For example, if the subject of the verb is in brackets, [she], it should also be in the Textual tip. Please note, the Text Override for the tip label should be updated to better describe the text label. In this example, the tip label should be changed to “Verb to conjugate”. Similarly, the label for the tip icon should be updated. Instead of “Tip”, the label should be “Verb”.
Behavioral Settings for Fill in the Blanks
The following is a list of Behavioral Settings options with suggestions to make the content accessible:
-
Automatically check answers after input
- Do not check
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Put input fields on separate lines
- Do not check
-
Show confirmation dialog on "Check"
- Do not check
-
Show confirmation dialog on "Retry"
- Do not check
Text Overrides and Translations for Fill in the Blanks
In this example, the answers are verbs that need to be conjugated to match the context of the sentence. The following is a list of Text Overrides and Translations options with suggestions to make the content accessible:
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Text for "Show solutions" button
- Show solution for Activity 1
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Text for "Retry" button
- Retry Activity 1
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Text for "Check" button
- Check Activity 1
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Assistive technology label for saying an input has a tip tied to it
- Verb to conjugate
-
Tip icon label
- Verb | 1,137 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/Remixer_University/Mastering_ADAPT%3A_A_User's_Guide/07%3A_Building_H5P_Assessments/7.03%3A_H5P_Activity_Workarounds/7.3.02%3A_Fill_in_the_Blanks_Workarounds | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:40232 | https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/Remixer_University/Mastering_ADAPT%3A_A_User's_Guide/07%3A_Building_H5P_Assessments/7.03%3A_H5P_Activity_Workarounds/7.3.02%3A_Fill_in_the_Blanks_Workarounds |
VSnS-UVJ5ohxDypL | 6.11: Python Examples | 6.11: Python Examples
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Overview
The following examples demonstrate data types, arithmetic operations, and input in Python.
Data Types
# This program demonstrates variables, literal constants, and data types. i =<PHONE_NUMBER> f = 1.23456789012345 s = "string" b = True print("Integer i =", i) print("Float f =", f) print("String s =", s) print("Boolean b =", b)
Output
Integer i =<PHONE_NUMBER> Float f = 1.23456789012345 String s = string Boolean b = true
Discussion
Each code element represents:
-
#
begins a comment -
i = , d = , s =, b =
assign literal values to the corresponding variables -
print()
calls the print function
Arithmetic
# This program demonstrates arithmetic operations. a = 3 b = 2 print("a =", a) print("b =", b) print("a + b =", (a + b)) print("a - b =", (a - b)) print("a * b =", a * b) print("a / b =", a / b) print("a % b =", (a % b))
Output
a = 3 b = 2 a + b = 5 a - b = 1 a * b = 6 a / b = 1.5 a % b = 1
Discussion
Each new code element represents:
-
+, -, *, /, and %
represent addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and modulus, respectively.
Temperature
# This program converts an input Fahrenheit temperature to Celsius. print("Enter Fahrenheit temperature:") fahrenheit = float(input()) celsius = (fahrenheit - 32) * 5 / 9 print(str(fahrenheit) + "° Fahrenheit is " + str(celsius) + "° Celsius")
Output
Enter Fahrenheit temperature: 100 100.0° Fahrenheit is 37.77777777777778° Celsius
Discussion
Each new code element represents:
-
input()
reads the next line from standard input -
float()
converts the input to a floating-point value
References
- Wikiversity: Computer Programming | 384 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://eng.libretexts.org/Courses/Butte_College/Intro_to_Programming_with_Programming_Fundamentals_and_Python_for_Everyone/06%3A_Math_and_Variables/6.11%3A_Python_Examples | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:30628 | https://eng.libretexts.org/Courses/Butte_College/Intro_to_Programming_with_Programming_Fundamentals_and_Python_for_Everyone/06%3A_Math_and_Variables/6.11%3A_Python_Examples |
DGzysqsi2kTBbSvq | The continuum, and other types of serial order, with an introduction to Cantor's transfinite numbers, by Edward V. Huntington. | PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION
The first edition of this book appeared in 1905 as a reprint from the Annals of Mathematics, series 2 (vol. 6, pp. 151-184, and vol. 7, pp. 15-43), under the title: The Continuum as a Type of Order: an Exposition of the Modern Theory; with an Appendix on the Transfinite Numbers (The Publication Office of Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.).
The following reviews (of the original or of the translation) may be noted: by 0. Veblen, in Bull. Amer. Math. Soc, vol. 12 (1906), pp. 302-305; by P. E. B. Jourdain, in the Mathematical Gazette, vol. 3 (1906), pp. 348-349; by C. Bourlet, in Nouvelles Annates de Mathematiques, ser. 4, vol. 7 (1907), pp. 174-176; and by Hans Hahn, in MonatsheftefUr Math. u. Physik, vol, 21 (1910), Literaturber., p. 26. The author is indebted to Professor Veblen and to Professor Hahn for calling his attention to errors in § 62.
The principal modifications in the present edition are the following : § 38 and § 64 have been enlarged ; § 62 has been rewritten, and § 62a has been added; the bibhographical notes have been brought more nearly up to date; throughout Chapter VII [formerly called the Appendix (§ 73-§ 91)] the term ^^norm^al series'' has been replaced by the term " well-ordered series " (for reasons explained in a footnote to § 74) ; and in § 89a a brief account has been inserted of Hartogs's recent proof of Zermelo's theorem that every class can be well-ordered.
INTRODUCTION
The main object of this book is to give a systematic elementaryaccount of the modern theory of the continuum as a type of serial order — a theory which underlies the definition of irrational numbers and makes possible a rigorous treatment of the real number system of algebra.
The mathematical theory of the continuous independent variable, in anything hke a rigorous form, may be said to date from the year 1872, when Dedekind's Stetigkeit und irrationale Zahlen appeared;* and it reached a certain completion in 1895, when the first part of Cantor's Beitrdge zur Begriindung der transfiniten Mengenlehre was pubUshed in the Mathematische Annalen.'\
While all earher discussions of continuity had been based more or less consciously on the notions of distance, number, or magnitude, the Dedekind-Cantor theory is based solely on the relation of order. The fact that a complete definition of the continuum has thus been given in terms of order alone has been signaHzed by Russell J as one
t Georg Cantor, Math. Ann., vol. 46 (1895), pp. 481-512; French translation by F. Marotte, in a volume called Sur les fondemenis de la theorie des ensembles transfinis, 1899; English translation by P. E. B. Jourdain, Contributions to the Founding of the Theory of Trans finite Numbers, Open Court Publishing Co., 1915. For further references to Cantor's work, see § 74. An interesting contribution to the theory has been made by O. Veblen, Definitions in terms of order alone in the linear continuum and in well-ordered sets. Trans. Amer. Math. Soc., vol. 6 (1905), pp. 165-171.
t B. Russell, Principles of Mathematics, vol. 1 (1903), p. 303. See also A. N. Whitehead and B. Russell, Principia Mathematica, especially vol. 2 (1912) and vol. 3 (1913), where an elaborate account of the theory of order is given in the symbohc notation of modern mathematical logic.
2 TYPES OF SERIAL ORDER
of the notable achievements of modem pure mathematics ; * and the simplicity of the ordinal theory, which requires no technical knowledge of mathematics whatever, renders it peculiarly accessible to the increasing number of non-mathematical students of scientific method who wish to keep in touch with recent developments in the logic of mathematics.
The present work has therefore been prepared with the needs of such students, as well as those of the more mathematical reader, in view; the mathematical prerequisites have been reduced (except in one or two illustrative examples) to a knowledge of the natural numbers, 1, 2, 3, ... , and the simplest facts of elementary geometry; the demonstrations are given in full, the longer or more difficult ones being set in closer type; and in connection with every definition numerous examples are given, to illustrate, in a concrete way, not only the systems which have, but also those which have not, the property in question.
Chapter I is introductory, concerned chiefly with the notion of one-to-one correspondence between two classes or collections. Chapter II introduces simply ordered classes, or series,t and explains the notion of an ordinal correspondence between two series. Chapters III and IV concern the special types of series known as discrete and dense, and chapter V, which is the main part of the book, contains the definition of continuous series. Chapter VI is a supplementary chapter, defining multiply ordered classes, and continuous series in more than one dimension. Chapter VII gives a brief introduction to the theory of the so-called '' well-ordered " series, and Cantor's transfinite numbers. An index of all the technical terms is given at the end of the volume.
* The fundamental importance of the subject of order may be inferred from the fact that all the concepts required in geometry can be expressed in terms of the concept of order alone; see, for example, O. Veblen, A system of axioms for geometry, Trans. Amer. Math. Soc, vol. 5 (1904), pp. 343384; or E. V. Huntington, A set of postulates for abstract geometry, expressed in terms of the simple relation of incliLsion, Math. Ann., vol. 73 (1913), pp. 622559.
It will be noticed that while the usual treatment of the continuum in mathematical text-books begins with a discussion of the system of real numbers, the present theory is based solely on a set of postulates the statement of which is entirely independent of numerical concepts (see §12, §21, §41, and § 54). The various number-systems of algebra serve merely as examples of systems which satisfy the postulates — important examples, indeed, but not by any means the only possible ones, as may be seen by inspection of the lists of examples given in each chapter (§§ 19, 28, 51, 63). For the benefit of the non-mathematical reader, I give a detailed explanation of each of the number-systems as it occurs, in so far as the relation of order is concerned (see § 22 for the integers, §51, 3 for the rationals, and §63, 3 for the reals) ; the operations of addition and multiplication are mentioned only incidentally (see §§31, 53, and 65), since they are not relevant to the purely ordinal theory.*
In conclusion, I should say that the bibhographical references throughout the book are not intended to be in any sense exhaustive; for the most part they serve merely to indicate the soiu-ces of my own information.
* The reader who is interested in these extra-ordinal aspects of algebra may refer to my paper on The Fundamental Laws of Addition and MuLtiylication in Elementary Algebra, reprinted from the Annals of Mathematics, vol. 8 (1906), pp. 1-44 ( Publication Office of Harvard University) ; or to my Fundamental Pro-positions of Algebra, being monograph IV (pp. 149-207) in the volmne called Monographs on Topics of Modern Mathematics relevant to the Elementary Field, edited by J. W. A. Yomig (Longmans, Green & Co., 1911). A more elementary treatment may be found in John Wesley Yoimg's Lectures on Fundamental Concepts of Algebra and Geometry (Macmillan, 1911).
On Classes in General
1. A class (Menge, ensemble) is said to be determined by any test or condition which every entity (in the universe considered) must either satisfy or not satisfy; any entity which satisfies the condition is said to belong to the class, and is called an element of the class.* A null or empty class corresponds to a condition which is satisfied by no entity in the universe considered.
For example, the class of prime numbers is a class of numbers determined by the condition that every number which belongs to it must have no factors other than itself and 1. Again, the class of men is a class of living beings determined by certain conditions set forth in works on biology. Finally, the class of perfect square numbers which end in 7 is an empty class, since every perfect square number must end in 0, 1, 4, 5, 6, or 9.
2. If two elements a and 6 of a given class are regarded as interchangeable throughout a given discussion, they are said to be equal; otherwise they are said to be distinct. The notations commonly used are a = h and a 9^ h, respectively.
3. A one-to-one correspondence between two classes is said to be estabhshed when some rule is given whereby each element of one class is paired with one and only one element of the other class, and reciprocally each element of the second class is paired with one and only one element of the first class.
♦ H. Weber, Algebra, vol. 1, p. 4. For the Bake of uniformity with Peano'e Formvlaire de Mathimatiques, I translate Menge, or Mannigfaltigkeit, by class instead of by collection, mass, set, ensemble, or aggregate — all of which terms are in use. For recent discussions of the concept dass, see the articles cited in §83.
rifle, and each rifle is the property of one and only one soldier.
Again, the class of natural numbers can be put into one-to-one correspondence with the class of even numbers, since each natural number is half of some particular even number and each even number is double some particular natural number; thus:
drawn from a point 0 as in the figure.
4. An example of a relation between two classes which is not a one-to-one correspondence, is furnished by the relation of ownership between the class of soldiers and the class of shoes which they wear; we have here what may be called a two-to-one correspondence between these classes, since each shoe is worn by one and only one soldier, while each soldier wears two and only two shoes. The consideration of this and similar examples shows that all the conditions mentioned in the definition of one-to-one correspondence are essential.
* That the claes of square numbers can be put into one-to-one correspondence with the class of all natural numbers was known to Galileo; see his Dialogs concerning two new Sciences, translation by Crew and de Salvio (1914), pp. 18-40.
5. Obviously if two classes can be put into one-to-one correspondence with any third class, they can be put into one-to-one correspondence with each other.
class which is not infinite.
This fundamental property of infinite classes was clearly stated in B. Bolzano's Paradoxien des lfyien4lichen (published posthumously in 1850), and has since be^^aijopEea^s the definition of infinity in the modern theory of classes.*
8. An example of an infinite class is the class of the natural numbers, since it can be put into one-to-one correspondence with the class of the even numbers, which is only a part of itself (§ 3).
Again, the class of points on a line ABis infinite, since it can be put into one-to-one correspondence with the class of points on a segment CD oi AB (by first putting both these classes into one-to-
* See G. Cantor, Crelle's Journ.filr Math., vol. 84 (1877), p. 242; and especially R. Dedekind: Was siiid urid was sollen die Zahlen, 1887 (English translation by W. W. Beman, under the title Essays on the theory of Numbers, 1901);
The class of the first n natural numbers, on the other hand, is finite, since if we attempt to set up a correspondence between the wh(^ class and any one of its parts, we shall always find that one or more elements of the whole class will be left over after all the elements of the partial class have been assigned (see § 27) .
By hypothesis, there is a part, A\, of A' which can be put into one-to-one correspondence with the whole of A' ; therefore the class composed of A\ and A" will be a part of A which can be put into one-to-one correspondence with the whole of A.
For, let A be the given class, x the element to be excluded, and B the class remaining. By hypothesis, there is a part, Ai, of A, which can be put into one-to-one correspondence with the whole of A, and is therefore itself infinite. If this part Ai does not contain the element X, it will be a subclass in B, and our theorem is proved. If it does contain x, there will be at least one element y which belongs to B and not to Ai, and by replacing a; by !/ in Ai we shall have another part of A, say A2, which will be an infinite part of A and at the same time a subclass in B.
familiar, definition of finite and infinite classes will be given.
The further study of the theory of classes as such, leading to the introduction of Cantor's transfinite cardinal numbers, need not concern us here; the definitions of the principal terms which are used in this theory will be found in chapter VII.
11. After the theory of classes, as such, which is logically the simplest branch of mathematics, the next in order of complexity is the theory of classes in which a relation or an operation among the elements is defined. For example, in the class of numbers we have the relation of " less than " and the operations of addition and multiplication;* in the class of points, the relation of collinearity, etc.; in the class of human beings, the relations "brother of,'' " debtor of,'' etc.
If we use the term system to denote a class together with any relations or operations which may be defined among its elements we may say that the simplest mathematical systems are:
The most important example of the first kind is the theory of simply ordered classes, which forms the subject of the present paper; the most important example of the second kind is the theory of abstract groups. f The ordinary algebra of real or complex numbers is a combination of the two.t
♦ As M. B6cher has pointed out [Bull. Amer. Math. Soc, vol. 11 (1904), p. 126], any operation or rule of combination by which two elements determine a third may be interpreted as a triadic relation; for example, instead of saying that two given numbers a and b determine a third number c called their sum (a -f b = c), we may say that the three elements a,,b, and c satisfy a certain relation R (a, 6, c).
X For a definition of ordinary algebra by a set of independent postulates, see Trans. Amer. Math. Soc, vol. 6 (1905), pp. 209-229, or my two monographs cited in the introduction. For a similar definition of the Boolean algebra of
We proceed in the next chapter to explain the conditions or " postulates " which a class, K, and a relation, < (or ** 22 "), must satisfy in order that the system (K, < ) may be called a simply ordered class.
logic, see Trans. Amer. Math. Soc, vol. 5 (1904), pp. 288-309 [compare a recent note by B. A. Bernstein, Bull. Amer. Math. Soc, vol. 22 (1916), pp. 458459]; also papers by H. M. Sheffer, Trans. Amer. Math. Soc, vol. 14 (1913), pp. 481-488, and B. A. Bernstein, Univ. of California Publications in Math., vol. 1 (1914), pp. 87-96, and Trans. Amer. Math. Soc, vol. 17 (1916), pp. 5062.
OR Series
12. If a class, X, and a relation, < (called the relation of order), satisfy the conditions expressed in postulates 0, 1-3, below, then the system (K, <) is called a simply ordered class , or a series.* The notation a < h or {b > a, which means the same thing), may be read : "a precedes 6 " (or '' b follows a"). The class K is said to be arranged, or set in order, by the relation < , and the relation < is called a serial relation within the class K.
Postulate 0. The class K is not an empty class, nor a class containing merely a single element. \, This postulate is intended to exclude obviously trivial cases, and
15. As the most familiar examples of series we mention the following: (1) the class of all the natural numbers (or the first n of them), arranged in the iisual order; and (2) the class of all the points on a fine, the relation ^' a < 6 " signifjdng " a on the left of 6." Many other examples will occur in the course of our work.
16. If two series can be brought into one-to-one correspondence in such a way that the order of any two elements in one is the same as the order of the corresponding elements in the other, then the two series are said to be ordinally similar, or to belong to the same type of order (Ordnungstypus) .'\
For example, the class of all the natural numbers, arranged in the usual order, is ordinally similar to the class of aU the even numbers, arranged in the usual order (compare § 3) .
Again, the class of all the points on a line one inch long, arranged from left to right, is ordinally similar to the class of all the points on a line three inches long, arranged from left to right (compare §8).
* A serial relation may also be described as one which is (1') connected; (2') irreflexive; (3') transitive for distinct elements; and (4') asymmetrical for distinct elements; these four properties [(3') and (4') being weaker forms of postulate 3 and theorem I respectively] are readily shown to be independent. See a forthcoming paper by E. V. Huntington cited in § 20, below.
It will be noticed that in the first of these examples the correspondence between the two series can be set up in only one way, while in the second example, the correspondence can be set up in an infinite number of ways. This distinction is an important one, for which, unfortunately, no satisfactory terminology has yet been proposed.*
17. Before giving further examples of the various types of simply ordered classes, it will be convenient to give here the definitions of a few useful technical terms.
to lie between a and fe.f
Definition 2. In any series, ii a < x and no element exists between a and x, then x is called the element next following o, or the (immediate) successor of a. Similarly, ii y < a and no element exists between y and a, then y is called the element next preceding a, or the (immediate) predecessor of a.t
For example, in the class of natural numbers in the usual order every element has a successor, and every element except the first has a predecessor; but in the class of points on a fine, in the usual order, every two points have other points between them, so that no point has either a successor or a predecessor.
Definition 3. In any series, if one element x precedes all the other elements, then this x is called the first element of the series. Similarly, if one element y follows all the others, then this y is called the last element.
18. With regard to the existence of first and last elements, all series may be divided into four groups : (1) those that have neither a first element nor a last element; (2) those that have a first element, but no last; (3) those that have a last element, but no first; and (4) those that have both a first and a last.
* Cf. Trans. Amer. Math. Soc., vol. 6 (1905), p. 41; or O. Veblen, Bull. Amer. Math. Soc, vol. 12 (1906), p. 303. One might speak of a determinate correspondence and an indeterminate correspondence (Bricard).
t For an elaborate analysis of this concept, see a forthcoming paper called " Sets of independent postulates for betweenness," by E. V. Huntington and J. R. Kline, Trans. Amer. Math. Soc.
tween C and B. If, however, we consider a new class, comprising all the points between A and B, and also the point A (or B, or both), arranged from A to B, then this new class will have a first element (or a last element, or both). The four cases are represented in the accompanying diagram.
Examples of series
19. In this section we give some miscellaneous examples of simply ordered classes, to illustrate some of the more important types of serial order. Most of these examples will be discussed at length in later chapters.
In each case a class K and a relation -< are so defined that the system (K, < ) satisfies the conditions expressed in postulates 1-3 (§ 12). The existence of any one of these systems is sufiicient to show that the postulates are consistent, that is, that no two contradictory propositions can be deduced from them. For, the postulates and all their logical consequences express properties of these systems, and no really existent system can have contradictory properties.*
• On the consistency of a set of postulates, see a problem of D. Hilbert's, translated in Bull. Amer. Math. Soc, vol. 8 (1902), p. 447, and a paper by A. Padoa, U Enseignement Mathematigue, vol. 5 (1903), pp. 85-91. Also D. Hilbert, Verhandl. des. 3. intemat. Math.-Kongr esses in Heidelberg, 1904, pp. 174-185; French translation, Ens. Math., vol. 7 (1905), pp. 89-103; English translation, Monist, vol. 15 (1905), pp. 338-352.
(S) K = the class of all the points on a square (with or without the points on the boundary), with < defined as follows: let x and y represent the distances of any point of the square from two adjacent sides; then of two points which have unequal x's, the one having the smaller x shall precede, and of two points which have the same x, the one having the smaller y shall precede. In this way all the points of the square are arranged as a simply ordered class.
(4) By a similar device, the points of all space can be arranged as a simply ordered class. Thus, let x, y, and z be the distances of any point from three fixed planes; then in each of the eight octants into which all space is divided by the three planes, arrange the points in order of magnitude of the x's, or in case of equal x's, in order of magnitude of the 2/'s, or in case of equal x's and equal y^s, in order of magnitude of the z's; and finally arrange the octants themselves in order from 1 up to 8, pajdng proper attention to the points on the bounding planes.
By a proper fraction (written m/n) we mean an ordered pair of natural numbers, of which the first number, m, called the numerator, and the second number, n, called the denominator, are relatively prime, and m is less than n; and by the '' usual order " we mean that a fraction m/n is to precede another fraction p/q whenever the product m X qis less than the product n X p. The class as so ordered clearly satisfies the conditions 1-3, as one sees by a moment's calculation.
(6) K = the class of all proper fractions arranged in a special order, as follows : of two fractions which have unequal denominators, the one having the smaller denominator shall precede, and of two fractions which have the same denominator the one having the smaller numerator shall precede.
In contrast with example (5), this series is of the same type as the series of the natural numbers arranged in the usual order, as the following correspondence will show (compare § 42) :* * Cf. G. Cantor, loc. cit. (1895), p. 496.
orders.
(7) As another example, let K he a. class whose elements are natural nimibers affected with other natural numbers as subscripts ; for example, li, 04, etc.; and let the relation of order be defined as follows: of two numbers which have unequal subscripts, the one having the smaller subscript shaU precede, and of two numbers which have the same subscript, the smaller number shall precede. The system may be represented thus, the relation < being read as '' on the left of: "
li, 2i, 3i, . . .; I2, 22, 32, . . .; I3, 23, 33, ...;... . This is an example of what Cantor has called, in a technical sense, a " well-ordered series " (see chapter YII).
(8) An example of a somewhat different character is the following : * let i^ be the class of all possible infinite classes of the natural numbers, no number being repeated in any one class; t and let these classes be arranged, or set in order, as follows : any class a shall precede another class h when the smallest number in a is less than the smallest number in h, or, if the smallest n numbers of a and h are the same, when the (n + l)st number of a is less than the (n + l)st number of h.
A moment's reflection shows that this system satis^es the conditions for an ordered class; it will appear later that it belongs to the type of series called continuous (see § 63, 5).
t For example, the class of all prime numbers, or the class of all even numbers, or the class of all even numbers greater than 1000, or the class of all perfect cube numbers, or the class of all numbers that begin with 9, or the class of all numbers that do not contain the digit 5, would be an element of K.
By a non-terminating decimal fraction between 0 and 1, we mean a rule or agreement by which every natural nimiber has assigned to it some one of the ten digits 0, 1, 2, . . . , 9, excluding, however, the rules which would assign a 0 to every number after any given nimiber (these excluded rules giving rise to the terminating decimals) .* The digit assigned to any particular number n is called the nth digit of the decimal, or the digit in the nth place. By the ** usual order " within this class, we mean that any decimal a is to precede another decimal b when the first digit of a is less than the first digit of h, or, if the first n digits of a and h are the same, when the (n + l)st digit of a is less than the (n + l)st digit of b (the digits being taken in the order of magnitude from 0 to 9).
All these examples of simply ordered classes have been chosen from the domains of arithmetic and geometry; among the other examples which readily suggest themselves the following may be mentioned :
20. In' this section we give some examples of systems (K, < ) which are not series because they satisfy only two of the three conditions expressed in postulates 1-3 (§12). The existence of these systems proves that the three postulates are independent — that is, that no one of them can be deduced from the other two. (For,
if any one of the three properties were a logical consequence of the other two, every system which had the first two properties would have the third property also, which, as these examples show, is not the case.) In other words, no one of the three postulates is a redundant part of the definition of a serial relation.*
* This method of proving the independence of a set of postulates is the method which has been made famihar in recent years by the work of Peano (1889), Padoa, Pieri, and Hilbert (1899). For a discussion of the " complete independence " of these postulates in the sense defined by E. H. Moore (1910), see a forthcoming paper by E. V. Huntington, Complete existential theory of the postulates for serial order, Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. (1917).
t Another very interesting example of a system of this kind is the sofa:; ' " conical order " studied by A. A. Robb in his book: A Theory of Time GT-i 6'j-vics (Cambridge, Eng., 1914).
(6) Let K be a class of any odd number of points distributed at equal distances around the circumference of a circle, with a < h meaning that the arc from a to h, in the counter-clockwise direction of rotation, is less than a semi-circle.
(c) Let X be a family of brothers, with a < h Signifying " a is a brother of 6." This relation is not transitive, since from a < h and 6 < a it does not follow that a < a.
Natural Numbers
21. A discrete series may be defined as any series {K, < ) which satisfies not only the general conditions 1-3 of § 12, but also the special conditions expressed in postulates Nl-NS, below :
Postulate A^l. {Dedekind's postulate*) If Ki and K2 are any two non-empty^ parts of K, such that every element of K belongs either to Kx or to K2 and every element of Ki precedes every element of K2, then there is at least oneelement X in K such that:
The significance of this postulate A^l will be best explained by the examples, given below, of series which have and those which do not have the property in question. For the present it is sufficient to remark that whenever the postulate is satisfied, Ki will have a last element, or K2 vnW have a first element, or both; whichever one of these elements exists (or either of them if they both exist) will serve as the element X required, and may be said to ''divide" the two parts Ki and K2.
* R. Dedekind, Stetigkeit und irrationcde Zahlen, 1872; cf. § 62, below. The selection of postulates here given for discrete series is the same as that adopted by O. Veblen, Trans. Arner. Math. Soc, vol. 6 (1905), pp. 165-171. As far as I know, Dedekind's postulate had not been used by earlier writers in this conneoti'^Ti .
The elements of this system are of three kinds : (1) the positive integers, which are natural numbers affected with the sign + ; (2) the negative integers, which are natural numbers affected with the sign — ; and (3) an extra element called zero. The " usual order '^ is more precisely defined as follows : of two positive integers, the one that is numerically smaller precedes; of two negative integers, the one that is numerically greater precedes; every negative integer precedes and every positive integer follows the integer zero; and of two integers of opposite signs, the negative precedes the positive.
By making this series terminate in one or both directions we have an example of a discrete series with a first element or a last element or both. (For another example, see § 28.)
23. The most important property of discrete series is expressed in the often cited " theorem of mathematical induction," which may be stated in the following form :
Theorem of mathematical induction. If a and h are any two elements of a discrete series, and a < b, then: if we start from a and form the sequence of elements pi, p2, pz, . . . , in which pi is the successor of a, p2 the successor of pi, and so on, some one of these p's will he the element h; or again, if we start from h and form the sequence gi, §2, Q'a, . . . , in which qi is the predecessor of 6, q^ the predecessor of qi, and so on, someone of these g's will he the element a.
In other words, the class of elements between any two elements of a discrete series can be exhausted by taking away its elements one by one, and is therefore a finite class (by § 10).
The significance of this theorem will be clearer after a study of the examples in § 29 of series in which the theorem does not hoM. The formal proof from postulates 1-3 and Nl-Nd is as follows:
Suppose, in the firsrt case considered in the theorem, that the sequence a, pi, p2, Ps, - - - (which we shall call the sequence P) did not contain the element h. On this supposition, b would come after all the elements of P, and we could divide the whole series K into two non-empty parts, namely: Ki, containing every element
which is equalled or surpassed by any element of P; and K2, containing every element which (like the element b) comes after all the elements of P. Then by Dedekind's postulate there would be an element X '' dividing " Ki from K2 so that the predecessor of X would belong to P while the successor of X would not. But this is impossible, since, by the way in which the sequence P is constructed, if the predecessor of X belonged to P, then X itself, and hence the successor of X, would also belong to P. Thus the supposition with which we started has led to contradiction, and the first half of the theorem is proved. The second half is proved in a similar way.
All discrete series may be divided into four groups, distinguished by the presence or absence of extreme elements; w^e consider the four cases separately, as follows:
serves the relations of order.
For, we can assign the first element of one of the progressions to the first element of the other, the successor of that element in one to the successor of that element in the other, and so on; and by the theorem of mathematical induction no element of either series will be inaccessible to this process.
We may therefore speak of the progressions as constituting a definite type of order, which Cantor t has called the type co. Moreover, the ordinal correspondence between two progressions can be set up in only one way; this fact will be useful to us later (see § 31).
1, 2, 3,
Other examples are : the even numbers, or the prime numbers, or the perfect square numbers, in the usual order; or the proper fractions arranged in the special order described in § 19, 6.
is called a regression.
The regressions, like the progressions, constitute a definite type of order, which Cantor has called the type *co (read: star omega). The simplest example of a regression is the series of negative integers with or without zero, arranged in the usual order, thus:
26. A discrete series (§ 21) which has neither a first nor a last element may be called an unlimited discrete series, the simplest example being the series of all integers in the usual order (§ 22).
In any unlimited discrete series, if any element is chosen as an *' origin," the elements preceding this element form a regression and those following it a progression; hence all unlimited discrete series are ordinally similar, and constitute a third definite type of order. Cantor denotes this type by *a> + co, the plus sign being used to indicate that a series of the type *co is to be followed by a series of the type o), and the whole regarded as a single series.
It should be noticed that the correspondence between two series of the type *co + co can be set up in an infinite number of ways, since any element may be taken as the origin; compare the following scheme: t
For, by the theorem of mathematical induction (§23), the class of elements in such a series can be exhausted by taking the elements away one by one; therefore, by § 10, it cannot be an infinite class.
Other examples of discrete series 28. The examples of a discrete series so far mentioned have all been drawn from the domain of arithmetic (as the series of all integers, the series of all positive integers, the series of all negative integers, and series containing only a finite number of elements). The existence of any one of these systems is sufficient to establish the consistency of the postulates of this chapter (compare § 19). In this section we give a non-numerical example, due essentially to Dedekind, and phrased in its present form by Royce : *
Suppose a complete map of London could be laid out on the pavement of one of the squares of the city; then the city of London would be represented an infinite number of times in this mAp, and the successive representations would form a progression, for the map itself would form a part of the object which it represents, and would therefore include a miniature representation of itself; this representation being again a complete map of the city would contain a still smaller representation of itself; and so on, ad infinitum.'^
29. In this section we give some examples of series (§ 12) which are not discrete (§ 21), each example being a series {K, <) which satisfies two of the postulates Nl-NS but not the third. The existence of these systems proves (see § 20) that the postulates Nl-m are independent, that is, that no one of them is redundant in the definition of a discrete series.
World and the Individual, vol. 1, 1900, p. 503.
t Another example of such a self-represejiUitive system is a label on a can of making-powder, containing a picture of the can. Another example is prodded by the images observed in a pair of parallel mirrors.
(1) A system not satisfying N\ (Dedekind's postulate). Let K consist of two sets of integers — call them red and blue — the integers of each set being positive, negative, or zero; and let the elements be arranged along a line from left to right, as follows:
This system is a series in which every element has a successor, and every element has a predecessor; but Dedekind's postulate, although it holds in general, fails in case Ki contains all the red elements and K^ all the blue.
By leaving out the negative integers in the red set, or the positive integers in the blue set, or both, we can readily construct a seriej of the same sort having either or both extreme elements; the serief as it stands has neither.
(2) A system not satisfying N2 (on successors). Let K consist oi a set of negative integers (in red), followed by a set of all integers (in blue), arranged in the usual order, as indicated here:
be at once derived.
(3) A system not satisfying NS (on predecessors). Similarly, lei K consist of a set of all integers (in red), followed by a set of positive integers (in blue), arranged as follows:
Numbering the elements of a discrete series 30. By " numbering " the elements of a discrete series, we mean simply attaching to each element some label or tag, by which it can be permanently recognized, and distinguished from any other element.
If the given series has a first element or a last element (or both), this may be accomplished as follows, by the use of ten characters called digits, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0.
In ihe case of a progression, denote the first element by 1 ; the successor of 1 by 2 ; the successor of 2 by 3 ; and so on, until the successor of 8 is denoted by 9. Then denote the successor of 9 by 10 (read '* one, zero ") ; the successor of 10 by 11 (read '' one, one "); the successor of 11 by 12; and so on, until the successor of 18 is denoted by 19. Then denote the successor of 19 by 20; the successor of 20 by 21 ; and so on, the successor of 99 being denoted by 100, etc.:
In the case of a regression, we can number the elements in a similar way, if we begin with the last element and run backward. In this case it is customary to attach the sign ~ to each label, the last element of the series being denoted by ~1, the predecessor of ~1 by ~2, the predecessor of ~2 by ~3, and so on:
If, however, the given series is unlimited (§ 26), there is no element which we can take as an absolute starting point, since no •Jelement is distinguished from the rest by any ordinal property. The best we can do in this case is to choose arbitrarily some element
as an origin, denoted by 0, and then number the elements following 0 as a progression, and the elements preceding 0 as a regression; in this way each element has attached to it a label which indicates its position in the series, not absolutely, but with reference to the arbitrarily chosen origin :
It should be noticed in all these cases that the process of labelling the elements does not involve the notion of " counting " in the sense of ascertaining ''how many"; the combination of digits attached to each element is simply a tag by which it can be recognized, like the numbers in a telephone book; when any two elements thus labelled are given, we can determine at once which precedes the other in the series without concerning ourselves at all with the question ** how many " elements may lie between them.*
discrete series
31. The same principle of mathematical induction which made it possible to '' number " each element of a discrete series (§ 30), makes it possible to define the sum and the product of any two elements of such a series in terms of the relation of order, f If the
* Instead of the decimal system of numeration here described we can use also the less familiar, but often more convenient, binary system, in which only two digits are required. Thus, in the binary system the successive elements of a progression would be denoted by: 1; 10,11; 100,101,110,111; 1000,1001, 1010, 1011, 1100, 1101, 1110, 1111; 10000, etc. (The digits are read separately: 101 = " one, zero, one," etc.) The advantage of any such system of numeration over the primitive system of strokes (/, //, ///, ////, etc.) hes in the fact that each digit acquires a special value by virtue of the place which it occupies in the symbol.
t The following sections (§§32-35) are due essentially to Peano (1889), although Peano' s postulates for a progression are based not on the notion of order, but on the notion of " successor of." The postulates adopted in the present paper seem to me preferable in several respects to those employed by Peano, especially in the use of Dedekind's postulate in place of the more obvious postulate of mathematical induction (cf. footnote under § 21). A brief account of Peano's postulates will be found in Bull. Amer. Math. Soc, vol. 9
series has a first element or a last element (or both), the sums and products are defined absolutely; if the series is unlimited, the sums and products are defined with reference to an arbitrarily chosen origin.
32. We begin with the general case of an unlimited discrete series, and suppose that an origin has been chosen and the elements labelled as in the preceding section :
can be readily estabhshed :
(1902), p. 41, and an extended discussion in Russell, loc. cit., chap. 14. A re\dsed list, in which the number of postulates is reduced to four, is given by A. Padoa, Rev. de Math. vol. 8 (1902), p. 48.
Proof of theorem 1. First, if the theorem is true for .c.= n, then it will be true for c = n', where n' denotes, for the moment, the successor of n. Q-^ '^-b)'^ '^ ^ ^ -hO •*'^)
Secondly, the theorem is clearly true for c = 1, by the definition of sum. Therefore, by the first part of the proof, since it is true for c = 1, it will be true for c = 2; and being true for c = 2, it will be true for c = 3 ; and so on. In this way the truth of the theorem for any given value of c can be established, since by the theorem of mathematical induction there is no element c which cannot be reached in this manner.
The proof of the mam theorem, that a + h = h + a, then follows in a similar way from the equations a 4- n' = G + (n + 1) = a + n) + 1 = (n + a) -f 1
The proofs of the remaining theorems involve no new difficulty and can be readily supplied by the reader; when these eight theorems have once been estabhshed, the further development of the theory follows lines that are famihar from any text-book of arithmetic and need not be repeated here.* The system (§ 11) thus determined is called, with reference to the arbitrary origin 0, the algebra of all integers, with regard to <, +, and X.
35. Turning now to the progressions, f there are two principal methods of introducing the notions of sum and product, leading to two different systems (K, <, +, X). In both systems the sums and products are defined absolutely, in terms of the relation of order (see §31).
In both theories, theorems 1-5 of § 33 hold without change, theorems 6-7 have to be slightly modified (in an obvious way), and theorem 8 is superfluous; the further development of the subject need not detain us here.
36. In view of §§ 30-35 it is interesting to note the relation between the system of natural numbers (which has been assumed as famihar, for purposes of illustration, throughout the book), and the ordinal theory of progressions (§24). This relation may be stated as follows :
If the class of natural numbers in the usual order — from whatever source it may be derived — is assumed to be a system which satisfies the conditions 1-3, and N1-N3, and has a first element but no last, then it may be regarded as the typical example of a progression, and all the theorems which can be estabhshed for any progression will apply to the system of natural numbers. The question whether the system of natural numbers, as commonly conceived, does actually possess the properties demanded in these eight postulates is a question for the psychologist or the epistemologist to decide; as far as the mathematician is concerned, the theory of the natural numbers, in its abstract form, can be derived wholly from the set of postulates just mentioned, the concrete, empirical system of natural numbers being used only as a means of establishing the consistency of these postulates.
Denumerahle classes
37. Any infinite class the elements of which can be put into oneto-one correspondence with the elements of a progression (§ 24) is said to be denumerahle {ahzahlhar, denombrahle, enumerable, numerable, countable).*
* This notion was introduced by Cantor; see Crelle's Joum. fiir Math., vol. 77 (1873), p. 258, and Math. Ann., vol. 15 (1879), p. 4. For an extension of the notion, see Math. Ann., vol. 23 (1884), p. 456.
Every class which appears already ordered in the form of a progression is ipso facto a denumerable class; other classes may have to be ingeniously arranged before they can be shown to be denumerable; for example, the class of all proper fractions is shown to be denumerable by the device given in § 19, 6.*
Since any infinite discrete series can be arranged as a progression,! it is obvious that the tenn progression might be replaced by regression or by unlimited discrete series, in the definition of a denumerable class.
elements are added at the beginning.
(2) A class composed of any finite number of denumerable classes, or even a class composed of a denumerable infinity of denimaerable classes, will itself be a denumerable class.
For, if Gi, 02, as, ... ; 6i, 62, 63, ... , etc., are the component classes, we have merely to arrange the elements of the whole class in a two-dimensional array, as in the diagram,
From this theorem we have the important corollary that every collection of material objects is at 7nost denumerably infinite; hence, if we wish to find an example of a non-denumerably infinite class, we must seek it among the classes whose elements are ideal, not material, entities.
The proof of the theorem is as follows:
Case I, when the given collection C lies wholly inside a finite sphere, with center at 0 and radius r. — Consider the denumerable series of intervals between the numbers
where 7 is the volume of the sphere. The number of elements of C which He between 7/2"+^ and 7/2" in volume is at most finite (since otherwise the volume of the whole collection C w^ould be greater than 7) ; therefore, by theorem 2, the number of elements in the whole collection C is at most denumerably infinite.
Case II, when the given collection C hes wholly outside the sphere. — This case can be reduced to Case I by an " inversion " of space with respect to the sphere. (An ** inversion " transforms every point P outside the sphere into another point P' inside the sphere, such that P' hes on the fine OP, and 0P[ X OP = r^; this transformation is clearly continuous, so that points which form a connected region outside the sphere will be transformed into points which form a connected region inside the sphere.)
Case III, when the given collection hes partly within and partly without the sphere. — Since each part of the collection is at most denumerably infinite, by Cases I and II, the whole collection will be at most denumerably infinite, by theorem 2.
a line.
39. A striking example of a denumerable class (though it involves more knowledge of algebra than I wish to assume in this book) is the class of all " algebraic numbers," that is, the class of all complex quantities which can be roots of any algebraic equation with integral coefficients. f
For, the class of values any coefficient can take on is denumerable, hence the class of different equations of the n^^ degree is denumerable; and since an equation of the n^^ degree cannot have more than n roots, the class of all the roots of all equations of the n**^ degree is denumerable ; and finally the class of possible degrees is denumerable, so.that the whole class of all the roots of all algebraic equations is denumerable.
40. An example of a non-denumerable class is the class of all non-terminating decimal fractions (see § 19, 9). For, if we suppose that this class is denumerable, ever>^ non-terminating decimal fraction would have a definite rank in a certain progression ; but if we represent this progression as follows :
3. 0. Ci C2 Ca . . .
where each letter (with subscript) denotes one of the digits 0, 1, 2, . . . , 9, we can at once describe non-terminating decimals which do not belong to this list. Thus the decimal
0. Xi 0:2 iCs . . . ,
where Xi is different from Ci, X2 different from 62, Xz different from Ci, etc., has no place in the progression, since it differs from the n*^ decimal in at least the n*^ digit.* Therefore the class of decimals cannot be denumerable.
41. In this chapter we consider series (K, < ) which satisfy the general postulates 1-3 of § 12, and also the special postulates HI and H2, below; the properties here demanded being quite different from the properties of the discrete series considered in the last chapter.
Any series which has this property is said to be dense. '\ Between every two elements of a dense series there will be at least one and therefore an infinity of other elements; so that no element has a successor, and no element a predecessor.
Postulate H2. The class K is denumerahle; that is, the elements of K can be put into one-to-one correspondence with the elements of a progression (§ 37).
for brevity, a denumerahle series.
42. The simplest example of a series which is both denumerahle and dense is the class of proper fractions arranged in the usual order (see § 19, 5). For, if a = m/n and h = p/q, and a < b, then there
* The letter H is intended to suggest the type rj (§44). t Cantor's term is iiherall dicht. Weber uses dicht, which Russell replaces by compact; Principles of Mathematics, vol. 1, p. 271. See however, § 62o.
reduced to its lowest terms) ; and on the other hand, if we arrange the elements in a two-dimensional array, and then read the table diagonally, as in § 38, we see at once that the class is denumerable.* (Compare § 19, 6.)
43. In every series of this sort we have to do, strictly speaking, with two serial relations: ^dth r^|ffeo^to one, the series is dense; with respect to the other, the series is a progression.
44. The type rj. AU denumerable dense series, like all discrete series, can be di\aded into four groups, distinguished by the presence or absence of first and last elements. All the series of any one of these four groups are ordinaUy similar, as we shall prove below, and therefore constitute a definite type of order. In particular, the type of denumerable dense series with neither extreme is called by Cantor the type rj.
The simplest example of a series of the type -q is the class of proper fractions in the usual order as already mentioned. By adding an element 0/1 at the beginning, or an element 1/1 at the end, or both, we have an example of a denumerable dense series with a first element, or a last element, or both. Other examples will be given in § 51.
45. We now give the proof f that any two denumerable dense series are ordinally similar, provided they agree in regard to the presence or absence of extreme elements; it will clearly be sufficient to consider two series of the type tj, having neither extreme.
In order to establish a one-to-one correspondence between A and B in a manner preserving order, we proceed step by step, as follows, it being understood that any step is to be ornjtted if the element considered has already been assigned :
and B into two sections.
As to 02, we find in which of the two sections of A it belongs, and assign to it the first of the unused 6's which belongs in the corresponding section of B; aild as to 62 (if not already assigned), we find in which section of B ^J^^igs, and assign to it the first of the unused a's which belongs mtf^corresponding section of A.
The elements Oi and 02 then divide the series A into three sections (1st, 2d, and 3d), while the elements 61 and 62 divide the series B into three corresponding sections (1st, 2d, and 3d). As to as, if not already assigned, we find in which of the three sections of A it belongs, and assign to it the first of the (unused) 6's which belongs in the corresponding section of B. Then as to 63, if not already assigned, we find in which of the three sections of B it belongs, and assign to it the first of the (unused) a's which belongs in the corresponding section oi A.
And so on. After 2n steps, the first n of the a's will have been assigned and will divide A into n + 1 sections, and the first n of the 6's will have been assigned and will divide B into n -f 1 corresponding sections. Then as to On+i, if not already assigned, we find in which of the n -f- 1 sections of A it belongs, and assign to it the first of the (unused) 6's which belongs in the corresponding section of B. And as to hn+i, if not already assigned, we find in which of the n -\- 1 sections of B it belongs, and assign to it the first of the (unused) a's which belongs to the corresponding section of A.
The elements called for at each stage of this process will always exist, since in any series of type 17 there are elements before and after any given element, and between any two given elements; and by the theorem of mathematical induction as applied to progressions no element of either class is left out in the assignment.
It should be noticed that the correspondence between two series of type 7) can be set up in an infinite number of ways (compare the case of the unlimited discrete series, § 26).
In any series (§ 12) a part C (§ 6) which has the following properties we shall call a, fundamental segynent of the series : (1) C is such that if a; is any element belonging to C, then every element that precedes x also belongs to C; and (2) C has no last element.
Roughly speaking, a fundamental segment is a part of the series beginning at the beginning, and taking in everj^hing as far as it goes, but having no last element.*
last element.
48. It will be noticed at once that in some series no fundamental segments are possible. For example, in a discrete series (§ 21) no funv nentar segments are possible, since every subclass which satisfies condition 1 of § 46 either has a last element or includes the whole series. In other cases the number of fundamental segments may be finite. For example, in a series hke this:
* Russell's term is segment (without distinctive adjective). The notionitself, which is a modification of Dedekind's notion of a cut (1872), was introduced by M. Pasch (Differential- und Integralrechnung, 1882), under the name of Zahlenstrecke. The term segment was used by Peano in the FormiUaire for 1899, p. 91, but seems to have been abandoned in later editions.
49. In connection with fundamental segments the following definition is important : In any series, if there is an element x such that a given fundamental segment coincides with the part of the series which precedes x, then x is called ^e limit of the segment.
those that have not.
50. The importance of this distinction between the two kinds of fundamental segments will be clearer after the continuous series have been discussed, in the next chapter. For the present, the most important thing is to see clearly that in some series fundamental segments of the second kind actually exist. To illustrate this point, consider the class of proper fractions arranged in the usual order and take as the subclass C the class of all the fractions m/n for which 2m2 is less than n^; this subclass C will then be a fundamental segment having no Kmit in the given series.*
tion of a fundamental segment.
For: (1) if m/n belongs to C, and p/q precedes m/n, then p/q also belongs to C, as a brief computation will show; (2) if m/n belongs to C, then there are fractions, — for example,
* In the series of all real numbers, which is not under consideration at this point, the subclass^C would be described as the class of all the rational numbers that precede Vl/2. In verifying the numerical example below, note that since m and n are integers, 2m^ must be less than n^ by at least one; that is, 2rrt2 < rj2 - I.
— which follow min and still belong to C, so that C has no last element; and (3) C is neither empty nor contains the whole class, since it contains 1/4 and does not contain 3/4.
Furthermore, there is no element xjy which can serve as the limit of the segment. For, first, if 2x^ were less than y~, there would be elements of C, — for example (6a;2 + l)/6a:?/,* — which came after ily) secondly, if 2x^ were greater than y^^ there would be elements of the series, — for example (Gx^ — I)/6a:?/,* — which preceded xjy and yet did not belong to C; and thirdly, if 2x^ = y-, we should have an equation containing the factor 2 an odd number of times 3n the left hand side and an even number of times (if at all) on the ;ight hand side, which is impossible in view of the fact that a latural number can be resolved into prime factors in only one way.
Hence the class C is a fundamental segment which has no limit.f
I From this discussion it is clear that Dedekind's postulate (§ 21) js false in every series of type r\\ for (by § 45) any series of type 7/ Inay be replaced by the series of proper fractions in the usual order, Imd if we divide this series into two parts, K\ and i^2, so that Kx i'ontains every fraction mjn for which 2vp? < n^, and K2 all the )ther fractions, then there will be no element in the series which ould serve as the element X required in Dedekind's postulate.
Examples of denumerable dense series
51. In this section we give a number of examples of denumerable lense series; any one of these systems is sufficient to show the lonsistency of the postulates 1-3, H1-H2 (compare § 195.
By an absolute rational number we mean an ordered pair of natural numbers, m/n, in which the first number, m, called the numerator, and the second number, n, called the denominator, are relatively prime. By the usual order in this class we mean that m/n is to precede p/q when mX qis less than n X p.
The class of all rationals is then composed of three kmds of elements: (1) the positive rationals, which are absolute rationals affected with the sign + ; (2) the negative rationals, which are absolute rationals affected with the sign - ; and (3) an extra element called zero. The " usual order " in this class is precisely defined as follows: of two positive rationals, that one shall precede whose absolute value would precede in the order of absolute rationals; of two negative rationals, that one shall precede whose absolute value would follow in the order of absolute rationals; of two rationals having opposite signs, the negative precedes the positive; and the rational 0 follows every negative rational and precedes every positive rational. ^
If we assign to each absolute rational number p/q the proper fraction p/ip + g), we thereby establish an ordinal correspondence between the series of absolute rationals and the series of proper fractions, in accordance with the theorem of § 45. This done, an ordinal correspondence between the series of absolute rationals and the series of all rationals can be readily estabhshed.
(4) As another example of a series of type rj, consider the class oi points lying within a one-inch square, and such that their distances^ X and y, from two sides of the square are proper fractions of an inch; and let the points be arranged in order of magnitude of the x's, or in case of equal x's, in order of magnitude of the y's.
This system clearly satisfies all the postulates for a series of type rj ; it ought therefore to be possible to exhibit an ordinal correspondence between this system and the series of proper fractions.
This may be done as follows.* Starting with a line AB of fixed length, mark the middle third of it; then mark the middle third oi each of the two remaining parts, then the middle third of each oi
* Compare § 52, 3, below. The device is due to H. J. S. Smith, Proc. Lond Math. Soc, vol. 6 (1875), p. 147; cf. G. Cantor, Math. Ann., vol. 21 (1883), p. 590, note 11, and W. H. Young, Proc. Lond. Math. Soc, vol. 34 (1902), p. 286.
J 52 DENSE SERIES 41
she four remainmg parts; and so on. The class of marked sections 3f the line is then a denumerable class, which forms a dense series )f type 77 along the line AB. Now the vertical lines in the given square, corresponding to fractional values of x, also form a delumerable series of type 77; hence, by § 45, the class of vertical ines can be brought immediately into ordinal correspondence vith the class of marked sections of the hne AB. It remains merely .0 determine on each section the class of what we may call, for the inoment, its ''fractional" points, that is, the class of points whose
listances from one end of the section are fractional parts of -the 3ngth of the section; this class of points can then be brought Qto ordinal correspondence with the ''fractional" points of the orresponding vertical hne in the square by a suitable magnificaion.
Examples of series which are 7iot denumerable and dense
52. The following examples of series which fail to satisfy one or oth of the postulates HI and H2 show that these postulates are idependent of each other (compare § 20).
By adding an element 'z at the beginning, or an element +2 at le end, or both, we obtain an example with a first or a last elelent, or both. Progressions and regressions are also examples.
(b) Another example is a class composed of two sets of proper actions, say red and blue, with the relation of order defined as )llows: of two elements which have unequal absolute values that Qe shall precede which would precede in the usual order of proper
absolute value, the red shall precede.
This system is built up by interpolating the elements of one dense series between the elements of another dense series; the resulting series, instead of being " more dense," as one might have been tempted to expect, has lost the property of density altogether, since every red element has an immediate successor.
(a) The class of non-terminating decimal fractions arranged in the usual order (see § 19, 9) is a dense series, which we have already shown to be non-denumerable (§ 40).
A striking example of a series which is neither denumerable nor dense may be constructed as follows : * Starting with a line one inch long, mark the middle third of it; then mark the middle third of each of the two remaining parts, then the middle third of each of the four remaining parts, and so on (§ 51, 4) ; the class considered contains (1) all the points of division, and (2) all the unmarked points of the line; and the order of the points is the natural order along the line.
This series is clearly not dense, since if a and h are the end-points of one of the marked sections, there is no point of the series which lies between them; indeed, no segment of the series will be dense, since every segment (§ 47) will contain a marked section of the line. On the other hand, the class is not denumerable; the proof of this fact (which requires a Httle more mathematics than is properly assumed in this book) may be outhned as follows:
Let the distance from one end of the line to each point of the line be represented by a ternary fraction (instead of a decimal fraction) of an inch; that is, by a (finite or an infinite) expression of the form
in which ai shows the number of thirds, a^ the number of ninths, as the number of twenty-sevenths, and in general an the number of (l/3")ths; the digits ai, 02, a 3^ etc., being allowed to take any of the three values 0, 1, and 2. It can then be shown, by a computation involving only an elementary knowledge of the so-called geometric series, that the points of the marked sections of the line (without the points of di\dsion) correspond to precisely those ternary fractions in which the digit 1 occurs; the points of our class, therefore, correspond to the ternary fractions in which the digits 0 and 2 only are used; and this class can be shown to be non-denumerable by the method employed in § 40 for the decimal fractions.
Arithmetical operations among the elements of a dense series
53. In conclusion, we notice that since the theorem of mathematical induction does not apply to dense series, it is not possible to give purely ordinal definitions for the sums and products of the elements of such a series. All that we could do in this dhection would be to define the sums and products of the elements of some particular dense series, say the series of the rational numbers in the usual order, by the use of some extra-ordinal properties peculiar to that series; then since all series of type 7; are ordinally similar, the definitions set up in the standard series could be transferred to any other series of the same type by a one-to-one correspondence. This method would be wholly inadequate, however, since the ordinal correspondence could be set up in an infinite number of ways. Indeed, in the case of a series of type 77 (without extreme elements)^ unless we introduce some other fundamental notion beside the notion of order, the elements have no ordinal properties by ivhich we can tell them apart. It is better, therefore, to introduce addition and multiphcation as fundamental notions of the system (compare §11), and define their properties by postulates; this problem is, however, beyond the scope of the present work.*
54. In the preceding chapters we have considered the discrete series (§ 21) and the dense series (§ 41) ; we turn now to the study of the linear continuous series, which are the most important for algebra.
A continuous series in general is defined as any series which satisfies postulates 1-3 of § 12, and also Dedekind's postulate (CI, below) and the postulate of density (C2) ; a linear continuous series is then any continuous series which satisfies also a further condition, which I shall call the postulate of linearity (C3).
Postulate CI.* (Dedekind^s postulate.) If Kx and K^ are any two non-^mpty parts of K, such thai every element of K belongs either to Ki or to K2 and every element of Ki precedes every element of K2, then there is at least one element X in K such that:
Postulate CS.f {Postulate of linearity.) The class K contains > a denumerable subclass R (§ 37) in such a way that between any two elements of the given class K there is an element of R.
t G. Cantor, loc. cit. (1895), § 11, p. 511. O. Veblen replaces this postulate of linearity by two other postulates which he calls the pseudo- Archimedean postulate and the postulate of uniformity [Trans. Amer. Math. Soc., vol. 6 (1905), pp. 165-171]. See also R. E. Root, Ldmits in terms of order, Trans. Amer. Math. Soc., vol. 15 (1914), pp. 61-71.
ever postulate C3 is assumed.
55. The most famihar example of a linear continuous series is the class of points on a line, say one inch long, the relation a < h signifying that a Ues on the left of h. Dedekind's postulate is satisfied in this system, since if Ki and K2 are two parts of the kind described in the postulate, there will be a point of division on the Une (either the last point of Ki or the first point of K2), which will serve as the point X demanded in the postulate. The postulate of density is also clearly satisfied, since between any two points of the line other points can be found. Finally, to see that the postulate of Hnearity holds, take as the subclass R the class of all points of the line whose distances from one end are rational fractions of an inch.
in order of magnitude of the re's, or, in case of equal x's, in order of magnitude of the 2/'s. This series is continuous (satisfying postulates CI and C2), but no subclass R of the kind demanded in postulate C3 is possible within it; for, if there were such a subclass it would have to contain elements corresponding to every point of the base of the square and therefore could not be denumerable (see § 58 below).
limit of the subclass C.
If the subclass C happens to have a last element, this element itself will be the upper limit of the subclass. If C has no last element, it may or may not have an upper limit; if it has an upper limit, then this upper limit is the element which comes next after the subclass C in the given series.*
limit in the series.
Briefly, this theorem tells us that in any continuous series, every subclass which has any upper bound will have a lowest upper bound, — the terms " upper limit " and '^ lowest upper bound " being synonymous.
The full meaning of this theorem will be clearer after a study of the examples given in §§ 63-64 of series that are and those that are not continuous (compare also § 50) ; the formal proof is easily given, as follows :
Under the conditions stated, the given series can be divided into two non-empty subclasses, Ki and K2, the first containing every element that is equaled or surpassed by any element of C, and the second containing all the other elements; f then by Dedekind's postulate there must be at least one element X " dividing '^ Ki from K2; moreover, there cannot be two such elements, for if there were, one would be the last element of Ki and the other the first element of K2, so that no element would lie between them (contrary to the postulate of density) . This dividing element X is then the element required in the theorem.
tion of continuous series.
Theorem.* In the definition of a continuous series (§ 54), Dedekind's postulate may he replaced by the demand that every fundamental segment shall have a limit (§ 49).
For, if the elements of the whole series are divided into two subclasses Ki and K-z as in the hypothesis of Dedekind's postulate, then Ki (or Ki without its last element, if it happens to have one) will be a fundamental segment, and the limit of this segment will correspond to the element X in Dedekind's postulate.
Theorem. The elements of any continuous series (§ 54) form an infinite class which is not denumerable (§ 37). The proof, which is due to Cantor,t is as follows:
Suppose a given continuous series to be denumerable; then without disturbing the order of the elements we may attach to each one a definite natural number, using the notation a{n) to represent the element corresponding to the number n.
Then let pi and qi be the smallest numbers for which a (pi) and a{qi) lie between a(l) and a (2), and assume that the elements have been so numbered that a{pi) < a{qi); then
And so on. In general, let p^+i and qu+i be the smallest numbers for which a{pk+\) and a{qk+i) lie between a(pft) and a(gfc), and assume a(pA+i)< a(?A;+i)- In this way we determine a progression of elements a{'Pk) and a regression of elements «($*), such that
Now since the series is continuous, the progression in question ought to have an upper limit (§ 56); but there is no element a(n) which can serve as this upper limit, for if any element a{n) is proposed, jwe can clearly carry the process just indicated so far that a{n) will lie outside the interval a{pk) 0(5*).
following theorems apply only to the linear continuous series.
Theokem. Every linear continuous series (§ 54) contains a subclass R of type 7] (§ 44), such that between any two elements of the given series there is an element of R.
For, the denumerable subclass R whose existence is demanded in postulate C3, or the same subclass without its extreme elements if it has them, is clearly of type 77 (the type of the rational numbers) .
This subclass R of type 7} may be called the skeleton, or framework, of the given series; the elements which belong to R may be called, for the moment, the rational elements, and those that do not belong to R the irrational elements of the series.
Since the class of all the elements of any continuous series is nondenumerably infinite (§ 58), it is clear that the rational elements of a linear continuous series cannot exhaust the series; in fact the class of irrational elements in any such series will itself be nondenumerably infinite (compare § 38).
Theorem. In any linear continuous series, every element a (unless it be the first) determines a fundamental segment (§ 46) of the so-called rational elements, namely, the series of all the rationals preceding a; and conversely, every fundamental segment of rationals determines an element of the given series, namely, the upper limit of the segment (§ 56).
The rational elements of the given series correspond to the fundamental segments which have limits in the series of rationals ; the irrational elements correspond to the segments which have no limits in the series of rationals (§§ 49, 50). The denmnerable dense series considered in the preceding chapter are not continuous, since, as we have seen in § 50, they contain fundamental segments which have no limits; the theorem thus brings out clearly the sense in which tK^ linear continuous series are *' richer " in elements than the denumerable dense series.
61. The type 6. The Unear continuous series, like the discrete series or the denumerable dense series, can be divided into four groups, distinguished by the presence or absence of extreme elements; all the series of any one group are ordinally similar (see below), and therefore constitute a definite type of order. In particular, a linear continuous series (§ 54) which has both a first and a last element is called by Cantor a series of the type 6, or the type of the linear continuum*
The proof that any two series of type 6 are ordinally similar follows readily from the analogous theorem in regard to series of type 7} (§ 45).* For, by § 59 each of the given series of type 6 will contain a subclass of '' rational " elements of type 77; by § 45 these subclasses of rationals can be brought into ordinal correspondence with each other; and by § 60 every element (except the first) of each of the given series is uniquely determined as the limit of a fundamental segment of rationals.
It should be noticed, however, that this correspondence can be set up in an infinite number of ways, since not only the selection of rational elements from the given series, but also the correspondence between the two sets of rational elements, can be determined in an infinite number of ways.
\ 62. Since the definition of the type 6 here adopted differs in manner of approach, though not in substance, from the definition given by Cantor, I add, in this section, a statement of Cantor's definition in its original form.*
Every progression or regression which belongs to a given series is called by Cantor a fundamental sequence (Fundamentalreihe) ; any element which is the hmit of any fundamental sequence (upper limit in the case of a progression, lower limit in the case of a regression), is called a principal element (Hauptelement) of the series. t If every fundamental sequence which exists in a given series has a limit in the series, the series is said to be closed (ahgeschlossen) ; if every element of the series is the limit of some fundamental sequence, the series is said to be dense-in-itself (insichdicht) ; and any series which is both dense-in-itself and closed is said to be perfect (perfekt) . Finally, if a series is such that between any two elements there are other elements, the series is said to be dense {uheralldicht) .
numbers, t
(4) A series may be perfect (that is, dense-in-itself and closed), and not be dense; as witness the series discussed in § 52, 3 (with end-points), or the series of all real numbers from 0 to 3 inclusive with the omission of those between 1 and 2.
* G. Cantor, loc. cit. (1895), §§ 10-11, p. 508. An earlier definition of the arithmetical continuum given by Cantor in Math. Ann., vol. 5 (1872), p. 123 [cf. ibid., vol. 21 (1883), pp. 572-576], involved extra-ordinal considerations, and need not concern us here.
2', 1'; . . . , -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, +3, . . .; 1", 2" the element 1' would be a principal element according to Cantor's definition, but not according to Veblen's. [The same word, Fundamentalreihe, has been used by Cantor in another connection, in discussing irrational numbers; Math. Ann., vol. 21 (1883), p. 567].
(6) A series may be dense and closed and not be dense-in-itself,* as for example the series F + 0 + *F, where V denotes, for the moment, Veblen's series described in § 64, 3, 6, and *V the same series in reverse order. Here the element 0 is not the limit of any fundamental sequence, since every progression in V has a limit in V, and every regression in *V has a limit in *F, if we admit the vahdity of Cantor's reasoning in regard to the transfinite well-ordered series (§83).
(7) A series may be perfect (that is, dense-in-itself and closed), and yet have no last element and no first element, as for example the series *V + V. Here V and *V have the meanings just explained.!
Every series which satisfies condition B will clearly be dense.
The agreement between this definition and that given in § 61 may be readily established by the reader. The use of Dedekind's postulate instead of the postulate of closure impUes the use of fundamental segments instead of the fundamental sequences; this modification of Cantor's method seems to me desirable, since every segment determines a unique element, and every element determines a unique segment, while in the case of the sequences, although every sequence determines a unique element, it is not true that every element determines a unique sequence. J I have preferred Dedekind's postulate to the postulate of § 57 merely because of its greater symmetry.
herichte, p. 26.
X It can be sher^, however, that the class of fundamental sequences in anycontinuous series has the same " cardinal number " (§88) as the class of elements in the series itself (compare § 71).
62a. To avoid possible confusion with § 62, it may be well to mention here the definitions of some of the terms used in the theory of sets of points,* which is closely related to the theory of series.
A (Hnear) set of points is a collection of points selected in any manner from the points of a straight hne. Any point P of the line is called a cluster-point {limit-point, point of condensation) of the set, if in every interval which contains P as an interior point there are points of the set. A cluster point may or may not belong to the set. A set is called closed (abgeschlossen) if every cluster point of the set belongs to the set. A set is called dense-in-itself if every point of the set is a cluster point of the set. A perfect set is one which is both closed and dense-in-itself. A set is called everywhere-dense if between every two distinct points of the Hne there are points of the set.
A set can be perfect and nowhere dense, as, for example, the set described in § 52, 3. Every perfect set can be put into one-toone correspondence (sacrificing order) with the set of elements in a hnear continuum.
The derived set (Ahleitung) of a given set is the set composed of all the cluster points of the given set. In the case of a perfect set, the derived set is the same as the given set.
Examples of linear continuous series
63. The following examples serve to estabhsh the consistency' of the postulates of the present chapter (§ 54; compare § 19) ; in all but the first of them we avoid making any appeal to geometric intuition.
* For references to recent work in this field see R. E. Root, Trans. Amer. Math. Soc, vol. 15 (1914), pp. 51-71; some of the standard treatises are mentioned in a footnote under § 73.
By the absolute real numbers we mean the class of all fundamental segments (§ 46) in the seiies of absolute rational numbers (§ 51, 2) ; and by the usual order within this class we mean that a segment a shall precede a segment b when a is a part of 6.*
This system clearly satisfies the general conditions for a series (§12), since if a and b are any two distinct fundamental segments of any dense series, one of them must be a part of the other, and the relation of inclusion is transitive. Further, the series is dense; for, if a segment a is part of a segment b, there will always be rationals belonging to 6 and not to a; a segment x containing the segment a and some of these rationals will then he ** between " the segments a and b. To show that Dedekind's postulate is also satisfied, suppose that the whole series K is divided in any way into
♦ This is the definition adopted by Russell (loc. cit., chap. 33); it was first given in this form by M. Pasch {Differential- und Integralrechnung, 1882), his Zahlenstrecke (fundamental segment of rationals) being a modification of Dedekind's Schnitt or cut (1872). Similar definitions have been given by Dedekind (1872), Cantor (1872), Peano (1899), and others; a historical account is given by Peano in Rev. de Math., vol. 6 (1899), pp. 126-140. The construction of the system of (absolute) real numbers may be briefly described as follows (confining ourselves to the positive numbers): (1) the integers are the natural numbers, assumed as known; (2) the rationals are pairs of integers; and (3) the reals are classes (fundamental segments) of rationals. As a matter of convenience in notation, a pair of integers in which the denonunator is lis represented by the numerator alone; rational numbers of this form are said to be integral, while all other rational numbers are caXled fractional. Again, a fundamental segment which has a limit in the series of rationals is represented by the same symbol as its limit; real numbers of this form are said to be rational, while all other real numbers are called irrational (compare § 50) . This notation, however, should not be interpreted as meaning that the class of real numbers includes the class of rationals, or that the class of rational numbers includes the class of integers. On the contrary, while the " integral number 2 " means simply the second number in the natural series, the " rational niunber 2 " means the pair of natural numbers 2 and 1, and '' the real number 2 " means the class of all rational numbers which precede the rational number 2/1. The rules by which the siun and product of two real numbers are defined do not concern us, in this discussion of the purely ordinal theory; see O. Stolz and J. A. Gmeiner, Theoretische Arithmetik (1901- ); J. Tannery, Introduction d la thiorie des fonctions (2nd edit., 1904); H. Weber and J. Wellstein, Encyclopddie der Elementar-Mathematik (vol. 1, 1903); E. V. Huntington, Trans. Amer. Math. Soc., vol. 6 (1905), pp. 209-229, or the two monographs cited in the introduction; A. Loewy, Lehrbuch der Algebra (1915).
two parts Ki and K2 such that every element of Ki precedes every element of K2; then the class of all rationals which belong to any element of Ki will be a fundamental segment in the series of rationals, and will be the element X demanded in the postulate. Finally, the series is a linear continuous series, since we may take as the required subclass R all the elements of K which have limits in the series of rationals (§ 49).
By the series of all real numbers (positive, negative, or zero) we then mean a series built up from the series of absolute real numbers in the same way as the series of all rationals was built up from the series of absolute rationals in § 51, 3. Or again, all real numbers may be defined as fundamental segments of the series of all rationals, just as the absolute real numbers are defined as fundamental segments of the series of absolute rationals.
In the series of real numbers we have thus constructed an artificial system which certainly satisfies all the conditions for a linear continuous series (§ 54) ; there can therefore be no doubt that those conditions are free from inconsistency.* If we assume as geometrically evident that the series of all points on a line an inch long also satisfies these conditions, then an ordinal correspondence can be established between the real numbers and the points of the line, in accordance with § 61 (taking as the '' rational " points of the Hne those points whose distances from one end of the fine are proper fractions of an inch); but in setting up this correspondence we must recognize that the continuity of the series of points on the line is an assumption which is not capable of direct experimental verification.
This series is dense; for, suppose a and h are any two of the decimals such that a < b; let ^k be the first digit of 6 which is greater than the corresponding digit of a, and let ^n be the first
* Cf. H. Weber, Algebra, vol. 1, p. 7, where the real numbers are defined (after Dedekind) as " cuts " in the series of rationals, instead of as fundamental segments of rationals. (A cut is simply a rule for dividing a series K into two non-empty parts Ki and K2, such that every element of Ki precedes every element of K2, while Ki and K2 together exhaust the series K.)
digit beyond ^k which is different from 0; then any decimal x in which the first n — 1 digits are the same as in b, while the nth digit is less by one than j8„, will He between a and b. Further, the series satisfies Dedekind's postulate; for, if Ki and K2 are the given subclasses, we may determine the decimal X = .^1^2 ^3 ... as follows: ^1 is the largest digit which occurs in the first place of any decimal belonging to Ki; ^2 is the largest digit which occurs in the second place of any decimal beginning with ^i and belonging to Ki; ^3 is the largest digit which occurs in the third place of any decimal beginning with ^1^2 and belonging to Ki] and so on. Finally, the series is hnear, since we may take as the subclass R the class of those decimals in which all the places after any given place are filled with 9's. — The series, as we notice, contains a last element (.999 . . .), but no first.
(5) As a final example we mention the series described in § 19, 8, namely : K = the class of all possible infinite classes of the natural numbers, no number being repeated in any one class; with the relation < so defined that a < b when the smallest number in a is less than the smallest nimiber in 6, or, if the smallest n numbers of a and b are the same, w^hen the {n + l)st number of a is less than the (n -f l)st number of b.
This series is continuous, as the reader may readily verify; and it may be shown that it satisfies the postulate of linearity, since we may take as the subclass R the class of all the elements in which only a finite number of the natural numbers are absent. We notice also that the series contains a first element (namely the class of all the natural numbers), but no last element.
This example is particularly interesting as showing how a linear continuous series can be built up directly from the natural numbers, without making use of the rationals.*
64. The examples given in this section serve to show (compare § 20) that postulates CI and C2 (§ 54) are independent of each other, and that postulate C3 is independent of both of them. Postulate C2, on the other hand, is clearly a consequence of postulate C3.
(6) A non-denumerable example of the same sort is the series of all the points on a Hne with the exception of some single point; or better, the series described in § 52, 2, 6.
(a) The series described in § 52, 3 (consisting of the ternaryfractions in which the digits 0 and 2 only are used) is not dense, but can readily be shown to satisfy the postulate of Dedekind.
(a) Let K be the class of all couples (x, y), where x and y are real numbers from 0 to 1 inclusive; and let (xi, y-i) < fe, 2/2) when Xi < X2, or when Xi = X2 and 2/1 < 2/2. This series is a continuous series (satisfying CI and C2) ; but it is not a linear continuous series, since no denumerable subclass R of the kind demanded in postulate C3 is possible within it. (The same example, in geometric form, has been mentioned already in § 55; other examples of a similar kind will occur in § 70.)
(6) Let wi (or 12) be the smallest of the well-ordered series of 'Cantor's third class (see §83, below), and connect each element with the next following element by a hnear continuous series; the resulting series, which has been proposed by Veblen,* is continuous but contains no denumerable subclass R of the kind demanded in postulate C3, since every denumerable subclass in the series has an upper limit in the series (cf. § 85).
As a final example of a series which is not continuous, we mention a class K composed of two sets of real numbers, say red and blue, with a relation of order defined as follows: of two elements
* O. Veblen, Trans. Amer. Math. Soc, vol. 6 (1905), p. 169. Another interesting series may be made from the series 12 by connecting each element with the next following element by a series of type rj; this series is dense and dense-in-itself but not denumerable and not closed (cf. § 62, 5).
which have unequal numerical values, that one shall precede which would precede in the usual order of real numbers, regardless of color; of two elements which have the same numerical value, the red shall precede.
This system is built up by interpolating the elements of one continuous series between the elements of another continuous series; the resulting series, instead of being ''more continuous" as one might haVe been tempted to expect, is no longer even dense, since every red element has an inamediate successor (compare § 52, 1, 6).
65. In the case of continuous series as in the case of dense series it is not possible to give purely ordinal definitions of the sums and products of the elements; for, unless some other fundamental notion besides the notion of order is introduced, the elements of these series (except extreme elements) have no ordinal properties by which we can tell them apart (compare § 53). We might, to be sure, define sums and products of the elements of some particular series (like the series of real numbers, in the usual order) by the use of extra-ordinal properties peculiar to that series, and then transfer these definitions to other series of the same type by a one-to-one ordinal correspondence; but this method would be wholly inadequate, since the ordinal correspondence could be set up in an infinite number of ways. To construct a completely determinate continuous system it is therefore necessary to introduce some further notions, like addition and multipHcation, besides the notion of order, as fundamental notions of the system.*
* See for example my set of postulates for ordinary complex algebra, Trans. Amer. Math. Soc, vol. 6 (1905), pp. 209-229, especially § 8, or my monograph on The Fundamental Propositions of Algebra, cited in the introduction; or my postulates for absolute continuous magnitude, Trans. Amer. Math. Soc.^ vol. 3 (1902), pp. 264-279.
WITH A Note on Multiply Ordered Classes
66. In the preceding chapters we have studied various kinds of series, or simply ordered classes (§12), — especially the linear continuous series (§ 54). In the following chapter we consider briefly some kinds of continuous series which are not linear, and add a short note on multiply ordered classes.
67. We shall use the term one-dimensional framework or skeleton (Ri) to denote a series of type t], that is, a denumerable dense series without extreme elements (§44). A one-dimensional, or linear, continuous series is then any continuous series which contains a framework Ri in such a way that between any two elements of the given series there are elements of Ri (§ 59).
Again, a two-dimensional framework, R2, is any series formed from a one-dimensional continuous series by replacing each element of that series by a series of type yj; and '<^'*wo-dimensional continuous series is any continuous series which contains a framework R^ in the same way.
And so on. In general, an n-dimensional framework, Rn, is any series formed from an (n — 1) -dimensional continuous series by replacing each element of that series by a series of type 7;; and an n-dimensional continuous series is any continuous series which contains a framework Rn in such a way that between any two elements of the given series there are elements of Rn.
* The study of the multi-dimensional continuous series was proposed by Cantor in Math. Ann., vol. 21, p. 590, note 12 (1883), but seems never to have been carried out in detail. It would be interesting to extend the discussion to continuous series of a transfinite number of dimensions (cf. § 88).
68. By a k-dimensional section of any continuous series we shall mean any segment (§ 47) which forms by itself a /b-dimensional continuous series, but is not a part of any other such segment.*
69. As already noted, there are four different types of onedimensional continuous series, distinguished by the presence or absence of extreme elements; in particular, a one-dimensional continuous series wdth both a first and a last element is called a series of type 6 (§ 61).
A two-dimensional continuous series may or may not have a first one-dimensional section, and that section in turn may or may not have a first element. Similarly, there may or may not be a last one-dimensional section, which in turn may or may not have a last element. There are therefore nine different types of such series, distinguished by their initial and terminal properties. In particular, a two-dimensional continuous series with both a first and a last element we may call a series of type 6^ (since it may be formed from a series of type 6 by rt^iacing each element by another series of type0).t
And so on. In general, there will be (n + 1)^ different types of n-dimensional continuous series, distinguished by their initial and terminal properties. In particular, an n-dimensional continuous series which has both a first and a last element may be called a series of type ^".
* We may speak of a section of a framework R^, as well as of a section of a continuous series. A " zero-dimensional " section would be, of course, a single element. — If preferred, the word constituent may be used instead of section.
The proof that any two series of the same type are ordinally similar, and that all the types are distinct, is readily obtained by an extension of the methods used in §§45 and 61.
70. An example of an n-dimensional continuous series is a class whose elements are sets of real numbers {xi, X2, Xs, . , . , Xn), where Xi is any real number, and X2, Xs, . . . , Xn are restricted to the interval from 0 to 1 inclusive; the elements of the class being arranged prunarily in order of the a^i's; or in case of equal Xi's, in order of the X2s; or in case of equal a^i's and equal X2's, in order of the Xss; etc.
If n = 1, 2, or 3, the elements of this class can be represented geometrically: (1) by the points on a line; (2) by the points of a plane region bounded by two parallel lines; and (3) by the points of a space region bounded by a square prismatic surface. If n is greater than 3, no simple geometrical interpretation is possible.
71. Although the various types of series just considered are all distinct as types of order, yet it is important to notice that the class of elements of an n-dimensional continuous series can be put into one-to-one correspondence with the class of elements of a one-dimensional continuous series, if the relation of order is sacrificed ; or, in the terminology of modern geometry, the points of all space (of any number of dimensions) can he put into one-to-one correspondence with the points of a line. One of Cantor's most interesting early discoveries was a device for actually setting up this correspondence; we give a sketch of the method for the case of two dimensions.*
As a preliminary step, we notice that a one-to-one correspondence can be set up between the points of any two hues, of length a and b, with or witholit end-points. For, each Une can be divided into a denumerable set of segments of lengths equal, say, to i, J, I, ... of the length of the hne; a one-to-one correspondence can be estabhshed between the two sets of segments, and then (as in § 3) between the interior points of each segment of one set and the interior points of the corresponding segment of the other set; and a one-to-one correspondence can also be estabhshed between the two sets of points of division.
Consider now the points (x, y) within a square one inch on a side (0<a;<l,0<2/<l), and the points t on a Une say three inches long (0 < ^ < 3) ; and divide each third of the hne t into a denumerable set of segments of lengths J, f, i, . . . of an inch. A one-toone correspondence between the points of the square and the points of the line can then be estabUshed as follows :
(1) The points {x, y) for which x and y are both rational form a denumerable set, and can therefore be put into one-to-one correspondence with the " rational " points of the hne — that is, the points for which t is rational.
(2) The points {x, y) for which x is rational and y irrational are the *' irrational " points of a denumerable set of vertical lines, and can therefore be put into one-to-one correspondence with the '* irrational " points of the denumerable set of segments which occupies, say, the last third of the hne.
(3) Similarly the points {x, y) for which y is rational and x irrational can be put into one-to-one correspondence with the *' irrational " points of the middle third of the line.
(4) Finally, the points for which x and y are both irrational can be put into one-to-one correspondence with the *' irrational '^ points of the first third of the line. For, every irrational number a between 0 and 1 can be expressed as a non-terminating simple continued fraction, a = [ai, a2, as, • . .], that is:
Thus the correspondence between the points of the square and the points of the Hne is complete ; and the method is easily extended to any number of dimensions, finite or denimierably infinite.
ent serial relations.
For example, a class of musical tones may be arranged in order according to pitch, or according to intensity, or according to duration. Again, the class of points in space may be ordered in various ways according to their distances from three fixed planes.
A multiply ordered class may also be called a multiple series; but a system of this kind is not strictly a series with respect to any one of its ordering relations, since postulate 1 does not strictly hold (see § 12 or § 74) . A multiple series which is of type 6 with respect to each of n serial relations is called an n-dimensional continuum.
chief properties discussed.
In this chapter a brief account is now to be given of another special kind of series, which has proved to be of fundamental importance in Cantor's theory of the transfinite nimibers, and I hope that some readers may be led, by this brief introduction, to a further study of that most recent development of mathematical thought, in which many problems of fundamental interest still await solution.
The theoiy of the transfinite numbers was created by Georg Cantor in 1883, in a monograph called Grundlagen einer allgemeinen Mannichfaltigkeitslehre; ein mathematisch-philosophischier Versuch in der Lehre des Unendlichen, A much clearer presentation of the subject will be found in his Beitrdge zur Begrundung der transfiniten Mengenlehre in the Mathematische Annalen (1895, 1897) translated by P. E. B. Jourdain, Contributions to the Founding of the Theory of Transfinite Numbers (Open Court Pub. Co., 1915) ; but many of the speculations which were begun or suggested in the Grundlagen have not yet been developed.*
* Among the more recent treatises may be mentioned: A. Schonflies, Entwickelung der Mengenlehre und ihrer Anwendungen, second edition, 1913 (Teubner, Leipzig); B. Russell, Principles of Mathematics (1903); L. Couturat, Les Principes des mathematiques (1905); G. Hessenberg, Grundbegriffe der Mengenlehre (1906); W. H. and G. C. Young, The Theory of Sets of Points (1906); J. Konig, Neue Grundlagen der Logik, Arithmetik und Mengenlehre (1914); F. Hausdorff, Grundziige der Mengenlehre (1914); P. E. B. Jourdain, The Development of the Theory of Transfinite Numbers, published serially in Archiv der Math. u. Phys., ser. 3, volumes 10, 14, 16, 22 (1906-1913); and the Prindpia Mathematica by Whitehead and Russell, vol. 3 (1913).
is then any series which satisfies the following three conditions: f
* The earliest of Cantor's writings which bear upon this subject will be found in Math. Ann., vol. 5, pp. 123-132 (1872); and in Crelle's (or Borchardt's) Journ.fur Math., vol. 77, pp. 258-262 (1874); vol. 84, pp. 242-258 (1877). Then came a series of six articles " tJber unendliche, lineare Punktmannichfaltigkeiten," Math. Ann., vol. 15, pp. 1-7 (1879); vol. 17, pp. 355358 (1880); vol. 20, pp. 113-121 (1882); vol. 21, pp. 51-58 (1883); vol. 21, pp. 545-591 (1883); vol. 23, pp. 453-488 (1884). The fifth of these articles is identical with the monograph pubHshed in the same year (1883) under the title " Grundlagen einer allgemeinen Mannichfaltigkeitslehre " — page n of the " Grundlagen " corresponding to page (n + 544) of the article in the Annalen. [All the articles mentioned thus far, or partial extracts from them, are translated into French in the Acta Mathematica, vol. 2, 1883. The same journal contains also some further contributions; see vol. 2, pp. 409-414 (1883); vol. 4, pp. 381-392 (1884); vol. 7, pp. 105-124 (1885).] These articles were followed by a number of writings in defence of the new theory; see especially the Zdtschrift fiir Phil, und philos. Kntik, vol. 88, pp. 224r-233 (1886); vol. 91, pp. 81-125, 252-270 (1887); vol. 92, pp. 240-265 (1888). Then came a short but interesting note in the Jahresher. d. D. Math.-Ver., vol. 1, pp. 75-78 (1892), and finaUy the " Beitrage," etc.. Math. Ann., vol. 46, pp. 481-512 (1895); vol. 49, pp. 207-246 (1897); French translation by F. Marotte (1899); Enghsh translation by P. E. B. Jourdain (1915). Since 1897 the literature of the subject has rapidly increased, but nothing further has been published by Cantor himself.
t G. Cantor, Math. Ann., vol. 21 (1883), p. 548; ibid., vol. 49 (1897), p. 207. The name " normal series " was suggested to me by the term " normally ordered class," used by E. W. Hobson as a translation of wohlgeordnete Menge; Proc. Lond. Math. Soc, ser. 2, vol. 3 (1905), p. 170. It would have been a better term than ''weU-ordered series," for the adjective "well-ordered" appUes properly only to a class, not to a series, since a series is already an ordered class, and a weU-ordered class would be, as it were, a '' well " series. But the term " well-ordered " is so well established in the literature that it seems best to retain it as the designation for this particular kind of series.
limit.
Here a " fundamental segment " is any lower segment which has no last element; the '' limit '^ of a fundamental segment is the element next following all the elements of the segment (§§46,49).^
In a well-ordered series, any element which is the limit of a fundamental segment (and therefore has no immediate predecessor) is called a limiting element of the series {Grenzelement, Element der zweiten Art *) . Every element which is neither a limiting element, nor the first element of the series, will have a predecessor.
75. From postulates 1-6 it follows at once that Dedekind's postulate (see § 21 or § 54) will hold true in any well-ordered series; indeed we may use Dedekind's postulate in place of postulate 6 in the definition of a well-ordered series;'\ I prefer postulate 6 in this case, however, because it emphasizes the unsynametrical character of the well-ordered series.
has a first element, t
* G. Cantor, Math. Ann., vol. 49 (1897), p. 226. Jourdain uses Ldmes; Phil. Mag., ser. 6, vol. 7 (1904), p. 296. Compare § 62, above, t O. Veblen, Trails. Amer. Math. Soc, vol. 6 (1905), p. 170. X Cantor, loc. cit. (1897), p. 208.
77. The simplest examples of well-ordered series are those which contain only a finite number of elements; and since two finite series are ordinally similar when and only when they have the same number of elements, there will be a distinct type of well-ordered series corresponding to every natural number (compare § 27).
the points of division will form a series of type co. Next, divide each interval into a denumerable set of intervals in a similar way; all the points of division taken together will form a series of type co^. Finally, repeating the same operation once again, we obtain a series of points of type co^.
79. A series of the type called co'^ may now be constructed as follows : Take a line of length a, and divide it into a denumerable set of intervals as above; in the first of these intervals insert a series of type w, in the second a series of type co^, in the third a series of type 0)^, and so on ; the total collection of points thus determined forms a series of type co".
A series of the type called co"^ can now be constructed as follows : Divide a given line into a denumerable set of intervals as before; in the first of these intervals insert a series of type co", in the second a series of type co"'^, in the third a series of type co""^, and so on; the total collection of points thus determined forms a series of type CO""" or co"^
denumerable set of intervals.
By an extension of the same methods we can thus construct series of each of the types originally denoted by coi, co2, cos, . . ., where ^^ = ^^ ^^ = co"i, coa = co"2, . . . .*
Here the plus signs indicate that the series is made up of four parts, in order from left to right; the first part consists of a series of type w® taken five times in succession; the second part consists of a series of type co^ taken seven times in succession; the third part is a single series of type co; and the last part is a finite series containing two elements. — And so in general the notation
It will be noticed that in the case of a progression, or of any wellordered series of the types described in §§ 78-79, the whole series is ordinally similar to each of its upper segments (§ 47) ; that is, if we cut off any lower segment from the series, the type is not altered. This is not true in the case of the well-ordered series of the types described in the present section.
81. The fundamental properties of well-ordered series are developed very carefully and clearly in Cantor's memoir of 1897; the following theorems may be mentioned as perhaps the most important:
(2) If each element of a well-ordered series is replaced by a wellordered series, and the whole regarded as a single series, the result will be still a well-ordered series (compare the examples in §§ 7879).
segments.
(4) If two w^ell-ordered series are ordinally similar, the ordinal correspondence between them can be set up in only one way (compare §§ 26, 45, 61, and §§ 53, 65).
the whole series or else to some one of its lower segments.
(6) If any two well-ordered series, F and G, are given, then either F is ordinally similar to G, or F is ordinally similar to some definite lower segment of G, or G is ordinally similar to some definite lower segment of F; and these three relations are mutually exclusive. In the first case, F and G are of the same tj^^e ; in the second case, F is said to be less than G; and in the third case, G is said to be less than F.
82. By virtue of this theorem 6, the various types of well-ordered series, when arranged " in the order of magnitude " (as defined in the theorem) , form a series (§ 74) with respect to the relation '' less than "; and, as Cantor has shown, this series is itself a well-ordered series.
83. The classification of the well-ordered series is a characteristic feature of Cantor's theor^^; since, however, the method of procedure, when pushed to its logical extreme, has led to controversy,
♦ Most writers, including Russell, translate Abschnitt by segment (without qualifying adjective) ; but since the word " segment " is already used in several different senses (see, for example, Veblen, Trans. Amer. Math. Soc., vol. 6, p. 166, 1905), it has seemed to me safer to use the longer term " lower segment," about which there can be no ambiguity.
Now take all the types of series belonging to the first class, and arrange them in order of magnitude (§ 82) ;, the result is a wellordered series of a certain type, called co (compare § 24).
Then every well-ordered series whose elements can be put into one-toone correspondence (§ 3) with the elements of co is said to belong to the SECOND CLASS. In particular, the series of type co are the smallest series of the second class.
Next, take all the types of series belonging to the second class, and arrange them in order of magnitude; the resulting series is a well-ordered series of a certain type, called coi (or 12).
* On the paradoxes of Burali-Forti, Russell, and Richard, and other questions of mathematical logic, see, for example, C. Burali-Forti, Rend, del drc. mat. di Palermo, vol. 11 (1897), pp. 154-164; E. Borel, Legons sur la theorie des fonctions (1898), pp. 119-122, especially the second edition (1914), pp. 102174; also a remark in Ldouville's Journ. de Math., ser. 5, vol. 9 (1903), p. 330; D. Hilbert, Jahresher. d. D. Math.-Ver., vol. 8 (1899), p. 184; B. RusseU, Pnnciples of Mathematics (1903), chapter 10; E. W. Hobson, Proc. Lond. Math. Soc, ser. 2, vol. 3 (1905), pp. 170-188; A. Schonflies and A. Korselt, Jahresher. d. D. Math.-Ver., vol. 15 (1906), pp. 19-25 and 215-219; P. E. B. Jourdain and G. Peano, Rivista di Matematica, vol. 8 (1906), pp. 121-136 and 136-157; G. H. Hardy, A. C. Dixon, E. W. Hobson, B. Russell, P. E. B. Jourdain, and A. C. Dixon, Proc. Lond. Math. Soc, ser. 2, vol. 4 (1906), pp. 10-17, 18-20, 21-28, 29-53, 266-283, and 317-319; B. Russell, Rev. de Metaphys. et de Mor., vol. 14 (1906), pp. 627-650; J. Richard, Acta Mathematica, vol. 30 (1906), pp. 295296, and Ens. Math., vol. 9 (1907), pp. 94-98; K B. Wilson, Bull. Amer. Math. Soc, vol. 14 (1908), pp. 432-443; A. Schonflies, E. Zermelo, and H. Poincare. Acta Mathematica, vol. 32 (1909), pp. 177-184, 185-193, and 195-200; A. Koyr6 and B. Russell, Rev. de Metaphys. et de Mor., vol. 20 (1912), pp. 722724 and 725-726; H. Dingier, Jahresher. d. D. Math.-Ver., vol. 22 (1913), pp. 307-315; N. Wiener, Messenger of Mathematics, vol. 43 (1913), pp. 97-105; a curious paper by H. Glause, Rend, del circ mat. di Palermo, vol. 38 (1914), pp. 324-329; and the recent treatises by Schonflies, Konig, and Hausdorff, cited in a footnote to § 73; especially Whitehead and Russell, Principia Mathematica, vol. 1 (1910), pp. 63-68. On the controversy especially connected with Zermelo's " multipHcative axiom," see the references under § 84. On the problem of consistency aee references under § 19.
Then every well-ordered series whose elements can he put into oneto-one correspondence with the elements of wi is said to belong to the THIRD CLASS. In particular, the series of type coi are the smallest series of the third class.
And so on. In general, every well-ordered series whose elements can be put into one-to-one correspondence with the elements of o)y (where v is any positive integer) is said to belong to the (v + 2)th class; and the series of type W;, will be the smallest series of that class.*
Moreover, by an extension of the device already employed several times, we can define a class of well-ordered series whose smallest type would be denoted by co^,, or even w^J and so on, ad infinitum; so that when we speak of the nth class of well-ordered series, n need not be a positive integer, but may itself denote the type of any well ordered series.
84. In order to justify this classification, it is necessary to show that the classes described are really all distinct, so that no welll ordered series belongs to more than one class; and further, that well-ordered series belonging to each class actually exist, so that no class is '* empty." Cantor has completed this investigation only as far as the first and second classes; each of the examples mentioned above is a well-ordered series of the first or second class (since the number of elements in each case is at most denumerable, in view of § 38) ; no similar example of a series of even the third class has yet been satisfactorily constructed, f Problems concerning
* The notation w^ for the smallest type of the (v + 2)th class was introduced by Russell, Principles of Mathematics, vol. 1 (1903), p. 322; compare Joxirdain, Phil. Mag., ser. 6, vol. 7 (1904), p. 295. The symbols w and 12 were first used in this connection by Cantor in Math. Ann., vol. 21, pp. 577, 582 (1883).
t The question whether every class can be arranged as a well-ordered series, was first proposed by Cantor in 1883 {Math. Ann., vol. 21, p. 550). The controversy centers about two papers by E. Zermelo; Beweis dass jede Menge j ivohlgeordnet werden kann. Math. Ann., vol. 65 (1907), pp. 107-128. See, for example, J. Konig, A. Schonflies, F. Bernstein, E. Borel, and P. E. B. Jourdain, Math. Ann., vol. 60 (1905), pp. 177, 181, 187, 194, 465; i J. Hadamard, R. Baire, H. Lebesgue, and E. Borel, Bull, de la Soc. Math, de
Thus, a well-ordered series of the first class is any well-ordered series which satisfies not only the postulates 1-6 of § 74, but also the further conditions 7i and 8i, namely:
France, vol. 33 (1905), pp. 261-273; G. Peano, Rivista di Matematica, vol. 8 (1906), p. 145; J. Konig, Math. Ann., vol. 61 (1905), pp. 156-160, and vol. 63 (1906), pp. 217-221; H. Poincar^, Rev. de Metaphys. et de Mor., vol. 14 (1906), pp. 294-317; H. Lebesgue, Bull, de la Soc. Math, de France, vol. 35 (1907), pp. 202-212; G. Vivanti, Rend, del circ. mat.di Palermo, vol. 25 (1908), pp. 205208; G. Hessenberg, Crelle's Journ. fiir Math., vol. 135 (1908), pp. 81-133, 318; E. Zermelo, Math. Ann., vol. 65 (1908), pp. 261-281; and the recent treatises by Schonflies, Konig, and Hausdorff cited in a footnote to § 73, especially Whitehead and Russell, Principia Mathematica, vol. 3 (1913), p. 3. For a third proof by F. Hartogs (1915), see § 89a.
83, namely:
Postulate Ts. Every element except the first either has a predecessor ^ or is the upper limit of some subclass of type co, or is the upper limit of some subclass of type coi.
I And so on. The estabhshment of definite sets of postulates hke 'these seems to me an essential step toward the solution of the diffiicult problems connected with this subject. For example, Cantor's proof that a series of type fi is non-denumerable is simply a demionstration that no denumerable series can satisfy the eight postullates here numbered 1-6, 72, and 8^2.
The transfinite ordinal numbers
i6. It is now easy to explain what is meant by the ordinal numers (Ordnungszahlen), in the generahzed sense in which Cantor bow uses that term : they are simply the various types of order ex)iibited by the well-ordered series.* In other words, according to the jtheory of Russell, the ordinal number corresponding to any given Iwell-ordered series is the class of all series which are ordinally similar to the given series; any one of these ordinally similar series may be Itaken to represent the ordinal number of the given series.f ' The ordinal numbers of the first class (§ 83) are the finite ordinal aumbers, with which we have always been famihar; the ordinal
numbers of the second or higher classes are the transfinite ordinal numbers created by Cantor, which constitute, in a certain true sense, " eine Fortsetzung der realen ganzen Zahlenreihe uber das Unendliche hinaus.^' *
The smallest of the transfinite ordinals is w.
By the sunif a + ?>, of two ordinal numbers, a and 6, is meant simply the type of series obtained when a series of type a is followed by a series of type b and the whole regarded as a single series. f Clearly a + ^ will not always be the same as 6 + a (for example, 1 + w = CO, while w + 1 is a new type) ; but always (a + 6) + c = a + {b-\-c).
By the product, ah, of an ordinal number a multiplied by an ordinal nimiber b, is meant the type of series obtained as follows : in a series of type b replace each element by a series of type a, and regard the whole as a single series; the result will be a well-ordered series (by § 81, 2), and the type of this well-ordered series is what is meant by ab.t Clearly ah will not always equal ba (for example, 2a) = CO, while co.2 is a new type); but always {ah)c — a{hc), and also a{b -}- c) = a& + ac, although not {b -{- c)a = ba -^ ca.
The definition of a^, where a and b are general ordinal numbers is too complicated to repeat in this place. § Enough has at any rate been said to give at least some notion of the nature of the artificial algebra which Cantor has here so ingeniously constructed.
87. For the sake of completeness I add here a brief note on the meaning of some of the terms in Cantor's theory of the (general-l ized) cardinal numbers. || This theory has nothing to do with series, or ordered classes, but is a development of the theory of classes as such (§11); nevertheless the difficulties met with in this theory are closely analogous to the difficulties we have pointed out
t In Cantor's earlier definition of the product ah, a was the multipliei {loc. cit., 1883, p. 551); the order was changed in his later articles, so that ci. is now the multipUcand (see loc. cit., 1887, p. 96, and 1897, pp. 217, 231).
with the other.
88. If two classes can be brought into one-to-one correspondence (§ 3), they are said to be equivalent (dquivalent) . For example, the class of rational numbers is equivalent to the class of positive integers (compare § 19, 6) ; or the class of points on a line is equivalent to the class of all points in space (§71).
j their cardinal numbers will clearly be identical.
If a class A is equivalent to a part of a class B, but not to the whole, then A is said to be less than B; in this case the cardinal number of A will be less than the cardinal number of B.
We cannot, however, afl[irm that all cardinal numbers can be arranged as a series, in order of magnitude, for while postulates 2 and 3 (§74) clearly hold with regard to the relation ''less than" as just defined, postulate 1, which may be called the principle of comparison (Vergleichoarkeit) for classes, has never been proved. In other words, non-equivalent classes may possibly exist, neither of which is " less than " the other; but see § 89a. f
i * The term Mdchtigkeit was first used by Cantor in Crelle's Journ. fiir Math., |vol. 84, p. 242 (1877). Power, potency, multitude, and dignity are some of the Enghsh equivalents. The term Cardincdzahl was introduced in 1887. Of. Cantor, loc. cit. (1887), pp. 84 and 118. The notion of a cardinal number as a j^s is emphasized by Russell; Principle of Mathematics, vol. 1 (1903), p. 312.
For example, let C denote the class of elements in a linear continuum, say the class of points on a Une one inch long (compare § 71) ; and let C denote the class of all possible " bi-colored rods ^' which can be constructed by painting each point of the given line either red or blue. Then the class of rods, C, has a higher cardinal number than the class of points, C, as may be proved as follows:
In the first place, C is equivalent to a part of C ; for example, to the class of rods in which one point is painted red and all the other points blue. Secondly, C is not equivalent to the whole of C ; for, if any alleged one-to-one correspondence between the rods and the points were proposed, we could at once define a rod which would not be included in the scheme : namely, the rod in which the color of each point x is opposite to the color of the point x in the rod which is assigned to the point x of the given line; this rod would differ from each rod of the proposed scheme in the color of at least one point. (Cf. § 40.)
The class C has therefore a higher cardinal number than the class C. It is not known, however, whether there may not be other classes whose cardinal numbers lie between the cardinal numbers of C and C\
89. Of special interest are the cardinal nimnibers of the various types of well-ordered series; but when we speak of the cardinal number of a series, it must be understood that we mean the cardinal number of the class of elements which occur in the series, without regard to their order.
The cardinal numbers of the finite well-ordered series are the finite cardinal numbers, with which we have always been famiUar. "^ / The cardinal niunber of a series of type co (§ 24) is denoted by the Hebrew letter Aleph with a subscript 0 :*
And so on. In general, the cardinal number of a series of type oiy is denoted by x^,; this will then be the cardinal number of any well-ordered series of the {v + 2)th class.
arranged in order of increasing magnitude; this series will be a well-ordered series \\dth respect to the relation " less than/' and ordinally similar to the series of ordinal numbers; but all the difficulties that are involved in the one series are involved in the other. In particular, it requires proof to show that two Alephs, as X^, and Hy+i, are really non-equivalent, and that no other cardinal number lies between them. Cantor has shown merely that Ko is the smallest transfinite cardinal number, and that &<i is the number next greater* Again, the vexed question: can the cardinal number of the linear continuum (§ 54) be found among the Alephs f is equivalent to the question : can the class of elements in the continuum be arranged in the form of a well-ordered series f (See § 89a.) It is usually supposed that the cardinal number of the continuum will prove to be Ni.
First, consider all possible well-ordered series, G, H, . . . , whose elements belong to M, and let N be the class composed of these series, together with the null series, 0.
Next, within this class A^, group together all the well-ordered series G', G'\ . . . which are similar to G into a subclass, g] group together all the well-ordered series H\ H", . . . which are similar to H into a subclass, h) etc.
These subclasses, g, h, . , . (one of which is the null class) are now to form the elements of a series, L, whose rule of order is the following: A subclass g is said to precede a subclass h {g < h), \i
any one of the well-ordered series belonging to g is similar to a lower segment of any one of the well-ordered series H belonging to h. (It is clear that it makes no difference which G is taken from g, or which H is taken from h, etc., since all the G's in g are similar to each other, and all the H's in h are similar to each other, etc.) From this definition it follows that if any two of the subclasses, say g and h, are distinct, then either g < hor else h < g, and not both; also that if g, h, i are three subclasses such that g < h and h < i, then g < i. In other words, the subclasses g,h, . . . form a series, L, with respect to the rule of order stated.
Moreover, the series L thus constructed is a well-ordered series. The proof is as follows : Let g be any element of L, and let G be any one of the well-ordered series belonging to g. Then the elements of L which precede g stand in a one-to-one correspondence (preserving order) with the lower segments of G. But the lower segments of G form a well-ordered series; hence, no matter what element g may be chosen, the elements of L preceding g form a well-ordered series. From this it follows that the series L itself must be well-ordered. For, if L were not well-ordered, it would contain at least one regression, r (§ 76), so that if g is any element of r, then the elements of r preceding g would form a series having no first element; but this is impossible, since the elements of r preceding g are part of the elements of L preceding g, and hence are part of a well-ordered series, and as such must have a first element. The whole series L is therefore a well-ordered series.
Further, each of the well-ordered series G, H, . . . which can be formed out of elements of M, is similar to some lower segment of L. In particular, the well-ordered series G is similar to that lower segment of L which is determined by the subclass g to which G belongs. For, as we have just noted, there is a one-to-one correspondence (preserving order) between the subclasses that precede g and the lower segments of G, and there is also a one-to-one correspondence (preserving order) between the lower segments of G and the elements of G.
Considering now the elements of L, without regard to their order, we see at once that the elements of L cannot he placed in one-to-one correspondence with the elements of M, nor with the elements of any part of M. For, suppose the contrary; then M, or some part of M, would be capable of being well-ordered, so that we should have a well-ordered series, formed out of elements of M, and similar to L ; but this is impossible, since we have proved that every such wellordered series is similar to some lower segment of L, and no lower segment of L can be similar to L itself.
Finally, if we assume the principle of comparison between classes (§ 88), there is only one alternative left, namely: it must he possible to place the elements of M in one-to-one correspondence with the elements of a part of L. But since L is well-ordered, every part of L is well-ordered; hence we have the theorem that whatever class M may be, its elements can always be so arranged as to form a well-ordered series.*
gether.
If a and h are the cardinal numbers of two such classes A and B, the sum, a + 6, of these two cardinals is then defined as the cardinal nimiber oi A -\- B. Clearly a + h = h -{• a, and (a + 6) + c = a+ib-\-c).
If a and h are the cardinal numbers of two such classes, the product, ah, of these two cardinals is then defined as the cardinal number of AB. Clearly, ab = ha, {ah)c = a{bc), and a{b + c) = ah + ac.
Finally, A^ denotes the class of aU coverings (Belegungen) of B by A, where a " covering " of B by A is any law according to which each element of B determines uniquely an element of A (not excluding the cases in which various elements of B may determine the same element of A).|
The 6*^ power of a, a^, where a and h are the cardinal numbers of any two classes A and B, is then defined as the cardinal number of A^, Clearly a^a'' = a^", {a^Y = a^% and {ah)" = a''¥.
cardinal numbers, analogous to the algebra of the ordinal numbers,
* Hartogs's paper shows that the following three principles are equivalent: (1) the principle of comparison between classes; (2) the principle that every class can be well-ordered; and (3) the much discussed "multiplicative axiom" of Zermelo. See references under § 84, especially Whitehead and Russell, Principia Mathematica, vol. 1 (1910), p. 561.
where c stands for the cardinal number of the continuum, and 2No is determined according to the rule just stated for the powers of cardinal numbers. It becomes an important question, therefore, to decide whether
91. In conclusion, it may be well to repeat that when we speak of a cardinal number, we always mean the cardinal number of some given class; and when we speak of an ordinal number, we always mean the ordinal number of some given well-ordered series.
Whether these new concepts will find important appHcations in practical problems is a question for the future to decide. (The elementary parts of Cantor's work have already proved useful, indeed almost indispensable, in the theory of functions of a real variable.!)
t See, for example, R. Baire, Legons sur les fonctions discontinues (1905) ; E. Borel, Legons sur la theorie des fonctions, 2nd edit. (1914) ; E. W. Hobson, Theory of Functions of a Real Variable (1907); J. Pierpont, Lectures on the Theory of Functions of a Real Variable (1905, 1912); etc.; also the treatises cited under § 73.
Class, § 1. (See empty, null, finite, infinite, denumerable, simply and multiply ordered, well-ordered, equivalent.)
Numbers, § 63 (3). (See natural, integral, fractional, rational, irrational, real, cardinal, ordinal, finite, transfinite.)
Series, § 12, (See discrete, dense, denumerable, continuous, linear, finite, closed, dense-in-itself, perfect, well-ordered, similar.)
| 29,946 | common-pile/pre_1929_books_filtered | continuumotherty00huntrich | public_library | public_library_1929_dolma-0019.json.gz:4569 | https://archive.org/download/continuumotherty00huntrich/continuumotherty00huntrich_djvu.txt |
SPTcg5XogIlYAB0H | Diversity and Social Justice – Faculty Guide (2023 Edition) | Kimberly McClure
In the Survey of Biology course (BIOL&100) I go over cells and cell division (mitosis and meiosis) with students. To continue our discussion of cell division I would like students to listen to a Radiolab podcast about Henrietta Lacks and the story of HeLa cells. The podcast details how the cells were acquired, how they have been used in basic research and in cancer treatment, and the vast inequities of the US healthcare system that mistreated a Black woman and her family starting in the 1950s through 1990s. I also include a paper published in the journal Nature that I’d like the students to read following the podcast entitled, “Henrietta Lacks: science must right a historical wrong.” | 154 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://openwa.pressbooks.pub/dsj2023/chapter/biol100-henrietta-lacks-and-the-story-of-hela-cells-2023/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:31267 | https://openwa.pressbooks.pub/dsj2023/chapter/biol100-henrietta-lacks-and-the-story-of-hela-cells-2023/ |
OgXJptkXVKrMvZr1 | 3.5: Reason for Seeking Health Care | 3.5: Reason for Seeking Health Care
It is helpful to begin the health history by obtaining the reason why the patient is seeking health care in their own words. During a visit to a clinic or emergency department or on admission to a health care agency, the patient’s reasons for seeking care are referred to as the chief complaint . After a patient has been admitted, the term main health needs is used to classify what the patient feels is most important at that time. Whichever term is used, it recognizes that patients are complex beings, with potentially multiple coexisting health needs, but there is often a pressing issue that requires most immediate care. This is not to suggest that other issues be ignored, but rather it allows health care team members to prioritize care and address more urgent needs first. [1] See Table \(\PageIndex{1}\) for suggested focused interview questions to use to investigate the reason a patient is seeking care based on the health care setting.
The nurse is always aware of critical assessment findings requiring immediate notification of a health care provider or the initiation of emergency care according to agency policy. For example, if a patient reports chest pain, difficulty breathing, sudden changes in vision or the ability to speak, sudden weakness or paralysis, uncontrolled bleeding, or thoughts of self-harm, the provider should immediately be notified with possible initiation of emergency care.
Table \(\PageIndex{1}\): Focused Questions for Reasons for Seeking Health Care by Setting [2]
| Setting | Focused Assessment Questions |
Sample Responses
(Subjective Data) |
|---|---|---|
| Clinic Visit | Please tell me what brought you in today. |
“I have a headache that will not go away.”
“I have had this headache since yesterday morning when I woke up.” “I am not able to see clearly, and I feel sick to my stomach so I was not able to go to work.” |
| Hospital Admission |
Please tell me what brought you in today.
Can you tell me how long this has been going on? Have you taken anything to improve the symptoms you are reporting? |
“I am having chest pain and my arm hurts.”
“The chest pain started after I finished shoveling my driveway about an hour ago.” “I took an aspirin like the commercials always say to do.” |
| Inpatient Follow-Up |
Tell me what your main concerns are today since your admission.
Have you noticed any improvements since you were admitted? Do you have any symptoms currently? |
“I am wondering how long I am going to be admitted. I need to get back to work.”
“I feel huge improvements. I do not feel at all like I did yesterday.” “I do not have any chest pain and I do not have any arm pain anymore.” |
Chief Complaint
After identifying the reason why the patient is seeking health care, additional focused questions are used to obtain detailed information about this concern. The mnemonic OLD CART & ICE is often used to ask the patient questions in an organized fashion. See Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\) [3] for an image of OLD CARE & ICE.
The OLD CART & ICE mnemonic is often used to assess pain, but it can also be used to assess many other symptoms. See Table \(\PageIndex{2}\) for suggested focus questions for pain and other symptoms using the OLD CART & ICE mnemonic. [4]
Table \(\PageIndex{2}\) Sample OLD CART & ICE Focused Questions for Pain and Other Symptoms
| OLD CART & ICE | Questions Related to Pain | Questions Related to Other Symptoms |
|---|---|---|
| Onset: | When did your pain start? | What do you think is causing your pain? |
While interviewing a patient about their chief complaint, use open-ended questions to allow the patient to elaborate on information that further improves your understanding of their health concerns. If their answers do not seem to align, continue to ask focused questions to clarify information. For example, if a patient states that “the pain is tolerable” but also rates the pain as a “7” on a 0-10 pain scale, these answers do not align, and the nurse should continue to use follow-up questions using the OLD CART & ICE framework. For example, upon further questioning the patient explains they rate the pain as a “7” in their knee when participating in physical therapy exercises, but currently feels the pain is tolerable while resting in bed. This additional information will help the nurse customize interventions for effective treatment.
- This work is a derivative of The Complete Subjective Health Assessment by Lapum, St-Amant, Hughes, Petrie, Morrell, and Mistry licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 ↵
- This work is a derivative of The Complete Subjective Health Assessment by Lapum, St-Amant, Hughes, Petrie, Morrell, and Mistry licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 ↵
- This work is a derivative of The Complete Subjective Health Assessment by Lapum, St-Amant, Hughes, Petrie, Morrell, and Mistry licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 ↵
- This work is a derivative of The Complete Subjective Health Assessment by Lapum, St-Amant, Hughes, Petrie, Morrell, and Mistry licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 ↵ | 1,114 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://med.libretexts.org/Courses/Harrisburg_Area_Community_College/vjbugosh_at_hacc.edu/03%3A_The_Health_History/3.05%3A_Reason_for_Seeking_Health_Care | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:2668 | https://med.libretexts.org/Courses/Harrisburg_Area_Community_College/vjbugosh_at_hacc.edu/03%3A_The_Health_History/3.05%3A_Reason_for_Seeking_Health_Care |
JeuObk-EWgU_WQM1 | 2.1: Electrons and electronic structure | 2.1: Electrons and electronic structure
5
Harper College Chemistry Department
Electron Shells and the Bohr Model
Note that there is a connection between the number of protons in an element, the atomic number that distinguishes one element from another and the number of electrons it has. In all electrically neutral atoms, the number of electrons is the same as the number of protons. Thus, each element, at least when electrically neutral, has a characteristic number of electrons equal to its atomic number.
In 1913, Danish scientist Niels Bohr (1885–1962) developed an early model of the atom. The Bohr model shows the atom has a central nucleus containing protons and neutrons, with the electrons in circular orbits at specific distances from the nucleus, Figure 1 . These orbits form electron shells or energy levels, which are a way of visualizing the number of electrons in the outermost shell. These energy levels are designated by a number and the symbol “n.” For example, 1n represents the first energy level located closest to the nucleus.
Electrons fill shells in a consistent order: they first fill the shells closest to the nucleus, then they continue to fill shells of increasing energy further from the nucleus.The electrons of the outermost energy level determine the atom’s energetic stability and its tendency to form chemical bonds with other atoms to form molecules.
Under standard conditions, atoms fill the inner shells first, often resulting in a variable number of electrons in the outermost shell. The innermost shell has a maximum of two electrons but the next two electron shells can each have a maximum of eight electrons. This is known as the octet rule , which states, with the exception of the innermost shell, that atoms are more stable energetically when they have eight electrons in their valence shell , the outermost electron shell. Figure 2 sho ws examples of some neutral atoms and their electron configurations. Notice that h elium has a complete outer electron shell, with two electrons filling its first and only shell. Similarly, neon has a complete outer 2n shell containing eight electrons. In contrast, chlorine and sodium have seven and one , respectively, in their outer shells, however, by following the octet rule they would be more energetically stable having eight.
VISUAL CONNECTION
An atom may give, take or share electrons with another atom to achieve a full valence shell, the most stable electron configuration. Looking at this figure, how many electrons do elements in group 1 need to lose in order to achieve a stable electron configuration? 1 electron. How many electrons do elements in groups 14 and 17 need to gain to achieve a stable configuration? 4 and 1 electron respectively.
Understanding that the periodic table’s organization is based on the total number of protons (and electrons) helps us know how electrons distribute themselves among the energy levels. The periodic table is arranged in columns and rows based on the number of electrons and their location. Examine more closely some of the elements in the table’s far right column in Figure 3 . The group 18 atoms helium (He), neon (Ne) and argon (Ar) all have filled outer electron shells, making it unnecessary for them to share electrons with other atoms to attain stability. They are highly stable as single atoms because they are non reactive; scientists coin them inert (or noble gases ). Compare this to the group 1 elements in the left-hand column. These elements, including hydrogen (H), lithium (Li) and sodium (Na), all have one electron in their outermost shells. That means that they can achieve a stable configuration and a filled outer shell by donating or sharing one electron with another atom. Hydrogen will donate or share its electron to achieve this configuration, while lithium and sodium will donate their electron to become stable. As a result of losing a negatively charged electron, they become positively charged ions . Group 17 elements, including fluorine and chlorine, have seven electrons in their outermost shells, so they tend to fill this shell with an electron from other atoms or molecules, making them negatively charged ions. Group 14 elements, of which carbon is the most important to living systems, have four electrons in their outer shell allowing them to make several covalent bonds (discussed below) with other atoms. Thus, the periodic table’s columns represent the potential shared state of these elements’ outer electron shells that is responsible for their similar chemical characteristics.
octet rule
atoms are more stable energetically when they have eight electrons in their valence shell, the outermost electron shell, with the exception of the innermost shell
valence electrons | 1,002 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/Harper_College/General_Organic_and_Biochemistry_with_Problems_Case_Studies_and_Activities/02%3A_Atoms_and_Elements/2.01%3A_Electrons_and_electronic_structure | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:37717 | https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/Harper_College/General_Organic_and_Biochemistry_with_Problems_Case_Studies_and_Activities/02%3A_Atoms_and_Elements/2.01%3A_Electrons_and_electronic_structure |
1f3oCmK64HVw6WiU | Women's Autobiography | CHAPTER VII: THE WEDDING THAT NEVER WAS
THE pleasant days of New Year barely lasted through the holidays. We usually left the mochi cakes on the tokonoma until the fifteenth, but it was everywhere the custom to remove the pines from the gateways on the morning of the eighth day. There was a tradition (which nobody believed, however) that during the seventh night the trees sink into the earth, leaving only the tips visible above the ground. Literally, this was true that year, for when we wakened on the morning of the eighth, I found the three-foot paths filled and our whole garden a level land of snow about four feet deep. Our low pines at the gateway were snowed under, and we saw nothing more of them until spring.
Every coolie in Nagaoka was busy that day, for the snow was unexpected and heavy. More followed, and in a few weeks we children were going to school beneath covered sidewalks and through snow tunnels; and our beautiful New Year was only a sunshiny memory.
One afternoon, as I was coming home from school, a postman, in his straw coat and big straw snow-shoes, came slipping down through a tunnel opening, from the snowy plain above.
“Maa! Little Mistress,” he called gaily, when he saw me, “I have mail for your house from America.”
“From America!” I exclaimed, greatly surprised; for a letter from a foreign land had never come to us before. It was an exciting event. I tried to keep the postman in sight as he hurried along the narrow walk between the snow wall and the row of open-front shops. Occasionally he would call out “A message!”—“A message!” and stop to put mail into an outstretched hand. The path was narrow and I frequently was jostled by passing people, but I was not far behind the postman when he turned into our street. I knew he would go to the side entrance with the mail; so I hurried very fast and had reached Grandmother’s room and already made my bow of “I have come back,” before a maid entered with the mail. The wonderful letter was for Mother, and Grandmother asked me to carry it to her.
My heart sank with disappointment; for my chance to see it opened was gone. I knew that, as soon as Mother received it, she would take it at once to Grandmother, but I should not be there. Then Grandmother would look at it very carefully through her big horn spectacles and hand it back to Mother, saying in a slow and ceremonious manner, “Please open!” Of course she would be agitated, because it was a foreign letter, but that would only make her still more slow and ceremonious. I could see the whole picture in my mind as I walked through the hall, carrying the big, odd-shaped envelope to Mother’s room.
That evening after family service before the shrine, Grandmother kept her head bowed longer than usual. When she raised it she sat up very straight and announced solemnly, with the most formal dignity, almost like a temple service, that the young master, who had been in America for several years, was to return to his home. This was startling news, for my brother had been gone almost since I could remember and his name was never mentioned. To call him the “young master” was sufficient explanation that the unknown tragedy was past, and he reinstated in his position as a son. The servants, sitting in the rear of the room, bowed to the floor in silent congratulation, but they seemed to be struggling with suppressed excitement. I did not stop to wonder why. It was enough for me to know that my brother was coming home. I could scarcely hold the joy in my heart.
I must have been very young when my brother went away, for though I could distinctly recall the day he left, all memory of what went before or came immediately after was dim. I remember a sunny morning when our house was decorated with wondrous beauty and the servants all wore ceremonial dress with the Inagaki crest. It was the day of my brother’s marriage. In the tokonoma of our best room was one of our treasures—a triple roll picture of pine, bamboo, and plum, painted by an ancient artist. On the platform beneath was the beautiful Takasago table where the white-haired old couple with rake and broom were gathering pine needles on the shore. Other emblems of happy married life were everywhere, for each gift—and there were whole rooms full—was decorated with small figures of snowy storks, of gold-brown tortoises, or beautiful sprays of entwined pine, bamboo, and plum. Two new rooms, which had been recently built, were full of beautiful lacquer toilet cases and whitewood chests with iron clasps. They had come the day before, in a procession of immense trays swinging from poles on the shoulders of coolies. Each was covered with a cloth bearing a crest not ours.
Ishi and I wandered from room to room, she explaining that the bride for the young master would soon be there. She allowed me one peep into the wedding room. It was all white and plain and empty except for the offerings to the gods on the tokonoma and the little table with the three red cups for the sacred promise.
Ishi was continually running to look out toward the big entrance gate, and of course wherever she went I was close by, holding to her sleeve. The whole house was open. The sliding doors of every room were pushed back and we could see clear to the big open gateway at the end of the stone walk. Just beneath its narrow thatch was looped a dark-blue curtain bearing the Inagaki crest and on each side were tall slender stands holding lanterns of congratulation. Near one of the stone posts was the “seven-and-a-half-times” messenger in his stiff-sleeved garment. He had returned from his seventh trip to see if the bridal procession was coming, and though the day was bright with sunshine, was just lighting his big lantern for his last trip to meet it halfway—thus showing our eagerness to welcome the coming bride.
Presently Ishi said that the procession was almost here and I saw the servants hurrying toward the entrance, all smiling, but moving with such respectful quiet that I could hear plainly the creaking of the bride’s palanquin and the soft thud of the jinrikisha men’s feet as they came up the hill.
Then suddenly something was wrong. Ishi caught my shoulder and pulled me back, and Brother came hurriedly out of Father’s room. He passed us with long, swinging strides, never looking at me at all, and, stepping into his shoes on the garden step, he walked rapidly toward the side entrance. I had never seen him after that day.
The maiden my brother was to have married did not return to her former home. Having left it to become a bride, she was legally no longer a member of her father’s family. This unusual problem Mother solved by inviting her to remain in our home as a daughter; which she did until finally Mother arranged a good marriage for her.
In a childish way I wondered about all the strangeness, but years had passed before I connected it with the sudden going away at this time of a graceful little maid named Tama, who used to arrange flowers and perform light duties. Her merry laugh and ready tongue made her a favourite with the entire household. Tama was not a servant. In those days it was the custom for daughters of wealthy tradesmen to be sent to live for a short time in a house of rank, that the maiden might learn the strict etiquette of samurai home life. This position was far from menial. A girl living with a family for social education was always treated with respectful consideration.
The morning after my brother went away I was going, as usual, to pay my morning greetings to my father when I met Tama coming from his door, looking pale and startled. She bowed good morning to me and then passed quietly on. That afternoon I missed her and Ishi told me that she had gone home.
Whatever may have been between my brother and Tama I never knew; but I cannot but feel that, guilt or innocence, there was somewhere a trace of courage. My brother was weak, of course, to prolong his heart struggle until almost the last moment, but he must have had much of his father’s strong character to enable him, even then, to break with the traditions of his rigid training and defy his father’s command. In that day there could be only a hopeless ending to such an affair, for no marriage was legal without the consent of parents, and my father, with heart wounded and pride shamed, had declared that he had no son.
It was not until several years later that I heard again of my brother. One afternoon Father was showing me some twisting tricks with a string. I was kneeling close beside his cushion, watching his rapidly moving hands and trying to catch his fingers in my own. Mother was sitting near with her sewing, and all three of us were laughing.
A maid came to the door to say that Major Sato, a Tokyo gentleman whom my father knew very well, had called. I slipped back by Mother. She started to leave the room, but Father motioned her not to go, and so we both remained.
I shall never forget that scene. Major Sato, speaking with great earnestness, told how my brother had gone to Tokyo and entered the Army College. With only his own efforts he had completed the course with honour and was now a lieutenant. There Major Sato paused.
My father sat very still with his head held high and absolutely no expression on his stern face. For a full minute the room was so silent that I could hear myself breathe. Then my father, still without moving, asked quietly, “Is your message delivered, Major Sato?”
“It is finished,” was the reply.
“Your interest is appreciated, Major Sato. This is my answer: I have daughters, but no son.”
When Father spoke she gave a little shudder but did not move.
Presently Father turned toward her. “Wife,” he said very gently, “ask Ishi to bring the go board, and send wine to the honourable guest.”
Whatever was in the heart of either man, they calmly played the game to the end, and Mother and I sat there in the deep silence as motionless as statues.
That night when Ishi was helping me undress, I saw tears in her eyes.
“What troubles you, Ishi?” I asked. “Why do you almost cry?”
I am glad. I am thankful to the gods that I am lowly born and can cry when my heart is filled with ache and can laugh when my heart sings. Oh, my dear, dear Mistress! My poor, poor Master!” And she still sobbed.
That was all long ago, and now, after many years, my brother was coming back to his home.
The snow went away, the spring passed and summer was with us. It seemed a long, long wait, but at last came a day when the shrine doors were opened early in the morning and the candles kept burning steadily hour after hour, for Grandmother wanted the presence of the ancestors in the welcome to the wanderer, and as the trip from Tokyo was by jinrikisha and kago in those days, the time of arrival was very uncertain. But at last the call “Honourable return!” at the gateway brought everyone except Grandmother to the entrance. He stopped at one place and smiled as he pulled a tuft of the little blossoms growing between the stones. But he threw it away at once and came on.
The greetings at the door were very short. Brother and Mother bowed, he speaking gently to her and she looking at him with a smile that had tears close behind. Then he laughingly called me “the same curly-haired, round-faced Etsu-bo.”
His foreign shoes were removed by Jiya, and we went in. Of course, he went to the shrine first. He bowed and did everything just right, but too quickly, and some way I felt troubled. Then he went to Grandmother’s room.
Immediately after greetings were over, Grandmother handed him Father’s lacquer letter-box. He lifted it to his forehead with formal courtesy; then, taking out the letter, he slowly unrolled it and, with a strange expression, sat looking at the writing. I was shocked to feel that I could not know whether that look meant bitterness, or amusement, or hopelessness. It seemed to be a combination of all three. The message was very short. In a trembling hand was written: “You are now the head of Inagaki. My son, I trust you.” That was all.
That evening a grand dinner was served in our best room. Brother sat next the tokonoma. All the near relatives were there, and we had the kind of food Brother used to like. There was a great deal of talking, but he was rather quiet, although he told us some things about America. I watched him as he talked. His strange dress with tight sleeves and his black stockings suggested kitchen people, and he sat cross-legged on his cushion. His voice was rather loud and he had a quick way of look ing from one person to another that was almost startling. I felt a little troubled and uncertain—almost disappointed; for in some puzzling way he was different from what I wanted him to be. But one thing I loved at once. He had the same soft twinkle in his eyes when he smiled that Father had. Every time I saw that, I felt that however different from Father he might look—or be—he really had the lovable part of Father in his heart. And in spite of a vague fear, I knew, deep, deep down, that whatever might happen in the days, or years, to come, I should always love him and should always be true to him. And I always have. | 3,104 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://cod.pressbooks.pub/womenlifewriting/chapter/the-wedding-that-never-was/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:99281 | https://cod.pressbooks.pub/womenlifewriting/chapter/the-wedding-that-never-was/ |
6KTIatncDcoqHRBw | 3.1: Membrane Phase Transitions | 3.1: Membrane Phase Transitions
Biological membranes are primarily composed of phospholipids—a diverse class of compounds composed of a hydrophilic head group covalently attached to a pair of hydrophobic fatty acids. This amphipathic structure leads phospholipid molecules to spontaneously form bilayers when placed in water, as the phospholipids are driven to orient their head groups towards water and shield their fatty acid tails from it via the hydrophobic effect.
While these bilayers tend to exist in a fluid phase under physiological conditions, their component phospholipids can undergo phase transitions under the correct environmental conditions. Similarly to the familiar transitions between the liquid, solid, and gas phases of simpler systems, these lipid phase transitions represent changes in the entropy of the system through reorganization of the system’s components in response to changes in the free energy of the system. Lipids can exist in a number of phases, which are summarized below.
L α : The Liquid Disordered Phase
The liquid disordered phase, as its name implies, is a highly fluid state in which individual lipids can move laterally across the surface of the membrane relatively unhindered. Liquid-disordered bilayers are often characterized by irregular packing of individual lipid molecules, as well as the presence of kinks in unsaturated fatty acids.
L β : The Gel Phase
At temperatures below Tm (melting temperature), lipid bilayers enter a solid-like phase known as the gel phase. Fatty acids with kinks often undergo trans isomerization, allowing the chains to be fully extended and strengthening Van der Waals interactions. Stronger Van der Waals interactions lead to tighter, more ordered lipid packing, impeding lateral movement across the surface of the membrane.
L o : The Liquid Ordered Phase
The liquid ordered phase represents something of a hybrid of the liquid disordered and gel phases. Sufficiently high membrane sterol concentration combined with the relative rigidity of sterol molecules leads to tighter packing of liquid phase membranes, while separating gel phase lipids. The result is a “liquid ordered phase” with solid-like qualities similar to the gel phase without sacrificing the high rate of lateral diffusion attainable in the liquid-disordered phase.
P β : The Ripple Phase
L c : The Pseudocrystalline phase
Factors Affecting Lipid Phase Transitions
The primary factor driving most phase transitions is the temperature of the environment. Temperatures above a lipid’s Tm will transition lipids to a liquid phase, while colder temperatures will cause a transition to a solid-like phase. However, Tm can vary between lipids due to differing structural properties. Furthermore, some phase transitions, such as the liquid-ordered phase transition, more strongly depend on environmental conditions other than temperature.
Chain Length
Longer fatty acid chains have higher surface areas than smaller ones, resulting in stronger Van der Waals interactions between long lipid chains. This leads to increasing Tm’s with increasing chain length, as shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\).
Furthermore, increasing the length of a hydrocarbon chain simultaneously increases the number of degrees of freedom, thereby increasing the lipid’s heat capacity—thereby also increasing the enthalpy of fusion.
Unsaturation
Lipid unsaturation—the presence of one or more double bonds in the lipid’s fatty acid tails—also affects Tm by altering the strength of Van der Waals interactions between lipid tails. Unlike chain length, however, increasing unsaturation reduces the Tm of the lipid by reducing the accessible surface area of the fatty acid tail by forming kinks that prevent nearby tails from packing together as tightly. This weakens inter-lipid Van der Waals interactions, and lowers the Tm of the lipid.
The positioning of double bonds in the fatty acid chain influences the degree to which Tm is lowered—with double bonds closer to the middle of the chain producing larger kinks, thereby decreasing Tm more than double bonds located closer to either end of the chain.
Sterols
Sterols, such as cholesterol, play a large role in modulating the fluidity of membranes. Sterols are—compared to neighboring phospholipids—small, rigid molecules that are largely hydrophobic, with the exception of a single hydroxyl group. The accumulation of sterols in a lipid bilayer causes tighter packing of fatty acid tails in liquid phase lipids and separates gel phase lipids. The result is a “liquid ordered phase” with solid-like qualities similar to the gel phase without sacrificing the high rate of lateral diffusion attainable in the liquid-disordered phase.
Membrane Protein Concentration
High local concentrations of membrane-associated proteins can decrease the Tm of sections of membrane through steric interactions between crowded proteins. Although elevated local protein concentrations can be critical for facilitating certain cellular processes, collisions between crowded proteins creates lateral pressure that renders lipid domain separation more thermodynamically favorable—possibly leading to phase transitions, as shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{7}\).
Outcomes of Lipid Phase Transitions
Phase Separation
Membranes often contain a mixture of lipids of different lengths and degrees of unsaturation, resulting in differing Tm’s. If such a membrane system is cooled, the longer, more saturated lipids will undergo the transition to the gel phase before other shorter, less saturated lipids, as their Tm will be reached first. The resulting straightening of the fatty acid chains causes part of the gel phase lipids’ chains to be exposed to water, resulting in a hydrophobic effect-driven aggregation of the long, newly gel-phase lipids. This results in the formation of patches of long, saturated, gel-phase lipids in the membrane.
Protein Aggregation
Phase separation between lipids surrounding integral membrane proteins can briefly expose the hydrophobic residues of the middle of the protein to water. If enough other exposed proteins are nearby, this can result in a hydrophobic effect-mediated protein aggregation event, as displayed in Figure \(\PageIndex{8}\).
Membrane Leakage
The differential rates of phase transition between lipids composing a membrane can lead to packing defects as gel-phase fatty acid chains straighten out, forming a short-lived gap between the now gel-phase chains and neighboring, still-liquid chains. Such gaps can allow cytoplasmic contents to leak out of the cell until they are plugged via lateral diffusion of neighboring lipids.
References
- Benalcazar, Wladimir A. "Phase Transitions in Lipid Bilayers". Physics 563 Term Essay. University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign. May, 2012.
- Faller, R. BPH241 Lecture Notes. University of California, Davis. April, 2015.
- Raghunathan, V. A., and John Katsaras. "L β ′ → L C ′ Phase Transition in Phosphatidylcholine Lipid Bilayers: A Disorder-order Transition in Two Dimensions." Physical Review E Phys. Rev. E: 4446-449. Web. 14 May 2015. .
- Rangamani, Padmini, Shachi Katira, Berend Smit, and George Oster. "Lipid Tilt Regulates Ripple Phase Behavior in Lipid Bilayer." Biophysical Journal. Cell Press. Web. 14 May 2015.
- Scheve, Christine S., Paul A. Gonzales, Noor Momin, and Jeanne C. Stachowiak. "Steric Pressure between Membrane-Bound Proteins Opposes Lipid Phase Separation." J. Am. Chem. Soc. Journal of the American Chemical Society (2013): 1185-188. Print. | 1,445 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://phys.libretexts.org/Courses/University_of_California_Davis/Biophysics_241%3A_Membrane_Biology/03%3A_Membrane_Phases_and_Morphologies/3.01%3A_Membrane_Phase_Transitions | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:16809 | https://phys.libretexts.org/Courses/University_of_California_Davis/Biophysics_241%3A_Membrane_Biology/03%3A_Membrane_Phases_and_Morphologies/3.01%3A_Membrane_Phase_Transitions |
AlJh3lfiJGW2aA8- | Building a Medical Terminology Foundation 2e | 13.3 – Physiology (Function) of the Skeletal System
The bones of the skeletal system are comprised of an inner spongy tissue referred to as bone marrow. There are two types of bone marrow, red and yellow. The red bone marrow produces the red blood cells and it does so by a process called hematopoiesis. The yellow bone marrow contains adipose tissues which can be a source of energy. The bones of the skeletal system also store minerals such as calcium and phosphate. These minerals are important for the physiological processes in the body and are released into the bloodstream when levels are low in the body.
Joints
Watch Joints: Crash Course Anatomy & Physiology #20 (10 min) on YouTube
Media 13.2: CrashCourse. (2015, May 26). Joints: Crash Course Anatomy & Physiology #20 [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/DLxYDoN634c
Most bones connect to at least one other bone in the body. The area where bones meet bones or where bones meet cartilage are called articulations. Joints can be classified based on their ability to move. At movable joints, the articulating surfaces of the adjacent bones can move smoothly against each other. However, other joints may be connected to each other by connective tissue or cartilage. These joints are designed for stability and provide for little or no movement. Importantly, joint stability and movement are related to each other. This means that stable joints allow for little or no mobility between the adjacent bones. Conversely, joints that provide the most movement between bones are the least stable.
Did You Know?
The left and right hip bones are connected by an amphiarthrosis joint.
Based on the function of joints, there are 3 types of joints:
- Synarthrosis condition of joints which allow no movement
- example: joints of the skull
- Amphiarthrosis condition of joints which allow some movement
- example: joints of the pubic symphysis
- Diarthrosis condition of joints which allow for free movement
- example: joints of the knee
Structures associated with joints are:
- Cartilage: the elastic connective tissue that is found at the ends of bones, nose tip, etc
- Synovial membrane: the lining or covering of synovial joints
- Synovial fluid: the lubricating fluid found between synovial joints
- Ligaments: the tough, elastic connective tissue that connects bone to bone
- Tendons: the fibrous connective tissue that attaches muscle to bone
- Bursa: the closed, fluid-filled sacs that work as a cushion
- Meniscus: C-shaped cartilage that act as a shock absorber between bones
Flexion and Extension
Flexion and extension are movements that take place within the sagittal plane and involve anterior or posterior movements of the body or limbs. For the vertebral column, flexion (anterior flexion) is an anterior (forward) bending of the neck or body, while extension involves a posterior-directed motion, such as straightening from a flexed position or bending backwards. Lateral flexion is the bending of the neck or body toward the right or left side. These movements of the vertebral column involve both the joints as well as the associated intervertebral disc.
In the limbs, flexion decreases the angle between the bones (bending of the joint), while extension increases the angle and straightens the joint (see Figure 13.8(a-d)). You will discover in the muscular system chapter that the associated muscles to these movements are the flexor and extensor.
Abduction and Adduction
Abduction and adduction motions occur within the coronal plane and involve medial-lateral motions of the limbs, fingers, toes, or thumb. For example, abduction is raising the arm at the shoulder joint, moving it laterally away from the body, while adduction brings the arm down to the side of the body (see Figure 13.8(e)). In the muscular system chapter you will discover that the associated muscles to these movements are the abductor and adductor.
Circumduction
Circumduction is the movement of a body region in a circular manner, in which one end of the body region being moved stays relatively stationary while the other end describes a circle. It involves the sequential combination of flexion, adduction, extension, and abduction at a joint (see Figure 13.8(e)).
Rotation
Rotation can occur within the vertebral column, at a pivot joint, or at a ball-and-socket joint. Rotation of the neck or body is the twisting movement produced by the summation of the small rotational movements available between adjacent vertebrae. At a pivot joint, one bone rotates in relation to another bone.
Rotation can also occur at the ball-and-socket joints of the shoulder and hip. Here, the humerus and femur rotate around their long axis, which moves the anterior surface of the arm or thigh either toward or away from the midline of the body (see Figure 13.8(f)).
Supination and Pronation
Supination and pronation are movements of the forearm. In the anatomical position, the upper limb is held next to the body with the palm facing forward. This is the supinated position of the forearm. In this position, the radius and ulna are parallel to each other. When the palm of the hand faces backwards, the forearm is in the pronated position, and the radius and ulna form an X-shape.
Pronation is the movement that allows the palm of the hand to face backwards, while in supination the palm of the hand faces forwards. It helps to remember that supination is the motion you use when scooping up soup with a spoon (see Figure 13.9(g)).
Dorsiflexion and Plantar Flexion
Dorsiflexion and plantar flexion are movements at the ankle joint, which is a hinge joint. Lifting the front of the foot so that the top of the foot moves (upward) toward the anterior leg is dorsiflexion, while lifting the heel of the foot from the ground or pointing the toes downward is plantar flexion. These are the only movements available at the ankle joint (see Figure 13.9(h)).
Inversion and Eversion
Inversion and eversion are complex movements that involve the multiple plane joints among the tarsal bones of the posterior foot (intertarsal joints) and thus are not motions that take place at the ankle joint. Inversion is the turning of the foot to angle the bottom of the foot toward the midline, while eversion turns the bottom of the foot away from the midline. The foot has a greater range of inversion than eversion motion. These are important motions that help to stabilize the foot when walking or running on an uneven surface and aid in the quick side-to-side changes in direction used during active sports such as basketball, racquetball, or soccer (see Figure 13.9(i)).
Protraction and Retraction
Protraction and retraction are anterior-posterior movements of the scapula or mandible. Protraction of the scapula occurs when the shoulder is moved forward, as when pushing against something or throwing a ball. Retraction is the opposite motion, with the scapula being pulled posteriorly and medially toward the vertebral column. For the mandible, protraction occurs when the lower jaw is pushed forward to stick out the chin, while retraction pulls the lower jaw backwards (see Figure 13.9(j)).
Depression and Elevation
Depression and elevation are downward and upward movements of the scapula or mandible. The upward movement of the scapula and shoulder is elevation, while a downward movement is depression. These movements are used to shrug your shoulders. Similarly, the elevation of the mandible is the upward movement of the lower jaw used to close the mouth or bite on something, and depression is the downward movement that produces an opening of the mouth (see Figure 13.9(k)).
Concept Check
- Discuss the joints involved and movements required for you to cross your arms together in front of your chest.
- Differentiate between pronation and supination.
Musculoskeletal System Body Movements
Musculoskeletal System Body Movements (Text Version)
Practice the following endocrine system words by breaking into word parts and pronouncing.
- adduction
- moving toward the midline
- rotation
- turn around on own axis
- extension
- increased angle between bone and joint by placing a limb in a straight position
- abduction
- moving away from the midline
- inversion
- turning inward
- supination
- turn the palm up
- eversion
- turning outward
- pronation
- turn the palm down
- flexion
- decreasing the angle of a joint by bending a limb
Activity source: Musculoskeletal System Body Movements by Kimberlee Carter, from Building a Medical Terminology Foundation by Kimberlee Carter and Marie Rutherford, licensed under CC BY- 4.0. /Text version added.
Musculoskeletal System – Operative Report
Musculoskeletal System – OPERATIVE REPORT (Text version)
Using the words below fill in the operative report:
- chondromalacia
- x-rays
- arthritis
- Orthopedic
- arthroscopy
- total hip arthroplasty
- femoral
- tendinitis
PATIENT NAME: Mrs. Karen SMITH
AGE: 72 Sex: Female
DATE OF SURGERY: February 24
PREOPERATIVE DIAGNOSIS: Degenerative arthritis of both hips; more severe on the right side.
POSTOPERATIVE DIAGNOSIS: Severe degenerative arthritis and severe _________[Blank 1] of the right hip.
NAME OF PROCEDURE: Total hip arthroplasty.
HISTORY: Mrs. Karen Smith is a 72-year-old widow who has been living alone and independently since her husband’s premature death 15 years ago. Mrs. Smith has worked for 30 years at the production line in a factory and is now retired.
Mrs. Smith has been experiencing discomfort in her hips, especially the right one, over the parts twenty years or so. However, what started as a mild discomfort over time turned into severe pain. Now the pain is so bad that she is afraid that it might soon rob her of her independence. She first sought help for her hip pain many years ago. After physical examination, her family physician ordered _________[Blank 2] for both hip joints. Based on the results, it was concluded that the pain was due to severe _______[Blank 3] mainly due to wear and tear. She was advised to lose weight and to take over-the-counter painkillers as needed. She was also referred to a physiotherapist. However, despite the fact that she has lost 10% of her original body weight of 170 pounds and has been adhering to the exercise regimen recommended by her physiotherapist, the pain has grown worse over the years and now is almost unbearable. She was last visited by an orthopedic surgeon and subsequently was admitted to the General Hospital Outpatient _________[Blank 4] Clinic for ___________[Blank 5] of both hips.
OPERATIVE REPORT: The patient was brought to the operating room by anesthesia personnel. She was placed on the operating table. A Foley catheter was inserted. The patient was then placed into the lateral decubitus position with her right side up. The right lower extremity was prepped and draped in standard fashion for a ___________[Blank 6]. Dissection was carried sharply down through the soft tissue to the greater trochanter. The greater trochanter was used as a landmark to orient the remainder of the dissection which was continued posteriorly and proximally to expose the iliofemoral joint.
The acetabulum was reamed. A 50 mm acetabular shell was used. Femur was debrided using a _________[Blank 7] canal curette. The length of the femoral stem was then checked with the canal curette in place. Appropriate femoral stem and head were selected and implanted. Intraoperative radiographs were obtained to ensure proper component position.
The hip was then checked for range of motion. The patient reached 90 degrees of flexion and full extension with no instability. No abnormality was detected in the surrounding soft tissue. There was no indication of __________[Blank 8].
The area was then closed in a layered fashion. The subcutaneous tissues were closed using surgical Vicryl 5-0 sutures. An incisional VAC was placed over the wound as well. Sponge and needle counts were correct at the end of the operation. The patient tolerated the procedure well and was returned to the recovery room in good condition.
__________________________________
Michael Porter, MD, Orthopedic Surgery
Check your answers: [1]
Activity source: Musculoskeletal System – Operative Report by Saeedah Akram and Heather Scudder, from Building a Medical Terminology Foundation by Kimberlee Carter and Marie Rutherford, licensed under CC BY- 4.0. /Text version added.
Musculoskeletal System – Operative Report
Musculoskeletal System – Operative Report (Text version)
Use the words below to fill in the operative report:
- orthopedic
- supination
- colles
- carpal
- tenomyoplasty
- sterilized
- aligned
- fluoroscopy
- tenorrhaphy
- sutured
- splint
- arthralgia
- akinesia
- atrophy
PATIENT NAME: Liam PALMER
AGE: 22
SEX: Male
DOB: December 4
DATE OF ADMISSION: May 5
DATE OF PROCEDURE: May 5
ATTENDING PHYSICIAN: Michael Porter, MD, Orthopedic Surgery
PREOPERATIVE DIAGNOSIS: Fx of the distal end of radius.
POSTOPERATIVE DIAGNOSIS: Fx of the distal end of radius.
ANESTHESIA: General.
INDICATION: This 22-year-old male had been skating earlier today when he lost his balance and fell. Trying to break the fall with an outstretched arm, he landed on his right arm, breaking his wrist. Mr. Palmer was brought to the ________[Blank 1] clinic in Toronto General Hospital. The wrist has been kept in a neutral position since even a slight movement was painful. The injured area is edematous and any attempt for active or passive flexion, extension, _______[Blank 2], or pronation caused a sharp pain that shoots all the way to the right shoulder. Posterior-Anterior and lateral x-rays of the wrist and forearm confirmed ________[Blank 3] fracture of the distal end of radius with the broken piece displaced posteriorly. The _______[Blank 4] bones were intact. The patient required surgery to fix the broken bone. Although not certain at that point, there was a possibility that the patient also required __________[Blank 5].
PROCEDURE: The surgery was done under general anesthesia. The patient’s arm was placed in a proper position to allow for an easy and unobstructed access to the surgical area. The surgical area was _________[Blank 6]. A longitudinal incision was made to access the fracture. The fractured bone was realigned, and a metal plate was used to secure the _______[Blank 7] bone and restore stability. Throughout the surgery _________[Blank 8] was used to ensure proper reduction of the bone. The surrounding muscles, tendons, and ligaments were examined to ensure their integrity. There was no need for tenomyoplasty or ________[Blank 9]. Once the surgery was completed, the surgical incision was _________[Blank 10], the wrist was bandaged, and the arm was placed in a long cast to immobilize the wrist and elbow joints. The patient left the operation room in good and stable condition.
The patient was discharged from the hospital on the following day. He was scheduled for his first follow up visit in 3 weeks. At that time, the cast will be replaced with a removable wrist ________[Blank 11] and the patient will be referred to a physiotherapy clinic. Timely rehabilitation is extremely important in these types of fractures to reduce _______[Blank 12] and prevent from _______[Blank 13] and muscle _______[Blank 14].
_________________________________________
Michael Porter, MD, Orthopedic Surgery
Check your answers: [2]
Activity source: MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM – OPERATIVE REPORT by Saeedha Akram and Heather Scudder, from Building a Medical Terminology Foundation by Kimberlee Carter and Marie Rutherford, licensed under CC BY- 4.0. /Text version added.
Image Descriptions
Figure 13.8 image description: This multi-part image shows different types of movements that are possible by different joints in the body. Labels read (from top, left): a and b angular movements: flexion and extension at the shoulders and knees, c) angular movements: flexion and extension of the neck (arrows pointing left and right to indicate movement). Labels (from bottom, left) read: d) angular movements: flexion and extension of the vertical column, e) angular movements abduction, adduction, and circumduction of the upper limb at the shoulder, f) rotation of the head, neck, and lower limb. [Return to Figure 13.8].
Attribution
Except where otherwise noted, this chapter is adapted from “Skeletal System” in Building a Medical Terminology Foundation by Kimberlee Carter and Marie Rutherford, licensed under CC BY 4.0. / A derivative of Betts et al., which can be accessed for free from Anatomy and Physiology (OpenStax). Adaptations: dividing Skeletal System chapter content into sub-chapters.
- 1.chondromalacia, 2.x-rays, 3.arthritis, 4.Orthopedic, 5.arthroscopy, 6. total hip arthroplasty, 7.femoral, 8.tendinitis ↵
- 1.orthopedic, 2.supination, 3.Colles, 4.carpal, 5.tenomyoplasty, 5.sterilized, 6.aligned, 7.fluoroscopy, 8.tenorrhaphy, 9.sutured, 10.splint, 11.arthralgia, 12.akinesia, 13.atrophy ↵
The process in which the body produces blood.
Also known as joints. It is where bones meet bones or bones meet joints.
away from the midline of the body
Movement toward the midline of the body | 3,529 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/medicalterminology2/chapter/physiology-skeletal/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:59857 | https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/medicalterminology2/chapter/physiology-skeletal/ |
zCf6WTq7PlVoCjMc | Microeconomics | 114 Outcome: Surplus and Inefficiency
What you’ll learn to do: use the concepts of consumer, producer, and total surplus to explain why markets typically lead to efficient outcomes
In this section, you’ll build on your understanding of surplus from the previous outcome to examine the connection between types of surplus and the impact they have on the economy.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
The learning activities for this section include:
- Reading: Inefficiency of Price Floors and Price Ceilings
- Self Check: Surplus and Inefficiency
Take time to review and reflect on each of these activities in order to improve your performance on the assessment for this section. | 136 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://library.achievingthedream.org/herkimermicroeconomics/chapter/outcome-surplus-and-inefficiency/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:50186 | https://library.achievingthedream.org/herkimermicroeconomics/chapter/outcome-surplus-and-inefficiency/ |
YSLpLj7SpSEurxa_ | Introducing Environmental Justice Advocacy | 3 Chapter 2: “Eurocentric Beauty Standards as Environmental Injustice: The Way Our Societal Beauty Standards Increases Our Exposure to Toxic Ingredients” by Ashlyn Johns
Introduction
Environmental justice is an approach to scholarship and advocacy that has, from its inception, been malleable and continually expanding. There might be stories that come to mind immediately when we think of an example of environmental injustice, but it is critical to look beyond those stand-out stories. We need to take a critical look at the hidden, more systemic injustices as well. Links to environmental issues are broadening as we are learning connections between social and racial disparities with environmental impacts. This chapter focuses on eurocentric beauty standards, and how critical it is to become a part of the environmental justice conversation. There is some discourse around the topic within public conversations, and some scholarly works that focus on the medical and physical scientific side; but this needs to be taken up with a communication lens. This is critical for peoples’ health and wellbeing today and for the future; these ideals and the use of harmful products have become commonplace and it needs to be criticized in order to protect people that are most at risk.
Beauty standards and environmental injustice are two concepts that are not commonly associated. Hearing ‘beauty standards’, you might initially think of the social implications. Beauty standards and cultural ideas of what is considered beautiful in the United States have damaging effects on both individuals that are encouraged to succumb to them and to the surrounding environments. This chapter uses a critical lens to recognize the environmental implications along with environmental injustice that parallels the standards of what is considered “beautiful” in America. Throughout this chapter, hopefully you will gain a critical lens inspiring you to be a more conscious consumer and to challenge the taken-for-granted norms in which we live.
Beauty Standards in America
Eurocentric Beauty Standards as Environmental Injustice
“So every month I tried to burn the blackness out of my hair, and I would then run a hot comb over it, ignoring the stench of burning protein while trying to avoid further injury to my bleeding and scabbed scalp” (Oluo, 2019, p. 156).
This is a segment from Ijeoma Oluo’s (2019) book titled So You Want to Talk About Race in which she discusses the pain that she would go through in order to get the pretty, straight hair that she saw in the commercials (Oluo, 2019, p. 155). To be beautiful in America is to be white, thin, and have long, slick hair. Minhazul Islam (2019) discusses Toni Morrison’s book The Bluest Eye, in which Morrison argues that these beauty ideals are socially constructed (Islam, 2019, p. 188). The impact of beauty standards have accelerated due to the increased use of social media. Research has shown that “increasing exposure to mediated beauty enhances internalization and fantasization by women and girls about obtaining the characteristic body shape and facial attractiveness promoted by the media” (Yan & Bissel, 2014). It is necessary to “understand how mass culture touches, influences, and shapes our values and beliefs” (Islam, 2019, p. 189). The media is essentially the main reason that these beauty standards have been so far spread throughout society (Islam, 2019, p. 192). The embodiment of these beauty standards is a major force in the overconsumption and obsession in personal care/beauty products.
Recognizing this, we are able to more critically examine the systemic issues that are at work within our society. Because of the domination of whiteness, beauty has been constructed in a way in which people of “European ancestry [are] more attractive than [those of] African ancestry” (Robinson, 2011, p. 360). Individuals in turn, put themselves at risk to obtain these unrealistic standards of beauty. Many people, whether achievable or not, will try various methods in order to alter their naturalness to strive for these standards. The risks associated with these different practices are vital to understanding, and will be discussed in a future section.
Woman With Face Mask Holding An Alcohol Bottle. Anna Tarazevich. https://www.pexels.com/photo/woman-with-face-mask-holding-an-alcohol-bottle-5910953/. Free to use. https://www.pexels.com/license/
Personal Care Products
Trust in Companies
When you think of a company that cares, one you would turn to for purchasing products for your family, your baby, yourself; who would you turn to? One you might think of is Johnson and Johnson. Johnson and Johnson was even “named a 2019 Fortune World’s Most Admired Company” (Raymont, 2019, 01:18:45). Similar are the multitude of products and brands we expose ourselves to daily. If you take into consideration the products that you use for cosmetics, bathing, and personal care, many people do not question their options and grab the brands that are easily found on the store’s shelves, because why would we not trust those on the shelves?.
Example of the importance to examine brands critically
One of Johnson and Johnson’s most widely known products is baby powder. There has been a link between baby powder and the risk of ovarian cancer, particularly through the ingredient of talcum powder. Since these connections have not become a commonplace discourse, we need to lean into documentaries as a way to learn more. In the documentary, Toxic Beauty, Dr. Daniel Cramer, a professor of obstetrics, gynecology, and reproductive biology at Harvard Medical School, mentions that “talc is a mine product, magnesium silicates. And it occurs more frequently than not in veins with other magnesium silicates, which can include asbestos” (Raymont, 2019, 00:26:17). Allen Smith, the attorney of a case concerning Johnson and Johnson’s link to ovarian cancer, adds that it is not only talc and asbestos that are the problems but also multiple other heavy metals, so he says that he sees “baby powder as a delivery device for multiple carcinogens, exactly like a cigarette” (Raymont, 2019, 00:50:05).
This creates cognitive dissonance, as we are so deeply embedded with the brands we have known forever and see on the shelves. Beginning to understand the extent to which the toxic ingredients we are exposed to everyday can be overwhelming, especially when we learn that products as commonplace as baby powder have risks. Ultimately, the goal is to become more conscious and critical consumers, in order to make informed decisions rather than having a blind trust in companies’ whose goal is to make a profit.
Toxic Ingredients in Products
Baby powder is just one example of the multitude of products we are exposed to daily. One of the major impacts to discourse around ‘clean beauty’ sparked in 2008 when Rose-Marie Swift, a renowned makeup artist, learned of high levels of toxins in her blood after getting medical blood work. The technician knew she was in the cosmetic industry based solely on the chemicals present in her blood (Montemayor, 2020). This was extremely alarming, leading her to launch RMS Beauty, a makeup brand that worked to achieve ‘clean’ beauty (Montemayor, 2020). Since then, this has jolted society into a “revolution that is reshaping the clean beauty industry” (ElBoghdady, 2020). There has been a growing popularity in becoming more conscious consumers among people that are interested in taking control over the products they are using on their body; however, the impacts of the marketing techniques used by mainstream companies make it difficult to truly know what we are buying.
The chemicals used within many products contain toxins that are linked to having harmful effects on the individuals’ health that use them and are exposed to them over time. Prior studies have found that there was a link between many hair products that are used by Black women and chemicals that are endocrine disrupting and asthma-associated (Helm, et. al, 2018). This study looked at 18 products within the categories of “hot oil treatment, anti-frizz/polish, leave-in conditioner, root stimulator, hair lotion, and relaxer” (Helm, et. al, 2018, p. 449). The products were selected based on responses from a survey that inquired about the use of various products and 66 different chemicals were being tested because of “their expected presence in consumer products” (Helm, et al., 2018, p. 449). Of the 66, 45 of the chemicals were detected, and a chemical from every chemical class that was tested was found as present (Helm, et al., 2018, p. 451). The most common chemical classes found within this study were parabens, phthalates, cyclosiloxanes, fragrances, UV filters, glycol ethers, and alkylphenols (Helm, et al., 2018, p. 451-452).
The listed ingredients on the labels of many of these products did not include the accurate chemicals that were found after running this test (Helm, et al., 2018, p. 452). Although the FDA requires “intentionally added ingredients” to be listed on labels, they exempt “trade secrets, incidental ingredients including ingredients added for processing or fragrance making purposes, and fragrance chemicals” (Helm, et al., 2018, p. 452). Many of the chemicals found in these products can get excused from not being listed on the label because they were hiding in a loophole. The European Union has a Cosmetics Directive list in which chemicals are prohibited “on the basis of cancer, female reproductive toxicity, and developmental toxicity” and California’s Proposition 65 “requires labeling of chemicals listed based on the evidence of cancer, birth defects, or reproductive harm” (Helm, et al., 2018, p. 435). Eleven of the products that were tested contained seven of the chemicals that are prohibited under one of these regulations and there were 16 chemicals that were detected that the EU regulates but does not prohibit (Helm, et al., 2018, p. 453). The United States only bans 11 ingredients that are found to be harmful in comparison to the European Union that bans 1,394 (Raymont, 2019, 00:35:46). With a known link to ingredients being carcinogenic (cancer causing) and endocrine disrupting (hormone impacting), we still fall victim to exposure.
How Can This Happen? Product Marketing & Regulation
We tend to trust the products on the shelves, but we know that mainstream products often contain harmful ingredients that link to serious health issues and risks, how can this happen? One of the main issues that has risen over the years of the clean beauty movement’s growth, has been the inconsistency in definitions of the various terms, and disagreements on which ingredients are considered harmful (Montemayor, 2020; ElBoghdady, 2020). The debate over what is clean versus natural versus organic versus vegan has expanded immensely, all of which are buzzwords that attract people’s attention but vary based on their actual meanings (ElBoghdady, 2020). One of the major reasons this happens is a lack of regulation from the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), giving companies the power to decide their own meanings for the terms. Companies are not required to disclose what they mean when they say they are clean, creating a wave of “cleanwashing” (Cook, 2024).
The FDA is not required to regulate the ingredients used in beauty products and beauty companies do not have to disclose full information about their ingredients (Curwood, 2018; FDA, 2022). This is problematic because as we have seen through the discussion thus far, many personal care products contain harmful toxins, yet the companies are not required to be transparent about their ingredients.
Exposure to Toxic Ingredients as Environmental Justice
Toxins in personal care products become an issue of environmental injustice when we consider eurocentric beauty standards and the impact on our exposome. In a call to action article written in the American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Ami Zota and Dr. Bhavana Shamasunder (2017) pointed out the impact that multicultural beauty products have on the over $400 billion dollar beauty industry (Zota & Shamasunder, 2017). They include that “African American consumers purchase 9 times more ethnic hair and beauty products than other groups, Latinos are the fastest growing ethnic beauty market segment, and Asian Americans spend 70% more than the national average on skin care products” (Zota & Shamasunder, 2017). Exposome is “the measure of all the exposures of an individual in a lifetime and how they relate to health and disease” (Hossenbaccus, et al., 2021). The exposure to these ingredients that are known to be carcinogenic and endocrine disrupting impact our health in disproportionate ways.
This is also seen as an issue of environmental injustice through Rob Nixon’s (2011) concept of “slow violence”, which he defines as “violence that occurs gradually and out of sight, a violence delayed destruction that is dispersed across time and space, an attritional violence that is not typically viewed as violence at all” (Nixon, 2007, p. 2). Often, slow violence is challenging to link to a specific source due to its graduality and subtleness. There are many accounts of slow violence occurring, but it tends to get less attention due to the more flashy instances that we see through image events in the media, that is until there is enough uproar and evidence of a specific link between the individuals in harm and the source of that wrongdoing.
The issues at play regarding the beauty industry, beauty ideals, and the consumers impacted is a prime example of a matter of slow violence and the impact to our exposures. Because of the overuse of personal care products, particularly by brands that we have been accustomed and taught to trust, there is a clear overlook of the threat of this level of violence. But, “Black women have higher rates for hormone-related health conditions” which includes earlier puberty, “preterm birth, uterine fibroids, and infertility” (Vcadmin1, 2018). Black women are also at higher risk for being diagnosed with and dying from Breast cancer in “more aggressive forms… than white women” (Teteh, et al., 2019, p. 2). When we consider these statistics along with the known increased risks these products often include, along with the known increased use of products by minority groups in order to strive towards beauty standards, we can begin to see the link between these beauty norms and environmental injustice. As consumers, it can be disheartening to learn about these links with the lack of regulation. However, there are resources available to help self-educate and become conscious consumers. Many brands are beginning to take on the “clean beauty” tagline. But as we discussed, that cannot always be trusted since the term is not regulated. Thus, education and transparency become critical. The Environmental Working Group is a nonprofit who has “shined a spotlight on outdated legislation, harmful agricultural practices and industry loopholes that pose a risk to our health and the health of our environment” since 1993 (Who We Are, 2023). In addition to research, the EWG has created resources for consumer education, including suggested advocacy involvements and educational materials. A tool that can be extremely helpful is the EWG Healthy Living app. This app has ratings on more than 120,000 food and personal care products, so you can begin to engage with ingredient awareness by either searching the app or scanning a barcode (EWG’s healthy living app, 2023).
This link between endocrine disrupting and carcinogenic ingredients and environmental injustice becomes evident when we consider the slow violence impact to our exposure. With the lack of regulation and power major companies hold, beginning to understand ingredient awareness can be challenging to confront. However, it is critical to become conscious consumers, seek out transparency, and know the risks in order to make informed decisions and advocate for change.
References
Cook, L. (2024, February 20). Cleanwashing – Dirty tactics you need to know. One Seed. https://oneseedperfumes.com/blogs/news/cleanwashing-dirty-tactics-you-need-to-know?s rsltid=AfmBOoqKEzY5AGFu_2LBeilntvNrhNZBtRR8MFBXffI4S_smA73TOVMy
Curwood, S. (Host). (2018, June 8). Toxic Black Hair Products [Audio Podcast]. Living on Earth. https://www.loe.org/shows/segments.html?program ID=18-P13-00023 segmentED=4
ElBoghdady, D. (2020, March 11). ‘Clean’ beauty has taken over the cosmetics industry, but that’s about all anyone agrees on. The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/wellness/clean-beauty-has-taken-over-the-cos metics-industry-but-thats-about-all-anyone-agrees-on/2020/03/09/2ecfe10e-59b3-11ea-ab 68-101ecfec2532_story.html
EWG’s healthy living app. Environmental Working Group. (2023a). https://www.ewg.org/apps/
FDA. (2022, March 2). FDA authority over cosmetics: How cosmetics are not FDA-approved. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. https://www.fda.gov/cosmetics/cosmetics-laws-regulations/fda-authority-over-cosmetics how-cosmetics-are-not-fda-approved-are-fda-regulated
Helm, J., Nishioka, M., Brody, J., Rudel, R. Dodson, R. (2018). Measurement of Endocrine Disrupting and Asthma- Associated Chemicals in Hair Products Used By Black Women. Environmental Research, 165, 448-458. doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2018.03.030
Hossenbaccus, L., Linton, S., Ramchandani, R., Gallant, M. J., & Ellis, A. K. (2021). Insights into allergic risk factors from birth cohort studies. Annals of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology, 127(3), 312–317. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anai.2021.04.025
Islam, B. (2018). The Color Complex (Revised): The Politics of Skin Color in a New Millennium: Review of The Color Complex. Journal of Family Theory & Review, 10(2), 484–489. https://doi.org/10.1111/jftr.12268
Montemayor, C. (2020, May 12). The Clean Beauty Movement is Killing The Environment. Lady Science. https://www.ladyscience.com/essays/clean-beauty-movement-is-killing-the-environment
Nixon, R. (2011). Slow Violence and The Environmentalism of the Poor. The President and Fellows of Harvard College.
Oluo, I. (2019). So You Want to Talk About Race. Hachette Book Group.
Raymont, P., Ord, S., Starurulakis, C., Starurulakis, L., et. al. (Producers) & Ellis, P. (Director). (2019). Toxic Beauty [Video File]. Retrieved from: https://www.amazon.com/gp/video/detail/B0846VMCF3/ref=atv_hm_hom_1_c_iEgOEZ _2_2
Robinson, C. (2011). Hair as Race: Why “Good Hair” May Be Bad for Black Females. Howard Journal of Communications, 22(4), 358-376. doi: 10.1080/10646175.2011.617212
Teteh, D., Ericson, M., Monice S., Dawkins-Moultin, L., Bahadorani, N., Clark, P., et al. (2019). The Black Identity, Hair Product Use, and Breast Cancer Scale. PLoS ONE, 14 (12). doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0225305
Vcadmin 1. (2018, May 5). Hair Care Products for Black Women May Disrupt Hormones. Vista Health and Wellness. https://vista-health.com/hair-care-products-for-black-women-may-disrupt-hormones/ Who We Are. Environmental Working Group. (2023). https://www.ewg.org/who-we-are
Yan, Y. & Bissel, K. (2014). The Globalization of Beauty: How is Ideal Beauty Influenced By Globally Published Fashion and Beauty Magazines. Journal of International and Intercultural Communication, 43 (3), 194-214. DOI: 10.1080/17475759.2014.917432
Zota, A. R., & Shamasunder, B. (2017). The environmental injustice of beauty: framing chemical exposures from beauty products as a health disparities concern. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 217(4), 418.e1-418.e6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2017.07.020
Media Attributions
- pexels-anntarazevich-5910953 | 3,825 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://pressbooks.lib.jmu.edu/jmuenvironmentalcommunicationandadvocacy/chapter/chapter-2-eurocentric-beauty-standards-as-environmental-injustice-the-way-our-societal-beauty-standards-increases-our-exposure-to-toxic-ingredients-by-ashlyn-johns/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:16214 | https://pressbooks.lib.jmu.edu/jmuenvironmentalcommunicationandadvocacy/chapter/chapter-2-eurocentric-beauty-standards-as-environmental-injustice-the-way-our-societal-beauty-standards-increases-our-exposure-to-toxic-ingredients-by-ashlyn-johns/ |
2LQV711BU65MXgPA | 1.2: Chemical Bonding | 1.2: Chemical Bonding
A chemical bond is an attraction between atoms that allows the formation of chemical substances that contain two or more atoms. The bond is caused by the electrostatic force of attraction between opposite charges, either between electrons and nuclei, or as the result of a dipole attraction. All bonds can be explained by quantum theory, but, in practice, simplification rules allow chemists to predict the strength, directionality, and polarity of bonds. The octet rule and VSEPR theory are two examples. More sophisticated theories are valence bond theory which includes orbital hybridization and resonance, and the linear combination of atomic orbitals molecular orbital method. Electrostatics are used to describe bond polarities and the effects they have on chemical substances.
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- 1.2.1: Ionic Bonding
- Atoms gain or lose electrons to form ions with particularly stable electron configurations. The charges of cations formed by the representative metals may be determined readily because, with few exceptions, the electronic structures of these ions have either a noble gas configuration or a completely filled electron shell. The charges of anions formed by the nonmetals may also be readily determined because these ions form when nonmetal atoms gain enough electrons to fill their valence shells.
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- 1.2.2: Covalent Bonding
- Covalent bonds form when electrons are shared between atoms and are attracted by the nuclei of both atoms. In pure covalent bonds, the electrons are shared equally. In polar covalent bonds, the electrons are shared unequally, as one atom exerts a stronger force of attraction on the electrons than the other. The ability of an atom to attract a pair of electrons in a chemical bond is called its electronegativity.
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- 1.2.4: Lewis Symbols and Structures
- Valence electronic structures can be visualized by drawing Lewis symbols (for atoms and monatomic ions) and Lewis structures (for molecules and polyatomic ions). Lone pairs, unpaired electrons, and single, double, or triple bonds are used to indicate where the valence electrons are located around each atom in a Lewis structure. Most structures—especially those containing second row elements—obey the octet rule, in which every atom (except H) is surrounded by eight electrons.
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- 1.2.5: Molecular Structure and Polarity
- VSEPR theory predicts the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms in a molecule. It states that valence electrons will assume an electron-pair geometry that minimizes repulsions between areas of high electron density (bonds and/or lone pairs). Molecular structure, which refers only to the placement of atoms in a molecule and not the electrons, is equivalent to electron-pair geometry only when there are no lone electron pairs around the central atom.
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- 1.2.6: Chemical Formulas
- A molecular formula uses chemical symbols and subscripts to indicate the exact numbers of different atoms in a molecule or compound. An empirical formula gives the simplest, whole-number ratio of atoms in a compound. A structural formula indicates the bonding arrangement of the atoms in the molecule. Ball-and-stick and space-filling models show the geometric arrangement of atoms in a molecule. Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different arrangements of atoms.
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- 1.2.7: Chemical Nomenclature
- Chemists use nomenclature rules to clearly name compounds. Ionic and molecular compounds are named using somewhat-different methods. Binary ionic compounds typically consist of a metal and a nonmetal. The name of the metal is written first, followed by the name of the nonmetal with its ending changed to –ide. For example, K2O is called potassium oxide. If the metal can form ions with different charges, a Roman numeral in parentheses follows the name of the metal to specify its charge.
Contributors and Attributions
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Paul Flowers (University of North Carolina - Pembroke), Klaus Theopold (University of Delaware) and Richard Langley (Stephen F. Austin State University) with contributing authors. Textbook content produced by OpenStax College is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 license. Download for free at<EMAIL_ADDRESS>). | 841 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/City_College_of_San_Francisco/CCSF_Chemistry_Resources/01%3A_CHE_101_-_Introduction_to_General_Chemistry/1.02%3A_Chemical_Bonding | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:18238 | https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/City_College_of_San_Francisco/CCSF_Chemistry_Resources/01%3A_CHE_101_-_Introduction_to_General_Chemistry/1.02%3A_Chemical_Bonding |
3J-HjXWX3wNRzDew | Nurse Practitioners Delivering Primary Care in the Long Term Care Setting | Module 6: Consultation & Collaboration in LTC Practice
157 6.5.2 Membership
Association Membership
Membership in professional organizations is a way for professionals with comparable objectives to link together to have the voice of many, versus the voice of one. Professional Nursing organizations and networks are effective tools for:
- Professional development
- Career advancement
- Practice support[1]
Joining an organization can assist with:
- Personal growth
- Increased professional potential
- Knowledge growth
- Support to generate change
- Legal support/advice[2]
Communities of practice
As we have discussed in previous lessons, communities of practice are important as a professional learning and support strategy. These are a type of professional association that have the potential to:
- Connect people
- Provide a shared context for people to communicate and share
- Foster conversation between people who come together to:
- Explore possibilities
- Resolve perplexing problems
- Generate new opportunities
- Stimulate learning through communication, mentoring, coaching, and self-reflection
- Capture and share current understanding to help individuals improve their practice
- Present collaborative practices to groups and organizations
- Help people organize around focused actions
- Produce innovative understandings to help people transform their practice[3] | 253 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca/npltc/chapter/6-5-2-membership/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:5670 | https://pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca/npltc/chapter/6-5-2-membership/ |
9_tw1Igm-QjpqHUj | Fundamentals of Anatomy and Physiology | 6.11 Development of Blood Vessels and Foetal Circulation
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Describe the development of blood vessels
- Describe the foetal circulation
In a developing embryo, the heart has developed enough by day 21 post-fertilisation to begin beating. Circulation patterns are clearly established by the fourth week of embryonic life. It is critical to the survival of the developing human that the circulatory system forms early to supply the growing tissue with nutrients and gases, and to remove waste products. Blood cells and vessel production in structures outside the embryo proper called the yolk sac, chorion, and connecting stalk begin about 15 to 16 days following fertilisation. Development of these circulatory elements within the embryo itself begins approximately 2 days later. You will learn more about the formation and function of these early structures when you study the chapter on development. During those first few weeks, blood vessels begin to form from the embryonic mesoderm. The precursor cells are known as haemangioblasts. These in turn differentiate into angioblasts, which give rise to the blood vessels and pluripotent stem cells, which differentiate into the formed elements of blood. (Seek additional content for more detail on foetal development and circulation.) Together, these cells form masses known as blood islands scattered throughout the embryonic disc. Spaces appear on the blood islands that develop into vessel lumens. The endothelial lining of the vessels arise from the angioblasts within these islands. Surrounding mesenchymal cells give rise to the smooth muscle and connective tissue layers of the vessels. While the vessels are developing, the pluripotent stem cells begin to form the blood.
Vascular tubes also develop on the blood islands, and they eventually connect to one another as well as to the developing, tubular heart. Thus, the developmental pattern, rather than beginning from the formation of one central vessel and spreading outward, occurs in many regions simultaneously with vessels later joining together. This angiogenesis—the creation of new blood vessels from existing ones—continues as needed throughout life as we grow and develop.
Blood vessel development often follows the same pattern as nerve development and travels to the same target tissues and organs. This occurs because the many factors directing growth of nerves also stimulate blood vessels to follow a similar pattern. Whether a given vessel develops into an artery or a vein is dependent upon local concentrations of signalling proteins.
As the embryo grows within the mother’s uterus, its requirements for nutrients and gas exchange also grow. The placenta—a circulatory organ unique to pregnancy—develops jointly from the embryo and uterine wall structures to fill this need. Emerging from the placenta is the umbilical vein, which carries oxygen-rich blood from the mother to the foetal inferior vena cava via the ductus venosus to the heart that pumps it into foetal circulation. Two umbilical arteries carry oxygen-depleted foetal blood, including wastes and carbon dioxide, to the placenta. Remnants of the umbilical arteries remain in the adult.
There are three major shunts—alternate paths for blood flow—found in the circulatory system of the foetus. Two of these shunts divert blood from the pulmonary to the systemic circuit, whereas the third connects the umbilical vein to the inferior vena cava. The first two shunts are critical during foetal life, when the lungs are compressed, filled with amniotic fluid, and non-functional, and gas exchange is provided by the placenta. These shunts close shortly after birth, however, when the newborn begins to breathe. The third shunt persists a bit longer but becomes non-functional once the umbilical cord is severed. The three shunts are as follows (Figure 6.11.1).
The foramen ovale is an opening in the interatrial septum that allows blood to flow from the right atrium to the left atrium. A valve associated with this opening prevents backflow of blood during the foetal period. As the newborn begins to breathe and blood pressure in the atria increases, this shunt closes. The fossa ovalis remains in the interatrial septum after birth, marking the location of the former foramen ovale.
The ductus arteriosus is a short, muscular vessel that connects the pulmonary trunk to the aorta. Most of the blood pumped from the right ventricle into the pulmonary trunk is thereby diverted into the aorta. Only enough blood reaches the foetal lungs to maintain the developing lung tissue. When the newborn takes the first breath, pressure within the lungs drops dramatically, and both the lungs and the pulmonary vessels expand. As the amount of oxygen increases, the smooth muscles in the wall of the ductus arteriosus constrict, sealing off the passage. Eventually, the muscular and endothelial components of the ductus arteriosus degenerate, leaving only the connective tissue component of the ligamentum arteriosum.
The ductus venosus is a temporary blood vessel that branches from the umbilical vein, allowing much of the freshly oxygenated blood from the placenta—the organ of gas exchange between the mother and foetus—to bypass the foetal liver and go directly to the foetal heart. The ductus venosus closes slowly during the first weeks of infancy and degenerates to become the ligamentum venosum.
Section Review
Blood vessels begin to form from the embryonic mesoderm. The precursor haemangioblasts differentiate into angioblasts, which give rise to the blood vessels and pluripotent stem cells that differentiate into the formed elements of the blood. Together, these cells form blood islands scattered throughout the embryo. Extensions known as vascular tubes eventually connect the vascular network. As the embryo grows within the mother’s womb, the placenta develops to supply blood rich in oxygen and nutrients via the umbilical vein and to remove wastes in oxygen-depleted blood via the umbilical arteries. Three major shunts found in the foetus are the foramen ovale and ductus arteriosus, which divert blood from the pulmonary to the systemic circuit, and the ductus venosus, which carries freshly oxygenated blood high in nutrients to the foetal heart.
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Click the drop down below to review the terms learned from this chapter. | 1,297 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://usq.pressbooks.pub/anatomy/chapter/6-11-development-of-blood-vessels-and-foetal-circulation/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:63545 | https://usq.pressbooks.pub/anatomy/chapter/6-11-development-of-blood-vessels-and-foetal-circulation/ |
o4as7PQjHJeLqVqL | The true story of the exodus of Israel : together with a brief view of the history of monumental Egypt / complied from the work of Henry Brugsch-Bey ; edited with an introduction and notes by Francis H. Underwood. | INTRODUCTION.
" Egypt under the Pharaohs," by Dr. Henry Brugsch-Bey, is prominent among the ablest works upon the history and antiquities of the dead mother of arts. The author, under the patronage of the Egyptian government, spent thirty years in exploration and in the study of inscriptions, mostly in company with the distinguished French savant^ Mons. Mariette-Bey, whose numerous discoveries have been fortunatelj^ complemented by the profound knowledge and the far-reaching deductions of his associate.
The most important fact established by their labors is the verification (in the main) of the chronological tables of Manetho, and the proof of the high antiquity of the kingdom. This antiquity, beside which the origin of every other historic nation is modern, is made clear by many independent proofs, sometimes jarring as against each other, but agreeing in general tendenc3^ The Turin papyrus, an enormous list of pharaohs, unfortunately
much dilapidated and illegible in places; the Table of Abydus, a smaller list of kings ; a well-authenticated chart of genealogies of court architects ; the various inscriptions upon temple walls ; the portrait statues ; and the cartouches of kings (like coats-ofarms) sculptured upon contemporary monuments, — these are the chief sources of the evidence which fixes the age of Mena, founder of the monarchy, between forty-four and fifty-seven centuries before the Christian era, and which shows a succession of pharaohs down to the time of Alexander the Great, (b. c. 332.) The architectural remains in Asia and in Central America may be older than the pyramids, but there are no inscriptions, and the date of Indian and of Aztec temples is wholly conjectural.
The antiquity of Egypt, however, is not its only claim upon the veneration of men : literature, the arts, and the ideas of morality and religion, so far as we know, had their birth in the Nile valley. The alphabet, if it was constructed in Phoenicia, was conceived in Egypt, or developed from Egyptian characters. Language, doubtless, is as old as man, but the visible symbols of speech were first formulated from the hieroglyphic figures.
The early architecture of the Greeks, the Doric, is a development of the Egyptian. Their vases, ewers, jewelry, and other ornamental works, are
copied from the household luxury of the pharaohs. The peculiar genius of Egypt, however, appears to be repulsive to gay and lively people like the French, and the critics of Paris do scant justice to the colossal works of the elder pharaohs. Edmund About says : " The contemporaries of Sesostris were miraculous constructors rather than great architects, skilful and expeditious workmen rather than remarkable sculptors. From the time of Moses to the epoch of the Ptolemies, all the fine arts of the country, such as architecture, sculpture, and painting, have struck us by their solidity and harshness, by the spirit of tradition pushed to the extreme, rather than by their originality of genius. It is necessary to go back to the first dynasties to meet pure and ingenious talent, that hieratic regulations were soon to paralyze. A few specimens, well executed, are found here and there ; but one could search the whole of Egypt from one end to the other, without finding a work to be compared to the Temple of Theseus, or to the Venus of Milo. The enormous is not the great ; knowledge and facility bear no relation to genius."
There is a singular mixture of truth and error in this shrewd paragraph. ' Sesostris,' or Ramses the Great, was not long before Moses, but the art of Egypt culminated in the reign of Thutmes III.,
in the dynasty preceding. The art of the Greeks did not reach its perfection until long after the decadence of Egypt. In the time of the Ptolemies Egypt was a Greek province. The great works of Eg3'pt, as About says, were not the latest ; neither were they the earliest. The same is true of Greek, and of Roman art. In no country has the growth of art been continuous and uninterrupted. In Egypt, as in Greece, the period of greatness was comparatively ancient. The most truthful statement in the passage quoted is that which mentions the influence of the priests in preventing the development of art in sculpture and painting, by requiring the use of certain formal and conventional outlines. After all, the appreciation of one or another kind of art is greatly owing to inherited traits, and to the distinctive quality of race. The exquisite perfection of a Greek temple will most delight the beauty-loving Latin races ; the monumental grandeur of Karnac will most strongly affect the Germans, the English, and other Gothic peoples. It is the sombre magnificence of a Gothic minster against the tawdry splendors of the opera house ; it is the glory of Handel's Messiah^ or of Beethoven's Fifth Symphony^ against the elegance of La Dame Blanche^ or the gayety of La Belle Helena^ of Offenbach. Surely M. About can have his choice.
The influence of Egyptian, ideas upon the race of Israel has a profound interest for the whole Christian world. The time of Abraham is properlyconsidered to have been about 1900 B. c* — an epoch that, in the minds of unreflecting persons, is almost at the beginning of all things. Yet the Great Pyramid, built by the first pharaoh of the fourth dynasty, had been standing from twelve hundred to two thousand years before the ' Father of the Faithful ' was born. Egypt had a school of architecture and sculpture, a recorded literature, religious ceremonies, mathematics, astronomy, music, agriculture, scientific irrigation, the arts of war, ships, commerce, workers in gold, ivory, gems, and glass, the appliances of luxury, and the insignia of pride, ages before the race of Hebrews had been evolved from the fierce Semitic tribes of the desert.
The Five Books of Moses, the beautiful poem of Job, and the other sacred writings of the Jews, were then so far in the future ! Ages before the giving of the law on Mount Sinai, the * Book of the Dead,' with its high moral precepts, was in the possession of every educated Egyptian ; portions of
* The epoch of Abraham may be fixed by that of Joseph, who went to Egypt b. c. 1730. It is possible that from Joseph back to Abraham there might have been two hundred and ten years, allowing seventy years for each intervening life.
it, transcribed upon papyrns leaves, were even then, in the time of Abraham, securely folded in the funeral cerements of kings and priests, laid in their •" everlasting habitations."
The prayers of King Khunaten and of his queen, and those of Amenhotep 11. , all dating long before any biblical writing, may be found translated in this work of Dr. Brugsch ; and it is but simple truth to say, that, in beauty of expression and grandeur of thought, and in that piety which is the reaching out of the soul after God, no prayers of any people, under any form of religion, can be placed before them. One or two specimens will be found in the following pages.
We read with a vague awe when the sacred writer mentions "The God of Abraham, and of Isaac, and of Jacob ; " but who was the God of Khunaten, whose cry to the deity he could not name comes to us from the dim twilight of time ?
Other literary fragments, translated by Dr. Brugsch, attest the acute observation, the good sense, and the moral elevation of writers who preceded by centuries all others of every other race.
In this essay we leave out of view the civilization of Assyria and of other nations whose art and letters, so far as we know, have not greatly affected our own.
The people of modern Europe are heirs to the Romans in literature and the arts. The more northern of the nations inherit, also, the laws, language, and genius of the Goths. The Romans, with their allies and congeners, drew their ideas from the Greeks. The Greeks had their original learning and art from Egypt, though partly through the medium of Phoenicia. Greek historians like Herodotus, and philosophers like Pythagoras, went to Egypt to study, just as, long after, Roman scholars went to Athens. The Jews went out from Egypt with a modified Semitic speech, and a pure Semitic blood ; but they carried with them in the person of their great leader " all the wisdom of the Egyptians." This is shown by their architecture, their religious customs and vestments, and their persistent kindred traditions. The nations we have mentioned are those that developed and taught the rude primitive races that peopled England, and whose descendants in all quarters of the globe are tending to supreme power in human affairs.
We see there is sufficient reason for the absorbing interest felt by all thoughtful men in the annals of Egypt. Wonderful developments have taken place since the greatest of the pharaohs wore the double crown, but the germ of all future civilizations was in that powerful people. The thinking and the
living of all mankind have been moulded by the influences of Moses and Jesus ; and both were of the race whose early lessons were received with stripes from Egyptian masters. The hieratic symbols are uncouth to modern eyes, but they contained the possibilities of Genesis and the Iliad, of the Psalms, the jEneid, and the Inferno, — of Prometheus, Hamlet, and Paradise Lost.
but in the thought that planned the Hall of Columns, or sculptured the rock temple of Amon, was involved the conception of all Athenian and all Roman fanes.
We hail, therefore, the continued results of explorations in this wonderful land, the remote but undoubted source of letters and morals, sciences and arts. Every newly-found inscription helps to confirm or correct a date or a tradition, and to make certain the long and dim tract of its history.
The difficulties that have surrounded the delvers in buried cities can scarcely be over-estimated. Suppose that, by some convulsion of nature, or by some mischance in war, the venerable abbey of Westminster with its historic monuments had been levelled to the ground, and the stones lay in
heaps in the cloisters, or about Whitehall, or along the Thames embankment ; — suppose, after twenty centuries had covered these stones with their accumulations, and after spoliators had built some of them into modern edifices, that a new Mariette or Brugsch should excavate and measure and decipher, and should attempt to reconstruct the towers, nave, transepts, chapels, choir, and tombs ; — think of the confusion of arches and rosaces, pinnacles and columns, of headless statues and overturned pedestals, of half-effaced inscriptions and fragmentary dates ! Conceive what it would be to put in order the various parts of the building, and to identify its centuries of memorials ! Such, and so broken and dispersed, are the remains of the fabric of the Egyptian state. So, through the Nile valley, and around Thebes and Memphis, Zoan-Tanis and Pitom, Thinis, Philse, Bubastis and Abydus, lie the almost irrecoverable fragments of monumental Egypt, too many of them mere disjointed stones. Upon such materials the labors of Egyptologists have been patiently spent. The gaps in chronology are still enormous and deplorable, due to the numerous wars which, age after age, desolated the country and destroyed its statues and public buildings ; but the results are still grand, and fully repay the toil and money spent in the search.
Much remains to be done ; and it is to be hoped that future viceroys may be as intelligent and liberal as Ismail Pacha, to whom so much honor is due, and that future archaeologists may be as untiring, as keen and as just, as the author whose work is under consideration.
This volume contains so much of Dr. Brugsch's work as relates to the settlement of the family of Jacob, and to their exodus as a people under Moses. To enable the reader to understand the historic connection, the editor has made a brief summary of leading events, and an account of the most eminent of the pharaohs. Some account is given of the early races, also of the royal residences, and of the Hyksos, under the last of whom Joseph was the favorite minister. As far as is consistent with fluency in narration, all these topics are presented in the author's own words.
The original work is large and expensive, and its chief interest to general readers, and especially to biblical students, lies in the contact of the Jewish with the Egyptian race. Many people might be indifferent as to the history of Ramses the Great, unless they knew that it was his daughter, the Princess Meri, who found the infant Moses. Aahmes would be a meaningless name, unless we knew that he overthrew and seated himself on the throne of
the pharaoh who had been the patron of Joseph. Mineptah would be passed by, unless we were told that he was the pharaoh of the Exodus, upon whom the judgments of heaven fell, and who was drowned with his host in pursuing his slaves.
It will be interesting, even to the firmest believer in the literal inspiration of the Books of Moses, to know that, although Egyptian history is silent with regard to the Hebrews and their miraculous escape from bondage, the Scripture narrative, when rightly interpreted, is found, to accord with known events and dates, and with the permanent facts of geography. Translators and commentators have darkened and perplexed the sacred record ; and clerical chronologists have made havoc with arithmetic and with science and history in fixing the unknowable anno mundi as a point of reckoning ; but in the new light shed upon the story of the Exodus by Dr. Brugsch it comes out with wonderful vividness.
The long sojourn of the Israelites in Egypt was productive of great and lasting results. Had they remained outside the barrier of Shur among the Shasu, their descendants to-day would have been like the Bedouins, dwellers in the black tents of the desert. Centuries of oppression consolidated them, and made them a hardy and warlike people. They
learned the sciences and arts of their oppressors; they built upon their customs and laws. They came to have a proper pride in an unmixed lineage ; and they carried into Syria the certainty of a one God, — a God long before dreamed of by Egyptian priests and kings. Other influences have doubtless aided, but it was chiefly the primal impulse from Egypt that made them a leading race ; and that it has not yet spent its force is shown by their deserved prominence in literature, music, finance, and statesmanship. Familiar as the sacred story ought to be, it is thought best to copy the passages of scripture that refer to Joseph and to Moses, that they may be considered with Dr. Brugsch's irresistible demonstration.
NEIGHBOES.
Although, in so long a space of time as sixtycenturies, events and revolutions of great historical importance must of necessity have completely altered the political state of Egypt^ yet, notwithstanding all, the old Egyptian race has undergone but little change ; for it still preserves to this day those distinctive features of physiognomy, and those peculiarities of manners and customs, which have been handed down to us, by the united testimony of the monuments and the accounts of the ancient classical writers, as the hereditary characteristics of this people.
The forefathers of the Egyptians cannot be reckoned among the African races, properly so called. The form of the skull — so at least the elder school
22 THE TRUE STORY OF
teaches — as well as the proportions of the several parts of the body, as these have been determined from examining a great number of mummies, are held to indicate a connection with the Caucasian family of mankind. The Egyptians, together with some other nations, form, as it would seem, a third branch of that race, namely, the family called Cushite, which is distinguished by special characters from the Pelasgian and the Semitic families. Whatever relations of kindred may be found always to exist between these great races of mankind, thus much may be regarded as certain, that the cradle of the Egyptian people must be sought in the interior of the Asiatic quarter of the world. In the earliest ages of humanity,, far beyond all historical remembrance, the Egyptians, for reasons unknown to us, left the soil of their primeval home, took their way towards the setting sun, and finally crossed that bridge of nations, the Isthmus of Suez, to find a new fatherland on the favored banks of the holy Nile.
Comparative philology, in its turn, gives powerful support to this hypothesis. The Egyptian language — which has been preserved on the monuments of the oldest time, as well as in the late-Christian manuscripts of the Copts, the successors of the people of the pharaohs — shows in no way any trace of a
THE EXODUS OF ISRAEL. 23
derivation and descent from the African families of speech. On the contrary, the primitive roots and the essential elements of the Egyptian grammar point to such an intimate connection with the IndoGermanic and Semitic languages, that it is almost impossible to mistake the close relations which formerly prevailed between the Egyptians and the races called Indo-Germanic and Semitic.
We will not pass over in silence a Greek account, remarkable because of its origin, according to which the primitive abode of the Egyptian people is to be sought in Ethiopia. According to an opinion strongly advocated by ancient writers, and even subscribed to by some modern historians little conversant with the facts of the case, the honor of first founding Egyptian civilization should be awarded to a society of priests from the city of Meroe. Descending the course of the Nile — so runs the story — they are supposed to have settled on the territory of the later city of Th'ebes, and there to have founded the first state with a theocratic form of government. Although, on the ground of the ancient tradition, this view has been frequently repeated in the historical works of subsequent times, it is nevertheless stamped with the mark of error, as it dispenses with any actual proof. It is not to the Ethiopian priests that the Egyptian
empire owes its origin, its form of government, and the characteristic stages of its iiigh civilization ; but much rather was it the Egyptians that first ascended the river, to found in Ethiopia temples, cities, and fortified places, and to diffuse the blessings of a civilized state among the rude dark-colored population. Whichever of the Greek historians concocted the marvellous fiction of the first Ethiopic settlement in Egypt was led into the mistake by a confusion with the influence which Ethiopia exercised on the fortunes of Egypt during a comparatively late period, and by carrying this back, without further consideration, into the prehistoric age.
Supposing, for a moment, that Egypt had owed her civil and social development to Ethiopia, nothing should be more probable than the presumption of our finding monuments of the highest antiquity in that primitive home of the Egyptians, while in going down the river we ought to light only upon monuments of a later age. Strange to say, the whole number of the buildings in stone, as yet known and examined, which were erected on both sides of the river at the bidding of the Egyptian and Ethiopian kings, furnish the incontrcfvertible proof, that the long series of temples, cities, sepulchres, and monuments in general, exhibit a distinct chronological order, of which the oldest starting-
point is found in the Pyramids, at the apex of the Delta, south of the bifurcation of the great river. As, in proceeding southwards, we approach nearer and nearer to the rapids and cataracts of the Upper Nile, right into the heart of the later Ethiopian kingdom, the more does the stamp of antiquity vanish from the whole body of extant monuments ; the more evident is the decline of art, of taste, and of beauty. In short, the Ethiopian style of art — so far as the monumcxits still preserved allow us to form a judgment — is destitute of all independent character. The first view of the Ethiopian monuments at once carries the conviction, that we can recognize no special quality beyond the rudest conception and the most imperfect execution of a stj'le of art originally Egyptian. The most clumsy imitation of Egyptian attainments in all that relates to science and the arts, appears as the acme of the intellectual progress and the artistic development of Ethiopia.
According to the accounts of the Greek and Roman writers who had occasion to visit Egypt and to have close intercourse with the people of the country, the Egyptians themselves held the belief, that they were the original inhabitants of the land. Tlie fertile valley of the Nile, according to their opinion, formed the heart and centre of the whole world.
To the west of it dwelt the groups of tribes which bore the general name of Ribu, or Libu, the ancestors of those Libyans who are so often mentioned in the historical works and geographical descriptions of the ancients. Inhabiting the north coasts of Africa, they extended their abodes eastward as far as the districts along the Canopic branch of the Nile, now called that of Rosetta, or Rashid. From the evidence of the monuments, they belonged to a light-colored race, with blue eyes and blond or red hair. According to the very remarkable researches of the French general Faidherbe, they may have been the earliest representatives of that race (perhaps of Celts?) who migrated from the north of Europe to Africa, making their way through the three Mediterranean peninsulas, and gradually taking possession of the Libyan coasts.
Turning our eyes to the east, across the narrow Isthmus of Suez, we meet on the ancient soil the people of that great nation, which the Egyptians designated by the name of Amu. Whether we prefer to explain this name by the help of the Semitic languages, in which it has the general significance of ' people,' or whether we resort to the Egyptian vocabulary, in which ame (more usually amen) has the meaning of 'herdsman,' — in either case, this one thing is certain, that the Egyptians of the pha-
raonic age used the term in a some what contemptuous sense. These Amu were the Pagans, the Kaffirs, or ' infidels ' of their time. In the colored representations they are distinguished chiefly by their yellow or yellowish-brown complexion, while their dress has sometimes a great simplicity, but sometimes shows a taste for splendor and richness in the choiceness of the cut and the colored designs woven into the fabric. In these Amu scientific research has long since perceived the representatives of the great Semitic family of nations, though, in our own opinion, the same name includes also many peoples and families, who appear to have but a slight relationship with the pure Semitic race.
The most remarkable nations among the Amu, who appear in the course of Egj'ptian history as commanding respect by their character and their deeds, are the Kheta, the Khar (or Khal), and the Ruten (or Luten). But moreover it is to be especially remarked, as a fact established beyond dispute, that even in the most glorious times of the Egyptian monarchy the Amu were settled as permanent inhabitants in the neighborhood of the present lake Menzaleh. A great number of towns and villages, canals and pools, in that region, formerly bore names unmistakably Semitic.
ITIES OF THE EGYPTIANS.
Egypt is designated in the old inscriptions, as well as in the books of the later Christian Egyptians, by a word which signifies * the black land,' and which is read in the Egyptian language Kern, or Kami. The ancients had early remarked that the cultivable land of Egypt was distinguished by its dark and almost black color, and certainly this peculiar color of their soil suggested to the old Egyptians the name of the black land. This name and its derivation receive a further corroboration from the fact, that the neighboring region of the Arabian desert bore the name of Tesher, or ' the red land,' in contradistinction to the black land (the A'in of the monuments, uEan in Pliny, an appellation of the nome afterwards called the Heroopolitan). On countless occasions the king is mentioned in the inscriptions as ' the lord of the black country and of the red country,' in order to show that his rule extended over cultivated and unculti-
vated Egypt in the wider sense of the word. We must take this opportunity of stating that the Egyptians designated themselves simply as the people of the black land, and that the inscriptions, so far. as we know, have handed down to us no other appellation as the distinctive name of the Egyptian people.
Ancient Egypt, most commonly mentioned in general as ' the double land,' consisted of two great divisions, which, after their situation, were called in contrast with each other the land of the South and the land of the North, as is attested by the inscriptions. The first corresponds to that part of Egypt which, following the Greek name, we now know as Upper Egypt, and which the Arabs of the present day call by the appellation of Said. The land of Upper Egypt began on the south at the ivory-island-city of Elephantine, which lay opposite to Syene (the modern trading-town of Assouan), on the right bank of the river ; and its northern boundary reached to the neighborhood of the Memphian district on the left bank of the holy river. Northern Egypt comprehended the remaining part of the land, called the Low country, the land of Behereh of the Arabs, the Delta of the Greek writers. This division, which exists just as much in our own day as it did in the most ancient times, is
neither accidental nor arbitrary ; for it is founded not only on a local difference in the respective dialects of the inhabitants, but on the marked distinction of habits,-manners, and customs, which divides the Egyptians in the north and the south from one another. Already in the thirteenth century before our era, this difference of speech is provedby documentary evidence.
The land of Egypt resembles a small narrow girdle, divided in the midst by a stream of water, and hemmed in on both sides by long chains of mountains. On the right side of the stream, to the east, the chain of hills called Arabian accompany the river for its whole length ; on the opposite, the western side, the low hills of the Libyan desert extend in the same direction with the river from south to north, up to the shore of the Mediterranean Sea. The river itself was designated by the Greeks and Romans by the name of Neilos, or Nilus. Although this word is still retained in the Arabic language as Nil, with the special meaning of ' inundation,' yet its origin is not to be sought in the old Egyptian language ; but, as has been lately suggested with great probability, it is to be derived from the Semitic word Nahar, or Nahal, which has the general signification of 'river.' From its bifurcation south of the ancient city of
Memphis, the river divided itself into three great arms, which watered the Lower Egyptian flat lands which spread out in the shape of the Greek letter jd (Delta), and with four smaller arms formed the seven famous months of the Nile.
The Egyptian districts, called by the Greeks Nomes (iVo/uoi), which in the upper land lay on both sides of the river, comprehended in the inner part of the Delta larger circuits, which were surrounded like islands by the arms of the Nile and their canals. Beyond these island nomes other districts extended on the Arabian and Libyan sides of the Lower Egyptian region of the stream. They are called in the lists the Western and Eastern nomes. This special division of the upper and lower countries into the districts called Nomes is of the highest antiquity, since we already find on the monuments of the fourth dynasty some nomes mentioned by their names, as well as some towns with the nomes to which they belonged. Upper Egypt contained twenty-two nomes, Lower Egypt twenty, so that there was a total for all Egypt of forty-two nomes.
Each district had its own capital, which was at the same time the seat of the captain for the time being, whose office and dignity passed by inheritance, according to the old Egyptian laws, from the father to the eldest grandson on the mother's side. The
capital formed likewise the central point of the particular divine worship of the district which belonged to it. The sacred lists of the nomes have handed down to us the names of the temple of the chief deity, of the priests and priestesses, of the holy trees, and also the names of the town-harbor of the holy canal, the cultivated land and the land which was^ only fruitful ^during the inundation, and much other informiation, in such completeness that we are in a position, from the indications contained in these lists, to form the most exact picture of each Egyptian nome in all its details, almost without any gaps.
There are three districts, above all others, which in the conrse of Egyptian history maintained the brilliant reputation of being the seats of government for the land : in Lower Egypt the nomes of Memphis and Heliopolis (On), and in Uxjper Egypt that of Thebes.
The old inhabitants of Egypt, like the^ir descendants of to-day who inhabit the ' black country,' obtained nourishment and increase from their favored soil. The wealth and prosperity of the country and its inhabitants were founded on agriculture and the breeding of cattle. Tillage, favored by the proverbial fertility of the soil, had its fixed seasons regulated by the annual inundations. The special care already bestowed in the remotest antiquity on that
important part of agricultural industry, the breeding and tending of cattle, is set in the clearest light by. the evidence of the monuments. The walls of the sepulchral chapels are covered with thousands of bas-reliefs and their explanatory inscriptions, which preserve for us the most abundant disclosures respecting the labors of the field and the rearing of cattle, as practised by the old Egyptians. In them, also, navigation plays an important part, as the sole means of transport for long distances. In ancient times, as in our own day, commerce and travelling were carried on upon the Nile and its canals. On the chief festivals of the Egyptian year the pharaohs themselves did not disdain to sail along the sacred river in the gorgeous royal ship, in order to perform mystic rites in special honor of agriculture. The priests regarded the plough as a most sacred implement, and their faith held that the highest happiness of man, after the completion of his pilgrimage here below, would consist in tilling the Elysian fields of the subterranean god Osiris, in feeding and tending his cattle, and navigating the breezy water of the other world in slender skiffs. The husbandman, the shepherd, and the boatman, were in fact the first founders of the gentle manners — the honored authors of that most ancient peaceful life — of the people who flourished in the blessed valley of the Nile.
We cannot close this chapter without still taking an inquiring look at the peculiar mental endowments of the ancient Egyptians, about which the information of the monuments will be of course our faithful guides. There are not wanting very learned and intelligent persons — not excepting some who have won an illustrious name in historical inquiries — who teach us to regard the Egyptians as a people reflective, serious, and reserved, very religious, occupied only with the other world, and caring nothing or very little about this lower life; just as if they had been the Trappists of antiquity. But could it have been possible — we ask with wonder and bewilderment— that the fertile and bounteous land, that the noble river which waters its soil, that the pure and smiling heaven, that the beaming sun of Egypt, could have produced a people of living mummies and of sad philosophers, a people who only regarded this life as a burden to be thrown off as soon as possible ? No ! Travel through the land of the old pharaohs ; look at the pictures carved or painted on the walls of the sepulchral chapels ; read the words cut in stone or written with black ink on the fragile papyrus ; and you will soon be obliged to form another judgment on the Egyptian philosophers. No people could be gayer, more lively, of more childlike simplicity, than those old Egyptians,
who loved life with all their heart, and found the deepest joy in their very existence. Far from longing for death, they addressed to the host of the holy gods the prayer to preserve and lengthen life, if possible, to the ' most perfect old age of one hundred and ten years.' They gave themselves up to the pleasures of a merry life. The song, and dance, and flowing cup, cheerful excursions to the meadows and thepapyrus marshes — to hunt with bow and arrow or sling, or to fish with spear and hook — heightened the enjoyment of life, and were the recreations of the nobler classes after work was done. In connection with this merry disposition, humorous jests and lively sallies of wit, often passing the bounds of decorum, characterized the people from age to age. They were fond of biting jests and smart innuendos ; and free social talk found its way even into the silent chambers of the tomb. But the propensity to pleasure was a dangerous trap for the youth of the old Egyptian schools, and the judicious teachers had much need to keep a curb on the young people. If admonition utterly failed, the chastising stick came into play, for the sages of the country believed that ' The ears of a youth are on his back.'
bandry, the breeding of cattle, navigation, fishing, and the different branches of the most simple industries. From a very early period stone was wrought according to the rules of an advanced skill ; and metals, namely, gold, silver, copper, iron (at first meteoric iron), were melted and wrought into works of art, or tools and implements; wood and leather were formed into a great variety of valuable objects ; glass was cast ; flax was spun and woven into stuffs ; ropes were twisted ; baskets and mats of rushes were plaited ; £ftid on the round potter's wheel great and small vessels were formed by clever artists from the rich clay of the Nile, and baked in the fiery furnace. Sculptors and painters found profitable work among the rich patrons of art at the court of the pharaohs ; and a whole world of busy artisans worked for daily wages under the bright blue sky of Egypt.
But all these, the humble followers of the earliest human art industry, were held ' in bad odor,' and the lowest scribe in the service of a great man looked down with the greatest contempt on the toiling, laboring people. It was esteemed better to be a servant in the house of the pharaoh, and to bustle about in the service of their masters in the halls of the noble families. Though themselves children of the people, the class of servants found
help and protection from their lords, and had a share in the honor of the court. Spoiled by the plenty, luxury, and extravagance of splendid life, they knew not the painful lot of the workman. Death itself did not grudge the servants a part with the owners of the gorgeous sepulchres ; for in the chambers of the dead, the deep pits of which hid in the place of honor the embalmed bodies of the noble masters, room was reserved by the artist's hand for the memory of the faithful servant. But too obedient to the orders of their lords, the servants held in slight regard the ' stinking ' masses of the people, and abhorred the society of the ' miserable ' traders and workmen.
Returning from successful campaigns abroad to the banks of the holy river, the princes and captains of the warriors, in the course of time, brought a great number of prisoners into the country, as booty of war : king's children, nobles, and common people of foreign origin. Some as hostages, others as slaves, inhabited the towns of their Egyptian lords ; those not noble being promoted to the rank of domestic servants, or condemned to work in the fields with the common herd of the people. Darkcolored inhabitants of the southern regions of the Upper Nile, and light-colored Canaanites, armed with sticks, attended the great men on their jour-
cawasses of our day.
The noble class of the Egyptian people had nothing in common with the vulgar ' mob ; ' for they derived their origin, for the most part, from the royal house, the nearest branches of which, the king's children and grandchildren (Sutenrekh), were held in high honor and respect. To them were committed the highest offices of the court, to which they were attached by abundant rewards from the pharaoh's ever open hand. The nobles held as their hereditary possessions villages and tracts of land, with the people thereto belonging, bands of servants, and numerous herds of cattle. To their memory, after their decease, were dedicated those splendid tombs, the remains of which, on the raised plain of the Libyan desert, or in the caverns of the Egyptian hills, are still searched with admiring wonder by later ages down to our own day. Ambition and arrogant pride form a remarkable feature in the spirit of the old dwellers on the Nile. Workman competed with workman, husbandman with husbandman, official with official, to outvie his fellow, and to appropriate the favor and praises of the noble lords. In the schools, where the poor scribe's child sat on the same bench beside the offspring of
the rich, to be trained in discipline and wise learning, the masters knew how by timely words to goad on the lagging diligence of the ambitious scholars, by holding out to them the future reward which awaited youths skilled in knowledge and letters. Thus the slumbering spark of self-esteem Avas stirred to a flame in the youthful breast, and emulation was stimulated among the boys. The clever son of the poor man, too, might hope b}^ his knowledge to climb the ladder of the higher offices ; for neither his birth nor p\)sition in life raised any barrier, if only the youth's mental power justified fair hopes for the future. In this sense, the restraints of caste did not exist, and neither descent nor family hampered the rising career of the clever. Many a monument consecrated to the memory of some nobleman gone to his long home, who during life had held high rank at the court of the pharaoh, is decorated with the simple but laudatory inscription, ' His ancestors were unknown people.'
It is a satisfaction to avow tliat the training and instruction of the young interested the Egyptians in the highest degree ; for they fully recognized in this the sole means of elevating their national life, and of fulfilling the high civilizing mission which Providence seemed to have placed in their hands. But above all things they regarded justice, and
virtue had the highest price in their eyes. The law which ordered them ' to pray to the gods, to honor the dead, to give bread to the hungry, water to the thirsty, clothing to the naked,' reveals to us one of the finest qualities of the old Egyptian character— pity towards the unfortunate. The fortytwo commandments of the Egyptian religion, which are contained in the one hundred and twenty-fifth chapter of the ' Book of the Dead,' are in no way inferior to the precepts of Christianity; and, in reading the old Egyptian inscriptions concerning morality and the fear of God, we are tempted to believe that the Jewish lawgiver Moses modelled his teachings on the patterns given by the old Egyptian sages.
But the medal has its reverse side. The forefathers of the Egyptians were not free from vices and failings, which we cannot pass over in silence without exposing ourselves to the reproach of flattery at the expense of truth. Hatred, envy, cunning, intrigue, combined with an overweening sentiment of pride, opposition, and perversity, added to avarice and cruelty — such is the long series of hereditary faults which history reveals to us among the Eg3^ptians by unnumbered examples in the course of centuries. We must especially beware of cherishing the belief that the rule of the pha-
raohs opened to the inhabitants of the land the gates of a terrestrial paradise. The people suffered and endured under the blows of their oppressors, and the stick settled the dispatch of business between the peasant and the tax-gatherer. We need but glance at the gigantic masses of the pyramids ; they tell more emphatically than living speech or written words of the tears and the pains, the sufferings and miseries, of a whole population, which was condemned to erect these everlasting monuments of pharaonic vanity. Three thousand years were not able to efface the curse resting on their memory. When Herodotus, about the middle of the fifth century before Christ, visited the field of the great pyramids of Gizeh, the Egyptians told him of the imprecations wrung from their unhappy forefathers, and they would not, from abhorrence, so much as utter the names of the kings who constructed the two highest pyramids, whom we now know to have been the pharaohs Khufu and Khafra.
THE CHKONOLOGY OF THE PHABAONIC HISTORY.
If the reader's curiosity leads him to an inquiry concerning the epochs of time already fixed in the history of the pharaohs, and to a critical examination of the chronological tables thus far composed by scholars, he must be strangely impressed by the conflict of most diverse views in the computations of the most modern school. As to the era, for example, when the first pharaoh, Mena, mounted the throne, the German Egyptologers have attempted to fix it at the following epochs:
. 3623
The calculations in question are based on the extracts that have been preserved from a work by the Egyptian priest Manetho on the history of Egypt. That learned man had then at his command the annals of his country's history, which were preserved in the temples, and from them, the best
and most accurate sources, he derived the materials for his work, composed in the Greek hinguage, on the history of the ancient Egyptian dynasties. His book, which is now lost, contained a general review of the kings of the land, divided into thirty dynasties, arranged in the order of their names, with the lengths of their reigns, and the total duration of each dynasty. Though this invaluable work was little known and certainly but little regarded by the historians of the old classical age, large extracts were made from it by some of the ecclesiastical writers. In process of time the copyists, either by error or designedly, corrupted the names and the numbers, and thus we only possess at the present day the ruins instead of the complete building. The truth of the original, and «the authenticity of his sources, was first proved by the deciphering of the Egyptian writing. And thus the Manethonian list of the kings served, and still serves, as a guide for assigning to the royal names read on the monuments their place in the dynasties, as, on the other hand, the monuments have enabled us with certainty to restore to their correct orthography many of the kings' names which have been corrupted in the Manethonian lists. The very thorough investigations, to which learned experts have subjected the succession of the pharaohs and
the chronological order of the dynasties, have showr the absolute necessity of supposing in the list oi Manetho contemporary and collateral dynasties, and thus of diminishing considerably the total duration of the thirty dynasties. Notwithstanding all these discoveries, the figures are in a deplorable state. From the nature of the calculation, based on the exact determination of the regnal years of the kings, every number which is rectified necessarily changes the results of the whole series of numbers. It is only from the beginning of the twenty-sixth dynasty that the chronology is founded on data which leave little to be desired as to their exactitude.
Assuming, according to £he well-known calculation of the father of history, Herodotus, the round number of a century for three consecutive human lives, we possess a means of determining approximately the periods of time which have elapsed, on the one hand, from king Mena to the end of the twelfth dynasty, and again from the beginning of the eighteenth dynasty to the end of the twentysixth.
The new Table of Abydus, discovered eleven years ago in a corridor of the temple of Seti I., at Harabat-el-Madfoimeh, gives a succession of sixtyfive kings from Mena, the founder of the line, down
to the last reign of the twelfth dynasty. To* these sovereigns therefore would be assigned a period of ^ X 100 = 2166 years, leaving the fractional remainder out of the account.
If we were to believe the Table of Abydus alone, the princes of the twelfth dynasty would have had the pharaohs of the eighteenth dynasty for their immediate successors, without any break or interregnum. This would be in accordance with the fact perceived by the acujteness of Mariette-Bey, that the old Egyptian proper names of the persons of the twelfth, and especially of the eleventh dynasty, recur in the same forms on the monuments of the commencement of the eighteenth dynasty ; and further, that at these two periods of Egyptian history the form and ornaments of the coffins are so alike as to be undistinguishable. Here we have a remarkable enigma, for the solution of which we do not yet possess the requisite data.
If we admit, according to the evidence of the Table of Abydus, the sudden transition from the twelfth to the eighteenth dynasty, the historical beginning of the Egyptian empire would fall about the year 3724 b. c, namely, two thousand one hundred and sixty-six years before 1558 B. c. But if, on the other hand, we assume in round numbers five hundred years as the intermediate space of
time ^hich divides the end of the twelfth from the beginning of the eighteenth dynasty, the result would be that Mena ascended the throne of Horus five hundred years before the year 3724, that is, in 4244 B. c.
Had the Turin papyrus been preserved to us in its entire state ; had we possessed the complete list of the historical kings of the Egyptian empire, we should probably have been in a position to mould into a perfect shape even the most ancient part of Egyptian history, with the dates belonging to it. But, as the case stands at present, no mortal man possesses the means of removing the difficulties which are inseparable from the attempt to restore the original list of kings from the fragments of the Turin papyrus.
The chronological table of the history of the Egyptian kingdom, which is given at the end of this work (Appendix A), is founded on the principles above explained, as far as dates are concerned, and is only presented to the reader with the extremest caution. I would make the general remark, that the numbers of years assigned to the dynasties and to the individual pharaohs claim merely the value of an approximation, but nevertheless they do not on the average exceed their actual ages obtained from the monuments.
PYRAMIDS AND SPHINX.
Mena, the founder of the monarchy, whose name signifies ' the constant,' reigned first at Tini, a little town of which scarce a trace now remains. According to tradition, he also built the larger capital of Memphis, having first made a site for the city by turning the course of the Nile. The Egyptian name is Mennofer, ' the good place.' The ruins of this city were well preserved down to the thirteenth century, at which time they were described in glowing phrases by an Arabian physician, Abdul-Latif. But the stones were transported to Cairo and used for the construction of mosques and palaces. This city, next to Thebes, holds a large place in Egyptian history. It was the first great seat of power, and for a long time the religious metropolis. Along the far-stretching margin of the desert, from Abu-Roash to Meidum, lay in silent tranquillity the necropolis of Memphis with its wealth of tombs, overlooked by the stupendous buildings of the
pyramids, which rose high above the monuments of the noblest among the noble families, who, even after life was done, reposed in deep pits at the feet of their lords and masters. The contemporaries of the third, fourth, and fifth dynasties are here buried ; but their memory has been preserved by pictures and writings on the walls of the sacrificial chambers built over their tombs. From this source flows the stream of tradition which carries us back to the time and to the soil of the oldest kingdom in the land. If this countless number of tombs had been preserved to us, it would have been an easy task to reconstruct before our eyes, in uninterrupted succession, the genealogy of the kings and of the noble lines related to them. Fate, however, has not granted this ; for their monuments, names, and deeds are buried and forgotten ; but even the few remaining heaps of ruins enable us to imagine the lost in all its greatness.
The eloquent language of the stones, speaking to us from the tombs of the necropolis of Memphis, tells us much concerning the usages of pharaoh and his court. The king himself is officially designated by the most complete title, ' king of Upper and Lower Egypt.' His high dignity is also concealed under other names, as, for instance, Perao — that is, ' of the great house/ well known as Pharaoh in
the Bible. For his subjects the pharaoh was a god (nuter) and lord (neb) par excellence. At sight of him thej were obliged to prostrate themselves, rubbing the ground with their noses; sometimes, by the gracious order of the king, they only touched the knee of the omnipotent. In speaking of him, they very often used the words ' his holiness.'
The royal court was composed of the nobility of the country, and of the servants of inferior rank. Not only the splendor of their origin gave the nobles dignity in the eyes of the people, but still more their wisdom, manners, and virtues. The persons belonging to the first class of the nobility generally bore the title Erpa, ' hereditary highness ; ' Ha, 'prince;' Set, 'the illustrious;' Semer-ua-t, ' the intimate friend.' The affairs of the court and of the administration of the country were conducted by ' the chiefs ' or the secretaries, and by a numerous class of scribes.
The first king of whom much is really known is Senoferu, ' he who makes good ; ' his predecessors are shadows ; he is an undoubtedly historic man.
So far as we are acquainted with the monuments, king Senoferu is the first ruler who had four titles of honor. Three name him commonly without difference ' the lord of truth ; ' the fourth is the name Senoferu, by which he was known to his father and
his people. On the steep rock of Wodj-Magharah, where ancient caverns have been formed by the hand of man, and the traces of the miners are easily discovered, Senoferu appears as a warrior, who strikes to the ground a vanquished enemy with a mighty club. The inscription, engraved by the side of the picture, mentions him clearly by name and with the title of ' vanquisher of foreign peoples' who in his time inhabited the cavernous valleys of the mountains round Sinai.
Even at this day the pilgrim, whom the desire of knowledge brings to these parts, and whose foot treads hurriedly the gloomy, barren valleys of Sinai, sees traces of the old works in the caverns dating from the spring-time of the world's history. He sees and reads on the half-worn stone a vast number of pictures and writings. Standing on the high rock, which boldly commands the entrance to Wady-Magharah, his eye discovers without trouble the last ruins of a strong fortress, whose stout walls once contained huts near a deep well, and protected the Egyptian troops from hostile attack.
good king Senoferu was . Khufu. It is he whom the writers of Greek antiquity call sometimes Cheops (Herodotus), Chemmis or Chembes (Diodorus), while the epitomist of Manetho transcribes his name Suphis, and Eratosthenes, in the Theban list of kings, cites it as Saophis. With him begin the memorable traditions of Egyptian history.
No one who has had the happiness — whether from chance or purpose, or in the way of his calling — to set foot on the black soil of Egypt, ever turns back on his homeward way before his eyes have looked upon that wonder of antiquity, the threefold mass of the pyramids on the steep edge of the desert, which you reach after an hour's ride over the long causeway from the village of Gizeh, which stands close upon the left bank of the Nile. The desert's boundless sea of yellow sand — whose billows are piled up around the gigantic mass of the pyramids, deeply entombing the tomb itself, like a corpse long since deceased — surges hot and dry far up the green meadow, with its scattered vegetation where the grains of sand and corn are intermingled. From the far distance you see the giant forms of the pyramids, as if they were regularly crystallized mountains, which the evercreating Nature has called forth from the mother soil of rock, to lift themselves up towards the blue
vault of heaven. And yet they are but tombs, built by the hands of men, which, raised by king Khufu and two other pharaohs of the same family and dynasty, have been the admiration and astonishment alike of the ancient and modern world, as an incomparable work of power. Perfectly adjusted to the cardinal points of the horizon — the S. and N., the E. and W. — they differ in breadth and height, as is shown by the measurements of Colonel Vyse :
As soon as a pharaoh mounted the throne, the sovereign gave orders to a nobleman, the master of all the buildings of his land, to plan the work and cut the stone. The kernel of the future edifice was raised on the limestone soil of the desert, in the form of a small pyramid built in steps, of which the well-constructed and finished interior formed the king's eternal dwelling, with his stone sarcophagus lying on the rocky floor. Let us suppose that this first building was finished while the pharaoh still lived in the bright sunlight. A second covering was added, stone by stone, on the outside of the kernel \ a third to this second ; and to this even a fourth ; and the mass of the giant
building grew greater the longer the king enjoyed existence. And then, at last, when it became almost impossible to extend the area of the pj^ramid further, a casing of hard stone, polished like glass, and fitted accurately into the angles of the steps, covered the vast mass of the king's sepulchre, presenting a gigantic triangle on each of its four faces.
More than seventy such pyramids once rose on the margin of the desert, each telling of a king, of whom it was at once the tomb and monument. Had not the greater number of these sepulchres of the pharaohs been destroyed almost to the foundation, and had the names of the builders of those which still stand been accurately preserved, it would have been easy for the inquirer to prove and make clear by calculation what was originally, and of necessity, the proportion between the masses of the pyramids and the years of the reigns of their respective builders.
The Sphinx was sculptured at some time not far removed from the building of the three great pyramids. Recent discoveries have increased the astonishment of mankind at the huge bulk of this monstrous figure, and at the vast and unknown buildings that stood around it, and, as it were, lay between its paws. It is within a few years that the sand has
been blown away and revealed these incomprehensible structures. In a well near by was found a finely executed statue of Khafra, builder of the second pyramid. Clear and significant inscriptions upon these temple-buildings attest the truth of tradition, and support the received chronology.
After Khafra's passage home to the realm of the dead, where the king of the gods, Osiris, held the sceptre, Men-kau-ra ascended the throne. His pyramid is called in the texts by the name of hir^ that is, * the high one.' When Colonel Vyse found his way to the middle of the chamber of the dead, and entered into the silent space of ' Eternity,' his eye discerned, as the last trace of Menkaura's place of burial, the wooden cover of the sarcophagus, and the stone coffin hewn out of one hard block,, beautifully adorned outside in the style of a temple, according to the fashion of the masters of the old empire. The sarcophagus rests now at the bottom of the Mediterranean, the English vessel which was conveying it having been wrecked near Gibraltar. The cover, which was saved, thanks to the material of which it was composed, is now exhibited in the gallery of Egyptian antiquities in the British Museum. Its outside is adorned with a short text conceived in the following terms :
kaura living eternally, child of Olympus,* son of Urania, heir of Kronos, over thee may she stretch herself and cover thee, thy divine mother, Urania, in her name as mystery of heaven. May she grant that thou shouldest be like God, free from all evils, King Menkaura, living eternally."
This prayer is of very ancient origin, for there are examples of it found on the covers of sarcophagi belonging to the dynasties of the ancient empire. The sense of it is full of significance. Delivered from mortal matter, the soul of the defunct king passes through the immense space of heaven to unite itself with God, after having overcome the evil which opposed it during its life on its terrestrial journey.
The kings of the fifth dynasty continued to reside at Memphis, and each appears to have built a pyramid for his tomb, although but few of them can now be identified. The names, however, are preserved, such as Qebeh, ' the cool,' Nuter-setu, ' the most holy place,' and the like.
According to the monuments, the successor of Menkaura bore two names. The first, the most frequent, is Tat-ka-ra, and the second Assa. He has also left texts at Wady-Magharah, which tell us of works executed during his reign in the mines
of this mountain. His pjTamid is called nofer^ that is, ' the beautiful ; ' unfortunately we have no means of fixing its position. A very precious recollection of him has been preserved in a literary work composed by his son, Prince Patah-hotep. Let us sa}^ a word on this papyrus, which is probably the most ancient manuscript in the world, and which is better known under the name of the Prisse papyrus. It was bought by a Frenchman of this name at Thebes, and given to the National Library at Paris. The greater part of this document contains a treatise by the son of Assa, and relates to the virtues necessary for man, and to the best manner of arranging his life and making his way in the world. The general title is conceived in these words : " This is the teaching of the governor Patahhotep under the majesty of King Assa ; long may he live." At the time when he composed his book, he must have been very old, since he describes the decrepitude of his old age in very significant terms. " The eyes," he says, " are very diminutive, and the ears stopped up ; power is constantly diminished, the mouth is silent and does not speak, the memory is closed and does not remember the past. The bones are not in a state to render service ; that which was good is become bad. Even the taste is gone. Old age makes a man miserable in
every way. The nose is stopped and does not breathe." It was thus that the prince begins the question which forms the subject of his book, which was to give to youth precepts which were justified by the practice of his long life, and frequently given in a humorous vein.
It is extremely interesting to follow the simple words which in an antique style represent the thoughts of the old man, and which touch almost all the conditions of human life. One of the most beautiful specimens is without doubt the following piece. He characterizes admirably the spirit of humanity which breathes through these precepts of a very high moral tendency. " If thou art become great, after thou hast been humble, and if thou hast amassed riches after poverty, being because of that the first in thy town ; if thou art known for thy wealth, and art become a great lord, let not thy heart become proud because of thy riches, for it is God who is the author of them for thee. Despise not another who is as thou wast ; be towards him as towards thy equal."
Although the tombs of this ancient epoch reveal to us frequently traits, extremely favorable to our ideas of humanity, we cannot compare what they tell us with the na'ive and simple language of the precepts of Prince Patah-hotep. It is neither the
priest nor the prince wlio addresses the youth of his day; it is simply the man who teaches them. Nor is he a morose philosopher. Is there anything truer, and at the same time more persuasive, than his exhortation, " Let thy face be cheerful as long as thou livest ; has any one come out of the coffin after having once entered it ? "
DYNASTY.
With this fifth dynasty ended the first great division of the series of pharaohs, and also the preeminence of Memphis. The seat of government vras transferred to middle Egypt, and at some time during the sixth dynasty Thebes arose. But though there are many pharaohs whose names are well known and of whose exploits there are some traces, yet for the most part a veil of impenetrable darkness rests upon the long period down to the end of the eleventh dynasty.
The twelfth dynasty stands out in a light that has almost the clearness of authentic history. It was a period in which strong monarchs ruled, and in which art was cultivated with magnificent results. Thebes was the capital, and upon its temples and palaces the most enormous labor and expense was lavishly bestowed. The sanctuary of the great temple of Amon, at Karnac, whose ruins present to us walls, columns (the so-called Proto-Doric), and
pictures covered with the names of the kings of this house, kept on increasing from this time of its foundation, till it became an imperial building, whose walls of stone reveal to us the history of the Theban kings.
What lends a high worth to these ages is not only the greatness of the kings, founded on the wisdom of their domestic rule, and the glory of their victories in foreign countries : art also, with all its striving after beauty and noble forms, was cherished by these rulers, and skilful masters produced an immense number of beautiful works and pictures. Their ancestors of earlier times had already understood how to work with unknown but incomparable tools the hard substance of the granite and similar stones, to polish the surface like a mirror, and to fit the gigantic masses together, not unfrequently with iron clamps, as in the structure of the Great Pyramid. But, although the hand of the studious artist had worked in hard stone, and fashioned after life what nature had already produced in flesh and bone> yet there was still wanting the last stamp of perfection — namely, beauty which moves us to admiration. Beginning with the race of the Theban kings of the twelfth dynasty, the harmonious form of beauty united with truth and nobleness meets the eye of the beholder as well in buildings as in statues.
The great labyrinth and the excavation for the artificial lake Moeris were made during this period. In every part of the kingdom the power of these pharaohs was felt. In Tanis, 'the great city' of the lower country, inhabited all round by races of Semitic origin, the kings of the twelfth dynasty had already raised buildings and invoked the sculptor's art, to do honor to the gods themselves by these splendid works. *The portrait of Usurtasen even has been found in some ruins of this temple world.
The rich paintings placed with profusion on the walls of the tomb of Khnumhotep, a great lord under the reign of Usurtasen II., have an inestimable value for a knowledge of the arts, the trades, and the domestic and public life of the Egyptians of this epoch, quite apart from the holy things to which, in detail, the paintings and inscriptions relate. The very interesting scenes with which the hall of sacrifice is adorned are of great importance in an historical point of view. They relate to the arrival in Egypt of a family of the Semitic nation of the Amu, which has quitted its native country to fix its abode on the blessed banks of the Nile. This family is composed of thirty-seven persons, men, women, and children, who present their respects to the person of Khnumhotep, asking of him, as it seems, a good reception. The royal scribe Nofer-
hotep, an official in the service of Khnumliotep, offers to his chief a leaf of papyrus, with an inscription in this sense : " In the sixth year in the reign of King Usurtasen II. ; an account of the Amu who brought to the king's son, Khnumhotep, while he was alive, the paint for the eyes called Mastemut of the country of Pitshu. Their number is composed of thirty-seven persons." The scribe in question is followed by another personage, an Egyptian by nation, whom a small hieroglyphic legend designates as ' the steward of those, of the name of Khiti.' Without doubt, then, these Semitic immigrants, as soon as they arrived in the territory of Khnumhotep, were placed under the care of Khiti. After these personages, who are charged with the introduction, the chief of the Amu presents himself with his suite. The first bears the name and the title of ' hak prince of the country of Abesha.' Tills name is of pure Semitic origin, and recalls that of Abishai, borne by the son of the sister of king David, who was distinguished by his military talents in the service of his uncle. Our Abesha approaches respectfully the person of Khnumhotep, whom 'the eldest son whom God had given him accompanies,' and offers him, as a gift or baksheesh, a magnificent wild goat of the kind still found in our day on the rocks of the peninsula of Sinai. Be-
hind him we see his travelling companions, bearded men, armed with lances, bows, and clubs ; the women, dressed in the lively fashions of the Amu ; the children, and the asses, loaded with the baggage of the travellers, fixing their curious eyes on the Egyptian lord Khnumhotep; while a companion of the little party seems to elicit the harmony of sounds, by the aid of a plectrum, playing on a lyre of very old. form. An inscription, traced above the scene which we have been describing, reads, ' paint for the eyes, Mastemut, which thirty-seven Amu bring.' The paint in question was an article very much prized in Egypt. It served as a cosmetic to dye the eyebrows and the eyelids a black color ; and they painted under the two eyes a green stripe as a strange adornment. This paint was furnished by the Arabs or Shasu, who inhabited the land called Pitshu (the particular Egyptian term for the better known Midian), and, with their laden beasts, took *■ the desert route from the east to Egypt, to traffic with the inhabitants of the Nile valley. This curious picture may serve as an illustration of the ■ history of the sons of Jacob, who arrived in Egypt to implore the favor of Joseph. But it would be a singular error to suppose in this picture at BeniHassan any allusion to the history in the Holy Scriptures.
SEMITES AND EGYPTIANS.
According to the testimony of the Turin book of the kings, the reigns of the rulers, who towards the end of the thirteenth dynasty occupied the throne, must have been of comparatively short duration, since they scarcely lasted on an average for four 3^ears. The cause of such a striking fact must be sought in internal troubles in the empire, in civil wars and struggles of individual occupants of the throne, who interrupted the regular succession, and made the existence of collateral dynasties very probable. Next to the kings of the thirteenth dynasty of Theban or Upper Egyptian origin, there appeared seventy-six pharaohs, who, according to the Manethonian account, had fixed their royal abode in the Lower Egyptian town Sakhau, or Khasau, called by the Greeks Xois. This internal discord, caused by the ambitious plans of the possessors of power in Upper and Lower Egypt, gives us on the one hand the explanation of the long silence of the contemporary monuments, and on
the other hand a key to the full understanding of the success of the warlike invasion, which brought a foreign race into Egypt, who would never have dared to oppose the armed powers of the united empire of Kemi.
The inhabitants settled between the branches of the Nile were for the most part of pure Egyptian race. The boundary of demarcation, which separated this race from the neighboring peoples, was on the west the so-called Canopic branch of the Nile, as the Pelusiac branch was the boundary in the opposite direction to the east.
When we turn to the eastern boundary of the Delta, Semitism meets us according to the testimony of the monuments in the most evident manner. The principal region of it comprehends the country to the east of the Tanitic branch of the Nile, in which were situated the three Lower Egyptian nomes VIII., XIV., and XX. The capital of the fourteenth nome, the town of Tanis, which gave its name to the branch of the Nile which runs by it, bore the foreign designation Zar, Zal, and even in the plural Zaru, as if it were to be translated ' the town of Zar.' The name Tanis, which was given to it by the Greeks, is to be carried back to another designation of it, namely to the Egyptian form Zean, Zoan. It is the same name which we meet with
in Holy Scripture as Zoan, which was built seven years later than Hebron ; (Numbers xiii. 23.) The town of Tanis is everywhere in the Egyptian inscriptions designated as an essentially foreign town, the inhabitants of which are represented ' as the people in the eastern border lands.' The eastern border land is however nothing else than the ordinary designation of what was later the Tanaitic nome, which, although not often, appears in the list of nomes under the denomination of Ta mazor, that is, ' the fortified land,' in which may easily be recognized the long-sought most ancient form of the Hebrew name for Egypt, Mazor or Misraim.
On the granite memorial stone of the year 400, of the era of king Nubti, or Nub, which was discovered in Tanis, and whose designation of the year to this day puzzles the heads of the learned, there appears ' a governor of the fortress,' Zal, who besides this office enjoyed the title of ' governor of the foreign peoples.' In this example also there is question of inhabitants of foreign origin in that portion of the Egyptian Delta which we have mentioned.
The papyrus rolls of the time of the nineteenth dynasty with a certain preference busy themselves with this town, which, besides the two names we have mentioned, bore also a third, Pi-ramses, that is the ' town of Ramses.' About the origin of this
name, and about the identity of the town Ramses with the biblical Ramses, w'e will further on collect together what is necessary to elucidate the subject. With reference to this question, the papyrus rolls to which we have alluded mention a number of lakes and waters, situated in the neighborhood of the foreign town Zal, whose peculiar designations at once remind us of their Semitic origin. I will mention as an example of the names of waters rich in fish and birds — the Shaanau, Putra, Nachal, Puharta or Puharat. The marshes and lakes rich in water-plants, which at this day are known by the name of Birket Menzaleh, were then called by the name common to all these waters, Sufi (or with the Egyptian article, Pa-sufi, which is the same as ' the Sufi'), which word completely agrees with the Hebrew Suf. The interpreters generally understand this word in the sense of rushes or a rushy country, while in old Egj^ptian it almost completely answers to a water rich in papyrus plants.
To the east of the Tanaitic nome, or the ' Eastern border land,' another nome was situated on the sandy banks of the Pelusiac branch of the Nile, the eighth in the general enumeration of the Egyptian nomes, which the inscriptions represent under the designation of the 'point of the east.' The capital of the nome we have mentioned bore the
name Pi-tom, that is, ' the town of the sungod Tom,' in which we must immediately recognize the Pithom of the Bible. The town occupied a central situation of the district, whose name also must be referred to a foreign origin. It is the district Suko, or Sukot, the Succoth of the Holy Scriptures at the exodus of the children of Israel out of Egypt, the meaning of which, ' tent,' or ' tent camp,' can be only established by the help of the Semitic. Such a designation is not extraordinary for a district whose natural peculiarity quite answers to the meaning of the name, since it embraces places with meadows, the property of pharaoh, on which the wandering Bedouins of the eastern desert pitched their tents to afford necessary food for their cattle. Even as late as the Grseco-Roman times of Egyptian history appears the designation ' tents ; ' and tent-camp (Scense) is also applied to places where they were accustomed to pitch their camp of tents. The site of the town Pitom is on the monuments frequently more closely defined by the important designation 'at the entrance of the east,' 'at the eastern entrance,' namely from the desert into Egypt. A piece of water in the neighborhood of the town received again a name borrowed not from the Egyptian, but Semitic language, namely, Charma, or Charoma, which means ' the piercing.'
To return once more to Sukot, we must remind the reader that the children of Israel in their journey out from the town Ramses pitched their first camp in the country called ' the tents.' On the second day they reached in their wanderings th3 place to which the Bible gives the name of Etham. I have elsewhere proved that this place also, according to Egyptian testimony, was either in the country of Sukot, or at least in its close neighborhood. It is the place called Chetam, on various occasions, in the hieratic papyrus rolls, the meaning of which, ' a shut-up place, fortress,' completely agrees with the Hebrew Etham. We shall have the opportunity of returning to this ChetamEtham when we describe the exodus of the children of Israel.
In the same nome, the eighth of the description on the monuments, and the same which the Greeks and Romans used to call the Sethroitic, lay without doubt that most important town, which became the turning-point in the following history, the town Hauar, the literal interpretation of which is ' the house of the leg' (uar). In a particular place in the Manethonian description of the dominion of the foreigners, the so-called Hyksos kings, which has fortunately been preserved in an extract of the Jewish historian Josephus, there occurs a mention
of the same name. Manetho names the town Auaris — and incidentally deduces its origin from a religious tradition. A closer examination of the nome with its towns, as they are described to us in the different more or less detailed and well-arranged lists on the monuments of the Ptolemies, renders it probable that other places also of the land of Egypt bore the name of Hauar, and particularly those which in their Serapeums, that is, in the temples of the dead, dedicated to the benefactor of the land, Osiris, carefully preserved the legs of the god as holy relics. Thus was named, for example, the capital of the third Lower Egyptian nome, or the Libyan, with a name added, Hauar-ament, that is, ' the town of the right leg.' The great inscription, so important for a know^ledge of the land of Egypt, on the wall of the most holy place in the middle of the temple of Edfou (Apollinopolis Magna), completely confirms the statement that the inliabitants of that town of the Libyan nome, ' worshipped this leg in one of the temples dedicated to the Apis bull.' We may, therefore, with complete justice, maintain that the name also of the town Avaris, on the eastern side of the Delta, was connected with this peculiar worship of the leg of Osiris. Lastly, it is not difficult to recognize the left leg of the god, because of the evident refer-
ence to the peculiar situation of the arms of the Nile, which was well known to be considered as another form and manifestation of Osiris. After the stream has divided itself at the point of the Delta, into a fork in the neighborhood of a place called Kerkasorus (this designation seems to have the meaning of split, ' Kerk,' of Osiris), so as to form two main arms, or, as the Egyptians were accustomed to say, legs, the Canopic to the west, and the Pelusiac to the east, the western arm was considered as the right leg of Osiris, and the Pelusiac on the contrary as the left leg of the god. The towns situated in the neighborhood of the mouth were naturally considered as peculiar Osiris cities, in whose holy of holies the legs of that god played so peculiar a part. By this method of understanding it the saga finds its full explanation.
The town Hauar Avaris, with which we are at this moment occupied, lay, as we said, to the east of the Pelusiac branch of the Nile, with which, according to all probability, it was connected by a canal, if the theory should not be accepted that it was placed directly on the shore of the branch of the Nile at its mouth, when the river had become very broad. By a gradual silting up of this branch in the course of thousands of ^'ears, the restitution of the ancient bed of the river, and the right deter-
mination of the situation of the towns on its banks, has become so difficult a task, that we can have no hope of finding anywhere the site of the Hyksos town Avaris, which • has disappeared, unless some very fortunate accident should bring about its discovery. But that Hauar must in any case be sought in the neighborhood of a lake is taught us in the most positive manner by the much cited inscription in the tomb at El-kab of the navigator Aahmes, the faithful servant of the pharaoh who, in the history of his life, relates how he came there, when the Egyptian fleet was engaged in fighting the foreign enemies in the waters Pa-zetku, or Zeku, of the town of Hauar. This name also, in spite of the Egyptian article placed before it, has a Semitic appearance, so that -I should not hesitate to compare it with corresponding roots of Semitic languages.
Another place situated on the same territory of the Sethroite nome, bears on the monuments a purely Semitic name, Maktol, or Magdol ; this is nothing else than the Hebrew Migdol, with the meaning of a ' town,' or fortress, out of which the Greeks formed on their side the well-sounding^ name Magdolon. That the ancient Egyptians were well acquainted with the meaning of this word, which was foreign to their language, is conclu-
sively proved by the masculine article being placed before it, and the sign of a wall which was added to the foreign word when written in Egyptian. The site of this Migdol, of which mention is made in the Bible, not only in the description of the exodus of the Jews out of Egypt, but also in occasional passages, was distinctly stated to be at one of the most northern points of the inhabited country of the Egyptians ; and as it also bore on the monuments the native name of Samut, must be sought in the heaps of rubbish at Tell-es-Samut on the eastern side of Lake Menzaleh. With this fortress Migdol, between which and the sea King * Ramses III. once tarried with a portion of his infantry, as a not inactive witness of the victory of his Egyptian fleet over the confederated seafaring people of the islands and coasts of the Mediterranean, the list of defences, which were intended to protect the country on the east, is not yet closed. There lay in the direction of the north-east, on the western border of the so-called Lake Sirbonis, an important place for the defence of the frontier, called Anbu, that is ' the Avail,' ' the circumvallation.' It is frequently mentioned by the ancients, not under its Egyptian appellation, but in the form of a translation. The Hebrews call it Shur, that is ' the wall,' and the Greeks ' to Gerrhon,' or ' ta
Gerrha,' which means ' the fences,' or ' enclosures.'' This remark will at a stroke remove all difficulties which have hitherto existed with reference to the origin of this word, which in spite of difference in sound nevertheless refers to one and the same place.
Whoever travelled eastwards from Egypt to leave the country, was obliged to pass the place called ' the walls,' before he was allowed to enter the road of the Philistines, as it is called in Holy Writ, on his further journey. An Egyptian garrison, under the command of a captain, guarded the passage through the fortress, which only opened and closed on the suspicious wanderer if he was furnished with a permission from the royal authorities. Anbu-Shur-Gerrhon was also the first stoppingplace on the great military road, Avhich led from the Delta by Chetam-Etham and Migdol to the desert of Shur. From Anbu, passing by the fortress of Uit, in the land of Hazi, or Hazion (Kassiotis of the ancients), the traveller reached the tower, or Bechen, of Aanecht (Ostrakene), where occurred the boundary of the countries of Kemi and Zaha. On the foreign territory of the last-named place the traveller reached, always passing along the coast of the sea, the place Ab-sakabu (having the same meaning in Semitic as Rhinokolura, or Rhinokorura
with the Greeks, namely, ' the place of the mutilation of the noses '), and at length reached the country of the inhabitants living on the borders of Palestine.
Thus there lay in the neighborhood of Mendes, perhaps even in Mendes itself, a fortified place called ' the fortress of Azaba,' the last part of which does not belong to the Egyptian tongue but to a Semitic stock. This is the fortress of Ozaeb, in Hebrew — i.e. 'of the idol.' Another well-known town, in the account of the war of the first Meneptah against the Libyan groups of peoples on the east side of the Delta, bore the appellation Pibailos, ' the town Bailos ' (Greek, Byblos ; Coptish, Phelbes), the Semitic origin of which is made clear by it^ evident relationship with the Hebrew, Balas (the mulberry). In its neighborhood was the lake Shakana, also with a non-Egyptian name, the meaning of which is only explained by the Semitic root shakan — ' to settle down, to live, to be neighbors to.' More inland, in the middle of the same region of the Delta, the traveller met, to the west of the Athribitic nome, the town Kahani, a name with a foreign Semitic sound, which recalls at once the Hebrew hohen^ ' priests.' In this way it is not difficult by comparative philology to point out other examples of the connection between the
Semitic inhabitants.
But the presence of Semitic natives on the Egyptian land is shown from other sources, whether they were planted pure and unmixed on the soil, or were led by time and circumstances to seek their bread there. The memorial stones found in the cities of the dead in Ancient Egypt, and the coffins and the rolls of papyrus, show unmistakably the presence of Semitic persons, who were settled in the valley of the Nile, and had, so to speak, obtained the. rights of citizenship; as also, on the other side, the inclination of the Egyptians to give to their children Semitic, or, by a siiigular mixture, half Egyptian and half Semitic names.
The inclination of the Egyptian mind to Semitic modes of life must, in my opinion, be explained from their having long lived together, and from very early existing mutual relations of the Egyptian and Semitic races. Above all things else, it must not be lost sight of that the trade relations, which extended from the Nile to the Euphrates, had contributed to introduce into Egypt foreign expressions for many products of the soil and foreign works of art. The animal world also, when they had not their home in the valley of the Nile, brought their contributions of words borrowed from the Semitic —
as, ' sns ' for a horse, ' kamal ' for a camel, ' abir ' for a particular kind of ox. The endeavor to pay court, in the most open manner, to whatever was Semitic, became, in the time of the nineteenth and twentieth dynasties, a really absurd mania. They introduced Semitic words in place of Egyptian words already existing in their own mother-tongue, and in the writing of their country ; and turned even Egyptian words into Semitic, by transposition of the syllables, if we may use such an expression. But the worst of it was that the most educated and best informed portion of the Egyptian people, the world of priests and scribes, found an especial pleasure in decking their history with Semitic words, which they used to employ in the place of good Egyptian expressions. They used Semitic expressions like the following : rosh, ' head ' ; sar, ' a king ' ; belt, ' a house ' ; bab, ' a door ' ; bir, ' a spring ' ; birkata, ' a lake ' ; ketem, ' gold ' ; shalom, ' to greet ' ; rom, ' to be high ' ; barak, ' to bless ' ; and many others.
We must here, on this subject, not forget a remark which, when ;tvell understood, is calculated to explain in some degree this striking fact, and to excuse what seems worthy of blame in this mania for the introduction of foreign words into the mother-tongue. In the east' of the lowlands, in those countries of which we have spoken above,
and whose central point was the cities of Ramses and Pitom, the Semitic immigration had extended so widely, and had reached such a preponderance over the Egyptian population, that, in the course of centuries, a gradual blending of both nations took place. It led to the formation of a mixed people, traces of which have been preserved unchanged in tliQse places to the present day. The neighboring Egyptians, weaker in numbers, found it convenient not only to adopt the manners and usages of the Semites, but began to take an inclination to the worship of foreign idols, and to enrich their own divine lore with new and hitherto unknown heavenly forms of foreign origin. At the head of all stood, half Egyptian and half Semitic, the godhead of Set or Sutech, with the additional name Nub,* 'gold,' who was considered universally as the representative and king of the foreign deities in the land of Mazour. According to his essence, a most ancient Egyptian creation, Set, at the same time gradually became the representative of all foreign countries — the god of the foreigners.
* It is a very remarkable fact, that, from the times of the highest antiquity in Eastern representations, the curse of the Typhonic deities adheres to gold. According to a Greek tradition (Plutarch on Isis and Osiris, p. 30), at the sacrificial feast of Helios the worshippers of the god were directed to carry no gold about their persons, just as in the present day the followers of Mohammed take off all gold trinkets before they go through the appointed prayers.
If I mention the names of Baal and Astarta, which we so frequently meet with in the inscriptions, it is scarcely necessary to state that both have their origin in the Phoenician divine lore. As in Sidon, so in Memphis, the warlike Astarta (who in the Egyptian monuments of a later time was represented as a lion-headed goddess, guiding with her own hand her team of horses yoked to the chariot of war) had her own temple ; and we have proof that Ramses II. raised a particular temple to her houor and her service on the lonely shore of the Mediterranean, near the Lake Sirbonis.
Less frequently occurring on the monuments than the previously mentioned representatives of the Semitic divinities, the fierce Reshpu still had his place in the Egyptian host of heaven. He was called ' the end of long times, the king of eternity, the lord of strength in the midst of the host of gods ; ' and the goddess, Kadosh, that is ' the holy,' whose name already indicates the peculiar character of her heavenly existence. The frolicsome Bes, or Bas, also, the chief of song and of music, of pleasures, and all social amusements, must be mentioned in this place, since he was, according to his origin, a pure child of the Semitic race of the Arabs. His name, in their language, means Lynx and Cat ; and we think we are not carrying the comparison too far if we
at once place by his side tlie cat-headed goddess, the protectress of the town of Bubastus, the much venerated lissom Bast. If we also mention that the Phoenician Onka, and the Syrian Anait, or Anaitis, belong to those heavenly beings whose names and forms are again found in the Egyptian divine world, where they take their places under the names of Anka and Anta, then we have exhausted the principal representatives of the Semitic deities in the old Egyptian theology.
Perhaps the influence of the Semitic neighborhood on Egyptian matters might be proved from looking at it in a new point of view. In this case a very remarkable and striking fact will bear convincing evidence in favor of our views. We allude here to the peculiar era, found nowhere else, which an Egyptian courtier once used, in the fourteenth century before Christ, to indicate the year of the execution of an inscription. I refer to the celebrated memorial stone of Tanis, erected in the reign of the second Ramses.
Contrary to the custom and usage, of reckoning time b}^ the day, month, and year of the reigning king, the stone of Tanis offers us the only example as yet discovered, which, according to appearances, resorts to a foreign and not an Egyptian mode of reckoning time. There is here question of the year
400 of king Nub, a prince belonging to the foreign lords of the Hyksos. In other words, if we do not misunderstand the main issue, in the town of Tanis, whose inhabitants for the most part belonged to Semitic races, this mode of reckoning was in such general use that the person who raised the memorial-stone thought it nothing extraordinary to employ it as a mode of reckoning time in the beautifully engraved inscription on granite which was exhibited before all eyes in a temple. There can hardly be a stronger proof of the influence of Semitic manners on the Egyptian spirit and customs than the testimony we have brought forward of the stone of Tanis. A preponderating and almost irresistible power of Semitism lies hidden here, the importance of which it is as well to remark upon before we undertake to describe the history of the irruption of the foreigners into Egypt, and the consequences connected with it on the condition of the empire. Taking into consideration all this testimony, which seems to speak in favor of our view of the importance of Semitic influence on Egyptian relations, we will question the monuments for confirmation of the presence of Semitic races and families on Egyptian soil. We will direct our attention to the eastern provinces of the Delta, which offered the only entrance to wanderers from the east.
As an answer, we insert the -literal translation of a circular, whicli was composed in the course of the nineteenth dynasty, and with the view on the part of the writer to give a report to his superior on the admission of foreign immigrants to Egyptian soil.
"I will now pass to something else which will give satisfaction to the heart of my lord (namely to give him an account of it), that we have permitted the races of the Shasu of the land of Aduma (Edom) to pass through the fortress Chetam (Etham) of Mineptah-Hotephimaat — Life, weal, and health to him — which is situated in the land of Sukot near the lakes of the town Pitom of King Minex)ta]i-IIotephimaat, which is situated in the land of Sukot, to nourish themselves and to nourish their cattle on the property of Pharaoh, who is a good sun for all nations."
In this extremely important document of the time of the first Mineptah, the son of Ramses II., there is question of the races of the sons of the desert, or to use the Egyptian name for these, the races of the Shasu, in which science has for a long time and wjth perfect certainty recognized the Bedouins of the highest antiquity. They inhabited the great desert between Egypt and the land of Canaan, and extended their wanderings sometimes as far as the river Euphrates. According to the monuments, the Shasu
belonged to the great race of the Amu, of which they were the head representatives. In the times of the first Seti, the father of Ramses II., the laud passed through by the Shasu began at the fortress Zal Tanis, and stretched towards the east as far as the hill-town ' of Canana,' in Wady Araba to the south of the Dead Sea, which Seti I. took hj storm in his campaign against the Bedouins. The author of the writing designates those Shasu who were permitted by superior authority to enter the Egyptian kingdom, as the Shasu of the land of Aduma, which was the Edom of the Bible and the land of Idumsea of later times. The tribes of the Shasu, who are referred to in the circular we have quoted, were therefore sufficiently designated as inhabitants of the land of Edom. The position of these last is more closely defined in Holy Writ as the mountainous country of Seir.
On this occasion we have the satisfaction to declare once again the complete agreement of the information on the monuments with the statements of Holy Writ. In that place of the Harris papyrus, in which mention is made of the campaigns of king Ramses III. against these very Shasu, an important observation is introduced into the speech of the king. He speaks thus: 'ari-a sek Sair-u em mahaut Sasu ; ' that is, ' I annihilated the Sair among
the tribes of the Shasu.' The name of Sair answers letter for letter with the Hebrew word Seir. The comparison must appear all the more founded, as the Egyptian writer has appended to the written words of the name the sign for dumbness, which is the hieroglyphic for a child, as if he wished by this to prove his knowledge of the Semitic language, in which Sa'ir means ' the little one.' The Se'irites, the children of Se'ir, were dwellers in caves, and original inhabitants of the mountain range of Se'ir. At a later period, hunted down by the children of Esau, they yielded their land to the conquerors, to whom the appellation of Se'irites, as inhabitants of the Se'ir range, was afterwards transferred.
With the help of this knowledge beforehand, it is no longer difficult to assign their true place to the Shasu on the theatre of events which are the object of our inquiry. The land of Edom and the neighboring hill-country was the home of the principal races of the Shasu, which in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries before our era left their mountains to fall upon Egypt with weapons in their hands, or in a friendly manner followed by their flocks and herds to beg sustenance for themselves and their cattle, and to seek an entrance into the rich pastures of the land of Succoth. Manifestly the calls of hunger drove them to the rich corn lands of the
become settled inhabitants.
As in the neighborhood of the town of Ramses and the place Pitom the Semitic population had formed the main foundation of the inhabitants from hoar antiquity, and as subjects of the pharaoh had been obedient to the laws of the empire, so in the lapse of time, in another part of the eastern provinces, in the country of Pibailos (the Bilbeis of modern maps), close on the edge of the desert and in sight of the cultivated land, disagreeable neighbors had fixed themselves and pitched their tents where they found pasture for their cattle. These were Bedouins, who according to all probability found their way from the dreary desert through the difficult paths of the great papyrus marsh near the present town of Suez in a north-western direction, to find the object of their wandering near the town of Pibailos. Mineptah I., the son and successor of Ramses II., gives on the monument of his victories in Karnak a graphic account of the dangerous character of these unbidden guests to whom, from Pibailos to On and Memphis, the way lay open, without the kings his predecessors having found it worth while to establish fortresses, to bar the way of these strangers to the most important cities of
the lower country. When the pharaoh we have named succeeded to the throne of his fathers, the danger of a sudden irruption on this side appeared all the more threatening, because on the other side the Libyans, the western neighbors of the Egyptians, with their allies suddenly passed the frontiers of Kemi, and extended their plundering raids into the heart of the inhabited and cultivated western nomes of the Delta. According to the report of the inscription of his victories (unfortunately injured by the lesion of the upper part), Mineptah I. saw himself obliged to take precautions for the safety of the land. For the protection of the eastern frontier, the capitals On and Memphis were provided with the necessary fortifications, for as the cited inscription expressly says, " the foreigners had pitched their ahil* or tents before the town of Pibailos, and the districts at the lakes of Shakana to the north of the canal of the Heliopolite nome had remained unused, for they had been abandoned to serve as mere pasture of the herds because of the foreigners, and had become deserted from the time of our forefathers-! All the kings of Upper Egypt
t The translation of this sentence presents a difficulty which I can hardly think I have solved. There can, however, be no doubt of the general meaning, and that the author of the inscription intended to say what I have pointed out in my translation.
were living in their magnificent buildings, and the kings of Lower Egypt enjoyed peace in their cities. All around the order of the land was threatened by disturbers. The armed force was wanting in people to assist them to give them an answer."
Before we cast a glance at the neighbors of the Egyptians of the Delta, who carried on war and traffic with the inhabitants of Kemi, it seems useful to attend to a particular circumstance, which is not without importance for arriving at a right judgment on Semitism.
Our advancing knowledge of the contents of the Egyptian papyri permits us, even at the present time, to cast an intelligent glance at the administration of the eastern provinces, which had for its central point the town of foreigners, Zoan-Tanis, in the time of the great Ramessides and their successors. Hence went forth the commands of the king, or of the chief officials of the king, relating to the management of business or the regulation of trade with ' the foreign nations,' or, to use the Egyptian expression for these, with the Pit. A portion of these consisted of the industrious settled population in towns and villages ; another portion served in the army, of the pharaoh as infantry and cavalry, or as sailors ; others were used in the public works, the most laborious of which were the mines and quar-
ries. Over each larger and smaller division of ' foreigners,' who with their names and origin were carried on the list of the royal archives, an official was placed, the so-called. Hir-pit, or steward of the foreigners. His next superior was the captain of the district, or Adon (here also they used the Semitic form for this title), while as chief authority the Ab of the pharaoh (this was the dignity which Joseph held), or royal Wezer, issued orders in the name of the ruler. The authority over the foreign people lay in the hands of particular bailiffs (the so-called Mazai), who in the principal cities of the land had to look after and preserve public order, and who were under an Ur, or superior, by whom the carrying out of public buildings was frequently undertaken as an additional duty. I pass over a host of other officials, who, in the eastern provinces of the Delta as in the rest of Egypt, carried on the administration of the nomes, and I will only mention that frequently the foreign subjects were promoted to important offices in connection with the government. They seem to have been most appreciated as the bearers of official documents in the trade transactions between Egypt and the neighboring Palestine: The chief seats of this trade, the importance of which is shown by individual papyri, besides the frontier town of Ramses, seem to have been the
Edomites and Amorites.
We will embrace the opportunity we have long desired, in this place to consider the neighbors in Palestine, who continually carried on the most lively intercourse with the Egyptians in old time, and partially formed the foundation of the foreign inhabitants in the eastern provinces of the Delta. In the first rank stand the Char, or Chal, by which name not only a people but the country they inhabited was also known, namely, those parts of western Asia lying on the Syrian coast, and before all others the land of the Phoenicians. Richly laden ships went and came from the land of Char ; for the inhabitants of Char carried on a lively trade with the Egyptians, and seem, if we are not to mistrust the monuments and the rolls of the books, to have been a highly-esteemed and respectable people.
Even the male and female slaves from Char were highly esteemed as merchandise, and were procured by distinguished Egyptians at a high price, whether for their own houses, or for service in the holy dwellings of the Egyptian gods.
The land of the Char bears in the inscriptions another name, the most ancient mention of which is supported by all the testimony we could desire^
namely, by witnesses in the first times of the eighteenth dynasty, about the year 1700 B. c. It is always called Kefa, or Keft, Kefeth, Kefthu, on the monuments. As at a certain time of Egyptian history, namely, at the beginning of the reign of the first Seti, the territory of the Shasu extended as far as the town of Ramses, about a hundred years later, the seats of the people of Char, or the Phoenicians, were described as ' beginning with the fortress Zar (Tanis Ramses), and extending to Aupa, or Aup.' The last-mentioned name designates a place in the north of Palestine, without our being able more nearly to define its situation. On the other hand, the information is of very great importance, that these same Char had extended their seats quite into the heart of the Tanitic nome. We can, after the reasons we have given above, no longer be surprised* that these descendants of Phoenician race constituted on the eastern frontier of the Egyptian empire the real kernel of its fixed, industrious, artistic, and before all, its sea-faring and commercial population. In their habits and mode of life they were directly opposed to those wandering Shasu, the children of Esau, who traversed the deserts, and only remained with their herds so long on the property of pharaoh as the pastures suited them and supplied sustenance for themselves and their cattle.
The influence of the settled Char on Egyptian life is unmistakable in a thousand details, for a knowledge of which we have to tbank the monuments, and particularly the little rolls of papyrus. Even the fortified town of Zoan, if we are not completely deceived, seems to have been a very ancient habitation of the Phoenicians, since as well on the water side of it as by land, Zoan-Tanis constituted at the entrance to the Delta on the east, an important emporium of intercourse and trade with the whole of the rest of Egypt. The name of the city Zor, used as well as that of Zoan, reminds us too much of the celebrated Zor-Tyrus in the native country of the Phoenicians, for us to leave it unnoticed in an account of the traces of the Phoenician race.
The presence of the Char-Phoenicians in Egypt is, as already observed, made known to us in the most detailed manner by the inscriptions. I have already before spoken of those Semitic inhabitants who were employed in Egypt in all sorts of official service. To these in the first line belong the Phoenicians, or Char. Their importance culminates in the fact newly communicated to us by the monuments, that a Char-Phoenician, towards the end of the nineteenth dynasty, was able to conquer the throne and dominion over the Egyptians.
The Char spoke their own language, the Phoenician, upon the pecuharities of which, in relation to the other Semitic languages, the Phoenician inscriptions that have been hitherto discovered have already preserved plentiful information. Of all the languages spoken by Arab and western Asiatic nations, the monuments only notice the language of the Char, with a clear reference to its importance as the most cultivated representative of all the others. Whoever lived in Egypt spoke Egyptian (the language of the people of Kemi) ; whoever stayed in the south was obliged to speak the language of the 'Nahesi, or dark-colored people ; while those who went northwards to the Asiatic region must have been well acquainted with the language of the Phoenicians, in order in some degree to understand the inhabitants of the country.
The historical fact that the Phoenicians already, in the most ancient times of Egyptian history, formed a fixed settled population in the eastern provinces of the Egyptian empire, finds a kind of confirmation, or, if it is preferred, an explanation, from a remarkable circumstance. We mean the presence of the latest descendants of the old Phoenician race in the same seats which their forefathers occupied thousands of years ago. At this day the traveller meets on the shores of the Lake Menza-
leh, near the old towns and districts of Ramses and Pitom, a peculiar race of fishermen and sailors, whose manners and customs, whose historical traditions, however weak they may be, and whose ideas on religious matters, prove them to have been strangers to the real Egyptians. The inhabitants of this country, formerly Christians, who call themselves by the name of Malakin, were restless and rebellious subjects of the Khalifs.
The same inhabitants of the eastern provinces, who at this day navigate in their barks the shallow waters of Lake Menzaleh, and carry on the fishery as their chief business, are, as has been said, the descendants of the Phoenician inhabitants of the Tanitic and Sethroitic nomes. These were the people who ages ago gave to the fortified places of their Egyptian lands, and to the towns and villages which they once inhabited, and to the lakes and canals on which they navigated, those Semitic appellations by which we well know these places from the papyrus rolls.
What most marks their ancient and now forgotten origin, is their non-Egyptian countenance, so like the pictures of the Hyksos, with broad cheek-bones, and with daring pouting lips, which more than anything else marks the boatmen of Lake Menzaleh with the stamp of a foreign origin.
The history of the inhabitants of the eastern provinces lies buried and forgotten under the rubbish heaps of thousands of years. And yet their fathers were once the lords of the fate of Egypt, before whose rough strength the pharaohs bowed themselves powerless, and were obliged for centuries to pass a furtive existence in the southern portions of the empire. Set had conquered Osiris.
AccoEDiNG ,to the Manethonian account which the Jewish historian Josephus has preserved to us by transcribing it, the Egyptian Netherlands were at a certain time overspread by a wild and rough people, which came from the countries of the East, overcame the native kings who dwelt there, and took possession of the whole country, without finding any great opposition on the part of the Egyptians. The account of it in Josephus is literally as follows : —
*' There was a king called Timaius (or Timaos, Timios). In his reign, I know not for what reason, God was unpropitious, and people of low origin from the country of the East suddenly attacked the land, of which they easily and without a struggle gained possession. They overthrew those who ruled there, burned down the cities, and laid waste the temples of the gods. They ill-treated all the inhabitants, for they killed some, and carried into captivity others, with their wives and children.
" And they made one from the midst of them king, whose name was Salatis (Saltis, Silitis). He fixed his seat in Memphis, collected the taxes from the upper and lower country, and placed garrisons in the most important places. But he particularly fortified the eastern boundary, for he foresaw that the Assyrians, then the most powerful people, would undertake to make an attack on his kingdom.
" When he had found a town very conveniently situated, in the Sethroite nome to the east of the Bubastic branch of the Nile — on the grounds of an old mythical legend — it was called Auaris — he extended it, fortified it with very strong walls, and placed in it as a garrison two hundred and forty thousand heavy armed troops.
'* There he betook himself in summer, partly to watch over the distribution of provisions and the counting out their pay to his army, and partly also to strike fear into foreigners by making his army perform military manoeuvres.
of Egypt to the roots.
''The whole people bore the name of Hyksos, that is, 'shepherd kings.' For hyh means in the holy language a king, sos in the dialect of the people a shepherd or shepherds. These syllables, when put together, make the word Hyksos. Some think they were Arabs."
We will first of all turn our attention to the last statement, because it is of great importance for the fixing of the origin of this obscure people. If the kind reader will now recall to his thoughts what we have said about the Arab Bedouins, who inhabited the desert to the east of Egypt, and were called in Egyptian Shasu (also Shaus, Shauas), he will certainly be of the same opinion as ourselves, that those who maintain the Arab origin of the Hyksos, must have drawn their information from a pure Egyptian source. For that word Sos answers completely to the old Egyptian Shasu, in which the sound sA,*
* We will adduce further examples, borrowed from the work of Manetho, which leave no doubt that the Greek sign for s was used to represent the old Egyptian sound sh. Manetho transcribes the kings' names, Sheshonq as Sesonchis, Shabak as Sabakon, Shabatak as Sebichos. Also the name of king Chufu, which the Egyptians at the time of the composition of the work of Manetho
which did not exist in Greek, according to usage was replaced by a simple s . Although Manetho, when he talks of the Hyksos, insists upon the meaning of shepherd, he could only do this in consequence of a strange confusion, since he turns to the new and popular language of his own time to explain the second syllable sos, in which accidentally sos (or shos^ as the same word is still pronounced in Coptic) means a shepherd.
We have already before remarked how from time to time the Bedouin people *of the Shasu knocked at the eastern frontier door to obtain an entrance into Eg3^pt. We have, on the ground of testimony from an inscription of the time of the nineteenth dynasty, stated the certainty of their presence on the Egyptian soil, when hunger drove them from their native hills and valleys to the eastern provinces of the Pharaonic empire. Like the modern Bedouins, the Shasu were a pastoral people in the full sense of the word. The old name of the race of the Shasu and Shaus-Bedouins in the course of time became equivalent in the popular language to 'shepherds,' that is, a wandering people, who occupied themselves in bringing up cattle, which formed the only wealth
pronounced Shufu, was transcribed by Manetho Suphis. The older, and only correct pronunciation of this name has been carefully preserved in the Cheops of Herodotus.
the present day.
If the objection should be raised that the monuments (note well, those which have been discovered up to the present time) pass over in complete silence the name of Hyksos, this appearance of proof loses all its importance from the following consideration. By far the greater number of contemporary monuments which once existed as individual witnesses of the remembrance of the historical events under the rule of tiie foreign kings, have entirely disappeared from the surface of the Egyptian soil. It must be left to some lucky accident, that somewhere the stones now hidden or buried in the rubbish may come to the light of day, to give us new information about these portions of the history of the Egyptian empire, which are as obscure as they are important. The wonderland on the banks of the mighty Mle is a land of continual and startling discoveries, and will remain so for all coming times and generations. In the hope of finding important discoveries in the soil of Egypt in consequence of new excavations, we should esteem it unwise to give to our views the absolute form of a fixed unalterable judgment. But we may well be allowed to compare the information in the inscriptions of the few remains of the monuments which have been preserved with the ac-
counts whicli the Greeks have handed down to us, and from this to form our own opinion, and leave it to the consideration of the future, if by a happy accident our conjectures should be confirmed or refuted.
At the present moment we expressly affirm the complete agreement of the name of Hyksos with the Egyptian double word we have mentioned above — Hak Shaus, that is, ' king of the Arabs,' or ' king of the shepherds,' — the probability of which is proved by the actual existence of a similar form in the term Hak Abisha, 'king (or prince) of the land of Abisha,' which we meet with in the hall of the tomb of Khnumhotep at Beni-Hassan. We will not, however, on the other hand, maintain that the appellation Hak Shaus is the same which the bearers of it, of whatever descent they might boast, either formed of their own accord for themselves, or assumed on account of their office. It is far more probable that the Egyptians, when at last they drove away their tyrants of Semitic blood, gave these princes, who for several centuries had considered themselves as the legitimate kings of Egypt, the nickname Hak Shasu by way of a contemptuous expression.
An ancient tradition furnishes an important addition to the proofs of the Arab origin of the hated Hyksos kings, which has been preserved by sev-
eral_Arab historians of the Middle Ages. An Arab tradition tells us of a certain Sheddad (the name means a powerful ruler), the son of Ad, who made an irruption into Egypt, conquered the country, and extended his victorious campaign as far as the Straits of Gibraltar. He and his descendants, the founders of the Amalekite dynasty, are said to have maintained themselves more than two hundred years in Lower Egypt, where they made the town Awaris their capital.*
According to another tradition, on the testimony of Africanus (one of those who extracted from the work of Manetho), the Hyksos kings were Phoenicians, who took possession of Memphis, and made the town of Auaris, or Awaris, in the Sethroite norne, their chief fortress. This tradition also is not without a certain air of truth, if the reader will recall to mind what I ventured to state above regarding the Char-Phoenicians and the town Auaris. The ancient seats of the Shasu-Arabs and of the Phoenicians extended towards the west as far as the same town of Zor-Tanis. The two races must therefore have been located together in the closest manner — the first as wanderers, the last as fixed inhabitants of the eastern provinces of the Egyptian empire, which were possessed by the foreigners.
That the cultivated Khar in such a mixture of nations claimed the first rank, can scarcely need proof. Whether they or the Shasu were the oi-iginators of this movement against the native kings of the empire, is a point for the decision of which scientific research has hitherto failed to discover the means.
Let us leave entirely the ground of conjectures and probabilities, and turn now to the monuments, to see if they can furnish us with any existing traces of these foreigners to assist our researches. The answer is decidedly in the affirmative, but in such a general way that further inspection and examination is very necessary. The inscriptions designate this foreign people, which once ruled in Egypt till it was driven from the country by the The ban kings, by the name of Men, or Menti. According to the great table of nations on the walls of the temple of Edfou, those called Menti are inhabitants of the land of Asher. By the help of the demotic translation of the inscription, in two languages, on the great stone of Tanis (known Under the name of the decree of Canopus, a voucher, it is true, of the Ptolemaic times), we can establish that such was the common name of Syria in the mouths of the Egyptians who were then living ; while the older name of the same country, in the hieroglyphic part of the
stone, was5 Rutennu, with the addition, *of the East.' In the different languages, and in the different times of history, the following names, Syria, Rutennu of the East, Asher, and Menti, were therefore synonymous. We wish here to point out, although we leave the matter undecided, that Asher, in late Egyptian, may perhaps have meant the Semitic Ashur, or Assyria, and at last may have become contracted both as to the extent of country and common usage to the well-known geographical term Syria.
Of high importance with regard to the foregoing question appears to us the derivation of the old national name Rutennu (or Lutennu), which, in the history of the eighteenth dynasty, aud in the warlike campaigns of the pharaohs in the east, plays such an important part. As to the geographical extent to which this name applied, we are fortunately so well informed that no mistake can ever occur again. In the great catalogue of the towns of western Asia conquered by Thutmes III., whose inhabitants, after the battle of Megiddo, submitted to the Egyptian rule, they are described in a general superscription as all the population of ' the upper land of the Rutennu.' This proves, in the most positive manner, that the name of Upper Rutennu must have included in its circumference
was later that of the twelve tribes of Israel.
With this key in our hand, we can open many a closed door to the right understanding of the great movement of nations to the east of Egypt, so that we can survey with a clear glance the horizon of these migrations. If it is an undeniable fact, resulting from historical inquiry under the guidance of the monuments, that, immediately after the driving out of the Menti, the Egyptian kings of the eighteenth dynasty planned their campaigns of conquest against the countries of western Asia inhabited by the Rutennu, then there lay at the bottom of these obstinate constantly repeated inroads a fixed feeling of revenge and retribution for losses and injuries received. The conviction forces itself upon us almost irresistibly, that the irruption of the foreigners into Egypt was made by the Syrians, who, in their campaigns through the arid deserts, found in the Shasu-Arabs welcome allies who well knew the country. And here I am reminded of a similar alliance which Cambyses formed with the Arabs in his campaign against Egypt. They found also in the Semitic inhabitants settled in the eastern provinces brothers of the same race, with whose assistance they succeeded in giving a death-blow to the Egyptian empire, and of
independent life.
The present state of Egyptian inquiry, concerning the history of the Hyksos, has enabled us to find an answer to a number of questions which stand in close connection with these matters, and embrace the following facts : —
1. A certain number of non-Egyptian kings of foreign origin, belonging to the nation of the Menti, ruled for a long time in the eastern portion of the Delta.
2. The foreign princes had, besides the town Zoan, chosen as the capital of their power the typhonic place Hauar-Auaris, on the east side of the Pelusiac arm of the Nile, within what was called later the Sethroite nome, and had provided it with strong fortifications.
3. The foreigners had, besides the customs and manners, adopted the official language and the holy writing of the Egyptians. The whole arrangement of their court was formed on the Egyptian model.
4. These same foreign kings were patrons of art. Egyptian artists made, according to the old pattern and according to the prescribed usage of their forefathers, the monuments in honor of the foreign tyrants ; yet, in the statues of them, they were obliged to give way with regard to the expression
deviations of foreign costume.
5. These foreign kings honored, as the supreme god of their newly-acquired country, the son of the heavenly goddess Nut, the god Set or Sutekh, with the additional name Nub, ' gold,' or ' the golden,' — according to the Egyptian mode of viewing things, the origin of all that is bad and perverse in the seen and unseen world ; the opponent of what is good, and the enemy of light. In the towns of Zoan and Auaris the foreigners had constructed to the honor of this god splendid temples and other monuments, especially sphinxes, constructed of stone from Syene.
6. In all probability one of the foreign lords was the originator of the new era, which most likely began wdth the first year of his reign. Up to the reign of the second Ramses, four hundred full years had elapsed of this reckoning, which was acknowledged by the Egyptians.
T. The Egyptians were indebted to the stay of the foreigners, and to their social intercourse with them, for much useful knowledge. Especially the horizon of their artistic views was enlarged, and new forms and shapes were introduced into Egyptian art, the Semitic origin of which is obvious from
a single glance at these productions. The winged Sphinx may be. reckoned as a notable example of this new direction of art introduced from abroad.
We remarked above that the number of the monuments which contain memorials of the time of the Hyksos is very limited ; and we must add that the names of the Hyksos kings, with which they ornamented their own memorial-stones (statues, sphinxes, and similar works), or those of earlier Egyptian kings of the times before them, have arrived to us half obliterated or carefully chiselled out, so that the decipherment of the faint traces which remain has to struggle with great difficulties. These important lacunae in the study of the Egyptian monuments find a sufficient explanation in the proved and easily understood practice of the kings of native race who ascended the throne after the expulsion of the foreigners, and who particularly set themselves carefully to obliterate all remembrance of the hated princes, and to destroy and annihilate their works.
The names of the Hyksos kings, which are engraved on the more than life-size statue at Tell Mukhdam, the border of the stand of the colossal sphinxes in the Louvre, the lion found near Bagdad, the sacrificial stone in the Museum of Boulak, are scratched out with great care, so as to be
almost undistinguishable ; and science has to thank a happy accident for the preservation and decipherment of the names of two Hyksos kings. These are :
1. The king, whose first cartouche contains the name Ra aa-ab-taui, and whose second cartouche encloses the family name Apopi, or Apopa ; and,
The name of the first-mentioned .king, which would be pronounced in the Memphitic dialect Aphophi, differs little from that of the Shepherd king Aphobis, or Aphophis, Apophis, which, according to the Manethonian tradition, was the fourth of the above-named Hyksos kings. We will also not withhold the remark, that many Egyptians of these times call themselves Apopi, or Apopa, in the same way, with a certain predilection.
The names which designate the other Hyksos kings are in a striking manner similar in sound with the names which the god ' Set-Nub the powerful ' is accustomed to bear on the Egyptian monuments. Was it the intention of the foreign prince to be prayed to as the god Set ?
In the deep obscurity in which a pitiless fate has hidden the history of the irruption and the dominion of the Hyksos kings in Egypt, a ray of light is
foreigners.
In a roll of papyrus in the British Museum (Sallier, No. 1) there is, although unfortunately much interrupted with lacunse, the beginning of an historical description which is connected with the names of the foreign king Apopi and the Egyptian underlying Ra-Sekenen (the victorious Sun-god Ra), both contemporaries. It is the glory of that master of science, E. de Rouge, too soon lost to us, to have first recognized the high value of this writing in its full importance. It begins with the following words : —
(I. 1) "It came to pass that the land of Kemi belonged to enemies. And nobody was lord in the day when that happened. At that time there was indeed a king Ra-Sekenen, but he was only a Hak of the town of the south, but the enemies sat in the town of the Amu, and there was king (Ur) (2) Apopi in the town of Auaris. And the whole world brought him its productions, also the northern land did the same with all the good things of Ta-meri ; and the king Apopi (3) chose the god Set for his divine master, and he did not serve any of the gods which were worshipped in the whole land. He built him a temple of beautiful work, to last a long time [. . . and the king] (4) Apopi (appointed)
The king Ra-Sekenen in ' the city of the south' had, according to all appearance, incurred the particular displeasure of the tyrant of Auaris, who intended to hurl him from the throne, and sought for means and pretexts to carry out his intention.
There had evidently before this begun a correspondence between the tyrant in the north and the Hak in the southern land, in which the first-named among other things required of the last to give up the worship of his gods, and, to worship Amon-Ra alone as the only divinity of the country. RaSekenen had declared himself prepared for all, but had added a proviso to his letter, in which he expressly declared, to allow him to speak for himself (II. 1) " that he was not able to promise to serve any other of the gods which were worshipped in the whole country but Amon-Ra, the king of the gods alone."
A new message to the unfortunate Hak of the southern city was deliberated upon and agreed to by king Apopi. The papyrus announces this in these words : — '' Many days later after these events (II. 2) King Apopi sent to the governor of the town in the land of the south this message, . . . which his secretaries had advised him. (3) And
the messenger of Apopi betook himself to the governor of the city of the south. And (the messenger) was brought before the governor of the city of the south. (4) He spoke thus, when he spoke to the messenger of King Apopi : ' Who sent thee here to this city of the south ? How hast thou come to spy out ? ' "
The messenger of king Apopi thus addressed, first answered the governor in these simple words, ' King Apopi it is who sends to thee ; ' and thereupon delivers his message, the particular contents of which are very disquieting to the first-mentioned personage. It was a question of stopping a canal. The first remark of the messenger that he had not taken sleep either day or night, until he had fulfilled his mission, must appear like scorn. The writer paints the situation of the Hak wdth few words, but those full of meaning.
" (6) And the governor of the town in the south was for a long time troubled so that he could not (7) unswer the messenger of King Apopi."
But he nerved himself and made a speech to the messenger. Unfortunately the chief contents of it have been torn out by the destruction of the papyrus at this place. After the foreign messenger had been hospitably entertained, he betook himself back to the court of king Apopi, while Ra-Sekenen as
The papyrus thus relates what occurred :
" (11) And the messenger of King Apopi returned to the place where his lord tarried (III. 1). Thereupon the governor of the town of the south called unto him the great and chief men, as the commanders and captains who accompanied him, (2) in order (to communicate) to them the message which King Apopi had sent to him, but they all of one accord were silent through great grief, and wist not what to answer him good or bad."
After the following words, ' then sent King Apopi to the,' the writer breaks off in the middle of a sentence, without satisfying the curiosity of his readers two-and-thirty centuries afterwards. For next comes the beginning of the letters of Pentaur, the poet of the well-known heroic song of the great deeds of Ramses II. at Kadesh.
Although this precious writing is frequently, in the most important passages of the narrative of Apopi, interrupted through holes and rents, owing to the splitting of the papyrus, still what remains is amply sufficient to make known to us the persons, the places, and the circumstances of this historical drama.
have taken possession of Egypt. Its inhabitants are obliged to pay a tax of their possessions and substance to the foreign tyrants. Apopi worships his own divinity, the god Sutech, who is already known to us as the Egyptian expression of the Semitic Baal, especially of Baal Zapuna, the Baal-zephon of Holy Scripture. He builds a splendid temple to his god, and appoints festivals and offerings for him.
In the south of the land, in No, ' the town ' of the south, that is in Thebes, the capital of Patoris, ' the region of the south ' (the biblical Pathros), there sat an offshoot of the oppressed pharaohs, RaSekenen, only invested with the title of Hak, or sub-king.
King Apopi is the all-powerful lord, the general ruler of the land. Complaisant learned men belong to his court, who bear the remarkable title of Rechichet, that is, the experts.* They give counsel to the king, bad counsel as it appears, since they induce him to send a messenger to the sub-king in No, with still more severe demands worthy of a Cambyses. The messenger enjoys no rest, but day and night hurries to the southern land.
same question which Joseph, his contemporary, put to his own brethren when thej came down to Egypt to buy corn, since he said to them, ' Whence come ye ? Ye are spies, and ye are come here to see wh'ere the land is open.'
After the Hak had received all the communications of the tyrant Apopi from the mouth of his messenger, he was deeply moved by their dangerous import. The great lords and chief men of his court were summoned to a council ; and the leaders also of the army, the Uau or officers, and the Hauti or captains, took part in it.
consequences.
Such is an abstract of this remarkable document. We may rest assured, even without knowing the conclusion of the whole story, that the author of it must have aimed, by his description, at portraying something more important than the humiliation of a native Hak. The subject without doubt really was the history of the uprising of the Egyptians against the yoke of the foreigners. In order to teach us the cause and meaning of this, the unknown narrator begins his history of the war of liberation, which was brought about in the way we have mentioned, by a description of the unfortunate position of the
empire. His history, which began so sadly, ends happily, and the actual proofs from the monuments bear out his fortunate conclusion.
In order to find the proofs from the monuments, let us betake ourselves to the land of the south, let us pass by the towns of Thebes, Hermonthis, and Latopolis, on both sides of the stream, and let us stop on the right bank, in sight of the most ancient walls of the city of El-Kab. This discovers to us the position and extent of the former capital of the third upper Egyptian nome, which the Greeks designated as the town of Eileithyia, the * goddess presiding over births,' and the Romans as the town of Lucina in their description of Egyptian places. In the background towards the east there rise rocky hills, with long rows of tombs, whose dark openings appear to the traveller like the broken windows of a ruined castle.
tombs.
In truly venerable forms, which seem to people the chambers of the dead, we greet the contemporaries of the H3^ksos kings, whose progeny belonged to the heroes of the great war of liberation of the Eg3^ptians from the tyranny of the foreigners.
son of Abana-Baba, and his whole house as the last memorial of their existence and of their deeds. The walls of the narrow chamber are covered by a widely-spread genealogical tree of his race, which has suffered much injury.
the genealogical tree.
We will lay before the reader a faithful translation of the inscription in which Aahmes portrayed in the old speech the course of his life as a picture of the time for posterity. The actual author of the inscription is ' the son of his daughter, who executed the work in this sepulchral chamber, in order to perpetuate the name of the father of his mother, the master of the drawing art of Amon, Pahir.'
2. speaks thus. I speak to you, to all people, and I give 3^ou to know the honorable praise which was givQn to me. I was presented with a golden chain eight times in the sight
3. of the whole land, and with male and female slaves in great numbers. I had a possession of many acres. The surname of * the brave ' which I gained never vanished away
4. in this land. He speaks also further. I have completed my 3^outhful wandering in the town of Nukheb. My father was a captain of the deceased Ra Sekenen, Baba
5. son of Roant, was his name. Then I became captain in his place on the ship ' The Calf,' in the time of the lord of the country, Aahmes, the deceased.
6. I was still young and unmarried, and was girded with the garment of the band of youths. Still, after I had prepared for myself a house, I was taken
7. on the ship ' The North,' because of my strength. It was m}' duty to accompany the great lord — life, prosperity, and health attend him ! — on foot, when he rode in his chariot.
gle with fists, and
10. I gained a hand. This was shown to the herald of the king. They gave me a golden present for my bravery. After that a new fight arose in this place, and anew I fought in a struggle with fists
11. in that place, and I gained a hand. They gave me a golden present another time. And they fought at the place Takem to the south of the town (Auaris) .
from the road to
13. the town. I went, firmly holding him, through the water. They announced me to the herald of the king. Then I was presented with a golden present again. They
14. conquered Auaris. I gained in that place prisoners, a grown-up man and three women, which makes in all three heads. His holiness gave them to me for my possession as slaves.
two women and a hand.
16. They gave me a golden present for valor. In addition, the prisoners from it were given to me as slaves. After then that his holiness had mown down the Syrians of the land of Asia,
destruction among them.
18. I carried booty away from that place, two living grown-up men and three hands. I was presented with a golden gift another time ; they also gave me three female slaves.
19. His holiness descended the stream. His heart was joyful because of brave and victorious deeds. He had taken possession of the south and of the north land. There came an enemy from the southern region.
20. He approached. His advantage was the number of his people. The gods of the southern land were against his fist. His holiness found him at the water Tent-ta-tot. His holiffess brought him forth
21. as a living prisoner. All his people brought booty back. I brought back two young men, when I had cut them off from the ship of the enemy. They
22. gave me five heads, besides my share of five hides of arable land in my town. It happened thus to all the ship's crew in the same way. Twice
existed. So there were
24. given to me three people and five hides of arable land in my town. I conveyed by water the deceased king Amenhotep I., when he went up against Kush to extend
could not escape. Bewildered
26. they remained in the place just as if they were nothing. Then I stood at the head of our warriors, and I fought as was right. His holiness admired my valor. I gained two hands,
27. and brought them to his holiness. They sought after* their inhabitants and their herds. I brought down a living prisoner and brought him to his holiness. I brought his holiness in two daj's to Egypt
28. from Khnumt-hirt (that is, the upper spring). Then I was presented with a golden gift. Then I brought forward two female slaves, besides those which lied
29. to his holiness, and I was raised to the dignity of a ' champion of the prince.' I convej^ed the deceased King Thutmes I., when he ascended by water to Chonthon-nofer,
30. to put an end to the strife among the inhabitants, and to stop the attacks on the land side. And I was brave (before him) on the water. It went badly on the (attack)
31. of the ship on account of its upsetting. They raised me to the rank of a captain of the sailors. His holiness — may life, prosperity, and health be allotted to him ! —
32. (Here follows a rent, which, according to the context, is to be filled up in such a manner as to show that a new occasion calls the king to war against the people of the south.) ^
33. His holiness raged against them like a panther, and his holiness slung his first dart, which remained sticking in the bod}^ of his enemy. He
34. fell fainting down before the royal diadem. There was then in a short time a (great defeat) , and their people were taken away as living enemies.
35. And his holiness travelled downwards. All nations were in his power. And this wretched king of the Nubian people found himself bound on the fore part of the ship of his holiness, and he was placed on*the ground
36. in the town of Thebes. After this his holiness betook himself to the land of the Rutennu, to cool his anger among the inhabitants of the land. His holiness reached the land of Naharina.
37. His holiness found — life, prosperitj'', and health to him ! — these enemies. He ordered the battle. His holiness made a great slaughter among them.
38. The crowd of the living prisoners was innumerable, which his majesty carried away in consequence of his vicXory. And behold, I was at the head of our warriors. His holiness admired my valor.
39. I carried off a chariot of war and its horses, and those which were upon it, as living prisoners, and brought them to his holiness. Then I was afterwards presented with gold. "*
40. Now I have passed many days and reached a gray old age. My lot will be that of all men upon the earth. [I shall go down into the lower world, and be placed in the] coflSn, which I have made for myself
The hard time of distress and tyranny was now past for the Egyptian people. The reign of oppression was at once broken up, when Auaris had fallen, and another town of the Hyksos, the fortress Sherohan, had been taken by storm. In the sixth year of the reign of king Aahmes, the founder of the eighteenth house of the pharaohs, Kemi was at length freed from the long oppression of the foreigner, and the armed soldiers of the pharaoh passed triumphantly through the lands of the south and the east of Egypt, to conquer what had been lost, and ' to wash their heart,' that is, to cool their anger against the enemies from a foreign land. Yet we must not forestall the events, the true portraying of which the simple narratives of two warriors of those days have handed down to us, and we will next cast another glance at the conclusion of the seventeenth dynasty.
King Taa III., with the surname of ' the brave,' the predecessor of the Pharaoh Aahmes, the conqueror of Auaris, reigned in No-Thebes. His attention was directed to the creation of a Nile flotilla, with the intention one day of conquering Auaris, which was under the dominion of the Lower Egyptian Netherlands.
His successor, of the name of Kames, seems only to have reigned a short time. He was 'the husband of the much venerated queen Aah-hotep, whose
coffin with the golden ornaments on the body was some years ago found by some Theban agriculturists in the ancient necropolis of No, buried only a few feet below the surface of the soil.* These venerable artistic and historically precious remains of Egyptian antiquity, were delivered over to the Museum of Boolaq.
* The cover of the coffin has the shape of a mummy, and it is gilt above and below. The holy royal asp decks the brow. The eyelids are gilt. A rich imitation necklace covers the breast and shoulders ; the Uraeus serpent and the vulture — the holy symbols of the Upper and the Lower land of Kemi — lie below the necklace. A closed pair of wings seems to protect the rest of the body. At the soles of the feet stand the statues of the mourning goddesses Isis and Nephthys. Tlie inscription in the middle row gives us the name of the queen, Aah-hotep, that is, * servant of the moon.'
When the coffin was opened, there were found between the linen coverings precious weapons and ornaments : daggers, a golden axe, a chain with three large golden bees, and a breastplate. On the body itself was found a golden chain with a scarabaaus attached, armlets, a fillet for the brow, and other objects. Two little ships in gold and silver, bronze axes, and great bangles for the ankles, lay immediately upon the wood of the coffin.
The richest and the most precious of the ornaments showed the shields of the Pharaoh Aahmes. He bears on them the surname of Nakht, that is, 'the brave or victorious.' Without doubt, then. Queen Aah-hotep was buried in Thebes during the reign of her son Aahmes. Mention has already been made of the tomb of her royal husband at Thebes. Aah-hotep is therefore the proper ancestress of the eighteenth dynasty. It was her son Aahmes who ' was destined to rise up as the avenger of his native country for the shame and oppression which it had so long endured. If therefore Apopi was the pharaoh that honored Joseph, Aahmes was the king that succeeded him.
And yet a strange enigma covers this age of shame, the veil of which we are not yet able to lift. For on a minute examination of the monuments of the times of the seventeenth and eighteenth dynasties, many well-founded reflections force themselves upon us involuntarily ; since, in fact, it would seem as if the hatred of the Egyptians against the Hyksos kings had not been so intense as the story handed down by Manetho appears to represent it. We of course except, when we speak of the Egyptians, the legitimate but oppressed kings of ' the region of the south,' in the Upper country, to whom the foreign tyrants in the Lowlands must have appeared in no agreeable light.
Between the Egyptian and Semitic races — and whatever may have been the exact complexion and descent of the latter — there certainly was no deeprooted hereditary enmity, as the interpreters would make us believe. There was, indeed, a hatred on the part of the Theban race of kings, to whom their humiliation by the foreigners appeared all the more unendurable, as they had not the strength and power to free themselves from their dependence on the foreign lords of the Netherlands. They had only at their command the weapon of the weaker against the stronger — namely, an exaggeration of the real existing relations between them — by pic-
turing the foreigners as relentless against everything native. Hence they derived consolation, and an excuse for their own incapability to shake off the yoke, and to regain the firm possession of the whole kingdom.
We will simply put the question, If those foreign kings were in fact desecrators of the temples, devastators and destroyers of the works of bygone ages, how is it that these ancient works, although only the last remains of them, still exist, and especially in the chief seats of the Hyksos dominion ; and further, that these foreign kings allowed their names to be engraved as memorial witnesses on the works of the native pharaohs ? Instead of destroying they preserved them, and sought by appropriate measures to perpetuate themselves and their remembrance on the monuments already existing of former rulers.
Zoan-Tanis, the capital of the Egyptian eastern provinces, with its world of temples and statues of the times of the sixth, twelfth, and thirteenth dynasties, had so little to suffer from the Hyksos, that on the contrary these princes thought it incumbent upon them to increase the splendor of this vast temple-town by their own constructions, although in a Semitic style of execution.
ing war on the dead stones as a vengeance against the Hyksos kings, which their forefathers had in vain sought to wreak on the living monarchs. To destroy the monuments of the- opposition kings, to annihilate their names and titles so as to render them unrecognizable, and to falsify historical truth by inscribing their own names, such was the system invented by the Egyptian pharaohs, who set about their work with such success as nearly to root out from the face of the earth the contemporary memorials of the Hyksos kings. We have to thank this persecution for the difficulties which lie in the way of restoring the history of the m'ost ancient domination of the foreigners in Egypt.
Before we conclude this chapter, perhaps we may be allowed to make some remarks on the relation, in point of time, of these historical events, with the stay of the Hyksos on one side, and on the other side with the stay of the children of Israel, on Egyptian soil. We have already made mention of a memorial stone of the time of the second Ramses found in Tanis, the inscription on which commences with the following indication of its date : ' In the year 400, on the 4th day of the month Mesori of King Nub.' As on the basis of the newest and best inquiries into the question of old Egyptian chronology we fix the reign of Ramses II. at the
year 1350 b. c. as a mean rate between various proposals, the reign of the Hyksos king Nub, and probably the beginning of his reign, would fall about the year 1750 b. c, that is, four hundred years before Ramses II. Although we are completely in the dark as to what place king Nub occupied in the succession of the princes of his house, yet the number mentioned has a certain importance in fixing an approximative date for the stay of the foreign kings in Egypt. This importance becomes much enhanced by its very clear relation to a similar statement in Holy Writ in relation to the total duration of the stay of the children of Israel in Egypt. According to this statement (Exodus xii. 40) the Hebrews from the time of the immigration of their ancestor Jacob till the exodus had remained four hundred and thirty years in Egypt. In another place (Genesis XV. 13) the duration of their stay is expressed by the round number of four hundred years. Now, as according to general acceptation the exodus from Egj'pt took place after the death of Ramses II., the pharaoh of the oppression, the year 1300 will approximately correspond to the time of the exodus in the reign of Mineptah, the son and successor of Ramses II. If we add, therefore, four hundred and thirty j^ears as the expression for the total duration of the stay of the Hebrews in Egypt, we arrive at
the year 1780 B. c. as the approximative date of the immigration of Jacob into Egypt, and for the time of the official career of his son Joseph at the court of pharaoh. In other words, we arrive at the conclusion that the time of Joseph (1730 B. c.) must have fallen in the time of the Hyksos' domination, about the reign of the previously mentioned foreign prince. Nub (1750).
This singular coincidence of numbers, as we openly admit, appears to us to have a higher value than the data fixed on the grounds of particular calculations of the chronological tables of Manetho and the fathers of the church. For these numbers neither change nor rectify the great building of general chronology. Their importance is of quite a different character. Independently of every kind of arrangement and combination of numbers, ihey prove the probability of a fixed date for a very important section of the general history of the world on the grounds of two chronological data, which in a most striking way correspond with one another, and of which each separately has its origin in an equally trustworthy and respectable source.
The supposition that Joseph was sold into Egypt and afterwards rose to great honor under the Hyksos, as results from the chronological relations we have mentioned, receives fresh support for its prob-'
ability from a Christian tradition preserved by Y. Syncellus. According to this tradition ' received by the whole world,' Joseph ruled the land in the reign of king Aphophis (Apopi of the monuments), whose age within a few years corresponds with the commencement of the eighteenth dynasty.
We have great satisfaction in adding another very remarkable and clear confirmation of our remarks upon the time of Joseph and his master the pharaoh. Upon the grounds of an old Egyptian inscription hitherto unknown, whose author must have been a contemporary of Joseph and his family, we hope to adduce a proof that Joseph and the Hyksos cannot henceforth be separated from one another.
As a previous remark we will recall to the recollection of our readers the well-known fact that in the days of the patriarch in Egypt a seven years' famine occurred, the consequence of a deficiency of water in the overflowing of the Nile at that time..
This inscription, which appears to us so important, exists in one of the tombs at El-Kab, of which we have before spoken more particularly. From the peculiarities of the language, and from the style of the internal pictorial decoration of the rock chambers, but principally from the name of its former possessor, Baba, we may consider that the tomb was erected in the times immediately preced-
ing the eighteenth dynasty. Although no royal cartouche ornaments the walls of the tomb to give us certain information about the exact time of its erection, yet the following considerations are calculated to inform us on this point, and fortunately to fill up the gaps.
The name of the old possessor of the tomb, Baba, is already well known to us. Among the members of the great family of the times of the thirteenth dynasty, whose genealogical tree we have before laid before our readers, and the greater number of whose tombs are situated in the rocky city of the dead at El-Kab, Baba appears in the third generation as the additional name of a certain Sebek-tut, the father gf queen Nubkhas. In the genealogical tree of the family of the Captain Aahmes at El-Kab the name Baba appears on another occasion, and also as the second appellation of our hero, Abana, a captain under king Ra-Sekenen (Taa III.). Unless we are mistaken, it is this Baba whose tomb, situated near that of Aahmes at El-Kab, promises us important disclosures. For the whole descendants of Aahmes, children, and grandchildren, and great-grandchildren, repose in their ancestors' tomb, and in the excavations of the rock which Pahir, once the governor of Eileithyia, had prepared for himself and them. We should, however, in vain look round the
sepulchral chambers of the ancestors of Baba, were it not for the rock tomb of a Baba in the neiorhborhood of that we have alread}^ mentioned. The inscription, which exists in the hall of sacrifice of this tomb on the wall opposite to the door of entrance, contains the following simple childlike representation of his happy existence on earth, owing to his great riches in point of children :
" The chief at the table of princes, Baba, the risen again, he speaks thus : I loved my father, I honored my mother ; my brother and my sisters loved me. I stepped out of the door of my house with a benevolent heart ; I stood. there with refreshing hand, and splendid were the preparations of what I collected for the feast-day. Mild was (my) heart, free from noisy anger. The gods bestowed upon me a rich fortune on earth. I punished the evil-doers. The children which stood opposite to me in the town during the days which I have fulfilled were small as well as great, 60 ; there were prepared for them as many beds, chairs (?) as many, tables (?) as many. They all consumed 120 Epha of Durra, the milk of 3 cows, 52 goats, and 9 sheasses, of balsam a hin, and of oil 2 jars.
is true. I had all this prepared in my house ; in addition I gave cream in the pantry and beer in the cellar in a more than sufficient number of hin measures.
*' I collected the harvest, a friend of the harvest god. I was watchful at the time of sowing. And now when a famine arose, lasting many years, I issued out corn to the city at each famine." *
There ought not to be the smallest doubt as to whether the last words of the inscription relate to an historical fact or not; to something definite or something only general. Strongly as we are inclined to recognize a general way of speaking in , the narrative of Ameni, where ' years of famine ' are spoken of, here we are compelled by the context of the report before us to understand the term ' the many years ' of the famine which arose as relating to a definite historical time. For famines following one another on account of a deficiency of water in the overflowing of the Nile were of the greatest rarity, and history knows and mentions only one example of it, namely, the seven years' famine of the pharaoh of Joseph. Besides, Baba (or if the term is preferred, the Babas, for the most part the contemporaries of the thirteenth and seventeenth dynasties), about the same time as Joseph exercised
his office under one of the Hyksos kings, lived and worked under the native king Ra-Sekenen (Taa III.) in the old town of El-Kab. The only just conclusion is that the many years of famine in the time of Baba must precisely correspond with the seven years of famine under Joseph's pharaoh, one of the shepherd kings.
We leave it to the judgment of the reader to arrive at a conclusion on the probability of a clear connection between the two different reports on the same extraordinary occurrence. The simple words of the biblical account and the inscription in the tomb of Baba are too clear and convincing, to leave any room for reproach on the ground of possible error. The account in Holy Scripture of the elevation of Joseph under one of the Hyksos kings, of his life at their court, of the reception of his father and brothers in Egypt with all their belongings, is in complete accordance with the manners and customs, as also with the place and time.
Joseph's Hyksos-Pharaoh reigned in Auaris, or Zoan, the later Ramses-town, and held his court in the Egyptian style, but without excluding the Semitic language. His pharaoh has proclaimed before him in Semitic language an Abrek, that is, ' bow the knee,' a word which is still retained in the hieroglyphic dictionary, and was adopted by the Egyptians
to express their feeling of reverence at the sight of an important person or object. He bestows on him the high dignity of a Zaphnatpaneakh, 'governor of the Sethroitic nome."^ On the Egyptian origin of the offices of an Adon and Ab which Joseph attributes to himself before his family, I have already made all the remarks that are necessary. The name of his wife Asnat is pure Egyptian and almost entirely confined to the old and middle empire. It is derived from the very common female name Sant, or Snat. The father of his wife, the priest of On-Heliopolis, is a pure Egyptian, whose name Potiphera meant in the native language Putiper'a (or pher'a), 'the gift of the sun.' The chamberlain who bought the boy Joseph from his brothers, and whose wife tempted the virtue of the young servant, was Putipher, a name which could not be pronounced in Egyptian otherwise than Putipar or (phar), 'the gift of the risen one.' His titles are given in Semitic language, although the word Saris, or chamberlain, is found written with Egyptian letters.
* Pa'anekh, * the place of life,' was the peculiar designation of the capital of this nome in the holy writing. The whole long word is to be analyzed into its component parts in the old Egyptian language.
We will not neglect at the mention of Putipliar's wife to call attention to the passage of the Orbiney papyrus, which at the same time is calculated to cast a bad light on the wantonness of the Egyptian women, but which before all things stands in a particular relation to the history of Joseph. Anepu, a married man, sends his young brother, the unmarried hero of the story, from the field to the house to fetch seed corn. What occurred the following literal translation sufficiently explains : — " And he sent his little brother, and said to him, ' Hasten and bring us seed corn from the village.' And his little brother found the wife of his elder brother occupied in combing her hair. And he said to her ' Rise up, give me seed corn that I may return to the field, for thus has my elder brother enjoined me, to return without delaying.' The woman said to him, ' Go in, open the chest, that thou mayst take what thine heart desires, for otherwise my locks will fall to the ground.' And the youth went within into the stable, and took thereout a large vessel, for it was his will to carry out much seed corn. And he loaded himself with wheat and Durra corn, and went out with it. Then she said to him, ' How great is the burden in thine arms ? ' He said to her, ' Twq measures of Durra and three measures of wheat make together five measures which rest pn my
arms.' Thus he spake to her. But she spake to the 3''outh and said, ' How great is thy strength ! Well have I remarked thy power many a time.' And her heart knew him ! . . . and she stood np and laid hold of him, and she said to him, ' Come, let us celebrate an hour's repose. The most beautiful things shall be thy portion, for I will prepare for thee festal garments.' Then was the youth like to the panther of the south for rage, on account of the evil word which she had spoken to him. But she was afraid beyond all measure. Why this great sin that thou hast spoken to me ? Say it not to me another time, then will I this time not tell it, and no word of it shall come out of my mouth to any man at all.' And he loaded himself with his burden and went out into the field. And he went to his elder brother,- and they completed their day's work. And when it was evening the elder brother returned home to his habitation. And his little brother followed behind his oxen, which he had laden with all the good things of the field, to prepare for them their place in the stable in the village. And behold the wife of his elder brother feared because of the word which she
liad spoken, and she took a jar of fat, and she was^ like one to whom an evil-doer had offered violence, since she wished to say to her husband, ' Thy little brother has offered me violence.' And her husband returned home at evening, according to his daily custom, and found his wife lying stretched out and suffering from injury. She gave him no water for his hands according to her custom. And the candles were not lighted, so that the house was in darkness. But she lay there. And her husband spoke to her thus, ' Who has had to do with thee ? Lift thyself up ! ' She said to him, ' No one has had to do with me except thy little brother, since when he came to take seed corn for thee, he found me sitting alone, and said to me, " Come, let us make merry an hour and repose ! Let down thy hair ! " Thus he spake to me, but I did not listen to him (but said), See ! am I not thy mother, and is not thy elder brother like a father to thee ? Thus spoke I to him, but he did not hearken to my speech, and used force with me, that I might not tell thee. Now if thou alio west him to live, I will kill myself.' "
We will break off at this place the thread of the narrative in which the simple mode of speech and exposition corresponds in the most striking manner with the style of the Bible. What we want to point
out, the reader of the foregoing sentences will immediately perceive. Potiphar's wife and Anepu's wife precisely resemble one another^ and Joseph's and Bata's resistance and virtue appear so closely allied that one is almost inclined to assign a common origin to both traditions. In any case the passage we have just quoted from the Egyptian poem of the two brothers is a most precious and important elucidation of the history of Joseph in Egypt.
That Joseph was in fact clothed with the highest rank at court next to his king is evident from the office he filled of an Adon ' over all Egypt ; ' (compare Genesis xlv. 9.) On the monuments Adon answers to the Greek Epistates, an overseer, one set over others. The rank varied according to the business each had to perform. We find an Adon of the Amon town Diospolis, of the seat of justice, of the infantry, of the royal harem, of the treasur}^ of the workshops of pharaoh, of the beer-cellars, &c.
The office of Joseph was quite different as an 'Adon over the whole land,' which I have only once again found in an old Egyptian inscription. Before king Horemheb of the eighteenth dynasty (the Horus of Manetho) ascended the throne, according to the account of a monument preserved at Turin, he was clothed with several very high offices, which brought him near to the person of the king. Finall}^ the
pharaoh was so pleased with his good services that he named him Ro-hir, that is Epitropos, or Procurator of the whole land. In this capacity, without having any one to share his authority with him, he was called to be ' the great lord in the king's house,' and ' he gave answer to the king and pleased him with the utterances of his mouth.' In such' a service was Horemheb ' an Adon of the whole land for the duration of many years,' until he rose to the position of ' heir of the throne of the whole land,' and finally placed the royal crown on his head. We see from this that an ' Adon of the whole land ' was so important a position that Joseph, in fact, deserved the appellation of a Moshel, or Shallith, that is, a Prince or Regent over the whole land, as Luther translated the Hebrew word. "With these remarks on Joseph, we will conclude this portion of the history of the middle empire.
Keeping in view our main purpose, of dwelling chiefly upon such portions of Egyptian history as concern more nearly the biblical narrative, a large space has been given to the Hyksos and to the relations with Semitic tribes. We have now come to the eighteenth dynasty, which succeeded the foreign domination. Aahmes, the conqueror, was the first, and after him came several illustrious kings, each one bearing the name of Thutmes or Amenhotep. In many respects this is the most interesting period in the long annals. Thutmes III., perhaps the greatest of all the pharaohs, reigned fifty-three years, and was justty renowned throughout all the known world. He is the Alexander the Great of Egyptian history. He carried on no less than thirteen campaigns in foreign countries, and made the power of Egypt felt in the heart of Africa, as well as of Asia. Countless memorials of his reign exist in papyri, on temple walls, in tombs, and even upon scarabsei and other ornaments.
In still clear characters may be read most of the accounts of these wars, the numbers of troops that were engaged, the numbers killed and taken prisoners, and all the details of the vast booty brought into Egypt. When so many periods are in utter darkness, it is wonderful that such full records exist of this great reign. The statistician can easily form an idea of the civilization of the age by observing the quantity and character of the spoil and of the tributes afterwards imposed upon the conquered nations. Both the quantity and the character of the merchandise fill the mind of the modern reader with wonder. Meanwhile the monarch constructed new temples at Thebes and enlarged the old ones, and everywhere his triumphs were blazoned. The Roman emperor Germanicus, as Tacitus has recorded, saw these temples and their inscriptions when their glory had not been so far obscured.
Among the records of that day were catalogues of the towns and cities in Syria that had submitted to the Egyptian arms. One of these catalogues is filled with Semitic names.
What gives the highest value to the catalogue is the undisputed fact that more than three hundred years before the entrance of the Jews into the land of Canaan, a great league of peoples of the same race, which the monuments call by the name of the
Ruthen, existed in Palestine under little kings, who dwelt in the same towns and fortresses as we find stated on the monuments, and who for the greater part by conquest fell into the hands of the Jewish immigrants. Among these the -king of Kadesh, on the Orontes, in the land of the Amorites — as the inscriptions expressly state — played the first part, since there obeyed him, as their chief leader, all the kings and their peoples from the water of Egypt (which is the same as the biblical brook, which flowed as the boundary of Egypt) to the rivers of Naharain, afterwards called Mesopotamia. To these had joined themselves the Phoenician Khalu, who dwelt in the country on the sea-coast called Zahi by the Egyptians, and whose capital was Aradus, as also the Kiti (the Chittim of Holy Scripture), who possessed the island of Cyprus, and in all probability the sea-coast lying to the north of the Phoenicians. The triangle between the points Kadesh, Semyra, and Aradus, represented the theatre of the hostile engagements which have been so often mentioned.
An unknown poet, out of the number of the holy fathers, felt himself inspired to sing in measured words the glory of the king, and the might and grandeur of the god Amon. His song has outlived the ravages of time and the enmity of man.
Having been well concealed, the tall granite tablet adorns at this day the rooms of the Egyptian Museum at Boolaq. As Moses, after the overthrow of pharaoh and his host in the Reedy Sea, sang a fervent hymn of praise to exalt the wondrous might and strength of the eternal God, so, three hundred years before the wise legislator of the Jewish people, the nameless seer of Amon praised, after his own fashion, his god and his king. Thus run his words : —
Therefore will I mark thee out as wonderful. I give
thee power and victory over all lands. All people shall feel a terror before thy soul, And shall fear thee to the utmost ends of the world, to the
The land of Mathen trembles for fear of tftee. I make them behold thy Hohness like a crocodile, The terrible one in the water ; he is not to be encountered.
Who has shown all love to my Being.
Thou hast raised m}^ dwelling in long-lasting works More extensive and broader than they have ever beenA great gate [protects against the entrance of tb** impious].
The foregoing song of victory of the unknown Theban poet, the similar songs of victory in honor of the kings Ramses II. and III., the heroic song of the poet Pentaur on the great deeds of king Ramses II. during his campaign against the king of Kadesh and his allies, will remain for all times unequalled specimens of the old Egyptian language at its highest epoch.
The victories of the heroic king Thutmes III., who during his numerous campaigns brought the lands and cities of western Asia into his power, to
whom Libya and the peoples of Nubia and Ethiopia, as far as the promontory now called Gardafui opposite the south coast of Arabia, were subject, — had brought to Egypt unnumbered prisoners of every race, who, according to the old custom, found their fit occupation in the public works. It was principally to the great public edifices, and among these especially to the enlarged buildings of the temple of Amon, at Ape (near Karnak), that the foreigners were forced to devote all their labor, under the superintendence of the Egyptian architects (Mer) and overseers (Rois), who had on their part to carry out the orders and directions of the royal head architect. In those days a certain Puara was clothed with this high office at the court of pharaoh ; his name is of Semitic origin, meaning ' one who has the mouth full of dinner.' The prisoners were obliged, in a mannier answering to their condition, to undergo the severest labors at the buildings. To these belonged especially the baking of the bricks, as it is portraj^ed in so clear and lively a manner in the Book of Books in the description of the oppression of the children of Israel in Egypt.
Fate has preserved to us on the walls of a chamber in a tomb in the interior of the hill of Abd-elQurnah, in the region of the melancholy * coffin-hill'
(Du-neb-ankh), a very instructive pictorial representation, in which the pencil of the deceased master has portrayed in lively colors to future generations the industry of the prisoners. Far more convincing than the explanations, written by the side in old Egyptian letters and words, these curious drawings themselves allow us to recognize to their full extent the fate and the severe labor of the unfortunate prisoners. Some carry water in jugs from the tank hard by ; others knead and cut up the loamy earth ; others again, by the help of a wooden form, make the bricks, or place them carefully in long rows to dry ; while the more intelligent among them carr}^ out the Work of building the walls. The words which are added as explanations of each occupation give us the authentic information that the laborers are captive people which Thutmes III. has carried away to build the temple of his father Amon. They explam that the ' baking of the bricks ' is a work for the new building of the provision-house of the god Amon, of Apet (the east side of Thebes), and they finally declare, in a copious manner, the strict superintendence of the steward over the foreigners in the following words : " (Here are seen) the prisoners which have been carried away as living prisoners in very great numbers ; they work at the building with active fingers ; their overseers
<3how themselves in sight; these insist with vehemence, obeying the orders of the great skilled Lord (who prescribes to them) the works, and gives directions to the masters ; (they are rewarded) with wine and all kinds of good dishes ; they perform their service with a mind full of love for the king ; they build for Thutmes III. a Holy of Holies for (the gods), may it be rewarded to him through a range of many years."
The picture and the words, which we have laid before our readers exactly as they have been transmitted to us, present an important illustration of the accounts in the Bible concerning the hard bondage of the Jews in Egypt. We also there read, ' And they set overseers over them, who oppressed them with hard servitude, for they built for pharaoh the towns of Pithom and Raamses as treasure-cities.' ' And they made their life hard to them with severe work in clay and brick.' ' And the overseers urged them and said. Fulfil your day's work.'
The severe and continuous labor so represented was bestowed upon the various great temples at Thebes ; among them was the Sekhem, or Holy of Holies of the god Amon, and the stupendous Hall
of Pillars, called Khu-mennu, or ' splendid memorial,' which was dedicated not only to the god Amon, but also to the deified rulers, whom Thutmes III. acknowledged as his legitimate predecessors on the throne, and as the ancestors of his own house. Here, in one of the chambers situated towards the south, was found that celebrated wall of the kings which is known to science under the designation of the Table of Kings of Karnak. In this the pharaoh traces back his pedigree to his great ancestor Senoferu, of the third dynasty (of Memphis), and reckons the kings Assa, Pepi, the petty kings of the name of Antef, the famous sovereigns of the twelfth dynasty, and some thirty princes of the thirteenth, as his ancestors.
The great southern propylsea of the temple have suffered much from the corroding tooth of time and the destroying hand of man. But even the remains which have survived, a heap of lonely ruins, enable us to judge of the high perfection of the artistic powers, which created such almost unrivalled masterworks, and were able, by means to us inexplicable, to overcome the resistance of the hardest stone. Whether we suffer our attention to dwell on the way in which these great masses of stone have been brought together and united in a complete structure perfectly well arranged and producing the effect of
symmetry alike in the whole and in the several parts ; whether we feast our sight upon the marvellous ornamental work in stone, by means of which the artist's hand had the skill to delight us with a welcome interruption of the great plain surfaces; whether we gaze with astonished eyes upon the indescribable dignity and th^ kingly mien of the remaining statues of standing or sitting pharaohs and deities ; whether, in fine, we admire the sharp cutting and the dexterity, never after attained, in the drawing of the hieroglyphics, which in long lines and columns cover walls, pillars, and sculptures, rather as ornaments than inscriptions : wherever we turn, there presents itself to us — the late heirs to that long-buried world of old — that sixteenth century before our era, the age of the Thutmes and their immediate successors, as the most perfect acmd of the old Egyptian art, as grand in its conception of the whole, as it was full of taste and refinement in the execution of the several parts. Dr. Brugsch devotes a large space to the various edifices, obelisks, and statues which have been identified by himself and others as the work of this great king, and which show that his care was co-extensive with his dominion. In Nubia and in the island of Elephantine, in ancient Memphis, in various cities in the north, and even in far Mesopotamia, the evidences of his power have been found.
We will here bid farewell to the greatest king of Egyptian history ; the victorious conqueror and ruler of a whole world, from the southernmost lands of inner Africa to the columns of heaven in the land of Naharain ; to the founder of a multitude of new temples, to the upholder of the temples of his forefathers, to th^ celebrated benefactor of the servants of the gods, to whom, during a long exist^ence, it was granted by the divine ones to see perpetuated on their temple walls the deeds of his arm and the achievements of his genius. What wonder then that his contemporaries already worshipped him while alive as a divine being, and allotted to him after his death the honors of an inhabitant of heaven ? His name Was inscribed on thousands of little images, and small stone scarabsei, which were used for rings ; he was considered as the luck-bringing god of the country, and a preserver against the evil influence of wicked spirits and magicians.
Thus the memory of the king has lasted to our days ; and it is not by accident that even the sons of Europe and America, whom a love of knowledge and curiosity, or the mild air of the Egyptian heaven, leads to the blessed shores of the Nile, of all the pharaohs, first learn the name of Ra-men-kheper, which Thutmes III. bore in his cartouche.
AMEKHOTEP III., AND KHUNATEN, THE HERETIC.
The great Thutmes was succeeded b}^ Amenhotep II., and by Thutmes IV., both vigorous and renowned kings. The next in the line, however, Amenhotep III., was far more illustrious. There exists a famous memorial of this monarch in the form of a pair of immense statues in sitting posture, of which, fortunately, there is an authentic account written by the sculptor himself. His name, like that of the king, was Amenhotep.
"My lord promoted me to be the chief architect. I immortalized the name of the king, and no one has done the like of me in my works, reckoning from early times. For him was created the sand- stone hill ; he is indeed the heir of the god Toom. I acted according to what seemed best in my estimation, inasmuch as I executed two portrait-statues of noble hard stone in this his great building. It equals heaven. No king has done the like since the time of the reign of the Sun-god Ra, who possessed the land. Thus I executed these works of art, his statues — (they were astonishing for their breadth, and height in a
perpendicular direction : their completed form made the propylon look small; 40 cubits was their measure) — in the splendid sand-stone mountain,* on its two sides, that of Ra and that of Toom (that is, the east and west sides).
" I caused to be built eight ships ; they (the statues) were carried up (the river) and placed in their sublime building. Thej^ will last as long as heaven.
" I declare to you who shall come here after us, that of the people who were assembled for the building, every one was under me. They were full of ardor ; their heart was moved with joy ; they raised a shout and praised the gracious god. Their landing in Thebes was a joyful event. The monuments were raised in their future place."
We must not fail here to remark to our readers, that the statues of the king, of forty cubits high (that is, twenty-one metres, or nearly seventy English feet), mentioned in the inscription, are the two celebrated statues of Memnon, about which we shall speak presently. The measure assigned to them answers to the modern measurements,! and so does the
which refer to these works.
t According to actual measurement, the height of the sitting figures, from the crown of the head to the sole of the feet, is 14-28 metres, not counting the destroyed head-dress. The footstool has a height of 4-25 metres. The whole height of the statues, with the foundation, is 18 -53 metres. According to the above inscription, which gives the whole a height of 21 metres, the head-dress must be reckoned at 2-47 metres, which answers exactly to the height of a so-called pshent-crown.
description of their size, which must have made the tower gateway (propylon) which stood behind them look small. Thus, thanks to a peculiar ordering of destiny, which has preserved to us his own statues, we. now know the noble lord and master who conceived the plan of this double gigantic work, the size and extent of which has excited the greatest astonishment and unqualified admiration of the ancients as well as the moderns. It was the head architect, Amenhotep, the son of Hapoo, who had the skill to create them in the sandstone quarries of Silsilis, besides building the temple.
On the further bank of the river, in a northeasterly direction from the temple of Thutmes III., in Medinet Abu, a new temple to the god Amon was raised by the king's command. Its site is indicated from a great distance by the gigantic sitting statues of the king, the fame of which the ancients spread over the whole world, under the name of the Statues of Memnon. Although little more than the foundation-walls of the temple itself are left, yet a memorial tablet, which now lies thrown down on its back, bears witness to the size and importance of the original building. In the inscription which adorns its surface, there is described a dialogue between the king and the god. First the king, Amenhotep III., speaks thus :
" Come then, Amon-Ka, lord of Thebes in Ape, behold thy dwelling, which is prepared for thee on the great place of Us (Thebes) ; thy glory resides in the western part (of the city). Thou passest through the heaven to unite thyself with her (the city), and thou risest on the circle of heaven (in the east) ; then is she enlightened by the golden beams of thy countenance. Her front turns towards the east, &c.
" Thy glory dwells in her. I have not let her want for excellent works of lasting beautiful white stone. I have filled her with monuments in my (name), from the hill of the wonderful stones.
The temple, now in ruins, was carried out according to the plan of the chief architect, the same who boasts of having designed the two gigantic statues of the king in front of it.
These rise, at the present day, like two solitary watchers with the heaps of ruins at their backs, on the cultivated Theban plain, reached every year by the water of the inundation, which often moistens their rigid feet.
The two statues — which represent king Amenhotep in a sitting position, having at their feet small sitting statues of his wife Thi, and of his mother, Mut-em-ua — are carved each out of a single block of a firm red-broWn sandstone, mixed with pieces of white quartz, and are in fact marvellous productions of treatment in the hardest and most
brittle material. They stand at a distance of twenty-two feet from one another. The northern one is that which the Greeks and Romans celebrated in poetry and prose by the name of the vocal statue of Memnon. Its legs are covered with the inscriptions of Greek, Roman, Phoenician, and Egyptian travellers, written to assure the reader that they had really visited the place, or had heard the musical tones of Memnon at the rising of the sun.
In the year 2T b. c, in consequence of an earthquake, the whole of the upper part of the statue was removed from its place and thrown to the ground. From that time, the tourists of antiquity began to immortalize themselves by scratching their names, and adding befitting or unbefitting remarks. The assurances that they had heard Memnon sing, or rather ring (or tinkle), end under the reign of the emperor Septimius Severus, who completed the wanting upper part of the body as well as he could with blocks of stone piled up and fastened together. It is a well-known fact, of which that immortal master of science, Alexander von Humboldt, personally assured me, that split or cracked rocks, or stone walls, after cooling during the night, at the rising of the sun, as soon as the stone becomes warmed, emit a prolonged ringing (or tinkling)
note. The sudden change from cold to heat creates quick currents of air, which press through the crevices of the rock, and emit a peculiar melancholy singing tone. When, in the year 1851, I chose as my dwelling for some months the temple of Ape, to the west of the temple of Khonsu at Karnak, I heard of a morning, after the sun had been some time up in the heaven, from a side chamber warmed by it, a melancholy note like that of the vocal Memnon. The fact was so well known to the Arabs who lived there, that they showed me this very chamber as that where the death-watch struck. After the statue of Memnon had been restored in the manner I have described, the sound naturally ceased of itself. The crack in the sandstone was covered by the masonry which was built up over it.
The historical legend of the vocal Memnon is thus a very modern story, about which the old Egyptians knew nothing. The song of Memnon, however poetical it may have been in the fancy of antiquity, must be at once struck out of the history of Egypt. In its place the dry narrative of the Greek historian Pausanias resumes its full right, according to which the statue was that of a man of the country, by name Phamenoph, that is, ' Amenhotep.' We know now who this Amenhotep was, —
made the Memnon of the Greek fable.
The architect Amenhotep, the son of Hapoo, who had the ability to execute so great a work, deserves so much the more, the honor of having his name perpetuated, -as he independently and without any order from the king, conceived so grand a plan and carried it out successfully. It was not only necessary to loosen the stone from the rocks and work it, but also to entrust the vast weight to the Nile, and to convey it from the Theban riverbank to its proper position. He was obliged, as he himself tells us, to build eight ships, in order to carry the burden of these gigantic statues. Even in our highly cultivated age, with all its inventions and machines, which enable us by the help of steam to raise and transport the heaviest weights, the shipment and erection of the statues of Memnon remain to us an insoluble riddle.
Amenhotep IV., who afterwards adopted the surname of Khu-n-aten, had a singular origin and history. He stands alone, the solitary heretic king. According to the laws of descent, he was not in the direct line, because his father had by a misalliance passed over the hereditary princesses of
the royal race. The priests of Amon never recognized him as a lawful ruler, and their hostility to hira was increased by his aversion to the worship of Amon, the greatly venerated god of Egypt.
In the house of his mother Thi, the daughter of the foreigner, beloved by his father, hated by the priests, the young prince had willingly received the teaching about the one God of Light ; and what the mouth of his mother had impressed upon his childish mind in tender youth became a firm faith when he arrived at man's estate. The king was so little prepared to renounce the new doctrine, that he designated himself within the royal cartouche itself as *a high-priest of Hormakhu,' and 'a friend of the sun's disk,' Mi-aten. Such a heresy in the orthodox city of Amon, full of temples, was at once deemed an unheard-of thing ; and open hate soon took the place of the aversion which had existed from the first. To the great misfortune of the king himself, his outward appearance betrayed, in a very unpleasing manner, his descent from his foreign mother.
To fill up the measure of hatred against the caste of the priests of Amon, and to give it public expression, the king issued a command to obliterate the names of Amon and of his wife Mut from the monuments of his royal ancestors. Hammer and
chisel were put in active requisition on the engraved stones, and the scribes of the royal court sought with care the places, even to the very names of his forefathers, in which the word Amon met the reader's eye.
The discontent of the priests and the people had reached its highest point, and open rebellion broke out against the heretic king, who, ashamed of his honorable baptismal name of Amenhotep, had assumed the new name Khunaten, that is, ' splendor >f the sun's disk,' by which we must henceforward designate him.
The king, under the conviction that he could not any longer remain in the city of Amon, determined to turn his back on the cradle of his ancestors, and to found a new capital, which he called Khu-aten, far from Memphis and Thebes, at a place in middle Egypt, which at this day bears the name of Tellel-Amarna.
Artists, overseers, and workmen were summoned with hot haste. According to the plans of the king, a splendid temple was erected in hard stone, in honor of the sun-god Aten, composed of many buildings, and with open courts, in which fire-altars "were set up. The plan of the great building was new, with little of the Egyptian .character, and arranged in a peculiar manner.
As the chief official who was set over the king's house, there lived at the court of this pharaoh a certain Aahmes, who also had the superintendence of the provision-houses of the temple. Next to Meri-ra, he was one of the most zealous adherents of the new teaching. His prayer to the Sun, which is preserved to us among the sepulchral inscriptions at Tell-el-Amarna, will confirm this :
" Beautiful is thy setting, thou Sun's disk of life, thou lord of lords, and king of the worlds. When thou unitest thyself with the heaven at thy setting, mortals rejoice before thy countenance, and give honor to him who has created them, and pray before him who has formed them, before the glance of thy son, who loves thee, the King Khunaten. The whole land of Egypt and all peoples repeat all thy names at thy rising, to magnify thy rising in like manner as thy setting. Thou, O God, who in truth art the living one, standest before the two e^^es. Thou art he which createst what never was, which formest everything, which art in all things ; we also have come into being through the word of thy mouth.
"Give me favor before the king forever; let there not be wanting to me a peaceful burial after attaining old age in the land of Khu-aten, w^hen I shall have finished my course of life in a good state.
"■I am a servant of the divine benefactor (that is of the king), I accompany him to all places where he loves to dwell. I am his companion at his feet. For he raised me to greatness jsvhen I was yet a child, till [the da}^ of my] honor in good fortune. The servant of the prince rejoices, and is in a festive disposition every day."
In these and similar creations of a poetic form there reigns such a depth of view, and so devout a conception of God, that we are almost inclined to give our complete assent to the teaching, about which the king is wont to speak so fully and with so much pleasure.
His royal spouse also, Nofer-i-Thi, was deeply penetrated with the exalted doctrines of the new faith, which to contemporaries appeared in the light of an open heresy against the mysterious traditions on the being of the godhead in the rolls of the holy books df the other temples of the land.
According to the wall-pictures in two sepulchral chambers in the hills behind the town, the pharaoh Khunaten enjoyed a very happy family life. Surrounded by his daughters and wife, who often, from a high balcony, threw down all kinds of presents to the crowd which stood below, the mother holding on her lap the little Ankh-nes-aten, — he reached a state of the highest enjoyment, and found in the love of his family, and the devout adoration of his god, indemnification for the loss of the attachment of the ' holy fathers ' and of a great part of the people. The widowed queen-mother Thi also shared this family happiness, and thus we find her sitting in peaceful intercourse with her son and his wife, in the hall of the royal palace.
King Khunaten gave remarkable expression to his love for his relations by three rock pictures, with inscriptions all to the same effect, which remain oq the steep face of the rock near the city of Khu-aten, but are barely within reach of the eye. The king and queen are seen in the upper compartment, raising their hands in an attitude of prayer to the god of light, whose disk rises over their heads in the full splendor of his beams, each ray of the sun terminating in a hand dispensing life. Two daughters, Meri-aten and Mak-aten, accompany their royal parents.
Here is one paragraph of the inscription :
" Thereupon King Khunaten swore an oath to his father thus : Sweet love fills my heart for the queen, for her young children. Grant a great age to the Queen Nofri-Thi in long years ; may she keep the hand of Pharaoh. Grant a great age to the royal daughter Meriaten, and to the royal daughter Mak-aten, and to their children ; may they keep the hand of the queen, their mother, eternally and forever."
mains to this day.
King Khunaten died without male issue, — possibly by violence, — and his three sons-in-law in turn succeeded him upon the throne. But neither of them had the favor of the priests, and their hold
upon the supreme power was short. A certain Ai, who had been master of the horse under king Khunaten, seized upon the empire ; and, as he brought back the worship to the old temples and reinstated the old priests in power, he had a prosperous reign, and went through the usual campaigns against the neighbors of Egypt. During his reign all possible damage was inflicted upon the works of the monotheist king Khunaten, with the intent to blot out his name from the earth. Ai was succeeded by Horemhib, or Horus, who had no shadow of title, except that his wife was sister to a former queen. His reign seems to have been more than ordinarily brilliant ; and full particulars of his coronation and memorials of his deeds are preserved in a papyrus preserved at Turin, of which Dr. Brugsch gives a full and stately translation.
We give the concluding portion. The gods of Egypt are represented as having assembled to welcome and to crown the new pharaoh :
" Then came forth from the palace the holiness of this splendid god Amon, the king of the gods, with his son before him, and he embraced his pleasant form, which was crowned with the royal helmet, in order to deliver to him the golden protecting image of the sun's disk. The nine foreign nations were under his feet, the heaven was in festive disposi-
tion, the land was filled with ecstasy, and as for the divinities of Egypt, their souls were full of pleasant feelings. Then the inhabitants, in high delight, raised towards heaven the song of praise ; great and small lifted up their voices, and the whole land was moved with joy.
" After this festival in Ape of the southern country was finished, then went Amon, the king of the gods, in peace to Thebes, and the king went down the river on board of his ship, like an image of Hormakhu. Thus had he taken possession of this land, as was the custom since the time of the sungod Ra. He renewed the dwellings of the gods, from the shallows of the marsh-land of Nathu as far as Nubia. He had all their images sculptured, each as it had been before, more than . . . And the sun-god Ra rejoiced, when he beheld (that renewed) which in former times had been destroyed. He set them up in their temple, and he had a hundred images made, one for each of them, of like form, and of all kinds of costly stones. He visited the cities of the gods, which lay as heaps of rubbish in this land, and he had them restored just as they had been from the beginning of all things. He took care for their daily festival of sacrifice, and for all the vessels of their temples, formed out of gold and silver. He provided them (the temples) with holy
persons and singers, and with the best of the bodyguards ; and he presented to them arable land and cattle, and supplied them with all kinds of provisions which they required, to sing thus each new morning to the sun-god Ra : ' Thou hast made the kingdom great for us in thy son, who is the consolation of thy soul, king Horemhib. Grant him the continuance of the thirty years' feasts, give him the victory over all countries, as to Hor, the son of Isis, towards whom in like manner thy heart yearned in On,* in the company of thy circle of gods.' " -
THE PHAKAOH OF THE OPPRESSION.
The nineteenth dynasty began with Ramses I., a monarch of little renown. He was succeeded by his son Mineptah I., Seti I., commonly known as Seti, a famous warrior, who pushed his armies in every direction and inflicted the severest punishment upon every nation that resisted. The weight of his wrath fell upon the unhappy Canaanites and the Shasu (ancestors of the modern Arabs). A contemporary record says : " His joy is to undertake the battle, and his delight is to dash into it. His heart is only satisfied at the sight of the stream of blood when he strikes off the heads of his enemies. A moment of the struggle of men is dearer to him than a day of pleasure. He slays them with one stroke, and spares none among them."
He carried his victorious arms to Mount Lebanon, and when he returned to Egypt brought numbers of tall cedars for masts, and for flagstaffs to adorn Theban temples.
temples, are grand specimens of the art. These concessions to the priests, however, did not in their estimation counterbalance the injury done to the national religion by the king's worship of foreign deities. He was wholly devoted to the service of the Canaanitish god Baal (so often mentioned in Scripture), whose second name, Set, was reproduced in his own, Seti.
When his son Ramses II. was twelve years old he was associated with his father in the government ; and his reign extended to not less than sixty-seven years, so that he was nearly eighty years of age at the time of his death.
This is the king who above all others bears the name of honor of A-nakhtu, ' the Conqueror,' and whom the monuments and the rolls of the books often designate by his popular names of Ses, Sestesu, Setesu, or Sestura, that is, the ^ Sethosis, who is also called Ramesses ' of the Manethonian record, and the renowned legendary conqueror Sesostris of the Greek historians.
TJie number of his monuments, which still to the present day cover the soil of Egypt and Nubia in almost countless numbers, as the ruined remnants of a glorious past, or are daily brought to light from
their concealment, is so great and almost countless, that the historian of his life and deeds finds himself in a difficulty where to begin, how to spin together the principal threads, and where to end his work.
The first care of Ramses after his father's death was to restore the dilapidated temples and public buildings, to set up statues, and to engrave lasting memorials of his ancestors, not forgetting his own extraordinary merits. On the wall of a temple at Abydus is still to be seen an inscription, of which the translation occupies over eight closely printed octavo pages. This is wholly occupied with an account of the great works done by the king in the restoration of ancient edifices and in brightening the records of history. The style is ornate and at times poetical, full of figures and of bold apostrophes, and at the same time wonderfully like that of the biblical writers. But Ramses appears to have been a boaster, and his real works are far inferior to those of his father, the ferocious Seti.
It is scarcely worth while to relate what Ramses II. did for the buildings of his father at Abydus. In the course of his long reign the king completed the temple. When the great building was finished, he must have been advanced in years, since not less than sixty sons and fifty-nine daughters greeted in
their pictures the entrance of the pilgrims at the principal gate. In proportion as the works executed under Seti, the father, present to the astonished eyes of the beholder splendid examples of Egyptian architecture and sculpture, just so poor and inferior are the buildings which were executed under the reign of Ramses, and which bear the names of the Conquering King. The feeling also of gratitude towards his parent seems to have gradually faded away with Ramses, as years increased upon him, to such a degree, that he did not even deem it wrong to chisel out the names and memorials of his father in many places of the temple walls, and to substitute his own.
Ramses II., like most of his predecessors, carried on foreign wars, especially against the Khita or inhabitants of Canaan. He obtained a doubtful victory over them at Kadesh ; and as he "came out of the fight alone, and preserved his life by his personal braverv, the event was celebrated in the most extravagant manner. The long and boastful accounts of this action and of the campaign were sculptured upon temple walls, and were illustrated by battle-scenes containing multitudes of figures, including, of course, the effigies of the conqueror himself. These vast pictured tablets are among the most valuable of historical monuments. The same
poem, the earliest of war lyrics preserved to us.
The temple-scribe, Penta-ur, a jovial companion, who, to the special disgust of his old teacher, manifested a decided inclination for wine, women, and song, had the honor, in the seventh year of Ramses II., to win the prize as the composer of an heroic song, a copy of which we not only possess in a roll of papyrus, but its words cover the whole surface of walls in the temples of Abydus,* Luqsor, Karnak, the Ramesseum at Ibsambool, in order to call the attention of the visitor, even at a distance, to the deeds of Ramses.
The fact that it was engraved on the temple walls, and on the hard stone, may serve as a proof of the recognition which was accorded to the poet by the king and his contemporaries. And, indeed, even our own age will hardly refuse to applaud this work, although a translation cannot reach the power and beauty of the original. Throughout the poem the peculiar cast of thought of the Egyptian poet fourteen centuries before Christ continually shines out in all its fulness, and confirms our opinion, that the Mosaic language exhibits to us an exact counterpart of the Egyptian mode of speech.
The whole substance of thought of minds living at the same time, and in society with each other, must needs have tended towards the same conception and form, even though the idea which the one had of God was essentially different from the views of the other concerning the nature of the Creator of all things.
From the poet we pass to the unknown painter and sculptor, who has chiselled in deep work on the stone of the same wall, with a bold execution of the several parts^ the procession of the warriors, the battle before Kadesh, the storming of the fortress, the overthrow of the enemy, and the camp life of the Egyptians. The whole conception must even at this day be acknowledged to be grand beyond measure, for the representation sets before our eyes the deeds which were performed more vividly than any description in words and with the richest handling of the material, and displays the whole composition even to its smallest details.
The poem of Penta-ur (Penta the Great) is doubtless full of fire, and is a priceless relic ; but it is too long for the limits of this work, and no satisfactory abridgment could be made of it. The song of triumph attributed to Moses in the book of Exodus came a generation later.
Ramses,* between the two most powerful nations of the world at that time, Khita in the east, and Kemi in the west. It was to be hoped that the new offensive and defensive alliance, which united the princes and countries in the manner thus described, would attain its end, and bridle the fermenting restless world of the people of the Canaanites, which lay between them, and keep down every rising and movement of the hostilely disposed Semites, and confine them within the limits once for ail fixed. For that a ferment existed, even in the inmost heart of the Egyptian land, is sufficiently proved by the allusion in the treaty to the evasions of evil-disposed subjects. We may perhaps read between the lines that the Jewish people are meant, who, since their migration into the land of Egypt, had increased beyond measure, and without doubt were already making preparations to withdraw themselves from the power of their oppressors on the banks of the Nile. But how? and when? — this was hidden in the councils of the Eternal.
* The ancient name of the city was Zoan, often written ZoanTanis, because situate in the Tanitic nome. Wlien Ramses II. made it tlie royal residence it was called Pi-Ramses (city of Ramses), or sometimes Zoan-Ramses. It is called in the book of Exodus Raamses.
brate the festival of Amon ; although he held public courts iu Memphis, to take counsel about the^ goldfields in the Nubian country ; although he visited Abydus, to see the tombs of the kings and the temple of the dead built by his father ; — not to mention Heliopolis, in which he dedicated a temple and obelisks to the sun-god; — yet neither these nor other cities formed his permanent abode. On the eastern frontier of Egypt, in the lowlands of the Delta, in Zoan-Tauis, was the proper royal residence of the pharaoh.
We have often mentioned this city, and have come to understand its important position. Connected with the sea, being situated on the then broad and navigable Tanitic arm of the Nile, it commanded also the entrance of the great road, covered by ' Khetams,' or fortresses, which led to Palestine either in a north-easterly direction through Pelusium, or in an easterly direction through Migdol, on the royal road. Zoan-Tanis was, in the proper sense of the word, the key of Egypt. Impressed with the importance of the position of this ' great city,' Ramessu transferred his court to Zoan, strengthened its fortifications, and founded a new temple-city.
The hieratic rolls of papyrus, which have outlived the ravages of time, with one voice designate the newly founded temple-city (for the kings of the
eighteenth dynasty had quite abandoned the old Zoan) as the central point of the court history of Egypt. Here resided the scribes, who in their letters have left behind for us the manifold information which the life at the court, the ordinances of the king and of the chief officials, and their relations with their families in the most distant parts of the country, required them to give without reserve. Zoan, or, as the place is henceforth called, Pi-Ramessu, ' the city of Ramses,' became henceforward the especial capital of the empire.
It will be useful to the reader to hear in what manner an Egyptian letter-writer described the importance of this town on the occasion of his visit to it :
*' So I arrived .in the city of Ramses-Miamun, and I have found it excellent, for nothing can compare with it on the Theban land and soil. (Here is the seat) of the court. It is pleasant to live in. Its fields are full of good things, and life passes in constant plenty and abundance. Its canals are rich in fish, its lakes swarm with birds, its,meadows are green with vegetables, there is no end of the lentils ; melons with a taste like honey grow in the irrigated fields. Its barns are fall of wheat and durra, and reach as high as heaven. Onions and sesame are in the enclosures, and the apple-tree blooms. (?) The vine, the almond-tree, and the fig-tree grow in the gardens. Sweet is their wine for the inhabitants of Kemi. The}'mix it with honey. The red fish is in the lotus-canal, the Borian-fish in the ponds, many kinds of Bori-fish, besides
carji and pike, in the canal of Pu-harotha ; fat fish and Khipti-pennu fish are in the pools of the inundation, the Hauaz-fish in the full mouth of the Nile, near the ' city of the conqueror ' (Tanis) . The city-canal Pshenhor produces salt, the lake region of Pahir natron. Their seaships enter the harbor, plenty and abundance is perpetual in it. He rejoices who has settled there. Mj^ information is no jest. The common people, as well as the higher classes, say, ' Come hither ! let us celebrate to him his heavenly and his earthly feasts.' The inhabitants of the reedy lake (Thufi) arrived with lilies, those of Pshensor with pap3'rus flowers. Fruits from the nurseries, flowers from the gardens, birds from the ponds, are dedicated to him. Those who dwell near the sea came with fish, and the inhabitants of their lakes honored him. The youths of the ' Conqueror's city ' were perpetuall}' clad in festive attire. Fine oil was on their heads of fresh-curled hair. They stood at their doors, their hands laden with branches and flowers from Pahathor, and with garlands from Pahir, on the day of the entry of king Ramessu-Miaraun, the god of war Monthu upon earth, in the early morning of the monthly feast of Kihith (that is, on the 1st of Khoiakh). All people were assembled, neighbor with neighbor, to bring forward their complaints.
" Delicious was the wine for the inhabitants of the ' Conqueror's city.' Their cider was like . . . . , their sherbets were like almonds mixed with honey. There was beer from Kati (Galilee) in the harbor, wine in the gardens, fine oil at the lake Sagabi, garlands in the appleorchards. The sweet song of women resounded to the tunes of Memphis. So they sat there with joyful heart, or walked about without ceasing. King Ramessu-Miamun, he was the god they celebrated."
In spite of the unexplained names of the fishes and plants, the scribe could hardly have given a clearer or livelier account of the impression made on his susceptible mind by the new city of Ramses in its festal garments on the day of the entry of pharaoh. We may suppose that many a Hebrew, perhaps Moses himself, jostled the Egyptian scribe in his wandering through the gaily dressed streets of the temple-city.
And this city of Ramses is the very same which is named in Hol}^ Scripture as one of the two places in which pharaoh had built for him ' arei miskenoth,* ' treasure cities,' as the translators understand it.* It would be better, having regard to the actual Egyptian word ' mesket,' ' meskenet,' * temple, holy place' (as, for example, king Darius designates his temple erected in the great Oasis to the Theban Amon), to translate it * temple-cities.' The new pharaoh, * who knew not Joseph,' f who adorned the city of Ramses, the capital of the Tanitic nome, and the city of Pithom, the capital of what was afterwards the Sethroitic nome, with temple-cities, is no other, can he no other, than Ramessu II., of whose
buildings at Zoan the monuments and fhe papyrusrolls speak in complete agreement. And although, as it happens, Pitum is not named as a city in which Ramses erected new temples to the local divinities, the fact is all the more certain, that Zoan contained a new city of Ramses, the great templedistrict of the newly founded sanctuaries of the above-named gods. Ramessu is the pharaoh of the oppression, and the father of that unnamed princess who found the child Moses exposed in the bulrushes on the bank of the river.
While the fact, that the pharaoh we have named was the founder of the city of Ramses, is so strongly demonstrated by the evidence of the Egyptian records both on stone and papyrus, that only want of intelligence and mental blindness can deny it, the inscriptions do not mention one syllable about the Israelites. We must suppose that the captives were included in the general name of foreigners, of whom the documents make such frequent mention. The hope, however, is not completely excluded, that some hidden papyrus may still give us information about them, as unexpected as it would be welcome.
We must again remark, and insist with strong emphasis on the fact, that from this time, and in the future history of the empire, the town of Zoan-
Tanis is of great importance. On the wide plains before Zoan, the hosts of the warriors were mustered to be exercised in the manoeuvres of battle ; here the chariots of war rolled by with their stamping pairs of horses ; the sea-going ships and their crews came to land at the harbors on the broad river. From this place Thutmes III. had started in his war against western Asia ; it was to Tanis that Ramses II. had directed his return from Thebes ; here he had received the embassy of peace from the king of Khita ; and from hence, as we shall presently have to relate, Moses led the Hebrews out of the land of bondage to the land of promise, to give his people the milk and honey of the Holy Land, in exchange for the flesh-pots of Egypt.
The influx of Semite-Asiatic hostages and prisoners exercised a continually increasing influence on religion, manners, and language. The Egyptian language was enriched (we might almost say, for our profit) with foreign expressions, often indeed from mere whim, but more often for good reasons, in order properly to designate unknown objects by their native names. The letters and documents of the time of the Ramessids are full of Semitic words thus introduced, and in this respect they are scarcely less affected than the German language
degraded by the borrowing of outlandish words.
Ramses II. enjoyed a long reign. The monuments expressly testify to a rule of sixty-seven years, of which probably more than half must be assigned to his joint reign with his father. Great in war, and active in the works of peace, Ramses seems also to have enjoyed the richest blessings of heav-en in his family life. The outer wall of the front of the temple of Abydus gives us the pictures and the names (only partially preserved) of 119 children (59 sons and 60 daughters).
The elder sons died during the long reign of their father. The fourteenth in the long list of children, by name Mineptah, ' the friend of Ptah,' was chosen by destiny to mount at last the throne of the pharaohs. He had already taken part in the affairs of government during the lifetime of his aged father, " and in this capacity he appears on the monuments of Ramses II., by the side of his royal parent.
Of the daughters of the king, the monuments name, during the lifetime of the pharaoh, as real queens and wives of Egyptian kings (perhaps subkings or brothers), his favorite daughter, called by tlie Semitic name of Bint-antha, ' the daughter of Anaitis,' and Meri-amon, and Neb-taui. A much younger sister of the name of Meri (Dear) deserves
to be mentioned, since her name reminds us of the Princess Merris (also called Thermuthis), according to the Jewish tradition,* who found the child Moses on the bank of the stream, when she went to bathe. Is it by accident, or by divine providence, that in the reign of Ramses III., about one hundred years after the death of his ancestor, the great Sesostris, a place is mentioned in Middle Egypt, which bears the name of the great Jewish legislator ? It is called T-en-Mosh^, ' the island of Moses,' or ' the river-bank of Moses.' It lay on the eastern side of the river, near the city of the heretic king Khu-naten.f The place still existed in the time of the Romans ; those who describe Egypt at that time designate it with a mistaken apprehension of its true meaning, as Musai, or MusOn, as if it had some connection with the Greek Muses.
OF SUCCEEDING HISTORY.
MiNEPTAH II. makes but an insignificant figure among the proud kings of Egypt, being neither renowned for arts nor arms, and being remembered as a weak, cowardly, and cruel ruler. He does not rank with those pharaohs who have transmitted their remembrance to posterity by grand buildings and the construction of new temples, or by the enlargement of such as already existed.
With the exception of small portions, hardly worthy of being named, the new pharaoh contented himself with the cheap glory of utilizing, or rather misusing, the monuments of his predecessors, as far back as the twelfth dynasty, and not excepting even the works of the Hyksos, as bearers of his royal shields ; for in the cartouches of former kings, whence he had chiselled out their names, he unscrupulously inserted his own, without any respect for the judgment of posterity. The nomad tribes of the Edomite Shasu — who under Seti I. still regarded the eastern region of the Delta, up to the neighbor-
hood of Zoan, the city of Ramses, as their own possession, until they were driven out by that pharaoh over the eastern frontier — bestirred themselves anew under Mineptah, but now in a manner alike peaceful and loyal. As faithful subjects of pharaoh, they asked for a passage through the border fortress of Khetam, in the land of Thuku (Sukoth), in order to find sustenance for themselves and their herds in the rich pasture lands of the lake district about the city of Pitom.
following report :
"Another matter for the satisfaction of my master's heart. We have carried into effect the passage of the tribes of the Shasu from the land of Aduma (Edom), through the fortress (Khetam) of Mineptah-Hotephiraa, ■which is situated in Thuku (Sukoth), to the lakes of the city Pit-um, of Mineptah-Hotephima, which are situated in the land of Thuku, in order to feed themselves and to feed their herds on the possessions of pharaoh, who is there a beneficent sun for all peoples. In the 3'ear 8 . . . . Set, I caused them to be conducted, according the list of the .... for the .... of the other names of the da3's, on which the fortress (Khetam) of Mineptah-Hotephima is opened for their passage,"
If Ramses-Sesostris, the builder of the templecity of the same name in the territory of ZoanTanis, must be regarded beyond all doubt as the pharaoh under whom the Jewish legislator Moses
first saw the light, so the chronological relations — having regard to the great age of the two contemporaries, Ramses II. and Moses — demand that Mineptah should in all probability be acknowledged as the pharaoh of the Exodus. He also had his royal seat in the city of Ramses, and seems to have strengthened its fortifications. The Bible speaks of him only under the general name of Pharaoh, that is, under a true Egyptian title, which was becoming more and more frequent at the time now under our notice. Pir-'ao — ' great house, high gate' — is, according to the monuments, the designation of the king of the land of Egypt for the time being. This does not of itself furnish a decisive argument. Only the incidental statement of the Psalmist, that Moses wrought his wonders in the .field of Zoan,* carries us back again to those sovereigns, Ramses II. and Mineptah, who were fond of holding their court in Zoan-Ramses.
Some have very recently wished to recognize the Egyptian appellation of the Hebrews in the name of the so-called 'Aper, 'Apura, or 'Aperiu, the Erythraean people in the east of the nome of Heliopolis, in what is known as the ' red country ' on the ' red mountain ' ; and hence they have drawn conclusions which — speaking modestly, according to our knowledge of the monuments — rest on a weak founda* Psalm Ixxviii. 43.
tion. According to the inscriptions, the name of this people appears in connection with the breeding of horses and the art of horsemanship. In an historical narrative of the time of Thutmes III. (unfortunately much obliterated), the 'Apura are named as horsemen, or knights (senen), who mount their horses at the king's command. In another document, of the time of Ramses III., long after the exodus of the Jews from Egypt, two thousand and eighty-three 'Aperiu are introduced, as settlers in Heliopolis, with the words, ' Knights, sons of the kings and noble lords (Marina) of the 'Aper, settled people, who dwell in this place.' Under Ramses IV. we again meet with 'Aper, eight hundred in number, as inhabitants of foreign origin in the district of 'Ani or 'Aini, on the western shore of the Red Sea, in the neighborhood of the modern Suez.
These and similar data completely exclude all thought of the Hebrews, unless one is disposed to have recourse to suppositions and conjectures against the most explicit statements of the biblical records. On the other hand, the hope can scarcely be cherished that we shall ever find on the public monuments — rather let us say in some hidden roll of papyrus — the events, repeated in an Egyptian version, which relate to the exodus of the Jews and the destruction of pharaoh in the Red Sea.
For the record of these events was inseparably connected with the humiliating confession of a divine visitation, to which a patriotic writer at the court of pharaoh would hardly have brought his mind.
Presupposing, then, that Mineptah is to be regarded as the pharaoh of the Exodus, this ruler must have had to endure serious disturbances of all kinds during the time of his reign : — in the west the Libyans, in the east the Hebrews, and — let us at once add — in the south a spirit of rebellion, which declared itself by the insurrection of a rival king of the family of the great Ramses-Sesostris. The events, which form the lamentable close of his rule over Egypt are passed over by the monuments with perfect silence.
In casting a glance over the most eminent contemporaries of this king, we are reminded especially of his viceroy in Egypt, the * king's son of Kush,' named Mas, — the same who had been invested with this high office in the southern province under Ramses II. His memory has been perpetuated in a rock inscription at Assuan. We may further make mention — instructed by a record in the quarries of Silsilis — of the noble Pinehas, an Egyptian namesake of the Hebrew Phinehas, the son of Eleazar, son of
Aaron. In conclusion, let us not forget the very influential high-priest of Amon, Roi, or Loi, Lui (i. e. Levi), who under Mineptah held the command of the legion of Amon, administered the treasury of Amon, and, according to the custom of the time, was chief architect to pharaoh. To be sure, this must have been an easy office for him, since there was not much building, except perhaps the royal sepulchre, which the drowned pharaoh probably never entered.
Having arrived at the time when the Hebrews began the conquest of Canaan, and were henceforth a separate nation, it will not be expected that from this point anything more than a brief summary of Egyptian affairs will be given. The twentieth dynasty begins with the reign of Ramses HI., and ends with that of Ramses XIII. Foreign war is the one unvarying subject that presents itself as we look over the accounts that have been preserved. Ramses III. appears to have conquered Cyprus, CiHcia, and parts of Asia Minor, and he erected in various parts of Egypt and in foreign countries a large number of memorial buildings ' in his name,' called Ramessea. He is known as Rhampsinitus in the history of Herodotus. The remaining princes of the dynasty require no special mention here. Their reigns were in no way remarkable ; and toward the
last the Theban priests had become so influential as to vie with the pharaoh in power. After the death of Ramses XIII. a priest named Hirhor ascended the throne, being the first of the twentyfirst dynasty. The descendants of the Ramessu were banished.
Then came an Assyrian invasion under the mighty king Nimrod (Naromath), ostensibly to reinstate the Ramessids, but really to effect a conquest of Egypt. Nimrod died while in Egypt, and was buried at Abydus. His son Shashank (Shishak in the Bible), became king, and fixed his seat at Buba-tus. Egypt was at this time virtually an Assyrian province. This portion of Egyptian history was first made known to the world through the discoveries of Dr. Brugsch. The evidence comes from inscriptions on a large granite block found at Abydus. The twenty-second dynasty began with Shashank I. This monarch — the Shishak of the Bible, the Sesonchis of Manetho — has become a conspicuous person in the history of Egypt, in connection with the records of the Jewish monarchy, through his expedition against the kingdom of Judah. It is well known how Jeroboam, the servant of king Solomon, rebelled against the king his master. After the prophet Ahijah had publicly designated him beforehand, as the man best quali-
fied to be the future sovereign, Jeroboam was obliged to save himself from the anger and the snares of the king, and for this reason he fled to Egypt, to the court of Shashanq I.* Recalled after the death of Solomon, he returned to his home, to be elected king of Israel according to the word of the prophet, while the crown of Judah fell to Solomon's son, Rehoboam.f In the fifth year of this latter king's reign, and probably at the instigation of his former guest (Jeroboam), Shashanq made his expedition against the kingdom of Judah, which ended in the capture and pillaging of Jerusalem. J
This attack of the Egyptian king on the kingdom of Judah and the levitical cities, which the Scripture relates fully and in all its details, has been also handed down to later ages in outline on a wall of the temple of Amon in the Theban Api. On the south external wall, behind the picture of the victories of king Ramessu II., to the east of the room called the Hall of the Bubastids, the spectator beholds the colossal image of the Egyptian sovereign dealing the heavy blows of his victorious club on the captive Jews. The names of the towns and districts, which Shashanq I. conquered in his
expedition against Judah, are paraded in long rows, in their Egyptian forms of writing, and frequently with considerable repetitions, each name being enclosed in an embattled shield.
This succession of Assyrian kings continued, though with many vicissitudes, for many reigns. The twenty-third dynasty consisted of three kings, and the period was one of incessant struggle with Assyrians on the north and Ethiopians on the south. The twenty-fourth dynasty is unknown. The long commotions resulted in the establishment of the Ethiopian kings upon the Egyptian throne. They were Ethiopian only in name, however, being descendants of priests and princes of the Egyptian race, who had taken refuge during the Assyrian domination in the regions watered by the Upper Nile. The Assyrians still ruled by means of petty kings whom the}^ supported in Lower Egypt, while the Ethiopians had sway iji Thebes and the country above. Full accounts of this period of intestine commotion have been found in memorial stones at Mount Barkal. These relate principally to the exploits of the kings Piankhi and Miamun Nut. It is needless for any but archaeologists to attempt to follow the few and uncertain lights in this dark era. It is perhaps enough to add that after a long period of utter confusion, in which Egyptians, As-
Syrians, and Ethiopians were constantly in arms, peace came to the distracted country under the benign rule of Psametik I., who was doubly fortunate in preserving his own northern realm and in wedding the heiress of the Ethiopian line, the greatgrand-daughter of the king Piankhi and of the beautiful queen Ameniritis.
The splendid alabaster statue of the queen-mother Ameniritis, which was found at Karnak, and now adorns the rooms of the Egyptian Museum at Boulaq, is in this point of view ar most important and suggestive memorial of that age. Sweet peace seems to hover about her features ; even the flower in her hand suggests her high mission as reconciler of the long feud.
The name Psametik is also of Ethiopian origin, and signifies 'Son of the sun.' His seat was at Sair in the north. The dynasty so happily begun lasted one hundred and thirty-eight years, when Egypt was once more conquered, B. c. 527, by a Persian army under Cambyses. The rule of the Persians, under six or more kings, lasted one hundred and three years.
From this epoch the monuments are conspicuously silent. There are only isolated inscriptions, containing no records of the victories of each age, but continual songs of woe, which we must read
song of the mighty empire on the Nile.
It is no longer the everlasting stone or monument that makes known to us the unenviable fortune of the land ; but it is the inquisitive Greek, who travels through the Nile valley under the protection of the Persians or the kings of his own race, and gathers his information from ignorant interpreters, that becomes henceforth the source of our knowledge.
The monuments of the twenty-sixth dynasty, belonging to the seventh and sixth centuries B. c, are distinguished by a peculiar beauty — one might almost use the word elegance — in which we cannot fail to recognize foreign, that is, Greek, influence. An extreme neatness of manipulation in the drawings and lines, in imitation of the best epochs of art in earlier times, serves for the instant recognition of the work of this age, the fineness of which often reminds us of the performances of a sealengraver. There rests upon the work, which is executed in the hardest stone with a finish equal to metal-casting, a gentle and almost feminine tenderness, which has impressed upon the imitations of living creatures the stamp of an incredible delicacy both of conception and execution.
Nile by a canal. The remains of a statue of the king, as well as several memorial stones covered with triplicate cuneiform inscriptions and with Egyptian hieroglyphics, which have been found near the line of the canal (north of Suez), place the fact beyond all doubt. One of the tablets is thus translated:
" Says Darius the king : ' I am a Persian ; with (the power of) Persia I conquered Egypt (Mudraya). I ordered this canal to be dug, from the river called Pirava (the Nile) , which flows in Eg^-pt, to the sea which comes out of Persia.* This canal was afterwards dug there, as I had commanded, and I said, " Go, and destroy half of the canal from Biraf to the coast." For so was my will.* "
Darius left off constructing the canal because some
* This seems to apply to the Erythrasan Sea, in the wide sense in which the name is used by Herodotus, including what is now called the Arabian Sea, with the Persian Gulf and Red Sea, the latter having also the special name of the Arabian Gulf. — Ed.
X Strabo, xvii., p. 804. Oppert's own words will be found interesting: "We can read through the laconism of this inscription which, allowing for the position in which the king places himself, nevertheless establishes a failure. Darius wished to unite the Nile and the sea by a fresh-water canal ; to resume and finish the work which had been attributed first to Sesostris, and which Neco, the son of Psamnietichus, had in vain tried to accomplish. But neither was Darius able to bring the work to a successful issue."
had assured him that Egypt lay below the level of the Red Sea, and so the danger was threatened of seeing the whole land laid under water.
Two dynasties followed, the twenty-ninth and thirtieth, at Mendes and Sebennytus, but the records are for the most part silent concerning them. The thirty-first dynasty was Persian, and consisted of three monarchs, whose reigns amounted only to eight years. In the year 332 B. c, Egypt was conquered by Alexander the Great, and with this event the history as written by Dr. Brugsch concludes. The subsequent history is to be found in the classical writers, and in various modern reproductions.
THE EXODUS AND THE EGYPTIAN MONUMENTS.
A Discourse delivered on the Occasion of tlie International Congress of Orientalists in London^ September 17, 1874. By Henry Brugsch-Bey, Delegate of his Highness Ismael /., Khedive of Egypt. Translated from the French Original.
TO THE ORIGINAL EDITION.
The publication of this Memoir, which should have appeared a year ago, has been delayed by the absence of the author, while in official charge of an expedition into the interior of the Libyan Desert, of Egypt, and of Nubia. On returning from this journey, he was able to take advantage of his stay in the eastern part of Lower Egypt, to examine the sites, and to verify the topographical and geographical views, which form the subject of this Memoir.
The author is happy to be able to state, that his new researches have contributed to prove, even to the smallest details, the conclusions which the papyri and the monuments compelled him to form
with regard to the topographical direction of the Exodus, and to the stations where the Hebrews halted, as related in Holy Scripture.
In a special Memoir, which will form a complete chapter of my periodical publication, ' The Bible and the Monuments ' (^Bibel und BenJcmaeler') , announced several months since, the reader will find a collection of all the materials drawn from the monuments, which have enabled me to re-establish the route of the Jews after their departure from Egypt, and which prove incontestably that the labors of Messrs. Unruh and Schleiden * on the same subject were based on views as near the truth as was then possible.
Notwithstanding the very hostile and sometimes not very Christian attacks which these new views have had to sustain on the part of several orthodox scholars, the author of this discourse ventures to affirm that the number of monumental indications is every day accumulating, and continually furnishing new proofs in favor of our discovery. Any one must certainly be blind who refuses to see the flood of light which the papyri and other Egyptian monuments are throwing upon the venerable records of Holy Scripture ; and, above all, there must needs be
a wilful mistaking of the first laws of criticism by those who wish to discover contradictions, which really exist only in the imagination of opponents.
Note. — In our translation, we follow Dr. Brugseh's orthography of the proper names, which, in this Memoir, he has adapted to the French language in which it was written, as, for the chief example, in the use of ou for the pure u used in his German text.
We have not thought it necessary to encumber the pages with Notes referring to all the points already touched on in the Historj^, and here collected into one focus of light thrown on the subject in hand. — Ed.
PREFACE.
The 'following pages contain the printed report of the Discourse which the delegate of his Highness Ismael I., Khedive of Egypt, had the honor to .deliver on the evening of September 17, 1874, at the International Congress of Orientalists in London.
Although the necessarily restricted limits of time, and the consideration due to an indulgent audience, did not permit him to develop all the details of a question, the solution of which has occupied him through a long course of years, the lively maiks of satisfaction with which his hearers were pleased to honor him, and which were echoed by journals held
in the highest esteem, impose on him the duty of presenting to the public the contents of this discourse under the form of a Memoir drawn up on the programme of his subject.
The more that his researches and investigations on the Exodus, founded on the study of the monuments, appear to present to the author results which are entirely opposed to the views hitherto adopted with regard to this part of the history of the Hebrews, so much the more does he feel almost compelled to publish the materials which have supplied him with a foundation, and which have imperatively led him to present the departure of the Jews from Egypt in its true light.
Those who are afraid of meeting in these new hypotheses attacks upon the statements of Holy Scripture, — from which may God preserve me, — or the suggestion of doubts relative to the sacred history, may feel completely reassured. Far from lessening the authority and the weight of the Books on which our religion is founded, .the results at which the author of this Memoir has arrived — thanks to the authentic indications of the monuments — will serve, on the contrary, as testimonies to establish the supreme veracity of the Sacred Scriptures, and to prove the antiquity of their origin and of their sources.
The author cannot conclude without fulfilling a sacred duty by thanking his. august Master, in the name of science, for the numerous efforts which he has generously devoted to the development of historical studies and to the service of the monuments of his country. Having found in the person of our excellent and learned friend and colleague, Mariette Bey, one as devoted as he was qualified by skill and experience to carry out his enlightened ideas, his Highness the Khedive of Egypt has perfectly understood and accomplished the high mission which divine Providence has reserved for him, that of being the regenerator of Egypt, ancient as well as modern. H. B.
THE MEMOIR.
His Highness the Kh'edive of Egypt, Ismael Pacha, has granted me the honor of representing his country at the International Congress of Orientalists in London. On this occasion, the enlightened prince, who has rendered so many services to the science I profess, has ordered me to express, in his name, to the illustrioas members of the Qorigress, his most lively sympathy, and his sincere admiration for the invaluable labors with which they have enriched science, in bringing back to life
by their researches the remotest past of those happy countries of the East, which were the cradle of humanity and the centres of primitive civilization.
If his Highness has deigned to fix his choice on me as his delegate to London, I owe this distinction less to my humble deserts than to the special character of my latest researches on the subject of the history of the Hebrews in Egypt.
Knowing the lively interest with which the English world follows those discoveries, above all others, which have a bearing upon the venerable records of Holy Scripture, his Highness has charged me to lay before this honorable Congress the most conspicuous results of my studies, founded on the interpretation of the monuments of Egypt.
In thus laying before you a page of the history of the Hebrews in Egypt, I would flatter myself with the hope that I may be able to reward your attention, and thereby justify the high confidence with which his Highness has been pleased to honor me.
I am to speak of the exodus of the Hebrews. Bat, before entering on my subject, I will take leave to make one observation. I wish to state that my discussion is based, on the one hand, upon the texts of Holy Scripture, in which I have not to change a single iota ; on the other hand, upon the Egyptian monumental inscriptions, explained ac-
all bias of a fanciful character.
If for almost twenty centuries, as I shall have occasion to prove, the translators and the interpreters of Holy Scripture have wrongly understood and rendered the geographical notions contained in that part of the biblical text which describes the sojourn of the Hebrews in Egypt, the error, most certainly, is not due to the sacred narrative, but to those who, unacquainted with the history and geography of the remote times which were contemporary with the events in the history of the Hebrews in Egypt, have labored to reconstruct, at any cost, the exodus of the Hebrews after the scale of their scanty knowledge, not to say, of their most complete ignorance.
According to Holy Scripture, Moses, after having obtained from the pharaoh of his age permission to lead into the Desert the children of Israel, worn out with their hard servitude in building the two cities of Pitom and Ramses,* started with his people from the city of Ramses,! ^^^ arrived successively at the stations of Succoth % and Etham.§ At this last en-
* Exod. i. 11. Observe that Rameses has already been mentioned by anticipation, to mark tlie locality in which the children of Israel were settled when they came into Egypt : — Gen. xlvii. 11 : " And Joseph placed his father and his brethren, and gave them a possession m the land of Egypt, in the best of the land, in the land of Rameses, as Pharaoh had commanded." — Ed.
campment he turned,* taking the direction towards Migdol and the sea — observe that there is not here a word about the ' Sea of sea-weed 'f (the Red Sea) — opposite to the ' entry of Khiroth,' J over against Baal-zephon. Then the Hebrews passed by way of the ' Sea of sea- weed ' (translated by the interpreters 'the Red Sea');§ they remained three days ■in the Desert without finding water ; || arrived at Mar^h, where the water was bitter ; *^ and at length encamped at Elim, a station with springs of sweet water and a little grove of date-palms.**
The different opinions and different results, in tracing the direction of the march of the Hebrews, are just as many as the scholars who have attempted to reconstruct the route of the Hebrews from the data of Holy Scripture. But all these scholars, except only two (see p. 197), have agreed unanimously that the passage through the Red Sea must be regarded as the most fixed point in their system.
t *Mer des Algues,' the translation of the Hebrew hlD-Qt 'the sea of soKph,* which the LXX. always render by v i()v6^ie ^ukuctaa (as also in the N. T., Acts vii. 36, Heb. xi. 29), except in Judges xi. 16, wliere they preserve the Hebrew name in the form 2up. — Ed.
all the routes reconstructed by these scholars, who had certainly the best intentions, and who lacked only one thing — but that very essential — the necessary knowledge of facts in the geography of ancient Egypt. Their general practice, in order to rediscover the itinerary of the Hebrews, was to resort to the Greek and Roman geographers, who lived more than a thousand years after Moses, and to mark the stations of the Hebrews by the Greek or Latin names belonging to the geography of Egypt under the rule of the Ptolemies or the Caesars.
If a happy chance had preserved that Manual of the Geography of Egypt, which, according to the texts engraved on the walls of the temple of Edfou, was deposited in the Library of that vast sanctuary of the god Horus, and which bore the title of ' The Book of the Towns situated in Egypt with a Description of all that relates to them,' we should have been relieved from all trouble in rediscovering the localities referred to in Holy Scripture. We should only have had to consult this book, to know of what we might be sure with regard to these biblical names. Unfortunately, this work has perished together with so raan}^ other papyri, and science has once more to regret the loss of so important a work of Egyptian antiquity. But even this loss is not irreparable ! The monuments and the papyri, espe-
cially those of the dynasty of the Ramessids, contain thousands of texts and notices of a purely geographical kind, making frequent allusion to topographical positions ; besides which, a very considerable number of inscriptions, engraved on the walls of the temples, contain tables more or less extensive, which give us the most exact knowledge of the political divisions of Egypt, and the most complete lists of the departments of that country, accompanied by a host of the most curious details.
Let me lay before you the scattered leaves of the lost book of which I have just spoken. Our purpose is to collect them carefully, to put them together in their relation to each other, to try to fill up the gaps, and finally to make out the list of them.
After having been engaged on this work for twenty years, I have succeeded, at the beginning of this year, in reuniting the membra disjecta of the great Corpus G-eographice of Egypt, which is composed, according to the Index of. my collections, of a number exceeding three thousand six hundred geographical names. In the work of applying the laws of a sound and calm criticism to these rich materials, without allowing myself to be enticed by an accidental resemblance of form in the foreign proper names, when compared with the Egyptian
names, I have undertaken to traverse Egypt through all its quarters, in order to obtain a knowledge of the ancient ground in its modern condition, and to satisfy myself, from my own eye-sight, of the changes which the surface of the soil has undergone in different parts of the country during the course of the past centuries.
Having in this manner accomplished a labor which had the only drawback of being sometimes beyond my strength, but which has never worn out my patience, I have the honor of presenting its results, in the form of a summary, to this honorable Congress, as a tribute of respect and esteem due to the illustrious scholars here assembled. While, for my own part, I experience deep satisfaction at having in some sort reached the goal which I proposed to myself twenty years ago, it would prove, on the other hand, my highest recompense, to learn from your judgment that I have recovered a great part of the lost book of the Geography of Ancient Egypt. The application of the geographical results settled and laid down in this summary, which will form the special subject of the present meeting, will furnish you with a fair test of the importance of these results and of their value to historical science.
' country which we are about to traverse, in order to discover and follow the traces of the Hebrews during their sojourn in Egypt ? All the scholars, who have given attention to this subject, are agreed that this country lay on the eastern side of Lower Egypt, to the east of the ancient Pelusiac branch, which has disappeared from the map of modern Egypt, but the direction of which is clearly indicated by the position of the ruins of several great cities which stood on its banks in ancient times. Beginning from the south of the country in question, the city of Anu, the same which Holy Scripture designates by the name of On, identifies for us the position of the Heliopolite nome of the classic authors.
Next, the mounds of Tell-Bast, near the modern village of Zagazig, enable us to fix the ancient site of the city of Pi-bast, a name which Holy Scripture has rendered by the very exact transcription of Pibeseth,* while the Greeks called it Bubastus. It was the chief city of the ancient Bubastite nome.
Pursuing our course towards the north, the vast mounds, near a modern town called Qous by the Copts and Faqous by the Arabs, remove all doubt as to the site of the ancient city of Phacoussa, Phacoussee, or Phacoussan, which, according to the Greek accounts, was regarded as the chief city of * Ezek. XXX. 17.
the Arabian nome. It is the same place to which the monumental lists have given the appellation of Gosem, a name easily recognized in that of ' Guesem of Arabia,' used by the Septuagint version as the geographical translation of the famous Land of Goshen.*
Directly to the north, between the Arabian nome, with its capital Gosem, and the Mediterranean Sea, the monumental lists make known to us a district, the Egyptian name of which, * the point of the north,' indicates at once its northerly position. The Greek writers call it the Nomos Sethroites, a word which seems to be derived from the appellation Set-ro-hatu, ' the region of the river-mouths,' which the ancient Egyptians applied to this part of their country. While classical antiquity uses the name of Heracleopolis Parva to designate its chief town, the monumental lists cite the same place under the name of ' Pitom,' with the addition, ' in the country of Sukot.' Here we at once see two names of great importance, which occur in Holy Scripture under the same forms, the Pithom and the Succoth of the Hebrews.
Without dwelling, for the moment, on this curious discovery, I pass on to the last district of this region^ situate in the neighborhood of the preceding one,
between the Pelusiac and Tanitic branches of the Nile. The Egyptian monuments designate it by a compound name, which signifies ' the beginning of the Eastern country,' in complete agreement with its topographical position. Its chief town is named, sometimes Zoan, sometimes Pi-ramses, ' the city of Ramses.' Here again we have before us two names, which Holy Scripture has preserved perfectly in the two names, Zoan and Ramses, of one and the same Egyptian city.
As the new geographical definitions which I have now set forth involve certain necessary consequences, I do not for a moment hesitate to declare that I willingly take upon myself the whole responsibility, as much for the accuracy of the philological part of my statement, as for the precision of the geographical sites which I have brought to your knowledge.
After these remarks, I return to Pitom and Ramses. When you have entered, at Port Said, from the Mediterranean into the maritime Canal of Suez, your vessel crosses the middle of a great plain, from one end to the other, before stopping on the south at the station called by the engineers of the canal El-Kantara. But during this transit you must give up all hope of being cheered by the view of those verdant and smiling meadows, those forests of date-
palms and mulberry-trees, which give to the interior of Lower Egypt — covered with numerous villages and intersected with thousands of canals — the picturesque character of a real garden of God. This vast plain stretches out from the two sides of the maritime canal, without affording your eye, as it ranges over the vast space to the farthest bounds of the horizon, the least point to rest upon. It is a sea of sand, with an infinite number of islets covered with reeds and thorny plants, garnished with a sort of white efflorescence, which leads us to recognize the presence of salt water. In spite of the blue sky, the angel of death has spread his wings over this vast sad solitude, where the least sign of life seems an event. You but rarely meet with the tents of some poor Bedouins, who have wandered into this desert to seek food for their lean cattle.
But the scene changes from the time when the Nile, in the two months of January and February, has begun to cover the lands of Lower Egypt with its waters. The vast plains of sand disappear beneath the surface of immense lakes. The reeds and rushes, which form large thickets, shoot up wonderfully, and millions of water-birds, ranged along the banks of the lagoons or collected in flocks on the islets of the marsh, are busy fishing, dis-
puting with man the rich prey of the waters. Then come the barks manned by the fishermen of Lake Menzaleh, who, during the two or three winter months, ply their calling vigorously, in order afterwards to sell the ' fassikh ' (salted fish) to the inhabitants of the Delta and of Upper Egypt.
Such is the general character of this region, which I have traversed three times at different seasons of the year, in order to become acquainted with the peculiarities of its* surface ; and such are the impressions which I have brought away from my repeated visits. These are the plains, now half desert, half lagoons and marshes, that correspond to the territory of the ancient district of the Sethroite nome, ' the point of the East,' according to the monuments, the capital of which was called Pi-tom, the city of Pithom of the Bible.
In ancient times this district comprised both banks of the Pelusiac branch of the Delta, and extended on the western side as far as the eastern bank of the Tanitic branch. Marshes and lagoons, with a rich vegetation consisting of rushes and reeds, of the lotus and, above all, the papyrus plant, are met with towards the sea-shore: these are the places called by an Egyptian word, Athu, or by the foreign word Souf, that is, ' the marshes of papyrus ' of the Egyptian texts. There were also pools and
lakes, called b}^ the Semitic name of Birkata, which reached to the neighborhood of Pitom. The district was traversed in all directions by canals, two of which were near the city of Pelusium ; each bearing a special name which recalls the use of a Semitic language spoken by the inhabitants of the district in question. The city of Pithom, identical with that of Heracleopolis Parva, the capital of the Sethroitic nome in the age of the Greeks and Romans, was situate half-way on the great road from Pelusium to Tanis : and this indication, given on the authority of the itineraries, furnishes the sole means of fixing its position towards the frontier of the conterminous district of Tanis.
The Egyptian texts give us evident and incontestable proofs that the whole of this region, which formed the district of the Sethroite nome, was denoted by the name of Suku, or Sukot. The foreign source of this designation is indicated by the monuments, and is proved by its relations with the Hebrew words sok^ sukkah, in the plural sukkoth, which bear the primary sense of * tent.' There is nothing surprising in such an appellation, analogies to which are found in the names Scense Mandrorum, Scense Veteranorum, Scense extra Gerasa, given by the ancients to three places situate in Egypt. In these names, then, the principal word, Scense, 'tents,'
has the same signification as the Semitico-Egyptian word Sukot, which recalls to us the name of Succoth, given in Holy Scripture to the first station of the Hebrews when they had left the city of Ramses. This name of ' tents ' takes its origin from the encampments of the Bedouin Arabs, who, with the permission of the pharaohs, had taken up their abode in the vast plains of the country of Succoth, and who, from the most remote periods of Egyptian history, had there preserved the manners, the customs, and the religious beliefs, peculiar to their race, and had spread the use of Semitic words, which were at length adopted officially by the Egyptian authorities and scribes.
Thus it is that the greatest number of the proper names, used on the monuments and in the papyri to denote the towns, villages, and canals of the district of Succoth and of the adjacent nome of Tanis, are explained only by means of the vocabulary of the Semitic languages. Very often the existing Egyptian names are changed in such a manner that the Semitic name contains the exact translation of the meaning of the Egyptian name. In this case the Semites have used the same method that the Greeks and Romans employed, namely, to render the proper names of the geography of Egypt by
translation into the corresponding words of their own language. In this process thej went so far as to substitute the names of the divinities of classical mythology for those of the gods and divinities of the Egyptian pantheon. Hence it is that the classic authors give us names of cities such as Andronpolis (the ' city of men '), Gynsecon-polis (the ' city of women '), Leonton-polis (the ' city of lions '), Crocodilon-polis, Lycon-polis, Elephantine, that is, the cities df crocodiles, of wolves, of the elephant, &c., which exhibit actual translations of the corresponding Egyptian names. And it is thus, also, that the same authors speak 'of cities called Diospolis, Hermo-polis, Helio-polis, Aphrodito-polis — that is to say, the cities of the gods Zeus, Hermes, Helios (the sun), and of the goddess Aphrodite — in order "to render into Greek the Egyptian names No-Amon, ' the city of Amon,' Pi-thut, ' the city of Thut,' Pi-tom, ' the city of the sun-god Tom,' Pi Hathor, ' the city of the goddess Hathor.' The Hebrews did just the same : and thus there was, at the entrance of the road leading to Palestine, near the lake Sirbonis, a small fortification, to which, as early as the time of the nineteenth dynasty, the Egyptians gave the name of Anbu, that is, ' the wall' or 'fence,' a name, which the Greeks translated according to their custom, calling it Gerrhon
(xb riQQov^, or, in the plural, Gerrha (rd riggu').* The Hebrews likewise rendered the meaning of the Egyptian name by a translation, designating the military post on the Egyptian frontier by the name of Shur, which in their language signifies exactly the same as the word Anbu in Egyptian and the word Gerrhon in Greek, namely, ' the wall.' This Shur is the very place which is mentioned in Holy Scripture, not only as a frontier post between Egypt and Palestine, but also as the place whose name was given to the northern part of the desert on that side of Egypt.
It is in the same manner that the Hebrew word Souph, — whose meaning of ' sea-weed, reeds, papyrus-plant' is certified by the dictionaries of the Hebrew language, and which was used to denote a town situate on the Egyptian frontier, at the opposite end of the great Pharaonic road which led towards the south of the Dead Sea, besides giving its name to the Yam Souph, ' the sea of sea-weed,' — this name, I say, contains simply the translation of the Egyptian word Athu, which again signifies the same as the Hebrew word Souph, that is, ' seaweed, or the papyrus plant,' and which was applied
* There was a Chaldaean town of the same name on the Euphrates, and another in Arabia; and a district riuong, or Ffooot, on the Borysthenes, in European Sarmatia ; all in positions where we should expect to find frontier fortresses. — Ed.
as a general term to denote all the marshes and lagoons of Lower Egypt, which are characterized by their rich vegetation, consisting of papyrus and of rushes. The Egyptians, on their part, knew so well the meaning of the Hebrew word, that they frequently adopted the foreign name of Souph, instead of the word Athu in their own tongue, to denote not only the name of the City of Weeds, but also the Sea of Weeds, the Yam Souph, which we shall meet with further on.
After these remarks of a philological character, which have appeared to me indispensable for the understanding of my subject, I return to the city of Pitom, the chief place of the region of Sukot, about which the monuments furnish us with some very curious pieces of information. I will begin with the divinity worshipped at Pitom and in the district of Sukot. Although the lists of the nomes, as well as the Egyptian texts, expressly designate the sun-god Tom — the same who had splendid temples at On or Heliopolis — as the tutelar deity of Sukot, they nevertheless add, that the god Tom represents solely the Egyptian type corresponding to the (iivinity of Pitom, who is called by the name of ankh, and surnamed ' the great god.' The word ankh, which is of Egyptian origin, signifies ' life,' or ' he who lives,' 'the Living One.' This is the only case, in the
Egyptian texts, of the occurrence of such a name for a god as seems to exclude the notion. of idolatry. And in fact, if we take into consideration the presence of families of the Semitic race, who have resided in Egypt at all periods of her history, — including the nation of the Hebrews, — we cannot refuse to recognize in this divine name the trace of a religious tradition, which has been preserved even in the monumental records of the Egyptians. I dare not decide the question, whether the god ' He who Lives' of the Egyptian text is identical with the Jehovah of the Hebrews. At all events, everything tends to this belief, when we remember that the name of Jehovah contains the same meaning as the Egyptian word ankh, 'He who lives.' According to the monuments, this god, in whose honor a great feast was celebrated on the 13th day of the second month of summer, was served, not by priests, like the other divinities of the Egyptian pantheon, but by two young girls, sisters, who bore the title of honor of Ur-ti, that is, ' the two queens.' A serpent, to whom the Egyptian texts give the epithet of ' the magnificent, splendid,' was regarded as the living symbol of the god of Pitom. It bore the name of Kereh, that is, ' the smooth ; ' (compare Kep^e, calvus, rib3, smooth, bald.) And this serpent, again, transports us into the camp of the
children of Israel in the wilderness ; it recalls to us the brazen serpent of Moses, to which the Hebrews offered the perfumes of incense until the time when king Hezekiah decreed the abolition of this ancient serpent worship.*
Sukot do not, however, end here.
According to the indications of the monuments, the town of Pitom, the chief place of the district of Sukot, had an appellation which it owed to the presence and existence of its god ankh, ' He who lives,' or ' the Living One,' and which, in the terms of the Egyptian language, was pronounced p-aa-ankh, ' the habitation, or the dwelling-place, of the god ankh.' In conformity with this name, the district of Sukot was otherwise called p-u-nt-paa-ankh, 'the district of the dwelling-place of the Living One.' Add to this monumental name the Egyptian word za, the well-known designation of the governor of a city or a district, and you will have the title Za-pu-nt-p-aa-ankh, ' the governor of the district of the dwelling-place of the Living One,' which a Greek of the time of the Ptolemies would have rendered by the translation, 'the nomarch of the Sethroite nome.'
you that the pharaoh of Joseph honored his vizier with the long title of Zaphnatpaneakh, which, letter for letter, answers exactly to the long Egyptian word, the analysis of which I have just laid before you. More than this, when Joseph made himself known to his astonished brethren, he said to them : * "I am Joseph your brother; it is not' you that sent me into Egypt, it is God. It is God who established me as privy councillor to Pharaoh, and as lord over all his house." The first title, in Hebrew, is written, Ab le-Pharaoh, in which the translators, from the LXX. downwards, recognized the Hebrew word Ab, ' father ; ' but we learn from the Egyptian texts that, far from being Hebrew, the title of Ab en pirao- designates the first minister or officer, who was attached exclusively to the household of the pharaoh. Several of the precious historical papyri of the time of the nineteenth dj^nasty, now in the British Museum, the texts of which consist of simple letters and communications written by scribes and officers of the court, relate to these Ab en pirao, these superior officers of the pharaoh, whose high rank is clearly indicated by the respectful style of these scribes of inferior* rank.
could easily extend by other examples, will serve to demonstrate, in general, the presence of a foreign race on the soil of Sukot, and, especially, to give incontestable proofs of the close relations between the Egyptians and the Hebrews. By what we may call the international use of words ^belonging to their languages, the Egyptian texts fariiish us with direct proofs which certify the existence of foreign peoples in the district of Pitom.
The Egyptian texts, with the famous papyrus of the British Museum at their head, tell us continually of the Hiru-pitu, or Egyptian officers, who were charged with the oversight of these foreign populations residing in the region of Sukot. These same texts make known to us the Adon (a word entirely Semitic in its origin) or superior chiefs of Sukot, magistrates who served as intermediaries in the relations of the Egyptian authorities with these populations. This service, which was not always of a peaceable character, was supported by a body of police (the Mazaiou), whose commander (the Ser) was chosen from among the great personages of the pharaonic court. The Egyptian garrisons of two fortresses constructed on the frontiers of the nome of Sukot watched the entrance and departure of all foreigners into and out of that territory. The first, called Khetam (that is, the fortress), of
Sukot, was situate near the town of Pelasium. It guarded the entrance into the district of Sukot from the side of Arabia. The other, called by a Semitic name Segor, or Segol, that is, ' the barrier,' of Sukot, prevented foreigners from passing the frontier on the southern side and setting foot on the territory of the district adjacent to Tanis-Ramses. Thus the two forts were placed at the two ends of the great road which traversed the plain of Sukot in the midst of its lakes, marshes, and canals. The description which a Roman author, Pliny, has left us of the nature of the roads of this country, may serve to prove that, as early as the beginning of our era, the great road of the district of Sukot was somewhat like the track of the present day, by which the Bedouins of the country and their families alone are able to travel. As might be easily imagined beforehand, the marshy condition of Sukot scarcely permitted the foundation of towns in the interior of this district. Hence the Egyptian texts, in agreement with the notices of the classic writers, speak only of towns and forts on the frontier. Allow me to direct your attention especially to a fortress situate at the east of the nome of Sukot, on the border of the Arabian desert, in the neighborl^od of a fresh- water lake, and called by its Semitic name, which was adopted by the
Egyptians, Migdol, that is, 'the tower,' and by its purely Egyptian name, Samout. The site of this place is fixed by the position of Tell-es-Semo.ut, a modern name given to some heaps of ruins, which at once recalls the ancient appellation of Samout. As early as the age of the eighteenth dynasty, about two hundred years before the time of Moses, this place was regarded as the most northern point of Egypt, just as on th6 southern border the city of Elephantine, or Souan (the Assouan of our time), was considered the most southern ppint of the country. When king Amenophis IV. summoned all the workmen of the country, from the city of Elephantine to Samout (Migdol), the Egyptian text, which has preserved this information for us, says precisely the same as does the prophet Ezekiel, in predicting to the Egyptians of his time the devastation of their country *from Migdol as far as Seve (Assouan) on the frontier of the land of Kush.' * When I observe that this Migdol is the only place of that name which I have met with in the (Egyptian) geographical texts, among more than three thousand geographical proper names, the proba-
♦ Ezek. xxix, 10; xxx. 6. In our Authorized Version, as so frequently happens, the rigkt translation is given in the margin, * from Migdol to Syene,' the text being wrong, and in fact nonsense : ' from the tower of Syene to the border of Ethiopia ' is like saying ' from Berwick to the frontier of Scotland.' — Ed.
of the Exodus.
It is time to leave the district of Sukot, and to follow by way of Pitom the ancient road which led to Zoan-Tanis, the capital of the frontier district, a distance of twenty-two Roman miles, according to the ancient itineraries. A sandy plain, as vast as it is dreary, called at this day San in remembrance of the ancient name of Zoan, and covered with gigantic ruins of columns, pillars, sphinxes, - stelae, and stones of buildings, — all these fragments being cut in the hardest mateiial from the granite of Syene, — shows you the position of that city- of Tanis, to which the Egyptian texts and the classic authors are agreed in giving the epithet of ' a great and splendid city of Egypt.' According to the geographical inscriptions, the Egyptians gave to this plain, of which Tanis was the centre, the name of Sokhot Zoan, 'the plain of Zoan,' the origin of which name is traced back as far as the age of Ramses II. The author of the 78th Psalm makes use in two verses (12 and 43) of precisely the same phrase in reminding the Hebrews of his time of the miracles which God wrought before their ancestors ' the children of Israel in Egypt, in the plain of Zoan."* This remarkable agreement is not acciden-
tal, for the knowledge of the Hebrews concerning all that related to Tanis is proved by the note of an annalist, likewise reported in Holy Scripture, that the city of Hebron was built seven years before the foundation of Zoan.*
If the name of Zoan — which the Egyptians, as well as the Hebrews, gave to this -great city, and which means ' a station where beasts of burden are laden before starting on a journey ' — is of a purely Semitic origin, two other names, which are likewise given to the same place and are inscribed on the monuments discovered at San, reveal their derivation from the Egyptian language. These are the names of Zor and Pi-ramses. The first, Zor — sometimes Zoru in the plural — has the meaning of the ' strong ' place, or places, which agrees with the nature of the country lying towards the east and defended by a great number of fortifications, of which Tanis was one of the strongest.!
* Numb. xiii. 22. Respecting the probable connection in the origin of the cities, which seems to be implied in this mention of them together, see the Student's Ancient History of the East, p. 115.— Ed.
that name, the founder of all those edifices whose gigantic ruins still astonish the traveller of our day. This is the new city, built close to the ancient Zor, and so often mentioned in the papyri of the British Museum, at which Ramses II. erected sanctuaries and temples in honor of a circle of divinities, called ' the gods of Ramses.' The king caused himself also to be honored with a religious worship, and the texts of the later age make mention of the 'godking Ramses, surnamed the very valiant.' I cannot omit to quote the name of the high-priests who presided over the different services of religion in the sanctuaries of Zor-Ramses. According to the Egyptian texts these priests bore the name of Khar-toh, that is, ' the warrior.' The origin of this appellation, which seems strange for persons so peaceful, is satisfactorily explained by the Egyptian myths concerning the divinities of the city of Ramses. But the interest attached to this title arises, not so much from these religious legends, as from the fact that Holy Scripture designates by the same name the priests whom Pharaoh summoned to imitate the miracles wrought by Moses. The interpreters of Holy Scripture are agreed that the name of Khartumim, given in the Bible to the Egyptian magicians, in spite of its Hebrew complexion, is evidently derived from an Egyptian word. And here we have
the word Khartot, which supplies us not only with the means of discovering the real meaning of Khartumim, but also with a new proof that the scene of the interviews between Pharaoh and Moses is laid iri the city of Zoan-Ramses.
The Egyptian records, especially the papyri, abound in dates relating to the building of the new city and sanctuaries of Ramses, and to the labors in stone and in bricks with which the workmen were overburdened to make them complete their task quickly. These Egyptian documents furnish details so precise and specific on this sort of work, that it is impossible not to recognize in them the most evident connection with the 'hard bondage ' and * rigorous service ' of the Hebrews on the occasion of building certain edifices at Pitom and Ramses.* Any one must be blind who refuses to see the light which is beginning to shine into the .darkness of thirty centuries, and which enables us to transfer to their true places the events which the good Fathers of the Church — excellent Christians, indeed, but ill acquainted with antiquity — would have confounded till the end of time, had not the monuments of the Khedive and the treasures of the British Museum come in good time to •our help.
defiance of the evidences of the Egyptian monuments, woidd involve the introduction of irreparable confusion into the geographical order of the noraes and cities of Egypt.
It was from this city of Zoan- Ramses that, about the year 1600 before our era, and in the twenty-second year of his glorious reign, the great conqueror, Thutmes III., set out at the head of his army to attack the land of Canaan. It was this city into which, in the fifth year of his reign, Ramses II. made his triumphal entry, after having won his victories over the people of the Khetians, and in which, sixteen years later, the same pharaoh concluded the .treaty of peace and alliance with the chief of that people. It was this city whose great plains served . as the field for the cavalry and troops of the kings to practise their warlike manoeuvres. It was this city, whose harbor was filled with Egyptian and Phoenician vessels, w^hich carried on the commerce between Egypt and Syria. It is this city which the Egyptian texts designate expressly as the end of the proper Egyptian territory and the beginning of that of the foreigner. It is' this city, of which an Egyptian poet has left us the beautiful description contained in a papyrus of the British Museum. It is the same city where the Ramessids loved to reside, in order to receive foreign embassies and
to gYVQ orders to the functionaries of their court. This is the very city where the children of Israel experienced the rigors of a long and oppressive slavery, where Moses wrought his miracles in the presence of the pharaoh of his age ; and it was from this same city that the Hebrews set out, to quit the fertile land of Egypt.
We will now follow them, stage by stage.
Travellers by land, who were leaving Ramses to pursue their journey towards the east, had two roads that they might follow. One of these led, in a northeasterly direction, from Ramses to Pelusium ; passing half-way through the city of Pitom, situate at an equal distance from Ramses and from Pelusium. This is that bad road, described by Pliny, across the lagoons, the marshes, and a whole system of canals of the region of Sukot. According to what the monuments tell us, this road was not very much frequented. It was used by travellers without baggage, while the pharaohs, accompanied by their horses, chariots, and troops, preferred the great Pharaonic road, the Sikkeh-es-soultanieh of the Orientals.
This last contained four stations, each separated from the next by a day's march. These were Ramses, ' the barrier ' of Sukot, Khetam, and Migdol. We already know the names and position of
these stations, with the exception of the third, ealled Khetam. This word Khetam, which the Hebrews have rendered by Etham, has the general sense of ' fortress,' as I have proved before. To distinguish it from other Khetams which existed in Egypt, and especially from the Khetam of the province of Sukot, situate near Pelusium, the Egyptian texts very often add to the word the explanatory remark, ' which is situate in the province of Zor,' that is, of TanisRamses.
There is not the least doubt as to the position of this important place, of which we even possess a drawing shown on a monument of Sethos I. at Karnali. According to this drawing, the strong place of Khetam was situate on both banks of a river (the Pelusiac branch of the Nile), and the two opposite parts of the fortress were joined by a great bridge, a Qanthareh (or Kantara), as it is called in Arabic. At a little distance from these two fortresses, and behind them, is found the inhabited town, called in Egyptian Tabenet. While this name at once recalls the name of Daphnee (^J&cppat), given by the Greek historian Herodotus* to an
* Herod, ii. 30 : where all the three frontier fortresses and their objects are mentioned, viz. on the S., the N.E., and the N.W. : inl Vttf/fiiTlxov ^aaiUog cpvXazal xar iaraarai^ eV tg ' EXecpavrlpri ndh TiQog Mdi6n(x)v xal h ^6.cpvriav rriai U^Xovalriav ^Xlrj dh7tQdg'AQu(iltofifal^v(JO}P,xulei' Magiri ngog Ai^vrjg &Ui].
Egyptian fortress, the following observations will result in furnishing proofs of the greatest certainty for the identification now proposed. Herodotus speaks, in the first place, of Daphnae, in the plural, in agreement with the existence of the two fortresses according to the Egyptian drawing. He gives them the surname of ' the Pelusian ' on account of the position of the fortresses in question, on the two opposite banks of the Pelusiac branch. Herodotus says expressly, that at his day (as in former times) there was in this Pelusian Daphnse a garrison which guarded the entrance into Egypt on the side of Arabia and Syria. The ruins of these two forts, standing over against one another, still exist in our day ; and the name of Tell-Defenneh, which they bear, at once recalls the Egyptian name of Tabenet and the name of Daphnse mentioned by Herodotus. The remembrance of the bridge, the Qanthareh, which joined the two forts of Khetam-Daphnse, has been likewise preserved to our time, for the name of Guisr-el-Qanthareh,. ' the dike of the bridge,' which is now applied to a place situate a little distance east of Khetam, must be regarded as the last reminiscence of the only passage, which, in ancient times, allowed a traveller to enter Egypt dry-shod from the east. Having thus re-discovered, by means of their
ancient names and their modern positions, the four geographical points which Holy Scripture calls Ramses, Succoth, Etham, and Migdol, situate at a day's distance from one another, I am quite ready to answer the question, whether the Eg} ptian texts prove to us the existence of a road which led from Ramses to Migdol, through these intermediate stations of Succoth and Etham. Once more the answer is in the highest degree affirmative.
A happy chance — rather let us say, Divine Providence — has preserved, in one of the papyri of the British Museum, the most precious *memorial of the epoch contemporary with the sojourn of the Israelites in Egypt. This is a simple letter, written, more than thirty centuries before our time, by the hand of an Egyptian scribe, to report his journey from the royal palace at Ramses, which was occasioned by the flight of two domestics.
" Thus (he says) I set out from the hall of the roj^al palace on the 9th day of the 3d month of summer towards evening, in pursuit of the two domestics. Then I arrived at the barrier of Sukot on the 10th day of the same month. I was informed that they (that is, the two fugitives) had decided to go by the southern route. On the 12th day I arrived at Khetam. There I received news that the grooms who came from the country [the lagoons of Suf, said] that the fugitives had got beyond the region of the Wall to the north of the Migdol of King Seti Meneptah."
If you will substitute, in this precious letter, for the mention of the two domestics the name of Moses and the Hebrews, and put in place of the scribe who pursued the two fugitives the pharaoh in person following the traces of the children of Israel, you will have the exact description of the march of the Hebrews related in Egyptian terms.
Exactly as the Hebrews, according to the biblical narrative, started on the 5th day of the 1st month from the city of Ramses,* so our scribe, on the 9th day of the 11th month of the Egj^ptian year, quits the palace- of Ramses to go in pursuit of the two fugitives.
Exactly as the Hebrews arrive at Succoth on the day following their departure,! so the Egyptian enters Sukot the day after he set out from Ramses.
Exactly as the Hebrews stop at Etham, on the third day from their leaving Ramses, J so the Egyptian scribe, on the third day of his journey, arrives at Khetam, where the desert begins.
Exactly as the two fugitives, pursued by the scribe, who dares no longer to continue his route in the desert, had taken the northerly direction towards Migdol and the part called in Egyptian ' the Wall,' in Greek ' Gerrhon,' in the Bible ' Shur,' — all names of the same meaning, — so the Hebrews
flats of the lake Sirbonis.
To add a single word to these topographical comparisons would only lessen their value. Truth is simple ; it needs no long demonstrations.
According to the indications of the monuments, in agreement with what the classical accounts tell ns, the Egyptian road led from Migdol towards the Mediterranean Sea, as far as the Wall of Gerrhon (the Shur of the Bible), situate at the (western) extremity of the lake Sirbonis. This latter, which was well known to the ancients, had again long fallen out of remembrance, and even in the last century a French traveller in Egypt naively observed that ' to speak of the lake Sirbon is speaking Greek to the Arabs.' f Divided ftom the Mediterranean by a long tongue of land which, in ancient times, formed the only road from Egypt to Palestine, this lake, or rather this lagoon, covered with a luxuriant vegetation of reeds and papyrus, but in our days almost entirely dried up, concealed unexpected dangers owing to the nature of its shores and the presence of those deadly abysses of whict a classic author has left us the following description : j
" On the eastern side, Egypt is protected in part by the Nile, in part by the desert and marshy plains known under the name of Gulfs (or Pits, xdL ^dqudqix). For between Coele-Syria and Egypt there is a lake, of very narrow width, but of a wonderful depth, and extending in length about two hundred stadia (twenty geographical miles), which is called Sirbonis ; and it exposes the traveller approaching it unawares to unforeseen dangers. For its basin being ver}'^ narrow like a riband, and surrounded on all sides by great banks of sand, when south winds blow for some time, a quantity of sand is drifted over it. This sand hides the sheet of water from the sight, and confuses the appearance of the lake with the dry land, so that they are indistinguishable. From which cause many have been swallowed up with their whole armies through unacquaintance with the nature of the spot and through having mistaken the road. For as the traveller advances gradually, the sand gives way under his feet, and, as if of malignant purpose, deceives those who have ventured on it, till at length, suspecting what is about to happen, they try to help themselves when there is no longer any means of escaping safe. For a man drawn in by the swamp can neither swim, the movements of his body being hampered by the mud, nor can he get
out, there being no solid support to raise himself on. The water and sand being so mixed that the nature of both is changed, the place can neither be forded nor crossed in boats. Thus those who are caught in these places are drawn to the bottom of the abyss, having no resource to help themselves, as the banks of sand sink with them. Such is the nature of these plains, with which the name of gulfs ((?u^«^^a) agrees perfectly."*
Thus the Hebrews, on approaching this tongue of land in a north-easterly direction, found themselves in face of the gulfs, or, in the language of the Egyptian texts, in face of the Khirot (this is
* In this description and a subsequent passage (see p. 239) Diodorus is generally thought to have exaggerated the fate which ■ befell a part, at least, of the Persian army of Artaxerxes Ochus in B. c. 350 ; but the discoveries and reasonings of Dr. Brugsch give a far more striking significance to the passage and to Milton's image founded on it {Paradise Lost, ii. 592-594) :
As to the different manner of the catastrophe, we may observe that the description of Diodorus throws a new light on the description in Exodus. Pharaoh thought he had caught the Israelites ' entangled ' between the sea, the desert, and the bog (Exod. xiv. 2) ; but when they were led safely through by the guiding pillar of fire, which was turned into darkness for their pursuers, it was the Egyptians that became entangled on the treacherous surface, through which ' their chariots dragged heavily' (verse 25) before the whelming wave borne in from the Mediterranean completed their destruction. — Ed.
the ancient word which applies exactly to the gulfs of weedy lakes), near the cite of Gerrhon. We can now perfectly understand the biblical term Pihakhiroth,* a word which literally signifies 'the entrance to the gulfs,' in agreement with the geographical situation. This indication is finally fixed with precision by another place, named Baal-zephon, for f " The Lord spake unto Moses saying, Speak to the children of Israel, that they turn and encamp before Pihakhiroth, between Migdol and the sea, opposite to (lit. ' in the face of ') Baal-zephon ; ye shall encamp opposite to it, by the sea."
The name of Baal-zephon, which (as the eminent Egyptologist Mr. Goodwin has discovered^ ^'s met with in one of the papyri of the British Museum under its Egyptian orthography, Baali-Zapouna, denotes a divinity whose attribute is not far to ^eek. According to the extremely curious indications furnished by the Egyptian texts on this point, the god Baal-zephon, the ' Lord of the North,' represented under his Semitic name the Egj'^ptian god Amon, the great bird-catcher who frequents the lagoons, the lord of the northern districts and especially of the marshes, to whom the inscriptions expressly give the title of Lord of the Khirot, that is ' gulfs ' of the lagoons of papyrus. The Greeks,
after their manner, compared him with one of their corresponding divine types, and thus it was that the god Amon of the. lagoons was represented, from the time of the visits made to this region by the Greeks, under the new form of a ' Zeus Kasios (Casius).' The geographical epithet of Casius, given to this Zeus, is explained by the Semitico-Egyptian name of the region where his temple was built. This is Hazi, or Hazion, that is, 'the land of the asylum,' a name which perfectly suits the position of a sanctuary situate at the most advanced point of the Egyptian frontiers towards the east.
It was on this naprow tongue of land, bounded on the one side by the Mediterranean Sea, on the other by the lagoons of weeds, between the entrance to the Khiroth, or the gulfs, on the west, and the sanctuary of Baal-zephon, on the east, that the great catastrophe took place. I may repeat what I have already said upon this subject in another place.
After the Hebrews, marching on foot, had cleared the flats which extend between the Mediterranean Sea and the lake Sirbonis, a great wave took by surprise the Egyptian cavalry and the captains of the war-chariots, who pursued the Hebrews. Hampered in their movements by their frightened horses and their disordered chariots, these captains and cavaliers suffered what, in the course of history,
has occasionally befallen not only simple travellers, but whole armies. True, the miracle then ceases to be a miracle ; but, let us avow it with full sincerity, the Providence of God still maintains its place and authority.*
When, in the first century of our era, the geographer Strabo, a thoughtful man and a good observer, was travelling in Egypt, he made the following entry in his journal :
" At the time when I was staying at Alexandria the sea rose so high about Pelusium and Mount Casius that it inundated the land, and made the mountain an island, so that the road, which leads past it to Phoenicia, became practicable for vessels." (Strabo, i. p. 58.)
* Dr. Brugsch has here made a perfectly gratuitous concession, and fallen into the common error of confounding a miracle with a special providence. The essence of the miracle consists in the attestation of the Divine presence with His messenger by the time and circumstances of an act, which may nevertheless be in itself an application of what we call the laws of nature to a particular case. It shows the Creator, whose word established the laws of nature — (' He spake and it was done. He commanded and it stood fast') —repeating the word through his prophet or minister, by which those laws are applied to a special purpose and occasion. Thus here the wind and sea waves are the natural instruments : their use, at the will of God and the signal given by Moses, constitute the miracle, without which all becomes unmeaning. — Ed.
The important fact is that the destruction of the Egyptian host is shown to have been brought about by the operation of natural forces. This being established, it does not matter wliether theologians call it a miracle, or an instance of divine interposition. — U.
Another event of the same kind is related by an ancient historian. Diodorus, speaking of a campaign of the Persian king Artaxerxes against Egypt, mentions a catastrophe which befell his army in the same place : *
" When the king of Persia," he says, " had gathered all his forces, he led them against Egypt. Bat coming upon the great lake, about which are the places called the gulfs, he lost a part of his army, because he was unaware of the nature of that region."
Without intending to make the least allusion to the passage of the Hebrews, these authors inform us incidentally of historical facts, which are in perfect agreement with all that the sacred books tell us of the passage of the Hebrews across the sea.
Far from diminishing the value of the sacred records on the subject of the departure of the Hebrews out of Egypt, the Egyptian monuments, on the faith of which we are compelled to change our ideas respecting the passage of the Red Sea — traditions cherished from our infancy — the Egyptian monuments, I say, contribute rather to furnish the most striking proofs of the veracity of the biblical narratives, and thus to reassure weak and sceptical minds of the supreme authority and the authenticity of the sacred books.
If, during the course of eighteen centuries, the interpreters have misunderstood and mistranslated the geographical notions contained in Holy Scripture, the error is certainly: not due to the sacred history, but to those who, without knowledge of the history and geography of ancient times, have attempted the task of reconstructing the Exodus of the Hebrews, at any cost, on the level of their own imperfect comprehension.
Permit me still one last word on the sequel of the march of the Hebrews after their passage across the gulfs. The sacred books tell us:* "Then Moses led the Israelites, from the sea of weeds, and they went out into the desert of Shur, and having gone three days in the desert, they found no water. From thence they came to Marah, but they could not drink of the waters of Marah, because they were bitter. Wherefore the place was called Marah (bitter). Then they came to Elim, where were twelve wells of water and seventy palm-trees ; and they encamped there by the waters."!
All these indications agree — as might have been expected beforehand — with our new views on the route of the Israelites. After reaching the Egyptian fortress near the sanctuary of the god Baalzephon, which stood on one of the heights of Mount Casius, the Hebrews found in front of them the road
which led from Egypt to the land of the Philistines. According to the command of God, forbidding them to follow this route,"^ they turned southwards, and thus came to the desert of Shur. This desert of * the Wall ' — so called from a place named in Egyptian ' the Wall,' and in Greek ' Gerrhon,' a word which likewise signifies ' the Wall,' as I have shown above — lay to the east of the two districts of Pitom and Ramses. There was in this desert a road, but little frequented, towards the Gulf of Suez (as we now call it), a road which the Roman writer has characterized as ' rugged with mountains and wanting in water-springs.' f
The bitter waters, at the place called Marah, are recognized in the Bitter Lakes of the Isthmus of Suez. Elim is the place which the Egyptian monuments designate by the name of Aa-lim or Tentlim, that is 'the town of fish,' situate near the Gulf of Suez, in a northerly direction.
When the Jews arrived at Elim, the words of Holy Scripture — "But God caused the people to make a circuit, by the way of the wilderness, towards the Sea of Weeds" f — were definitively accomplished.
To follow the Hebrews, stage by stage, till their arrival at Mount Sinai, is not our present task, nor within the scope of this Conference. I will only say that the Egyptian monuments contain all the materials necessary for the recovery of their route, and for the identification of the Hebrew names of the different stations with their corresponding names in Egyptian.*
The numbers added, to mark their Epochs, refer to the succession of generations assumed in our work; but these, from the year GGQ onwards, are superseded by the regnal years actually proved.
76. Mineptah I. Seti I., . . . . 1366
77. Miamun I. Ramessu II., .... 1333 Mineptah II. Hotephima, . . . 1300. Seti II. Mineptah III., . . , . 1266 Setnakht Merer Miamun II., . , 1233
One of the obelisks set up by Thutmes III. at Heliopolis has a special interest for English readers. Besides the largest pair mentioned by Dr. Brugsch, now at Constantinople and Rome, a smaller pair were transported to Alexandria under Tiberius, and set up in front of Ca9sar's temple, where they obtained the wellknown name of ' Cleopatra's Needles.' One of them still stands in its place ; the other, after lying prostrate for centuries in the sand, was presented to England by Mehemet Ali Pasha in 1820, as a memorial of the famous Egyptian campaign of 1801. But the intention of transporting it to England was only fulfilled in 1878 by the munificence of the eminent surgeon, Mr. Erasmus Wilson, and the persevering enterprise of Mr. John Dixon, C. E., and it is now erected on the Thames Embankment. Its height is sixtyeight feet five inches (less three and one half inches cut oflf from the broken end to give the ba~se an even surface). The hieroglj'phs on two of its faces express the titles of Thutmes III.; on the other two, Ramses II. has added his own ; illustrating Dr. Brugsch's remark on the ofiicial pomp, devoid of historical information, which is the usual substance of the inscriptions on Egyptian obelisk*. The inscriptions have been translated by Dr. Birch; and a full account of the obelisk, from jts cutting out of the quarries at Syene to its adventurous voyage across the Bay of Biscay, has been published by Mr. Erasmus Wilson, and in Mr. Dixon's paper, illustrated with plans, in the 'Proceedings of the Royal United Service Institution.' The very similar inscriptions
APPENDIX. 249
of Thutmes III. and Ramses II. on the other obelisk, still standing at Alexandria, are translated by M. Chabas in the 'Records of the Past,' Vol. X. pp. 21, foil. — Ed.
REFERENCE IS MADE.
And Joseph was brought down to Egypt : and Potiphar, an officer of Pharaoh, captain of the guard, an Egyptian, bought him of the hands of the Ishmaelites, which had brought him down thither. And the Lord was with Joseph, and he was a prosperous man ; and he was in the house of his master the Egyptian. And his master saw that the Lord was with him, and that the Lord made all that he did to prosper in his hand. And Joseph found grace in his sight, and he served him : and he made him overseer over his house, and all that he had he put into his hand. And it came to pass from the time that he had made him overseer in his house, and over all that he had, that the Lord blessed the Egyptian's house for Joseph's sake ; and the blessing of the Lord was upon all that he had in the house, and in the field. And he left all that he had in Joseph's hand ; and he knew not aught he had, save the bread which he did eat. And Joseph was a goodly person, and well favored. — Gen. xxxix. 1-6.
And Pharaoh said unto Joseph, See, I have set thee over all the land of Egypt. And Pharaoh took off his ring from his hand, and put it upon Joseph's hand, and arrayed him in vestures of fine linen, and put a gold chain about his neck; and he made him to ride in the second chariot which he had : and they cried before him. Bow the knee : and he made him ruler over all the land of Egypt And Pharaoh said unto Joseph, I am Pharaoh, and without thee shall no man lift up his hand or foot in all the land of Egypt. And Pharaoh called Joseph's name, Zaplmath-paaneah ; and he gave him to wife Asenath the daughter of Poti-pherah, priest of On. And Joseph went out over all the land of Egypt. — Gen. xli. 41-45.
250 APPENDIX.
They said moreover unto Pharaoh, For to sojourn in the land are we come : for thy servants liave no pasture for their flocks ; for the famine is sore in the land of Canaan : now therefore, we pray thee, let thy servants dwell in the land of Goshen.
And Joseph placed his father and his brethren, and gave them a possession in the land of Egypt, in the best of the land, in the land of Rameses, as Pharaoh had commanded.
And Israel dwelt in the land of Egypt, in the country of Goshen, and they had possessions therein, and grew, and nmltiplied exceedingly. — Gen. xlvii. 4, 11, 27.
Now there arose up a new king over Egypt which knew not Joseph. And he said unto his people, Behold, the people of the children of Israel are more and mightier than we : Come on, let us deal wisely with them, lest they multiply, and it come to pass, that, wlien there falleth out any war, they join also unto our enemies, and fight against us, and so get them up out of the land. Tlierefore they did set over them taskmasters to afflict them with their burdens. And they built for Pharaoh treasure cities, Pithom and Raamses. But the more they afflicted them, the more they multiplied and grew. And tliey were grieved because of the children of Israel. And the Egyptians made the children of Israel to serve with rigor. And they made their lives bitter with hard bondage, in mortar, and in brick, and in all manner of service in the field : all their service, wherein they made them serve, was with rigor. — Ex. i. 8-U.
And the daughter of Pharaoh came down to wash herself at the river ; and her maidens walked along by the river's side : and when she saw the ark among the flags, she sent her maid to fetch it. And when she had opened it, she saw the child: and, behold, the babe wept. And she had compassion on him, and said. This is one of the Hebrews' children. Ttien said his sister to Pharaoh's daughter, Shall I go and call to thee a nurse of the Hebrew women, that she may nurse the child for thee? And Pharaoh's daughter said to her. Go. And the maid went and called the child's mother. And Pharaoh's daughter said unto her, Take this child away and nurse it for mo, and I will give thee thy wages. And the woman took the cliild, and nursed it. And the child grew, and she brought him unto Pharaoh's daughter, and he became her
And the Lord spake unto Moses, saying, Speak unto the children of Israel, that they turn and encamp before Pi-hahiroth, between Migdol and the sea, over against Baal-zephon : before it shall ye encamp by the sea.
But the Egyptians pursued after them, all the horses and chariots of Pharaoh, and his horsemen, and his army, and overtook them encamping by the sea, beside Pi-hahiroth, before Baalzephon. — Ex. xiv. 1, 2, 9.
So Moses brought Israel from the Red Sea, and they went out into the wilderness of Shur ; and they went three days in the wilderness, and found no water. And when they came to Marah, they could not drink of the waters of Marah, for they were bitter : therefore the nameof it was called Marah.
NOTES.
The body of this work was written in German, and the concluding Memoir in French. The translation was begun by the late Henry Danby Seymour, F.R.G.S., and was completed by Philip Smith, B.A. Most of the foot-notes are by Dr. Brugsch; those by the latter of the translators are signed " Ed." A few have been added by the editor of the present compilation.
The chief difficulty that presents itself to the English reader is the confusion of names arising from the different modes of representing the ancient symbols of sounds in modern letters. Dr. Brugsch has adopted a mode of spelling which is unusual, and is not uniform. He has followed the (^erman use of letters generally, though in the Memoir his method is often like the French. In his reproduction of Egyptian names, a has the broad sound as in father, e the sound of a, i the sound of e, and o is generally long. Consonants are used without much system. K or Kh and Q (without the u following) appear to be equivalents. 5' has generally the sound of Sh at the beginning of a word. The liquids I and r are interchangeable ; so, sometimes, are u and v. Thus we have Ribu or Libu ; Ruten or Luten ; Khar, Char, Khal or Chal ; Nahar or Nahal ; Rutennu or Lutennu ; Khetam or Chetam ; Boolaq or Boulak; Kheta, Khita, Khiti or Kiti; Avaris, Auaris or Awaris. So, also, Pi-tom, Pithom or Pitum: Serbonis or Sirbonis. The use of Q and q is noticeable, as in Qebeh and Saqqarah.
Pp. 97, 98. The note by Dr. Brugsch on the pronunciation of Khufu (Shufu, Shoofoo) shows how difficult it is to understand the resemblance of modern to ancient sounds.
page 82.
Mineptah was the second title of Seti I. ; and his son and successor, who is the only one that wore the name as his leading title, is called sometimes Mineptah I. and sometimes II. The name signifies '* the friend of Ptah."
time of the inundation.
The termination hotep signifies servant. The name Amon-hotep (servant of Amon) was called Amunoph by the Greeks, as Aahmes was called Amosis, and Seti, Sethos or Sethosis.
Cartouche, a royal escutcheon, or coat of arms, consisting of symbols arranged in oval form, and graven upon the public works erected in the reign of the pharaoh for tlie time being. Sometimes a jingle oval was used ; sometimes two or more (or even six) were sculptured. This discovery, made by Champollion, has been of the utmost importance in determining the chronology of Egypt.
A further enumeration is unnecessary here.
The Book of the Dead, referred to by Dr. Brugsch, is a manual of morals, observances, and worship. It is of unknown antiquity, but portions of it have been found in the grave-clothes of persons who died before the building of the pyramids. Its circulation was universal among lettered Egyptians, and a number of more or less perfect copies are extant.
In the 125th chapter is described the appearance of the soul before the tribunal of Osiris. Each one of the forty-two inquisitors puts a question to the individual on trial. Some questions refer to matters of local importance and the internal regulations of the kingdom, but as a whole they embrace the moral code. We quote some of the declarations :
| 69,057 | common-pile/pre_1929_books_filtered | truestoryofexodu00brugrich | public_library | public_library_1929_dolma-0011.json.gz:3489 | https://archive.org/download/truestoryofexodu00brugrich/truestoryofexodu00brugrich_djvu.txt |
LhrbOFafbcSBpQbs | Fundamentals of Biology I | 71 Introduction to the Ecology of Protists
What you’ll learn to do: Describe the role that protists play in the ecosystem
Protists function in various ecological niches. Whereas some protist species are essential components of the food chain and generators of biomass, others function in the decomposition of organic materials. Still other protists are dangerous human pathogens or causative agents of devastating plant diseases.
The key point to remember is that protists have a wide impact on the ecosystem as well at the biosphere as well. Oxygen levels on the planet wouldn’t be where they are without plant-like protists going through photosynthesis. There are protists vital to the nitrogen cycle as well as decomposition and recycling of dead organic matter. Science is only now learning the true impact of the group Protista. | 171 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://library.achievingthedream.org/herkimerbiologyfundamentals1/chapter/introduction-to-the-ecology-of-protists/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:78175 | https://library.achievingthedream.org/herkimerbiologyfundamentals1/chapter/introduction-to-the-ecology-of-protists/ |
hor5eJ2CbnEDlvo_ | 45.6: Community Ecology | 45.6: Community Ecology
Skills to Develop
- Discuss the predator-prey cycle
- Give examples of defenses against predation and herbivory
- Describe the competitive exclusion principle
- Give examples of symbiotic relationships between species
- Describe community structure and succession
Populations rarely, if ever, live in isolation from populations of other species. In most cases, numerous species share a habitat. The interactions between these populations play a major role in regulating population growth and abundance. All populations occupying the same habitat form a community: populations inhabiting a specific area at the same time. The number of species occupying the same habitat and their relative abundance is known as species diversity. Areas with low diversity, such as the glaciers of Antarctica, still contain a wide variety of living things, whereas the diversity of tropical rainforests is so great that it cannot be counted. Ecology is studied at the community level to understand how species interact with each other and compete for the same resources.
Predation and Herbivory
Perhaps the classical example of species interaction is predation: the hunting of prey by its predator. Nature shows on television highlight the drama of one living organism killing another. Populations of predators and prey in a community are not constant over time: in most cases, they vary in cycles that appear to be related. The most often cited example of predator-prey dynamics is seen in the cycling of the lynx (predator) and the snowshoe hare (prey), using nearly 200 year-old trapping data from North American forests (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)). This cycle of predator and prey lasts approximately 10 years, with the predator population lagging 1–2 years behind that of the prey population. As the hare numbers increase, there is more food available for the lynx, allowing the lynx population to increase as well. When the lynx population grows to a threshold level, however, they kill so many hares that hare population begins to decline, followed by a decline in the lynx population because of scarcity of food. When the lynx population is low, the hare population size begins to increase due, at least in part, to low predation pressure, starting the cycle anew.
The idea that the population cycling of the two species is entirely controlled by predation models has come under question. More recent studies have pointed to undefined density-dependent factors as being important in the cycling, in addition to predation. One possibility is that the cycling is inherent in the hare population due to density-dependent effects such as lower fecundity (maternal stress) caused by crowding when the hare population gets too dense. The hare cycling would then induce the cycling of the lynx because it is the lynxes’ major food source. The more we study communities, the more complexities we find, allowing ecologists to derive more accurate and sophisticated models of population dynamics.
Herbivory describes the consumption of plants by insects and other animals, and it is another interspecific relationship that affects populations. Unlike animals, most plants cannot outrun predators or use mimicry to hide from hungry animals. Some plants have developed mechanisms to defend against herbivory. Other species have developed mutualistic relationships; for example, herbivory provides a mechanism of seed distribution that aids in plant reproduction.
Defense Mechanisms against Predation and Herbivory
The study of communities must consider evolutionary forces that act on the members of the various populations contained within it. Species are not static, but slowly changing and adapting to their environment by natural selection and other evolutionary forces. Species have evolved numerous mechanisms to escape predation and herbivory. These defenses may be mechanical, chemical, physical, or behavioral.
Mechanical defenses, such as the presence of thorns on plants or the hard shell on turtles, discourage animal predation and herbivory by causing physical pain to the predator or by physically preventing the predator from being able to eat the prey. Chemical defenses are produced by many animals as well as plants, such as the foxglove which is extremely toxic when eaten. Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\) shows some organisms’ defenses against predation and herbivory.
Many species use their body shape and coloration to avoid being detected by predators. The tropical walking stick is an insect with the coloration and body shape of a twig which makes it very hard to see when stationary against a background of real twigs (Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\)a). In another example, the chameleon can change its color to match its surroundings (Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\)b). Both of these are examples of camouflage , or avoiding detection by blending in with the background.
Some species use coloration as a way of warning predators that they are not good to eat. For example, the cinnabar moth caterpillar, the fire-bellied toad, and many species of beetle have bright colors that warn of a foul taste, the presence of toxic chemical, and/or the ability to sting or bite, respectively. This type of defensive mechanism is called aposematic coloration , or warning coloration (Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\)).
While some predators learn to avoid eating certain potential prey because of their coloration, other species have evolved mechanisms to mimic this coloration to avoid being eaten, even though they themselves may not be unpleasant to eat or contain toxic chemicals. In Batesian mimicry , a harmless species imitates the warning coloration of a harmful one. Assuming they share the same predators, this coloration then protects the harmless ones, even though they do not have the same level of physical or chemical defenses against predation as the organism they mimic. Many insect species mimic the coloration of wasps or bees, which are stinging, venomous insects, thereby discouraging predation (Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\)).
In Müllerian mimicry , multiple species share the same warning coloration, but all of them actually have defenses. Figure \(\PageIndex{6}\) shows a variety of foul-tasting butterflies with similar coloration. In Emsleyan/Mertensian mimicry , a deadly prey mimics a less dangerous one, such as the venomous coral snake mimicking the non-venomous milk snake. This type of mimicry is extremely rare and more difficult to understand than the previous two types. For this type of mimicry to work, it is essential that eating the milk snake has unpleasant but not fatal consequences. Then, these predators learn not to eat snakes with this coloration, protecting the coral snake as well. If the snake were fatal to the predator, there would be no opportunity for the predator to learn not to eat it, and the benefit for the less toxic species would disappear.
Competitive Exclusion Principle
Resources are often limited within a habitat and multiple species may compete to obtain them. All species have an ecological niche in the ecosystem, which describes how they acquire the resources they need and how they interact with other species in the community. The competitive exclusion principle states that two species cannot occupy the same niche in a habitat. In other words, different species cannot coexist in a community if they are competing for all the same resources. An example of this principle is shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{7}\), with two protozoan species, Paramecium aurelia and Paramecium caudatum . When grown individually in the laboratory, they both thrive. But when they are placed together in the same test tube (habitat), P. aurelia outcompetes P. caudatum for food, leading to the latter’s eventual extinction.
This exclusion may be avoided if a population evolves to make use of a different resource, a different area of the habitat, or feeds during a different time of day, called resource partitioning. The two organisms are then said to occupy different microniches. These organisms coexist by minimizing direct competition.
Symbiosis
Symbiotic relationships, or symbioses (plural), are close interactions between individuals of different species over an extended period of time which impact the abundance and distribution of the associating populations. Most scientists accept this definition, but some restrict the term to only those species that are mutualistic, where both individuals benefit from the interaction. In this discussion, the broader definition will be used.
Commensalism
A commensal relationship occurs when one species benefits from the close, prolonged interaction, while the other neither benefits nor is harmed. Birds nesting in trees provide an example of a commensal relationship (Figure \(\PageIndex{8}\)). The tree is not harmed by the presence of the nest among its branches. The nests are light and produce little strain on the structural integrity of the branch, and most of the leaves, which the tree uses to get energy by photosynthesis, are above the nest so they are unaffected. The bird, on the other hand, benefits greatly. If the bird had to nest in the open, its eggs and young would be vulnerable to predators. Another example of a commensal relationship is the clown fish and the sea anemone. The sea anemone is not harmed by the fish, and the fish benefits with protection from predators who would be stung upon nearing the sea anemone.
Mutualism
A second type of symbiotic relationship is called mutualism , where two species benefit from their interaction. Some scientists believe that these are the only true examples of symbiosis. For example, termites have a mutualistic relationship with protozoa that live in the insect’s gut (Figure \(\PageIndex{9}\)a). The termite benefits from the ability of bacterial symbionts within the protozoa to digest cellulose. The termite itself cannot do this, and without the protozoa, it would not be able to obtain energy from its food (cellulose from the wood it chews and eats). The protozoa and the bacterial symbionts benefit by having a protective environment and a constant supply of food from the wood chewing actions of the termite. Lichens have a mutualistic relationship between fungus and photosynthetic algae or bacteria (Figure \(\PageIndex{9}\)b). As these symbionts grow together, the glucose produced by the algae provides nourishment for both organisms, whereas the physical structure of the lichen protects the algae from the elements and makes certain nutrients in the atmosphere more available to the algae.
Parasitism
A parasite is an organism that lives in or on another living organism and derives nutrients from it. In this relationship, the parasite benefits, but the organism being fed upon, the host, is harmed. The host is usually weakened by the parasite as it siphons resources the host would normally use to maintain itself. The parasite, however, is unlikely to kill the host, especially not quickly, because this would allow no time for the organism to complete its reproductive cycle by spreading to another host.
The reproductive cycles of parasites are often very complex, sometimes requiring more than one host species. A tapeworm is a parasite that causes disease in humans when contaminated, undercooked meat such as pork, fish, or beef is consumed (Figure \(\PageIndex{10}\)). The tapeworm can live inside the intestine of the host for several years, benefiting from the food the host is bringing into its gut by eating, and may grow to be over 50 ft long by adding segments. The parasite moves from species to species in a cycle, making two hosts necessary to complete its life cycle. Another common parasite is Plasmodium falciparum , the protozoan cause of malaria, a significant disease in many parts of the world. Living in human liver and red blood cells, the organism reproduces asexually in the gut of blood-feeding mosquitoes to complete its life cycle. Thus malaria is spread from human to human by mosquitoes, one of many arthropod-borne infectious diseases.
Characteristics of Communities
Communities are complex entities that can be characterized by their structure (the types and numbers of species present) and dynamics (how communities change over time). Understanding community structure and dynamics enables community ecologists to manage ecosystems more effectively.
Foundation Species
Foundation species are considered the “base” or “bedrock” of a community, having the greatest influence on its overall structure. They are usually the primary producers: organisms that bring most of the energy into the community. Kelp, brown algae, is a foundation species, forming the basis of the kelp forests off the coast of California.
Foundation species may physically modify the environment to produce and maintain habitats that benefit the other organisms that use them. An example is the photosynthetic corals of the coral reef (Figure \(\PageIndex{11}\)). Corals themselves are not photosynthetic, but harbor symbionts within their body tissues (dinoflagellates called zooxanthellae) that perform photosynthesis; this is another example of a mutualism. The exoskeletons of living and dead coral make up most of the reef structure, which protects many other species from waves and ocean currents.
Biodiversity, Species Richness, and Relative Species Abundance
Biodiversity describes a community’s biological complexity: it is measured by the number of different species (species richness) in a particular area and their relative abundance (species evenness). The area in question could be a habitat, a biome, or the entire biosphere. Species richness is the term that is used to describe the number of species living in a habitat or biome. Species richness varies across the globe (Figure \(\PageIndex{12}\)). One factor in determining species richness is latitude, with the greatest species richness occurring in ecosystems near the equator, which often have warmer temperatures, large amounts of rainfall, and low seasonality. The lowest species richness occurs near the poles, which are much colder, drier, and thus less conducive to life in Geologic time (time since glaciations). The predictability of climate or productivity is also an important factor. Other factors influence species richness as well. For example, the study of island biogeography attempts to explain the relatively high species richness found in certain isolated island chains, including the Galápagos Islands that inspired the young Darwin. Relative species abundance is the number of individuals in a species relative to the total number of individuals in all species within a habitat, ecosystem, or biome. Foundation species often have the highest relative abundance of species.
Keystone Species
A keystone species is one whose presence is key to maintaining biodiversity within an ecosystem and to upholding an ecological community’s structure. The intertidal sea star, Pisaster ochraceus , of the northwestern United States is a keystone species (Figure \(\PageIndex{13}\)). Studies have shown that when this organism is removed from communities, populations of their natural prey (mussels) increase, completely altering the species composition and reducing biodiversity. Another keystone species is the banded tetra, a fish in tropical streams, which supplies nearly all of the phosphorus, a necessary inorganic nutrient, to the rest of the community. If these fish were to become extinct, the community would be greatly affected.
Everyday Connection: Invasive Species
Invasive species are non-native organisms that, when introduced to an area out of their native range, threaten the ecosystem balance of that habitat. Many such species exist in the United States, as shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{14}\). Whether enjoying a forest hike, taking a summer boat trip, or simply walking down an urban street, you have likely encountered an invasive species.
One of the many recent proliferations of an invasive species concerns the growth of Asian carp populations. Asian carp were introduced to the United States in the 1970s by fisheries and sewage treatment facilities that used the fish’s excellent filter feeding capabilities to clean their ponds of excess plankton. Some of the fish escaped, however, and by the 1980s they had colonized many waterways of the Mississippi River basin, including the Illinois and Missouri Rivers.
Voracious eaters and rapid reproducers, Asian carp may outcompete native species for food, potentially leading to their extinction. For example, black carp are voracious eaters of native mussels and snails, limiting this food source for native fish species. Silver carp eat plankton that native mussels and snails feed on, reducing this food source by a different alteration of the food web. In some areas of the Mississippi River, Asian carp species have become the most predominant, effectively outcompeting native fishes for habitat. In some parts of the Illinois River, Asian carp constitute 95 percent of the community's biomass. Although edible, the fish is bony and not a desired food in the United States. Moreover, their presence threatens the native fish and fisheries of the Great Lakes, which are important to local economies and recreational anglers. Asian carp have even injured humans. The fish, frightened by the sound of approaching motorboats, thrust themselves into the air, often landing in the boat or directly hitting the boaters.
The Great Lakes and their prized salmon and lake trout fisheries are also being threatened by these invasive fish. Asian carp have already colonized rivers and canals that lead into Lake Michigan. One infested waterway of particular importance is the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Channel, the major supply waterway linking the Great Lakes to the Mississippi River. To prevent the Asian carp from leaving the canal, a series of electric barriers have been successfully used to discourage their migration; however, the threat is significant enough that several states and Canada have sued to have the Chicago channel permanently cut off from Lake Michigan. Local and national politicians have weighed in on how to solve the problem, but no one knows whether the Asian carp will ultimately be considered a nuisance, like other invasive species such as the water hyacinth and zebra mussel, or whether it will be the destroyer of the largest freshwater fishery of the world.
The issues associated with Asian carp show how population and community ecology, fisheries management, and politics intersect on issues of vital importance to the human food supply and economy. Socio-political issues like this make extensive use of the sciences of population ecology (the study of members of a particular species occupying a particular area known as a habitat) and community ecology (the study of the interaction of all species within a habitat).
Community Dynamics
Community dynamics are the changes in community structure and composition over time. Sometimes these changes are induced by environmental disturbances such as volcanoes, earthquakes, storms, fires, and climate change. Communities with a stable structure are said to be at equilibrium. Following a disturbance, the community may or may not return to the equilibrium state.
Succession describes the sequential appearance and disappearance of species in a community over time. In primary succession , newly exposed or newly formed land is colonized by living things; in secondary succession , part of an ecosystem is disturbed and remnants of the previous community remain.
Primary Succession and Pioneer Species
Primary succession occurs when new land is formed or rock is exposed: for example, following the eruption of volcanoes, such as those on the Big Island of Hawaii. As lava flows into the ocean, new land is continually being formed. On the Big Island, approximately 32 acres of land is added each year. First, weathering and other natural forces break down the substrate enough for the establishment of certain hearty plants and lichens with few soil requirements, known as pioneer species (Figure \(\PageIndex{15}\)). These species help to further break down the mineral rich lava into soil where other, less hardy species will grow and eventually replace the pioneer species. In addition, as these early species grow and die, they add to an ever-growing layer of decomposing organic material and contribute to soil formation. Over time the area will reach an equilibrium state, with a set of organisms quite different from the pioneer species.
Secondary succession
A classic example of secondary succession occurs in oak and hickory forests cleared by wildfire (Figure \(\PageIndex{16}\)). Their nutrients, however, are returned to the ground in the form of ash. Thus, even when areas are devoid of life due to severe fires, the area will soon be ready for new life to take hold.
Before the fire, the vegetation was dominated by tall trees with access to the major plant energy resource: sunlight. Their height gave them access to sunlight while also shading the ground and other low-lying species. After the fire, though, these trees are no longer dominant. Thus, the first plants to grow back are usually annual plants followed within a few years by quickly growing and spreading grasses and other pioneer species. Due to, at least in part, changes in the environment brought on by the growth of the grasses and other species, over many years, shrubs will emerge along with small pine, oak, and hickory trees. These organisms are called intermediate species. Eventually, over 150 years, the forest will reach its equilibrium point where species composition is no longer changing and resembles the community before the fire. This equilibrium state is referred to as the climax community , which will remain stable until the next disturbance.
Summary
Communities include all the different species living in a given area. The variety of these species is called species richness. Many organisms have developed defenses against predation and herbivory, including mechanical defenses, warning coloration, and mimicry, as a result of evolution and the interaction with other members of the community. Two species cannot exist in the same habitat competing directly for the same resources. Species may form symbiotic relationships such as commensalism or mutualism. Community structure is described by its foundation and keystone species. Communities respond to environmental disturbances by succession (the predictable appearance of different types of plant species) until a stable community structure is established.
Glossary
- aposematic coloration
- warning coloration used as a defensive mechanism against predation
- Batesian mimicry
- type of mimicry where a non-harmful species takes on the warning colorations of a harmful one
- camouflage
- avoid detection by blending in with the background.
- climax community
- final stage of succession, where a stable community is formed by a characteristic assortment of plant and animal species
- commensalism
- relationship between species wherein one species benefits from the close, prolonged interaction, while the other species neither benefits nor is harmed
- competitive exclusion principle
- no two species within a habitat can coexist when they compete for the same resources at the same place and time
- Emsleyan/Mertensian mimicry
- type of mimicry where a harmful species resembles a less harmful one
- environmental disturbance
- change in the environment caused by natural disasters or human activities
- foundation species
- species which often forms the major structural portion of the habitat
- host
- organism a parasite lives on
- island biogeography
- study of life on island chains and how their geography interacts with the diversity of species found there
- keystone species
- species whose presence is key to maintaining biodiversity in an ecosystem and to upholding an ecological community’s structure
- Müllerian mimicry
- type of mimicry where species share warning coloration and all are harmful to predators
- mutualism
- symbiotic relationship between two species where both species benefit
- parasite
- organism that uses resources from another species, the host
- pioneer species
- first species to appear in primary and secondary succession
- primary succession
- succession on land that previously has had no life
- relative species abundance
- absolute population size of a particular species relative to the population sizes of other species within the community
- secondary succession
- succession in response to environmental disturbances that move a community away from its equilibrium
- species richness
- number of different species in a community
- symbiosis
- close interaction between individuals of different species over an extended period of time that impacts the abundance and distribution of the associating populations | 5,019 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/General_Biology_1e_(OpenStax)/8%3A_Ecology/45%3A_Population_and_Community_Ecology/45.6%3A_Community_Ecology | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:24628 | https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/General_Biology_1e_(OpenStax)/8%3A_Ecology/45%3A_Population_and_Community_Ecology/45.6%3A_Community_Ecology |
RcoF-YVLufDqiWSp | Spelling efficiencey in the Oakland schools / by Jesse Brundage Sears. | INTRODUCTORY NOTE.
For the past two years the principals of Oakland have been active members of an organization known as the "1915 Club" which was conducted by Prof. C. E. Rugh of the University of California.
The Director of the Bureau of Information, Statistics, and Educational Research, a new Bureau created in July, 1914 for the purpose of promoting the scientific study of Education, took advantage of the opportunity this organization afforded, and led in the formation of a club composed exclusively of school principals. This club is a self-governing body, with membership purely voluntary, and attendance on the part of supervisors or other non-members is only by invitation. The accompanying report represents the results of the first of the club's efforts to realize its purpose.
In September, 1914, Professor J. B. Sears of Stanford University was invited to address the Club on the subject of "Possible and Profitable Lines of Investigation for School Principals." The result of his inspiring talk was the conducting of an extensive study of the teaching of spelling in the elementary schools throughout the city, with Professor Sears as Director of the investigation. The following pages constitute his findings as reported to the Principals'
Purpose and plan of the investigation — How these plans were carried out — The nature of the test given — Special problems — Scope of the test — Scoring the papers — The study of the results 1
CHAPTER II— SPELLING EFFICIENCY BY GRADES, BY SCHOOLS, AND FOR THE CITY AS A WHOLE. The city as a whole — Comparison of schools — Comparison of grades and classes — Individual standings by grades — A stud}7 of grade 2 — Summary and conclusions 6
DIFFERENCES.
The Problem — Age, grade, and spelling efficiency — Sex and spelling efficiency — General ability in school work as judged by the teacher, and spelling ability — Summary and conclusions
ENCES.
The nature of the problem — Father's occupation and spelling efficiency— Children's occupational ambitions and spelling efficiencyFather's nationality and spelling efficiency — Influence of home language on spelling efficiency — Summary and conclusions 41
SPELLING.
The problem — Oakland's policy affecting spelling — Time allotment and spelling efficiency — Time allotment compared with that in use in other cities — Relation of time consumed to achievement in test — Content of the course in spelling— Length of lesson assignmentMethods and devices in use in the teaching of spelling — Conclusions 61
PREFACE.
The following is a report of the study of spelling efficiency in the schools of Oakland as undertaken in co-operation with the Principals' Study Club of that city.
The report has attempted to get at the facts regarding the handling of spelling, and it presents these in as much detail as the practical aims of the study demand. For the most part, the results are highly commendable, but at points a fair interpretation must necessarily be critical. The report has sought to make a perfectly frank statement of conclusions, whether favorable or unfavorable, and where it is believed that change should be made, definite lines of procedure have been suggested.
In accordance with the original plan, the data upon which this report is based was made use of by a small group of my advanced students in connection with a course in elementary education. Much of the data so handled was of use directly or indirectly in the preparation of this report, and I wish here to acknowledge with thanks such assistance from :
work assisted in tabulating much of the data for Chapter V.
Thanks are also due the Stanford and California University students who assisted in giving the tests, and to the teachers, principals, and other school officers for making available such information as was essential to the study.
Finally, I wish to express my hearty appreciation of the constant help of Mr. C. B. Crane, President of the Principals' Study Club, and of Mr. Wilford E. Talbert, Director of the Bureau of Information, Statistics, and Educational Research, without which the study could not have been made, and also for the excellent spirit of cooperation shown by the members of the Club which has made the preparation of this report a pleasure.
PURPOSES AND PLANS OF THE INVESTIGATION.
The following plans for a study of the present state of efficiency of the teaching of spelling in the schools of Oakland were worked out in co-operation with the Principals' Study Club of that city, and the investigation was begun on Oct. 20, 1914.
The purpose was to make a complete survey of this branch of the elementary school curriculum, covering a test of spelling efficiency in grades 2 to 8 inclusive, in all schools, as well as the administration, supervision, and teaching of the subject.1
On this form each child was given a number as above.
The best pupil in the class, "best all-round pupil, not only in spelling but in general school work of all kinds," was numbered 1, the second best, 2, and so on for 5 pupils. The other children were numbered in any order till the last five, who were to include "the five weakest pupils in the class," "weak in general school work, and not spelling alone." The purpose in gathering the information called for here was not only to throw as much light as possible on the problems of spelling, but to have at hand for similar studies in other lines later. 2nd, another printed blank, as follows, was placed in the hands of each teacher of spelling, who filled it out under the
directions of the principal. Through this blank it was hoped to get as much information as possible upon the general place of spelling in the curriculum, its connection with other subjects, the time it consumes, and the methods by means of which it is taught. In addition to this, conferences were held with the supervisor of Primary grades, with the Principals' Study Club, and with the Director of the Bureau of Information, Statistics, and Educational Research, and access had to such printed materials as bore on the subject.
HOW THESE PLANS WERE CARRIED OUT.
In order that the tests might be given under uniform conditions, and as nearly as possible under normal schoolroom conditions a time schedule was arranged by Mr. Talbert of the Bureau of Information, Statistics, and Educational Research so that all classes of a given grade would take the test at the same hour of the day — lower grades in the morning, and upper grades after noon,— and without knowing that the test was in any way unusual.
Some sixty assistants, advanced students of education in California and Stanford universities, who had received both personal and printed instructions as to how the tests were to be conducted, were placed in charge — one in each room during the time of the
INTRODUCTION 3
test. In each building, one, a chief assistant, co-operated with the principal in settling matters of detail. In addition to the directions given to assistants, separate uniform instructions were issued to all principals and teachers, and through the careful planning of the principals the regular routine of the school day was broken very little.
The words were pronounced clearly and slowly by the regular classroom teacher, with little or no explanation. The children wrote on the blank provided, the information part of which had been previously filled out: items 1, 2, and 4 by the teacher; 3, 5, 6, and 7 by the child with the teacher's help, and 8 by the child alone. These papers were then collected, put into an envelope and labelled by the assistant as to school, grade, room, teacher, time test began, and with a full statement of any irregularities or special conditions influencing the test. All the envelopes from one building were finally placed in the hands of the chief assistant for the building, who delivered them at the office of the Bureau of Information, Statistics, and Educational Research. Here also the principals sent the teachers' blanks which had previously been filled out.
THE NATURE OF THE TEST GIVEN.
The test given was that devised by Dr. Leonard P. Ayres, which he used in the Springfield Survey*, which was later used in the Butte, Montana, Survey**, and since embodied in a complete spelling scale.** It is composed of seventy words, ten words for each grade, 2 to 8 inclusive, shown in table 1.
30 business 10 receive 10 decision
These words were chosen from a large list used by the Division of Education of the Russell Sage Foundation in an investigation of the spelling ability of children in elementary schools. Taking the 1000 words, found by a previous exhaustive investigation to be most commonly used in writing, these words were made into lists, with which children in nearly 100 American cities were tested. On the basis of these tests the words were then classified in groups by grades, each word being placed in the grade wherein if had been correctly spelled on an average by 70 per cent, of the children. That is, the 10 words for grade 2 were spelled correctly by 70 per cent, and incorrectly by 30 per cent, of second grade pupils in these 100 cities, and similarly for each of the other grade groups.
Thus the standard established by this exhaustive test of each word comes to be 70 per cent. This not only means that each of the 10 words in grade 3 is equally difficult for children of grade 3 (and similarly of the words in the other groups for their respective grades), but that the words in grade 3 are just as difficult, and no more so, for the 3rd grade children as are the words in the 4th grade for the 4th grade children, the 5th grade words for 5th grade children, etc., for all the grades. This means that the children of Oakland are being measured against the children in these other cities, as well as against each other, and will be classed as high or low accordingly as individuals, classes, grades, schools, and the city as a whole make above or below 70 per cent in the test..
This small number in grade 2 is clue to the fact that the 2nd grade test was given in only a few schools and that the test was so evidently a test in penmanship in a very few classes that the
papers had to be discarded. The records of these 657 are probably typical of what the better 2nd grade classes can do. They are treated separately everywhere for the reason that it is a deliberate part of the school policy in Oakland to lay little stress on spelling in the first year, not teaching it at all before the last 6 weeks of the year; to lay no great stress on writing in the first year, save for coarse blackboard work ; and to do nothing with written composition before the second half of the second year.
SCORING THE PAPERS.
The scoring of these papers was done in part by a group of Stanford University students of education, several of whom were teachers of experience, and in part by teachers and principals in Oakland. In the latter case the papers were removed from the envelope, bound by a clip, and given a code number by the director of the Bureau of Information, Statistics, and Educational Research. They were then given out to be scored, after which they were returned to their proper envelope. The scores and errors were recorded on a printed record sheet designed for that purpose, in which the records of boys and girls were kept separate by grades. Where two grades were in one room their papers were placed in two separate envelopes and their standings recorded on separate record sheets. The errors were scored on the record sheet for each word separately, so that if desirable a study of the relative difficulty of the words could be made. Enough of the markings and records were examined with care by the writer to satisfy him that the work had .been done accurately.
THE STUDY OF THE RESULTS.
After the scoring had been completed, all spelling blanks, record sheets, and teachers' blanks were filed in alphabetical order by schools, and the tabulations and study of the data begun.
The first task, (Chapter 2) was the main statistical handling of the children's scores in the tests. These results are presented by schools, by grades, and for the city as a whole, accompanied by diagrams and tables, showing the complete distribution of the children of each grade by the scores they made in the test.
The third chapter deals with the influence of individual differences in age, sex, and general school standing; the fourth with the influence of such social factors as the father's occupation, nationality, the home language, and the child's occupational ambition. Chapter 5 presents the results of the tests in the light of the administration and teaching of spelling, dealing with the special matters of time distribution, the lesson assignments, teaching methods, etc.
SPELLING EFFICIENCY BY SCHOOLS, GRADES, ETC. 9
represents the average standing for the best grade in each school, and the number of that grade is indicated for each school by a figure immediately below the number of the school. In like manner the grade receiving the lowest standing is indicated for each school by the lower line of the diagram, below which is the row of figures indicating which grade has received such standing. Between the upper and lower lines is a third line which represents the average standing of the schools, while the heavy straight line marks the standing achieved in other cities. On the right, a short horizontal bar marks the line on which the city average would fall if shown on the diagram. Thus each school, as well as the best and poorest grades of the school, may be conveniently compared with achievements in other cities, as well as with other schools in Oakland. Similarly all comparisons may be made with the average for the city as a whole, which for grades 3 to 8 is 77.4 per cent., or with the 2nd grade included, 76.5 per cent.
THE CITY AS A WHOLE.
At a glance, therefore, it appears that the average for all schools in the city stands 7.4 per cent, higher than the average standings made in other cities, that the line representing the highest grade averages is uniformly high above the 70 per cent, mark, that the line representing the lowest grade averages is also relatively high, while in only a few cases are either of these extremes strikingly high or low. If the 28 2nd grade classes which took the test were included, this difference would not be materially changed, as will appear later. In general, therefore, the spelling in Oakland is decidedly superior. The extent to which this remains true in particular will appear later.
COMPARISON OF SCHOOLS.
A study of this diagram by schools, at once reveals the zigzag nature of the middle line representing school averages. The fact that the school averages for 23 schools fall below 77.4, the average for all children in the city, that 3 schools make just the city average, leaving 14 schools to offset the low averages in 23 schools, indicates that the larger schools did the best spelling. That is, school No. 1 with over 700 children tested, makes an average of almost 81 per cent, while school No. 23, with the same number of grades but with only 250 children tested, averages below 71 per cent. The widest difference between school averages being shown by school No. 5, with an average of 82.8 per cent, and school No. 38, with an average of 63.7 per cent (neither of these schools contain grades 7 and 8). Further evidence that the large schools are responsible for the high city average is seen in the fact that every grade average in three
represents the average standing for the best grade in each school, and the number of that grade is indicated for each school by a figure immediately below the number of the school. In like manner the grade receiving the lowest standing is indicated for each school by the lower line of the diagram, below which is the row of figures indicating which grade has received such standing. Between the upper and lower lines is a third line which represents the average standing of the schools, while the heavy straight line marks the standing achieved in other cities. On the right, a short horizontal bar marks the line on which the city average would fall if shewn on the diagram. Thus each school, as well as the best and poorest grades of the school, may be conveniently compared with achievements in other cities, as well as with other schools in Oakland. Similarly all comparisons may be made with the average for the city as a whole, which for grades 3 to 8 is 77.4 per cent., or with the 2nd grade included, 76.5 per cent.
At a glance, therefore, it appears that the average for all schools in the city stands 7.4 per cent, higher than the average standings made in other cities, that the line representing the highest grade averages is uniformly high above the 70 per cent, mark, that the line representing the lowest grade averages is also relatively high, while in only a few cases are either of these extremes strikingly high or low.' If the 28 2nd grade classes which took the test were included, this difference would not be materially changed, as will appear later. In general, therefore, the spelling in Oakland is decidedly superior. The extent to which this remains true in particular will appear later.
A study of this diagram by schools, at once reveals the zigzag nature of the middle line representing school averages. The fact that the school averages for 23 schools fall below 77.4, the average for all children in the city, that 3 schools make just the city average, leaving 14 schools to offset the low averages in 23 schools, indicates that the larger schools did the best spelling. That is, school No. 1 with over 700 children tested, makes an average of almost 81 per cent, while school No. 23, with the same number of grades but with only 250 children tested, averages below 71 per cent. The widest difference between school averages being shown by school No. 5, with an average of 82.8 per cent, and school No. 38, with an average of 63.7 per cent (neither of these schools contain grades 7 and 8). Further evidence that the large schools are responsible for the high city average is seen in the fact that every grade average in three
test, fall entirely below the city average.
By a study of the upper and lower edges of the shaded portion of the diagram one sees precisely this same thing, only somewhat exaggerated. The highest grade averages made by schools 25, 36, and 40, all small schools, are entirely below the lowest grade average made in 7 of the other schools, 5 of which are among the largest schools in the city.
Not only is there a marked difference between schools in these respects, but also in respect to the wide differences in the range occupied by the grade standings in different schools. This is quickly seen by comparing the width of the shaded portion of the diagram at different points. The grades in school No. 18 make average standings ranging from 66 per cent, in grade 3 to 86 per cent, in grade 6 ; school No. 38, from 37 per cent, in grade 3 to almost 81 per cent, in grade 6 ; while the range in school No. 5 is only . from 79 to 81 per cent. ; and in No. 25 from 61 to 72 per cent. The extreme range in average grade standings for all the schools is from a difference of 2 per cent, in school No. 5 to a difference of 44 per cent in school No. 38. A glance at the width of the shading for different schools impresses one with this rather wide difference in the efficiency of different grades in the same school. This will be further examined later. Meantime attention is called to the two rows of figures indicating the grades receiving the highest averages in each of the 40 schools. These are brought together in Table 4, which shows that the poor spelling, so far as grade averages
count, is found mainly in the 3rd grade, while the 5th grade most often ranks highest. In no school does the 3rd grade rank highest, nor do grades 5, 6, or 7 receive the lowest average in any school. With all the above differences between schools there is this similarity, viz. that the 3rd grade uniformly ranks low, and the 5th grade high.
COMPARISON OF GRADES AND CLASSES.
This same fact is emphasized further by Table 5, the facts for which are made clearer by diagram 2. Here the standings for all the 8th grade children throughout the city have been averaged, and
similarly for the children of each of the other grades, figures for which are shown in the second line in Table 5, and graphically by the central line in diagram 2. From grade 8 this curve rises gradually to grade 5, and then descends more abruptly to grade 2, which is included in this diagram for the sake of comparison. From this
12 OAKLAND SPELLING INVESTIGATION
it is seen that averages for grades 5, 6, and 7, stand higher than the average for the city as a whole (grades 3-8), and that averages for grades 2, 3, 4, and 8 fall below the city average, the widest difference between grades being 18 per cent, which is the differenc between the averages for grades 5 and 3, or 24.3 per cent, if grade 2 be counted. Eighteen per cent, is a wide difference, but when we pass above grade 3 this difference falls immediately to less than 9 per cent, which fact further places the responsibility for the poor spelling on the low grades. Measuring the grades against each other, and against the city average, we see that while the child is doing poor work in grades 2 and 3 (poor also as measured by achievements in other cities), his rate of improvement is rapid till the fifth grade is reached, but that this rate is not only not maintained, but that it materially decreases through the subsequent three years. An explanation of this attainment for the 5th grade may lie partly in the fact that a careful review of spelling is made during this year.
A study of averages, however, is only a rough method at best, and may not reveal the most important differences in the efficiency of the different grades. In this same table is presented the records of the best and of the poorest class averages found throughout the city, for each grade. In the diagram these facts are shown by the upper and lower margins of the shaded surface. This brings out a few characteristics of the work in the different grades which does not appear in a study of grade averages alone. The variability of classes within each grade is quite an important item, and may be very effective in helping to show up some of the important administrative and teaching problems. The less variability among the classes of a given grade the greater the probability that a consistent policy is being pursued in the teaching of spelling in that grade; while great variability would tend to indicate a lack of uniformity in the administration and teaching. This does not mean to imply that absolute uniformity in results is either possible or desirable. A question is fairly raised as to the desirability of having a uniform plan for handling this particular subject, not, of course, for all grades, but for all classes of a given grade, regardless of the nature of the community or school conditions. Clearly various factors would enter to make such uniformity unwise and impracticable, and similarly uniform results would be difficult to obtain. However, teaching standards should not be confused with the nature of the content taught. Differences in content for different types of communities, which at most would be very slight, need not demand wide differences in the standard maintained.
No theoretical answer is offered for this question here, but attention is, directed to the facts presented in our table and diagram, which show that this fact of variability of classes within a given grade is widely different in different grades. The fifth grade does
not occupy first place now, though it still stands above the earlier grades. The classes in grade 7 are least variable and those in grade 3 most variable, even including grade 2. The class standings become more and more uniform until grade 7 is reached, from which grade 8 declines slightly.
The range in class standings is so great here that it is clearly evident (though not proved by this test) that the class represented by the lower margin of the shading for grade 3 is as much below the class represented by the upper margin of the same grade as the 3rd grade is below the 4th grade. While this overlapping between grades cannot be measured quantitatively here, it is clearly very marked. Just what variability of classes within a grade should normally be expected would naturally depend, 1st. upon whether or not the subject matter of this branch of the curriculum is really organized by years (the subject matter for each year representing a definite amount of work to be done), and 2nd. upon the extent to which promotion in spelling is made only upon the basis of having attained a certain standard of efficiency, which is uniform for all grades and schools, in the subject matter outlined for the year. If there is laxness in maintaining a standard for spelling promotions, and a looseness in the organization of the subject matter, as between schools, and grades, then a wide variability in class averages would naturally result. If promotions must be made by years rather than by subjects then naturally some subjects will suffer with almost every child. No system of grading can be made so elastic as to completely do away with the problem of individual differences within a class, unless it is based on individual attainment by subjects. Oakland approaches this ideal, in that promotions may be made at any time, and are regularly made semi-annually. Yet, whatever this may have done to affect a better classification in other subjects, it has accomplished little or nothing for spelling.1
The facts shown by this diagram tend to argue, particularly in
*Note: It is fair to raise the question as to the liability to abuse which an ideally elastic system of grading may possess. When a child is doing well in his class he may easily go unnoticed by his teacher. If he is doing excellent work he is attractive and the teacher may be reluctant to recommend his promotion. If he is stupid, over age, and not so attractive, his promotion is likely to be recommended as early as possible. Thus, without a regular promotion time, annual, semi-annual, or quarterly, the child is less likely to be pushed out and made to work up to his limit, and the dull and unattractive child is more likely to be pushed out too saon. To shorten the promotion periods from three months to six or three weeks, is to increase the probability that a teacher will decide to keep her bright children one more period — since it will make her room attractive and at most delay the children butlittle — and to risk pushing the unattractive ones faster than they should go.
This is a feature of short promotion schemes which needs study. The retardation figures presented later tempt one to think that the short promotion periods which have been possible in Oakland may have been a contributing cause to the high percentage of retardation. The statistics on this subject ought to be dealt with by the Bureau of Information, Statistics, and Educational Research.
INDIVIDUAL STANDING BY GRADES.
Thus far we have dealt with averages or central tendencies and with coarse measures of the variability of groups. These methods are adequate for certain purposes, but tell only roughly of the distribution of the individual standings of the children. For this purpose the actual distribution of scores is presented in Table 6. This table includes over 12,000 individual records, and shows their distribution in detail. The total line is reduced to per cents, for convenience of comparison.
The first point of interest is seen in the fact that slightly over one child out of every five, made a standing of 100 per cent. That is, the test was too easy, and therefore did not test 21 per cent, of the children in grades 3 to 8. Another 22.5 per cent, of the children made 90 per cent, on the test, while on the other hand, 15.9 per cent, of the children received a standing of 50 per cent, or lower. Complete distribution of individual standings for grades 3 to 8 is shown for each grade separately in diagram 3.
represented by a probability curve. That 'is, a very few would receive 100 per cent, in their test and a few zero, the great majority falling around 40 to 60 per cent. A school grade as here used is a selected group, and the words of the test are selected with respect to a definite degree of spelling efficiency. The children of a given
grade are presumed to be about equal in spelling efficiency, that being the reason for their being in the same grade, and the words for each grade are, by test, equally difficult for many hundreds of children of the grade in question. We should therefore not expect a chance distribution of the standings for any grade here, containing from 1200 to 2400 children. We should expect a very definitely marked central tendency. By definite arrangement of ihe test (see Chap. 1) it is planned to make the central tendency around 70 per cent, correctly spelled. An examination of Diagram 3 shows that in but one grade is 70 per cent, the central tendency, as judged by the median, which is indicated for each grade by a thin vertical line marked M. In every case the curve is badly skewed toward the high standings. So the distribution of individual standings is practically like the the distribution of classes and grades. Even though the curve is skewed toward the high end, yet there is a goodly showing at the low end as well.
To what extent is this marked diversity to be expected under a reasonably careful handling of spelling in the schools? Grading, ideally, means grouping children of like efficiency in a given subject, or of like capacity for handling the subject. It is rarely practicable to attain this ideal in even rare cases. First, because grade, here, as in most cities, means two definite groups one-half year apart in efficiency. This would naturally tend to give us a distribution of their standings, which, if plotted on the curve would show two high frequency points in place of one. This nowhere occurs in Diagram 2. Again, in school practice, almost every school promotes a few children for reasons other than those assigned above. There are always the few over-age misfits. Now if there are no ungraded classes to which these can conveniently be assigned, they are pushed forward, and would tend to push our curve over toward the low end. Then again, there is the child who comes into the grade from some other city, or from the country school. He is also frequently very hard to fit into any grade, and may easily appear either far above or far below our central tendency. Then there is the child behind his grade because of illness, and the one behind because he has jumped a grade. All these cases and others like them would tend to flatten out our curve. Yet they do not help to explain the skewed condition we find, say in grade 5, nor, even with a liberal allowance, do they seem to explain why nearly 16 per cent, of all the children in the city receive a standing of only 50 per cent, or lower.
The cases included in Diagram 2 have been brought together, and are expressed in per cents, of the total number of scores, rather than in absolute figures, in Diagram 4. From this we see that a larger percentage of all the children in the city received a standing of 90 per cent, than any other one standing.
If the test had been difficult enough to have tested to their limit the 21 per cent who made a perfect showing, it looks very much as if we should have gotten somewhere near a chance distribution of the standings of these twelve thousand children. But the test was not difficult enough so we can only speculate, and say that on the average, as compared with other cities, the Oakland work in spelling is decidedly superior.
Averages are not full statements of all the findings, however. For this the complete distribution of standings is needed, and from this it appears that the distribution of standings for most classes and grades is not far from what it would be if the children were not graded at all. That is, two children selected at random from the same class or grade, appear to be no more nearly equal in spelling efficiency than two children selected at random from two adjacent grades. Space cannot be taken to prove this further by citing typical records of classes, but a study of these individual records by classes is quite as confirmatory of this statement as are the above facts. Large overlapping is apparent in every grade, but more so in the early than in the later grades.
Through this overlapping the evidence appears to prove that what is true in general with respect to spelling efficiency in the city, is not true in particular. For, after allowing liberally for all conditions which must naturally produce a variation from the central
tendency, there is yet too wide a diversity of abilities within a given class or grade. So wide, in fact, that the word "grade" has practically no meaning. This condition raises important problems in teaching and administration which should command attention.
A STUDY OF GRADE II.
The data for grade 2 are not included as part of the study of the whole city, because tests were given in less than half of the schools, and where given did not always include all the 2nd grade children in the school. Consequently the results cannot fairly be compared with results from other grades.
In view of the fact that a definite policy with respect to the place of spelling in the first two years' work is in operation under direction of a special supervisor for the primary grades ; and in view of the fact that the 3rd grade ranks extremely low as compared with other grades, it seems worth while not only to study the data obtained from grade 2 separately, but to study it as fully as the data will permit.
As to whether it is, or is not, worth while for any 2nd grade, in any city, to be able to pass this test in spelling, is not the question here, the purpose being, first, to present the results of the test, and to analyze them so as to be able to place the responsibility for the results obtained. We wish to say, in terms of the test, how well these 2nd grade classes spell, and not to raise here the question of whether it is desirable to have them spell better.
There are 17 schools represented, varying in the number of children per school from 9 to 110, including in all, 657 children. There are 28 classes represented, 18 being grade 2B (the upper half of grade 2) and 10 being grade 2A classes. In some schools all 2nd grade children, are included, in others, only those of the upper half, or 2B. The groups are treated separately therefore and without reference to the school concerned.
It should be stated here (see Chap. V) that those of grade 2 A had had six weeks' work in spelling last year in grade 1, and about eighteen weeks' work this year before the test was made. The upper half had had one-half year more training than this.
The class averages for the 2 groups are shown separately in the upper and lower solid lines in diagram 5. The range in these averages is large, as appears in Table 7. The average for the 2 are shown separately by dotted lines on the diagram, while the average for the two combined is shown by the solid horizontal line.
It will be seen that the average for the upper group is 22 per cent, higher than the average for the lower group, neither attaining the 70 per cent, made in other cities, and that their combined average falls almost 10 per cent, below it. The zigzag dotted line rep-
resents the standings of the B classes in the schools from which the ten A classes are drawn, each B class record being plotted opposite the A class of the same school. The lines are by no means parallel. That is, the difference between the spelling efficiency in the A and B groups in one school is no evidence of what it will be in another
school. Perhaps this should not be drawn on too heavily as evidence that the policy for spelling is not carried out in the same way in all schools, but it certainly points that way.
The distribution of individual scores for the grade is shown by per cents, in diagram 6. It appears that a larger percentage of the children received a score of 90 than that receiving any other one score. The median here falls upon 70. A comparison of this with diagram 4, which shows grades 3 to 8 in this same way, makes
diagram 6 appear very flat. And even when compared with the distribution of standings for grade 3, it appears extremely low, in spite of the fact that the averages of the two are not so wide apart.
It is evident then, that grade 2B ranks almost as high as grade 3. While the grade average is slightly lower, its class averages are not so variable. On the other hand, grade 2A, not one class excepted, falls far below by every measure.
If the fact that some classes were not included means that they would rank still lower than those tested, then the children in Oakland learn very little spelling during the first year and a quarter, so far as can be measured by this test.
It remains to be added that when the results of grade 2 are added to those for the other grades the average for the city is 76.5 per cent., which is .9 per cent, lower by the addition of this grade.
inclusive, in 40 schools, and shows the following results :
1. For the city as a whole, and for grades above the 3rd, the standing is decidedly high, being 7.4% above the averages in other cities, or 6.5% higher if the 2nd grade is included.
2. The differences between the averages for different schools is pronounced, the high averages being maintained on the whole by the larger schools, and the low averages by the small schools.
averages within various schools, all grades in one school receiving close to the same average, while in another school they range from 37.5% in grade 3, to 80.8% in grade 5, grade 3 being uniformly low, and grade 5 uniformly high.
4. When the standings of all the children in the city are brought together by grades, this same fact is emphasized by the wide range in grade averages. The difference between the averages for grade 3 (the lowest grade average) and grade 5 being 18%, which rises to 24.3% if grade 2 be included.
5. The averages for the classes within any grade represent a still greater variability than we find between grade averages. This range is greatest in grade 3, and least in grade 7.
6. A distribution of individual scores by grades shows the same extreme variability, and this obtains also in a marked way between the individuals in the same class.
but the lower half of grade 2 shows very low standing.
10. Practically all these showings point to a serious overlapping between grades, so marked in grades 2 and 3 as practically to destroy the meaning of the term grade. Which means that the high general showing for the city as a whole, and for all grades above the 3rd, does not obtain in particular when applied to classes and individuals.
11. It must be said then, that, as between separate schools, and as between separate grades in the same schools, there is evidenc that no definite standards for administering this branch of the curriculum exist. That is, a child graduating from school No. 5 is probably 12%. more efficient in spelling than is a child graduating from school No. 23, and still greater differences exist between other schools. Similarly it would appear that a lower standard for spelling efficiency is used as a basis for promoting a 3rd grade child, in most every school, than that used for promoting a 5th grade child. This is undesirable in school practice. It may be that less emphasis, relative to other studies, should be placed upon spelling in one year than in another, but if so, the amount of work to be done should be adjusted accordingly, so that the quality of work will not suffer.
12. If the subject-matter is to be determined, not by a text alone, but also by current use in written exercises, then a systematic gathering and classifying of words from the latter source should be made an immediate object of study for teachers and supervisors.
One or two years of this work throughout all schools would furnish practically all the material that is to be used from this source. The words so gathered could be classified by grades in the order of their probable need and difficulty and made into supplementary lists to accompany the text. This would help to systematize the subjectmatter and furnish a basis for standardizing the work.
13. Efficient work cannot be carried on in a class whose pupils are sixty to ninety per cent, apart in abilities. Such extreme differences are not rare, and represent a teaching problem which, in most other subjects would be regarded as practically impossible to handle. In spelling, it is, from the standpoint of real teaching, quite as impossible to handle, and is likely to induce many teachers to resort to extremely unpedagogical methods. In such a class a proper assignment for the children of 80 to 100 per cent, ability is an imposition on children of zero and 10 per cent, ability. If pupils can be classified in arithmetic they can also be classified in spelling.
14. That the showing for grades 2A and 3A is extremely poor as compared with our 70 per cent, standard, cannot be doubted. The present policy with respect to spelling, as laid down by the supervisor of primary work, may account for this (for fuller discussion of this point see Chap. V). The 2nd grade in Butte averaged 86.2 per cent, correct, the 2nd grade in Springfield made even 70 per cent., while for Oakland its average is 60.2 per cent. That for the upper half of the grade, however, is 69, or practically up to the standard. Somewhat the same condition exists in grade 3, though with some less emphasis. Which indicates that by the middle of the 3rd year the Oakland children average well up to the standard, and then rise rapidly above it. It does not appear, therefore, that this low showing is of any serious moment, since children below the 4th grade rarely need spelling. Two questions arise, however: what gain is there in deferring the serious study of spelling for the first two or three years ; and, what is the loss in having the added burden later? The gain must be in relieving the early years of much rather formal study, and so adding to the content and expression sides of their training; the loss must be in adding to the later grades more of the formal, and so consuming time that should be used otherwise.1
The writer believes that the gain is greater than the loss, providing : first, that this opportunity for the early grades exists ; second, that evidence can be given that achievement in reading, language, etc., in these grades is superior ; and third, that the fourth
*It is not proved yet that from the standpoint of spelling alone, it is an advantage to delay the teaching of spelling. It may be so much easier for a 3rd grade child to learn how to spell the word horse than it is for a first or second grade child to learn it that it pays (from the standpoint of spelling) to delay. On the other hand, we have no proof of the opposite position, hence it is at present impossible to furnish experimental evidence that the practice in other cities is wrong.
because of the extra work in catching up in spelling.
In the light of the achievements in 2nd and 3rd grade spelling in other cities — which seems to argue against slighting spelling in the early grades — some investigation of reading and language efficiency in these grades would be desirable, and is recommended. These need not be xhaustive, but should cover the early grades in typical schools.
Further light is thrown on this situation in chapter V, which tends to show that from the point of view of time these grades are not neglecting this subject any more than are the other grades, which argues more strongly still for a study of results in these other subjects.
Present practice in any of the school subjects is not sufficiently professionalized, and free from the force of tradition, to make it a final argument for or against a given practice. The comparative method of study has its merits, however, and its showing cannot wisely be ignored till experimental evidence displaces it.
15. The excellent showing which the city has made as a whole must neither blind us to these very genuine problems ; nor must we fail to examine into the reasons for this high showing, as well as into the fact that no standards with respect to the subject-matter and administration of the subject of spelling seem to exist; and as far as possible into the time cost at which, and the method by which, the showing is made. These are problems for succeeding chapters..
THE PROBLEM.
The above results have been stated in terms of schools, grades, classes, and individuals. Differences between schools, and between grades were noted in interpreting results, but no attempt was made to interpret the results for children in terms of individuality. Each child was counted a child only. Yet we are conscious of the fact that children are not alike, and that their differences are the beginnings of many important school problems.
To say that the city as a whole, or that a class as a whole, made a given standing tells very little. Furthermore, to show the distribution of standings for a class, or for a school, does not indicate the causes contributing to that distribution, and hence offers no directions for changing it if it is unsatisfactory. These results are the first step, however, in a diagnosis. But to say that the city made a standing .of 77.4 per cent., does not tell us the kind of children the city had to have in order to make that, nor does it tell us the plan used in making it, nor the amount of time consumed.
To make our results of value, therefore, we need to study as fully as possible into the conditions under which such results have been obtained, for any investigation, results of which are not to be made use of in school practice is not only professionally useless, but vicious. If further study proves these results to be superior, then we should pursue our present policy with respect to spelling, with the consciousness that we have only to refine this policy and develop skill in its administration. If, on the other hand, our results prove to be inferior, we need to study carefully every aspect of the problem in order to determine what readjustments are necessary.
To this end the results have been studied in the light of differences in age, sex, and general ability as judged by the teacher, and the findings are briefly presented below.
AGE, GRADE, AND SPELLING EFFICIENCY.
The school practitioner need not concern himself so much with the psychological significance of maturity as with the practical effect of maturity upon the problems and the output of the school. When a class or grade standing is presented as the average for children varying from a few months to four or five years in their ages, it is important that we should be able first of all to state what effect this wide difference in age has had. This is our problem here.
For convenience the age grade distribution of the children included in the test — 2nd grade excepted — is presented in table 8, reduced to per cents, in table 9 and shown graphically in diagram 7. It will be seen that the amount of retardation is high, ranging from above 54 per cent, in grade 3A, to above 70 per cent, in grade 8B, and amounting to 64.9 per cent, for the six grades studied. This means that retardation for the elementary schools in the city is at least GO per cent., if first and second grades were counted.
The amount of retardation for each child is shown in table 8, and by per cents, in table 9, from which it appears that from 28 to 37 per cent, of the children are retarded one year, that from 12 to 27 per cent, are retarded two years, that from 5 to 12 per cent, are retarded three years, and that from 2 to 6 per cent, are retarded four years or more.
SPELLING EFFICIENCY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 27
per cent, are one year ahead of their grades, while very few are more than one year ahead. It is interesting to note that the amount of retardation increases gradually from the low 3rd to the high 8th grade.
A comparison of the average standings of these three groups by grades will show roughly the influence of age upon the results obtained. These facts are given in detail in table 10, and shown graphically in diagram 8. The left hand column in this diagram represents the average standing for the accelerates, the middle
column for the normals, and the right hand column for the retards. Note that in every case save one, grade 7B, the accelerates rank clearly above all others, and that in every case the retards rank lower than all others.
This comes out with remarkable clearness when one examines a given age group throughout the city. This has been done for three age groups; first, those 13 to 13^2 years old; second, those I2y2 to 13 years old ; and third, those 10 to 10 J^ years old. All the children 13 to 13^2 years old were separated from their respective grade groups, and the average standings for these children were computed by grades. The other two age groups were treated similarly. There are children of each of the first two age groups to be found in all grades, 3A to 8B, while the 10 to 10^ year olds are found in grades 3 A to 6 A. Table 11 shows the standings by grades for each of these three age groups in comparison with the average for the grade from which they are drawn.
The distribution of 13-year-old children throughout all grades is striking evidence that chronological age means almost nothing in school organization. We discover that the children of a given age represent very wide differences in ability. Circles were drawn about the ligures in the table which represent the scores of the normal children. Figures above these circles are the scores of the children who are accelerated, and those below the circles are for the children who are retarded.
A brief study of this table reveals the fact, that what appears in general, as shown by diagram 8, appears in particular for a given age group, viz., that the accelerated 13 to 13^ year olds rank above the average for their grades, that the normal 13 to 13^2 year olds rank above the average for their grades, and that the retarded 13 to 13^ year olds (6 months retards excepted) rank below the average for their grades, and increasingly so as they are more and more retarded. A comparison of each of the other age columns in table 11 with the "Average for Grade" column shows the result to be exactly the same. That is, the difference between 13 to 13^ year old children is much greater than the mere difference between grades
3 A and 8B, that is, 5 years, for while the 13 to 13^ year olds in 8B stand 3.9 per cent, higher than their grade, the 13 to 13J/2 year olds from grade 3 A rank 28.1 per cent below the average for their grade.
These things have been known to be true before, but here is exactly how true they are in Oakland, when examined from one single point of view in the curriculum. In making this general average for the city as a whole, and for the upper grades, Oakland has used children approximately a year older than should normally be used for these tests. The differences in age, amounting to from 6 to 8 years, which aopear in every grade group, cannot be fully avoided, even under ideal conditions, but a better arrangement than the present would be to make the one year retards the normal grcnp, calling the present normals one year accelerated, etc. See diagram 7.
If the fifth grade children who made 100 per cent, in the test had taken the sixth grade test instead of that for the fifth grade, it is probable that many of those 100's would have been reduced to 90, s, a few to 80's and, a very few to 70's. In spite of the fact that the accelerates have lifted the general average for the city very decidedly, yet the same is true of the normals, and also of those only one or two years retarded, as may be seen from a study of table 11. Again, if all the 13 to 13^ year olds in table 11 had taken a test one grade higher than they did, it is fair to assume that all the figures in that column of the table would have been lower than they now are. Just how much lower we cannot say, but the three averages in that column of the table which fall below 70% include but 41 of the 874 children included in the "13 to 13^ year olds" column. Which means that they might have been reduced quite decidedly without making the general average for children of that age lower than 70%, which is the desired standard.
So, while it is true that it is the average child who has held down the .general" averages everywhere, yet they have not held it below the 70% mark. The only conclusion is that Oakland would have made an average of approximately 70% in the 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th, and 8th grades even if each of these grades had taken the test for the next grade above. This would not have been true for grades 2 and 3.
Such facts as these are at the basis of administrative as well as teaching difficulties. First, from diagram 8, and tables 10 and 11, we note that in practically every case the accelerated child is ahead of his grade. This means that he is not having to work very hard to make a respectable showing. If an intelligence test were applied to our 13 to 13^ year olds, who by an age grade measure are accelerated, it is quite reasonable to suppose that in terms of their psychological ages they are actually
retarded. And this simply because they have not had to work up to their full capacity. The opposite of this would likely be shown for the retards. This problem is being studied diligently, and in time we shall know the extent to which such facts exist. Meantime, by use of special rooms, for bright pupils as well as for dull ones, irregular promotions, and assistant teachers, the school machinery should make provision for teaching the bright children to work hard. To the teacher the demand is clear. She should be fully conscious, not only that this state of affairs exists in her room, but of the way in which these differences manifest themselves, and of the extent to which they exist as well. In her assignments she should plan to use up systematically that time which accelerates usually trifle away. Table 11 suggests strongly that there are quite a number of pupils in regular classes who ought, both for their own sakes and for the sake of other children, to be dealt with in rooms for subnormals.
The amount of retardation for the city is too high. It carries no advantage whatever, but tends to discourage and depress. The year's work in spelling should be made reasonably difficult, but there is no reason for making it so difficult that only one child in three can complete it in the given time. It should be said, however, that the general results of this test do not seem to indicate that spelling is the cause of a very large per cent, of retardation. Which may suggest that spelling is receiving proportionately more than its share of time, for further discussion of which see chapter V.
No one has yet argued, from a wide knowledge of facts, that sex differences show themselves so prominently in intellectual work as to demand that girls and boys be taught separately. This part of the study was undertaken with a view to being able to state quantitatively, what practical effect sex differences might have in a test of this sort, and to gain from the showing any suggestion it might have for the teacher and supervisor of spelling.
The general findings are presented by grades in table 12 and in diagram 9, from which it appears that there is a clear difference in favor of the girls, that the difference is constant, and that it roughly increases with age. (Since so large a number of children are included, it may be of psychological interest that the increase in difference is not more regular than it is.) These same facts are presented for each grade separately by schools in diagram 10, which shows that grade groups vary in different schools, but that even when the boys are ahead they are rarely very far ahead. The fact that the difference is more pronounced in the upper grades is also clear. That the differences are much greater in individual schools than when the average is taken is to be expected.
Just what this means for the teaching of spelling, in detail, may call for a careful study of these scores in relation to the relative ages of boys and girls, and also of the relative variability of standings for boys as compared with that for girls. For the purposes of this
study that would only mean to state the above findings in more specific terms. The fact is there are real differences, pronounced differences, in many classes. Whether it means that the mental maturity of girls is in general more rapid during the elementary school period than that for boys, or that girls have a better verbal memory than boys, or that girls are more industrious with respect to such formal tasks as the study of spelling lessons, or, as various studies seem to indicate, that it* is all of these, we need not say. The differences are not great enough to necessitate a division of sexes for the teaching of spelling, though there are several cases in which the teaching of the subject would be facilitated by such division. This would involve administrative difficulties, however, which would forbid its recommendation. But to the teacher it becomes a definite problem. The girls possess extra ability which she can depend upon, and it is her duty to see that it is made use of, and not permitted to furnish the girls with leisure time for which they need give no educational account. The extent and persistence of this difference in abilities due to sex, indicates that girls ought to be expected to complete the eight years work in spelling in seven years. If their full ability were used up to its limit, systematically, and if there were any real end to the course in spelling, there is little doubt but that on an average, girls would do in six years the spelling work which boys do in seven years. If girls are mentally more mature, then they should not be prevented the opportunity of making that maturity count. A girl, or a boy either, who is not forming good work habits, is not just waiting, but is reallv forming the habit of drifting, being generally unbusinesslike with respect to the thing that is his or her serious business. Real supervision can do no greater service than to help teachers realize in these ways just what such individual differences mean, and to help teachers in finding out systematic ways of teaching each child to use his or her whole ability, at all times, spelling lessons not excepted.
The inquiry here is into the mere fact of differences in spelling efficiency between the sexes, and not into the ways by which either sex learns to spell. Only on the basis of such a study as the latter could we base recommendations as to modification of teaching methods to meet sex differences. Such differences doubtless exist. Superior ability probably means not only a larger mental content, or a greater amount of knowledge, but also superior method* for getting knowledge. Teachers have neither time nor facilities for a scientific study of this question in their classrooms, but by close observation of how boys and girls work at such tasks, teachers will both incr^.ce their sympathy for their individual pupils, and add greatly to their knowledge of the individual pupil's learning problem, and hence to their own teaching efficiency.
According to the plan described on page 1 the five brightest pupils and the five slowest pupils from each class (best and slowest in general school work, according to the teacher's judgment) were numbered so that their records could be studied separately.
The teacher's judgment is not presumed to be a perfect measure of general intelligence, but it is the one most often used in practical school work. The questions here, are: 1st, are spelling ability and general ability parallel ; 2nd, if the teacher has chosen the best and poorest spellers how widely do they differ in rank?
First of all, the standings for the five brightest pupils in a class were averaged, then the average for the five poorest pupils was similarly ascertained, and these were compared with the average standings of the class from which they were drawn. Each class in the school was treated in this way, and the results set down in three columns, the first for the average of the five brightest pupils, the second for the class average, and the third for the average of the five poorest pupils.
The number of classes so treated was 377. Out of this number 343 classes showed that the five brightest, averaged above the class standing, while in 34 cases it either equaled or fell below it. Similarly from the 377 classes, the averages for the five slowest pupils fell below the class average 322 times, and equaled or ranked above it 55 times.
It is by no means true that the five brightest were always the five best spellers (judged by the test), but the above figures show that the bright group almost always averaged high, and that the dull groups most always averaged low. For instance, in school No. 1 there were eleven classes, in ten of which the five brightest pupils ranked above, and the five slowest pupils ranked below the average for the class. The bright groups averaged from zero to 19% above, and the slow groups ranked from zero to 36% below their class averages. The average for the eleven bright groups together was 9.8%. above, and for the eleven dull groups 12.5% below their class averages. These same figures for other schools ranged from an average 'of 3% to 14.7% above class averages for the bright groups, and from an average of from 1.6% above to 24.8%below class averages for the dull groups.
This is brought out clearly by taking all the bright pupil groups from a school, computing their average, then treating the slow pupil groups in the same way, compare these with the school average. For instance in school No. 1 there are eleven classes. That means we have 55 bright pupils and 55 slow ones to compare with the school average. The bright 55 make an average standing of
90.7%, the slow 55 average 67.6%, and the school average is 80.8%. That is, the bright 55 average 9.9% above, and the slow 55 average 13.2%. below the school average. The showing for each of the 40 schools has been worked out in this way, and appears by schools in diagram 11.
This diagram shows that general ability has uniformly corresponded with spelling ability, and it shows, too, that the statement made in chapter 2, that there is a wide range of ability in almost every class, is easily true.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS.
We have examined the influence of three types of individual differences, namely, age, sex, and general ability, upon spelling efficiency, and have found that each has a constant and well defined significance which ought to be reckoned with in the teaching, supervision, and administration of spelling.
gradually increasing in amounts by half grades from 3 A to 8B.
We have seen that chronological age gives very little indication of the grade of mental ability, since every grade group contains children as much as eight years apart in ages.
In practically every case, the older a child is in a given grade with respect to the normal age for that grade, the poorer he spells. This is clearly emphasized by the study of three separate age groups.
This is simply a quantitative statement of the influence of the bright and of the dull child upon the work in a given course. The children from 13 to 13^ years old in Oakland are scattered throughout all the grades, and those in the 8B grade pass the 8B test with higher rank than those in the 3 A grade are able to make in the 3 A test. That is, the mental age range here is not from 13 to 13^ years, but really from about 7 to 14. (The Binet tests are showing that the range is actually even wider than this).
definite drag on his class.
On the other hand the accelerated child has a high rate of speed, which shows in his standing in the test. These differences are wide enough in every half grade group to constitute a definite problem. The accelerate's quick intellect may stimulate the retard if the difference is not so great as to discourage him, but influence in the opposite direction should be considered. The differences shown
The showing clearly warrants the suggestion that special rooms for bright and for dull pupils in the schools are not yet serving their fullest usefulness so far as spelling is concerned. A "Spelling Hospital" is a genuine need, not only to give extra direction (not testing but teaching) to the slow children, but to take such influences away from bright pupils, and to make it possible to work the bright pupils up to a reasonable limit of their capacities.
connection, likewise irregular promotions.
Above all, through careful supervision, every teacher should be made fully conscious of the fact that these differences exist in her class. She. should be given assistance in finding out the extent to which they exist, and be held responsible for knowing just how these differences manifest themselves in respect to the amount of knowledge the child possesses, in respect to his methods of study, and in respect to the interest which he has in his work.
This requires knowledge
of individuals such as that suggested by these studies. The setting forth of the general features of such problems, and direction in how to solve them, are legitimate functions of the supervisor; the constant watch to see that these ends are being met by teachers, is a legitimate function of the principal. Such assistance should be welcomed, even sought after, by the teacher. The results of such cooperation will certainly place in clear light any new demands which problems of individual differences may make upon matters of organization and management.
In respect to sex differences, we note that they are definite and constant in their showing on the test. They roughly increase in significance from year to year, but with some irregularity, being least in grade 4 and greatest in grade 8.
In amount these differences range from 1.8% to 5.7% by grade groups throughout the city ; but when grade groups in single schools are studied, we find* these differences quite variable, often going as low as zero, not infrequently with the boys slightly ahead, and often as high as 10% in favor of the girls.
These differences between boys and girls are very genuine, though in most cases not so wide as to prevent their being handled in classes together. The main suggestion which these facts have for the conduct of the schools, is, that if girls mature more rapidly than boys, they should be provided with the chance to get through the elementary school at an earlier age. The amount of difference which appears and the way in which it persists, suggests that the
finish it.
It is not a case demanding rearrangement of school machinery, so much as it is one which demands attention to those more minute adjustments which the elasticity of the present machinery provides for, and which the teacher, supervisor, and principal, are responsible for effecting. Such educational capital as exists in these individual differences must not remain uninvested. They are the savings accounts in school training which we ought to start early, for, however small, they are dependable.
Our third trait, general intelligence, brought to light further evidence that very wide differences in ability exist between members of the same class, that the teacher seldom had difficulty in naming the brightest and dullest children in her room, and that spelling ability corresponded quite fully with this general ability.
These differences are often wider than one would reasonably expect between children a grade apart, and emphasize the fact that an assignment of work to such a class cannot avoid doing injustice to some of the members, either by making the lesson too easy or too difficult. Likewise the recitation period must waste time for some, permitting them to form slovenly habits of inattention, while others are struggling in the dark, more or less in a vain effort to comprehend. Such classes can be tested, but not taught. The effect of such conditions on the teacher has been pointed out above.
Finally, then, the demand for "economy of time in the elementary school" can be effectively met by perfecting organization, and refining those inner and more minute adjustments for which teacher and supervisor are responsible, all in the light of the definite claims of individual differences which this test has brought to light, and stated in quantitative terms.
The group of influences studied here are those produced by the child's contacts, through institutions, occupations, and race connections, with the world outside. The purpose being to discover what, if any, are the differences in children for which such forces are responsible, assuming that any such differences, which would be of importance to the school, might manifest themselves to some degree in such a test as this.
It is undoubtedly true that original endowment, or human nature, is extremely variable, and that it accounts for many of the important differences we find among school children. But we must keep in mind that it is just this original nature that education is trying to change, and that whatever plays a part in the stimulation and direction of these native tendencies, is producing change in them, that is, educating the child. The school is but one of the many forces which are constantly playing upon child nature, and the school is presumed to represent systematized effort to produce certain well defined, and desirable changes. It is such only in proportion to the extent to which it corrects, supplements, and extends the influences of that larger school, life. The school must, in other words, have perspective for its work. It must know that it stands beside the home, the church, the street, occupation, social activities, and ancestral influences—which are quite as much social as biological, — and formulate its procedure in terms, not only of original human nature, but also in terms of both the shortcomings and the sound influences of these other agencies.
its own tasks intelligently.
To the end that some little light might be thrown upon such influences, the results of the test were studied from the standpoint of the father's occupation, the occupation the child desires to enter when he leaves school, the father's nationality, and the home language. Only records of selected groups, and not of all the children in the city were used in these studies.
For this study 2644 children from 13 schools, and from grades 2 to 8 inclusive were chosen. Not less than 200 nor more than 400 records were chosen from any one grade, and classes were taken from the largest as well as from the smallest schools, and from schools in all sections of the city. The group is a random selection therefore, and representative of what a larger number would show.
The occupations of these 2644 fathers, representing 73 different callings, have been thrown into groups as shown by the left hand column of Table 13. This grouping was used because it seems to divide people roughly along social lines, which are likely the result as well as the cause of their being in this or that occupation. The home of a professional man represents, on the whole, a higher standard of living than that of the clerk or labor group, and somewhat different from, if not higher than any of the other groups.
The number belonging to each of these groups of occupations is indicated in the right hand column of Table 13, which table represents the complete distribution of the standings of the children of these fathers. Each of the groups is large enough to constitute a 'fair sample of the Oakland school population.
the labor group to 79.8% for children of public officials, which is a difference of 7.5%. It is noticeable . that children of skilled workmen spell little better than do the children of unskilled workmen, that children of clerks spell better than children of either professional or business men, and that children whose fathers are public officials (including policemen) spell better than all others, when judged by averages.
The full length of each bar represents 100% of the children of the group, each separate division of the bar representing the per cent, of the group receiving a given score. By reference to the scale at the top, and to the explanation, it is easy to see that of those re-
ceiving 100% standing, the professional group ranks highest, and the labor group lowest; of those receiving 90% or above, the officials group stands first, and the professional group fourth, with labor lowest. Examinations of the other sections of the diagram places the children of officials clearly ahead, with the professional group second, the clerks third, and business fourth, which is in part a different order than when the groups were compared by averages.
Whatever other factors may enter into the determination of these standings, such, for instance, as the fact that the labor group is heavily weighted with ignorant foreigners, they do not change the practical meaning of the showing in the least, for labor is so weighted in most of our American cities. The first fact is that there are differences. Before the school undertakes to do anything about these differences it must know why they exist. If the reason is something the school cannot control, then its duty is to try, not to remove the cause, but to cure the ill. The foreigner is here, and his children are becoming Americans. The laborer is one of our company, and though his children may be on the average of lower mentality than children from the professional group, we must ask does the school know for sure that these children are in school as many days in the year, that they are not more often sick or physically defective, that they have equal school opportunity with children from other groups, and that they are equally able to avail themselves of those opportunities? It is this end of the situation which the school can study, and, to a large extent, control. This study is further evidence that economy of time for the school may lie in the direction of economizing the time and school privileges for individual children. Variety in home life from the economic standpoint points to another set of individual differences which school machinery and teaching must recognize.
EFFICIENCY.1
In this study are included 3079 children, or practically all the classes in grades 7 and 8 throughout the city. The question here is, first, what occupation does the child wish to enter, and second, how well can he spell, or is there any apparent correlation between the child's spelling ability and his present occupational ambition ?
The total number of occupations mentioned by the children includes 93, 20 more than the number actually followed by the fathers of the 2644 children studied above. There were 13 of these which were mentioned but once each, and these include butcher, baker, plasterer, and reporter. On the other hand there were 14 occupations, each of which was chosen by 50 or more children. A study of the occupational choices of these children is itself an interesting ques-
Their Choice of Occupations. 3079 in All.
tion, but for present purposes Diagram 13 shows the distribution of their choices which is useful in this connection. One cannot help being struck with the fact that — according to figures in the above section of this chapter, — out of 2644 fathers in the city, less than 12% are engaged in. professions, while 45.8% of these 3079 children desire to enter professions. Some reconstruction of these ambitions is ultimately necessary, and the school should not shirk its very evident responsibility in this connection. This is incidental, however, to the question of what relation there may be between these wise or unwise ambitions, and the ability of the children to spell. It should be pointed out in passing, that there is little tendency for the son to select the pursuit his father is engaged in, consequently bookkeepers here are by no means the sons of bookkeepers, engineers are not mainly the sons of engineers, etc. Here the ambitious son or daughter of a laborer may, and very often does, appear in the professional, or business group, and vice versa.
keepers, etc., includes most of the business group.
The number of children choosing these different lines, and the group averages they make in the test are shown in Table 14. The average for all is 77.7%. For the professional group of 1409 children the average made is 78.3%, while the business group of 557 made 78.9%. Those expressing no chioce rank even with the professional group, and the trades group, 318 in number, drop to 74.3%. The small group of 38 who wish to be house wives ranks above all, making 82.1%, while the two dozen who wish to play baseball rank far below, with an average of 62.5%.
In interpreting these figures we need to keep in mind the fact brought out by Table No. 12 above, that girls in grades 7 and 8 spell on an average from 5.4% to 5.7% better than boys. The group of teachers, who rank high are largely from among the girls, and so the engineer group, all of whom are boys, cannot be counted specially low when they fall 3.3% below the teachers. They are low, however, as compared with the professional group as a whole. A more interesting comparison of groups is seen in the following arrangement :
Bookkeepers 77.8
By a comparison of the groups on the left with those on the right, we find that sex does not explain all the differences. For instance the difference between the average for the agriculture group, and any group on the right, is greater than the normal difference due to sex. That is, agriculture and baseball have attracted a much lower type of spelling ability than that attracted by music or nursing.
It is interesting to note that all the groups on the left rank below the lowest group on the right, and that bookkeeping, which attracts both boys and girls, ranks approximately between the two. Even if sex explained these differences, which it does not, we have still to consider those differences which exist between the engineer and baseball groups, or between the housewife and nurse groups. Clearly baseball does not attract brains, if spelling efficiency measures brains. And it is the lower intelligence class among girls who wish to enter nursing, while music and motherhood call out the best minds there are among the girls.
So, measuring boys against boys, or girls against girls, or boys and girls against each other, we find that lines which divide them with respect to their occupational ambitions, divide them also with respect to their spelling efficiency. It may not be that low spelling efficiency causes a boy to wish to become a ball player, nor vice versa. t There may be other things : race, health conditions, low intelligence, home life, etc., which enter in, but it remains true that, out of a total of 3079 children, the 24 boys who desire to become ball players are notoriously poor spellers, that the 196 girls who wish to be musicians and the 295 who wish to become stenographers are decidedly good spellers.
So, whether general intelligence, or special spelling intelligence, accounts for these occupational choices, does not appear in this showing; yet it does appear by these facts, that the occupational choice of a child indicates roughly what his relative spelling efficiency is. If the pupil aspires to be a teacher, or a writer, or a musician, then the chances are that in spelling efficiency that child ranks relatively high. Or if the ambition looks toward baseball, or labor, or nursing, the chances are that in spelling efficiency the child would rank low.
Now, to try to state exactly what is the extent of these differences in general intelligence is not necessary and probably not safe on the basis of a single limited study of one kind of intelligence. The differences are here, and if spelling efficiency and general intelligence go together, as our showing in Chapter 3 at least suggests, then a boy's standing in school work indicates roughly the direction his occupational interest is likely to take. This is clearly suggested below.
Did the good spellers select occupations in which good spelling is an important qualification ? Stenographers made 80.5% ; teachers, 80.2% ; writers, 81.2% ; bookkeepers, 77.8% ; bankers, 81.5% ; lawyers, 78.6%; librarians, 81.7%; secretaries, 80.0%; office work, 74.4%. These would all need to be good spellers, and all save the last group rank above the average for the total number.
On the other hand we find that the miners made 75.0% ; farmers, 71.7% ; actresses, 76.5% ; artists, 74.9% ; architects, 74.0% ; carpenters, 69.4%; draftsmen, 69.4%; mechanics, 72.8%; seamen, 73.3% ; druggists, 68.5% ; doctors, 77.6% ; dressmaking, 73.0% ; millinery, 79.6% ; and salesmen, 65.3%. Only the milliners rank up to the total group average. Most of these need to know how to spell, but not to the same extent as do those of the group above.
Roughly, then, those who have chosen an occupation which demands unusual spelling ability are the best spellers, while those who have chosen occupations in which ability to spell is not of first importance, are below average in spelling efficiency.
There are some exceptions, as, wireless operators made only 72.5% ; mail clerks, 70.0% ; merchants, 66.7% ; while actors made 81.2% ; auto repairers, 78.6% ; and aviators, 80.% ; and hairdressers, 84.0%.
Of course we are dealing with small groups in making these statements, and their significance lies not in the fact that it is true that 6 librarians, or some other small groups, average high, but that nearly all of these small groups who ought to be good spellers, are, and nearly all those groups who need not be good spellers are not, and the exceptions are not numerous.
There are a few rather striking facts, which at first appear difficult to explain, such as in the difference between the standings for the 131 electrical and those for the 125 civil engineers. The former average 73.9% and the latter, 80.6%. Again, 8 actors average 81.2%, while 23 actresses average but 76.5%. The 16 high school teachers average 85.0%, and the 95 teachers of manual training, domestic science, etc., average 78.6%, and the 227 grammar school teachers average 80.4%. We are likely to say that electricity and manual and domestic work appeal to certain students because such studies seem to offer relief from books, and that these fields will attract more of the average intelligence group than do the usual lines of teaching or the less exciting lines of engineering. Hence
such facts as these do not modify the general statement of the results which this study shows, viz: that the type of child which aspires to enter a calling which will demand superior spelling ability is a child who possesses such ability, whereas the child who has not spelling ability will usually not aspire to a calling which will demand such ability.
For this section the records of practically all the 3rd, 5th, and 8th grade children were studied. These give us typical groups, including the grade which received the poorest standing in the test and the one which received the highest standing, also the youngest children, a middle age group, and the oldest children.
That we may know the distribution of children by the nationalities of their fathers the showing for grades 3 and 8 are presented in Diagram 14. The distribution of grade 5 would doubtless fall somewhere between these two, though the per cent, of foreigners is much lower here than in either the 3rd or the 8th grade. A little study of these two grade groups is of interest in comparing the showing for grade 3 in the test with that for grade 8, either as is done in this section, or as was done in Chapter 2 above. First of all, grade 8 appears to have nearly 2y2% more native children than has grade 3. Second, of the foreign groups the British have more than doubled, the Germanic group has increased nearly one-third, and the Scandinavians have more than held their own, while the Romanic group has decreased by approximately two-thirds of its number. Of the British the chief gain is with the English and Scotch, the Irish showing a slight decrease. Among the Germanic groups the chief gain is with the German and Dutch. With the Romanic groups the Spanish has disappeared, the Italians and Portuguese have dropped off more than two-thirds of their number, while the French has gained slightly.
The composition of the group has therefore changed from slightly over one-half to close to three-fourths English speaking in passing from the 3rd to the 8th grade of school. Why this percentage of American fathers is so much higher for the 5th grade and then falls back again does not appear.
Table 15 presents by per cents, the entire distribution of the standings made by the children of the three grades, first for the grade as a whole, and then for the children of foreign fathers from each grade. On the right of this table is the average for each grade and foreign group.
Taking those making 100% in the test, it will be seen that 20.4% of the children of grade 8, that 33.4% of those of grade 5, and that 12.6%. of those of grade 3 are included. While for the
in Grade III....
foreign group we find approximately 3%. less in each case. Of those receiving 90% in the test we find the foreign groups slightly ahead in grade 5, almost equal to the grade average in grade 8, and nearly 1% behind in grade 3. For the 80% standings the foreigners are slightly ahead in each case. With slight variation the difference in favor of the foreign groups increases as we read toward the lower standings. By the averages shown at the right of this table it will be seen that children of native and foreign fathers together spell 2% better in the 8th grade, 2.3% better in the 5th grade, and 3% better in the 3rd grade than do the children of foreign fathers.
The distribution of these standings may be more easily seen, and the groups more easily compared by reference to Diagram 15. Here it is easily seen that the 3rd grade, more than the others, suffers from the presence of the foreign groups. We will recall that the per cent, foreign is larger in the 3rd than in the 8th grade, and that the Romanic groups are relatively large in the 3rd grade, and that the British groups are relatively large in the 8th grade. In order to see more clearly the effect of this difference in the composition of the foreign groups in these two grades, they were studied by nationalities, and their averages, so grouped, were compared with the averages of their respective grades.
These comparisons are shown in Diagram 16. In each case the grade average is shown by the straight line, with which the averages for the different race groups may be compared. It shows the Portuguese low in both cases. But we have seen that very few Portu-
guese children remain in school throughout the eight grades, hence they do not lower the average for the 8th grade very much. The few Italians who remain through to the 8th grade are superior pupils, but the larger mass of them who start in in the earlier years fall far below the grade average. The Germanic and British groups which we should ordinarily expect to rank well up to the grade average are in. all cases below it in both grades, with the exception of the Austrians, who rank high in grade 3 and very low in grade 8. The Scandinavians vary, the Danes and Norwegians in both cases being low, and the Swedes in both cases high. It is the Swedes, Austrians, and Russians who keep the 3rd grade foreign average up, while these plus the Italians keep the 8th grade foreign average up. Of all the foreign groups, only the French and the few odd Oriental races, grouped as "all others," fail to do better in the 8th than in the 3rd grade. Which means, of course, that it is the better class of foreign children who remain in school through all grades. It must be remembered that children of foreigners are not measured against children of natives alone here, but against the entire grade, which includes themselves. The difference of 2% to 3.1%, therefore, is not the full extent of the difference between children of natives and children of foreigners. A school here which is mainly foreign would likely rank not 2% to 3.1% lower than the city average, but more likely about 5% lower.
INFLUENCE OF HOME LANGUAGE ON SPELLING EFFICIENCY.
Teachers whose classes are made up of children from homes of foreigners frequently complain that they cannot maintain high standards because their pupils are all foreign children. As to whether this is true or not there is little doubt, but the ways in which, and the extent to which it is true, are important questions.
If the foreign child has greater difficulty in getting on in school, is his own mother tongue a handicap? If so, how, and to what extent? If the child hears and speaks no lannguage at home except Italian, or German, do the Italian and German speech habits interfere in the child's attempt to use English? Or does this lack of drill in the use of English at home affect his work in school? Under this general question comes our question here : does this hearing and using a foreign language at home show itself in the types of errors the child will make in spelling? Is there, on the one hand, something characteristically German, or Italian, or French, in his attempts to spell, or is there merely a poverty of knowledge about English, which shows itself in a poorer variety of guesses at how to spell, or is it both, or neither of these?
A certain learned man insists that he became a poor speller of English after having studied French. If French disturbed his English spelling, the opposite may easily be true of foreign children learning English as a foreign language.
If any of the influences suggested above are of consequence therefore, it would be in the early grades. The errors of 2425 4th grade children were used for this study, and classified according to the language spoken in the home by the father and mother. This made 40 different classes of errors for where English and a foreign language were both used that was made a separate group. The number of children from homes in which English was not spoken at all is 474, or about 20%. Including those in which both English and a foreign language are used there are 535, or about 22% of all the children of the grade. Of these foreign languages Portuguese and Italian are the most important and are the only ones treated separately below.
'fhe relative number of errors made by children of foreign and of native parentage is in effect discussed above, but the relative number of different kinds of errors was not mentioned. Table 16 shows these facts for the children of grade 4 by words. In reading this
table we need to keep in mind that there are four children from English speaking homes where one comes from a home where a foreign language is all that is heard.
all that is heard.
First, taking the word "forty," we note that 12 errors were made by children from Portuguese homes, 13 by children from Italian, and 25 by children from other foreign homes, in all 34 dis-
tinct errors were made by children from foreign homes, while 54 were made by children from English speaking homes. That is, the foreign childVen found 34 distinct ways and the English children found 54 distinct ways to misspell the word "forty." Together they found 73 distinct ways. Assuming that these errors are mere guesses, for all but three or four of them are such, as will be seen later, then it appears that 535 foreign children made 34 guesses, while 1780 English children made only 54. But since there is a limit to the number of errors possible, or at least reasonably probable, it is not possible to say which has made relatively the greater variety of guesses. This can be said however, that of the 34 different errors made by the foreign group, 17 of them were made by one or more English speaking pupils as well, while of the 54 made by the English speaking group, there were 37 which were not made by any of the foreign group. Without giving the figures, it may be said that the errors for the other words run about this same way. If there were not some limit to the number of different errors possible, then it would appear that the foreign children furnish a relatively wider variety of guesses than do the English speaking children. But there is such a limit, and so we should not expect the number of different spellings made by the English speaking children to be 4 times the number made by the foreign group. In the variety of errors therefore, it does not appear that the child from a home where no English is spoken is at a special disadvantage. We must also remember here that the children of foreign parents do not spell as well as do the children of native parents.- (see above). Secondly, what is the distribution of these errors for the foreign as compared with the English speaking group? This is revealed by table 17, which shows the three or four most popular spellings for each word as they were made by the different groups of pupils. It will be seen that an error which is popular with one group is usually just as popular with the other groups. Table 16 shows that the total number of errors for the 10 words range from 49 on the word "getting" to 163 on the word "title." All spellings made by at least 1% of any group are included in Table 17. A comparison of the columns of this Table shows the relative popularity of a given error with the different groups. In this Table the correct spelling of each word is followed by the chief errors. The vast number of errors not shown in the table merely means that most of the errors are made by only one or two children, sometimes by a foreign, sometimes by an English speaking child, and very frequently by both.
Referring to the word "forty" in the table, it will be seen that 70.8% of the English, 64.3% of the Portuguese, 61.1%, of the Italian, and 69.5% of all other foreign speaking children spell the word correctly. The most important error, f-o-u-r-t-y, is made by 21.3% of the English, 24.6% of the Portuguese, 27.6%, of the Italian, and 20.8% of all other foreign speaking children. The
next most important error is made by less than 2% of any group and the third most important error is made by less than 1% of any group. A similar examination of the showing for the other words convinces one that children from foreign homes make the same errors as do children from homes where the mother tongue is English, and furthermore, that they make them in approximately the same proportion.
Where an error is -made by not more than one or two children out of so many it is clear that the spelling was only a random guess. To see what proportion of all spelling errors are due to random guessing refer again to the word "forty" in Table 17. First assume that f-o-u-r-t-y, f-o-r-t-h-y, and f-o-u-r-t-h-y, are specially attractive spellings for children to use on this word, that since so many chose these ways there must be something reasonable about them, then we have left 67 other distinct spellings to account for. But on adding the figures in our table for the word "forty" we see that these 67 ways comprise only from approximately 7% to 12% of the children. If from 20.8% to 27.6% of these children all together make only three types of errors on the one hand, and from 7% to 12% make 67 different types of errors on the other, then this seems to argue that these three errors are important and represent attractive lines of incorrect procedure for the child, whereas any one of the 67 others might never be selected since here it has attracted but one or two children.
proportion.
As was pointed out above, children from foreign homes do make errors which are not made by children whose mother tongue is English, but in all cases such errors are made by not more than two or three children, and so by that fact prove themselves not to be errors which are for some reason specially attractive to children of a given nationality, who hear only Italian, or German, or French at home. They are mere random guesses in which the order of letters nowhere seems to have been influenced by habits of speaking, hearing, reading, or writing the foreign home language. Wherever a word does look slightly French, or German, or Italian, it is frequently found that a native child produced the same combination.
So, from this study it appears that the mother tongue, when foreign, offers no handicap due in a peculiar way to the home language. As was shown above, children from foreign homes do not spell as well as do children of natives, but there is here no specific evidence that their home language is responsible for this. The evidence that the difficulty is not in the effect of the home language lies in the fact that there is no noticeable differance — save the slight difference in extent found above — between the errors made by
only a foreign language is spoken.
No effort is made here to classify these errors. Some of those in table 17 are easily accounted for on the basis of incorrect hearing. But whatever affected the native child affected similarly the child of the foreigner, hence we are not concerned with any other sort of analysis of the errors here.
One word may be said however, viz. that when we know that there is one chance in ten that a child will spell "title" t-i-t-t-1-e, then we know one very important thing to fortify the child against when we teach that word. This is just as true for the foreign as for the native child. And a second thing we know is, that there is a fair chance that a child, English as well as foreign, will simply guess at his spelling. We should also fortify with strong habits, dictionary habits in the upper grades, against all guessing.
In this chapter it is not meant to assume that the standings made by the children studied are due exclusively to the social factors considered. These factors are no more cause than they are effect. Just as different occupations attract different individuals so different individuals select different occupations. Technical occupations do not attract people who haven't intelligence enough to enter them, nor do men of unusual ability usually choose to be hodcarriers.
The school wishes to know the material it has to work with. It is as much concerned with differences as with likenesses, because its problem is always with the individual. If the child's contact with the institutional life brings out individual differences which the school ought to be cognizant of, then the school ought to study children with respect to their institutional relationships.
Our study of 2644 children grouped by their fathers' occupations show that children of laborers rank lower in this test than do the children of any of the other groups. The differences between these groups, most of which are not large, may be due to original endowment, or to training, or to both. The point is, they exist, and must be due to something. The school tends to make children uniform in their studies and that means that the school obliterates just such differences as these. Our question is, does it do so by holding the brighter groups down to the speed of the duller groups, or by accepting a lower grade of work from the slower children ?
When the school knows that differences exist, and then knows where those differences are, and how they manifest themselves, its problem then becomes specific in place of general and vague. Such differences are found to exist between the children whose parents are in different occupational groups, between childrn in different
groups according to their occupational ambitions, and between children of native and foreign parents. Not only do we know these differences exist with respect to spelling efficiency, but how great they are.
The responsibility of the school lies in the direction of refining the more minute adjustments of the school to the child, and seeing to it that every child is able and does enjoy his full educational opportunity. The first move is to study the health and attendance records of the children, so that there can be no doubt that the child of the laborer, or the child who wishes to become a nurse or baseball player, or the child of foreign parents is as physically fit, and as infrequently absent, and as adequately equipped with school necessities as are other children. When the school has done this and removed any existing differences of this sort it must accept any further differences as hindrances to proper grading, classification, and group teaching, and must meet them with special provision of separate rooms, assistant teachers, etc., and not permit the slow work of a few pupils to retard the progress of the bright children who ought by all means to be kept busy up to their full capacity for work.
All the results shown in this chapter save those in the last section, show definite differences to exist between children along certain lines. Not only does economy of time in handling these children, but also economy of educational opportunity for the children as well, rest upon knowing what these differences are, their extent, and how they manifest themselves in their school work, and then upon refining the grading, teaching, and grouping of these children to the end that these differences shall not operate as retarding influences upon class progress. This requires careful study by principal, supervisor, and teacher, and constant readjustment. It is not a question that can be permanently settled. Its solution is ever in process, and requires continuous alertness on the part of teacher, supervisor, and principal.
The influence of the home language seems not to be very evident, since the errors made by children of foreign homes are in the main identical with those made by children whose home language is English, and are made in approximately similar proportions. Neither do the errors show by the order of letters any influence of a foreign language. That is, the difference found above between the spelling of children of native and foreign parents seems not to be due to the influence of the foreign mother tongue so far as the number and type of spelling errors could reveal this.
The administration of the subject of spelling has only recently come to be based upon something besides tradition. The erroneous idea that efficiency in spelling consists in being able to spell several thousand uncommon words, and that good teaching of spelling consists in a bare assignment of a long list of words, and later in testing orally or in writing to see whether or not those words have been learned, have in recent years become archaic notions, replaced by the idea that the actual number of words which a child should be able to spell is relatively small, and to be determined by his written, not his speaking and reading vocabularies. In like manner psychology has shown the futility of undirected study, of bare drill, as a method of work for the child.
From these studies of psychological and practical facts, and to some extent from the more modern handling of the cost side of public education, and the demands of the business world, have arisen problems in the administration of spelling, such as : what shall constitute the subject matter of the course, what place shall it occupy in the curriculum and in the daily time schedule, what its relation to other subjects, the grading of the words, the length of lesson assignments, etc. ? In other words, the modern superintendent has an educational policy which is just as well defined and as constructive in respect to spelling and its function in the training of children as it is in respect to the construction of buildings or the purchase of equipment. Such a policy sees spelling not as a separate subject alone, but in its relation to other subjects, as a part of a child's total equipment.
The tendency today is not merely to formulate such a policy and leave it to its fate in the hands of principals, busy with administrative details, but to secure highly trained officers whose special task it is to put that policy into practice by painstaking supervision of the work of teachers.
Oakland is not indefinite with respect to her policy as it affects spelling, nor is she without competent officials through whom to administer that policy. In addition to the printed course of study the writer is indebted to Miss Ida Vandergaw, supervisor of primary work, for a detailed statement of the policy affecting spelling, which policy has been in effect during the past five years in the city's schools. Stated in few words, and without the pedagogical and psychological reasons set forth in the communication, the plan is as follows:
"at the blackboard entirely during the first term, mainly there during the second. Seat work, large free exercises." Reading is taught by a phonetic method and consequently must not be confused by the study of spelling, which deals with letters and their order instead of with sound elements.
In the second year the spelling work aims to develop the habit of noting words as made up of parts : e. g., fishing f-ish-ing. Also the "habit of never guessing" at the spelling of a word. The words studied are "selected mainly from words - asked for during corn-, position lessons." The writing continues as blackboard work, seat work with pencil, with "written spelling and composition on the blackboard." Written composition begins in the second half of the year, and so creates a demand for knowledge of spelling and writing.
The justifications for this policy are clearly stated, and are from the standpoint of psychology and physiology sound. The teaching of reading is the first business of the schools in Oakland, and all other formal work awaits progress in this subject to a certain point.
There are certain important questions to be answered : first, how long will it take to establish control of the mechanics of reading to the point where learning and using the letters in spelling will not interfere with the handling of words from a phonetic approach? Oakland's answer is six weeks less than one school year. Second, How old must a child be, or how long must he have been in school, and what training is needed before he can wisely undertake the physical and mental task of writing? Oakland starts the child to writing during the first year, but requires no written language work before the second half of the second year. That is, a year and a half are spent on some kind of writing exercises before the child is asked to make writing a mode of expressing his thought. Third, How much drill in oral expression should precede work in written expression? Oakland says one and one-half years.
Now, from the experimental knowledge we have, the order of approach, and the reasons offered for that order, are entirely sound. The question of speed is not yet so fully settled. It is one thing to say that the procedure should be first in terms of the coarser adjustments, and quite a different thing to say how fast training in the coarser adjustments shall take place, and how far it must have proceeded before training in the finer adjustments can wisely begin. The difficulty lies, not in stating the general principles, but in stating the rate at which the different steps in the training may succeed each other. Oakland demands serious work on the ordinary penmanship controls at the age of seven and one-half years. That is, penmanship as a mode of expression has waited for this length of time the development of finer muscular and visual co-ordinations on the physical side, and the development of facility in oral expression and a legitimate motive on the intellectual side, while spelling has awaited the development of some writing controls, of facility in oral
THE ADMINISTRATION AND TEACHING OF SPELLING 63
expression, and knowledge and skill in the phonetic approach to reading. All this is good order, and not much by way of achievement in writing and spelling during the first two years is expected. In the light of -this test that for spelling is lower than has been attained in other cities.
Contrary to this plan of deferring the teaching of penmanship till there is occasion to use it for expression purposes, and consequently of spelling until need through writing exists for it, we see the Montesorri system beginning both of these subjects during kindergarten age, carefully creating motive, and getting results. But aside from this as an extreme, there is no doubt that the traditional practice in American cities has been to undertake both formal spelling and formal writing before the end of the first year. That is, Oakland has definitely and purposely departed from the traditional practice in this particular, and has thus far justified the procedure on theoretical grounds, and upon the assumption that superior work in oral expression has been accomplished.
This policy has been in operation for five years, and, as shown in chapter 2, the schools stand very low in spelling in grades 2 and 3, possibly as a result. This must be offset by gain somewhere, else an added spelling burden is unnecessarily being placed upon the grades above these. As stated in chapter 2, mere opinion is not an absolute guarantee of this, and steps should be taken to make quantitative statement of this supposed gain in oral expression by use of such measures as the Thorndike and Courtis reading and word test.
As stated above, no fault can be found with the order of procedure followed in Oakland (assuming that the policy is really being carried out), but until it is shown that the supposed gain in oral language and dramatics is a real one, the policy cannot fully recommend itself to the more conservative school public in point of time for beginning formal school work in writing and spelling. Not having looked for evidence one way or the other, the writer has no reason for supposing that such gain is not an actual one, but if so, it is all the more important that we should know about it. It is true that the sooner penmanship is mastered the sooner a child will •make use of it as a mode of expression, and so necessitate work in spelling. This must not go so far forward in the course as to confuse the child in his work in phonetics, nor in such intensity as to become hygienically objectionable. On the other hand, just because these subjects are 'formal, they need not be taught as abstract material, and so on that account deferred till the child is more mature.
If the time for beginning the formal subjects depends upon maturity we must remember, first, that chronological age does not fairly indicate intellectual maturity, that every entering class, according to the Binet tests, contains children both older and younger mentally than six years. That is, in practice, maturity is not after all made the basis for classifying children as they enter school.
School practice will make use of mental maturity as a basis for classifying children when a means for determining maturity is perfected, but till then, we must not set too much store by the assumption that a given child is too young for certain work because he is but six years old. While we must defer formal school work till it can be properly motivated, we must not fail also to look into the possibilities of developing motive as early as possible.
In other words, when to begin this or that study is as yet largely a matter of opinion, and only controlled practice will give us final answer. It is noteworthy, that cities are making their procedure more and more definite, and it is to be hoped that what Oakland has done by way of a slight break, not entirely exceptional, to be sure, with the traditional procedure, may help to solve the question. We know that the anticipated effect of this on spelling has been realized, but we do not know the extent to which the anticipated effect on oral English, dramatics, etc., has resulted, and this Oakland is obligated to inquire into. It is the writer's opinion that when the results are known, the policy will in general commend itself. Its enforcement will require more careful supervision, for the reason that not only are results in content work for these years more difficult to measure and check up, but because the material to be taught is less definite, and the methods demand a higher degree of teaching skill.
It has been said repeatedly, on the basis of some investigation, that there is little correlation between the amount of time used for the teaching of spelling, and the degree of efficiency attained in that subject. The following is an attempt to test that statement for the schools of Oakland, and to furnish the reader with the facts as they appear. One difficulty in passing final judgment, is that the degree of efficiency shown in any test is not the result of the work of one year, and since the time allotment varies widely between classes, often in the same school, we have no way of knowing whether the time which is being given to spelling by a given class this year is equal to, greater, or less than the amount used by that class the year preceding. It is true in general, however, that, excepting grades 7 and 8, there is not a wide difference in the time allotment for the different grades. By using a large number of classes, therefore, we should be able to find the general tendency toward such correlation, if any exists.
The actual amount of time set apart for the study and recitation of spelling in the different classes and grades is presented in table 18, which shows on the right, the average number of minutes per week, and the per cent, of total school time devoted to this subject.
spelling lessons, with an average in all grades of 60 minutes per week, which equals 4.69 per cent, of the total school time. As between grades, the range is from 43 to 67 minutes on the average.
As to recitation time, the range between classes is from 10 to 110 minutes per week, with an average in all grades of 49 minutes, and a range between grade averages of from 38 to 55 minutes per week.
Taking all the classes which reported both items, we find that from 25 to 200 minutes per week is devoted to spelling by different classes, that the average time is 103 minutes, or 8.52 per cent, of total school time, with a range between grades of from 82 to 118 minutes.
If we are not surprised at this wide range in time allotments, we must at least be surprised to find that grade 2 actually spends a larger percentage of its time on spelling than is spent by any other grade, and that the 3rd grade comes next. The 2nd grade spends on an average more minutes per week in preparing spelling lessons than are spent by any other grade.
It may be interesting to arrange the grades in order, first of the per cent, of time spent per week, and second in order of their rank an the test. Placing those which rank highest first, they are as follows :
a negative sort.
If this amount of time was given to spelling in the last six weeks of grade 1, then, when grade 2 took the test, the A division had had approximately 18 weeks of work with an average of 101 minutes per week spent on the subject, while the B division had had one semester more than this. From which it appears that after all, the children are receiving quite substantial training in spelling before they need it in their composition work, which in the third year is partly written.
This appears to show that the standard set by this test, based on actual achievement in nearly 100 cities, is too high to be attained by a class which has had but 18 weeks' work in spelling, and that it can be attained by children who have had approximately one year of work (the upper half of grade 2, with 1 semester plus 18 weeks of work, made an average of 69 per cent., the standard being 70 per cent.).
Certainly 8 :52 per cent, of a child's second year in school is enough, in fact more than enough, to spend on the single subject of spelling. If spelling does begin a little late in the Oakland schools, it begins very much in earnest when the time comes for it.
appears that 30, 50, and 75 minutes per week for recitation; 50, 60, and 75 minutes for study, and 100, 125, and 150 minutes per week for both are the most popular plans of time allotment.
TIME ALLOTMENT COMPARED WITH THAT IN USE IN OTHER CITIES.
But two of the ten cities for which data was available devote a larger percentage of their total school time to spelling than does Oakland, as is shown in table 20. The extreme range among
classes in Salt Lake City is from 30 to 300 minutes per week, while for Oakland it is from 25 to 200 minutes per week. Some variability between grades, and between schools is of course necessary, but it does not seem possible that 200 minutes per week, which is over 16 per cent, of the entire school time, could be used to advantage in the teaching of spelling. Such studies as have been made of this subject, make it doubtful whether more than 15 minutes per day should be used for spelling. For Oakland that would be slightly over 6 per cent, of her entire school time, which would place her about half way between the extremes represented by the ten cities cited above. A reduction of time so that it will not exceed 100 minutes should certainly be recommended for the schools of Oakland.
RELATION OF TIME CONSUMED TO ACHIEVEMENT IN THE TEST.
Records for ten 8th grade, 15 6th grade and 14 3rd grade classes from 16 different schools were examined with a view to showing the relation between the amount of time the class is using for spelling and the average score attained by the class in this test. (B or A.B. classes were used because they have followed these time schedules for the past half year at least.) These records are shown in table 21 which presents the average scores for the classes, arranged in descending order by grades, and the score for each class in the adjoining column.
In grade 8 the class using the least amount of time made next to the highest score. Similarly in the other two grades there is no apparent influence of large and small amounts of time. Diagram
18 presents the records of these 39 classes graphically, from which it is evident that classes which use the most time do not receive correspondingly high scores. In fact if this curve were smoothed out, it would be approximately parallel with the base line, which means that there is no correlation either positive or negative between the two sets of facts.
Whether this proves anything or not it represents a cross section view of the situation as it is, and suggests that it would be worth while for some school — all schools for that matter — to establish a definite time schedule, say approximately 75 minutes per week, with less in grades 2 and 3, and maintain that schedule for a number of years, keeping careful record by standardized tests of the progress made from grade to grade. There is no amount of theorizing, or single studies such as the above, which can ever take the place of such controlled experiment as is here suggested. Such a carefully controlled study is a legitimate experiment to make in a school and the principal is the one with the best opportunities to make it and report the results. This does not argue that every school could wisely use the allotment best suited to one given school, but one such time schedule interpreted in terms of the results produced through a series of years would be a definite basis from which other schools and other cities might find appropriate standards. It is folly to use 200 minutes if 60 or 75 minutes will give the same results.
With the development of scales for measuring- spelling efficiency we need to proceed to the task of standardizing the time allotment, the content, both as a whole and by grades, and the teaching of the subject.
CONTENT OF THE COURSE IN SPELLING.
In the information blank filled out by teachers, inquiry was made as to the sources from which spelling content is secured. From the replies to these questions it is clear that practically no teacher depends solely upon a spelling text. Perhaps in all a half dozen teachers do not go outside of a speller for word lists. In almost every case teachers are correlating the spelling with other subjects. The nature of this correlation is indicated by table 22, which shows the chief sources from which spelling lists are made up, and the number of teachers in each grade who draw upon these sources.
All written work....
Other sources such as words used in conversations, words from street signs, names of things in common use in the kitchen, schoolroom, etc., were mentioned, which means that various types of individual and class lists are collected and made use of. This is an excellent practice, and could well be extended to the point of trying to work out standard grade lists of words which are regularly found to be troublesome words. Judging from lists of words which teachers prepared for examination purposes in spelling, these sources were drawn upon rather liberally. There is danger in laying" too much emphasis upon technical terms from other subjects. There were in the lists referred to here a number of geographical and physiological terms which children, or adults either, will rarely use.
LENGTH OF LESSON ASSIGNMENT.
In late years the tendency to devote less and less time to the formal study of spelling- has been accompanied by a similar tendency in regard to the number of words assigned per lesson.
Average
The range in number is extremely wide, varying from 3 to 50. and running as high as 20 in grade 2. The average for the different grades, as shown at the bottom of this table, varies, but it is safe to say that in the light of the best practice, all the averages are too high. There are two separate tasks for the teacher, one is teaching and the other is testing. These processes should not be confused for neither will do the work of the other. An occasional test, covering a list of 20 or, rarely, 50 words may be desirable, but should be regarded only as a means of discovering whether or not the previous teaching of those words has been effective. From the length of lists indicated here but two possible conclusions can be
drawn, either there is little teaching- and much testing of spelling, or else the assignments include many words already familiar to the class. The latter is useless and time consuming, and the former is extremely bad pedagogically. This table does not include the number presented as review words.
METHODS AND DEVICES IN USE IN THE TEACHING OF SPELLING.
A part of the information which teachers were asked to give was a brief description of the methods and devices they are now using in the teaching" of spelling. Many of the answers were very full and clear statements of procedure which is based on the best pedagogical theory. A few, however, were brief statements of the traditional ideas of bare assignment, followed by an oral or written test.
To summarize these replies will of course necessitate much abbreviation, but ii is thought that such a condensed statement of how a city teaches its children to spell may have some value. It would seem from a review of these replies, that every conceivable device is in use in some school.
A few quotations from the replies of 2nd grade teachers will show effectively how spelling is being taught in that grade. From these we have the following, which are fully typical of the 37 replies from grade 2 :
3. "All study and recitation is done with the words on the blackboard. After studying the words, pointing out the parts known (phonetic groups, consonants, etc.) and how they resemble or differ from words known, the children spell orally, or write individually the word. They are never allowed to guess, if not sure, look at the model, but all try to see who can be the first to spell correctly without referring to board. As these words occur in reading, writing or language they are also spelled."
4. "New words examined for parts known. Especial study of parts unknown. Writing words in air. On desk. On board. Finding words with known parts in reader."
sentences." Others try to get incorrectly spelled words out of sight as quickly as possible ; have but one word on the board at a time ; have all pronounce correctly as they look at the word ; in testing, have all who can spell the words raise hands — others not permitted to write till more teaching is done on that word; mark phonetic parts or silent letters with colored chalk ; refer to the "u" in four, the "igh" in high, etc. as the keys which unlock these words; and systematic review of every word daily, weekly, and monthly, are other ideas brought out in the second grade replies.
tion the following are typical:
1. "The words each child has missed the day before are given to him. He writes them on the board or on paper, or studies them silently. Each day I review the words most often misspelled."
3. "I have had printed a list of somewhat more than 200 words and phrases in which they are required to be absolutely correct if these words are used in composition. List on good board in their seats." (Does not tell how these words are taught.)
Other ideas, such as having the list of words for the lesson memorized, keeping a spelling record, contests, collecting individual and class lists, and copying misspelled words into individual note books are frequently mentioned.
Again in the 4th grade practically all the above ideas enter with some reference to drill, and to the developments of rules for spelling some words. In grade 5 some are making use of the dictionary, one says "cultivating the habit of noticing the spelling of new words encountered in reading," another: "I make sentences to emphasize difficulties as, he ate a piece of pie on the pier." Many have the children use the spelling words in sentences.
sis, drill, and some on diacritical marks.
To show how generally these methods and devices are used the following rough tabulation is presented for grades 3 to 8 from which it is clear that nearly every teacher, of the 286 reporting, had ideas that were possible to classify under one or more of the headings used. Naturally in the brief space, many did not mention every feature of their work. Certainly written spelling is more common in the upper than in the lower grades, but from this table it does not appear so. Such a common practice would likely be taken for granted. Aside from this the table is suggestive. Oral spelling
Total No. of replies....
gradually decreases in amount from the lower to the upper grades, tracing the word in air or on desk disappears by grade 6, detailed study of word by syllables decreases similarly, and use of rules receives little attention even in upper grades.
From these replies, really wooden teaching is conspicuously wanting though in cases bare study and drill are still believed in. These few, it must be said, are greatly in the minority, and they should realize that while the old idea of bare drill under pressure of "get these words or remain after school and write them a hundred times" will get results it will rarely get permanent results, and that such teaching is a lazy way of dodging responsibility which too often leads the child to dislike spelling, and school in general, instead of disliking his teacher with her mediaeval equipment, as he really should do.
In the replies there is little effort to distinguish methods from devices. It is true that the line between the two is hard to draw, for some devices may be applied in a variety of cases. The principle underlying the nature and use of each device is clearly a detail in the statement of the relation of the child's mind to the subject matter in question, which is a statement of detail in what has come to be termed special method. Device is a term used to indicate the special plan or set of conditions under which, or objects by which,
that principle is permitted to work. "Colored chalk" is a device when used in directing attention to a certain difficult part of a word, so also is the underlining of "ie," in chief, in order to focus the attention of the child upon the probable difficulty he will meet in trying to spell that word. Method is the process by which experience (it maybe spelling a given word) is accumulated. It is the way the mind or body acts in achieving an end, while devices are means or instruments whereby that process is facilitated.
It may be that for the classroom teacher a technical use of these terms is unimportant, but if a knowledge of their meaning would obviate the too frequent assumption that a given device, a mere incident in instruction, is of fundamental importance in all classes and subjects, it would be worth while to understand them.
There is of course much in these replies that does not come out in this brief space, most of which goes further to show that individuality plays a large part in matters of detail, but that spelling is really taught and really studied intelligently. Most of the teachers who use the word "concentration" and "drill" make it clear that these are made effective by proper direction.
to other subjects.
Similarly there can be no theoretical exception taken to the time for beginning this subject, which the schools are following, though the practical arguments that it should begin earlier are found in the poor results of the test in grades 2 and 3. To this objection it must first be said ; that it applies to the lower divisions of these grades only, and that from grade 3B on there are no evidences of either poor foundation work or low spelling efficiency. It is of course not evident whether these later achievements are or are not at the expense of other subjects. Opinion that they are would be offset by opinion that equal or greater gain is obtained in the earlier years when formal training is more difficult and trying for the child.
The point is, there is little but opinion as yet upon which to base a decision as to the best time for beginning spelling, or any other subject. The tendency today is distinctly in the direction of deferring the formal work in number, writing and spelling, giving the first and in many of the better schools, a large share of the second year to reading, oral expression and dramatization. Psychology and physiology sanction, and tradition opposes this tendency. There is doubtless a best time to begin spelling, and our hope of finding that time lies in the growing tendency to give quantitative statement to the results of all teaching. Oakland's best proof that more good than harm comes from their present plan lies in showing superior
As to the amount of time given to spelling, the present practice needs revision in the direction of less rather than more. Spelling in the 7th and 8th grades should be carefully watched by teachers and much incidental work on the subject should be done, such as having children make lists of their own misspelled words wherever they are found in written work. But the amount of formal class attention to the subject should be small. Any evidence we have here, and that from other investigations, tends to show that much time is wasted on spelling. Fifteen minutes a day has come to be regarded as the maximum amount.
Lesson assignments need to be materially shortened in all grades. At the rate of 2 new .words a day from the 2nd grade through the 8th, the school would provide a child with something like 2800 words. If this number were gradually increased through the grades from 2 to 8 or 10 for the 8th grade, the child would leave school equipped with more words by far than a large percentage of children would ever have use for.
In method there is much to commend, and the only suggestion is that present practice should be backed up by a wider reading knowledge than is evident in the replies to the question bearing upon the literature on the subject.
| 30,540 | common-pile/pre_1929_books_filtered | spellingefficien00searrich | public_library | public_library_1929_dolma-0002.json.gz:356 | https://archive.org/download/spellingefficien00searrich/spellingefficien00searrich_djvu.txt |
IClXuaowe7f_tmBz | 2.3: Vocabulario- Enfermedad y salud | 2.3: Vocabulario- Enfermedad y salud
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Objetivos
Recognize vocabulary related to illness and health
Enfermedad y salud
Condiciones físicas y psicológicas de cuidado
Otras palabras
[reveal-answer q=”395645″]Text only[/reveal-answer]
[hidden-answer a=”395645″]
Emfermedad y salud
Las enfermedades comunes y condiciones delicadas de salud del diario vivir
- la gripa o la gripe (flu)
- la tos (cough)
- la fiebre (fever)
- la infección (infection)
- el golpe (The hit)
- la hinchazón (swelling)
- la raspadura (scrape)
- la herida (wound)
- la alergia (allergy)
- el dolor de estómago (stomach pain)
- la cicatriz (scar)
- Algunos verbos usados en el tema de la salud.
- romperse un hueso (break a bone)
- torcerse un músculo/un tendón (strain a muscle/tendon)
- lastimarse (to injure oneself)
- desmayarse (to faint)
- toser (to cough)
- recuperarse (to recuperate)
- doler (o < ue) (to hurt; similar usage as “gustar”, e.g. A José le duelen los pies = José’s feet hurt.)
Condiciones físicas y psicológicas de cuidado
- estar embarazada (be pregnant)
- tener síntomas de… (have symptoms of…)
- tener un dolor de muela (to have a toothache)
- estar mareado/a (to be dizzy)
En el consultorio médico y las emergencias en el hospital
- el ataque al corazón (heart attack)
- la silla de ruedas (wheelchair)
- la receta médica (prescription)
- la vacuna (vaccine)
- el antibiótico (antibiotic)
- la pastilla (pills)
- el grado de temperatura (degree of temperature)
- el cirujano/ la cirujana (surgeon)
- el especialista (specialist)
- el enfermero / la enfermera (nurse)
Otras palabras
- la sangre (blood)
- el seguro de salud (health insurance)
[/hidden-answer]
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7iZXAj857ZtaPDEZ | Reports on the swamp lands of North Carolina, belonging to the State board of education. | PREFACE.
Frequent applications to this office for information in reference to the “Swamp Lands” of the State, the title to which is, by statute, vested in the State Board of Education for educational purposes; the absence of such information in print and of easy reference, and the desire to give all the facts attainable in reference to said lands that they may be¬ come available as a source of revenue to the public school fund, lead me to publish this pamphlet, the contents of which embrace the “Reports on the Swamp Lands of the State ” made to Governor Worth in 1867 by Prof. W. C. Kerr, State Geologist, and by WAlter Gwynn and Gen. W. G. Lewis, Agents of the State Board of Education for the “Swamp Lands”; and by Thos H. Allen, Surveyor to the State Board of Education in 1869.
Governor of North Carolina :
Sir: — In accordance with your directions, I have exam¬ ined all the sources of information accessible to me, on the subject of the Swamp Lands, and have the honor to submit the following report :
The first suggestion which appears on record in regard to the improvement of the Swamp Lands, was made by Judge Murphy in his well known “ Memoir on the Internal Im¬ provement of North Carolina,” in 1819. The first action was taken on the subject in 1822, by the passage of a law prohibiting the entry of such lands, with a view to “ ascer¬ tain what lands of that description yet belonged to the State, their probable extent, and the cost of draining them.” In carrying out this purpose, the Board of Internal Improve¬ ment “ instructed the civil engineer, Mr. Fulton, to cause surveys to be made of the several swamps and marshes.” A report was made by Mr. Fulton, in 1823, on White and Brown marshes in Columbus county, but on account of the multiplicity of works of internal improvements then in progress requiring the supervision of the State Engineer, the matter seems to have rested here until 1826, when an¬ other act of Assembly was passed, requiring “ That the Board of Internal Improvement shall cause to be surveyed one or more of the large swamps or marshes, and to determine
Report on the Swamp Lands.
whether it be practicable to drain either or all of them, the probable cost of such drainage, the quality of the land that, by such drainage, will be reclaimed for cultivation, and the quantity of vacant land, as nearly as can be ascertained, and to report whether the proprietors of such lands gener¬ ally be willing to contribute a reasonable proportion of the cost of such drainage”; and they are “authorized to raise by way of lottery $50,000 to carry into effect these pro¬ visions.”
Accordingly, Mr. Nash, State Engineer, assisted by Mr. Brazin, made a survey of most of the lands and reported in detail. This report, made in 1827, represents that “ nearty all” of them are of excellent quality, “susceptible of cultivation,” and easily drained ; and estimates their quan • tity, conjecturally, at 1,500,000 acres. The Board, however, failed to raise, in the manner prescribed, the necessary funds to proceed with the drainage. In their report for that year they call attention to the difficulty of ascertaining what lands were subject to entry and state their “ belief that there are in various parts of the State a number of valuable swamps which have not yet come to their knowledge,” and suggests further legislation on the subject.
Although the law constituting the Literary Board and vesting in them the title to the Swamp Lands was passed in 1825, the improvement of these lands was still left in the hands of the Board of Internal Improvement, until 1833; when the former board made their first report on the subject. In that report, after reviewing and endorsing the opinions of Mr. Nasii and of former boards as to the great value of these lands, they report a suggestion made by the Board of Internal Improvement in 1827, that Matamuskeet lake be selected for an experiment, in drainage, on account chiefly of the supposed extent and value of “ the lands which would be laid dry at the bottom of the lake ” (estimated at “ 00,000 acres and very rich ”) and the facility and cheapness with which its drainage could be effected.
W. C. Kerr, State Geologist.
These suggestions and those of the Board of 1827 were repeated in several successive biennial reports without re¬ sult. In 1835 the committee on Education report adversely on the question of making an appropriation to drain any of the Swamp Lands, “ deeming it highly important to be first informed, not only as to the costs of drainage and the quantity of land to be reclaimed,” but also “ whether indi¬ vidual proprietors or the Literary Fund” would be most benefited “by the particular works to be undertaken.”
In 1837, however, the subject was taken up de novo, and the Literary Board was remodeled and clothed with the necessary authority to meet and overcome all the difficulties which had rendered' fruitless every former effort to utilize this vast property. They were expressly “invested with all powers and authority necessary and proper for reclaiming the swamp lands of this State and for obliging the owners of any part of said land to contribute an equitable share of the expenses, whenever such owners are benefited b}7 the works of the company ;” and it was further required as had been repeatedly suggested by the different boards in former reports, “ that all grants and deeds for Ssvamp Lands, hereto¬ fore made, shall be proved and registered in the county where such lands are situate, within twelve months ” upon penalty of forfeiture ; and $200,000 were appropriated to the use of the Board, in carrying out these provisions.
Under this act, the Board was reorganized in March of' the same year and proceeded to appoint an engineer, C. B. Shaw, with “ instructions to organize a corps of surveyors and assistants,” and to commence operations in Hyde county. Their reasons for beginning here, in addition to those which have been mentioned as urged by the Board of- Internal Improvement in 1827, are given in their report the follow¬ ing year, 1828, [38?] They observe “ that their first duty was to inquire and determine what lands were owned by the State, entertaining the belief that large bodies had been entered by individuals and the grants thereon were pur-
posely withheld from registration ; this inquiry could not be satisfactoril}’ prosecuted until after the expiration of the twelve months allowed by the act of the last session.
It was ascertained, however, that the county of Hyde did contain a large body, the unquestioned property of the State, believed to be fertile and susceptible of drainage, and on which a fair and thorough experiment might be made.” A special act had also been passed appropriating $8,000 for the drainage of Mattamuskeet lake. This last work was completed in 1835 by digging a canal, seven miles long, from the lake to Ysocking creek ; by which a reduction of three and a half feet in the level of the lake surface was effected.
The works for the drainage of Pungo and Alligator lakes were also commenced, and the main canals from these lakes to Pungo river were located. Mr. Shaw having resigned, Maj. Gwynn took charge in 1S39, and completed the works in 1842, at “ an expense of more than $170,000.” Maj. Gwynn, in his report to the Board in 1840, estimated the number of acres drained by these works at over 60,000, and considered them “ unequalled in fertility’’, by any lands in the State,” worth at least $6.00 per acre, making an aggre¬ gate of over $360,000 for this single tract. The best of these lands, lying on the canal and lake, were offered for sale in 1841, but, the Board report, “ for some reason, very few per¬ sons attended and no bids were made.” In their report for 1842 they call the attention of the Legislature to certain claimants under old titles, “ who have defrauded the State by failing to list their lands for taxation for years together,” and state that most of the Swamp Lands were in this con¬ dition, and also complain of the difficulty of ejecting squat¬ ters, who generally hold under some ancient grant by the State, and they ask further legislation on these points. Ac¬ cordingly another act of Assembly was passed, January 21, 1843, which provided “ that any person, or persons, who have heretofore, at any time, obtained a grant or grants from the
State for any Swamp Lands in this State, and who have not regularly listed the same for taxation and paid the taxes due thereon, shall lose all right, title, and interest in the said Swamp Lands,” unless payment shall be made within twelve months of all arrearages of taxes ; and also “ that in all suits at law for any Swamp Lands in this State, to which the Lit¬ erary Board shall be a party, the title to said land shall be deemed to be in said Board ” until the other party shall “show a good and valid title.”
During the same year, a joint select committee being raised for the purpose of “inquiring into the value of the Swamp Lands in Hyde county, reclaimed by the Board, the manner in which the money appropriated for that purpose had been expended, and the propriety of continuing the works in said lands,” and of “ making a road from the re¬ claimed lands in Pungo to the Highlands of Washington county,” after an investigation by three men of their selec¬ tion' “judges of land,” “ living in the vicinity of the public, works,” reported very favorably of the work done and of the character of the land reclaimed, — that about 65,000 acres have been drained, of which “10,000 are equal to the most fertile lands on the globe, worth in the worst times $10.00 to $15.00 per acre, and that in the end the State will have no cause to regret the experiment,” “yet thej^ deem it inex¬ pedient at this time to commence any new work.”
During the next ten years after the completion of the drainage of the Pungo swamp, the Board were occupied in fruitless efforts to effect a sale of the reclaimed lands, and in controversies with trespassers and various claimants under old titles that were supposed to have been extinguished by the acts of 1837 and 1843. In 1850 these laws providing for the forfeiture of titles for non-registration and for non¬ payment of taxes were declared “applicable to such Swamp Lands only as had been surveyed or taken possession of by the Board.” In their report for this year, they describe an attempt which had been made in 1849 to sell out the drained
lands at auction, which resulted, after extensive public notice of the time and place of sale, with description of canals and lands, notwithstanding the personal attendance of the Board and the most favorable inducements offered, in the way of long credits, &c., resulted in the sale of a “few sections val¬ uable for Juniper timber,” but “ at such prices as compelled the Board to stop the sale.”
In 1852, the Board, having resumed the work of improv¬ ing the swamp lands, in compliance with the directions of the General Assembly, report that as “ it was made their duty to inquire into the practicability of draining the Open Ground Prairie in Carteret county,” and $5,000 were appro¬ priated for that purpose, “ should the Board deem it advan¬ tageous to do so;” “some of the members of the Board having visited these lands, and after an examination of them by Prof. Emmons and a favorable report thereon by him, the Board determined to proceed in the work of draining.” This tract had been reported upon very favorably by both the engineers who had surveyed it, Mr. Nash and Maj. Gwjmn. The work was accordingly put under contract, and its comple¬ tion was announced in 1855. It consisted of a canal eight miles in length from Ward’s creek to the highest part of the Open Ground and transverse ditches at this point to drain a square mile. These lands were immediately advertised, aud a “ portion of them offered for sale at a reduced price with a view to having the same tested for agricultural purposes,” but no sales were effected. (The Board afterwards (18511) disposed of 2,000 acres, with the privilege of selection, at twenty-five cents per acre). A road from the Pungo lands to the Long Acre road, Washington county, which had been commenced several years previously, under the auspices of the Board, was also completed in 1855, at a cost of nearly $10,000. This road was constructed by order of the General Assembly for the purpose of making the reclaimed lands more accessible to purchasers and facilitating their sale.
other things, to “ prepare a statement of each tract of land owned by the Board, its location, quantity, as well as ascer¬ tained and probable value, distinguishing between those tracts, the title to which is doubtful or good.” Mr. G. J„ Cherry, of Washington county, having been appointed for this purpose, found great difficulty in executing his task, and the following year the Board report that “ it has been found impossible for Mr. Cherry to perform all the duties required of him, save at an expense greater than the value of the land.” They also report that a Mr. Keeling, who had purchased of the Board in 1849 a piece of land on Pungo, having “ entered upon it and proceeded to get up the tim¬ ber, an action of trespass was brought against him by the Albemarle Swamp Land Company, claiming under grants of an old date, issued by the State.” “From such informa¬ tion as the Board has upon the subject,” says the report further, “these grants, if they can be successfully located,” will “ cover a large portion of the land claimed by the Board.” “Our predecessors therefore employed counsel to aid in the defence of the said suit. Owing to difficulties and delays in procuring a trial, the whole matter was re¬ ferred to Hon. Thomas Ruffin, late Chief Justice of the State. It has been argued before him by counsel but as yet he has not announced his decision.” “ It was agreed that either party might appeal from the decision of the referee, and it is probable, therefore, that the case will go to the Su¬ preme Court.”
The last published report of the Literary Board, bearing date 1860, has this general statement : “ The Swamp Lands belonging to the Literary Fund, though believed to be of great value, have for many years past yielded but an incon¬ siderable revenue, not enough indeed to pay the expenses of agents to look after them and prevent trespassers upon them.”
Thus it appears that about 40 years have elapsed since the improvement of the Swamp Lands was commenced, and more than $200,000 have been expended in surveys, canals;
and roads for this purpose. And yet, notwithstanding the high reputation of these lands, the almost uniformly favor¬ able opinion which has been given of them by successive Boards, legislative committees and engineers, and the san¬ guine expectations which have been so long indulged in re¬ gard to them, the Board have not been able, after repeated and most strenuous efforts and the dissemination far and wide of advertisements and favorable reports, to realize enough to defray the current expenses incurred in the care and man¬ agement of them ; and it is to be remembered that the larger part of the small income derived by the Board from this source has arisen from .the sale of unimproved Swamp Lands, very few sections of the “drained lands” having been disposed of, and those chiefly for the timber and at a price frequently less than the cost of their drainage ; — this result, instead of an income of §150,000, as anticipated by the president of the Boa.rd in 183S, instead of ready sales at 86, §10, §15, and §50 per acre as so often and so confidently predicted.
The question presses, what is the explanation of this so unexpected and most unsatisfactory result? It must be sought in the facts of the case and of the record.
It is Important to remember, in this connection, two or three circumstances likely to be overlooked. In the first place, although these lands through which canals were cut, are generally spoken of as “ drained lands,” they are not so in fact. The channels of the creeks which make up into these swamps were carried by the canals to connect with the lakes which occupy their highest and central parts, so as to reduce the waters of these lakes three or four feet, and thus furnish a channel way to carry off the water from the subor¬ dinate farm ditches. The land is not actually drained but its drainage is rendered practicable. Some single farms on Mattamuskeet have probably cost more to drain them, after the construction of the main canals, than the seven mile canal made by the State for the drainage of that lake. Another
unfavorable circumstance is the difficulty of access to this species of land. The Board has expended more than $ 12,000 at different periods, in the construction of roads to the Pungo tract, and still it is difficult of access, both by land and water. And so are the so-called drained lands of Car¬ teret. A third circumstance which has operated against the sale of these lands, at least in the case of strangers, is the supposed insalubrity of the swamp region generally.
The controlling, efficient causes, however, to which it is necessary to ascribe the signal failure of all attempts to make these lands available for the purposes of revenue, are un¬ questionably to be sought in the character of the titles and of the soil. It is not certain that the Board holds a single acre of these lands by an undoubted title. It may be profit¬ able to recapitulate, in order to bring into one view the facts bearing on this point. Mr. Nash, who, it will be re¬ membered, first undertook the investigation of this subject under the act of 1827, reported to the Board of Internal Improvement “There are no means at present of ascertain¬ ing the quantity of vacant land owned by the State. Many large tracts, the property of individuals, have been trans¬ ferred from the original patentees by sale, inheritance or otherwise, and the owners at this day are not easily found.” And in reporting a surve}7 which he had made of “a large territory about the Dismal Swamp Canal,” he says, “these lands were supposed to be the property of the State,” “but various persons in this section informed me that these lands were surveyed and patented at an early period previous to the Revolution, &c.” “ Under these circumstances it has been thought best to make no report on them until measures shall be taken to ascertain whether the State has any interest in them.” Of the Bay river tract, after estimating its area at over 40,000 acres, he adds in a note, “Some dormant titles have since been discovered to a part of this tract.” And in reference to those large bodies of Swamp Land lying in Car¬ teret, Onslow and Jones, containing an aggregate of more than 180,000 acres, he says, “ the whole were patented by
Dayid Allison, but have since reverted for non-payment of taxes,” and Mr. Brazin, his assistant, has the same remark about Big Swamp in Robeson county. This reversion, we shall see, is more than doubtful. In their report for 1842, the Literary Board state “ that most of the Swamp Lands of this State were granted away, years ago, to individuals and companies in very large surve}Ts,” and that “ these claimants had abandoned the lands or their titles,” and failed to pay taxes, &c. Under this description they would include no doubt such grants as the following, which will be found registered in the land office, viz : 195, 840 acres to J. Hall
on Pungo ; 170, 120 acres to three parties in Brunswick, in¬ cluding Green Swamp, and several hundred grants to D. Allison, above mentioned, amounting to more than 1,000,000 acres, — all of which were issued about 1794-’9o.
In 1835 the Committee on Education report: “Your committee have no means of certifying what portion of the Swamp Lands are claimed by such titles. This can only be partially ascertained by surveys and examinations of the Register’s books in the counties in which they are situate.”
In the report of the Board for 1846, occurs this statement : “ An agent of certain persons in Pennsylvania, styling themselves the North American Land Company, submitted to the Board claims of title to a large part of the Hyde county lands,” and proposed a compromise of their claims. This being declined by the Board, “ he declared his intention to bring suit in the Federal Court, as soon as the Board should have a tenant in possession.” It does not appear what be¬ come of this claim. In 1849 originated the controversy with the Albemarle Swamp Land Company, involving, the Board observe, “ their title to a large portion of the land now and heretofore claimed by them.” This is also unsettled. And these two claims cover that part of the Swamp Lands, of which the Board had spoken in 1838 as“ the unquestioned property of the State,” and which was, for that reason, se¬ lected for the great experiment.
In the report of the Board for 1856, it is stated, that “ our system of granting iands to every applicant, prior to the transfer of the Swamp Lands to the Literary Fund, and the confusion in locating grants, which have generally issued for Swamp Lands without any actual survey, render it im¬ possible for any man to determine whether the title of the Board is clear or not to any piece of land.”
In 1857 a claim was preferred by certain parties, profes¬ sing to have, purchased of the estate of David Allison, the title to the Swamp Lands claimed by the Board in Carteret and Craven, and a proposition made to them “ to make up a case and submit it to the Supreme Court.” The whole matter was referred to Mr. B. F. Moore, counsel of the Literary Board. And it may be mentioned here, that these Allison lands are also claimed by the University. These grants cover more than half a million acres in Carteret, Craven, Onslow and Jones. There is no means of ascertaining what proportion of them are Swamp Lands, but probably they in¬ clude all that the Board have heretofore claimed in those four counties.
The history of these claims to the Carteret and neighbor¬ ing tracts seems to stgnd thus: David Allison took out grants for them in and about 1795. He died in 1801. The University claims under the laws of 1789 and 1805. But, whether the claim was good or not, the trustees seem not to have taken possession. In 1827 Mr. Nash made the report above mentioned, that these lands had “ reverted for non¬ payment of taxes.” But as there wras no law to that effect until that passed in 1843 at the solicitation of the Board, this is of course a mistake. That he did not mean to say that the lands had been sold for the taxes is probable, in the first place from the fact, that he does, not say so, but says a very different thing, and in the second place, from the fact that the Board allow this statement to accompany their re¬ port uncorrected, which they would not probably have done if they had been in possession of deeds for the land from
the sheriff's making the sales, (and that this does not happen from inadvertence is evident from this remark on the subject which occurs in the report, — “ it is believed that the sher¬ iffs in some counties have failed, when lands of this descrip¬ tion have been struck off to the State and sold for taxes, to make a deed of them to the governor as required by law ”) and* in the third place from the fact that no such deed (or deeds) is in possession of the Board, or is anywhere men¬ tioned in connection with any of the various controversies about these lands, which would have been effectually settled b}r the production of such a document.
If it is suggested that the law of 1837, confiscating such lands for non-registry, or that of 1843, for non-payment of taxes, would, in auy case, put the Board in possession, ex¬ cept as against the University, two things are to be remem¬ bered per contra, — first, that the meaning of those laws of 1S37 and 1843 was greatly restricted by the subse¬ quent enactment of 1850, declaring their provisions “ ap¬ plicable to such lands only as had been surveyed or taken possession of by the Literary Board,” and as that Board
*It seems evident that the Literary Board, as here argued, were not aware of the existence of such deeds. But after several ineffectual attempts, I have at last succeeded in finding in the land office sheriffs’ deeds for 390,704 acres of the Allison lands in Carteret, Onslow and Jones, and 58,240 acres in Brunswick and Columbus on both sides of the Waccamaw, including Cow Cow Swamp. And besides these are other deeds of lands which have been sold for taxes, in New Hanover 44,160 acres, patented by Daniel Wheaton, (this con. stitutes a portion of Holly Shelter Swamp), in Tyrrell more than 100,000 acres patented by different parties, and still others in Robeson, Moore and other eastern counties, amounting in the aggregate to not less than three-quarters of a million acres. And is probable, as intimated above by the Board, that other of these Allison lands have been sold (or ought to have been) for the taxes and the deeds have not been forwarded. In order to ascertain how much of the above lands, thus sold for taxes and deeded to, the State by the sheriffs, belongs to the Literary Board, it will be necessary to ktiow, 1st, what portion of them are swamp lands, and 2nd, what portion has been re-entered prior to 1S22, these tax sales having occurred about 1S00.
have surveyed only the Pungo tract and the Open Ground Prairie, (the other surveys having been made by the Board of Internal Improvement, in 1823, ’7 and ’8,) and as it is not ap¬ parent what other act of possession they have performed, this declaratory act amounts to a repeal (except as to these two tracts), and second, these acts are regarded by very high authority as unconstitutional and invalid from the beginning. So that in any case the Board are thrown back upon such claims only as is vested in them by the original act of 1825. And then, as to these lands in Carteret and Craven and probably all .the Swamp Lands of that region, including Jones and Onslow, the claim of the creditors of David Al¬ lison comes up in 1857. And that of the University is also pressed.
So much for the first item, — the character of the title un¬ der which the Board holds the Swamp Lands. It is imag¬ inable that a sane man might purchase such a title, but it would not be taken as the best evidence of sanity.
This review of the claims of the Board makes it evident how little any conjectural estimate of the quantity of Swamp Lands owned by them is worth. The only attempt in this direction was that made by Mr. Nash in 1827, the statements reported in subsequent reports, messages and other docu¬ ments, being derived from this. And he acknowledges that there were no means of ascertaining the quantity, but puts it down, at a peradventure, at 1,500,000 acres, “ both of re¬ verted and vacant.” We have seen how much the supposed reversions amount to, but even including these, it will ap¬ pear from a summation of all the individual estimates which he gives, that we should have but little more than one-third of the sum mentioned, or about half a million acres. And if the “ reverted lands,” so-called, be deducted, to say nothing of those claimed under dormant titles re¬ cently revived, we shall have a further reduction of the above sum to the extent of more than one-third.
the Swamp Land operations of the Board, was the doubtful character of the lands themselves. The only sources of in¬ formation on this subject accessible to me are, 1st, the re¬ ports, so much referred to already, of engineers and Boards from 1823 onwards (of which it is remarked by Dr. Emmons in his report for 18G0, that “ they furnish no information of value”); 2, the several Geological Reports on the Swamp Lands in 1852, 1858 and 1860 ; 3, Mr. Ruffin’s “ sketches,” recently published by the State; and 4, memoranda of a week’s trip in Hyde county made by myself in 1862. As to the first, they amount to little more than the report of Mr. Nash, (there being but a few observations by Ful¬ ton and Brozier on a single limited tract) and the very brief one by Maj. Gwynn. The biennial reports of the Board and other papers on the subject contain, on this point, little more than citations from these two. The report of Mr. Nash, as we have seen, was very favorable, summing up with these two statements, that “all the Swamp Lands are susceptible of cultivation except a comparatively small portion contiguous to tide water,” and that “ North Carolina possesses a mine of wealth in her Swamp Lands, which, if rightly managed, may be made a source of great and lasting revenue to the State.” And to the same effect Maj. Gwynn — his observations being confined, however, to the Hyde and Carteret tracts.
In estimating the value of the opinion of Mr. Nash on this part of the subject, and in making that opinion the basis of their calculations and their procedure in undertak¬ ing works of such cost and magnitude, it does not seem to have been sufficiently considered that, however able he may have been as an engineer, (and in that capacity, he seems to have given entire satisfaction to the Board which emplo3red him) he did not pretend to any special qualifications, chem¬ ical, geological or agricultural, for the investigation of the constitution and character of the Swamp soils, and that his opinion was worth as much as that of any other intelli-
gent man on a subject with which he had no special acquaint¬ ance, that, and no more. The conclusions of Dr. Emmons, who may be supposed to have had the necessary scientific qualifications, and of Mr. Ruffin, who had a greater practi¬ cal acquaintance with the agricultural qualities and the im¬ provement of Swamp Lands than any other man who has written on that subject in this country, are evidently more worthy of attention. A comparison and discussion of these several reports, together with ascertained facts, will proba¬ bly bring us near the truth of the matter.
The general term Swamps, or Swamp Lands, includes two kinds of land widely different from each other, which may be distinguished as alluvial swamps and peat swamps. The first are low wet bottoms, generally covered with vegetation, lying along the margin of water courses and subject to overflow ; and consists therefore of accumulations of sedi¬ ment with vegetable matter. Such soils are commonly of great fertility and the question of their value turns solely upon that of their drainage and protection from overflow. The claims of the Board cover only two considerable tracts of this description, and those doubtfully, viz : the Brown and White Marsh tract in Columbus, and the Big Swamp in Robeson, containing together some 40,000 acres.
The other species which we have denominated peat swamps, have an entirely different origin, situation, and structure. As to situation, they occupy ridges, or low swells of land, from the crown of which streams flow off in every direction ; and as to origin and structure, they consist almost entirely of accumulations of vegetable matter, grow¬ ing and decaying upon the spot, being always saturated with water, but never subject to overflow, or deposit ; and containing, therefore, only a small per centage of inorganic matter. Another peculiarity of these peat swamps is, that the highest part of them is usually occupied by one or more shallow lakes. The value of such swamps, it is easy to see, depends upon two points, their susceptibility of drain-
age, and the constitution of their peaty soil,— the propor¬ tion of earthy ingredients. Nearly all the Swamp Lands claimed by the Board are of this character.
And first of the drainage. That, of course, is a question for the engineers. As to the first class of swamps, it is ob¬ vious that it must be generally a difficult and expensive operation. It is plainly so in the case of the only two in which the Board are interested, as will be apparent on ref¬ erence to the reports and surveys of them by Fulton and Brozier; the cost per acre being set down in the one case at $5, and in the other at §3. The second class of swamps, it is evident from the above description, may be drained with facility, having in most cases, at least in their central parts, a considerable elevation above the neighbor¬ ing water levels. The actual amount of this elevation is given, for most of the larger tracts, in the different reports of the engineers. This facility of drainage, however, exists for only a small part of some of these Swamps. Thus Maj. Gwynn, who surveyed the largest of them, the Hyde county tract, and superintended the public works for its im¬ provement, says that, of this immense body of swamp, com¬ prising more than 300,000 acres of the Board’s claim, “ the only portion sufficiently elevated to afford a lall for its drainage ” is the 64,500 acres, which the Board had selected for its experiment. But the second, and most important point in regard to these peat swamps, is the constitution of their soil. How little reliance is to be placed upon the mere opinion of engineers, or any one else, on this subject, will be apparent on reference to the history ot the drainage of the lake flats, as they are called ; of which the Board of Internal Improvement remark, in the report for IS27, on the author¬ ity of Mr. Nasli, “ it has been ascertained that the land cov¬ ered by most of the lakes which have been examined is of the very first quality,” au opinion which seems to Jiave been entertained also by Maj. Gwynn, (vide his report of 1340.)
It was this statement, and the recommendation founded on it, it will be remembered, which was reported by subseBoards, that led to the drainage of Mattamuskeet lake. But the “ 60,000 acres of excellent land ” turns out to be a sand beach, wholly worthless for tillage. It is not of course intimated this important work was useless, or even that it was not worth all it cost to the inhabitants, but it reclaimed no land for the Board. Dr. Emmons has two reports on the Hyde county Swamps, one in 1858 and one in 1869, but he does not seem to have made a second examination of this district, the second report being largely, if not mainly, a repetition of the first. And it is worthy of mention that in both he confines himself almost entirely to the best farm lands which had been long under cultivation and whose fertility had been practically demonstrated. He did not penetrate the savannahs, or analyze specimens of their peat soils, did not in fact leave the lake shore. And perhaps it was not necessary, as they had been pronounced by the best authority incapable of drainage. But he does not so much as mention the Pungo lands, on which the Board had expended so much labor and money. He has this general observa¬ tion on the large body of this tract extending northward and eastward of the Mattamuskeet region : “ That part of the
Albemarle and Pamlico Swamp which extends into Tyrrell county appears to rank only as a second rate soil.” And Mr. Ruffin says of this character of swamp, “ the savannahs, or peat swamps, bare of trees, are worthless for any purpose.” The very high character which Dr. Emmons gives the Hyde county lands belongs therefore to only a very small part of this tract. It must be observed, also, that more importance should be attached to the bare facts and analyses than to the general statements which he gives; which are to be re¬ ceived with considerable abatement, partly on account of the insufficient extent of his observations and experiments, and partly on account of an evident reluctance to commu¬ nicate disagreeable information. For example, in the re-
port for 1852, he says of these lands generally, “ I regard them as among the most fertile and valuable in the State,” and then proceeds to describe them as low bottoms, subject to overflow and accumulations of sediment, &c., which, as we have seen, is no description of these lands at all.
The only other of these swamps which Dr. Emmons made the subject of special examination is the Open Ground Prai¬ rie. It will be remembered that, before undertaking the improvement of this tract, Dr. Emmons visited it, at the request of the Board, and made, they say, “ a favorable re¬ port.” But his published account for 1852 cannot be so re¬ garded, the Open Ground being then described as consist¬ ing almost entirely “ of peaty matter,” and as “ unproduct¬ ive for want of inorganic matter.” Nor does his report for 1860 improve its character. In that he speaks of the “rim of the Prairie” only as “richly constituted.” And Mr. Ruffin, who visited the tract after the canal was dug, puts down the whole tract as not worth ten cents per acre. And we have seen that 2,000 acres on the canal with this privi¬ lege of location, was sold by the Board at twenty-five cents per acre.
satisfactory.
The inevitable conclusion which any one will reach, who examines all the documents on the subject, is that the Swamp Lands are simply vast beds of peat, the only portions of them having any agricultural value consisting of a few belts and ridges, constituting generally the elevated and narrow margins of the interior lakes and the outer fringes of some of them ; these being almost invariably indicated by thegrowth upon them and having generally a sub-soil of clay.
And the general conclusion of the whole matter, as nearly as can be ascertained with the existing lights on the subject, seems to be, that the Swamp Lands owned by the Board amount probably to less than half a million acres, that their
title to a large part of this is doubtful ; that only a small proportion of the whole is susceptible of drainage ; and of that much the larger part is not worth draining, and that the erroneous views, which have so widely prevailed in re¬ gard to the whole subject, are due in a large measure to the hasty and insufficient examination, and the inaccurate re¬ port of the first engineer by whom the Swamp Lands were surveyed.
I append a tabular statement of the principal tracts claimed by the Board, showing their location, number of acres, by whom and when surveyed, &c. :
| 8,780 | common-pile/pre_1929_books_filtered | reportsonswampla00nort | public_library | public_library_1929_dolma-0010.json.gz:2247 | https://archive.org/download/reportsonswampla00nort/reportsonswampla00nort_djvu.txt |
AlrSMGdA1m7XZ0eF | A revision of the atomic weight of antimony : the analysis of antimony bromide ... | ACKNOWLEDGMENT.
For the valuable guidance and constant interest of Professor H. H. Willard, under whose supervision this investigation was carried out, and for the kindly interest and encouragement of Professor M. Gom$etg,\{ wish to express my most grateful appreciation.
Introduction.
It requires only a cursory glance at the earlier reports of the International Committee on Atomic Weights to learn that the value in the tables to-day for the atomic weight of antimony rests on no secure basis. It was put forth in 19031 as a compromise between Cooke's work on the bromide,2 pointing to 120.0, and the work of Cooke3 and of Schneider4 on the sulfide and the work of Friend and Smith5 on tartar emetic, the three latter giving values ranging from 120.22 to 120.55.
Careful examination of the papers dealing directly with the analytical problem shows that the uncertainty is much greater actually than the above would indicate. Disregarding the work of Berzelius,6 from which he selected the number 129, as well as the earlier work of Kessler,7 which he himself later corrected for known errors, the other determinations group themselves into two main divisions approximating 120 and 122. Thus Dexter8 (1857), Dumas9 (1859), and Kessler10 (1860), obtained 122.46, 121.83 and 122.08-122.33, respectively, on the basis of which the number 122 was generally adopted. Schneider11 (1856), however, had analyzed a native sulfide of antimony, the data pointing to the number 120.55, and Cooke12 (1877-81) made a laborious study including syntheses of antimony trisulfide and the estimation of halogen in the trihalides of antimony, which was so convincing that it immediately established the lower value, 120.
Cooke's last data on the ratios, SbBr3 : 3Ag and SbBr3 : 3AgBr, presented a concordance of results unknown to chemical analysis of that day, and are credited by Brauner13 with introducing the modern era of atomic weight determinations.
The electrochemical studies of Pfeiffer1 (1881) and of Popper2 (1886) — generally regarded as discredited by the work of Cohen, Collins and Strengers3— gave 122.36-121.36 and 121.20, respectively. Bongartz4 (1883), from a complex process, derived the value 120.64 from the ratio, 2Sb : 3BaSC>4, and — last in the field of ostensible atomic weight studies — Friend and Smith5 obtained the value 120.43 from the ratio KSbOC4H4O7: KC1.
From the time of Becker's "Digest of Atomic Weight Determinations" (1880) down to Brauner's article in Abegg's "Handbuch" (1907), Cooke's work on the bromide of antimony so prejudiced the reviewer that the discussion of the original papers was decidedly uncritical and at times inaccurate as to facts. Compare, as a case in point, the easy dismissal of the work on antimony chloride (Dumas, 121.83; Cooke, 121.84) on the basis of Cooke's first suggestion of some oxy chloride in the material studied,6 with the fact that Cooke offered two different explanations for these high numbers,7 neither of which was adequately supported by his own experimental data.8
Note, further, such comments as that of Richards9 that "much of the voluminous work on the subject is now rejected by common consent," and that of Clarke,10 "the higher values, say all over 121, are almost certainly in error and ought to be rejected."
Anticipating the results obtained in the present study it may not be out of place to insert a brief critical review of the past work bearing on the atomic weight of antimony from the point of view of indicating probable major errors.
Sb2S3:4I 122.08
(Although not ostensibly dealing with the atomic weight of antimony, the quantitative studies on antimony by E. G. Beckett (1909) have distinct bearing on the question and are worthy of inclusion in this table.)
The references to the original papers are as follows: 1. Pogg. Ann., 8, 1 (1826. 2. Pogg. Ann., 95, 204 (1855). 3- Pogg. Ann., 97, 483; Ibid., 98, 293 (1856). 4, Pogg. Ann., 100, 563 (1857). 5. Ann. chim, phys., (3) 55, 175 (1859J. 6. Pogg. Ann., 113, 134 (1860). 7. Proc. Am Acad Arts Sci., 13, 1-71 (1877). 8. Proc. Am. Acad. Arts Sci., 15, 251 (1880); Ibid., 17, 1-22 (1881). 9. J. prakt Chem., (2) 22, 131 (1880). 10. Ann., 209, 174 (1881). 11. Ber., 16, 1942 (1883). 12. Ann., 223, 153 (1886). 13. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 23, 502 (1901). 14. Inaug. Dissertation, Zurich, 1909.
tion of the above papers.
1. Berzelius. The number 129, from converting a given weight of metal to the oxide, indicates that too high a temperature, or partial reduction by gases from the flame, may have caused appreciable volatilization of Sb2O3. The number 128.9 from converting metal to sulfide may be obtained from partial oxidation of the sulfide through exposure to air during the drying process.
4. Dexter. The number 122.40 may be somewhat too high from too high a temperature of ignition of the Sb2O4, or from slight reduction to the more volatile Sb2O3 in the closed crucible by flame gases.
of the silver chloride method as used.
6. Kessler's second paper. The volumetric studies giving values ranging from 122. OS to 122.33 may be somewhat high, due to failure to guard sufficiently against oxygen of the air as an accessory oxidizing agent the presence of which might lower slightly the amount of standard oxidizing agent required.
7. Cooke's first paper. The sulfide studies may have pointed to too low a value from impurity in the antimony sulfide giving too high a weight. Aside from carbonaceous residue from the tartaric acid — which may in part have been counterbalanced by slight solubility of antimony sulfide and by slight loss by sublimation during drying — it has been shown by Beckett,1 by Hallmann,1 and others, that dried antimony sulfide usually contains several tenths of a per cent, of chlorine. Simple calculations shows that 0.183% chlorine replacing sulfur in antimony sulfide would cause an increase of 0.1% in the weight of the precipitate.
In the antimony chloride studies chlorine was determined as silver chloride and antimony as antimony sulfide (using the empirical factor derived from earlier work on sulfide for the calculation). The results, 121.84 and 121.91, may indicate some slight error in the composition of the material studied but are within the permissible error for ordinary quantitative analysis if compared with the value established in this present paper.
The work on the bromide and on the iodide of antimony, giving 119.88 and 119.86, respectively, is probably vitiated by inaccuracy in the composition of materials to which the formulas SbBr3 and SbI3 were assigned. Such inaccuracy may be related to the known readiness with which bromides and iodides take up hydrobromic and hydroiodic acid with formation of complex compounds.
8. Cooke's second paper. The values 119.88 and 119.97 derived from further study of antimony bromide are probably subject to errors of the type suggested with respect to the earlier work on iodide and bromide of antimony.
9. Schenider (second paper). The value 120.41 rests on the assumption that, aside from 0 . 189% determined impurities, the material studied consisted of pure Sb2S3. The circumstance noted by Schneider, that, "on heating in hydrogen the material decrepitated with a slight burned odor arising,"2 makes it seem very probable that there was a certain amount of organic material in this native stibnite and that the loss in weight on reducing the sulfide in hydrogen was too high by the amount that such material would lose during such a process. This would make the apparent atomic weight of antimony too low.
10. Pfeiffer. The electro-chemical comparisons of copper and antimony (at. wt. Sb = 122.36) are subject to the inaccuracies of the copper coulometer. The comparison of silver and antimony (Sb = 121.36) in the light of the later experimental data of Cohen, Collins and Strengers
2 Loc. cit., p. 137.
suggests the possibility of insufficient guarding against slight evolution of hydrogen or slight absorption of oxygen in the antimony cell, either of which effects would make the calculated atomic weight of antimony too low.
11. Bongartz. Even granting that the reaction Sb2S5 + 6HC1 = 2SbCl3 + 3H2S + S is sufficiently exact to form a step in atomic weight work, details are lacking that would be required to pass judgment on such points as the possible amount of occlusion of BaCl2 by the BaSO4.
to the same errors.
13. Friend and Smith. The assumption that tartar emetic, dried at 150° for 16 hours, undergoes no trace of oxidation or partial decomposition is not sufficiently assured by the data presented. Certainly, 150° is getting rather close to the temperature at which further decomposition with loss of 1/2 molecule of water has been observed.
termination of antimony, is in distinct accord with the present study.
The controversy as to the atomic weight of antimony was not settled by the adoption of the present value in the tables. It is true that Henz,1 Vortmann and Metzl,2 Kolb and Formhals,3 Hallmann4 and others, studying quantitative methods for antimony, found the present value satisfactory; but Youtz,5 Beckett,6 and Von Bacho,7 presented data pointing to a distinctly higher atomic weight, and Treadwell8 expressed the belief that the older number, 122, was nearer the truth than the new •one.
This last opinion was undoubtedly based on the analytical work of Beckett, done in Treadwell's laboratory. In chief part, Beckett prepared .a very pure sample of antimony trisulfide and obtained data for the ratios :Sb2S3 : 2Sb, Sb2S3 : 3BaSO4, and Sb2S3 : 41, corresponding to the atomic weight values 121.54, 121.66 and 122.08, respectively. This work, while carried on with few of the refinements of atomic weight practice, bears internal evidence of being a very good quantitative study and favors an atomic weight of antimony somewhat less than 122.
It is with such a background that the preparation of antimony tribromide was undertaken and determinations carried out of the ratios SbBr3 : 3Ag and SbBr3 : SAgBr, using modern methods of preparing the materials and modern technique in carrying out the analytical processes.
Preparation of Materials.
The preparation of pure bromine and pure silver as auxiliary standards followed methods well known in atomic weight work. Separation of crystals from mother liquor was accomplished by centrifugal drainage, and electrical heating was resorted to wherever practicable.
Pure Bromine. — In brief outline the process for bromine was as follows. A high grade of commercial bromine was dissolved in a cone, solution of calcium bromide and distilled therefrom. Then the procedure followed that given by Baxter, Moore and Boylston,1 except that the removal of iodine was accomplished by the two steps of boiling off an excess of bromine added in forming potassium bromide from the oxalate and of crystallizing out the potassium bromide rather than evaporating the solution to dryness.
Pure Silver. — Silver from students' cyanide analyses was precipitated with ammonium sulfide, dissolved in nitric acid, precipitated in dil. solution with hydrochloric acid, then converted to metal by the method of Buckner and Hulett.2 The silver was then fused in air on a pure lime support and the process to this point repeated. It was then carried through the later purification process as outlined by Baxter, Moore and Boylston, including formate precipitation, electrolytic deposition and fusion in electrolytic hydrogen.
Accessory Reagents. — Reagents used in the analytical work or incidental to the preparation of pure bromine and silver were purified and handled with a care proportional to the purity of the bromine and silver themselves.
Water was redistilled with block-tin condenser from alkaline permanganate solution, first allowing it to simmer for several hours and then discarding a moderate first fraction.
Nitric Acid. — Ordinary c. P. nitric acid was treated with a crystal of sodium chlorate, then carefully distilled, using a quartz condenser and collecting the middle third. This, by careful test, was shown to be free from iron and chloride and was preserved by sealing up in resistance glass flasks that had been thoroughly soaked in the usual chromic acid cleaning solution and then well rinsed and steamed.
H2O -f- 2C02. A high grade of precipitated calcium carbonate was treated with diluted, redistilled formic acid, using slightly less than one gram molecule of formic acid to one of calcium carbonate; then bromine was added carefully in slight excess, and the solution boiled, filtered, and evaporated to such a volume that it was nearly saturated with respect to calcium bromide.
tails given by Richards and Wells.1
Pure hydrogen was generated by electrolysis of sodium hydroxide solutions in all-glass apparatus with nickel gauze electrodes, drying being effected by a long tube of solid sodium hydroxide.
Tartar ic Acid. — Careful tests of Kahlbaum's chemically pure tartaric acid showed that it was satisfactory for use without further purification. Preliminary experiments were undertaken to see if hydrofluoric acid might not be used in place of the usual tartaric acid as a solvent for the antimony bromide. It was found that antimony bromide dissolves readily in hydrofluoric acid, that no considerable excess of the acid is required, and that such a solution may be diluted largely without precipitation. But, due to the action of the hydrofluoric acid on the glass, the solution underwent slow decomposition with precipitation of antimony oxybromide. Neutralization of the acid solution failed to give it the desired stability, so further attempts in this direction were abandoned and tartaric acid was finally adopted.
Pure Antimony.
Purification of Antimony Compounds. — Fractional distillation of antimony bromide as a means of separation from lead, copper, iron, tin and arsenic was studied, using a commercial preparation to which small amounts of these metals were added separately in the form of bromides, and the material distilled into small glass bulbs as receivers. Two small 1 Richards and Wells, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 25, 481 (1905).
fractions were collected first, then the bulk of the antimony bromide distilled off and the residue examined. Lead, copper and iron were completely retained in the distilling flask, while tin was found largely in the first fraction and was completely removed by the time */4 of the material had distilled over. The method proved unsatisfactory in the case of arsenic, positive tests being obtained on the residue even after 3/4 of the antimony bromide had been discarded.
In the course of this work a modified distilling flask was developed with the receiver attached at the top by means of a ground glass joint. This avoided the usual dead space which reduces the effectiveness of separation by fractional distillation.
A second method studied for the purification of antimony compounds was the recrystallization of tartar emetic. Using centrifugal drainage and working on a moderate scale it was found that small amounts of copper, iron, tin and arsenic, introduced as chlorides — except arsenic, which was introduced as dipotassium, hydrogen, orthoarsenate — were rapidly removed in the mother liquors. Lead, however, after reduction to a certain small value, was found in about equal amounts in successive crops of crystals.
It was at first intended to use recrystallization of tartar emetic, followed by decomposition with heat as a means of obtaining the metal, which might then be converted to the bromide and subjected to a process of fractional distillation. At this time, however, the work of Groschuff1 became available, and this appeared so promising that further study on the difficulties of the suggested method was abandoned.
Kahlbaum's antimony trioxide2 was dissolved in fairly concentrated hydrochloric acid, filtered through hardened filter paper and treated with chlorine from a cylinder of the liquefied gas till oxidized to antimony pentachloride. This solution was evaporated on a water-bath until very concentrated, then saturated with dry hydrogen chloride (prepared by dropping cone, hydrochloric acid into cone, sulfuric acid and washing with sulfuric acid) and finally cooled to less than 0°. Under these conditions the compound HSbCle-YzH^O separates out in fine crystalline form. These crystals were collected on a Biichner funnel, then placed in a porcelain evaporating dish, a little water added and the dish placed on the water-bath until a clear solution was obtained. By repeating the earlier process a new crop was formed which was drained centrifugally in platinum cups and recrystallized 4 times. These crystals were then worked
2 Quantitative analysis of the trioxide using the method of Groschuff for concentrating impurities revealed the following impurities: S, 0.005%; Sn, 0.002%; Cu, 0.001%; Fe, 0.015%; Pb, 0.004%; As, 0.001%.
up in separate lots as follows: they were dissolved in water, diluted largely and heated on a water-bath to complete the hydrolysis, collected on a Buchner funnel, washed copiously with hot water, then transferred to an evaporating dish and twice evaporated to dryness with nitric acid to remove the last trace of chloride. Tests for chlorine on this material were negative.
Recovery of the Metal. — Metallic antimony was recovered from this preparation, after ignition to the oxide, in two ways, (a) heating in hydrogen; (6) fusing with sodium cyanide.
Preliminary experiment had shown that antimony oxide may be satisfactorily reduced to the metal by heating in hydrogen providing a temperature is maintained slightly below the melting point of the trioxide. If the trioxide melts it becomes coated over with the metal in such a way as to be rather effectively protected against further reduction. At the lower temperature the reduction proceeds rather slowly, but it may be carried out in such a way as to require little attention so that the time used was not a serious objection. There was prepared a cylindrical bomb of iron (see Fig. 1) about 75 mm. deep and 75 mm. in diameter, large enough to receive a fairsized crucible. A cover was carefully ground and polished so as to fit nearly gas-tight, clamps being arranged for fastening on the cover, which was provided with two 20 cm. lengths of small iron tubing to serve as inlet and outlet tubes. The outlet tube was fitted with a small hard-glass tube bent so as to be out of the way of the crucible and reaching nearly to the bottom of the bomb. The inlet tube came merely to the lower edge of the cover. The whole fitted nicely into a pot furnace wound to give temperatures ranging up to 750-800°.
The hydrogen used for the reduction was compressed electrolytic hydrogen. This was passed first through a long tube of freshly heated charcoal to remove traces of hydro- Fig. 1. — Apparatus used for recarbon;1 second, a glass tube heated to dull Auction of antimony oxide in redness to convert any oxygen to water, a ^~gen. i = inlet tube for
for drying.
In carrying out the reducing process a crucible was filled reasonably full of the antimony oxide, placed on a low triangle in the bomb, covered with an inverted quartz cover, then the cover fastened on and the bomb placed in the pot furnace. Hydrogen was next turned on and finally the furnace heated to a temperature of approximately 500°. After about two days, which, under the conditions as standardized, was sufficient for a satisfactory reduction of the oxide to metal, the temperature was raised to about 650°, high enough to melt the antimony, and then the furnace permitted to cool down. Bright buttons of antimony with a few dark specks on the surface were obtained. The specks were removed mechanically, the buttons pounded up in a clean agate mortar and then reheated in hydrogen to 400-450° for final drying. This latter was done immediately before the material was to be used for the synthesis of the tribromide.
In the reduction of the oxide in hydrogen it was noticed that the porcelain crucible was blackened, the stain thus produced not being removed by soaking in nitro-hydrochloric acid. Consequently contact with porcelain was avoided and one bath of the oxide was reduced to metal using a quartz crucible, and another was reduced on a support of pure lime similar to that used in the preparation of pure silver. In the second case the support, for obvious reasons, underwent considerable disintegration; but, nevertheless, effectively kept the antimony from contact with the crucible. The two specimens of antimony were labelled, respectively, Preparations I and II.
For the second method of reducing the oxide a high grade commercial sodium cyanide was recrystallized 4 times from water using centrifugal drainage, and dried over sodium hydroxide. The resulting material was free from iron and chloride. This was mixed intimately with the oxide in a tall porcelain beaker, then heated in the electric furnace for several hours at slightly above the melting point of antimony. After cooling, the button of antimony was cleaned mechanically, fused in hydrogen, then pounded up in an agate mortar and dried in hydrogen when needed.
Antimony Bromide.
Construction of Apparatus. — The attempt to prepare antimony bromide in such a way as to use the Harvard bottling method was soon abandoned, because the volatility of this compound when slightly above its melting point and its hygroscopic character both make fusion in an atmosphere of dry hydrogen bromide a method of doubtful value for the conversion of traces of oxide or oxybromide to bromide. To test this point a sample of antimony bromide was moistened slightly, then treated for several hours at just above the melting point with hydrogen bromide.
directly.
The next attempt was in the direction followed by Baxter. Moore, and Boylston,1 in the work on phosphorus, involving preparation of the tribromide, fractional distillation, and collection of the middle portion in a series of sampling bulbs — all in an inert atmosphere in all-glass apparatus. The first construction followed their general design, except that a separate bulb was added at the beginning from which the bromine could be distilled on to the antimony, and the preparation chamber consisted of an inclined tube lying in an aluminum block oven,2 keeping the antimony bromide molten and drained off and exposing fresh surface of metal to the action of the bromine.
ing a vacuum of 0 . 003 mm.
Nitrogen for drying the apparatus and for establishing an inert atmosphere was prepared from commercial compressed nitrogen containing 0.5% oxygen. The removal of oxygen by the method described by Badger3 was discarded when it was observed that the resulting gas had a slight reducing action. Instead the oxygen was absorbed by copper turnings heated to a dull red. The purifying and drying train was completed by a 60 cm. tube of soda lime, 3 Emmerling towers of sulfuric acid and a tower of phosphorus pentoxide. No reducing effect was noted in the gas thus obtained and careful test showed it to be free from oxygen.
During the course of preliminary runs to get acquainted with both the apparatus and the process, certain mechanical difficulties were encountered with the trap arrangement used in discarding the first fraction of the distillate. On due consideration it was felt that first fractions could be discarded nearly as effectively by setting aside the first 2 or 3 bulbs into which material was condensed, and further, that with antimony and bromine carefully purified the chief danger was from moisture, which could be avoided better by proper drying precautions than by discarding a special fraction. Therefore the trap and separate series of discard bulbs were omitted. At the same time there were added at the other end of the sampling bulbs 2 U-tubes, one containing metallic antimony, which, at 100°, effectively absorbed any traces of bromine that were carried past the preparation chamber, the second, phosphorus pentoxide to ensure complete drying of any gases which might come into the bulbs from that direction.
In one of the earlier experiments it was discovered, on sealing off an empty bulb with a full one and distilling the antimony bromide out of the latter, that the residue left was unexpectedly large. To study this further, a sample of antimony bromide was moistened with a drop of water, then placed in the first of a series of 10 well-dried bulbs, the system evacuated and sealed, and the material distilled from one bulb to the next, sealing off each residue as obtained. The residues decreased in amount but were fairly marked in the first three bulbs.
Cooke had suggested the possibility of any oxychloride of antimony distilling over in part with the chloride. It seemed as if something of that sort might be the case here. The following experiment, however, pointed to moisture as being the probable source of the residues. Phosphorus pentoxide was added to some antimony bromide and the above study repeated. In the first distillation some chemical reaction took place, but in the second bulb there was no visible residue. From this time on the drying temperature was raised to at least 250° and the time extended to a minimum of 24 hours. With these precautions the amount of residue became uniformly slight. In two cases distilling off 4 or 5 g. of antimony bromide left 0.09 mg. and 0.08 mg., respectively, approximately 0.002%. For comparison, Cooke's residues from the bromide averaged 0.028%, even though he maintained a high enough temperature to feel justified in assigning the formula Sb4O5Br2 to the residue.
The apparatus as finally developed is represented semi-diagrammatically in Fig. 2. Heating arrangements were provided to give temperatures up to 300°. The bromine bulb and connecting tubes were heated with the Bunsen flame. The sampling bulbs and antimony U-tube were sus-
coil of nichrome wire.
Preparation of Samples. — Next was prepared a preliminary series of bulbs to study the analytical process, using for this purpose Kahlbaum's metallic antimony and a good grade of bromine which had been distilled from calcium bromide solution and dried, first with sulfuric acid, and finally with phosphorus pentoxide. The manipulation as finally used in the preparation may well be given in some detail. With the different parts of the apparatus cleaned, dried and sealed together, leaving a small dropping funnel attached to the bromine bulb and an open tube at the upper end of the preparation tube for the introduction of antimony, the apparatus was heated to approximately 300° while a current of dry nitrogen was passed through it for 24 to 36 hours. The preparation tube was then allowed to cool, powdered metallic antimony — freshly dried and cooled in hydrogen — was poured into the preparation chamber and the inlet tube sealed off. The heating was continued for several hours longer, then the preparation tube cooled to 120-130°, the sampling bulbs and antimony U-tube reduced similarly and the bromine bulb cooled to room temperature. With the stopcock of the dropping funnel closed and a steady stream of nitrogen maintained, one of the stopcocks was opened to the air so as to obtain atmospheric pressure in the apparatus. Then a little phosphorus pentoxide was placed in the dropping funnel and an amount of dry bromine run in such as would leave several grams of antimony unacted upon. Avoiding introduction of air, the bromine was run into the bulb and the dropping funnel sealed off. Next a large beaker of water was raised under the bromine bulb until the latter dipped well into the water and heat applied till a temperature of 50° to 55° was obtained. This distilled the bromine slowly enough so that it was quite fully taken up by the antimony, only traces getting into the next portion of the apparatus during the latter part of the operation. When the distillation was started the stopcock leading to the air was closed, the nitrogen shut off and the process carried on at ordinary pressure in nitrogen. With 20 to 25 g. of antimony and 10 to 12 cc. of bromine, it required 10 to 15 hours for the synthesis of the antimony bromide. The bromine bulb was then sealed off, the temperature raised to 150-160° and the materials allowed to digest for 8 to 12 hours longer. In this way all trace of bromine color disappeared and the melted antimony bromide became light amber-colored. Occasionally slight evidence of action in the antimony U-tube was observed; frequently none was visible.
The preparation tube was next cooled to 130-140°, the distilling flask, sampling bulbs and U-tube kept at about 100° and the apparatus then evacuated until the antimony bromide started to distil over into the flask. The heating trough was then permitted to cool down while the
bulk of the antimony bromide was distilled out of the preparation tube. Nitrogen was then carefully admitted to stop the process and to lessen the chance for accident when the preparation tube was sealed off. With the latter done, the apparatus was again evacuated and heat applied until the antimony bromide had largely distilled into the first bulb of the chain. The distilling flask was then sealed off, the apparatus evacuated to a pressure of about 1 mm. — until the antimony bromide, slightly above the melting point, showed signs of distilling — and then the series of bulbs sealed off from the antimony U-tube. This left the bulbs as a single unit which could now be suspended in the heating trough and easily shifted along to cool the bulbs successively, starting at the end opposite the one containing the antimony bromide. Thus, as the material was distilled, successive fractions were obtained, and practice made it possible to regulate the size of these fractions in a satisfactory way.
Further preparations of antimony bromide included two final series using pure bromine and antimony reduced from the oxide by hydrogen, and one final series using pure bromine and antimony reduced from the oxide by fusion with sodium cyanide.
In using Preparations I and II of antimony by hydrogen, it was noticed that the residues in the preparation tube after distilling off the bromide were quite different. The one from antimony reduced in quartz was bright and clean, the other, where the oxide had been reduced on a lime support, being contaminated with a brownish amorphous substance. The preparations of the bromide, however, were both highly lustrous white products of identical appearance. They constituted the material for Series B and Series D, respectively.
In the first preparation of bromide from metal reduced by cyanide, it was found that the final material had a brown tinge. With the series of bulbs still intact the material was melted and poured back into the large bulb and the distillation repeated. The distillate was visibly lighter in color and a black residue was left in the bulb. This process was repeated several times until no further improvement could be noticed. The material still having a faint straw color, the small bulbs were sealed off in groups of two. The bulbs were warmed and the antimony bromide poured into one of them from which about 2/s was distilled back into the other. The residue was distinctly dark in color. The final distillate not being entirely white, it was not regarded as satisfactory for final analysis.
Another preparation was made from the same antimony, except that the metal was first kept melted for several hours in a current of hydrogen, with the thought that this might remove, or render harmless, impurities evidently derived from the cyanide fusion. It may be noted, parenthetically, that the usual method of purifying metallic antimony, follow-
ing fusion of the oxide with sodium cyanide, is to maintain the antimony molten for a period of many hours under a layer of the oxide. This was purposely omitted here since it was desired to keep the material as free from oxide as possible and it is not improbable that metallic antimony dissolves the oxide to some slight extent. The antimony bromide prepared from this batch of metal was better than the previous lot, but it still showed a faint color even after repeated redistillation.
The next attempt — the last which could be tried without repeating the earlier process of purifying antimony — added the further precaution of digesting the antimony bromide in the preparation tube for several hours at only slightly below the boiling point under atmospheric pressure, a temperature at least 75° higher than formerly used, or than is needed for any subsequent distillation. It was felt that in this way a decomposition of the objectionable impurity might be accomplished in such a way that gaseous products might still be gotten rid of and non-volatile products retained in the earlier residues. These hopes were rewarded by obtaining a series of samples barely distinguishable from those of Series B and D ; so these were labelled Series C and used for final analysis. Analysis of Antimony Bromide.
With the materials thus at hand, there was started a study of the usual volumetric determination of the ratio of antimony bromide to silver, using the nephelometric end-point, and, further, of the gravimetric determination of the ratio of antimony bromide to silver bromide.
Balance and Weighing. — The balance used was a new Troemner No. 10, easily sensitive to 0.02 milligram. The weights were a set of goldplated brass weights with platinum fractionals, calibrated by the Bureau of Standards, and carefully rechecked with one another, using the Harvard method. By the method of counterpoises and substitution it was easily possible to check ordinary weights to within 0.02 mg., and, even with a glass vacuum weighing bottle of approximately 50 cc. external volume and weighing slightly over 50 g., extreme errors did not exceed 0.05 mg. for individual weighings. A small amount of radium bromide was kept in the balance case to prevent the objects weighed from retaining electric charges.1
For the determination of the density of brass weights used and of the glass from which the bulbs were blown, as well as to avoid determining the volume of each individual bulb, a weighing bottle1 with well polished and tightly fitting cap, and with stopcock attachment for vacuum connection, was used. By placing object and evacuated weighing bottle on the balance pan and comparing with a counterpoise similar in material and size, a certain difference in weight was obtained. By placing the object in the weighing bottle, evacuating, and comparing again with the counterpoise a certain other difference in weight was obtained, the variation representing the buoyant effect of the air. By observing the temperature and pressure at the time, the volume of the object could be calculated and the density of the material determined. In the case of the samples of antimony bromide only the direct weighing in vacua was needed since this made it unnecessary to apply a correction for buoyancy of the air, other than that exerted on the brass weights. The weight was obviously obtained by comparing the evacuated weighing bottle empty with the evacuated weighing bottle containing the sample and subtracting from this the vacuum correction for the weights used.
As evidence of the accuracy with which the weight in vacua may thus be determined a piece of glass rod was weighed in air, its volume determined by displacement of water and a vacuum correction calculated, the weight thus found being compared with that obtained by the method outlined.
Weight in vacuo 3 . 17404
The weight of the sample in the bulb having been obtained, the bulb was placed in a tall, narrow, thick-walled beaker and covered with a freshly prepared and filtered solution of tartaric acid, allowing 3 to 4 g. of acid for each estimated gram of antimony bromide. Using a heavy platinum rod, the bulb was then broken, the rod thoroughly rinsed and removed, and the solution allowed to stand with frequent agitation until all of the antimony bromide had dissolved, an additional time of 6 to 12 hours being allowed to complete solution. The broken glass was then filtered out, being washed 3 times by decantation with dil. tartaric acid solution and then 10 to 12 times with water before transferring to the filter. Following ignition and cooling, the weight of the glass was found and this subtracted, after correction to vacuum, from the weight given, to obtain 1 Renard and Guye, /. chim. phys., 14, 57 seq. (1916).
introduced no appreciable error, since the bulbs were well evacuated.
The use of filter paper to retain the glass, with correction after ignition for the ash of the paper, was given up when it was found that the ash of a single 9 cm. paper of one brand of "ashless" filters might run as high as 0.4 nig., that even with the best grades the ash of papers from different parts of the package might vary as much as 0.05 mg., and that there was no obvious relation between the weight of the filter paper and that of the ash.
A platinum-sponge filtering crucible was next tried and found entirely satisfactory. With reasonable attention to the conditions of drying the crucible before and after filtering, it was found possible to check its weight regularly to within 0.02 mg. When the crucible became clogged with the fine glass particles it was easily cleaned by soaking in hydrofluoric and nitric acids, followed by washing with hydrofluoric acid and then copiously with water.
Methods of Analysis. — With the weight of the samples known, the usual Harvard refinements1 on the method of Pelouze were carried out. Assuming a value for the atomic weight of antimony, an amount of silver was weighed out corresponding to slightly less than the sample under examination. This was dissolved in pure dil. nitric acid in Jena Brlenmeyer flasks provided with refluxing bulbs, the reaction being carried out slowly, and the temperature being raised finally to remove the nitrous fumes.
In filtering out the glass, the filtrate had been collected in 3-liter Erlenmeyer precipitation flasks provided with well-polished glass stoppers. To the solution, diluted to about 0 . 1 N concentration with respect to bromide ion, was added the silver nitrate solution, carrying out this operation at night under red light. All processes of transfer of materials, filtering and washing, taking test portions, etc., involved in the analysis of the samples, took place under the cover of a large sheet of glass fastened over the desk adjacent to a vertical pane which diminished drafts from the side.
With the silver nitrate solution added, the flask was warmed slightly by the hands, then the stopper inserted, and the flask shaken vigorously for several minutes. It was then wrapped carefully in a black cloth as protection from the light during the day. The solution was shaken occasionally during 36 hours and permitted to settle for 10 to 12 hours, then samples were taken for nephelometric examination. According to the conditions observed, dilute standard solutions of silver nitrate and of potassium bromide were used to make up any slight deficiency of silver or bromide ion. The shaking process was repeated and the solution 1 Described in detail by Richards and Wells. /. Am. Chem. Soc., 27, 502 seq. (1905).
again tested 2 days later. With equivalence of silver to bromide finally obtained — a condition in which 2 equal portions of the solution develop equal opalescence when treated with equivalent excess of silver nitrate and potassium bromide, respectively — corrections were applied for all adjustments required, including material removed in the sampling, and weights were obtained representing the ratio SbBr3 : 3Ag.
To the above solution was then added about 50 cc. of 0. 1 N silver nitrate solution. The flask was shaken for a short time and allowed to stand for 3 or 4 days with occasional agitation. The clear solution was then poured through a platinum-sponge filtering crucible, the precipitate of silver bromide washed 15 times with approximately 1% nitric acid and finally transferred to the crucible with this same solution under hydrostatic pressure. After rinsing twice with water, the precipitate was dried overnight at 180°, cooled and weighed. The bulk of the precipitate was transferred to a quartz crucible, weighed, fused with cover on in an electric furnace, cooled and reweighed, and the loss on fusion calculated to the basis of the total weight of dried silver bromide. The crucible in which the silver bromide had been dried was conveniently cleaned by treatment with powdered zinc in slightly acid water, then rinsed thoroughly, and treated successively with nitric acid, and ammonium hydroxide. It was then washed copiously and dried. Meanwhile the precipitation flask was treated with 25 cm. of ammonium hydroxide, allowed to stand overnight, then rinsed out, the rinsings being diluted to a known volume and tested for silver ion by comparison with a standard similarly prepared. A correction for silver bromide in the flask was thus obtained. The weight of the silver bromide, with proper correction for material retained in the precipitation flask, for loss on fusion, and for adjustments of the solution in the volumetric determination gave a basis for calculating the ratio SbBr3 : 3AgBr.
Preliminary Studies. — Using the introductory preparation of antimony bromide derived from Kahlbaum's antimony, the above analytical process was studied. This series of bulbs had totaled 7, so, discarding the first and last, there were 5 bulbs representing in numerical order the middle portion of the preparation.
The volumetric determination ran smoothly after it had been found by experience that an external standard had to be set up to determine with reasonable accuracy the concentration of bromide ion in the solution. The use of such external standard was adopted at the start in accordance with general practice.1 But the idea suggested itself that there is an inevitable error in adjusting concentrations of the various materials in such a way as to duplicate the conditions present in the solution being examined. And as a means of avoiding such error it seemed feasible to 1 Richards and Wells, Am. Chem. J., 31, 242 (1904); Richards, ibid., 35, 512 (1906)-
take two portions of the solution, treating one with silver nitrate and the other with an equivalent amount of potassium bromide and then match opalescence by adding to the weaker one sufficient silver ion or bromide ion as the case might be. Then if the original solution showed deficiency of silver ion the amount of silver ion added to the tube containing potassium bromide in matching the other tube would give a basis for estimating how much silver ion should be added to the solution in the flask. That this scheme did not work may be seen in the following data concerning one of the determinations.
In attempting to account for this unexpected behavior, a brief study of the effect of tartaric acid on the determination of silver ion and of bromide ion was undertaken. The results may be summarized as follows. Tartaric acid does not affect appreciably the determination of small amounts of silver ion. It does, however, affect the determination of small amounts of bromide ion, the effect, strangely enotfgh, decreasing with decreasing concentration of bromide ion. So, while the above scheme did not work satisfactorily for the determination of bromide in amounts ranging over 0 . 25-0 . 30 mg. per liter, yet for the lower concentrations corresponding to a saturated solution of silver bromide the nephelometric end-point was shown to be reasonably accurate.
The gravimetric determinations of the antimony ratio in the preliminary series were all unsatisfactory for various causes which were systematically 1 Baxter, J. Am. Chem. Soc 28, 1322 (1906).
eliminated. In earlier analyses, black spots in the fused silver bromide frequently showed inaccuracy in the composition of the precipitate, and heating such a precipitate in chlorine to convert any silver bromide and metallic silver to silver chloride gave variable results indicating the presence of small amounts of other volatile material, probably antimony compounds.
With errors in manipulation corrected, it seemed desirable to test the method and gain additional experience by carrying out a few analyses on material of known composition. For this purpose some of the potassium bromide was used that had been prepared in one of the last steps of purifying bromine. A sample was dried by fusing in platinum, then dissolved in water, diluted to one liter, and a solution of 15 g. of tartaric acid added. Then the usual determinations of the ratios, potassium bromide to silver and potassium bromide to silver bromide were carried out. The results follow.
Ag AgBr
AgBr = 0.57445, it may be seen that the material contained slightly less than the required amount of bromine, unless, indeed, the tartaric acid present was preventing an accurate determination of bromide by either the volumetric or the gravimetric method. Also the ratio of silver required to silver bromide obtained checked exactly that obtained by Baxter in determining the atomic weight of bromine. The fused silver bromide was a clear amber-colored mass.
To check up still more closely the possible effect of tartaric acid two more of the volumetric determinations were carried out on potassium bromide, tartaric acid being present in one case and absent in the other. The samples were dried first by fusion in nitrogen.
a Fused AgBr not clear.
In the case of No. 1 a slight mechanical loss of silver bromide spoiled the gravimetric determination, but the silver bromide was nevertheless dried and fused in quartz to determine its appearance. As a further check 1 Richards and Mueller, /. Am. Chem. Soc., 29, 652, 654 (1907).
The exact agreement of the volumetric ratio with that of Richards and Mueller may have been somewhat fortuitous, but the data have distinct bearing on the purity of the silver. The close check of the ratio of silver bromide to silver chloride with that of Baxter, favored as it is by the fact that no transfer of material is involved in its determination, gives evidence of the purity of the silver bromide.
Furthermore, it appears from No. 2 that there may be some slight effect of tartaric acid in rendering the determination of bromide inexact, though the material was not prepared and handled throughout with the care required to assign positive significance to the difference between the two ratios 1.10326 and 1.10319, which vary from each other by less than 7 parts in 100,000. Nor is there the concordant series of analyses that would be required to establish such a difference. At its maximum, assigning full weight to the earlier determination where less care was taken to protect the material during the drying process, the error would not be over 1 part in 10,000.
failed to reveal corroborating data.
It is of interest that in recent work on the atomic weight of tin1 in which the chloride and the bromide were prepared and analyzed by methods similar in principle to the one here used, mention is made of the possibility of interference due to tartaric acid, but it is dismissed as improbable. The close agreement of the work of Brauner and Krepelka and that of Briscoe with that of Baxter and Starkweather2 establishes the fact that any error from such source must be very small.
Since a further testing out of this point would need to be supplemented by a series of tests concerning the possible influence of antimony on the nephelometric end-point if experimental completeness were to be attained, while the error in the accepted atomic weight of antimony is of gross rather than microscopic magnitude, it seemed not illogical to leave such refinements for later study.
Concerning the gravimetric determination of the ratio of potassium bromide to silver bromide in the presence of tartaric acid, it may be noted that the numercial value checks Mueller's work closely, but the fused mass
was not clear, distinct dark patches being present. This had been associated by experience with an overweight of precipitate, so the data are chiefly of value in showing the readiness with which slight impurity in the silver bromide can be recognized by obvious defects in the fused mass.
With further experience thus accumulated, with every confidence in the purity of the silver and the bromine, and with renewed assurance as to the accuracy of the volumetric determination, attention was turned to the analysis of the three carefully prepared series of antimony bromide samples.
The manipulation involved in the final analyses was not altered in any essential detail from that already described in connection with the preliminary series. The greater uniformity of results is due, undoubtedly, to increased skill in manipulation acquired during the earlier work. The slightly higher value may well be due to purer materials being combined in the preparation of these final series.
Final Analyses. — Series B and D were prepared from antimony obtained by reducing the oxide in hydrogen. Series C was prepared from antimony obtained by fusing the oxide with sodium cyanide.
Average 1.117037 121.767
° Silver bromide showed dark specks when fused. Average of 11 vol. del. = 121.777. Average of 11 grav. det. = 121.753. Average of 8 grav. det. = 121.768. Average of 11 vol. det. and 11 grav. det. = 121.765. Average of 11 vol. det. and 8 grav. det. = 121.773.
0.641602 121.722 0.574377
Series B was from Preparation I of antimony (reduced in quartz). A total of 7 bulbs was collected, the first and last being discarded. The numbers in the series represent the bulbs in the order in which they were filled. No. 2 was spoiled in the analysis.
Series D was from Preparation II of antimony (reduced on a lime support). A total of 9 bulbs was collected. No first sample was discarded. The numbers in the series represent the bulbs in the order in which they were filled. No. 2 was lost in the analysis.
Series C was from Preparation III of antimony. A total of 10 bulbs was filled, Nos. 5 and 6 being lost in sealing up. No first sample was discarded. The numbers in the series represent the bulbs in the order in which they were filled.
It is noted that the volumetric result on each sample is checked more closely by the corresponding gravimetric result, when the fused silver bromide was clear, than by the other volumetric results within the series. Therefore, it seems proper to refer the small variations among the different samples, less to the analytical process following the filtering of the solutions, than to slight deviations in accuracy of weighing, in accuracy of applying vacuum corrections and in accuracy of the whole manipulation from the breaking of the bulb to the washing of the glass.
It is customary to attempt to reduce the magnitude of individual errors to one part in 100,000. Assuming that the volumetric determinations are slightly more accurate than the gravimetric determinations, it is to be observed that the maximum variation among the ratios calculated for SbBr3 : 3Ag is from 1.11715 (maximum) to 1.11699 (minimum), a variation of 14.3 parts in 100,000. With the complexity of manipulation involved in the analytical procedure, this may be regarded as representing a concordance comparing favorably with other atomic weight work of the present day.
The mean of Series B varies from that of Series D by 5.2 parts in 100,000, while the average of Series B and D varies from the mean of Series C by only 0.27 part in 100,000.
In calculating atomc weights from analytical data of the halide to silver or silver halide type, it is to be noted that variation in the ratio is multiplied by the valence of the metal. The 11 volumetric determinations average 121.777 with a so-called "probable error" of 0.003, while the 8 acceptable gravimetric determinations average 121.768 with a "probable error" of 0.004.
many years been based on the work of Cooke in which a material, given
the formula SbBr3, was analyzed for bromine; it is peculiarly of interest that in the work here reported a material of the same assigned formula has been studied. Careful examination of Cooke's paper makes it evident that the difference must be assigned chiefly to the compositions of the materials studied rather than to later refinements of the analytical process. Cooke's method of preparation included repeated distillation from metallic antimony, several recrystallizations from carbon disulfide, and repeated fractional distillation. In the last work this product was twice sublimed in a current of carbon dioxide. In the earlier work the recrystallized material was analyzed. The average results were the same, though the variations were large in the earlier work. The description of the whole process, however, shows that all handling of material involved exposure to air and that, in the earlier part of the preparation, there was considerable opportunity for the absorption of moisture. Furthermore, while the carbon dioxide used in the process of sublimation is described as "absolutely dry," careful search fails to reveal the use of drying agents other than sulfuric acid followed by calcium chloride. Nor is any statement made as to method of drying, distilling flasks, receivers, etc. Aside, therefore, from carbon disulfide, used in the recrystallization, the chief difference between the preparation by Cooke and that just described would appear to lie in the relative exposure to moisture.
In the work just completed, probably greater care has been taken in the drying of the initial materials and apparatus than has been described in the recent work on the halides of phosphorus and of tin where the results of analyses have been regarded as entirely trustworthy.
and knowing the readiness with which complex bromides are formed, it is possible that the process of crystallization and distillation may leave a product containing a small amount of hydrobromic acid. During the sublimation this may again condense with the crystals in the receiver; or from incomplete drying of the carbon dioxide, a trace of moisture interacting with the molten antimony bromide may supply extra hydrogen bromide such that the amount retained by the sublimate is the same as that in the original material.
Summary.
In an all-glass apparatus, 3 preparations of antimony were combined with bromine, the resulting product twice distilled under a pressure of 5 to 10 mm. while gaseous materials could yet be removed, then distilled a third time under less than one mm. pressure into a series of small bulbs which were sealed off from each other as individual samples. From the time the pure dry materials were placed in the apparatus till the bulbs were broken under tartaric acid solution, only inert gases came into contact with the preparation. The resulting product was analyzed for bromine in two ways; first, by finding the amount of silver equivalent to the sample in the usual way; second, by adding excess of silver nitrate, then filtering out and weighing the silver bromide. Precautions taken and corrections applied include all described within recent years in similar work. In eleven analyses a total of 46.76580 g. of antimony bromide required 41.86463 g. of silver and formed 72.88245 g. of silver bromide. The ratios are 1.117074 and 0.641611, from which the respective values for the atomic weight of antimony would be 121.799 and 121.755. If for the antimony bromide to silver bromide ratio samples C-IV, D-I and D-II are omitted since in these cases the fused silver bromide did not give a clear mass, the weights would be 35.69757 g. of antimony bromide to 55.63121 g, of silver bromide, corresponding to an atomic weight of 121 . 767. The ratios of silver to silver bromide are 0 . 574413 and 0 . 574427, according to whether the imperfect silver bromide determinations are included or omitted. Baxter's determinations of this ratio gave 0.57445. Averaging the volumetric results for the 11 samples with the gravimetric results for 8 samples, the most probable atomic weight for antimony (assuming Ag = 107.880) becomes 121.773.
| 12,059 | common-pile/pre_1929_books_filtered | revisionofatomic00mcalrich | public_library | public_library_1929_dolma-0003.json.gz:2300 | https://archive.org/download/revisionofatomic00mcalrich/revisionofatomic00mcalrich_djvu.txt |
Jmkit4Q1N4Xb36Zf | Scenes from every land; a collection of 250 illustrations from the National geographic magazine, picturing the people, natural phenomena, and animal life in all parts of the world. With one map and a short bibliography of gazetteers, atlases, and books descriptive of foreign countries and natural history / Ed. by Gilbert H. Grosvenor. | The Daughter of a Maori Girl and White Man
The Maoris are in many respects the most remarkable savages with whom the white man has come in contact. Fifty years ago cannibalistic feasts, at which the flesh of their fallen enemies was served, were not uncommon. Today several members of their race are members of the New Zealand Parliament, and Maori women, as well as the white women of New Zealand, exercise the right to vote (see page 36). NaT. Geog. Mag., 1907, p. 197.
A COLLECTION OF 250 ILLUSTRATIONS FROM THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE. PICTURING THE PEOPLE. NATURAL PHENOMENA, AND ANIMAL LIFE IN ALL PARTS OF THE WORLD. WITH ONE MAP AND A SHORT BIBLIOGRAPHY OF GAZETTEERS. ATLASES. AND BOOKS DESCRIPTIVE OF FOREIGN COUNTRIES AND NATURAL HISTORY.
>^HE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY Vi^ was organized and incorporated under the law^s of the District of Columbia January 27, 1 888. Its object is the increase and diffusion of geographic knowledge, which it accomplishes by-
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I^N January, 1902, the House of Representatives, by a vote of 307 to 2, passed the bill authorizing the construcJ tion of the Nicaragua Canal. The people had become 1 impatient of the many years' debate as to which canal route should be selected, and it looked as if the Senate would also adopt the Nicaragua project and the country be definitely committed to a canal lined by volcanoes. One morning when the Senate assembled the members were somewhat surprised to behold several large maps hanging in prominent places in the Senate chamber. Senator Hanna, of Ohio, who had previously announced that he was to speak that day, presently appeared, and with a large pointer demonstrated the belt of volcanoes extending from Mont Pelee, Martinique, through Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Guatemala, and Mexico. He pointed to no less than 25 bordering the Nicaragua Canal Zone, of which several were active volcanoes in the Nicaragua Lake or in the proposed canal itself. That forcible lesson in common geography was one of the most persuasive factors in determining the choice of the Panama route.
The reader must not infer from the preceding introduction that this modest collection of illustrations has any great mission to perform. They are simply a few of the pictures that have appeared in the National GEOGRAPHIC Magazine; during the past five years, and are reprinted in this volume in answer to the many requests received from readers. They serve, however, to emphasize the purpose for which the National Geographic Society exists, namely, "the increase and diffusion of geographic knowledge," and to illustrate one of the means by which this remarkable organization accomplishes its object. Its principal agent for diffusing geographic knowledge is the National Geographic Magazine, in which it publishes many substantial and thoughtful articles from its members, of whom it has many thousands, distributed in every part of the world. The Society endeavors to make geography interesting, and thus to stimulate the public to a better knowledge of the earth on which we live.
Probably no other study is at once so entertaining and so beneficial, because of its broadening influence and practical value, as the study of geography. One reason that President Roosevelt has such a keen appreciation of the needs of all sections of the United States is that he has made it his business to study the geographical conditions of every section. From geographical history he knows that ruthless
devastation of forests and reckless overgrazing are followed by deserts, and that therefore forest reserves and grazing restrictions are necessary to protect our future prosperity. His devotion to the Isthmian Canal, to the government irrigation works, involving millions of dollars, to the development of our unrivaled waterways, and to the preservation of our natural resources, are largely inspired by his constant study of the map and geographical history and geographical relations.
Great Britain's success in acquiring the choicest portions of the globe is partially explained by the fact that her statesmen have usually kept ■a good map and secret reports of reliable explorers before them when -a "partition" or adjustment of boundaries was in progress; while the rapid development of Germany's foreign commerce in recent years emphasizes the truth that a knowledge of other nations and other peoples is as essential to the success of a nation nowadays as an understanding of other men is necessary to the success of the individual.
But geography has also its lighter side. The returned traveler always finds at home an audience appreciative of his tales of strange sights in foreign lands. That same trait in human nature which makes gossiping about our neighbor's family so popular makes us eager to hear about the customs and manner of life of other peoples. The world has become so small that we are now "a. family of nations," who gossip about one another, and if we cannot exchange visits, we can at least read about each other, and, better still, barter photographs.
All the pictures in this collection have previously appeared in the Natignal Geographic Magazine;; so that those who desire further information can turn to the original number of the Magazine.
The Obelisk of Pelee, Martinique
This photograph was taken by the late Prof. Angelo Heilprin, of Yale University, from the crater rim on June 13, 1903, looking north-northwest. The great pufifs of steam issue from the contact zone between the obelisk and the "dome" (seen in the lower part of the picture), which envelop its base. This peculiar and striking tower was thrust up through the throat of the volcano to a height of 1,000 feet during the 12 months following the great eruption of May 8, 1902; it has since crumbled to pieces. Scientists do not agree as to its formation. Professor Heilprin, who made four journeys to Mont Pelee, believed that it was an ancient volcanic core which was dislodged from its moorings and lifted bodily by the volcanic activity beneath. Others maintain that the tower was formed of fresh lava rising up the throat of the volcano, and that this lava hardened immediately after exposure to the air, Nat. Geog. Mac, 1906, p. 466.
Statue of Our Lady of the Watch, Saint Pierre
Though weighing several tons, it was hurled 50 feet by the terrific blast from Mont Pelee, May 8, 1902. It is a vivid illustration of the power of the "horrible black cloud" which swept down from Mont Pelee, 6 miles distant, and in 3 minutes annihilated the 30,000 inhabitants of Saint Pierre. Photo by the late Prof. Israel C. Russell, of the University of Michigan. NaT. Geog. Mag., 1902, p. 250.
Scenes from the Philippine Islands
Tinguianes. — r. Girl spinning. 2. Young woman in typical dress. 3. Woman and child. 4. Girl operating cotton gin. This series of Filipino pictures is from the "Census of the Philippine Islands," by Gen. J. P. Sanger, U. S. A., and Messrs Henry Gannett and Victor H. Olmsted. Nat. Geog. Mag., 1905, p. 163. (24)
I. Native woman with Negrito blood (Remontado). 2. Young man (Remontado). 3, Girl (Remontado). 4. Native man with Negrito blood (Remontado). 5. Girl (Gaddan).. 6. Woman (Gaddan). Nat. Geog. Mag., 1905, p. 165. (26)
Adult Negrito Woman Compared to an American of Average Size
The Negritos are physical and mental weaklings, and are rapidly disappearing. They are found in the interior of all the larger islands of the Philippines, and are generally supposed to have been the first inhabitants of the islands, having come from New Guinea. They hide in the mountain forests, where they were driven by later invaders. There are about 30.000 of them left. They live on the fruits and tubers which they find in the forest, and like the pigmies of Africa kill their game with poisoned arrows. N.at. Geog. M.\g., 1903. p. 209.
A Chief of the Gaddanes, Isabela, Luzon
The various non-Christian tribes in the archipelago comprise about 2,000,000 people. They cover northern Luzon, Mindoro, Palawan, and the great island of Mindanao. Some of them, like the Negritos, are comparatively harmless, while others, like the Gaddanes, are fierce and hard to control. It is said that head-hunting is still practiced by the Gaddanes, and that a young man of this tribe cannot find a bride until he has at least one head to his credit. Nat. Geog. Mag., 1903, p. 208.
Two New Guinea Dandies
Notice their tight-laced waists and the nose ornaments of polished shell. Among the men, both highland and lowland, the great symbol of dandyism is the "chimani," or nose ornament. This is made from a section of a shell about ^ of an inch thick in the middle, and tapering most beautifully toward the ends. It is accurately made, perfectly round and polished, and a good example would be about a span long. A fine "chimani" very often has two black rings painted round it, about i inch distant from the end. These things are manufactured by the coast people, and they drift by exchange through the whole country. Very few young blades can afford to possess one, and accordingly it may be lent, either for a consideration or as a very special favor. The possessor of one of these ornaments could easily buy a wife for it, and sometimes it is paid as a tribal tribute by one who may have to pay blood-money or is unable to give the statutory pig as atonement for a murder. Photo by A. E. Pratt, from "Two Years Among the New Guinea Cannibals" (J. B. Lippincott Co.). Nat. Geog. Mag., 1907.
When the English first occupied New Zealand, in the early part of the nineteenth century, it is estimated that there were about 100,000 Maoris in the islands. They were divided into tribes, each tribe having its own unwritten laws regarding land, cultivation, and other social matters. The tribes were constantly fighting. The English found that they had a genius for Avar, showing unusual ability in building, fortifying, and defending stockades, and they experienced considerable difficulty in subduing them. Nat. Geog. Mag., 1907, p. 191. (36)
There are about 35,000 Maoris left in New Zealand. These have retired to the northern provinces, where certain "reservations" have been set apart as their exclusive property. Schools have been established which the Maori children attend regularly. It is said that such of them as continue into the higher branches of learning are worthy rivals of white students. Some of the Maoris have become large landed proprietors; they are proud of their right to vote, and especially of the fact that their women were given this privilege at the same time that it was given to the white women of New Zealand, in 1893. Nat. Geog. Mag., 1907, p. 196.
The Wandering Albatross
One of the best soaring birds in existence. The wings are very narrow in proportion to their length. The tail is short, broad, and stumpy, and the center of gravity of the bird is •carried so far forward that one would naturally expect it to tumble head downwards into the sea. Yet it is an excellent glider, spending most of its time in the air upon motionless outspread wings without a flap. Photo from Capt. ^Robert F. Scott. Nat. Geog. Mag.. 1907, p. 108.
The Giant Spider Crab from Japan
This fine specimen of the largest of all Crustaceans, the Giant Spider Crab, Kcempfcria (Macrocheira) kcempferi de Haan, which measures somewhat over 12 feet between the tips of its outstretched claws, has recently been placed on exhibition at the American Museum of Natural History (New York) by the Department of Invertebrate Zoology. This animal is known to occur to a depth of over 2,000 feet in the seas off the coast of Japan. The largest specimen in any collection is said to be that in the British Museum. It has a spread of 18 feet. Even larger .specimens are, however, occasionally captured. One is recorded to have had a spread of 22 feet. The specimen in the American Museum is from Miura-Misaki, and was secured by Professor Bashford Dean, of Columbia University. NaT. Geog. M.\g., 1907, p. 280.
Nothing so diverts the newcomer in Japan as the babies on the backs of mothers and older children. If one baby riding pig-a-back is quaint and funny, twin babies are more than twice as droll. Photo from Miss Eliza R. Scidmore. Nat. Geog. Mag., 1907, p. 260.
This group of monkevs represents a favorite maxim of the Japanese, "See no Evil, Speak no Evil, Hear no Evil," and was carved by a famous left-handed Japanese sculptor. The group appears above the gate of one of the temples at Nikko. Photo from Alexander Graham Bell. Nat. Geog. Mag., 1904, p. 225.
Tower of Silence, Bombay, in which the Parsees expose their dead to be devoured by vultures. Note the vultures watching on the tower wall. Photo from U. S. Consul General! Thomas E. Fee, of Bombay. Nat. Geog. Mag., 1905, p. 540.
Manchu Ladv and Her Son
The long Manchn gown, reaching to the feet, and the short overjacket make that costume the most dignified and becoming of any in China. The broad hairpin, wound with strands of satin-smooth black hair and finished with great bunches of flowers, is a most becoming headdress, and when covered with jewels and hung with 12-inch tassels of pearls, as for the imperial princesses, the result is more splendid than that of any tiara, coronet, or crown. Photo from Miss Eliza R. Scidmore. Nat. Geog. Mag., 1907, p. 269. (52)
The ten-year old bridegroom, in cloth of gold turban, coat covered with jewels, rides in a palki, suspended from a silver arch or yoke, hung with red velvet and silver tassels. The body of the car is all tinsel and silver and velvet, and carried by coolies of the shabbiest clothing. All the family, in all the finery they own or can hire, attend the parade through the streets, and singing and dancing girls give performances whenever the procession halts. Photos from Miss Eliza R. Scidmore. NaT. Geog. Mac, 1907, p. 257. (62)
King and Queen of Burma
King Thebaw of Burma and his blood-thirsty Queen Soupayalat, who brought about his downfall in 1885 and the annexation of Burma by England. The royal pair are framed in one of the wonderfully carved teak entrances to the Shive Dagon Pagoda at Rangoon. Photo from Miss Eliza R. Scidmore. Nat. Geog. Mag., 1907, p. 268.
Siamese Prince in Full Regalia of Jewels
There is no age limit to the wearing of jewels in the gorgeous East, and baby princes, clad in a mail of gold brocade crested over with pearls and colored stones and glittering with pin points of diamonds from cap to toe, are fit occupants of jeweled thrones. Photo from Miss Eliza R. Scidmore. Nat. Geog. Mag., 1907, p. 270. (64)
Siamese Woman in National Dress
The people of Siam cling to their native dress, and prince and peasant, men and women, alike wear the panung, which is the Mala}' sarong drawn up between knees and tucked in the belt until it looks like a pair of very full knickerbockers. Princes wear military jackets and long silk stockings with the panung. Ladies of high degree wear Parisian blouses with the panung, while the women of the people adopt the loose Chinese jacket or retain the native scarf over the shoulder like this figure. Photo from jVIiss Eliza R. Scidmore. Nat. Geog. Mag., 1907, p. 271.
A Parsee Bride and Groom
A promising barrister-at-law of Bombay, with his handsome bride. The Parsees are the •most interesting people of Asia. They are followers of Zarathustra and descendants of the ancient Persians who emigrated to India on the conquest of their countrj' by the Arabs, about 720 A. D., and, though.numbering but a few thousand among the three hundred million Indians, have preserved their individuality during the twelve centuries. The Parsees are much more generous in their treatment of women than any other Asiatic race, allowing them to appear freely in public. They are proverbial for their benevolence and hospitality and their keen business ability and integrity. Photo from U .S. Consul Thomas E. Fee, Bombay. Nat. Geog. Mag., 1905, p. 541.
Javanese Mother and ChiM
The Javanese baby rides astride of its mother's hip, like the Hindu baby, but its weight is supported by the slandang, a scarf of battck, or painted muslin. It Hes comfortabh- in this cotton cradle, able to sleep and relax without any attention from the mother, who has both hands free for work. Photo from Miss Eliza R. Scidmore. NaT. Geog. ]Mag.. 1907, p. 266. {72)
Alother and Child, Ceylon
The Dutch or the Portuguese gave the Cingalese women the decollete jacket they wear in combination with the native sarong. Photo from Miss Eliza R. Scidmore. Nat. Geog. Mag., 1907, p. 250.
Cingalese Children
The little children have no need of other clothing than a few necklaces, in their greenhouse home of Ceylon. As an extra decoration, the little black brother has usually two vaccination marks on his arm. Photo by Miss Eliza R. Scidmore. Nat. Geog.
Scenes in the Persian Gulf
I. A group of Mohammedans on a pilgrimage to Berbela. 2. Returning to the steamer at Jask, Persia. 3. As there are no trees, and hence no wood, on the shores of the Persian Gulf, the boats are made of the mid-ribs of the leaves of the date pahn. Such a boat is really a raft, it being impossible to keep out the water. Photos by David Fairchild, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Nat. Geog. Mag., 1904, p. 141.
I. A slave boy; his heavy anklets and bracelets are signs that he is held in bondage. 2. A date merchant at Bnsra." on the Persian Gulf. 3. A mosque in Bagdad, on the Tigris River. 4. A woman of Muscat, showing the peculiar veil used by the women of that region. The veil is elaborately embroidered. Photos by David Fairchild, U. S. Department of Agriculture. N.\T. Geog. M.\g., 1904, p. 149.
A Sand Dvine Advancing Across the Desert of Central Asia
It can be stated without exaggeration that in Central Asia, particularly in Russian Turkestan, there are hundreds, perhaps thousands, of square miles of cities and towns that have been buried by sand dunes like that shown in this picture. Science cannot satisfactorily explain what processes of nature or man converted this region from a Garden of Eden, filled with millions of prosperous and wealthy people, into waterless wastes inhabited only by nomads. Photos by Prof. William M. Davis, Carnegie Institution. Nat. Geog. Mag.. 1905, p. 504.
Carved out of the brilliant many-hued sandstone cliff. Petra was built in a cup-like depression among the mountains near the borders of Syria and Arabia. Practically all the buildings were carved out of the rocky sides of the depression. Every person and everything entering the city, which numbered several hundred thousand people, was obliged to pass through a cleft in the mountains, nearly 2 miles long, from 12 to 40 feet wide, and between perpendicular cliffs from 200 to 600 feet high. Photo by Prof. Myers and Dr Franklin E. Hoskins. Nat. Geog. Mac, 1907, p. 286.
The Edwin Natural Bridge of San Juan County, Utah
This bridge is smaller than the Augusta, but its span is twice as great as the famous Natural Bridge of Virginia. Illustrations from Century Magazine. Copyrighted by the Century Co. The bridges were discovered by Horace J. Long in 1903. Nat. Geog. Mag., 1904, p. 368.
Messrs Frederick V. Coville and T. J. MacDougal, the authors of this photograph, give the following description of seeing a Papago Indian quench his thirst in the desert: He cut the top from a plant about five feet high, and with a blunt stake of palo verde pounded to a pulp the upper six or eight inches of white flesh in the standing trunk. From this, handful by handful, he squeezed the water into the bowl he had made in the top of the trunk, throwmg the discarded pulp on the ground. By this process he secured two or three quarts of clear water, slightly salty and slightly bitter to the taste, but of far better quality than some of the water a desert traveler is occasionally compelled to use. The Papago, dipping this water up in his hands, drank it with evident pleasure, and said that his people were accustomed not only to secure their drinking water in this way in times of extreme drouth, but that they used it also to mix their meal preparatory to cooking it into bread. Photo from the Carnegie Institution. Nat. Geog. Mag., 1904, p. 158. (98)
Tehipite Canyon, in Sierra Nevada
From a point 4,000 feet above the river. The clean white granite walls rise from 3,000 to 4,000 feet above the level floor. Photo by Dr G. K. Gilbert, .U. .S. Geological Survey, from "Alpina Americana." NaT, Geog. Mag., 1907, p. 212.
Country Women Tramping into Kief, Russia, with the Morning Supply of Milk
A heavy weight is carried uncomplainingly with the help of the pall over the shoulders to which the milk-jars are attached. These women do the heaviest part of the farm work, milking at daybreak or earlier, and often walking five or six miles to deliver their wares. Very few of them can read or write. Photo and copyright by Underwood & Underwood, New York. Nat. Geog. Mag., 1905, p. 328.
Monk Ascending to the Monasteries of the Air, Greece, by Means of Net and Windlass
These monasteries (Saint Barlaam) are built on top of a precipitous mount lo miles from the Macedonian frontier. All visitors and supplies must ascend by this rope, which is 300 feet long, or by a series of ladders. Photo and copyright by Underwood & Underwood, New York. Nat. Geog. Mag., 1906, p. 19.
Mapimoth Recovered from Northern vSiberia
The specimen had been preserved in the frozen soil of the tundra of Siberia so perfectly that after countless centuries the flesh and hair appeared almost as fresh as if the animal had been dead only a few hours. The average size of the mammoth appears to have been about the same as that of the existing species of elephants, but nature had provided it with a dense clothing of long, coarse,' outer hair and close, under, wooly hair of a reddish brown color, in order that it might be equipped for the cold climate of its habitat.
The geographical range of the mammoth was very extensive. There is scarcely a count>in England in which some of its remains have not been found, either in alluvial deposits of gravel or in caverns. Its remains have been found throughout central Europe, northern Asia, and the northern part of the American continent, though the exact distribution of the animal in the new world is still undetermined. The mammoth belongs to the post-Tertiary or Pleistocene epoch of geologists, and was undoubtedly contemporaneous with man in many places. It probably existed in Britain before, during, and after the Glacijil period.
Many remains of this huge beast have been found in Siberia, and it is stated that for a very long period there has been a regular export of mammoth ivory from that region for commercial purposes. Nordenskiold, who had special opportunities for studying the subject; of the mammoth during his northeast passage, states that more than 100 pairs of mammoth tusks have come into the market yearly during the last 200 years. The Siberian shore between the mouth of the Obi River and Bering Strait and the Arctic islands to the north were reported by him to contain the relics of many thousands of mammoths. Nat. Geog. Mag.^ 1907, p. 620.
A Peasant Berber Woman with Her Chilch Coming into Tangier along the Beach
The Berbers are a purely white race and form about two-thirds of the population of Morocco. They are the Aborigines of Morocco, and antedated Phoenician. Carthaginian, Roman, Gothic, Byzantine, and Arab occupation by many centuries. Certain ethnologists maintain that the main part of the population of the Mediterranean basin was derived from these Berbers, and not, as commonly supposed, from successive invasions of Caucasians. Photo from Mr Ion Perdicaris. Nat. Geog. M.\g.. 1906, p. 127.
One of the Gates of Kano
During the last S years the British have been extending a firm control over Northern Nigeria, a territory of 500,000 square miles and containing a population of 20,000,000. Organized slave raiding and flourishing slave markets have been stopped, and it is believed a productive and rich commercial field opened to English capital. The fact that Northern Nigeria is almost the only part of British tropical Africa which possesses a history extending over many centuries and a semi-civilization of its own long antedating the coming of the European give the region unique interest. Its most interesting city is Kano, which, like Timbuktu, for centuries was one of the mysterious cities of Northern Africa. It is surrounded by stupendous walls, 30 to 50 feet high and 40 feet thick at the base, with a double ditch in front. Their perimeter is 11 miles, with 13 massive gates. The houses are of solid mud, with flat roofs, impervious to fire, and lasting through the centuries. The great market is said to contain a floating population of 30,000, for many caravan roads converge in the city, which has a total population of 100,000. Photos from Sir Frederick Lugard and the Geographical Journal. NaT. Geog. Mag., 1904, p. 435. (146)
Young pelicans protesting against the camera, Indian River, Florida.
Flashlight of albino porcupine pictured on four successive seasons in the same bay, White Fish Lake. The second of its kind ever reported. Photos and copyright by George Shiras, 3rd. The following series of pictures by Mr Shiras are all of wild game, none of the animals having been photographed in parks or reservations. Nat. Geog. Mag., 1906, pp. 393 and 409.
Flashlight. Snowy Owl. By George Shiras, 3rd
White Fish River, Michigan. Author was looking for deer. Flash held in one hand and camera in the other. The owl fell 15 feet into the water, swore like a trooper, and waded ashore. Nat. Geog. Mag., 1906, p. 419.
Native Method of Coagulating the Milk of the Rubber Tree, Central America
I. Spreading milk on Calathaea leaf; a leaf already coated shown at the right, lying in the sun to coagulate the rubber. 2. Pressing the two coated leaves together to unite the two sheets of rubber. 3. Pulling the leaf away from the rubber. 4. The finished sample of rubber, marked by the veins of the leaf. Photos by O. F. Cook, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Nat. Geog.' Mag., 1903, p. 411.
ian ill the New World
One need not go to India to see the picturesque Hindus. In our own part of the world, in Trinidad, are over lococo transphuited East Indians, and in British and Dutch Guiana are also large numbers. They were brought over by the British government as indentured laborers to work on the sugar estates, and have kept their home customs, their dress, and religion. Photo from Mrs Harriet Chalmers Adams. NaT. Geog. Mag., 1907, p. 490.
Llamas and Their Driver, a Native Indian of Inca Descent
These tough little beasts are akin to the Arabian camel an,d are used commonly for beasts of burden on rough mountain roads in the Andes. They can carry loo pounds apiece and travel nearly all day, picking up their food as they go along in the form of wayside grass, twigs, etc. Photo and copyright by Underwood & Underwood, of New York. Nat. Geog. Mag., 1907, p. 90.
The latest French airship, "La Patrie," is 33^/^ feet in diameter by 196 feet long, and has a capacity of 111,195 cubic feet. Driven by a 70-horsepower motor and two propellers, this dirigible has recently made about 30 miles an hour. Its lifting capacity is 2,777 pounds.
The peculiar arrangement of twin, hydrogen-filled cylinders forms a sort of balancing tail. This airship has a length of 60 meters (196.85 feet) and a diameter of 10.8 meters (35.43 feet), while its capacity is 3,000 cubic meters (105,943 cubic feet). Its propellers are placed on either side of the body framework or "nacelle," and at about the center of the latter, which is boat-shaped. The weight which can be carried, outside of the equipment and the fuel sufficient for a ten hours' run, is about 1,100 pounds. A 70-horsepower Panhard motor is used. Photos from "Scientific American." Nat. Geog. Mag., 1907, p. 30.
Flying in a lo-niile breeze, and supporting a man on the flying rope. During the experiment the rope straightened under the pull of the kite, and the man was raised to a height of 30 or 40 feet He was in great peril, but fortunately was brought down safely. The whole kite including the man, weighed about 131 kgs. (288 pounds), and its greatest length from side to side was 6 meters at the top and 3 meters at the bottom. This is the only instance known to the Editor of a man supported in the air by a single kite. Baden-Powell and others who have been supported in air by kites have used a tandem of kites to get the necessary lifting power. Photo by Dr Bell. Nat. Geog. Mag., 1907, p. I7-
THE WORLD
EVERY day the National Geographic Society and its Magazine receive inquiries for good books or atlases, and to such at least it is hoped that the following bibliography will be of service. So brief a list must necessarily be incomplete, but it aims to give one or more reliable and interesting works on each of the principal countries of the world. As the object has been to list only those hooks that are easily obtainable, books in foreign languages have been omitted, as such works are difficult to secure in America. G. H. G.
"In Darkest Africa:" The Quest, Rescue, and Retreat of Emin, Governor of Equatoria. Henry M. Stanley. Scribner. 2 vols.
East Africa, Portuguese : The History, Scenery, and Great Game of Maurice and Sofala. R. C. F. Maugham. E. P. Dutton.
ward Stanford. London.
South Africa. See "Diamond Mines of South Africa." Gardiner F. WiUiams. B. F. Buck. 2 vols. Best account of history and development of South Africa. See "Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa." David Livingstone. "The Zambesi and its Tributaries." David Livingstone. "Last Journals of David Livingstone, 18651874." Harper.
Scribner.
West Africa, Fetichism in: Forty Years' Observation of Native Customs and Superstitions. Rev. Robert Hamill Nassau. Scribner.
Alaska : A Record of Harriman Alaska Expedition. Edited by C. Hart Merriam. Doubleday, Page. II vols. Vols, i and 2, sold separately from the set, give a comprehensive description of scenery, animal life, people, resources, etc., of Alaska.
Scott.
Antarctic Continent. See "Voyage of the Discovery." Capt. Robert F. Scott. Scribner. The best description of South Polar conditions published.
Antarctic Night, Through the First. 1898-1899: A Narrative of the Voyage of the Belgica Among Newly Discovered Lands and Over an Unknown Sea About the South Pole. Frederick A. Cook. Doubleday and McClure Co.
The White World. By Famous Living
Explorers. Lewis Scribner & Co. Three Years of Arctic Service : An account of the Lady Franklin Bay Expedition. A. W. Greely. Scribner. 2 vols. Arizona : In and Around the Grand Canyon of the Colorado River. George Wharton James. Little, Brown & Co. Armenia. H. F. B. Lynch. Longmans. Asia and Tibet, Central, Towards the Holy City of Lhasa. Sven Hedin. Scribner. 2 vols.
J. T. Bealby. Harper.
Athens, Modern. George Horton. Scribner. Australasia. Alfred R. Wallace. Scribner. Australia Cannibals, Among. Carl Lumholtz. • Scribner.
Century Co.
Canada. Painted by T. M. Martin. Macmillan. Canadian Rockies. W. D. Wilcox. Putnam. Canadian Rockies, Camp-fires in the. William
America." W. E. Curtis. Harper. Central America. See "Spanish American Republics." Theodore Child. Harper. Central America. See "Handbooks of Bureau
Storey. Longmans.
Chile. G. F. Scott Elliot. Scribner. Chile, Temperate. W. A. Smith. Macmillan. Chile, The Republic of. Marie Robinson
gether with an Account of the Boxer War.
James Harrison Wilson. Appleton. China, Village Life in. A. H. Smith. Revell. China. See "American Diplomacy in the
tjie Dark Continent." H. M. Stanley. Harper. Congo Free State. H. W. Wack. Putnam. Congo, Pioneering on the. W. H. Bentley.
Macmillan Co.
Egypt to Palestine. S. C. Bartlett. Harper. Egypt, Present-day. F. C. Pentield. Century. Egypt, Burmah, and British Malaysia. W. E.
die. Macmillan.
Florence. Painted by R. C. Goff. Macmillan. Formosa. James W. Davidson. Macmillan. Formosa, Japanese Rule in. Yosaburo Take-
ing on the. J. W. Collie. Scribner.
Himalaya Mountains. See "Ice World of the Himalaya." W. H. and F. B. Workman. "Round Kanchenjunga." Douglas W. Freshfield. Longmans.
India, Winter. Eliza R. Scidmore. Century.
India. Sec "Through Town and Jungle :" Fourteen Thousand Miles a-Wheel Among the Temples and People of the Indian Plain. William Hunter Workman and Fanny Bullock Workman. Scribner.
India. See "In Famine Land :" Observations and Experiences in India During the Great Drought of 1899-19CO. J. E. Scott. F. H. Revell.
Netherlands. See Holland.
New Guinea. See "Savage South Seas." Painted by Norman H. Hardy. Macmillan. New Guinea Cannibals, Two Years Among.
A. E. Pratt. J. B. Lippincott. New Hebrides. See "Fiji and its Possibilities." Beatrice Grimshaw. Doubleday, Page & Co. New Hebrides. See "The Savage South Seas." Painted by Norman H. Hardy. Macmillan. New Zealand, or Newest England. Henry Demarest Lloyd. Doubleday, Page & Co. New Zealand, Old. F. E. Maning. Macmillan. Nigeria : Our Latest Protectorate. C. H. Robinson. Marshall.
ston. F. A. Stokes.
"The Albert Nyanza, Great Basin of the Nile and Explorations of the Nile Sources." Sir Samuel Baker. Macmillan. "Journal of the Discovery of the Source of the Nile" (2 vols.), and "What Led to the Discovery of the Source of the Nile." John H. Speke. "A Walk Across Africa." J. A. Grant. Normandy. Nico Jungman. Macmillan. Normandy, Sketches from. Louis Becke. Lippincott. Northeast Passage : The Voyage of the Vega Round Asia and Europe; With a Historical Review of Previous Journeys Along the North Coast of the Old World. A. E. Nordenskiold. Macmillan.
Orient, Edge of the. R. H. Russell. Scribner.
Orient, The Heart of the : Saunterings Through Georgia, Armenia, Persia, Turkomania, and Turkestan, to the Vale of Paradise. Michael Myers Shoemaker. Putnam.
Scenes from Every Land
Panama to Patagonia: The Isthmian Canal and the West Coast Countries of South America. Charles M. Pepper. McClurg.
Dean C. Worcester. Macmillan.
Philippine Islands. Census of 1903. Geography, History, Population, etc. By Gen. J. P. Sanger, Henry Gannett, and Victor H. Olmsted. 4 vols. U. S. Bureau of the Census, Washington. A complete summary.
. See Arctics and Antarctics.
Polo, the Venetian : The Book of Ser Marco, Concerning the Kingdoms and Marvels of the East. Translated and edited, with notes, by Colonel Sir Henry Yule. Scribner.
Russias, All the: Travels and Studies in Contemporary European Russia, Finland, Siberia, the Caucasus, and Central Asia. Henry Norman. Scribner.
Longmans.
South America, A Commercial Traveller in : Being the Experiences and Impressions of an American Business Man on a Trip through Panama, Ecuador, Peru, Chile, The Argentine Republic. Frank Wiborg. McClure, Phillips & Co.
Vincent. Appleton.
South America, Speeches Incident to the Visit of Secretary Root to, July 4 to September 30, 1906. Government Printing Office. 1906.
ner. 2 vols.
Tibet, The Opening of: An Account of Lhasa and the Country and People of Central Tibet and of the Progress of the Mission Sent there by the English Government in the Year 1903-04. Percival Landon. Doubleday, Page & Co.
Baedeker's Guidebooks and Murray's Foreign Handbooks, imported by Charles Scribner's Sons, cover every travelled part of the world.
5. North America.
Stanford's Compendium of Geography and Travel. J. B. Lippincott Co. Each volume contains maps and illustrations.
A. H. Keane.
Central and South America. Vol. H. — Central America, the West Indies, and the Guianas. By A. H. Keane, F. R. G. S. The Earth and its Inhabitants. By Elisee •Reclus. Translated and edited by Prof. E. G. Ravenstein and A. H. Keane. Silver, Burdett & Co.
Contents : North America, 3 vols. — South America, 2 vols. — Europe, 5 vols. — Asia, 4 vols. — Africa, 4 vols; — Oceanica (Australasia), I vol.
Around the World on a Bicycle. Vol 1 : From San Francisco to Teheran. Vol. 2: From Teheran to Yokohama. Thomas Stevens. Scribner.
Slocum. Scribner.
Journal of Researches during the Voyage Round the World of H. M. S. Beagle. Charles Darwin. Murray. For abridgements see "Naturalist's Voyage Around the World." C. Darwin. Appleton ; also Har-
D. G. Brinton. McKay.
American Natural History, The : Useful Knowledge of the Higher Animals of North America. William T. Hornaday. Scribner.
Animal Photography. See "Flashlights from the Jungle." C. G. Schillings. Doubleday, Page & Co. See "Bird Studies with a Camera." F. M. Chapman. Appleton. Archeology :
Birds of Eastern North America, Handbook
of. Frank M. Chapman. Appleton. Birds of Western United States, Handbook of : Including the Great Plains, Great Basin, Pacific Slope, and Lower Rio Grande Valley. Florence Merriam Bailey. Houghton, Mifflin.
Birds :
A History of North American Land Birds. S. F. Baird, T. M. Brewer, Robert Ridgway. Little, Brown & Co. 3 vols. $10.00. A History of North American Water Birds. S. F. Baird, T. M. Brewer, R. Ridgway. Little, Brown & Co. 2 vols. $24.00.
Robert Ridgway. Lippincott.
Bird Studies with a Camera: with Introductory Chapters on the Outfit and Methods of Bird Photographers. Frank M. Chapman. Appleton.
Earthquakes: In the Light of the New Seismology. Clarence E. Button. Putnam. Earthquakes. J. Milne. D. Appleton & Co. Ethnography :
Fishes. G. B. Goode and Theodore Gill. Estes. Fishes, American Food and Game. D. S. Jordan and Barton W. Evermann. Doubleday, Page & Co.
Geography :
Commercial Geography. The textbooks by Gannett and Garrison (American Book Co.), C. C. Adams (Appleton), J. W. Redway (Scribner), and C. G. Chisholm (Longmans) are excellent.
tory. A. P. Brigham.
Geography Textbooks. There are so many "Geographies" that it is impossible to list them here. Those by Charles F. King (Scribner), Tarr and McMurry (Macmillan), Alexis E. Frye (Ginn & Co) are particularly useful.
Press, 1906. 3 vols.
Physical Geography. The books by Gilbert and Brigham (Appleton), Wm. M. Davis (Ginn & Co.), Jacques W. Redway (Scribner), Ralph S. Tarr (Macmillan), and C. R. Dryer are excellent. Political Geography. See "A Century of American Diplomacy" and "American Diplomacy in the Orient." John W. Foster. Houghton, Mifflin.
Geology, Elements of. J. Le Conte. Edited
by H. L. Fairchild. Appleton. Geology. Thomas C. Chamberlain and Rollin D. Salisbury. 3 vols. Henry Holt.
ture. John Burroughs.
Journal of Researches into the Natural History and Geology of the Countries Visited during the Voyage Round the World of H. M. S. Beagle. Charles Darwin. Harper.
Twentieth Century Citizen's Atlas of the World. With 156 Maps and Plans, Index, Gazetteer, and Geographical Statistics. Edited by J. G. Bartholomew. Folio, cloth binding. Net, $6.00.
International Students' Atlas of Modern Geography. By J. G. Bartholomew. 105 Physical, Political, and Statistical Maps. 4to. Net,* $2.00.
Handy Royal Atlas of Modern Geography, exhibiting the present condition of geographical discovery and research. By A. K. Johnson. Folio, half morocco. Net, $12.00.
Philips' Handy Volume Atlas of the World. By E. G. Ravenstein. Containing 72 engraved plates, with statistical notes and a complete index. i6mo. Net, $1.00.
Rand, McNally
Imperial Atlas of the World. Containing new colored maps of each State, Territory, and large City in the United States, the Provinces of Canada, the Continents and their Subdivisions, with ready-reference marginal index. New maps of Porto Rico, the Philippines, Hawaiian Islands, etc. 160 pages. Size, 12 x 14. Cloth, $2.50.
Dollar Atlas of the World. 91 maps, 97 pages text. Maps of every State, Territory, Continent, Canadian Province, Foreign Country and Our New Possessions. Printed matter relating to History, Area, Physical Features, Forestry, Climate, Agriculture, Live Stock, Fisheries, Manufactures, Commerce, Minerals, Population, Railways, Legal Government, Education, Politics, etc. Size of book closed, 6J4 X 7^ inches. Cloth, $1.00.
August R. Ohman
Royal Atlas of the World (Johnston's), containing 57 large scale maps and 94 plans or insets, with complete index and reference, comprising more than 185,000 places. Size of maps, 20x25. Half morocco, $30.00.
Merchant Shippers' Atlas of the World, containing 15 large colored maps, size iSj^ x 25, of the various Oceans and Seas, showing clearly Submarine Cables, Steamship and Sailing routes, distances between Ports, Canals, Lighthouses, Coaling Stations, etc. Specially prepared for merchants trading with foreign countries. Strongly bound in cloth, $8.00.
Standard Atlas of the World, containing 200 maps, Political, Physical and Astronomical frontispieces, illustrating the Time, Flags, and Arms of all Nations, together with complete index to about 100,500 places named. Size of maps, 12J/2 x 10. Half. bound morocco, with gilt top, $6.00.
The World-Wide Atlas, with introduction giving an account of geographical discovery and political territorial changes in the 19th Century. Also two frontispieces representing respectively the Time and Flags of all Nations. It contains 128 maps, size I2j^ x ID, with complete index to 6o,oco places named. Cloth, $2.00.
Quick Reference Atlas of the World. Containing 105 newly engraved maps and over 40,000 index entries, with the latest areas and census statistics. Size closed, 3^x6 inches; open, 7x6 inches. Cloth, $i.co.
| 9,617 | common-pile/pre_1929_books_filtered | scenesfromeveryl00grosrich | public_library | public_library_1929_dolma-0010.json.gz:843 | https://archive.org/download/scenesfromeveryl00grosrich/scenesfromeveryl00grosrich_djvu.txt |
EvL55_BjqGvbwgtg | 2.4.4: Two Graphs for Each Relationship | 2.4.4: Two Graphs for Each Relationship
Lesson
Let's use tables, equations, and graphs to answer questions about proportional relationships.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{1}\): True or False: Fractions and Decimals
Decice whether each equation is true or false. Be prepared to explain your reasoning.
- \(\frac{3}{2}\cdot 16=3\cdot 8\)
- \(\frac{3}{4}\div\frac{1}{2}=\frac{6}{4}\div\frac{1}{4}\)
- \((2.8)\cdot (13)=(0.7)\cdot (52)\)
Exercise \(\PageIndex{2}\): Tables, Graphs, and Equations
Explore the graph. Start by dragging the gray bar on the left across the screen until you can see both the table and the graph. Notice the values in the table and the coordinates of the labeled point. Grab the point and move it around.
- What stays the same and what changes in the table? in the equation? on the graph?
- Choose one row in the table and write it here. To what does this row correspond on the graph?
| \(x\) | \(y\) |
|---|---|
Grab and drag the point until you see the equation \(y=\frac{3}{2}x\).
- Do not move the point. Choose three rows from the table, other than the origin. Record \(x\) and \(y\), and compute \(\frac{y}{x}\).
| \(x\) | \(y\) | \(\frac{y}{x}\) |
|---|---|---|
- What do you notice? What does this have to do with the equation of the line?
- Do not move the point. Check the box to view the coordinates \((1,?)\). What are the coordinates of this point? What does this correspond to in the table? What does this correspond to in the equation?
- Drag the point to a different location. Record the equation of the line, the coordinates of three points, and the value of \(\frac{y}{x}\).
Equation of the line: _______________________________
| \(x\) | \(y\) | \(\frac{y}{x}\) |
|---|---|---|
- Based on your observations, summarize any connections you see between the table, characteristics of the graph, and the equation.
Are you ready for more?
The graph of an equation of the form \(y=kx\), where \(k\) is a positive number, is a line through \((0,0)\) and the point \((1,k)\).
- Name at least one line through \((0,0)\) that cannot be represented by an equation like this.
- If you could draw the graphs of all of the equations of this form in the same coordinate plane, what would it look like?
Exercise \(\PageIndex{3}\): Hot Dog Eating Contest
Andre and Jada were in a hot dog eating contest. Andre ate 10 hot dogs in 3 minutes. Jada ate 12 hot dogs in 5 minutes.
- The points shown on the first set of axes display information about Andre’s and Jada’s consumption. Which point indicates Andre’s consumption? Which indicates Jada’s consumption? Label them.
- Draw two lines: one through the origin and Andre’s point, and one through the origin and Jada’s point. Write an equation for each line. Use to represent time in minutes, and to represent number of hot dogs.
- For each equation, what does the constant of proportionality tell you?
- The points shown on the second set of axes display information about Andre’s and Jada’s consumption. Which point indicates Andre’s consumption? Which indicates Jada’s consumption? Label them.
- Draw lines from the origin through each of the two points. Write an equation for each line. What does the constant of proportionality tell you in each case?
Summary
Imagine that a faucet is leaking at a constant rate and that every 2 minutes, 10 milliliters of water leaks from the faucet. There is a proportional relationship between the volume of water and elapsed time.
- We could say that the elapsed time is proportional to the volume of water. The corresponding constant of proportionality tells us that the faucet is leaking at a rate of \(\frac{1}{5}\) of a minute per milliliter.
- We could say that the volume of water is proportional to the elapsed time. The corresponding constant of proportionality tells us that the faucet is leaking at a rate of 5 milliliters per minute.
Let’s use \(v\) to represent volume in milliliters and \(t\) to represent time in minutes. Here are graphs and equations that represent both ways of thinking about this relationship:
Even though the relationship between time and volume is the same, we are making a different choice in each case about which variable to view as the independent variable. The graph on the left has \(v\) as the independent variable, and the graph on the right has \(t\) as the independent variable.
Glossary Entries
Definition: Coordinate Plane
The coordinate plane is a system for telling where points are. For example. point \(R\) is located at \((3,2)\) on the coordinate plane, because it is three units to the right and two units up.
Definition: Origin
The origin is the point \((0,0)\) in the coordinate plane. This is where the horizontal axis and the vertical axis cross.
Practice
Exercise \(\PageIndex{4}\)
At the supermarket you can fill your own honey bear container. A customer buys 12 oz of honey for $5.40.
- How much does honey cost per ounce?
- How much honey can you buy per dollar?
- Write two different equations that represent this situation. Use \(h\) for ounces of honey and \(c\) for cost in dollars.
- Choose one of your equations, and sketch its graph. Be sure to label the axes.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{5}\)
The point \((3,\frac{6}{5})\) lies on the graph representing a proportional relationship. Which of the following points also lie on the same graph? Select all that apply.
- \((1,0.4)\)
- \(1.5, \frac{6}{10})\)
- \(\frac{6}{5},3)\)
- \((4,\frac{11}{5})\)
- \((15,6)\)
Exercise \(\PageIndex{6}\)
A trail mix recipe asks for 4 cups of raisins for every 6 cups of peanuts. There is proportional relationship between the amount of raisins, \(r\) (cups), and the amount of peanuts, \(p\) (cups), in this recipe.
- Write the equation for the relationship that has constant of proportionality greater than 1. Graph the relationship.
- Write the equation for the relationship that has constant of proportionality less than 1. Graph the relationship.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{7}\)
Here is a graph that represents a proportional relationship.
- Come up with a situation that could be represented by this graph.
- Label the axes with the quantities in your situation.
- Give the graph a title.
- Choose a point on the graph. What do the coordinates represent in your situation?
(From Unit 2.4.2) | 1,349 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://math.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/PreAlgebra/Pre-Algebra_I_(Illustrative_Mathematics_-_Grade_7)/02%3A_Introducing_Proportional_Relationships/2.04%3A_New_Page/2.4.4%3A_Two_Graphs_for_Each_Relationship | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:27 | https://math.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/PreAlgebra/Pre-Algebra_I_(Illustrative_Mathematics_-_Grade_7)/02%3A_Introducing_Proportional_Relationships/2.04%3A_New_Page/2.4.4%3A_Two_Graphs_for_Each_Relationship |
4Zg2wXrTpcHE9-tw | 4.3: Geometric Meaning of Vector Addition | 4.3: Geometric Meaning of Vector Addition
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Learning Objectives
- Understand vector addition, geometrically.
Recall that an element of \(\mathbb{R}^{n}\) is an ordered list of numbers. For the specific case of \(n=2,3\) this can be used to determine a point in two or three dimensional space. This point is specified relative to some coordinate axes.
Consider the case \(n=3\). Recall that taking a vector and moving it around without changing its length or direction does not change the vector. This is important in the geometric representation of vector addition.
Suppose we have two vectors, \(\vec{u}\) and \(\vec{v}\) in \(\mathbb{R}^{3}\). Each of these can be drawn geometrically by placing the tail of each vector at \(0\) and its point at \(\left( u_{1}, u_{2}, u_{3}\right)\) and \(\left( v_{1}, v_{2}, v_{3}\right)\) respectively. Suppose we slide the vector \(\vec{v}\) so that its tail sits at the point of \(\vec{u}\). We know that this does not change the vector \(\vec{v}\). Now, draw a new vector from the tail of \(\vec{u}\) to the point of \(\vec{v}\). This vector is \(\vec{u}+\vec{v}\).
The geometric significance of vector addition in \(\mathbb{R}^n\) for any \(n\) is given in the following definition.
Definition \(\PageIndex{1}\): Geometry of Vector Addition
Let \(\vec{u}\) and \(\vec{v}\) be two vectors. Slide \(\vec{v}\) so that the tail of \(\vec{v}\) is on the point of \(\vec{u}\). Then draw the arrow which goes from the tail of \(\vec{u}\) to the point of \(\vec{v}\). This arrow represents the vector \(\vec{u}+\vec{v}\).
This definition is illustrated in the following picture in which \(\vec{u}+\vec{v}\) is shown for the special case \(n=3\).
Notice the parallelogram created by \(\vec{u}\) and \(\vec{v}\) in the above diagram. Then \(\vec{u} + \vec{v}\) is the directed diagonal of the parallelogram determined by the two vectors \(\vec{u}\) and \(\vec{v}\).
When you have a vector \(\vec{v}\), its additive inverse \(-\vec{v}\) will be the vector which has the same magnitude as \(\vec{v}\) but the opposite direction. When one writes \(\vec{u}-\vec{v,}\) the meaning is \(\vec{u} + \left( -\vec{v}\right)\) as with real numbers. The following example illustrates these definitions and conventions.
Example \(\PageIndex{1}\): Graphing Vector Addition
Consider the following picture of vectors \(\vec{u}\) and \(\vec{v}\).
Sketch a picture of \(\vec{u}+\vec{v},\vec{u}-\vec{v}.\)
Solution
We will first sketch \(\vec{u}+\vec{v}.\) Begin by drawing \(\vec{u}\) and then at the point of \(\vec{u}\), place the tail of \(\vec{v}\) as shown. Then \(\vec{u}+\vec{v}\) is the vector which results from drawing a vector from the tail of \(\vec{u}\) to the tip of \(\vec{v}\).
Next consider \(\vec{u}-\vec{v}.\) This means \(\vec{u}+\left( -\vec{v} \right) .\) From the above geometric description of vector addition, \(-\vec{v}\) is the vector which has the same length but which points in the opposite direction to \(\vec{v}\). Here is a picture. | 581 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://math.libretexts.org/Courses/SUNY_Schenectady_County_Community_College/A_First_Journey_Through_Linear_Algebra/04%3A_R/4.03%3A_Geometric_Meaning_of_Vector_Addition | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:17730 | https://math.libretexts.org/Courses/SUNY_Schenectady_County_Community_College/A_First_Journey_Through_Linear_Algebra/04%3A_R/4.03%3A_Geometric_Meaning_of_Vector_Addition |
ZJXBiEkFY5w6aAHy | Functional MRI: Basic principles | 11 Distortion and drop-out
We cover distortion and drop-out at the same time because, while they’re not the same thing, they happen for the same reason: localized perturbations in the magnetic field.
First, we’ll look at distortion — causes, and then solutions. While all MRI techniques need to think about distortion, applications that use EPI read-outs (fMRI and DTI) have very obvious problems with distortion, and fixing distortion is crucial if you want accurate registration (alignment) between your distorted functional data or your DTI data and a reference anatomical image that does not have the same distortion.
Here is a description of 3 different approaches to distortion compensation, with sample commands for the first two.
You will have noticed in some of those images that distortion compensation didn’t produce perfect results. Sometimes, that’s because the algorithm could have done better. But mostly, if you’re using GE EPI acquisitions, it’s because there was also signal drop-out in the same region, and some of the signal simply could not be recovered. So the last two lecture segments cover the causes of dropout, and possible acquisition techniques for avoiding drop-out. Unlike distortion, there’s no data processing solution to drop-out — once you’ve lost the signal, it’s gone.
Here are some acquisition techniques commonly used to address drop-out. Happily, as we move to higher-resolution acquisitions enabled by multiband excitation, faster gradients, and parallel imaging, drop-out becomes less of a concern. So people don’t talk about it as much as they did in the early 2000’s.
Exercises
- To do “traditional” distortion compensation from “first principles” (re-shape the data based on knowledge of how the actual magnetic field at each location was altered), what 4 things do you need?
- What is the name of the tool provided by FSL to do this “traditional” distortion compensation?
- To do “blip-up/blip-down” or “forward/reversed phase encode” distortion compensation, what do you need?
- What are the names of the tools provided by FSL and AFNI to do this kind of distortion compensation?
- Not covered in the ‘lectures’ above, but very useful to figure out for yourself: if you forget to write down key parameters when you’re sitting at the scanner (phase encode direction, echo spacing, difference in echo times in the field mapping images you acquired), how can you recover that information from your data? | 505 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://pressbooks.umn.edu/fmribasicprinciples/chapter/distortion/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:5374 | https://pressbooks.umn.edu/fmribasicprinciples/chapter/distortion/ |
zKtE33JAEXj9PAog | 18.1B: Blood Vessel Function | 18.1B: Blood Vessel Function
Blood vessels carry nutrients and oxygen throughout the body and aid in gas exchange.
- List the functions of blood vessels
Key Points
- Systemic and pulmonary circulatory systems efficiently deliver oxygen to the tissues of the body and remove waste products such as carbon dioxide. Arterial blood (except in the pulmonary artery ) is highly saturated with oxygen and supplies oxygen to the body’s tissues.
- Venous blood (except in the pulmonary vein ) is deoxygenated and returns to the heart to be pumped into the lungs for reoxygenation.
- Nutrients carried in the blood are released to tissues via the permeable endothelium of blood vessels.
- Immune cells move throughout the circulatory system and are able to rapidly permeate the walls of blood vessels to attend sites of injury or infection.
- Blood vessels can increase or decrease blood flow near the surface of the body, either increasing or reducing the amount of heat lost as a means of regulating body temperature.
Key Terms
- thermoregulation : The maintenance of a constant internal temperature of an organism independent of the temperature of the environment
Blood plays many critical roles within the body: delivering nutrients and chemicals to tissues, removing waste products, and maintaining homeostasis and health. The circulatory system is transports blood through the body to perform these actions, facilitated by the extensive network of blood vessels.
Gas Transfer
The circulatory system can be split into two sections, systemic and pulmonary. In the systemic circulatory system, highly oxygenated blood (95-100%) is pumped from the left ventricle of the heart and into the arteries of the body. Upon reaching the capillary networks, gas exchange between tissue and blood can occur, facilitated by the narrow walls of the capillaries. Oxygen is released from the blood into the tissues and carbon dioxide, a waste product of respiration, is absorbed. The capillaries merge into venules and then veins, carrying the deoxygenated blood (~75%) back to the right atrium of the heart at the end of the systemic circulatory system.
The much smaller pulmonary system reoxygenates the blood and facilitates the removal of carbon dioxide. After leaving the heart through the right ventricle, the blood passes through the pulmonary artery, the only artery in the body that contains deoxygenated blood, and into the capillary network within the lungs. The close association of the thin-walled alveolae with the equally thin-walled capillaries allows for rapid release of carbon dioxide and uptake of oxygen. After leaving the lungs through the pulmonary vein, the only vein which carries oxygenated blood, the blood enters the left atrium. This completes the pulmonary circulatory system.
The Circulatory System : This simplified diagram of the human circulatory system (anterior view) shows arteries in red and veins in blue.
Additional Functions
Blood vessels also facilitate the rapid distribution and efficient transport of factors such as glucose, amino acids, or lipids into the tissues and the removal of waste products for processing elsewhere, such as lactic acid to the liver or urea to the kidneys. Additionally, blood vessels provide the ideal network for immune system surveillance and distribution. Numerous white blood cells circulate around the body, sensing for infection or injury. Once an injury is detected, they rapidly leave the circulatory system by passing through gaps in vessel walls to reach the affected area while signalling for a larger targeted immune response.
Mechanically the blood vessels, especially those near the skin, play a key role in thermoregulation. Blood vessels can swell to allow greater blood flow, allowing for greater radiant heat loss. Conversely, blood flow through these vessels can be lessened to reduce heat loss in colder climates.
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aZwF1YR9nciy4Aax | 15.6: Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics- Disorder and the Unavailability of Energy | 15.6: Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics- Disorder and the Unavailability of Energy
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Define entropy.
- Calculate the increase of entropy in a system with reversible and irreversible processes.
- Explain the expected fate of the universe in entropic terms.
- Calculate the increasing disorder of a system.
There is yet another way of expressing the second law of thermodynamics. This version relates to a concept called entropy . By examining it, we shall see that the directions associated with the second law—heat transfer from hot to cold, for example—are related to the tendency in nature for systems to become disordered and for less energy to be available for use as work. The entropy of a system can in fact be shown to be a measure of its disorder and of the unavailability of energy to do work.
MAKING CONNECTIONS: ENTROPY, ENERGY, AND WORK
Recall that the simple definition of energy is the ability to do work. Entropy is a measure of how much energy is not available to do work. Although all forms of energy are interconvertible, and all can be used to do work, it is not always possible, even in principle, to convert the entire available energy into work. That unavailable energy is of interest in thermodynamics, because the field of thermodynamics arose from efforts to convert heat to work.
We can see how entropy is defined by recalling our discussion of the Carnot engine. We noted that for a Carnot cycle, and hence for any reversible processes, \(Q_c/Q_h = T_c/T_h\). Rearranging terms yields \[\dfrac{Q_c}{T_c} = \dfrac{Q_h}{T_h}\] for any reversible process. \(Q_c\) and \(Q_h\) are absolute values of the heat transfer at temperatures \(T_c\) and \(T_h\), respectively. This ratio of \(Q/T\) is defined to be the change in entropy \(\Delta S\) for a reversible process,
\[\Delta S = \left(\dfrac{Q}{T} \right)_{rev},\]
where \(Q\) is the heat transfer, which is positive for heat transfer into and negative for heat transfer out of, and \(T\) is the absolute temperature at which the reversible process takes place. The SI unit for entropy is joules per kelvin (J/K). If temperature changes during the process, then it is usually a good approximation (for small changes in temperature) to take \(T\) to be the average temperature, avoiding the need to use integral calculus to find \(\Delta S\).
The definition of \(\Delta S\) is strictly valid only for reversible processes, such as used in a Carnot engine. However, we can find \(\Delta S\) precisely even for real, irreversible processes. The reason is that the entropy \(S\) of a system, like internal energy \(U\) depends only on the state of the system and not how it reached that condition. Entropy is a property of state. Thus the change in entropy \(\Delta S\) of a system between state 1 and state 2 is the same no matter how the change occurs. We just need to find or imagine a reversible process that takes us from state 1 to state 2 and calculate \(\Delta S\) for that process. That will be the change in entropy for any process going from state 1 to state 2. (See Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\).)
Now let us take a look at the change in entropy of a Carnot engine and its heat reservoirs for one full cycle. The hot reservoir has a loss of entropy \(\Delta S_h = -Q_h/T_h\), because heat transfer occurs out of it (remember that when heat transfers out, then \(Q\) has a negative sign). The cold reservoir has a gain of entropy \(\Delta S_c = Q_c/T_c\), because heat transfer occurs into it. (We assume the reservoirs are sufficiently large that their temperatures are constant.) So the total change in entropy is
\[\Delta S_{tot} = \Delta S_h + \Delta S_c.\]
Thus, since we know that \(Q_h/T_h = Q_c/T_c\) for a Carnot engine,
\[\Delta S_{tot} = -\dfrac{Q_h}{T_h} + \dfrac{Q_c}{T_c} = 0.\]
This result, which has general validity, means that the total change in entropy for a system in any reversible process is zero.
The entropy of various parts of the system may change, but the total change is zero. Furthermore, the system does not affect the entropy of its surroundings, since heat transfer between them does not occur. Thus the reversible process changes neither the total entropy of the system nor the entropy of its surroundings. Sometimes this is stated as follows: Reversible processes do not affect the total entropy of the universe. Real processes are not reversible, though, and they do change total entropy. We can, however, use hypothetical reversible processes to determine the value of entropy in real, irreversible processes. The following example illustrates this point.
Example \(\PageIndex{1}\): Entropy Increases in an Irreversible (Real) Process
Spontaneous heat transfer from hot to cold is an irreversible process. Calculate the total change in entropy if 4000 J of heat transfer occurs from a hot reservoir at \(T_h = 600 \, K \, (327^oC) \) to a cold reservoir at \(T_c = 250 \, K \, (-23^oC)\), assuming there is no temperature change in either reservoir. (See Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\).)
Strategy
How can we calculate the change in entropy for an irreversible process when \(\Delta S_{tot} = \Delta S_h + \Delta S_c\) is valid only for reversible processes? Remember that the total change in entropy of the hot and cold reservoirs will be the same whether a reversible or irreversible process is involved in heat transfer from hot to cold. So we can calculate the change in entropy of the hot reservoir for a hypothetical reversible process in which 4000 J of heat transfer occurs from it; then we do the same for a hypothetical reversible process in which 4000 J of heat transfer occurs to the cold reservoir. This produces the same changes in the hot and cold reservoirs that would occur if the heat transfer were allowed to occur irreversibly between them, and so it also produces the same changes in entropy.
Solution
We now calculate the two changes in entropy using \(\Delta S_{tot} = \Delta S_h + \Delta S_c\). First, for the heat transfer from the hot reservoir, \[\Delta S_h = \dfrac{-Q_h}{T_h} = \dfrac{-4000 \, J}{600 \, K} = -6.67 \, J/K.\] And for the cold reservoir, \[\Delta S_c = \dfrac{Q_c}{T_c} = \dfrac{4000 \, J}{250 \, K} = 16.0 \, J/K.\]
Thus the total is \[\Delta S_{tot} = \Delta S_h + \Delta S_c\] \[= (-6.67 + 16.0) \, J/K\] \[= 9.33 \, J/K.\]
Discussion
There is an increase in entropy for the system of two heat reservoirs undergoing this irreversible heat transfer. We will see that this means there is a loss of ability to do work with this transferred energy. Entropy has increased, and energy has become unavailable to do work.
It is reasonable that entropy increases for heat transfer from hot to cold. Since the change in entropy is \(Q/T\) there is a larger change at lower temperatures. The decrease in entropy of the hot object is therefore less than the increase in entropy of the cold object, producing an overall increase, just as in the previous example. This result is very general:
There is an increase in entropy for any system undergoing an irreversible process.
With respect to entropy, there are only two possibilities: entropy is constant for a reversible process, and it increases for an irreversible process. There is a fourth version of the second law of thermodynamics stated in terms of entropy :
The total entropy of a system either increases or remains constant in any process; it never decreases.
For example, heat transfer cannot occur spontaneously from cold to hot, because entropy would decrease.
Entropy is very different from energy. Entropy is not conserved but increases in all real processes. Reversible processes (such as in Carnot engines) are the processes in which the most heat transfer to work takes place and are also the ones that keep entropy constant. Thus we are led to make a connection between entropy and the availability of energy to do work.
Entropy and the Unavailability of Energy to Do Work
What does a change in entropy mean, and why should we be interested in it? One reason is that entropy is directly related to the fact that not all heat transfer can be converted into work. The next example gives some indication of how an increase in entropy results in less heat transfer into work.
Example \(\PageIndex{2}\): Less Work is Produced by a Given Heat Transfer When Entropy Change is Greater
(a) Calculate the work output of a Carnot engine operating between temperatures of 600 K and 100 K for 4000 J of heat transfer to the engine. (b) Now suppose that the 4000 J of heat transfer occurs first from the 600 K reservoir to a 250 K reservoir (without doing any work, and this produces the increase in entropy calculated above) before transferring into a Carnot engine operating between 250 K and 100 K. What work output is produced? (See Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\).)
Strategy
In both parts, we must first calculate the Carnot efficiency and then the work output.
Solution (a)
The Carnot efficiency is given by \[Eff_c = 1 - \dfrac{T_c}{T_h}.\]
Substituting the given temperatures yields \[Eff_c = 1 - \dfrac{100 \, K}{600 \, K} = 0.833.\]
Now the work output can be calculated using the definition of efficiency for any heat engine as given by \[Eff = \dfrac{W}{Q_h}.\]
Solving for \(W\) and substituting known terms gives \[W = Eff_cQ_h\]\[= (0.833)(4000 \, J) = 3333 \, J.\]
Solution (b)
Similarly, \[Eff_c = 1 - \dfrac{T_c}{T'_c} = 1 - \dfrac{100 \, K}{250 \, K} = 0.600,\] so that \[W = Eff_cQ_h\] \[ = (0.600)(4000 \, J) = 2400 \, J\]
Discussion
There is 933 J less work from the same heat transfer in the second process. This result is important. The same heat transfer into two perfect engines produces different work outputs, because the entropy change differs in the two cases. In the second case, entropy is greater and less work is produced. Entropy is associated with the un availability of energy to do work.
When entropy increases, a certain amount of energy becomes permanently unavailable to do work. The energy is not lost, but its character is changed, so that some of it can never be converted to doing work—that is, to an organized force acting through a distance. For instance, in the previous example, 933 J less work was done after an increase in entropy of 9.33 J/K occurred in the 4000 J heat transfer from the 600 K reservoir to the 250 K reservoir. It can be shown that the amount of energy that becomes unavailable for work is
\[W_{unavail} = \Delta S \cdot T_0,\]
where \(T_0\) is the lowest temperature utilized. In the previous example,
\[W_{unavail} = (9.33 \, J/K)(100 \, K) = 933 \, J\]
Heat Death of the Universe: An Overdose of Entropy
In the early, energetic universe, all matter and energy were easily interchangeable and identical in nature. Gravity played a vital role in the young universe. Although it may have seemed disorderly, and therefore, superficially entropic, in fact, there was enormous potential energy available to do work—all the future energy in the universe.
As the universe matured, temperature differences arose, which created more opportunity for work. Stars are hotter than planets, for example, which are warmer than icy asteroids, which are warmer still than the vacuum of the space between them.
Most of these are cooling down from their usually violent births, at which time they were provided with energy of their own—nuclear energy in the case of stars, volcanic energy on Earth and other planets, and so on. Without additional energy input, however, their days are numbered.
As entropy increases, less and less energy in the universe is available to do work. On Earth, we still have great stores of energy such as fossil and nuclear fuels; large-scale temperature differences, which can provide wind energy; geothermal energies due to differences in temperature in Earth’s layers; and tidal energies owing to our abundance of liquid water. As these are used, a certain fraction of the energy they contain can never be converted into doing work. Eventually, all fuels will be exhausted, all temperatures will equalize, and it will be impossible for heat engines to function, or for work to be done.
Entropy increases in a closed system, such as the universe. But in parts of the universe, for instance, in the Solar system, it is not a locally closed system. Energy flows from the Sun to the planets, replenishing Earth’s stores of energy. The Sun will continue to supply us with energy for about another five billion years. We will enjoy direct solar energy, as well as side effects of solar energy, such as wind power and biomass energy from photosynthetic plants. The energy from the Sun will keep our water at the liquid state, and the Moon’s gravitational pull will continue to provide tidal energy. But Earth’s geothermal energy will slowly run down and won’t be replenished.
But in terms of the universe, and the very long-term, very large-scale picture, the entropy of the universe is increasing, and so the availability of energy to do work is constantly decreasing. Eventually, when all stars have died, all forms of potential energy have been utilized, and all temperatures have equalized (depending on the mass of the universe, either at a very high temperature following a universal contraction, or a very low one, just before all activity ceases) there will be no possibility of doing work.
Either way, the universe is destined for thermodynamic equilibrium—maximum entropy. This is often called the heat death of the universe , and will mean the end of all activity. However, whether the universe contracts and heats up, or continues to expand and cools down, the end is not near. Calculations of black holes suggest that entropy can easily continue for at least \(10^{100}\) years.
Order to Disorder
Entropy is related not only to the unavailability of energy to do work—it is also a measure of disorder. This notion was initially postulated by Ludwig Boltzmann in the 1800s. For example, melting a block of ice means taking a highly structured and orderly system of water molecules and converting it into a disorderly liquid in which molecules have no fixed positions. (See Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\).) There is a large increase in entropy in the process, as seen in the following example.
Example \(\PageIndex{3}\): Entropy Associated with Disorder
Find the increase in entropy of 1.00 kg of ice originally at \(0^oC\), that is melted to form water at \(0^oC\).
Strategy
As before, the change in entropy can be calculated from the definition of \(\Delta S\) once we find the energy \(Q\) needed to melt the ice.
Solution
The change in entropy is defined as: \[\Delta S = \dfrac{Q}{T}.\]
Here \(Q\) is the heat transfer necessary to melt 1.00 kg of ice and is given by \[Q = mL_f,\] where \(m\) is the mass and \(L_f\) is the latent heat of fusion. \(L_f = 334 \, kJ/kg\) for water, so that \[Q = 1.00 \, kg)(334 \, kJ/kg) = 3.34 \times 10^5 \, J.\]
Now the change in entropy is positive, since heat transfer occurs into the ice to cause the phase change; thus, \[\Delta S = \dfrac{Q}{T} = \dfrac{3.34 \times 10^5 \, J}{T}.\] \(T\) is the melting temperature of ice. That is \(T = 0^oC = 273 \, K\). So the change in entropy is \[\Delta S = \dfrac{3.34 \times 10^5 \, J}{273 \, K}\]\[ = 1.22 \times 10^3 \, J/K.\]
Discussion
This is a significant increase in entropy accompanying an increase in disorder.
In another easily imagined example, suppose we mix equal masses of water originally at two different temperatures, say \(20.0^oC\) and \(40.0^oC\). The result is water at an intermediate temperature of \(30.0^oC\). Three outcomes have resulted: entropy has increased, some energy has become unavailable to do work, and the system has become less orderly. Let us think about each of these results.
First, entropy has increased for the same reason that it did in the example above. Mixing the two bodies of water has the same effect as heat transfer from the hot one and the same heat transfer into the cold one. The mixing decreases the entropy of the hot water but increases the entropy of the cold water by a greater amount, producing an overall increase in entropy.
Second, once the two masses of water are mixed, there is only one temperature—you cannot run a heat engine with them. The energy that could have been used to run a heat engine is now unavailable to do work.
Third, the mixture is less orderly, or to use another term, less structured. Rather than having two masses at different temperatures and with different distributions of molecular speeds, we now have a single mass with a uniform temperature.
These three results—entropy, unavailability of energy, and disorder—are not only related but are in fact essentially equivalent.
Life, Evolution, and the Second Law of Thermodynamics
Some people misunderstand the second law of thermodynamics, stated in terms of entropy, to say that the process of the evolution of life violates this law. Over time, complex organisms evolved from much simpler ancestors, representing a large decrease in entropy of the Earth’s biosphere. It is a fact that living organisms have evolved to be highly structured, and much lower in entropy than the substances from which they grow. But it is always possible for the entropy of one part of the universe to decrease, provided the total change in entropy of the universe increases. In equation form, we can write this as
\[\Delta S_{tot} = \Delta S_{syst} + \Delta S_{envir} > 0.\]
Thus \(\Delta S_{yst}\) can be negative as long as \(\Delta S_{envir}\) is positive and greater in magnitude.
How is it possible for a system to decrease its entropy? Energy transfer is necessary. If I pick up marbles that are scattered about the room and put them into a cup, my work has decreased the entropy of that system. If I gather iron ore from the ground and convert it into steel and build a bridge, my work has decreased the entropy of that system. Energy coming from the Sun can decrease the entropy of local systems on Earth—that is, \(\Delta S_{syst}\) is negative. But the overall entropy of the rest of the universe increases by a greater amount—that is, \(\Delta S_{envir}\) is positive and greater in magnitude. Thus, \(\Delta S_{tot} = \Delta S_{syst} + \Delta S_{envir} > 0 \), and the second law of thermodynamics is not violated.
Every time a plant stores some solar energy in the form of chemical potential energy, or an updraft of warm air lifts a soaring bird, the Earth can be viewed as a heat engine operating between a hot reservoir supplied by the Sun and a cold reservoir supplied by dark outer space—a heat engine of high complexity, causing local decreases in entropy as it uses part of the heat transfer from the Sun into deep space. There is a large total increase in entropy resulting from this massive heat transfer. A small part of this heat transfer is stored in structured systems on Earth, producing much smaller local decreases in entropy. (See Figure \(\PageIndex{6}\).)
PHET EXPLORATIONS: REVERSIBLE REACTIONS
Watch a reaction proceed over time. How does total energy affect a reaction rate? Vary temperature, barrier height, and potential energies. Record concentrations and time in order to extract rate coefficients. Do temperature dependent studies to extract Arrhenius parameters. This simulation is best used with teacher guidance because it presents an analogy of chemical reactions.
\(\PageIndex{7}\): Reversible Reaction
Summary
- Entropy is the loss of energy available to do work.
- Another form of the second law of thermodynamics states that the total entropy of a system either increases or remains constant; it never decreases.
- Entropy is zero in a reversible process; it increases in an irreversible process.
- The ultimate fate of the universe is likely to be thermodynamic equilibrium, where the universal temperature is constant and no energy is available to do work.
- Entropy is also associated with the tendency toward disorder in a closed system.
Glossary
- entropy
- a measurement of a system's disorder and its inability to do work in a system
- change in entropy
- the ratio of heat transfer to temperature \(Q/T\)
- second law of thermodynamics stated in terms of entropy
- the total entropy of a system either increases or remains constant; it never decrease | 4,455 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://phys.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/College_Physics/College_Physics_1e_(OpenStax)/15%3A_Thermodynamics/15.06%3A_Entropy_and_the_Second_Law_of_Thermodynamics-_Disorder_and_the_Unavailability_of_Energy | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:610 | https://phys.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/College_Physics/College_Physics_1e_(OpenStax)/15%3A_Thermodynamics/15.06%3A_Entropy_and_the_Second_Law_of_Thermodynamics-_Disorder_and_the_Unavailability_of_Energy |
y0ATzagw8KUSJH8G | Arteriosclerosis; diseases of the media and their relation to aneurysm. | PREFACE.
I make no apology for adding to an already enormous literature on Arteriosclerosis, but I ask the readers' indulgence for a possible criticism on the brevity of many discussions. The various processes which concern arteriosclerosis merit chapters for each, but the present undertaking was not intended to assume such pretentious proportions. As it is, the discussion has grown beyond our expectations.
The bringing together of the observations and facts concerning the processes of disease which affect the middle coats of the arteries is to emphasize the importance and frequency of these conditions. For some years attention has repeatedly been directed (Virchow 1856, Thoma 1883, Jores 1903) to the disease of the intima, with but casual reference to the medial scleroses. Heller, Chiari and others have demonstrated the importance of syphilitic mesaortitis, Moenckeberg has pointed out the frequency of medial sclerosis, but much can not be obtained in the literature concerning medial arteriosclerosis as a group disease.
Particularly to the clinician has the subject of arteriosclerosis been a difficult one, — and at the same time the most interesting. The protean manifestations of the disease are such that some type of it is to be observed by every practitioner and specialist. What has been its origin, what are to be the results, are questions which must be answered separately in each case.
It is hoped, that in putting together our own findings with those of others, we have at least to some degree, cleared this difficult subject of some of its underbrush and allowed the more important facts to present themselves.
This work was started in 1905 and was nearing completion when the author, in the disastrous fire at McGill University in 1907, lost the entire materials, manuscript and drawings. To repeat the work, recollect the literature, microscopic sections and drawings was disheartening and, I would almost say, uninteresting. The greater
Hospital at Montreal.
I am very much indebted to my former chief, Professor J. G. Adami, for his criticisms and suggestions on this paper. Although, in respect to the nature and cause of intimal scleroses, our views do not entirely coincide, a lengthy discussion on this topic has been omitted as not bearing directly on my subject. For the fuller treatment of intimal arteriosclerosis, I refer the reader to our respective articles in the American Journal of Medical Sciences, 1909, and in the Journal of Experimental Medicine, 1910.
introduction.
Our knowledge concerning the etiology of arteriosclerosis has been much enhanced by the experimental work done on this subject, and, with the information thus acquired, our views respecting this disease have changed to a considerable extent. It is now realized that the disease, instead of being generalized and affecting the entire arterial tree, (i) may be localized, affecting the arteries of one particular organ, (2) may involve one particular type of artery only, and (3) may be limited to one or other zone of the arterial coat. Not infrequently at the post-mortem table we are impressed by the extensive sclerosis of the arteries of the brain, and the coincident absence of anything approaching to marked involvement of the rest of the arterial system. Nor is it possible for any one to make more detailed investigations of the arteries of case after case, such as those which have formed the basis of this article, without becoming convinced at an early stage that the extent of the disease manifested in the aorta bears no relationship to that found in the peripheral vessels.
With all the advances that have been made, there still remains not a little uncertainty as to how best to classify, that is, to coordinate and bring into relationship the many conditions affecting the arterial wall, differentiated during the last generation, and included under the general headings of scleroses and atheroma. Regarding the intimal changes, it may be said that the more recent studies of Jores and others have established a satisfactory basis for such classification. The same cannot be said regarding the changes in the media. There is still much confusion, both as to the nature and mode of development of these changes, and as to the relationship between medial and intimal disturbances. It has seemed to me timely to make a careful study of the conditions affecting the media,
2 Arteriosclerosis. Diseases of the Media.
in the hope that thereby coordinating my own observations with those of previous workers, light may be thrown upon the subject. The present study, therefore, is devoted to a detailed consideration of certain disturbances affecting the media.
At the very onset we encounter the difficulty of nomenclature. What general term is to be employed to embrace the group of morbid states included in this study ? Some, like Jores, are inclined to lay down that arteriosclerosis is essentially an intimal disease, and one particular order of intimal affections at that : morbid states of the media cannot, they hold, be included under this term. This I cannot but think is too narrow a view. In employing any medical term, we are bound, when possible, to keep in mind its root meaning, and the significance afforded to it by its author. Now "arteriosclerosis " is literally the state of hardness of the arteries, and Lobstein, who introduced the term, employed it to cover all conditions in which the arteries were noticeably hardened to the touch upon clinical examination. Here, I would repeat what I have noted elsewhere, that the hardening of the radials which affords a common clinical diagnosis of arteriosclerosis is due in general to medial and not intimal change. I have thus no hesitation in including the medial conditions here under review, under the heading of arteriosclerosis.
Marchand's recent interpretation of arteriosclerosis, "that in general we must include those changes in the arteries which lead to a thickening of the wall, and more particularly of the intima, in which not only degenerative changes (fatty with its sequelae), sclerosis and calcification (including calcification of the media) arise, but also inflammatory and productive processes," is very complete. From this definition there remains no doubt that all types of changes in- any of the three coats of an artery, which have as a consequence a thickening or hardening of the wall, are of an arteriosclerotic nature; and let us repeat too, that those changes may be either degenerative or productive in kind. It will be appreciated that, on taking this view, the common type of calcification of the media as it is found in the peripheral vessels is also an arteriosclerosis. Savill also employs the term arteriosclerosis in the gen-
medial and adventitial.
Let us freely admit that, employed thus, the term arteriosclerosis becomes generic and not specific, that several types of arteriosclerosis must be recognized, and so as each type is worked out and its characters definitely known, either a qualifying adjective must be employed to indicate that type, or a special name be given it. Already there is a definite movement in this direction. Thus through the work of Heller, Doehle and Chiari, the existence of a distinct and typical specific inflammatory affection of the media has become recognized, syphilitic mesarteritis (mesaortitis productiva syphilitica), while in order to abolish the confusion in the employment of terms between intimal sclerosis and its later stage of atheroma, Marchand has launched the term atherosclerosis or atherosis, and this has been hailed with avidity by several leadirig workers in Germany. For myself, I welcome either of these latter words as affording a useful designation for the common type of intimal arteriosclerosis, and helping to differentiate this form from medial arteriosclerosis in which characteristically there is not encountered atheroma proper. In dealing thus with the different types of medial arteriosclerosis, I shall not follow the time-honored custom of leading up to my subject by means of an historical introduction. To do this, to recount conscientiously the successive observations that have been made upon the part played by the media in the development of arteriosclerosis, in an era when this was regarded as a single disease, and to appraise those observations at their right value would introduce prematurely, material which must of necessity be repeated later in the orderly study of the different types of medial arteriosclerosis.
It would be better to refer to these early observations in a systematic description of those types of disease. Here, at most, it is fitting that four names be recalled: that of Johnson, who first recognized the existence of hypertrophy of the media, and more particularly of the muscular constituents of the small arteries ; of Thoma, who laid stress upon degeneration and weakening of the media of the aorta and larger arteries, as favoring subsequent intimal sclerosis; of Francis Welch, who first described clearly the
separate entity.
A much more satisfactory introduction to our subject will be from the standpoint of arterial structure. It is becoming increasingly recognized that the different parts of the arterial system differ widely in their histological constitution, in that the structure of any given artery is intimately associated with its function — structure and function in fact being largely interdependent. From this, it follows, (i) that the same noxa acting upon arteries of different types will have different effects and (2) that anything of the nature of an adequate knowledge of disease of the arteries — in this case of medial disease — must be preceded by the knowledge of the normal histology of the different types of the arteries. What otherwise would seem to be wholly dissimilar lesions, may be the expression of the action of a common factor ; nay, taking a yet broader outlook, and regarding not one coat of the artery alone, but the whole artery ; with these pronounced differences in structure, it may be that of functional structure, exercises a decided influence in the course of the disease and the nature of the lesions there attained.
In making the last suggestion, I am passing beyond the limits here set. It is sufficient to lay down that a knowledge of the structure of the media in various parts of the arterial tree must precede any satisfactory discussion of medial disease.
As has been pointed out recently, the type of arterial change (pathological), as well as its extent, depends upon two factors — (i) the work and function of the tissue supplied, and (2) the histological structure of the vessel : we will be obliged to discuss these details at length. We will also show in how far the vessels in different organs differ in their histological structure. This, I have found, influences the nature of the disease, which may arise in the vessel. We are becoming familiar, and this mainly through the work on experimental animals, with the action of different drugs and poisons on the vascular tissues. That certain poisons and toxins have definitely a selective action for certain tissues is well known, and this point too is being demonstrated in the effect of poisons on the arterial wall.
HISTOLOGY.
Anatomically, the arteries are divided into three types, the large, the medium sized, and the small vessels. Under the large sized vessels are included the aorta and its main branches in the neck and abdomen. The medium sized vessels are the secondary and tertiary branches, arising from the first type, while the small arteries include all the peripheral arteries down to the finest divisions into capillaries. This classification of the arteries is an entirely arbitrary one, without any proper delineations of each particular type, and forms an impossible classification in studying the finer structure of vessels.
On the other hand, the arteries have been classified according to their histological structure, and mainly on the nature of the media. The naked eye appearances of the arteries give no clue to the types belonging to the histological classes. We are bound, therefore, to study the structure of the arteries under the microscope, and to determine the structure of each artery, and to place it in its proper class.
In the main, there are histologically two types of arteries, ( i ) the elastic type, those in which the elastic tissue is in equal or greater proportion to the muscular tissue in, the media, and (2) the muscular type in which the muscle elements are in much greater proportion than the elastic fibres in the media. With these subdivisions, the anatomical classification is of no service. The vessels which are included in the latter classification under the large sized vessels do not necessarily belong to a distinct histological class, and the same is true with the medium and small sized arteries.
On the histological picture of the arteries we, therefore, base the division of our arteries, and, although certain vessels belonging to one or other of these types vary slightly in their characters from the main type, these form only subdivisions under the main headings. I hardly think it is necessary to designate these small differences in vessels of certain organs by separate names, since the characters are isolated to the arteries of the particular organ.
adventitia : the intima consists of an endothelial layer, with or without connective or muscular tissue layers between it and the internal elastic lamina. The endothelial layer, which lines the lumen of the artery is composed of large flat cells, arranged in a mosaic or pavement fashion. Under normal conditions this layer is but a single stratum, which under pathological conditions becomes heaped up on itself to form a many-layered tunic. That the cells forming the pearly nodules on the endothelium of the blood vessels are, in part at least, endothelial cells, I am fully convinced, but the discussion of this question in this paper would lead us too far afield.
Beneath the endothelial cells of the intima, there is always, save in the minutest arteries, a thin strand of connective tissue upon which the endothelial cells rest. In the larger vessels the quantity of connective tissue present increases with advancing years until the age of twenty-five or thirty is reached. In the newborn the quantity of connective tissue in the intima of the aorta is hardly perceptible, but, as Thoma and his pupils have demonstrated, there is a constant production of fresh tissue of this nature, with an increase in the thickness of the layer until adolescence. From this time onwards; the physiological quantity of connective tissue in the intima remains fairly constant, and any increase must be looked on as pathological.
Of the muscular elements in the intima little need be said at this juncture, though much importance is attached to them in the pathology of intimal arteriosclerosis. These muscle fibres are found only in the larger vessels and form a layer lying next to the inner side of the elastic lamina. These muscle elements are of the unstriped variety and have a longitudinal direction in the artery. I have never convinced myself of their uniform presence in the vessels of the muscular type. Often this lamella is but two or three cells in width, though at other times this muscular layer, which is called the musculo-elastic layer, is of considerable thickness, occupying as much as one third of the thickened intima. Among the muscle fibres there is a fine network of elastic fibrils which have a relation to the internal elastic lamina. There seems to be little significance to be attached to the fine elastic elements as they normally exist in the musculo-elastic layer, but with advancing age, and in diseased.
particularly weakened, states of the artery these fibres become increased in quantity and size, and indicate according to their characters, certain sclerotic changes in the vessel.
Under certain conditions of stress the musculo-elastic layer may become uniformly hypertrophied, without, however, there being any diseased condition in it or in any other parts of the arterial coat.
The internal elastic lamina is present in arteries of all sizes and structures, but differs in its nature in the two types of vessels. The media, which is the mainstay of the arteries, and which is the distinguishing point between the smallest arteries and the capillaries arising therefrom, is also to be found in all arteries. This tunic consists in every case of unstriped muscle tissue along with, in some cases, more or less elastic fibres, and to a slight extent, connective tissue. The media is bounded on its outer side by an external elastic lamina, which also varies in the different types of arteries. The adventitia forming the outermost tunic, is made up of varying amount of connective, elastic and musclar tissue. Each of these elements fluctuates in quantity to a very great extent in the arteries of the different organs.
Arteries of the Elastic Type. — The arteries belonging to this class are the aorta, the first portions of its main branches at the arch, the first part of the common iliacs and the pulmonary. As our interest is mainly centered upon the structure of the media, I shall dispense with the discussion of the minute histology of the intima. Suffice it to say that the intima in the arteries of the elastic tissue type is of far greater importance than in those of the muscular type. And further the structure of the intima in the former is the more complex, and embraces more tissue elements than is found in the latter. The endothelial lining which is common to all vessels occupies the innermost layer and lies upon a slight amount of supporting connective tissue, followed then by a layer of longitudinally placed muscle fibres, as has been described above. These muscles fibres are separated from the media by the internal elastic lamina, which is usually considered a part of the intima.
opinion that all parts of the vessel wall containing muscle elements belong to media, and v. Ebner points out that there is no sharp division between the intima and media. He is, therefore, inclined to side Avith the histological subdivisions given by Bonders and Jansen.
It is evident that this view is incorrect as has been pointed out by Westphalen and Remak. The coats of the arteries are to be distinguished rather by the direction of the fibres than by the actual elements they contain.
This internal elastic lamina, which bounds the inner side of the media in all arteries, exists in varying quantities, and is often difficult to distinguish from the other elastic lamina present in the media. In vessels of the elastic type, the internal elastic lamina is but the innermost of many lamellse, which are present in the media. In young individuals this innermost lamella presents no difference from the ordinary elastic rings in the media and lies close underneath the endothelium, with but a few connective tissue cells between it and the endothelial layer of the intima. In adults, however, where the intima has gained in thickness, the internal elastic lamella, too, becomes more prominent and presents a definite boundary zone between it and the media. This increase — it may be the groAvth of the elastic tissue in general — can be obserA-ed with increasing age.
In a child up to three years the internal elastic lamina of the arteries of the elastic type presents a narrow band-like appearance, identical with its neighboring bands in the media. Its characters are the same, and it is of the same size as those in this tunic. At this age it is to be noted that the elastic bands show no branching or splitting of their substance. This branching does, however, occur as age advances. At the age of twenty, the elastic strands have become perceptibly thicker and have sent out a large number of thread-like elastic elements into the neighboring muscle tissue, and this increase in size and number of elastic fibres progresses steadily with age. The process of increase is not confined to the elastic elements of any one part of the vessel, but can be followed in any one of the tunics.
lamina, upon which some ( Jores) have laid so much stress, as being the chief characteristic of arteriosclerosis, is not alone confined to this lamella, but similar changes are to be noted in the elastic fibres of the media in arteriosclerotic processes or in old age. To this I shall refer again.
To the outer side of the internal elastic lamina lies the media, a definite structure, well defined on both its inner and outer borders. As the internal elastic lamina bounds the media on its inner side, so the external elastic lamina or Henle's membrane forms its outer boundary. There is this difference, however, that whereas the intimal elastic lamina is normally made up of a single strand, the external lamina may be composed of one or more elastic bands, all of which do not run in the same direction. In the vessels of the elastic tissue variety it is difficult to denote any particular strand of elastic tissue as the external limiting membrane, save that the first elastic layer lying beyond the outermost of the circularly disposed muscular fibres is to be considered the membrane in question, or in other words, the external elastic lamina is the last of the concentric bands of the media. On its outer side, the lamella usually shows a number of offshoots which go to make up the scattered elastic fibres of the adventitia. The external lamina is seldom more prominently defined than any of the other elastic bands of the media; and hence can scarcely be looked on as an individual structure.
The media of these vessels shows the characteristic alternating layers of elastic fibres and muscle bundles. These elastic fibres differ in no way from the internal elastic lamina of these vessels, save that whereas the internal elastic lamina normally sends off few if any ramifications, the elastic elements in the media, although concentrically arranged give off connecting bridges of elastic tissue which weld the tunic into a more compact structure. There are usually from forty to sixty of these elastic rings separated by intervals of lo to 20 microns.
We have now come to recognize the importance of the elastic elements in the structure of the arteries. In them, we find that the nature and disposition of the elastic fibres varies with the changing function of the vessels. In the main it might be said that where strength and resistance are required in the circulatory system, there
is the need of elastic elements. This is not only true in normal vessels but also in pathological states. Thus the large arteries which receive the direct stress of the heart beat are well provided with elastic fibres, while the muscle tissue of less importance for the maintenance of elasticity occupies a less prominent position and is less in quantity.
I would here point out that the conversion of the intermittent blood flow from the heart into a more constant stream, is a work resting to a great extent upon the elastic fibres. In these, nature has provided a tissue which evinces no signs of fatigue, and which is able to take on a considerable reserve work, accommodating itself eventually by a hyperplasia of its own elements. I would point out too that the reverse is the case with the much overworked muscle tissue. The latter is subject to fatigue, like voluntary muscle fibres, and in this stage of fatigue no hyperplasia takes place, but in its place degenerative processes occur, which as I shall refer to later, is of great significance in the medial disease of the arteries of the lower extremities.
The same observations, which were made concerning the developmental change in the internal elastic lamina, are applicable to the elastic rings of the media. In fact, it is to be understood that each one of these rings differs in no essential way from the internal lamina. Thus we are to picture the general structure of the elastic stroma as a system of tubes which fit into each other, and leaving an appreciable space between the contiguous tubes. Another feature common to all these elastic tubes is that they have certain fenestrations which allow communication between the spaces occupied by the muscle elements and, further, allow the passage of the vasa vasorum.
Whereas, the elastic fibres in young individuals up to the age of twelve, are arranged in concentric layers and in life form concentric cylinders about the vessel, with few or no elastic fibrils between the rings, there is with the later development of the vessels the appearance of new fibres which link the elastic rings together and form a network among the muscle bundles. The comparison of an infant's aorta and that of an adult illustrates this variation in the elastic fibres very well. Particularly in old age — even when all evidence
of an arteriosclerotic process is wanting — the relative increase in the elastic tissue is evident. Not only do new fibres appear between the concentric rings, but the original elastic strands become thickened and heavier. These changes in old age occur at the expense of the muscle tissue which is relatively decreased and more closely crow^ded together.
The muscle fibres of the media, which lie between the concentric elastic elements are entirely of the unstriped variety, and these alone endow the artery with active contractile powers. The greater majority of these muscle fibres are circularly disposed, while a few fibres hold an aberrant radial position or stretch lengthwise with the artery. There is but very little connective tissue about the muscle bundles, but there is a fair amount along the course of the vasa vasorum which penetrate the media from the adventitia to its outer third. The individual fibres are spindle shaped, and are about 40 to 60 microns long.
While the elastic fibres are capable of being stretched and then of returning to their former length, they are incapable of contracting beyond this given length. Naturally, therefore, these vessels, of the elastic type, which possess only a partial muscular media, cannot undergo the wide variations in the size of their lumina, being prevented from undue dilatation by the strength of the elastic fibres, and hindered from extensive contraction by the want of sufficient muscular elements and by the impediment offered by the fully contracted elastic bands. This presents the main difference of function between the vessels of the elastic type and those of the muscular type.
Arteries of the Muscular Type. — The arteries of the muscular type include all the medium sized vessels mentioned above and the large group of "peripheral arteries." The main characteristic of these vessels is the large amount of muscle tissue in the media, with but few elastic fibres coursing through this tunic. Although these vessels are more or less deficient in elastic fibres in the muscularis, they have a well marked internal elastic band consisting of a single strand, which after death is so commonly found to lie in smooth folds.
sure, into a smooth band — or strictly, a perfect cylinder, though no doubt between each pulsation it is thrown into wavy folds becoming a corrugated cylinder, by the muscular contraction of the media. That the internal elastic lamina during life lies in a smooth band can be demonstrated by filling a vessel with melted paraffin under a pressure equal to normal blood pressure, and then allowing the paraffin to set while the vessel is hardened. The even contour of the internal elastic band is also noted in cases of calcification of it, when it is found that this lamina lies as a circular lamella, interrupted only at those points where the muscular contraction has ruptured the calcified strands. In diseased conditions of the intima the internal elastic lamina may be reduplicated (Jores, Marchand, Aschoff and others), so that instead of having only a single layer, there are now two or more.
The media in the vessels of the muscular type is composed, in at least nine tenths of its structure, of muscle fibres. These fibres are on a whole of a concentric arrangement, but, nevertheless, have the muscle tissue divided into bundles separated by thin layers of connective tissue. It is in this connective tissue that the fine elastic fibrils appear. The few elastic fibres which are found in the media are irregularly disposed, often forming a fine arborescent network, but never arranged in concentric rings. The muscle bundles, although maintaining a general circular arrangement are frequently obliquely placed, giving greater strength to the wall of the artery.
elastic lamina, consisting of one or more well marked strands.
This external elastic lamina is of great importance as it forms the inner border of a highly elastic adventitia. In these vessels the adventitia contains relatively more elastic fibres and muscle elements than in the arteries of the elastic tissue type. It must be noted too that the arteries of the dift'erent organs differ in the quantity of elastic tissue they possess in the adventitia. This is well seen in sections of the spleen and of the kidney. In the former the adventitia is particularly rich in elastic tissue, which is true also of the arteries in the uterus while in the kidney less of it is present. The external elastic lamina in these vessels is well defined against the muscular media, almost free from elastic fibres.
Normally while connective tissue elements do not enter into the structure of the media of any arteries to any great extent only such fibres are found which pass between the muscle fibres and muscle bundles to weld a closer union to the component parts. Besides this, there is always a small quantity of connective tissue along the course of the vasa vasorum, which, except under pathological conditions, is of no great consequence.
Similar to the arteries of the elastic type, the larger of these vessels are also provided with vasa vasorum. Smaller arteries, even though provided with the muscular coat, do not possess nutritive vessels, save in the outskirts of the adventitia. In these the thin intima and the more important media derive their nutrition from the lumen of the artery and from the lymph, which is absorbed from the tissues surrounding the vessel. In the larger arteries the absorption of nutritive materials through the intima is inadequate for th« demand of the entire vessel. In these the vasa vasorum penetrate from the adventitia into the outer third of the muscularis and by the diffusion of the fluids from these vasa maintain the nourishment of both the outer and middle third of the media. It is only under pathological conditions that these vasa extend their branches beyond the outer third of the media. The inner third of the muscular coat is nourished through the intima from the lumen of the artery. Possibly too this portion of the vessel also obtains some nutrition from the vasa, but I believe that the materials obtained from this source are small.
In evidence that the inner third of the media obtains a nutritive supply through the intima is the fact that when under diseased conditions, the intima is no longer able to carry out its function of absorption and transmission of the fluids from the lumen of the vessel, there occurs in the inner layer of the media, as well as in the deep layer of the intima a degeneration which is usually a fatty one.
It has further been observed that when an embolus or thrombus completely occludes the lumen of a large artery while the vasa vasorum coming in at the adventitia are undisturbed, the portion of the artery containing the obstructing mass shows degenerative changes in the cells of the intima and of the inner portion of the media.
FUNCTIONS OF THE MEDIA.
Dependent upon the structure of the media, the vessels of the muscular type are capable of extensive dilatation, and, on the other hand, of contraction. With a muscle-power which is able to overcome the pressure within the artery these vessels can readily modify the quantity of blood passing through them.
This adaptability is essential to the proper nourishment of the organs and is well illustrated in the vessels of the uterus. During menstruation or pregnancy the uterine vessels dilate to double or three times their normal size, which size is again assumed at the end of the process. This control of the size of the artery (lumen) is alone assumed by the musculature of the media. Naturally these vessels, differing in their essential structure from the arteries of the elastic type, are subject to degenerations and diseases of quite a different sort. The muscular vessels are a more active type of artery, and for their nourishment require a greater number of vasa vasorum. These vasa do not extend farther than through the outer third of the vessel.
Goodall has recently pointed out that after repeated pregnancies the uterine artery is not able to restore its lumen by muscular contraction, and that the diminished calibre is brought about by the development of new tissue within the artery. This new inner tube resembles, in part, the structure of the original artery.
Hence in considering the tissues composing the media of the different types of arteries, we observe that the muscle cells are the most highly specialized cells we have to deal with and they are the cells upon which the functions of the arteries depend. Whereas the elastic fibres form the strength and resisting powers of the larger arteries, the muscle fibres are the active working cells, which control the arterial blood supply. Highly specialized cells are everywhere the cells which become most easily damaged by various injuries and noxae, and so we find here also that the muscle fibres are the most prone to undergo degenerative changes in the media, and it is only
in rare instances in which we find the other tissues (particularly the elastic fibres) showing the first degeneration. The unstriped muscle fibres of the media can show all the degenerative changes seen in unstriped muscle cells elsewhere.
Whatever function the various component cells of the media may have, the media as a whole forms the mainstay of the artery. All the variations in pressure brought about by the heart's action act upon and are acted upon by the vessel-walls, that is by the media, and it is only through the resistance of the latter that aneurysms do not occur after great increase in arterial pressure. If, however, the media is deseased and weakened, the vessel wall will not resist normal blood pressure, and will develop in consequence, a localized aneurysm at the site of weakening.
The local weakening in the wall of the media, slight as this might be, was considered by Thoma to be always followed by a little bulging. Relatively this is no doubt true, but one must also bear in mind the earliest changes occurring in the media, and which can be demonstrated in microscopic sections, are not of such severity to cause a giving way or ectasis of an artery. Such slight degenerations may be fully mended without leading to local or diffuse reactions in the other coats.
Broadbent has established the presence of rhythmic contractions in the arteries. These arterial pulsations are independent of the heart beat, and have their origin in the regular contractions of the musculature of the media. Such a system of automatic contractile tubes is of importance in propelling the blood, particularly during diastole of the ventricle.
DISEASES AFFECTING THE MEDIA.
The diseases affecting the media of the arteries can roughly be placed into two groups. The one type, which we will call the productive type is characterized by the production of new tissue cells of whatever character, while the other is essentially a degenerative one, with destruction of tissue as the most marked feature.
It must be explained, however, that in attempting to classify the medial diseases, it is quite impossible to lay down fixed rules which shall govern our grouping. It is so frequently the case that different types of medial disease are present in the same specimen, or again that the presence of one condition, such as a degeneration in some of the elements of the media, has given rise to other changes, it may be fibrous proliferation. It is the unusual to find arterial changes of but one character. Therefore, we must judge the pathological change in a vessel by the predominant features which are present, but not forgetting that the underlying causes may have been of a directly opposite nature.
There is one form of the "productive type" of medial diseases, in which cellular proliferation takes place in the proportional quantities as the tissues exist under normal circumstances, which in other words, is a true hypertrophy or better hyperplasia. On the other hand the newly developed tissue may be made up of one or other of the elements in the media in such a proportion as to overshadow the growth the other cell elements, The tissue, which in the vessels overgrows the other elements, is, as in other organs, connective tissue and represents (a) a chronic inflammation, or (b) a replacement fibrosis.
It becomes evident that, save for those changes resulting in hypertrophy of the media, the productive type is in truth an inflammatory one — using the term in its broadest sense. The nature of the inflammation and the events leading to it, we must discuss under the various headings, into which this class is divided.
the media, and assuming a relationship of these with arteriosclerosis, will seem to some a very radical view. However, we must assume sufficiently broad principles to study arteriosclerosis in all the stages of its development, and not alone confine our attention to the end products of the disease. If there is to be any advance in our knowledge of the progressive processes, and if there is any benefit to be obtained from these studies upon arterial diseases there must be a full understanding of the subject from its beginning.
No one will to-day deny that inflammation may assume many characters in different organs, and that the vital reaction to irritants is dependent upon the nature of the irritant and the tissue so affected. That the picture of an inflammatory process of one of the various coats of the arteries differs in some respects from that met with elsewhere, must be recognized, that however the end result of this inflammation is a sclerosis, frequently due to an overgrowth* of connective tissue, must also not be forgotten.
It is a question for discussion whether the progressive inflammatory diseases in the arteries should be taught under the heading of arteriosclerosis, or whether only the final product of these diseases, the sclerosis or hardening of the arterial wall should alone receive this designation. This much, however, is certain, that he who wishes to clearly appreciate the meaning and significance of arteriosclerosis, must follow the course of -the disease from its earliest beginning.
6. Amyloid Degeneration.
In the productive or inflammatory type of medial diseases, the process of degeneration, whether present or not, is much less in evidence. One must consider that in all forms of fibroses, there is a process of degeneration in some one of the tissues, of greater or lesser extent, accompanying or preceding it.
Our second group of medial diseases is one in which the degenerative processes come most into prominence. Under various influences one or other of the tissues composing the media is severely injured. At times a single type of tissue is injured consequent to the selective action of the noxious agent. At other times more than one tissue is injured.
Directly dependent upon the amount and severity of the degen-. erative processes there is usually a certain regeneration of tissue amounting to repair and more commonly connective tissue forms the bulk of the tissues entering into the process of this repair. But on the whole, this regeneration is slower and does not keep pace with the amount of degeneration going on.
It is evident that our classification is an arbitrary one, but one which is very obvious to the histologist. At times one meets with lesions that lie on the boundary line between these two groups, and in which the amount of degeneration and regeneration of tissue is almost equal. These are the rarer findings and do not minimize the value of classifying the medial diseases as we have done above.
The classification as we give it above takes no cognizance of the etiological factors bringing about the disease in question, because it is all but impossible to differentiate the forms of arteriosclerosis by the agent bringing them about. In the first place we must
recognize that the various toxic substances do not affect all the arteries in like manner, and that, therefore, a toxic arteriosclerosis may refer to arterial lesions of different histological characters. Our experience in experimental arteriosclerosis has also taught us that the same chemical agent can cause arterial lesions of different kinds, depending upon the amount of the substance used.
Productive Changes.
Hypertrophy of the Media. — A true hypertrophy of the arteries without other changes being present is seldom met with, and a uniform hyperplasia of the tissues is equally as infrequent. In 1873 Johnson noted an hypertrophy of the media in the renal arteries in cases of chronic Bright's disease, and this was later confirmed by Ewald, von Leyden and Friedemann. Arteries showing similarchanges have been noted by Westphalen in the uterus. Marchand states that such vessels in which the media shows a pure hypertrophy of the musculature without signs of degeneration should not be classified under arteriosclerosis.
Jores noted that the musculo-elastic layer of the intima responded most readily to hypertrophic changes, but in most of these cases the hypertrophy was soon followed by various forms of degeneration. This we have confirmed for both human arteries and those of animals. Savill reports the common occurrence of hypertrophy of the media in persons past middle life.
Sternberg, working in Paltauf's laboratory, observed that in cases of arteritis obliterans, simulating those of Winiwarter and Weiss, a hypertrophy of the media was present.
One finds, however, that other than the isolated observations on the renal, uterine and other vessels, accurate reports are wanting concerning the nature of the hypertrophy in the media. The infrequency of this lesion is due to the fact that the stimuli leading to hypertrophy or hyperplasia of the arterial tissues are seldom so well graded that they do not also cause degenerative changes. If it be given that the nourishment of these tissues is sufficiently preserved, while the stimuli for growth, usually of the nature of increased work, are not too severe, there is obtained uniform overgrowth of all the tissues in the media as may occur in other organs. Such
conditions are seen in the uterine vessels of young girls after the beginning of menstruation, and in the same vessels in young adults after first pregnancies. Here all the factors for an overgrowth of the arterial tissues are present, and in consequence a true hypertrophy and hyperplasia of the media is the result. I do not feel convinced that such an hypertrophy ever takes place after the thirtyfifth year.
Concerning hypertrophy of the arteries in general, I am convinced that it is a frequent development, but as it is difficult to gauge a normal standard of thickness for each coat in every vessel, the estimation must remain a relative one, influenced by the personal factor. Nor is it possible to give any opinion as to hypertrophy by counting the number of muscle layers between the two elastic laminae. With Aschoff we must agree that there is a progressive increase in the size and quality of the arterial coats with advancing years up to the age of thirty-five. This has recently been verified in our laboratory by Foster working under me at the Royal Victoria Hospital. This physiological development in^'olves all the tissues in the coat, although the elastic fibres and the muscle cells form the important elements in the media.
Jores in his studies on arteriosclerosis, in which he placed so much stress upon the development of elastic fibres in the intima, also made some observations on the development of new elastic tissue in the media. He found that where the intima showed such a development of elastic fibres, the media also partook of this change. On the other hand, he did not observe the development of elastic fibres in the media where the intima remained unchanged, nor were these fibres to be observed in instances of progressive mesarteritis.
Meigs is of the opinion that the hypertrophied condition of the media is a diseased and degenerative state. He has noted the increase in the number of muscle cells of the media, but he finds that this is associated with a breaking down of the muscle fibres and other evidences of degeneration.
Arteries with a thickened media are readily subject to processes of disease. Whereas, the process of hypertrophy was stimulated by an increase in function, at a time when the necessary extra nutri-
tion was available, the body sooner or later meets with circumstances in which either the nutrition is not properly maintained or in which the stimuli acting on the media become greater than can be sustained, with a resulting ill-efifect on this coat. On the other hand too, if this increased function consist of excessive pressure within the artery hypertrophy continues for some time, until the media, the mainstay of the artery, becomes exhausted and can no longer become hypertrophied nor give rise to new tissue cells. Such exhausted cells allow the vessel to dilate, and themselves undergo destruction. This process of early hypertrophy with a later degeneration can be readily followed in the femoral arteries. In different subjects all stages of hypertrophy, exhaustion, dilatation and degeneration are to be found. The many sacculations found in the vessels of the muscular type, in Moenkeberg's arteriosclerosis, are aneurysmal pouchings which have passed through the above stages.
Concerning the hyperplasia in the renal arterioles there is still much debate. The question arises whether the arterial hypertrophy in chronic Bright's disease, arises before or in consequence of the interstitial fibrosis and hyaline changes in the glomeruli. This question can only be answered by considering the mechanics of the structures under discussion. Moreover under different circumstances other factors have a decided bearing on the subject.
Looking at the glomerulus from a mechanical point of view I should think that it is of enormous importance that so delicate a mechanism should not be subjected to a sudden rise of blood pressure, nor to a continued and excessive pressure. In themselves the glomeruli are unable to exert any controlling influence on the blood pressure. Hence this control must fall on the smaller branches of the renal arteries and their arterioles. The higher the mean arterial pressure, the greater is the nefed for contraction of these arteries, and the greater is the tendency to muscular hypertrophy to reduce the glomerular blood supply. Whether these arteries contract owing to reflex nervous stimuli or to the direct action of substances of the adrenalin type must at present be left an open question.
In this we, therefore, agree with Johnson that a true medial hypertrophy is found in nephritis. Johnson, however, assumes a kidney lesion antecedent to the arterial changes. His own summary
states his position very clearly. " In consequence of the degeneration of the kidney the blood is morbidly changed. It contains urinary excreta and is deficient of some of its own normal constituents. It is, therefore, more or less unsuited to nourish the tissues, more or less noxious to them. The minute arteries throughout the body resist the passage of this abnormal blood. The left ventricle makes therefore an abnormal effort to drive on the blood. The result of this antagonism of forces is that the muscular walls of the arteries and of the left ventricle of the heart become simultaneously and in an equal degree hypertrophied. The persistent over action of the muscular tissues, both cardiac and arterial, is registered after death in a conspicuous and unmistakable hypertrophy."
Gull and Sutton do not agree with Johnson. They believe that the arterial changes in the kidney are conditions common to all arteries of equal size which are or may be independent of renal disease. In other words the lesions in the vessels of the kidney are only a part of a generalized condition.
I do not believe that in all cases the hypertrophy of the media increases the resisting and contractile powers of the vessels. Where the process is a physiological one, as in the uterus, the hypertrophy becomes essential to carry on the increased work to which the vessels are subjected. Pregnancy demands vastly greater blood supply than normally passes to the uterus, and to this increased supply the arteries must accommodate themselves. But once the physiological increase of supply is at an end, the arteries must again accommodate themselves to an inferior work. The vessel walls then contain a larger quantity of tissue, particularly muscular elements in the media, than is required for the normal functions, and these elements which are thrown into disuse are those which become subject to atrophy and degeneration. Hence in these same arteries where we not infrequently note true hypertrophies and hyperplasias we also observe processes of degeneration without any sign of tissue reaction.
Acute Mesarteritis. — Acute mesarteritis is rather an unusual type of arterial disease unless especially looked for with the aid of the microscope. It is but the rare case which is detected by the naked eye, unless the condition has advanced to such a degree as to produce
pus foci in the walls of the arteries. On the other hand acute inflammatory conditions are present in the media, in cases of mycotic aneurysms, such as have been described by McCrae. These cases show microscopic evidence of severe disorganization of the entire vessel wall, without the evidence, which one looks for in cases of aneurysm, of chronic changes accompanied by an endarteritis.
Not uncommonly too, the acute progressive stage of mesarteritis is seen to accompany lesions more advanced in repair. Syphilitic aortitis shows very often the progressive inflammation of the media and adventitia about the vasa vasorum, while irregularly scattered through the vessel are plaques of fibrosis denoting a previously acute process. I have only once obtained a specimen of acute syphilitic mesaortitis which did not show any evidence of chronicity (fibrosis). The specimen was obtained from a luetic who died in the late secondaries from an accident. Macroscopically in this case no evidence was present indicating disease of the aorta — and only in section were the lymphocytic collections about the vasa, and the new formation of capillaries in the outer part of the media, indicated. It is to be considered that in every case of syphilitic arteritis there is an acute or subacute stage in which the media forms one of the principal foci. I have twice been successful in demonstrating the SpirochcBta pallida in these specimens and others have also reported this finding.
Not infrequently a slight and transient acute mesarteritis is present in typhoid (Landouzy and Siredey) and streptococcus septicaemias. The conditions in the media in these diseases is quite independent of any changes which may be present in the intima. Accompanying a streptococcus septicaemia an inflammatory condition of greater or lesser degree is formed in association with the small nutrient vessels of the adventitia and the media, while quite apart from these changes and isolated in areas of the intima away from the infiltrated tissue of the media, are commonly seen superficial fatty streaks. These superficial fatty degenerations of the intima are found in the aorta between the pairs of mouths of the intercostal branches. The significance of these fatty streaks is still under debate although Aschoff favors the view that these are the early stages of arteriosclerosis. This much, however, we can say.
lesions about the vasa of the media.
Thorel has found that in acute infectious diseases the larger arteries show a small-celled infiltration of the adventitia. Of these diseases typhoid, scarlet fever and diphtheria are most frequently associated with this form of arteritis.
It has been a fairly common observation among clinicians to find thromboses, particularly in the arteries of the lower extremities in cases of typhoid fever. These lesions have been particularly commented upon by the French observers. More recently, however, Thayer has made a thorough study of thromboses in typhoid fever, and has laid particular stress upon its association with acute mesarteritis. He was able to demonstrate an acute arteritis preceding the thrombosis.
Moreover, this author observed that the " radial arteries in old typhoids were palpable in a proportion nearly three times as great as that found in control observations."
McCrae has recently demonstrated acute lesions in the media due to the streptococcus in the course of a puerperal infection. In his case, however, there was present a progressive syphilitic aortitis, and it was found that in the areas of syphilitic arterial change the secondary streptococcal invasion was the most recent and produced further medial degenerations, thereby hastening the development of aneurysm at these sites.
A mesarteritis is commonly present in vessels passing to or in the neighborhood of infected and purulent foci. Larger arteries lying near a small abscess may have only half of their circumference or less showing acute inflammatory infiltration. The process of inflammation may be localized along the vessels of the media or the condition may be diffuse and without regard to the blood supply of the vessel coats. Such vessels are most commonly seen in the lungs in association with infected tuberculous cavities (Pauli). Of necessity these conditions will also lead to inflammatory processes in the adventitia. The importance of an acute mesarteritis associated with abscess formation is that the vessel wall lying contiguous to the abscess cavity undergoes necrosis, with possible aneurysm formation, and at times there is rupture of the artery. Such a degenera-
ence of aneurysms in and about tuberculous cavities in the lung.
Less frequently one meets with an acute inflammatory process advancing from the intima into the media. Such cases are associated with the deposition of a septic thrombus on the surface of the intima and are usually located at the site of atheroma or atheromatous ulceration (thromboarteritis). In the aorta, mural thrombi are not so rare; in the peripheral arteries, however, the thrombi more frequently encircle the entire vessel and occlude it. In each of these types the septic agents may advance through the intima into the media and there set up an acute inflammation with a diffuse poly-, nuclear infiltration. It is obvious that the presence of a septic embolus may lead to results in the vessel coats, similar to thrombosis.
Mechanical injury without the presence of sepsis is also an occasional factor. Not a few cases are on record of traumatic injury, by bullets, of one or other of the arterial coats, and in all of these cases presenting a secondary aneurysm from such an injury, the media has been severely damaged.
The histological appearance of these vessels differs but slightly. There are, however, the cases in which the acute inflammatory infiltration of the media is diffuse while in others it is localized to the small nutrient vessels passing from the adventitia into the outer third of the middle coat. Again of the latter group there are those in which the inflammatory infiltration is for the most part made up of lymphocytes, as in syphilis and the chronic granulomata, while others are almost entirely polymorphonuclear leucocytes. Save for the granulomatous lymphocytic infiltrations, the character of the inflammatory process gives us but little information as to the nature of the infecting agent. To this I m.ust add, however, that in acute mesarteritis of the vessels at the base of the brain, and particularly in meningococcus infections the leucocytic infiltration is most intense and diffuse — at times so extensive as to overshadow the tissue of the individual layers of the wall. The picture is a very striking one, showing the invasion of the leucocytes, not by way of the blood
coccus arteritis is well discussed by Loewenstein.
In the lesions produced by severe typhoid fever, the areas of leucocytic infiltration in the media may show evidence of connective tissue proliferation. In these it is seen that the cells, immediately surrounding the vasa vasorum, become large and oval shaped, and between these, cells of fibroblast types are seen. At times too these areas of proliferation are seen to extend closer to the intima than the normal position of the vasa would take them. The intima commonly shows only a slight proliferation of the endothelial cells, with, however, quite a marked fatty degeneration of the musculoelastic layer. In the more severe typhoid infections the muscle cells of the media show signs of extensive degeneration with a fine fatty deposit in them. These changes accompanied by a productive process are most often seen in the vessels of the elastic type. In a number of cases the bacteria present in the arterial walls have been demonstrated by appropriate methods (Warthin and McCrea).
noted evidence of new elastic tissue formation.
Experimentally various inflammatory lesions have been produced in -the media by infective agents (Klotz and Saltykow), trauma, (Malkoff) and thrombi. In introducing living bacteria into the circulation, these organisms find their way into the vasa vasorum and set up inflammatory conditions about them. The histological picture is identical with that found in human arteries in which infection has gained entrance into the medial tissues. Syphilitic mesarteritis has not been reproduced in animals.
The so-called neurotic angioscleroses (Lewaschew) produced in dogs by injury and division of the sciatic nerve must be regarded as an infective lesion following trophic ulcers of the leg. Lewaschew found inflammatory lesions in the media and adventitia of the smaller arteries, but no changes in the larger vessels. In some of the animals experimented upon gangrene of the leg or extensive ulcers developed, which were no doubt associated with the general cellulitis and arteritis present (Czyhlarz and Helbring).
destruction (as in syphilis), accompanies the inflammation. Aneurysms both of rapid or slow development are serious possibilities. The milder grades of mesarteritis usually mend readily, leaving more or less connective tissue at the points of repair.
Chronic Mesarteritis.
Chronic or Productive Mesarteritis. — Most of the cases of chronic productive mesarteritis have had a preceding acute stage, and the majority owe their being to infection. Odd cases, no doubt, are met with in which a true acute stage was lacking, and which from the very first were slowly progressive — of the nature of chronic granulomata or in which a replacement fibrosis followed non-inflammatory degenerations. However, it may be said in general, that those factors which produce an acute mesarteritis, as was noted above, are also able to produce chronic fibrosis of the media.
The chronic inflammatory conditions of the media, and it is true also of the acute inflammations, are more commonly found in the aorta and its large branches than in any other vessels in the body. The reason for this lies in the abundant capillary supply to the outer portion of the media of the aorta and the large arteries, while in the smaller vessels these nutrient vessels are few or entirely wanting. In 1844 Rokitansky stated that_the intima of blood vessels could not become inflamed, because of the lack of blood capillaries. To-day we recognize an inflammatory condition of non-vascular tissues, and we may modify Rokitansky's maxim, and say that the frequency of inflammatory states of the arterial coats is directly dependent upon the vascularity of the vessel walls.
All are fully agreed, I believe, that we must distinguish between the primary and secondary mesaortitis (and also mesarteritis), as has been fully set forth by Chiari. We would suggest, however, that whereas Chiari has distmguished between two types of medial disease occurring in the aorta, his Type A and Type B can and should be applied to the productive mesarteritis whenever it is found. The features, which distinguish the primary from the secondary production of the scar tissue in the aorta, are applicable to all the arteries.
The secondary mesarteritis or Chiari's type A is the result of, and follows a diseased condition of the intima, an endarteritis chronica deformans. In this instance the mesarteritis is limited to the area underlying a hyperplastic intimal plaque or an atheromatous softening. In this isolated area of the media the vasa vasorum advance from the outer third of the media towards the intima. Evidently the cutting off of the nourishment from the intima by the endarteritis has been a sufficient stimulus to lead to new capillar}^ formation. These A'essels are surrounded by a leucocytic infiltration and later heavy strands of connective tissue occupy their environment. With the advance of the vasa vasorum and the accompanying fibrosis, the tissue elements of the media are pushed aside and distorted. The concentric elastic bands are interrupted in their course and the muscle fibres are replaced by connective tissue. Similar changes are also to be found in the adventitia, where it is well seen how the chronic inflammatory or productive tissue follows the course of the blood vessels.
It is, however, less frequent to find a productive mesarteritis following intimal sclerosis, than to observe degenerative changes occurring in the media underneath endarteritic plaques or atheromatous ulcerations. However, in the event of an adherent thrombus in an artery becoming organized, the fibrous tissue elements which invade the thrombus from the intima, also extend downwards into the media. Moreover the nutrient supply for the organizing mass is obtained to a great extent from the vasa vasorum of the media. These vessels send capillaries to the organizing clot, and along with them there is a considerable development of fibrous tissue. In the event of a later canalization of the thrombus, the walls of the artery remain permanently sclerosed at this point.
In Chiari's productive mesarteritis. Type B, which term he reserves particularly for syphilitic mesaoritis, the chronic inflammation and connective tissue proliferation in the media are primary to any changes occurring in the intima. The changes which occur in the media and adventitia constitute the important characteristics of the disease, while the intimal thickening is only developed secondarily. Type B is particularly characterized by the infrequency of degenerative changes (calcification) arising in the intima, while
however, this thickened layer is furrowed and " knotty," and is localized mainly in the ascending aorta. Microscopically, the important changes are found in the media, where granulation tissue and connective tissue form firm masses about the vasa vasorum such as are not present in endarteritis chronica deformans. The adventitia always shows more or less inflammatory reaction about the vasa, while the intima after a time proliferates, after the nature of a chronic inflammation. It is seldom that, early in the disease, macroscopic degenerative processes appear in the media, or if they do, they are very slight in extent. The lesions appear in their whole nature to be the result of a chronic irritation, which is only sufficiently severe to stimulate growth. That a certain quantity of muscle and elastic tissue is destroyed in the media during the progress of the inflammation is not to be denied, but the loss of this tissue is sufficiently slow to allow the growth of the connecti^^e tissue to fill in many of the gaps.
In the more advanced conditions where the inflammatory process has spread, the old sites of invasion give place to " gummy " degeneration in which the muscle and elastic tissue appear to melt away. The involved vessel wall is much distorted, and its place taken by granulation tissue, fibrosis and necrosis.
I shall discuss later the point about which there has been some debate, namely, whether the intimal change here is to be regarded as the outcome of the chronic inflammation or as of the nature of a strain hypertrophy.
We have now, thanks to Francis Welch and Heller, become familiar with the macroscopic picture of syphilitic aortitis, so that it seldom escapes recognition. The localization in the ascending aorta, the lack of certain degenerative changes on the surface, the furrowed, thickened and scarred intima combine to form an unmistakable picture. With the microscopic picture of the intima I do not believe we can be so certain. There are other infectious diseases which lead to a small celled infiltration of the vasa vasorum in the adventitia and media, and which on healing leave bands of scar tissue coursing through the tissues of the vessel wall. However, the characteristics of syphilitic mesarteritis bear the same relationship to those of other infectious mesarteritides as the
syphilitic cirr hoses of the liver do to other liver cirrhoses. That is in syphilitic mesarteritis the connective tissue bands are much heavier, and more stellate than are seen in other cases.
The macroscopic appearance of the syphilitic aorta in the advanced stage is well described by Malmsten. "The v^all of the aorta is thickened. The inner surface is uneven and has diffuse or closely aggregated, round or irregular, more or less circumscribed convex plaques, which on cutting through are seen to consist of yellowish white firm masses, presenting here and there stellate scar-like contractions. This puckering leads to the irregular groovings and warty character of the surface. Besides this sclerogummy process, the aorta shows changes simulating advanced and degenerated syphilitic lesions elsewhere. As regards the localization, the aorta may be attached throughout its entire length or more frequently in the ascending arch alone, or again various areas in the vessel may be attacked leaving clear parts between the lesions. Large calcareous masses or plaques are entirely wanting."
In short, in this stage of syphilitic aortitis all three coats of the artery are affected, the intimal lesions having followed the changes in the adventitia and media. Microscopically we find that the thickened artery owes its bulk to the immense increase in the adventitia along with the thickening of the intima. The media suffers an actual loss and narrowing due to destruction of the fibres of its essential tissues, and is frequently reduced to less than one third its original width.
As we have stated above, the early changes in syphilitic arteritis takes place about the vasa vasorum of the adventitia, of the nature of lymphocytic infiltration about the arterioles and capillaries. Tissue destruction is not evident at the beginning. Lymphocytic infiltrations about the vasa vasorum are also seen very early, and with this there appears a new development of capillaries which course the media beyond the limits of the outer third. As these vessels stretch through the medial tissues there is a concurrent loss of muscle and elastic tissue, while young fibrous tissue accompanies the advance of the vasa. The remarkable feature in the process of the lesion is the rapid disappearance of the fixed tissues (muscle and elastic fibres). These tissues appear to melt away in the en-
vironment. of the syphilitic virus, but tlie process of tissue-loss is not so rapid as to leave areas of necrosis patent, but new fibrous tissue is found to keep almost equal pace with the tissue destruction. The areas in which the tissue cells are " melting dow^n," are always densely infiltrated with lymphocytes, plasma cells and fibroblasts. A careful examination of active syphilitic lesions in the arterial wall demonstrates that the muscle fibres commonly undergo fatty degeneration before disintegrating, and that similar changes take place in the elastic tissue. Before final dissolution the elastic strands no longer react to elastin stains.
The vasa vasorum of the adventitia and media frequently show changes quite similar to those in the main artery (Molinari). The intimal proliferation in these small vessels becomes so great as to lead to occlusion of the lumen, and ]\Iolinari believes that this produces nutritional disturbances sufficient to cause necrosis of the muscular and elastic elements of the media. The development of granulation tissue and miliary nodules about the vasa vasorum is considered by Doehle, Beck and Backhaus to be miliary gummata. It is but seldom that giant cells are encountered in these cellular aggregations.
This microscopic picture of productive mesarteritis differs widely from the ordinary one of arteriosclerosis, while at the same time it is quite distinctive for syphilis as seen in the aorta. Nevertheless, it must be remembered that other agents (infections) than syphilis can bring about similar changes in the arteries. Thus in several instances Chiari and also Beck encountered lesions of a like nature in individuals in whom both the history and the anatomical findings elsewhere in the body proved negative for syphilis. Chiari states that although a mesaortitis productiva of the Type B may be caused by other agents, syphilis as a factor must not be lost sight of in any case.
Besides producing scar tissue in the media with a secondary proliferation in the intima, syphilis may lead to true gummatous formation in the arteries. Benda and others have observed that the small and medium sized arteries as well as the thoracic aorta are the places most often attacked. The gummata localize in the media or adventitia, where giant cells and lymphocytic infiltrations are
found. In the intima the endothehal and subendotheHal tissues proliferate, leading to endarteritis, deformans or obliterans. This tertiary lesion of syphilis in the aorta has also received attention from Doehle and Malmsten, the latter of whom referred to it as a " sclerogummyaortitis." The gummy type of lesion carries with it the characteristics of granulation tissue in the centre of which the gummy degeneration is found. Hence we have the combined productive and degenerative processes going on side by side.
The more direct proof of the nature of the productive mesarteritis Type B being syphilitic has been brought forward by Schmorl, Benda Wright and me in the demonstration of the Spirochceta pallida in the medial lesions of the arteries. The same difficulty is experienced in demonstrating the spirochsetes in the syphilitic mesarteritis as is found with the tertiary lesions of the disease. In favorable instances and earlier lesions the spirochsetes are present in large numbers about the lymphocytic collections of the vasa. When older and more advanced changes are present the organisms are found only rarely in the peripheral zone.
It is unquestionable that the organism (Spirochceta pallida) and its toxins are directly responsible for the invasive inflammatory tissue of the adventitia and media.
Up to the present, adequate explanations have not been given for the localization of the syphilitic aortic lesions in the ascending limb. The frequency of this site suggests an anatomical reason, possibly depending upon the nature of the blood supply, and the origin of the vasa vasorum of this portion of the aorta.
While so many observations have been made upon the histology of acquired syphilitic aortitis, there had been relatively little work done on changes in the arteries in the congenital form of the disease.
Mracek has noted in congenital syphilis that there are numerous ecchymoses in the adventitia of the larger vessels, while the vasa vasorum exhibit a small-celled infiltration about them. Occasionally too, he noted a slight endarteritis in the carotid, crural and iliac arteries. Buchta has reported a case of congenital syphilis in a young adult of seventeen, in whom the vessels of the arms and
partial gangrene of the foot set in.
Bruhns has recently examined nine cases of congenital syphilis, and has been able to demonstrate lesions in the aorta which are very like the lesions met with in mesaortitis productiva, as described by Chiari in adults. The dilated vasa vasorum in the adventitia showed a constant small-celled infiltration about them, while the condition was also to be traced in the outer zone of the media. The dense inflammatory infiltration of the media leads to a pushing apart of the elastic fibres, so that the structure of the vessel becomes looser in this region. The leucocytic collections in his specimens consisted both of mononuclear and poly nuclear cells, while epithelioid cells were also present.
Bruhns concludes that, in congenital syphilis of the aorta, acute inflammatory infiltrations are present in the outer layer of the media and in the adventitia, particularly about the vasa vasorum. He holds that the lesions of congenital syphilis in the aorta are identical with those of the acquired type as described by Chiari.
Wiesner has studied the arterial changes in ten undoubted cases of congenital syphilis in children, and has found constant characteristic lesions in the arteries. According to his findings the aorta with its larger branches, and the pulmonary artery, are the most frequent sites of the pathological conditions. In these vessels he distinguished a boundary zone between the media and adventitia, in which, as is also the case in the arterial lesions of acquired syphilis, the primary alterations in the tissue are to be looked for. He found a constant hypersemia of the vasa vasorum both in the adventitia and in the boundary zone, while in some cases a thrombosis, and even a hemorrhage, occurred in these regions. The hemorrhages in his cases occurred most frequently in the adventitia. Another constant feature found in the arteries in congenital syphilis is the presence of a round-cell infiltration following the vasa vasorum from the adventitia into the media. In congenital syphilitic children several wrecks old, Wiesner found a peri-vascular fibrosis replacing the cellular infiltration, and in some cases an obliteration of the nutrient vessels.
rence of a connective-tissue production in the media, so that the elastic fibres had almost entirely disappeared in this region. Wiesner considered _that this was a later stage of the inflammatory infiltration seen about the vasa of the aorta in new born children.
Recently we have reported a case of congenital syphilitic aortitis in a still-born full-term child. The lesions in this case presented characters similar to those seen in the acquired disease. The ascending aorta and the arch were the site of irregular radiating grooves about which the intima was thickened. Petechial hemorrhages of the media could be seen through the intima.
In the microscopic sections, it was found that the media showed an intense small celled infiltration, localized about the vasa vasorum. This infiltration was also present in the adventitia. Not alone were lymphocytes present about the vasa, but there were polynuclear and epithelioid cells, besides a general diffuse fibrosis, pushing aside the normal tissues of the wall. A necrosis involving the elastic tissue and muscle fibres of the media was present. The intima was much thickened over the altered media.
It was suggested that since the congenital syphilitic lesions of the aorta resembled so closely those of the acquired type in adults, that more than probable, some of the so-called acquired lesions in the arteries which are met with in later life, are of congenital origin,
Recently Scharpff has examined the aortas from a number of syphilitic infants. The specimens which he examined showed no macroscopic lesions, and he was unable to determine any definite mesarteritis in the histological preparations. From his observations Scharpff rather doubts the findings and conclusions of Wiesner.
On the other hand Scharpff's findings only illustrate that in cases of congenital syphilis, aortic lesions are not necessarily present. The same is also true for acquired syphilis.
As has been repeatedly stated above, although syphilis is the more frequent causative factor in the production of a primary chronic mesarteritis, due credit must be given to other infections. I have convinced myself that rheumatism does lead to small areas of medial fibrosis which in many respects simulate the sclerotic patches in the heart described by Aschoft*. During the progressive
stage of these lesions narrow lines of cellular infiltration are seen along the small capillaries in the adventitia and also in the media. The larger arteries and arterioles of the media do not share this infiltration. Moreover the inflammatory process is limited to a very narrow zone just along the vasa vasorum. Frequently this infiltration is only a few cells deep. As the process of repair advances this area becomes occupied by a zone of fibrosis, which as in rheumatic myocarditis, is very patchy in character. Recently I have been able to reproduce these lesions in rabbits by repeated inoculations at varying intervals of the so-called Micrococcus rheumaticus. These experimental lesions I found only in the aorta, and in some instances they were associated with intimal thickenings in the aortic arch.
In typhoid infections although an acute stage, as we have described under acute mesarteritis, is not infrequently found, the process of fibrosis does not so commonly occur. It would seem that although there is an acute reaction about the vasa vasorum in typhoid, the reaction is too slight, and the fixed tissues about the vasa are too little altered to demand the development of new fibrous tissue. It was only rarely that there was any evidence of destruction or of fibrous tissue proliferation about the vasa vasorum.
More. rarely do we find a tuberculous infection of the media. Occasional cases of tuberculosis involving the intima have been 'reported. These latter conditions are most frequently found associated with a previous intimal lesion into which the tubercle bacilli have found their way, setting up a caseating focus (Aschoff). Here and there the aortic wall is involved along with other organs in a miliary tuberculosis which can be recognized by the naked eye, and the infection is found to localize in the intima (Thorel). Blume found such a condition in the pulmonary veins of a child one and three-quarters years old. In all of the reported cases an active or caseating focus has been described which was in close association with or had broken into a blood vessel, leading to a severe tuberculous septicaemia. It is indeed remarkable that in the event of a tuberculous focus existing in the intima of an artery, it is seldom that this focus extends into the media. Indeed it is imusual too that an isolated tuberculous focus develops about the vasa vasorum
at a distance from the primary site. Tubercles may and do form commonly in the adventitia of the arteries lying in tuberculous cavities, and in these cases the media shows more or less involvement. Actual tubercles with giant cells and epithelioid cells infiltrate the media; some of these go on to caseation and others to fibrosis, and very often the inflammatory state causes thrombosis of the affected artery.
The multiple miliary nodules which are seen about the minute arteries and veins of the meninges in tuberculous meningitis are not in the walls proper, of these vessels, but have developed in the outermost and loose meshwork of the adventitia.
Some difficulty is experienced in distinguishing tuberculous foci in and about the small arteries. Duerck has recently demonstrated miliary nodules in the vessels of the pia, which macroscopically had the appearance of tuberculosis, and yet no evidence of tuberculosis was present elsewhere in the body, while syphilis was present.
To sum up the important points concerning the productive mesarteritis, we have (i) a type of inflammatory reaction of the media secondary to lesions in the intima, having no definite etiological factor and localized to the tissues lying beneath the diseased intima (Chiari's Type A), and (2) a mesarteritis associated with inflammatory infiltration of the adventitia, primary to intimal proliferation which is most frequently caused by syphilis (Chiari's type B), but which may also be induced by other infections. In both types of productive mesarteritis the newly developed medial tissue, while replacing the tissue proper, seldom shows degenerative changes in progress, either in the area directly affected or in the immediate neighborhood.
Periarteritis Nodosa. — There is a distinct class of nodular inflammatory thickening of the arterial coats which must be considered apart from the usual inflammatory infiltrations of the arteries.
Up to the present there are about thirty cases of periarteritis nodosa recorded. The first description of the macroscopical appearance was given by Rokitansky in 1852, and in 1866 Kussmaul and Maier gave an exact histological description of the disease, and its name. Since these early reports little new has been added to
our knowledge of the affection, save to confirm the early observations. The later observers have to a great extent confined their attention to the discussion of the etiology of the inflammatory process, but there is still no uniformity of opinion. Syphilis as a factor is doubtful.
Periarteritis nodosa is a disease of the smaller blood vessels, more commonly found in men than women, and beginning usually at the age of twenty to thirty years. The disease develops as multiple nodules on the small arteries or arterioles, and is most frequently seen on the coronary artery of the heart, or the hepatic, the mesenteric and the renal arteries. Nevertheless, its distribution may be very varied and the vessels in the muscles, lungs or skin are occasionally the sites of predilection. The lesions are to be seen as small nodules appearing on the outside of the arteries, sometimes encircling the artery, at other times projecting outwards as a globular mass the size of a pea. At the bifurcation of a vessel the thickening may be more diffuse, and extend for half an inch or more along the artery. The more distinct enlargements are found on vessels lying in a loose tissue, but nevertheless nodular thickenings are also found on the arteries in the substance of the kidney, spleen, heart and liver.
In some instances, and more particularly in the heart, the nodular thickenings of the arteries form a " rosenkranzartig " appearances. There appears to be no uniformity in which the disease attacks the arteries. At times the mesenteric system alone is affected, at others the cutaneous or the cardiac vessels. Consequently the symptoms vary widely and the diagnosis is difficult to make during life. With involvement of the gastro-intestinal tract, symptoms of pain and diarrhoea are not unusual features. When the vessels of the heart are affected, and more particularly when the intima of the arteries has taken part in the nodular thickening, symptoms of angina, or of myocardial fibrosis or softening, may arise. Very rarely do the arteries of the meninges become involved in this disease.
the breast and skin, showing nodular thickenings of their coats. Graf found the same changes in the arteries of the adrenals, while Fletcher described a type of periarteritis nodosa in the vasa vasorum of the aorta.
Considering the wide distribution of the disease throughout the body, it is not a little remarkable that the vessels of the brain are seldom if ever attacked, though Chvostek and Weichselbaum and also Muller have each described cases in which nodules were present on the cerebral arteries. The aorta and pulmonary artery remain fairly immune.
Of the individual lesions in the arteries two types have been described, (i) the solid nodular, and (2) the nodular with aneurysms. These types have received recognition rather from the appearance than from the mode of origin. Both of the types have had the same conditions leading up to their development, but in the case of the multiple aneurysms, the reparative tissue about the nodules has not kept pace with the disturbance in the media and adventitia, with the result that the normal blood pressure could not be sustained. In short, the development of aneurysms is but a stage or a sequel to the disease in general.
There is still some diversity of opinion as to the pathology of the nodules. Kussmaul and Maier, who first described the histology of the lesions, and the majority of the observers (Muller, Veszpremi and Jansco, Freund, Grafared, Longcope) are of the opinion that the lesion is essentially an inflammation, beginning in the adventitia. In the early stages a round-celled infiltration is found along the adventitial vessels, which spreads both into the adjoining tissues and into the media. Lymphocytes are present in great numbers and fibroblasts accompany the tissue infiltration. With the advance into the media the muscle fibres are pushed aside and to a great extent destroyed. The elastic fibres, later, also undergo destruction, and with this weakened arterial wall, aneurysms may be developed. The thickening of the intima which may develop to such an extent as to occlude the artery, is looked upon as aTsecondary process. The irritation of the noxious agent in the media affords the stimulus for tissue proliferation in the intima.
intima.
A few (Fletcher, v. Kahlden and Chvostek and Weichselbaum) held the view that the disease arises in the intima and advances from here into the media and adventitia. The evidence which these authors bring forward in support of this contention is not clear.
Eppinger on the other hand believed that the disease was an unusual condition of congenital weakness of the arterial wall, which in consequence to the rupture of the elastic lamellae developed multiple aneurysms. The firm nodules, he believed, represented organized thrombi filling the aneurysms and had no direct association with an inflammatory process in the adventitia.
Ferrari, Meyer and Moenckeberg were of the opinion that prior to any inflammation in the adventitia or media, a focal degeneration of the muscle elements of the media was to be seen. Preceding the destructive changes, a peculiar oedematous infiltration between the muscle cells was found, which was later also present in the adventitia. This focal necrosis of the media may later be followed by an inflammatory reaction, or by aneurysmal dilatation which in the advanced condition develops a secondary proliferation of the adventitia.
As a causative factor in periarteritis nodosa, syphilis has been spoken by Kussmaul, Chvostek and Weichselbaum and Graf. But in only a few instances has syphilis been shown to have been present elsewhere in the body. Although it must be recognized, from the description here given, that the lesions are of the same order as those encountered in syphilitic mesarteritis, nevertheless the weight of evidence is against the specific nature of the disorder. Various bacterial organisms have been found in the lesions (Graf and Bombard), but no single infection can be associated with the disease. One must, however, agree with Longecope that in spite of the failure to associate the lesions with a particular kind of organism, there are many features in the disease which suggest an acute infection.
Degenerative Lesions.
V\'t now come to the second class of medial diseases, that in which the process of degeneration is much more pronounced than the active repair of the tissues. In some types and instances, repair is entirely wanting, while in others an attempt is made to replace the degenerated areas by fibrous tissue. Hence this type of degenerative lesions does not only include those cases showing pure tissue destruction, but also those in Avhich the primary and extensive tissue destruction has called forth some production of new tissue.
Atrophy. — Similar to atrophic changes in the various tissues of the body, a process of atrophy may occur in the walls of the arteries. This atrophic change is found in the arteries of the various types and affects mainly the media.
Under some conditions atrophy of the arterial coats occurs as a physiological process. In instances Avhere an artery suffers disuse the more specialized tissues in the Avail diminish in size and eventually disappear. At birth when the pressure relation of the blood in the pulmonary arter\- and the aorta are altered, the ductus arteriosus by its muscular walls closes the lumen of the vessel. Thrombi occur only in unusual cases during the closure of the ductus. The intima, however, rapidly closes the potential lumen and obliterates the blood channel by a connective tissue proliferation. Gradually then, the muscle elements of the media diminish in size and number, until they have entirely disappeared and their place is taken by fibrous tissue.
A similar atrophy may be observed in the walls of a thrombosed arter}', although the loss of the tissue is more gradual. In each of these instances the factor of disuse is coupled with an alteration of nutrition which plays an important part in the process. Particularly in an adult vessel the sudden shutting oft" of nutrition, by thrombosis, from the lumen acts deleteriously upon the tissues of the inner zone of the artery opposite the thrombus.
In old age, it is most common to find atrophic conditions associated directly with the altered nutrition of senility. At the same time in which an atroph}- or decrease in amount is taking place of one tissue, there is commonly an increase in the tissues of a lower order. This atrophy of certain tissues is an indication of the wear
and tear which is taking place from the constant activity of the part. Consequent to the loss of the tissue cells of a higher order, there is a relative — or at times an actual sclerosis. In the arteries, Aschoff speaks of this as an " Abnutzungssclerose " — wear and tear sclerosis. This we believe is a very happy expression for the condition.
Marchand has laid stress upon the close association of nutritional changes with the process of arteriosclerosis. While this explanation is very apt for the scleroses of old age, we feel that there must be some further underlying cause in the numerous arterial scleroses occurring in early adult life. However, this is aside from our main point.
In actual atrophies of old age similar changes occur in the muscle fibres, as are seen in the involuntary muscle cells elsewhere. The individual fibres become smaller and narrower, the nucleus appears granular and has a rough outline. About the nucleus, and parties larly at the poles, there is a fine deposit of granular fat or lipoid bodies which form a wedge-shaped cluster. These granules stain readily with Sudan III, but with Nile blue sulphate are colored blue, indicating according to Lorrain Smith the presence of free (or possibly loosely combined) fatty acids.
By the actual measurement of a large series of specimens, Kani has recently shown that the aorta continues to increase in thickness up to the age of fifty. This he considered a physiological process. From this time on however, the vessels were again diminished in thickness.
These results are in agreement with our own observations in which we found that the atrophic change to be seen under the microscope began at about the fiftieth year. These observations are more fully discussed in our section upon Senile Arteriosclerosis.
With this process of atrophy and degeneration of the muscle fibres, the blood pressure within the artery crowds the elastic lamellse closer together, and leads to a slight — and in actual measurement, imperceptible dilatation of the artery. Practically, every artery of the elastic type shows after the age of fifty a crowding together of the concentric elastic layers. At the same time, while there is a relative increase in the elastic tissue of the media, there is also an actual increase of elastic fibres, due in part to a splitting
of new fibres and fibrils in the place of the muscle tissue lost.
Following the slow process of muscular degeneration the sites of the lipiod bodies become occupied by a calcareous deposit, and similar wedge-shaped aggregations of calcareous salts are to be found between the elastic fibres. When such a deposit is present, the muscle fibres have been destroyed. This necrobiotic process we shall discuss again.
Simple diffuse atrophy of the media of the arteries of the muscular type is not so commonly recognized. The process is, nevertheless, just as common as in the vessels of the elastic type, but as the process is decidedly progressive, severe degenerative changes are soon under way. In the iliac, femoral and radial arteries, besides the larger abdominal arteries, there are not infrequently atrophic changes present in the muscular coat. The muscle cells become smaller, the nuclei granular, and the longitudinal striae appear more prominently. The vessel wall becomes actually thinner, and as the process of atrophy progresses unequally along the vessel, there are small pouchings produced in the wall. As, however, the muscular coat of these vessels is not possessed of concentric elastic bands, there is no reparative tissue to substitute for the degenerated muscle elements, and hence when once started the simple atrophy passes into different stages of severe degeneration. Occasionally there is an attempt at the development of new elastic fibrils, but never are these produced in sufficient cjuantity to protect the artery from the later stages of degeneration.
Sohma recognized in the arteries of the ovary, an atrophy of the muscle cells in the media, occurring in the vessels passing to the matured Graffian follicles. He believed that this process resulted from disuse, following the extrusion of the ovum of that particular follicle when the requirements of the follicle were diminished. Similar processes have also been observed in the arteries of the uterus following menstruation (Pankow).
It was long ago pointed out by Virchow and subsequently verified by others, that chronic wasting disease, and also chlorosis was associated with a true atrophy of the vessel walls. Not alone is the arterial wall thinned, but in these cases, he says, the lumen of the
vessel is itself narrowed. Apparently the blood is diminished in quantity and is lowered in its efficiency of maintaining proper nutrition. Simple atrophy also occurs in the arterial stumps of amputated limbs.
Localized areas of medial atrophy are quite commonly met with both in the vessels of the elastic type and those of the muscular type. Thoma, in pointing out that a weakening of the media precedes the development of an intimal arteriosclerosis, admits that at times the order is reversed. In my own opinion, the latter process, i. e., the primary development of an intimal sclerosis with plaquelike thickening followed by a pressure atrophy of the media, is far more common than the former. We have every evidence in support of this statement. On the one hand, there is in the early stages of endarteritis nodosa (leaving aside the syphilitic) no macroscopical or histological evidence of weakening or disease in the media, and it is only with the progressive thickening and degenerative changes in the intima that the media gives any evidence of change. In some instances this medial change is not truly degenerative — of the nature of fatty, hyaline or calcareous invasion — but the effect of focal nodular pressure is shown in a narrowing of the media at one point. The muscle fibres become crowded together, and in themselves are narrowed; the elastic fibres too are more compactly arranged. In short the normal tissues of the media must accommodate themselves to a nodular overgrowth in the intima, which develops not alone inwards into the lumen of the vessel, but also outwards into the substance of the media. In these circumstances the medial fibres which are stretched over the intimal nodule, no longed possess the same freedom of action of expansion and contraction. It is on account of this inability of free movement that when further degenerative changes occur in the affected media, and more particularly when the process of calcification results, that the tissue elements become fixed in the extended position.
It is quite obvious that the function of atrophied arteries is much diminished particularly as the most active tissue in the media, the muscle, is the first to undergo atrophy. There is a decided decrease in the elasticity of these vessels, consequent to which there are the nutritional sequelae in other tissues and organs of the body.
Necrosis. — Necrosis of the arterial wall is an unusual feature save when associated with acute infections. Such conditions are more properly discussed under Acute Mesarteritis. The infection in these cases reaches the arterial coat by the vasa vasorum about which processes of varying severity develop depending upon the nature of the infecting agent.
Necroses not associated with infection may occur in the artery through the occlusion of some of the nutrient vessels. Nevertheless, it is surprising that when an artery is dissected from its surrounding tissues, necrosis does not take place in the arterial wall proper.
From what we have been able to observe, it appears that the disturbance of the nutrient vessels, as they lie in the adventitia, does not severely effect the health of the artery. On the other hand, there appears to be a system of vasa vasorum which do not come from the adventitial vessels but arise from the smaller arterioles as they take their origin from the main artery and pass through the media. In two instances, both being cases of scarlet fever, we have observed the occlusion by thrombus of the vasa in the media with a non-infectious destruction of the middle coat of the aorta.
Fischer applied the term "arterionecrosis" to the degenerative lesion occurring in experimental adrenaln arteriosclerosis. He believed that the tissue destruction of the media was a process of rapid necrosis in which a final stage of calcification occurred. Shortly following his publication, we were able to demonstrate in his own specimens a process of fatty degeneration which precedes the final stage of calcification.
It is a point of very fine differentiation to distinguish between the rapid process of fatty degeneration with calcification and true necrosis, i. e., between necrobiosis and necrosis. Curious it is, that these experimental lesions in the rabbit are so prone to become calcificied. It is probable that the relatively high calcium content of this animal's blood has something to do with the rapidity in which the arterial changes occur. However, as definite and successive stages can be demonstrated in the process of destruction of the arterial cells in these animals we distinguish this type of disease from true necrosis.
Fatty Degeneration. — In the vessels both of the muscular type and the elastic type, one of the milder forms of degeneration is the granular fatty degeneration of the muscular fibres. In this there is found a deposition of fine granular fat droplets arranged in wedgeshaped masses about the nucleus. The nucleus itself does not show any change in its structure, nor does the muscle fibre appear altered in its size or shape. The fine fat granules are the only evidence which we can find of medial disease. These early degenerations do not impair to any extent the usefulness of the artery, and when the causative agent is removed and proper nutrition again supplied to the media, it wholly recovers itself and the fat disappears from the cell. The connective tissue cells are not altered or stimulated to growth nor are any changes to be noted in the elastic fibres.
When, however, the condition becomes more advanced we find that the fatty degeneration is isolated to patches of the vessel, and seldom is the entire circumference involved in the process. These patches are found to lie away from the vasa vasorum. Close examination shows that the muscle fibres are in all stages of fatty degeneration— from the fine sprinkling of fat in the protoplasm to the coarst fat droplets occupying almost the entire cell body — and the nucleus is found much fragmented. Later the complete disintegration of the muscle cells is also observed in which case the fat droplets lie free and between the neighboring muscle strands. When a number of muscle fibres have become disintegrated and have liberated their fat in this manner, we have a condition in the media resembling atheroma. Such localized areas of fatty degeneration may have an excessive amount of connective tissue developed about them.
When this process is present in the arteries of the elastic type, the elastic strands become pressed together from the force of the normal blood pressure within the artery. Necessarily then the artery becomes thinned at this point. If the elastic fibres are also involved in the degenerative process, the possibility of the vessel yielding and forming an aneurysm at this site is very great. The elastic fibres when they have lost their normal elastic power can only yield to and not repel the pressure bearing on them. Thoma believed that at this stage, when the media was thinned and weakened,
of the vessel, by the proliferation of its superficial layer.
Such localized and irregular patches of fatty degeneration in the media occur most frequently in the vessels of the extremities, and it is remarkable with what rapidity such lesions develop. Areas of sufficient size to be seen macroscopically are not infrequent in the femoral arteries. Microscopically, these areas present masses of fat granules, interwoven with a few elastic fibres and some partially preserved muscle cells.
Where this process of fatty degeneration is advanced I have found the presence of cholesterin crystals and fatty acids, both free and combined in the media as well as in the intima.
It is indeed common to observe these lesser grades of fatty degeneration in the media of most arteries of the body. However, the small peripheral vessels show the condition less frequently than it is obtained in the aorta and its main branches. Nevertheless, it is unusual to have this process of fatty degeneration advance to actual atheroma, as soon in the intima. In the intima, the degenerative changes take place in its deepest layer, the musculo-elastic lamella, where there are no nourishing capillaries. The areas of degeneration in the intima are almost always accompanied by proliferative changes in the endothelium and subendothelial connective tissue, which still further cut off the nutrient supply from the vessel lumen, with the result that the atheromatous plaque becomes progressively larger. In the media, the fatty changes begin in small foci away from the vasa vasorum, but sufficient nourishment is obtained to maintain the life of the cells so that complete destruction does not occur. This does not hold, however, for the iliac, femoral, radial and other larger peripheral arteries, where complete destruction of the involved cells does take place, and a fatty calcareous plaque similar to intimal lesions is produced in the media.
Occasionally too it is noted, and this particularly in the aorta, that a fatty degeneration of the musculo-elastic layer of the intima will advance into the inner layers of the media. In these cases the fatty change may be quite severe, — particularly when the intimal disease has become an atheromatous ulcer. In these cases it is usually found that some connective strands have developed in the neighbor-
hood of the ulcer, the base of which rests on the media. The muscle cells of the media, near the ulcer show extensive destruction and fatty degeneration, while the elastic fibres present hyaline and fatty degeneration. Apparent ruptured elastic fibres are frequent, but true ruptured fibres do not occur. The apparent ruptures present this appearance on account of the isolated degenerations in the strands which do not permit the normal elastic-fibre staining.
Weiszmann and Neumann, Manchot and others have noted that in areas undergoing fatty degeneration, the elastic fibres are frequently associated in this process, so that in the later stages these fibres undergo a partial dissolution leaving nothing but the fine granular fat particles along their course. Eberhardt regarded these granular degenerations as artifacts but the later studies of Dmitrijeff and Jores have shown definitely the various stages of a fatty degeneration in these fibres.
According to Dmitrijeff, the degenerations in the elastic fibres of the media are the earliest signs of lesions in this coat, and are also to be recognized more particularly in the inner zone, and later also in the middle and outer zone of the vessel wall. He believes that there is a definite change in the chemical composition of these fibres in the process of degeneration.
That .the elastic fibres do undergo a fatty change is not to be denied, but there is still a considerable controversy in what manner this fatty metamorphosis is brought about. Jores has found definite fatty degenerated elastic fibres, and I have noted this condition not infrequently in the internal elastic lamina and the elastic lamella of the aorta, and in experimental arteriosclerosis of animals the process is common when sought for. When the elastic fibres show fatty degeneration, they lose their affinity for elastin stains, becoming only a pinkish color with Weigert's stain. With fuchselin the fine fat droplets are seen to crowd the elastic fibres at the degenerated areas. It is generally held that the elastic fibres are non-nucleated structures, without individual powers of reproduction or of carrying on functional metabolism. On this ground, it is claimed by some that since evidence is lacking that proteid bodies can be converted into fat, and all fatty degeneration must be of the nature of lowered cell vitality with accumulation of absorbed fat, it is impossible to
recognize a fatty degeneration of the elastic fibres. These authors believe that the fat noted in association with the elastic strands is to be found not in the fibres, but adhering to their external surface. On the other hand, it is shown by others that a fat accumulation may take place in the form of fine granules within the fibres. These authors accept the non-vital nature of the elastic strands, but point out that some substance within the fibres when altered or decomposed has a strong attraction for fatty substances. These degenerated elastic strands are often to be found in the focal patches' of fatty change of the muscle cells.
The diffuse uniform fatty degeneration as is so commonly encountered in the aorta is usually associated with conditions of altered nutrition, or with toxaemias. Old age is a common factor in the mild t3^pe of the lesion, and the amount of fat present in the tissue of the media increases with advancing years over fifty-five. The lesion is a truly degenerative one, but it rarely leads to serious conditions. Even in such vessels of the aged, which from macroscopic appearance are sound and healthy, and which show no evidence of the common scleroses in the intima, the microscopic examination of the media shows diffuse fatty and calcareous degenerations of the muscle elements. The elastic fibres are rarely involved in this disease, save when other unrelated lesions are also present in the vessel.
In younger individuals toxsemias of various kinds lead to fatty degeneration of the muscle cells from which they may recover themselves. These degenerations differ from the senile type in showing fatty changes without the calcareous depositions, and further in showing a less amount of destruction or loss in the muscle fibres. Whereas in the senile medial arteriosclerosis, the elastic fibres become irregular and show a splitting of the coarser strands along with the development of a meshwork of cross fibres, the toxjemic degenerations show little or no change in the elastic fibres and no crowding of the elastic lamellse. Severe diphtheria leads to such a fatty degeneration, while more rarely eclampsia, tvphoid, scarlet and other fevers have the same effect.
blood pressure has a deteriorating effect upon the muscle fibres of the media which although not to be distinguished in its early stages macroscopically, is nevertheless readily recognizable under the microscope. The effect of continued strain is, I believe, primarily functional exhaustion of the muscle cells and having this mechanical irritant continued upon the exhausted cells leads to organic alterations within the cells. These degenerations are most easily demonstrated in the fat granules which accumulate in the muscle fibres. Other cellular changes are also present but less easily demonstrated with accuracy.
In the human subject it is with some uncertainty that degenerative lesions in the arteries can be ascribed to strain, overwork, or functional exhaustion. In experimental animals, this can be controlled. In selecting young animals of good stock and in healthy condition, one may exclude to a very low percentage spontaneous arterial disease, or lesions arising from causes other than those directly under the control of the operator. Further when proper controls of sufficient number are examined in conjunction with those experimented upon, the possible error arising from unlooked for causes is reduced to a minimum.
It has been previously shown (Harvey, Klotz) that when the arteries in animals are subjected to increased tension by mechanical means, degenerative changes are brought about in the intima and media. The intimal changes are similar to those described by Jores in " true arterio-sclerosis " in man. A primary hypertrophy of the musculo-elastic layer with a splitting of the internal elastic lamina is produced, which is soon followed by a fatty degeneration of the muscle elements. In all respects this intimal lesion simulates arteriosclerosis as seen in the human aorta. Not only does the intima show diseased changes, but the media is also affected. The muscle fibres are altered and undergo fatty and calcareous degeneration.
It is to be noted that although both intimal and medial disease can be produced in the arteries by purely mechanical means, that theseJesions develop quite apart from each other, and seem to bear no direct relation in their process of development. At the sites of the medial degeneration, from the earliest development to such
lesions leading to aneurysms, there may be little or no change in the contiguous intimal tissue. On the other hand again, the much thickened and atheromatous intima produced in experimental animals is often found to overlie an unaltered media. Here, however, we must point out that in our animals, these two types of arterial lesions developed in arteries of different kinds. The medial degenerations are prone to occur in the aorta while the intimal atheroma was more pronounced in the branches (carotids) of this vessel. In studying such lesions and offering an explanation for their development we must not lose sight of the normal structure and the function of the artery. In the branches of the aorta a reserve power is developed mainly by hyperplasia of the musculo-elastic layer, and when this hyperplasia has once taken place atheromatous changes soon follow (Jores). On the other hand, our experiments of increasing the pressure in the thoracic aorta, have so overstrained the tissues of the aorta to allow little active repair, in consequence of which progressive degeneration is evident in the functional and active tissue of the media. When the aorta, however, was subjected to less strain an intimal hyperplasia of the musculo-elastic layer with secondary development of atheroma was also evident.
of arteriosclerosis.
Whereas it is well established that an intimal proliferation does follow a medial change of the nature of an inflammation, Bouchard claims that in those cases lacking the cellular and inflammatory infiltration of the media, the intimal hyperplasia is of the nature described by Winniwarter in endarteritis obliterans. This latter disease is regarded as a primary affection in the intima, having no association with medial changes.
Dmitri Jeff believes that degenerative changes arise in the elastic fibres of the media in the earliest stages of the disease. In the event of an intimal disease being present, these degenerations are first to be found in the innermost layers of the media, but later similar degenerations also occur in the middle and outer zones. The changes in the elastic fibres is mainly one of staining reaction.
stance of the fiber.
Such variations in the staining of the elastic fibres often gives the appearance of a rupture of their continuity, as has been contended by Zwingmann, Waegner and others. It is seldom that true rupture of these fibers is to be found, save in association vith ruptured aneurysms. Most frequently, as is the case in syphilitic aortitis, the elastic fibres have in focal areas entirely lost their selective staining powers, and appear to come abruptly to an end. Xevertheless these fibres have small unstained strands uniting the apparent broken ends.
Save in the experimental production of sei^ere arterial lesions, in which aneurysms had developed and in ruptured mycotic aneurA'sms I have never found undoubted ruptured elastic, fibres. In human arteriosclerosis, where by the use of Weigert's elastin stain alone, there appeared many apparent ruptured elastic fibres, many of which exhibited .the characteristic brush-like end, I have been able to demonstrate the intervening degenerated segment containing either fat or a hyaline substance. The fibrillation of the so-called ruptured elastic fibre is a process more of less common to all degenerating elastic tissue.
With our present knowledge of the nature of elastic fibres it is difficult to say what is the fate of degenerating elastic tissue. Although we are aware of the deposition of fatty granules, of calcareous salts and of a hyaline change in the elastic fibres, we cannot trace the steps in the process of the gradual melting away and disappearance of this tissue.
the calcareous degeneration.
Some years ago we brought forward evidence of the direct chemical relation between the primary fatty degeneration and the deposit of calcium salts in the tissues. Certain features of this contention were opposed, but we believe on insecure grounds. As in all degenerative processes, there are varying stages of the condition until the fully matured chemical reaction has taken place. So, too, in the process of fatty degeneration, and particularly as
the meaning of this term is to be observed today, a lowered vitaHty of the cell with an accumulation of fat products, — there are all stages of fat accumulation, first taking place in a partly damaged cell, and if the process is continuous, increasing until the life of the cell is so damaged that it can no longer attract materials to it. When a cell has reached this low ebb of its life processes, it usually goes on to complete destruction, liberating its stored up contents. It is this liberated fat which is acted upon by the tissue enzymes and gives rise to free fatty acids, which attract calcium salts. It is probable that at no stage in the process of fatty degeneration, and while the fat is still within living cells, do calcium salts enter a reaction with the fatty substances. Hence in such tissues where the fat is still contained within living cells, no excess of calcium is to be found. On the other hand also, as we have previously pointed out, the chemical changes are not complete when the calcium is precipitated by the fatty acids. A succeeding stage is found in which double salts of calcium with fatty acids and carbonates or phosphates are found, and in this condition no difficulty is obtained in demonstrating the presence of calcium, fatty acids and carbonates or phosphates in the same material. If, however, a still later stage is examined, it will be found that the fatty acid portion has been entirely replaced by the phosphatic and carbonic acid radicals, and as Wells has pointed out, the phosphates and carbonates of calcium exist in these masses in about the same proportion as in bone.
the media, it is found that the nature of the process is the same.
However, although the stages of the calcareous degeneration of the arteries are the same for those of the muscular and of the elastic type, the histological picture of the deposition of calcium salts differs somewhat in these.
The clinician constantly meets with arteriosclerosis in the vessels of the extremities and not infrequently is confronted with grave disturbances of nutrition as sequelae. These vessels of the muscular type become rigid and inelastic and are unable to properly control the blood supply of the part. Thromboses, with resulting gangrene, are the dreaded outcome of these diseased arteries.
When examined in the early stages of degeneration the musculature of these peripheral arteries shows a fatty change, while the intima may remain quite normal. The muscle fibres are first attacked and later the elastic fibres are also involved, until eventually the process exhibits a fatty degeneration or destruction of all the elements in the area attacked. Seldom do we find the pure fatty degeneration proceed to this stage without the presence of associated calcium salts within it, and at the same time fatty acids, both free and combined, may be demonstrated.
From this stage on, all grades of calcification of the arteries are found. The simpler cases show a granular deposi]:, the more severe forms show the calcareous salts welded together in solid masses completely encircling the arteries. There is in this process no type of true calcification in living cells. Where calcification exists, there has been a destruction of tissue in whose place have been left the fatty particles of the degenerated cells, so that in some stage of the calcareous degeneration of the arteries, a fatty process can be demonstrated, and that in the progressive process of calcification- only small quantities of fatty acids free and combined are to be found. It is not fully understood whether the doubly refractile particles described by Adami and Aschoff, have anything to do with the liberation of free fatty acids which combine with the calcium salts. In these calcified areas the calcium phosphate is much in excess of the carbonate (Wells), which allows the demonstration of these salts by von Kossa's method with silver nitrate. This method is still the best to demonstrate the presence of small quantities of calcium (phosphate) in the arteries. Larger quantities of fatty substance in and about the calcified areas than are exhibited by the direct application of Sudan III, are obtained if the areas are first decalcified. It is found that some of the calcium salts are linked to the fatty substances and thus prevent the fat from staining with Sudan III. This has been best shown in the experimentally calcified arteries of rabbits.
may be so completely calcified as to present rigid tubes, which can be grasped at one end and raised without kinking. This process, regardless of the etiological factor, has no connection with the intimal arteriosclerosis in other parts of the body, though nevertheless the two may and do occur m the same subject, and we must agree with Moenckeberg and Marchand that the presence of arteriosclerotic changes in the radial and other peripheral arteries is no proof of arterial disease in the aorta or other internal vessels.
This process of calcification of the peripheral arteries bears no relation to inflammatory conditions in the media, and is always a degenerative process from the beginning. What relationship there may be to alterations in the vasa vasorum remains undecided. It may be that the isolated and patchy way in which the degenerated areas arise, have their origin in endarteritis or thromboses of the vasa vasorum by which means the nutrition of the media is severely interfered with. We do know, however, that the calcareous degeneration of the peripheral arteries is sometimes the result of overwork and high blood pressure within them. This is evident in individuals whose continual occupation requires excessive use of certain limbs. In most individuals the femoral arteries are most frequently affected, while in the upper extremities the right radial shows a greater involvement than the left (in right-handed persons). AVe have repeatedly demonstrated the extensive sclerotic conditions of the iliac and femoral arteries in individuals (as policemen) who are much on their feet. In females over forty years the uterine arteries commonly show calcification of the media. All these vessels are such as from time to time are taxed by repeated increase of blood pressure, which necessarily must be withstood by the media.
In studying the question of arteriosclerosis (medial) in its relation to occupation, we have been impressed by several points. It has become quite evident that the vessels supplying those regions which are most active are more subject to degenerative diseases than the corresponding vessel of the opposite side. This is likewise true of the vessels of the internal organs, when one of a paired organ (kidney) is functionating more actively than the other. In these cases, we are led to conclude that the process of degeneration
follows a condition o£ overstrain which has been long continued. The condition of overstrain may result from increased blood pressure brought on by circulatory disturbances elsewhere in the body, or the artery itself may be in a condition of " hypertonus " (Russel). In any event, a continuation of either condition leads to a fatigue of the arterial wall with a slow process of degeneration beginning in the vessel. As strain acts mainly upon the media of the artery, it is this coat which suffers when fatigue sets in. These processes of fatigue indicate nutritional and functional alterations in the muscle fibres, which are best demonstrated by the fat droplets aggregated about the nucleus. Still more severe alterations in the muscle fibres lead to the deposition of calcareous salts in the debris of the injured cells.
An analogous type of medial calcification also occurs in the arteries of the elastic tissue type. Here, where the muscular bands of the media are separated by lamellae of elastic fibres such a firm calcification of the muscle tissue cannot take place. It is almost constantly found, as I have described elsewhere, that in persons over fifty years of age — and frequently in those over forty-five — the media of the aorta shows microscopically calcareous degeneration. In such aortas I have frequently noted the absence of any macroscopic change in the intima or the media, and yet have found that microscopically there was an extensive loss of the muscular elements, their place being taken by a fine, granular deposit of calcium salts. This calcium deposit lies between the elastic lamellae, and in the sites where the muscle elements have disappeared. In these cases too a fatty degeneration can be demonstrated in the muscle cells which are undergoing necrobiosis. The calcium deposit is readily demonstrated in frozen sections, treated with a five per cent, solution of silver nitrate and counterstained with safranin, or it may also be seen in well-stained hsematoxylin preparations. The calcareous degeneration of the muscle fibres is limited more or less to a band occupying the middle zone of the media. That portion of the media lying close to the intima, and that layer bordering the adventitia are free from degenerative processes, and in these parts the muscle cells are well preserved. It is also striking that the muscle elements about the vasa vasorum, no matter in which portion
of the media they are found, are without degenerative changes. From these evidences and the fact that the degeneration occurs constantly in old age, without regard to any particular etiological factor, I was led to conclude it to be a true senile arteriosclerosis. There is no arterial disease which truly deserves the name of " Abnutzungs Arteriosclerose " (Aschoff ) more than this. This senile arteriosclerosis results from gradual loss of nutrition and the long period of work, — the true rust of life. No doubt, in the autumn of life, the cells of the intima and the elements of the vasa vasorum are less active in distributing nourishment to the vessel wall. Not uncommonly the vasa vasorum of these arteries show definite changes and thickening. The lymphatics too in all the coats of the artery become clogged, to the disadvantage of carrying off the effete products. Necessarily then that part of the arterial wall farthest away from the supply of nourishment will suffer the most, — and this is the middle layer of the media.
This calcareous degeneration of the media is distinguished by being uniformly distributed in the middle zone of all parts of the aorta, and in being deposited in fine sand-like granules which are evident only after treatment with silver nitrate, and by the microscope.
True atheroma with its sequel, calcification, is a process beginning and usually confined to the intima. Every now and again, however, we meet with this condition in the aorta, so advanced that the vessel in general appears very shaggy. The intimal surface is rough, and small firm sphnters of calcified plaques project into the lumen. The vessel wall is commonly very brittle and its tissues appear dry, so that different layers can be peeled from the surface. If we examine such a specimen, we find that in many places the extensive atheromatous process with calcification lies not only in the intima but also in the upper layers of the media. In such instances, this degenerative process of atheroma has advanced to the middle coat from the intima. It is only in such secondary medial processes that atheroma is found in the middle coat. True atheroma with its calcification seldom if ever arises primarily in the media.
Bone and Cartilage in the Media. — The literature contains a considerable number of reports of the finding of bone in the tissues of the arteries. Very little reliance can be placed on the reports of " ossified arteries " prior to Virchow's discussion in 1862, in which he sets forth the differentiation of " calcification " and " ossification." Many of the older writers used the expression " ossification " very loosely, referring to both the process of bone formation, and of calcium deposit.
At first sight it may seem out of place to discuss the subject of bone and cartilage formation in the arteries, under the " degenerations." At the outset we must admit that here our classification is open to discussion, but after considering the processes involved in these lesions, we felt justified in entering the discussion immediately after the calcareous degenerations rather than with the productive processes.
Rokitansky, Andral and others refer to the occurrence of bone in the aorta as a common finding, but these authors did not make it clear that they were not dealing with calcareous plaques. In 1862, Virchow not only pointed out the difference between ossified and calcified tissue, but he described an actual case of bone formation in the arterial wall. As the instances of true bone were unusual, Virchow's findings were for a time denied (Rindfleisch). Nevertheless heteroplastic bone was demonstrated in various organs in the body and in muscle tissue, and soon after new cases of osseous and osteoid tissue in the arterial walls were described by different authors (Orth, Ziegler, Cohn, Rhoemer and others).
When we review the instances of bone formation in the arteries, we find that the majority have occurred in the media, while the remainder have developed in the intima. In all instances regardless of the site, this new bone develops in the region of previous disease, and usually there is evidence of former calcification. Moreover, when the lesions are observed during their progressive stage, there are evidences of connective tissue and vascular proliferation in or about the calcified area.
Cohn observed that the process of bone formation in arteries developed in two stages, (a) a fracture of the calcareous ring in the media with a secondary granulation tissue, and (&) the devel-
opment of osteoid tissue with marrow spaces. The osteoid tissue he beheved resulted from a metaplasia of the connective tissue. Bensen describes bone formation in the calcified media of the vessels of the leg in a case of diabetes, and other instances in the same vessels are given by Rhoemer, and by Buerger and Oppenheimer.
Moenckeberg systematically examined a hundred cases of advanced arteriosclerosis and found bone present in ten per cent, of the vessels. Similar observations were made by Howse, O'Brien, Marchand and others.
As an accidental finding, and in no way suggesting the incidence of the process, I have observed bone formation in the media in two cases, and once in the intima. In the latter instance an old thrombus occluded the vessel, while in the former cases the arteries showed a very marked Moenckeberg arteriosclerosis.
It is extremely interesting that these lesions have been reproduced in animals by a few investigators. Sacerdotti and Frattin were able to demonstrate bone in the renal arteries three months after these vessels had been ligated. Harvey obtained the same results by painting a solution of copper sulphate or silver nitrate on the outside of the aorta of rabbits. Harvey reports that bone with Haversian canals developed in the tunica media in areas which had previously been extensively calcified and that a tissue not unlike cartilage was also formed.
All authors are not agreed upon the mode in which the bony tissue is developed. But the observations are fairly constant indicating that a process of extensive calcification precedes the osseous deposit. Some believe that the mere presence of the calcareous nodule attracts the vascular structures to it (Rhoemer), others consider that fractures in the calcified masses offer the stimuli for the development of a callous-like development, which carries with it blood vessels and connective tissue (Cohn, Paul and Bunting).
bone cells can arise only from cartilaginous or osteogenic tissues, and that those in the arteries must arise from the usual foci of bone cells (Ribbert, Busch and Hansemann). On the other hand the majority of investigators are convinced that bone cells may be derived in a process of metaplasia from connective tissue. In the case of the bone formation in the arteries it is evident that the young granulation tissue which advances to and surrounds the primary calcification plays a very important function in the future development of bone. During the process, the connective tissue cells become closely opposed to the calcareous masses, and transitions can be observed between the adult fibrous tissue cells and the small bone corpuscles. Giant-cells, osteoclasts, osteoblasts and bone cells are all to be observed. At times the new structure contains no lime salts (osteoid), though the cellular arraiigement is that of bone.
There seems little doubt that connective tissue may become endowed, if the proper stimuli are present, with the properties of bone cells. From the observations made on bone in arteries, the stimulus lies in the presence of calcareous masses surrounded by granulation tissue. At the points of contact, the connective tissue cells lying against the lime deposit take on the characters of bone corpuscles. .
Hyaline and Amyloid Degeneration of the Media. — Two other types of medial degeneration of arteries are very interesting, but, as we have stated above, hardly come under the term arteriosclerosis, unless the word is used in the broadest sense. These are the hyaline and the amyloid degenerations.
Although these two types of degeneration occur under widely different conditions, yet they have some features in common. Both occur in the arteries of the muscular type, and seldom, if ever, develop in the aorta or its main branches. Both occur in the deep portion of the intima, or associated with destruction of the muscle cells of the media.
Little is known as yet concerning the nature and origin of these substances, and still less is known' of the manner in which they are deposited. It may be that there is some chemical relationship between the hyaline and amyloid deposits.
Some confusion has developed in the use of the term hyaHne, so that we find in histological descriptions of tissues, a considerable variation in the meaning inferred. The word h^-aline has come to be used to express any bland or homogeneous appearance, without reference to the nature of the substance under discussion. Though the chemistry of hyaline bodies is not determined, they probably belong to the phosphorus-free glycoproteids, and result from the breaking down of cell protoplasms.
The hyaline deposits found in the media of arteries bear no relation to the homogeneous looking connective tissue so often seen in the pearly plaques of endarteritis deformans.
Hyaline degeneration of the media is most commonly met with in the arteries of the ovaries and uterus, and less frequently in the arteries of the thyroid, spleen and adrenal.
Clark, in 1900, studied the arteries of the ovary, and found that during the development of the corpus luteum, new arteries advanced to this body. These vessels remained active during the progressive changes in the corpus. As soon, however, as the corpus luteum showed degenerative changes, the arteries passing to it showed hyaline changes in their walls. This hyaline change began in the adventitia and advanced into the media. The muscle fibres of the media apparently break down and the detritus of the different cells fuses into one homogeneous mass. Before the mass is properly fused, the degenerated material is quite granular, and contains considerable quantities of fat. A\^oltke described similar changes in the ovarian arteries, which were not associated with degenerating corpora lutea.
Boeshagen found that the hyaline degenerative process was at times so extensive that the media and adventitia were completely replaced by a hyaline substance, and that the endothelium alone clothed the lumen of the vessel. In some instances he found a newly developed layer of muscle fibres inside of the hyaline substance, so that it appeared to him that a new vessel had formed inside of the old one.
In studying the vessels of the uterus, Szasz-Schwartz observed that the musculature of the arteries was at times replaced by a substance having some of the qualities of elastin. These degenerations are shown to occur most commonly after repeated pregnancies
(Pankow). This author has also shown that prohferative changes similar to those in the ovarian arteries develop a new layer of muscle fibres beneath the endothelial layer, and diminish the size of the lumen.
Similar reports of the hyaline degeneration of the media of the arteries of the ovaries and uterus have been made by Sohma and Goodall respectively. Goodall however believes that the degenerative changes are closely associated with alterations in the internal elastic lamina.
Mention must also be made of the peculiar hyaline deposit which takes place particularly about the vessels in some tumors. In certain peritheliomata there is found a narrow layer of hyaline material immediately outside the endothelial cells of both the capillaries and the smaller arteries. In the latter vessels the hyaline substance may invade and replace the muscular tissue entirely.
Although amyloid degeneration of the arteries bears some relation to the hyaline degenerations, it has some characteristic features which differentiate it. It consists in the deposit of a homogeneous firm substance which, when present in large quantities, can be recognized by the naked eye. When smaller quantities are present, their appearance can be intensified by certain reagents (iodine, or aniline dyes). It is found however, that the amyloid deposits which do not give constant microchemical color reactions, differ in their composition.
Amyloid deposits are more commonly found in association with chronic suppurative conditions or progressive chronic infections. In these instances the amyloid degeneration does not occur about the suppurative process, but in organs and tissues in remote parts of the body. The kidney, spleen and liver are especially prone to be affected, while less commonly is the mucosa of the stomach, intestine, oesophagus, trachea and bladder involved.
In the former instances, the deposit takes place in and about the vascular channels, while in the latter, it bears some relation to the epithelial structures. In the kidney, spleen and liver the early amyloid deposits occur about the walls of the capillaries, immediately outside of the endothelial tube. With more extensive deposits, the amyloid substance is also found in the chinks between the connective
tissue cells. The arterioles also become involved, and an amyloid deposit results in the media. Here it is found that the homogeneous substance infiltrates the middle coat and lies between the muscle fibres, but not actually invading the cells. Gradually as the accumulation becomes very extensive, the muscle fibres are compressed and have their nutrition interfered with. A secondary atrophy and degeneration thus takes place in these cells.
When the degenerative process is advanced, the entire media may become replaced by amyloid substance, so that a thick band encircles the vessel. The intima frequently becomes thickened by a connective tissue hyperplasia, and the lumen of the vessel is narrowed.
EXPERIMENTAL MEDIAL DISEASES OF ARTERIES.
Our knowledge concerning the process and progress of medial disease of arteries has been much enhanced by the studies on experimental arteriosclerosis. By this means known agents were administered to different animals over definite periods of time and the effects of these agents on the circulatory system was observed. To prove of value, all such experiments had to be controlled by untreated animals living under the same conditions. In our own experiments, only animals bred from our own stock were used. Moreover, the control animals were "brothers" from the same litter, so that the ages of the animals were equal. As nearly as possible animals of equal weight and rabbits from seven to eight months old were selected. At the conclusion of each experiment, due care must be taken to examine at autopsy for any intercurrent disease.
In our healthy stock of animals, where no aged or preA'iously experimented animals are used, we have not met with spontaneous arterial disease in young rabbits. Like others we haA'e noted the presence of isolated medial plaques in old animals.
We agree with many that great care must be taken in comparing the results of experimental arterial disease, with arteriosclerosis of man. This statement likewise holds for all experimental work on animals, but, nevertheless, when the facts of the experiments are properly arranged, and when the various observations have been duly weighed, we are able to arrive at some conclusion respecting the process or processes at work in the given experiment. If any of the truths obtained in the experiment have a broad significance, it may be that we may then apply them to similar processes in man.
We can by no means agree with the pessimist and the destructive critic that experimental arteriosclerosis and the study of arterial diseases in animals throws no new light upon arterial diseases in the human subject.
comprehensive article.
In much the greater number of experiments rabbits have been used. This for two reasons — on account of the ease with which these animals are handled and controlled, and because, for reasons yet unexplained, arterial lesions are very readily produced. Dogs and cats have been tried with only partial success. These animals respond to weaker stimuli by hypertrophy of the tissues of the various coats, but degenerative changes are not so readily produced, save when coupled with a general derangement of metabolic processes, and more particularly kidney lesions.
Experimental Productive Lesions of the Media. — Fischer and v. Schmieden have shown that an hypertrophy of the media develops when the internal pressure of a vessel is increased. It was noted that when the distal end of the severed jugular vein was united to the proximal end of the artery, there developed not a functional hyperplasia of the intima, but an hypertrophy of the media. In the main the muscular fibres of the vein reacted to this extra strain of arterial blood pressure, while only occasional intimal thickenings of an inflammatory nature were observed. This is quite similar to the process which we have described above as occurring in man, save that in the larger arteries the musculo-elastic layer of the intima may also partake in the hypertrophy.
Other productive lesions of the media, of an inflammatory nature, have been produced by different means. Saltykow, by the injection of staphylococci, besides obtaining arteriosclerosis with atheroma in the intima, found various grades of fibrosis in the media. In some instances small collections of leucocytes were observed, in others the tissue changes were more advanced with connective tissue infiltration.
Similar productive lesions result from mechanical injury to the vessel wall, while the direct application of various drugs to the artery has been shown to lead to a localized inflammation which involves the adventitia and media. The simplest mechanical damage is made by crushing the artery with haemostatic forceps (D'Anna and Malkoff). A true mesarteritis and periarteritis is obtained.
to an inflammatory reaction in the arterial tissues. These conditions of acute periarteritis have been the common result in transplanted vessel segments. Should the vascular tissues be severely involved with greater or less septic destruction of the adventitia and media, a localized aneurysm may follow.
The nature of the reaction in the media following the inoculation of bacteria is dependent upon the nature of the organism, the numbers of the organism and the resistance of the tissues. By these bacterial inoculations we have learned that different bacteria have a varying selective action on the tissue cells. Streptococcus infection affects mainly the intima in proliferation (Sumikawa and Klotz) ; diphtheria (toxins) act destructively upon the media (Klotz) ; while staphylococci produce both proliferative and degenerative lesions in the intima and media of the arteries (Sumikawa and Saltykow).
It is unnecessary to describe in detail the histological changes developing in the different lesions, suffice it to say that they bear a close resemblance to the changes found in man.
Chronic productive mesarteritis has also been produced in animals through the agency of tuberculosis and glanders (Duval). With the arterial changes in experimental syphilis we are not familiar.
Experimental Degenerative Medial Disease. — By far the greater number of experiments aiming at the production of arteriosclerosis in animals have led to this result. The earlier experiments on animals were carried on by using mechanical procedures, and as we have observed above, various grades of inflammation were produced in one or more coats. These experiments only indicated that the arterial wall was subject to inflammation and that the inflammatory reaction of the intima differed from that found in the media or adventitia. The so-called nervous scleroses of experimental animals were found to be nothing else than secondary inflammatory reactions.
It was not until Josue, in 1904, observed that the repeated administration of adrenalin over some weeks, produced in rabbits definite arterial lesions of a degenerative character, that the experimental work in arteriosclerosis received a new impetus. Laboratories had been looking for such a substance, and with the suggestion that the active factor in adrenalin was in its blood-pressure raising action, a
great many other drugs of similar qualities were tried. Such other drugs produced lesions quite similar to adrenalin (nicotin, digitalin, hydrastin and barium chloride).
By the use of these substances, we have been able to follow the process of degeneration of the media from its earliest stage. In these experiments, rabbits, too, have served the greatest usefulness, and in these animals the aorta has, on account of the frequency of the lesions, been most thoroughly examined. It has been shown that those drugs, exhibiting an increase in the blood pressure, are particularly prone to attack the media, and to produce in it lesions quite comparable with the medial calcification of the peripheral vessels in man. Although the structure of the rabbit's aorta is similar to that of the arteries of the elastic tissue type in man, and thus is different from the muscular vessels of the extremities, nevertheless, the lesions called forth in these two types of artery are comparable. As I have shown above, there is a medial disease of the aorta in man, which although milder in grade, is of the same nature as the process of calcification in the vessels of the extremities. So here also in the rabbit's aorta, the process simulates that in the media of the human aorta, but is much more severe in type. In the rabbit, not alone do the muscle fibres undergo degeneration and destruction but also the elastic fibres which lie between the muscle bands. In the muscle fibres, the fine granular fatty degeneration at length gives way to a coarsely granular one, until the muscle cell dies and leaves the fat droplets in situ. I must emphasize that these free fat granules have come from broken down muscle fibres, and are not developed by a pressing out of the fat from the serous fluids, as Ribbert would have it in the intima. To be emphasized too, is that these patches of fatty degeneration develop away from the vasa, as is also the case with the areas of fatty degeneration of the heart. Following this the involved area becomes calcified, so that not infrequently the entire aortic tube from the arch to the renal presents an egg-shell like structure. Microscopically, it is seen that the process is localized to the media, while in most cases the intima remains intact. The earlier stages of the process show the calcifying areas to be distributed irregularly in the vessel wall, usually in the descending thoracic, and as the disease proceeds, the neighboring
plaques fuse to form larger ones. Like both the aortic and the peripheral arterial (medial) disease in man, the experimental lesions occupy the middle zone of the media. The exact action of these drugs on the blood vessels is still a matter in dispute, some maintaining that the increased pressure which is produced in the arteries is the cause, others that the toxic nature of the substances causes a necrosis of the muscle fibres, and still others that contraction or thrombosis of the vasa vasorum leads to a mal-nutrition of the musculature. In my recent experiments I have shown that an increased pressure in the arteries can in itself produce this medial calcification, besides producing in other vessels (carotid), a true intimal arteriosclerosis, with splitting of the elastic fibres and atheroma.
I have found that when a rabbit is suspended by the hind legs for three minutes every day over a period of one hundred and thirty days, that the media of the aorta shows the same egg-shell like calcification as had been produced in other animals by the inoculation of adrenalin. I found that the blood pressure in the carotids and the arch of the aorta is increased, and that the lesions in the aorta were limited to the parts above the renal arteries and more particularly above the diaphragm. The vessels of the lower abdomen and the lower extremities were entirely free from disease. In short, those vessels which had to accommodate themselves to a high and varying blood pressure showed medial calcification.
One of the characteristics of experimental medial calcification is that the vessel wall as a whole is thinned. This is due to an actual thinning taking place in the media, as a result of the muscle cells becoming degenerated and the elastic lamellae packed closer together.
To obtain a proper conception of the fatty degeneration which bears a relationship to the calcification of experimental medial disease, one must not only stain the frozen sections directly with Sudan III, but some sections should also be decalcified before the stain is applied. Here it will be found that in those areas in which the calcifying process is not complete, there are abundant fats and fatty acids.
dependency between the lesions of the media and those of the intima. It is true enough that under certain conditions the intimal lesions will lead to medial alterations and vice versa, but it cannot be aforesaid that because a certain agent produced a degeneration in the media that a definite other change must occur in the intima.
The work of Josue has marked a new era in the study of arterial diseases. His successful experiments with adrenalin have stimulated much study and have directed our attention along a new path of thought. Since his original work in 1903, many have verified his results, and others have shown that substances having somewhat similar physiological ef¥ects as adrenalin will also bring about medial lesions.
One cannot be but struck by the fact that these substances (adrenalin, nicotin, hydrastin, barium chloride, digitalin), although differing widely in their chemical composition, have a common action, the temporary raising of blood pressure. From a pathological standpoint, they also have a common result, the degeneration of the medial tissues of the arteries, particularly the aorta. It has been a common comment that the arterial lesions produced by these various high blood-pressure drugs are similar.
In the interesting work of transplanting segments of vessels between the cut ends of an artery some important observations have been made. Guthrie has found that when homoplastic vessel segments are rapidly transferred from the donee to the host, very little change may occur in the successful graft. The major part of the tissues of the graft persists and continues to live in the new host. Guthrie finds, however, that transplanted segments which have been in formalin, may functionate as blood channels, but only as passive agents. These formalined specimens act as a temporary framework upon which is built a fibrous tissue coat, while the lumen may be clothed by a new endothelial lining. He has obtained similar results with heteroplastic transplantations of arterial segments. In these instances the muscle fibres of the media are observed to disappear first, while the elastic fibres and connective tissue may remain. None of the changes which have been observed to develop in the transplanted segments show any similarity to an arteriosclerotic process.
Carrel claims to have preserved arterial segments in a condition of latent-life over periods of many days. Such segments preserved in the cold can, he says, again be restored to active life by transplantation into an active circulation. When, however, the arterial segments have in any way been damaged the muscle cells are among the first to show degenerative changes.
DISEASE OF ARTERIES.
As may be gathered from what has previously been said, there are a variety of factors which play a part in the production of the medial arteriosclerosis. It had been the hope of many investigators that modern pathological technique and minute studies of arterial disease would find a way of distinguishing the lesions produced by a certain agent from all others. AVe are familiar to-day that such has not been possible, but on the contrary do we find that many and widely diverse factors produce similar arterial disease. Moreover, it is found that a given agent under different conditions or in different amounts, may produce many types of lesions in the arteries. So we come to recognize that it is quite impossible to indicate from the t3'pe of lesion present, the agent which had brought about the result. To this general statement we must admit of at least one exception. Syphilis of the aorta can usually be recognized by the naked eye, and the diagnosis can be further substantiated by the histological findings. Occasionally too, in tuberculosis, tubercles are recognized in the walls of the arterioles, particularly of the brain.
Hence, much as we should like to speak of an alcoholic arteriosclerosis, a typhoid arteriosclerosis, a lead arteriosclerosis, as we do of a syphilitic arteriosclerosis, it is impossible to do so. Nevertheless, we are familiar with a variety of agents which act in a deleterious manner upon the middle coat of the walls of the arteries which may be classified into four groups, (i) infections, (2) poisons and toxins, (3) work, and (4) old age. Besides attributing medial diseases to one or other of these definite agents, there are a certain few pathological conditions, which are not primary in the media but which advance from the intima or adventitia into the media. It is quite obvious that disease processes lying deep in the intima, may overstep the imperfect boundaries between the continguous layers and advance into media. Particularly is this true of infective conditions and fatty degenerations of intima. These
Etiological Factors. 71
latter conditions probably result from a blockage of the lymph channels passing from the intima into the upper layer of the media, and by cutting off the nutrition from the vessel lumen, bring on slow degenerative changes in the muscle cells of the media.
I. Infection. — The infections are probably the most important agents which bring about productive lesions in the media. Both with them as with all other influences, the important point rests in the amount and strength of the dose present. AA'hen at times, the infective process is so severe that the tissue elements are unable to react, the lesion has the characters of a purely degenerative one, even necrosis. This is, however, quite infrequent, and is met with only in extensive pygemic conditions. These suppuratii'e foci in the arteries must be occasionally distinguished from the degenerative lesions produced by the toxins of the bacteria. Whereas, the pyogenic bacteria stimulate inflammatory processes of different grades, the bacterial toxins usually act on the tissues in a destructive manner without stimulating an inflammatory reaction. The toxins of the bacterial organisms act directly upon the tissues of the media, bringing about fatty changes and eventually destruction to the cells. It has been found experimentally that the introduction or the inoculation of the living organisms into the body will at times bring about similar degenerative lesions in the media.
With typhoid fever, the results are, somewhat different. Here we cannot definitely dissociate the effect of the toxin, and the result of the bacterial invasion itself. In the human subject, the commonest lesions resulting from typhoid fever are noted in the intima of the aorta, where small fatty streaks develop in the deep layers. These fatty areas probably result from the degeneration of the longitudinal muscle fibres, while at other times a more superficial fatty deposit is found in the subendothelial connective tissue. Over some of these areas there not infrequently develops a slight endothelial thickening. These superficial degenerative processes in the intima are, I believe, the effect of the free poison or endotoxin circulating in the blood. On the other hand the septicsemic typhoid infection is also frequently noted by the presence of inflammatory infiltrations along the vasa vasorum of the adventitia and media. These cellular infiltrations I have not obtained in animals when dead
cultures were inoculated and I believe we are right in concluding that the medial inflammatory infiltrations are the result of the invasion of living bacteria. In other words, when the infective agent itself circulates in the blood and this is true of typhoid, para-typhoid, B. coli, Streptococcus and Staphylococcus infections, and the microorganisms become localized at various points in the body, the tissues of the part react to the bacterial irritation by inflammation. Microscopically these reactions are evident in the accumulation of leucocytes or if the process is healing or healed, the presence of excess fibrous tissue is observed. In the arteries, these accumulations of inflammatory exudates are found about the vasa vasorum of the larger vessels and are met with in the infections above mentioned. The result of these infections of the vascular tissues is the development of sporadic medial disease of the productive type.
There are some instances, however, in which localized infection leads to abscess formation in the media. The fixed tissues of the part undergo necrosis and leave a much weakened vessel wall. Extensive tissue destruction may lead to aneurysm or even rupture of the infected arteries, or in other instances when healing has taken place, the lesion is replaced by considerable scar tissue producing a hardening and sclerosed area at this point.
Occasionally the infective agent reaches the vessel wall, not by a septicaemic process, but by direct continuity through the lymphatics from a nearby septic focus. This type is most often met with in the vessels lying in or about infected cavities (tuberculosis) in the lungs. The process is of importance, as it is one of the frequent causes of rupture of these arteries with fatal haemorrhage. Those vessels which do not rupture develop small aneurysms in their walls at the sites of the diseased media. Tuberculous mesarteritis may be either of a septicsemic origin or by the direct invasion from a neighbouring focus.
Of the infections which lead to dangerous medial disease, syphilis stands in the front rank. The frequency of syphilitic mesarteritis varies in different countries and in different cities. Heller and his pupils reported its frequent occurrence in Kiel; Baerthleni believed that much the larger proportion of cases of arteriosclerosis up to middle life was due to syphilis (Munich) ; Edgress found that
syphilitic arterial lesions were commonest before the age of fortysix; while from Great Britain we have not infrequent reports of the occurrence of syphilitic mesarteritis among the soldiers. In my own experience syphilitic mesarteritis has been among the less frequent forms, while typhoid and the infectious diseases of childhood were the more common causative agents of arterial lesions in early life. Typhoid is probably the commonest infectious disease of the young adult in the cities of northeastern America and almost invariably the arteries of the fatal cases show the early fatty and degenerative changes of the intima along with lesions in the media of the acute or productive type.
It has been pointed out by several authors that infectious diseases of childhood lead to arterial diseases which may play an important role in the development of true arteriosclerosis o:^ later Hfe. Simnitsky working in Chiari's laboratory found sclerotic processes of various kinds in children who had died of scarlatina. He found that in 48.7 per cent, of the cases of fatal scarlet fever, between the ages of two and twenty-five, showed degenerative changes both in the intima and media but he could find no relation between the intimal lesions and any condition in the media or vasa vasorum.
Weisel confirmed the finding of Landouzy and Siredey, who reported that arteriosclerotic processes were prone to follow infectious diseases. Weisel pointed out that in the diseases diphtheria, scarlet fever, measles, pneumonia, influenza and typhoid, although no naked eye changes may be observed in the vessels microscopic alterations and degenerations are commonly present. Exactly what relations these acute processes of the infectious fevers have to the later and more chronic development of arteriosclerosis, these authors do not suggest.
2. Poisons. — We knoAv much less about the effect of poison upon the human vascular system than of infection. Though text-books persist in blaming lead, alcohol and nicotin for certain changes in the arteries, yet definite evidence is not forthcoming to establish this. Particularly have the observations of the effect of lead and alcohol been almost entirely negative in establishing any relation between these substances and arteriosclerosis. It is further to be pointed out that although the general statement that lead and alcohol pro-
duce arteriosclerosis is common, there has never been a definite arteriosclerotic lesion described which was caused by either of these drugs. Experiments have been undertaken on animals with both lead and alcohol and no arterial lesions w^ere achieved (Jores). This appears to me to be strong evidence that at the present time we must be very guarded in crediting either of these substances with this severe charge. In the case of nicotin the charge is somewhat different for although in man we have not been able to establish a definite lesion as the result of tobacco, we have, however, in animals, been able to produce arterial degenerations with both nicotin and tobacco smoke. These lesions have been medial degenerations, of the same type as those produced by adrenalin (Adler and Hensel).
The effect of nicotin and tobacco is directly upon the musculature of the circulatory system. Fatty degeneration of the heart from excess tobacco has been demonstrated, and in animals similar changes in the musculature of the heart and vessels have been noted. There is besides this an increase of blood pressure during the nicotin intoxication, which may also have a bearing on the disease process.
We may say, therefore, that the untoward effect of nicotin and tobacco on the arterial system appears quite definite, but that definite evidence is lacking that alcohol and lead produce arteriosclerosis.
That adrenalin, barium chloride, hydrastin, digitalin and other poisons have degenerative effects on the musculature of the arteries, has been shown in animal experiments, but what bearing these observations have on toxic arteriosclerosis in man remains undecided.
3. Work. — We can, however, present a much stronger case that work produces arteriosclerosis. Evidence has been accumulating for many years, but more particularly in the last decade, that an excessive amount of work thrown on the arteries will lead to degenerative changes. The musculature of the vessel wall is subject to fatigue like other muscle fibres, and this fatigue results in the first place in a loss of tone and dilatation of the arterial tube, while if the strain be continued the muscle fibres are lowered in their vitality. This loss of vitality is evident in the microscopic "cloudiness," and a deposit of fat granules in the substance of the muscle fibres. From this condition the degeneration progresses, until finally the death of the muscle elements leaves a much weak-
ened arterial wall. The commonest site of these progressive degenerations of the media is found in the femoral artery. Such individuals whose occupation requires them to be constantly on their feet show the various stages of degeneration and loss of the muscle elements of the media, accompanied by multiple aneurysmal sacs. These aneurysms vary in size from a bead to that of a marble.
In a similar manner the radial, tibial, popliteal, iliac, uterine and brachial arteries show degenerative changes, and occasionally aneurysms, as the result of the intermittent increased blood pressure within them.
Thayer and Fabyan examined the radial and other arteries from a series of cases which during life had been studied in the wards of the Johns-Hopkins Hospital. The authors found that wherever arteries had been subjected to strain, these vessels showed scleroses, due either to the extra tissue by which the vessels had fortified them. selves, or to degenerative processes in the media (calcification). These authors state that "an unduly thickened radial at an early age may mean one of two things : (i) the vessel has been subjected to unusual and exceptional strain or (2) it is a vessel which, from inherent weakness, has been unable to cope with conditions which might ordinarily be regarded as normal."
I have already reported.
In all these instances of work arteriosclerosis there has been an external influence which has caused the high blood pressure in the arteries. The constant tramp of the pedestrian continually jars and jogs the blood column in the vessels of the legs, which is only relieved by the elasticity of the media. The daily use of the right arm in manual labor, and more particularly in such work which throws the blood suddenly backward and forward (as in blacksmithing) leads to hypertrophy and later scleroses of the radial and brachial arteries. It is, however, more difficult to gauge the effect of mental labor on the vessels of the brain. That there is an increased flow of blood to the brain during mental activity is known, but we lack in this the jarring of the blood stream on the vessel walls. However, long continued mental strain with a recurring
high pressure is probably also able to completely tire the muscle fibres with, in extreme cases, resulting degenerative changes in them. The same is likely true of the arteries of other overworked organs.
4. Old Age. — It is perhaps improper to classify old age among the agents bringing about a diseased condition of any organ, but what we wish to imply is that the continuous Avear and tear of the system, even that amount which takes place under physiological conditions, does after a certain length of time leave its mark upon the tissues. The French have spoken of this normal wear and tear as "the rust of life." In almost all organs the senile changes amount to disturbance of nutrition with its consequences. Simple atrophy of the organs is the earliest sign of senile changes, and in the arteries this amounts to a diminution of the media. Death of cells need not necessarily be present in simple atrophy, but as soon as this does result there is a simultaneous increase in the connective tissues. This increase in connective tissue may only be relative, but is frequently real. The senile type of arteriosclerosis in vessels of the elastic tissue type is very definite and is not to be mistaken for any of the other forms. Its mode of selecting that part of the media which is most poorly nourished is characteristic. I cannot agree with Romberg's designation of arteriosclerosis in general, as an "abnutzungs krankheit." It has been definitely shown that there are certain agents which bring about arteriosclerosis of particular kinds, and when these agents are infections, fevers or intoxications, it would be wrong to speak of the arterial lesions as processes of wear and tear. The term "abnutzungs krankheit" as regards arteriosclerosis is only applicable to that type occurring in old age, and as this type presents such characteristic features from the usual arteriosclerosis, I would well recommend Romberg's term for this disease.
It has been well established by Aschoff that the elastic fibres of an artery undergo a change with advancing age. There is a definite increase in the quantity of elastic tissue from infancy to adult life, and this increase appears to be in direct proportion to the increase of pressure within the arteries. However, our knowledge of the variation of the blood pressure at the various ages of life and in the different blood vessels is imperfect; and until this is deter-
mined definite statements cannot be made for any particular artery. Aschoff takes it, however, that for every continuous increase of the arterial tension there is a parallel development of elastic fibres. This physiological development of elastic fibres is common to all persons up to middle age. From this time on the senile changes in the arteries creep in, and we can no longer follow the changes in individual tissues, common to all persons. Aschoff finds that there is a senile arteriosclerosis localized to the intima which consists of thickenings and degenerations particularly noted at the points of bifurcation. As, hoAvever, these changes are not constant in every person over middle age, and as in some cases of old age these intimal degenerations are completely lacking, I am reluctant to regard these as senile arteriosclerosis. Rather than being only the result of wear and tear, I believe these plaques at the points of division of the arteries represent lesions of definite etiological factors and not senility. It is otherwise with the degenerations of the media which I have above described as senile arteriosclerosis. These granular, fatty and calcareous degenerations of the muscle cells, I have found only in senility in human arteries, and have noted that in all cases of old age these degenerations are to be found.
Interesting observations were made by Foster in our laboratory, on the changes taking place in the elastic tissue of the aorta in advancing age. Foster found that there were definite periods in life when these changes occurred. The elastic fibres of the media show a gradual increase in their size and number up to the thirtyfifth year. With this increase in the elastic tissue, the relative proportion of elastic fibres to muscle tissues is altered in favor of the elastic laminse. After the thirty-fifth year there is a period of quiesence lasting for about fifteen years. During this time no definite changes occur in the elastic fibres save when some intercurrent disease processes develop in the vascular tissues. The third period of life, — from about the fiftieth year onward, is marked by the atrophic changes of senescence. The muscle fibres atrophy more rapidly than the other tissue cells, leading to a relative sclerosis, and an apparent increase in the elastic fibres. Moreover the elastic tissue in itself shows the changes of the decay of life. The
fibres no longer possess the elasticity of the adolescent structures, the staining reactions are no longer uniform and the individual fibres show rough and ragged borders in place of the smooth undulating contour of the young fibres. The aortic wall in this third period may be thinner than is usually seen in the second period, due to the actual loss of muscle strands and lamellae, with the close crowding of the elastic rings.
It is to be observed that in the vessels of old age the relative increase in the elastic tissue of the artery, even in the absence of an actual connective tissue increase, leads to a less elastic wall. The two factors, loss of muscle tissue and alteration in the nature of the elastic fibres, are responsible for this.
diseases with aneurysms.
Although there have been a great number of reports in the literature concerning aneurysm, there is to the present day no common opinion concerning their etiology. On the contrary, like arteriosclerosis, the views expressed on the subject of aneurysms have been so divergent and manifold that difficulty is experienced in following the history of this subject, and of giving proper credit to the observations of the older writers.
To Vesalius we are indebted for the first recognition of aneurysm, but little information is obtained of their nature from his descriptions. His contemporary, Fernelius, offered the first explanation for the condition, which was accepted for the time. He taught that every aneurysm consisted of a dilatation of all the arterial coats, and that syphilis was the cause. It was soon found that his definition Avas too narrow, and a division was made into true and false aneurysms.
Various descriptions of aneurysm of different arteries are to be found in the writings of the masters- of the early eighteenth century (Morgagni, Severinus, Guattani, Verbrugge, Lancisi). By true aneurysm Lancisi referred to those conditions in which the arterial wall was weakened and dilated, while a false aneurysm was a dilated artery as the result of external injury. Interesting it is too, that these observers recognized an association of syphilis to aneurysm, but expressed an opinion that possibly it was the mercurial treatment and not syphilis which acted upon the vessels.
It will be appreciated that the observations made upon the appearance of aneurysm, were isolated to the cases coming into the anatomist's hands. Commendable are, too, the accurate macroscopic descriptions which they haA^e handed down to us. On the other hand, the want of knowledge concerning structural changes in the arteries led to much speculation and to many theories.
aneurysm as a rupture of an artery produced either by trauma or by a " degenerazione steatomatosa '' or through ulceration, with an effusion of blood into the surrounding tissues. He further classified these lesions, " spontaneous " when the aneurysm had resulted from disease in the wall, while all the traumatic aneurysms of the arteries he called " spurious." Scarpa has the distinction however of first stating that no aneurysms arise without a disease or abnormal condition of the media. Monro, on the other hand, claimed that the term aneurysm was applied to localized or diffuse stretching of all of the arterial coats, while false aneurysm referred to the blood sac formed outside of the artery but still in communication with the arterial channel.
Scarpa in 1804, pointed out that dilatations of the arteries were associated with a peculiar and distinct disease of their walls, but not until 181 5 was it shown by Krisig and also Hodgson that these arterial diseases were of an inflammatory nature. More particularly was it shown by Krisig that this inflammation was present in almost every form of aneurysm and that possible ulcerations were secondary processes in the condition. A series of observations were then reported by Bruns, Guthrie, Lobstein, Bonders and Jansen, most of whom supported the inflammatory origin of aneurysm. Guthrie laid stress upon chronic irritation or inflammation as the factors leading to alterations in the arteries. " The first and simplest change," he says, " is a loss of the elasticity natural -to them, which may lead to a state of dilatation without abrasion or rupture of any of the component parts of the artery, although sometimes accompanied by a general diminution of substance of the middle coat." Guthrie studied many of the specimens collected by Hunter, and it is of interest that he recognized a primary disease occurring in the media having no relation to changes taking place in the intima.
Rokitansky on the other hand believed that the mechanical functional overstrain of the arteries was a predisposing factor for endarteritis, and also for the development of aneurysm. He contended that the portion of the aorta which was called upon to do the greatest amount of work showed the development of aneurysm most frequently.
Aneurysms and Medial Diseases. 81
Traube had supported the inflammatory theory of aneurysm and believed that the white blood cells were attracted from the blood stream through the endothelium, and formed there the white sclerotic plaques of intimal thickening. The result of this superficial inflammatory reaction led to a weakening of the wall. Koester agreed with this contention, but thought that the degeneration of the intima was primary and the invasion of leucocytes was a secondary condition.
These theories were strongly opposed by Virchow. In the first place he held that endarteritis was a true inflammation of the intima resulting from a given irritation. Such inflammation could arise from various causes and possibly through the action of the blood upon small erosions in the intima. From his observations Virchow came to recognize differences between lesions resulting from proliferative changes in the intima, and the primary fatty degenerations of this coat. He also differentiated the minute changes occurring in the media either with or without intimal diseases. In these latter states he found that aneurysms were most prone to develop.
Still other views were brought forward, v. Recklinghausen was of the opinion that the primary disease preceding aneurysm was a mechanical overdistension of the vessel leading to rupture of the elastic fibres of the vessel coat. Helmstaedter too ascribed the main changes leading to aneurysm as destruction of the media and more particularly the elastic tissue. More direct evidence was soon brought forward by Trompetter and Auerbach that many of the aneurysms of the aorta were associated with a mesarteritis and that in some cases little or no damage was to be found in the intima.
Some years later Koester altered his original view and expressed his opinion that arterial disease was commonly associated with an inflammatory infiltration about the vasa vasorum. Koester in fact now believed that this was an essential condition in arteriosclerosis. Thus we find Koester teaching that every endarteritis had a mesarteritis preceding it. Later on we find Kraft agreeing with but modifying Koester's view. Every inflammation of the arteries, he said, attacked the media and did not advance into the intima. He believed, however, that aneurysms were the result of a diffuse in-
adventitia by way of its nutrient vessels.
Almost all the authors were agreed on the presence of an antecedent disease, in the arterial coats, to aneurj^sm, yet these same authors expressed some doubt in the direct relationship of arteriosclerosis to aneur}^sm. The chief stumbling block lay in the fact that arteriosclerosis was a disease which progressed with advancing years while aneurysm was most frequent between the ages of thirty and forty, and did not increase in frequency in old age. Crisp and Lebert, give very comprehensive tables indicating the frequency of aneurysm at the various periods of life. A similar table is also given by Lisfranc.
In opposition to these figures. Richter finds that in a series of 366 cases of aneurysms collected by him the age incidence of arteriosclerosis and aneurvsm is not so dissimilar.
Peterson-Borstell found that in 2,982 autopsies 64.7 per cent. of the cases between the ages of fifty and eighty had endarteritis, while 95 per cent, of the cases above eighty years showed evidence of the disease.
In the discussion of the relationship of endarteritis to aneurysm Birch-Hirschfeld emphasized the frequency of the former condition after middle life, while aneurysms are relatively few at this age. In this point alone, he says, there is evidence that the ordinary endarteritis is not directly associated with dilatation of the vessel.
rysms with atheromatous processes in the arteries. His observations were chiefly among the soldiers at Aldershot, and he says that " aneurysm, as I have met with it among soldiers, seems frequently to exist quite independent of that form of disease of the arteries, and the destruction of large portions, of even the whole three coats may take place by an acute process and without a trace of atheroma in the neighborhood" (Osier). Aneurysm occurs at the Kiel Pathological Laboratory in the frequency of one in two hundred .utopsies (Kroeger).
There have been a few cases reported in literature in which aneurysm was noted in the arteries which otherwise appeared quite healthy. It is probable that in these cases the vessel was locally diseased or that minute histological examinations were not undertaken to demonstrate conditions which could not be recognized with the naked eye. Such remarkable specimens, however, led some to support the mechanical theory of aneurysms.
With a development of better technique, many observers have busied themselves in demonstrating one or more causative factors in human aneurysms or in reproducing the lesions in animals.
This brings us to fairly modern times, when the controversy respecting aneurysm became centered about its relation to syphilis. But we must not fail to recognize that the history of syphilitic arterial disease takes us a long way i>ack in the literature. Ambroise Pare, although not the first to observe the occurrence of certain arterial diseases and aneurysms after syphilis, was nevertheless the strongest exponent of their relation, in the middle of the sixteenth century. Similar observations were later made by Lancisi, Severinus, Morgagni and others, who, although observing the relationship of syphilis to aneurysm, did not appear to have decided whether the result was from the French disease or from the mercurial treatment.
For some years little stress was laid upon these findings. Guthrie in 1830, denied the association of syphilis with aneurysm. He recognized the frequency of aneurysm in the ascending arch of the aorta in which he found all the tunics more or less retained. These aneurysms he spoke of as preternatural dilatations. He says, " preternatural dilatations are most frequently met with in the
ascending aorta and at the arch; they have been less often observed in the aorta descendens. They are not uncommon in the arteries within the skull." This author makes a distinction between preternatural dilatations " when an arter}'- is enlarged in its whole circumference," and aneurysms " when the tumor seems to grow from one side or part of the artery alone." In aneurysms Guthrie found that the wall of the sac not infrequently showed inflammatory conditions which he believed were due to the action of the poorly circulating blood, in the sac, upon the arterial wall. It is not improbable that Guthrie's preternatural dilatations or fusiform aneurysms were a mild and more diffuse syphilitic lesion of the aorta.
In 1862, Aitken, in England, found among twenty-six cases of syphilis, seventeen aneurysms of the aorta. In 1862, Davidson reported these and other cases in the Army Medical Reports of England. These reports of syphilitic aneurysm were followed by others in England, which, however, are scattered through a rather inaccessible literature.
The frequency of aneurysm in the army was a subject of comment in the middle of the last century. The majority of reported cases of that time came from England, until continental authors spoke of "England, the land of aneurysms" (Spleidt). Billroth in his work on pathology stated that " the occurrence of aneurysm had a remarkable distribution in Europe. In Germany aneurysms are uncommon, as they also are in Belgium, they are more frequent in France and Italy, and most commonly found in England. It is difficult to give definite reasons for this, but it is a fact that arterial diseases along with rheumatism and gout are more frequent in England than in any of the other European countries."
This variation in the incidence of aneurysm in different countries is well illustrated in the statistics collected by Osier. From his figures it is found that at the Johns-Hopkins Hospital, aneurysm is more common than in Germany or even England.
Important observations were made by Francis Welch in 1875. He had the opportunity of studying thirty-four cases of aortic aneurysm, occurring in the army, over half of which had had a definite attack of syphilis. Welch is the first to give us a full account of the appearance of syphiHtic lesions in the aorta, and
to give the points of differentiation from the other arteriosclerotic processes. He pointed out that ^Yhere fatty degeneration occurred in a syphilitic aortitis, it was an associated and not a primary lesion.
As Osier points out, it was chiefly the army physicians of England who were convinced of the immense importance of syphilis as the prime factor in aortic aneurysm.
At the time of publication, Welch's contentions received considerable criticism from others than the army medical physicians in England, and the general controversy on the question of the etiology of aneurysm was opened with renewed interest. It may be said that Welch's observations on the appearance and differentiation of syphilitic aortitis are the beginning of a new era in our knowledge of syphilitic disease of the arteries. The fundamental principles enunciated by Welch, associating aneurysm with syphilis, have been little altered today.
In Norway, we find similar controversies respecting the association of syphilis with arterial disease. Heiberg in 1876 pointed out that probably the greater proportion of chronic inflammation of the arteries (? aorta) was the result of syphilis, and his opinions were later supported by his countrymen ]\Ialmsten and Rasch. In France, too, little support was given to these new views. However, in 1879, Vallin reported a case oi aortic aneurysm following a definite attack of syphilis, and these observations were soon followed by many others. A similar scepticism prevailed in Germany, until the clinicians, Gehardt, Quincke, Fraenkel, and others, observed the association of these diseases in their patients. The German pathologists at first gave but a passive affirmation to these findings, but later when more acute attention was directed to the subject it was demonstrated that a more than casual relationship existed between syphilis and aneurysm.
To Heller and his pupils we owe the greatest indebtedness for the definite differentiation of aortitis syphilitica from chronic endarteritis. Since Heller first, through his pupil Doehle, directed attention to the importance of syphilitic aortitis, he has repeatedly brought to our notice cases of aneurysm associated with syphilis of the aorta. The collected reports from the Kiel school give very
nature of aneurysms.
Recklinghausen believed that aneurysm of the aorta developed as a result of a primary rupture of the elastic fibres. This process was more fully described by his pupil Helmstaedter, who found in several cases of aneurysm of the aorta, in which the intima was comparatively normal but in places retracted, that peculiar areas occurred in the media in which the elastic fibres had disappeared or appeared to have ruptured. Into these areas of destruction a new connective tissue developed but formed a weaker wall than normal.
Helmstaedter with the picture of syphilitic mesarteritis.
Heubner was one of the early investigators who indicated that syphilis of the arteries was of a specific nature. From his studies, however, he was led to conclude that the disease began in the endothelium and that the media and adventitia were only later involved.
Chiari too points out the points of differentiation between the ordinary sclerotic processes in the aorta, and those of syphilis. The latter, he said, formed a class of chronic mesarteritis which was distinct and could be separated from other forms of chronic mesaortitis. His work has shown that syphilis of the aorta is a destructive disease of the media which advances to it from the adventitia.
It is worthy of note that there have been not a few cases of aneurysm reported associated with tabes dorsalis (Berger and Rosenbach, Euslin, Molt, Halpern and others).
In the statistics on the association of syphilis and aneurysm there are some interesting data. Heller pointed out that he had found syphilitic aortitis in cases where syphilis was otherwise not recognizable in the body, while on the other hand, he found that some individuals who had had definite and severe attacks of syphilis, had not shown any recognizable changes in the arteries. Thus the occurrence of the arterial changes in syphilis varies con- . siderably. Aitken found aortic changes in 68 per cent, of syphilitics; Welch found syphilitic disease of the aorta in 46.1 per cent., while Henderson demonstrated lues in 62.5 per cent, of aortic aneu-
rysms. The history of the individual cases of aneurysm is also interesting in that the reports indicate that aneurysm may develop from one (Moore) to thirty-three (Malecot) years after the infection.
The distribution of aneurysm of the aorta follows the frequency of syphilis in the various parts of this artery. Thus as it has been repeatedly shown that syphilis has a predilection for the ascending limb and arch of the aorta so aneurysm too is more frequent in these portions. Of forty-eight aortic aneurysms examined at the Pathological Institute at Kiel (from 1872 to 1899), thirty-eight were males and ten females. The average age was 52 years, the youngest being 25, the oldest 83 years. The greater number, 27, occurred in the ascending aorta, 11 in the descending, 10 in the arch. In one case an aneurysm was present both in the ascending and in the descending aorta (Kroeger).
If we now sum up the points associating syphilis with aneurysm, we find that syphilis is prone to attack the ascending aorta by a mesarteritis whose prime feature is a destruction of the essential tissues of this coat. The fibrosis in the wall along with the not unusual extensive endarteritis are secondary processes. With the media destroyed the artery is much weakened leading to dilatations of various degrees, or even rupture.
It is only with the appreciation that the media is the mainstay of an artery, that the full bearing of the importance of syphilitic arteritis is seen. Today we lay it down as a law that aneurysms can only result when the media is zveakened, and do not result from any disease process isolated to the intima or adventitia. Hence, too, it at once becomes evident how important are the diseases of the media.
In discussing the question of aneurysm in general we must recognize the occurrence of arterial dilatations from causes other than syphilis. The greater frequency of syphilitic aneurysm in the aorta serves as no guide to the number of cases of aneurysm due to syphilis in the other arteries. The peripheral arterial system is much more exposed to direct injuries which damage and weaken the arterial wall, so that aneurysm results, than the aorta. Gunshot and stab w^ounds are among- the more common of these in-
juries. Saigo reports the occurrence of many traumatic aneurysms during the Russian-Japanese War, and he beHeves that their great frequency was the result of modern ammunition. These aneurysms developed from two to five weeks after the injury and were commonest in the upper arm and thigh.
Again, as we have pointed out above, of the ordinary sclerotic processes arising in the arterial system the medial scleroses are in much greater proportion in the peripheral vessels than in the aorta, and further these medial scleroses of the peripheral system are more common than the affections of the intima of the same vessels. Moreover it is to be noted that these medial scleroses develop from varied causes and are to be found of different grades of intensity in all individuals over fifty years. We would not be surprised therefore, to find aneurysmal pouchings in the peripheral arteries in many individuals beyond middle life. In my own experience this has been a common finding when looked for. Particularly easy is its demonstration in the femoral and iliac arteries where transverse pouches and sacculations are so often present. Often these pouches appear multiple, and lie in parallel rows across the artery. As I have indicated elsewhere, these pouches are not so prominent during life when the blood pressure obliterates the still elastic and less involved ridges between these aneurysms. It is to be appreciated that during the development of these small sacculations the degenerating media becomes sclerosed and calcified so that the pouch forms a small rigid cavity, fully dilated by the blood pressure. After death with the release of the internal pressure the more healthy portions of arterial wall around the sac contract, exaggerating the depth of the cavity.
Although the frequency of peripheral aneurysms of the extremities is relatively great, their importance is very much less than that of the aorta. The former are as a rule self limited and do not progress beyond the shallow cuppings of the wall. On an average the peripheral aneurysmal pouches are present in one out of every three individuals over fifty years. Although these aneurysms of the peripheral arteries are most often found in the vessels of the extremities, they are also observed in the splenic, mesenteric, vertebral and cerebral arteries.
Another type of arterial disease leading to aneurysm must be noted. Endarteritis chronica deformans with atheroma developing in a small artery has a much greater significance for the development of aneurysm in the small arteries than in the aorta. It is not so many years since pathologists expressed the view that aortic aneurysms were commonly the result of endarteritis (Virchow, Rindfleisch, Foerster and others). This today we can support only for a particular group of vessels.
It has been shown above that the frequency of aortic aneurysm occurs between the ages of thirty to fifty, while the development of endarteritis increases from this age onward. It is to be assumed, therefore, that in the aorta, endarteritis has less significance in the production of aneurysm than other causes.
We are familiar Avith the nodular atheromatous processes occurring in the cerebral and coronary arteries, and we are frequently astounded at the enormous pearly plaques that develop in these vessels, almost bringing about occlusion of the lumen. A similar sized plaque in the aorta would cause little interference or injury. In the small arteries, however, degenerative changes of atheromatous softening develop beneath the endothelial overgrowth. This atheroma is not confined to the intima but at times also invades the media, which if deeply involved weakens the staying power of the wall. At other times the endarteritic plaque does not itself enter the media, but by its growth presses upon the tissues to such a degree that the coat is thinned and weakened. This pressure atrophy of the media does allow some giving away of the artery with an irregular outline of its lumen. It is a common observation that the endarteritic plaque rests very looseh' upon the underlying media, so loosely, in fact, that it falls out during cutting. These small arteries with extensive chronic endarteritis form tortuous and irregular cylinders, in whose walls aneurysmal pouches are evident. These lesions are not of syphilitic origin and are, at times, seen in a single system of vessels (cerebral, coronary, mesenteric), while the aorta is little or not at all involved.
Richter was positive that hard manual work which was one of the causes of arteriosclerosis was also the most important factor in aneurysm. According to him, aneurysm and particularly of the
aorta was a disease associated with the working class, and was directly related to excessive muscular activity. It is undoubted that muscular exertion leads to a greater work on the part of the arterial system, and it has been shown, that in as far as the human peripheral arteries are concerned, a sclerosis develops in the media of these vessels ; that endarteritis develops in association with hard work also seems undoubted, but the process is probably one secondary to fatty degeneration of the deeper intima, particularly the musculo-elastic layer,
Goetz believed that for aneurysms, other than those that developed from acute infections, atheroma was an important factor. Manning, v. Leyden and Klemperer held similar views but thought that for the development of aneurysm from an atheromatous process, a trauma in the nature of a severe blow or concussion must accompany it.
In 1898, Manning reported four cases of aneurysm of the aorta which he believed were of endarteritic origin. Two of these were saccular aneurysms, in the ascending aorta, one was fusiform and in the descending aorta, and the fourth was a dissecting aneurysm. From his descriptions of the first two cases and with our present day knowledge of aneurysms, we are inclined to suspect these were associated with a syphilitic process.
Koester was a strong opponent to the view that aneurysm of the aorta developed in consequence to endarteritis. In the development of aneurysm of the aorta there need not be a progressive degeneration of the arterial wall, for aneurysms occur in areas of fibrosis of a former medial destruction. In syphilitic mesaortitis the process is one of chronic inflammation in which the loss of medial tissues is to some extent replaced, step by step, by new fibrous tissue. Although this new tissue is reparative in character, it is far from being a tissue of the same elasticity and strength as the normal arterial wall. With each pulsation, brought to bear upon this scar tissue, there is a slight giving way in the connective tissue fibres, which if there is not a s.ufficient quantity of muscular and elastic tissue to restore the original length, remain permanently stretched. This yielding of the connective tissue areas in the arteries leads to the production of aneurysms.
by scar tissue.
It has been shown by Poletebnow that the arterial wall when sclerosed becomes less elastic and at the same time more resistant to a given tension. Examining two strips of aorta each 7.5 cm. long, and taken, one from a young and healthy individual, the other from a much sclerosed artery, he found that the former allowed a stretching to 16.5 cm. while the diseased vessel only lengthened to 9.9 cm. by a weight of 1000 grams.
Similar experiments were carried out by O. Israel, who used strips of aorta 5 cm. long and 5 mm. wide with a constant weight of 75 grams. The aortic strip of an alcoholic lengthened to 6.03 cm.; a nephritic to 6.471 cm.; a normal adult to 6.95; and of a chlorotic individual to 7.422 cm. From his observations he concluded that the arteries lose in their elasticity with advancing arteriosclerosis.
Luck, a pupil of Thoma, observed that at the beginning of the arteriosclerotic process the artery was more readily dilated, while as the process advanced the arterial walls became rigid and did not react as readily to varying pressures. This primary weakening of the artery is a result of nutritional disturbances, which gives evidence of undue stretching before microscopic changes are evident. Similar results were obtained by Lunz who demonstrated experimentally that phosphorus, lead and mercury intoxications reduced the resisting powers of the arterial wall.
These results find full agreement with our own observations, and have their explanation in the altered condition of the media. We cannot however apply the facts of these experiments directly to the question of aneurysm. Namely in demonstrating the lessened elasticity of the aortic wall in arteriosclerosis, as Polotebnow and Israel have done, we are not demonstrating a condition of greater strength or resistance to intermittent pressure and pulsations. If we have in such a sclerotic artery a greater abundance of fibrous tissue, this tissue will be less elastic than a normal vessel, but on the very fact of its diminished elasticity this tissue when stretched, no matter how little, does not return to its original length. Its
diffuse dilatation.
Not alone is this true for fibroses of the arterial wall. Any conditions which tend to set aside the inherent elastic powers of the muscle fibres and elastic tissue will at the same time favor the process of dilatation of this vessel. Manchot, Weisermann and Newmann Helmstaedter, Zwingmann and others believed that the early histological changes to be observed in arteries with less elasticity were fragmentation and alteration in the staining qualities of the elastic fibres.
It is not an uncommon finding at autopsy, that the aorta of aged persons, with little or no intimal sclerosis, is thin and dilated. Such vessels owe their thinning to the atrophied media in which both muscle and elastic fibres take part. These arteries are less elastic than those of young adults, but the lumen is more or less uniformly enlarged. These dilatations do not merit the term aneurysm but constitute diffuse ectases of the aorta.
Among the rarer forms of aneurysm is that type first described by Laennec in 1826 as " dissecting aneurysm." This form consists of a rupture of the inner surface of an artery, into the media, while the blood there burrows a sac between the layers of this tunic, and the outer coats remain intact. Some controversy had arisen concerning the exact position which was commonly taken by dissecting aneurysms in the arterial wall. Pennock in 1839 gave an excellent report of a specimen in which he found that the dissecting blood had invaded and separated the layers of the media. This is now accepted, and it is found that the commonest line of separation is between the middle and outer thirds of this coat. The line of separation does not lie between the adventitia and media as was formerly supposed.
Most of the text books, Orth, Ziegler, Kaufmann and others, state that the line of division in dissecting aneurysms is produced by the inflowing blood. This is denied by some. It is admitted by most, and this is obtained from the clinical history, that the direct cause of the tear in the inner coat of the artery is brought on by trauma. However, several cases have been reported in which a granulation tissue was found immediately about the dissecting aneu-
rysm. In these cases it was considered that this inflammatory change in the arterial coat had preceded development of the aneurysm. It is found, however, that some of these cases had lived some time after the exciting trauma, and the possibility remains that the inflammatory change was a secondar}^ development. Such a case is reported by Recklinghausen. Another case of this kind is reported by Babes and Mironescu. They found, that not only was there an inflammatory infiltration close to the dissecting aneurysm (which was of at least two days standing), but that the media of the aorta showed an unusual tendency to separate into two layers in its outer part. Microscopically, this vessel showed small spaces, which the authors consider as potential factors of dissecting aneurysm. This antecedent condition they describe as dissecting arteritis.
Dissecting aneurysms are usually of sudden and rapid onset. They occur most commonly between the ages of fifty-five and sixtyfive — more occur after the age of fifty-five than before, an age when more or less aortic medial sclerosis is present. As Professor Adami points out, the condition is not developed in youth or early adult life, and there is an etiological relationship between age and incidence. Further, Adami clearly indicates that dissecting aneurysm is not a development from extensive atheroma. The greater majority of the reported cases showed some nodular but smooth thickening of the intima, but evidence of atheromatous ulceration and calcification was wanting. This is an interesting observation which illustrates that the atheromatous processes in the deep intima and inner media are local disturbances which may erode into the vessel lumen and then exist as passive pathological processes, the outer wall of the vessel being strong enough to withstand the blood pressure.
Although syphilis plays the important role in the etiology of the majority of aortic aneurysms, it appears to be little associated with dissecting aneurysms. The syphilitic aortitis is as we have repeatedly said a chronic progressive inflammation, which shows degenerative processes accompanied by the formation of scar tissue. Media is mainly destroyed, and it is the media and adventitia which develop the enormous interlacing fibrous tissue. These criss-cross
bundles of fibrous strands can be stretched and lead to dilatations, but a rent in the inner wall will not burrow in this tangled fibrous tissue. Erosion or rupture of the thinned walls of a syphilitic aneurysm may occur and cause a fatal hsemorrhage, but do not lead to dissecting aneurj^sm.
In 1896, Adami collected about two hundred cases of dissecting aneurysms from the literature and since this time about forty more have been added. The early reports of Peacock, in which eighty cases are recorded, form an excellent study of the disease.
Bostroem believed that dissecting aneurysm was due to severe strain and trauma. With Adami and others we must agree that severe strain has not infrequently been the exciting cause, but we must also recognize the presence of an antecedent diseased artery.
Dissecting aneurysms follow the same rule which we have indicated for aneurysms in general, '' there must be a diseased media." Now we have also pointed out that those conditions in which either an acute mesarteritis or a chronic productive mesarteritis is present lead to aneurysmal dilatations, a condition in which the walls are stretched but not actually ruptured by the internal blood pressure. Again it is to be noted that when an acute inflammatory mesarteritis is further accompanied by sudden strain, a tear occurs in the unaffected intima which leads to fatal hemorrhage through the diseased media and adventltia (myocotic aneurysms).
On the other hand in dissecting aneurysms we are dealing with individuals over middle age, who, whether they show a nodular endarteritis or not, have definite degenerative changes unaccompanied bv a productive sclerosis in the media. This form of disease is of the nature of the true senile arteriosclerosis previously described. The media is atrophied, the muscle cells are small and in part lost, the elastic fibres are coarse and have lost much of their elasticity. Although the A^essel wall possesses senile degenerative changes true aneurysms do not develop, the tissues still being able to withstand normal pressure. When however the vessel wall also suffers a severe strain (lifting hea\y weight, straining at stool, a fall), the intima may be ruptured by knife-like cuts. These intimal tears also include and enter the upper media so that the blood gains entrance into the middle of the media where the blood pressure sep-
arates the lamella between the middle and outer third. The course of least resistance is parallel to the long axis of the artery, as the majority of muscular fibres are disposed circularly while the elastic fibres form a system of perforated tubes encircling the artery. The fairly healthy adventitia also prevents the escape of the blood into the surrounding tissues.
As with all types of arteriosclerosis the extent of the disease process varies in all individuals, so too the severity of degenerative medial arteriosclerosis varies much in individuals over fifty years of age, and determines the potential danger of dissecting aneurysms when coupled with trauma or strain.
There is another type of aneurysm of the peripheral arteries which forms a class quite by itself. These are the small sacculations which develop in association with periarteritis nodosa. It will be unnecessary to again review the nature and history of this rare disease, which we have discussed in a previous chapter. The points, however, which are of particular interest at this point, are the development of multiple aneurysms — numerous in some specimens, rare in others. The pathological changes found by the various authors are remarkably constant, and the appearance is characteristic. The nodules develop on the medium-sized arteries of the abdomen, heart or parenchymatous organs and are composed either of solid tissue masses, aneurysms, or organized thrombi within saccular dilatations. In all instances localized degenerative features are to be found in the media or in the adventitia and media, while an inflammatory reaction is present in the immediate neighborhood. In a few cases the arteries, although showing the nodules, have had no true aneurysms.
Whatever be the etiological factor or factors in this disease, focal necrosis or degeneration of the arterial coats is an important primary feature. This may or may not be accompanied from the first by an inflammatory reaction, and on the presence or absence of this reparative inflammation depends the development of aneurysm. In those cases where the destruction of tissue is marked before repair takes place, small sacculations develop in focal areas. In others again the degeneration is accompanied by a lively repair which builds a mass of granulation tissue on the outer side of the
its normal pressure.
Although the etiology of this disease is still in doubt, the development of aneurysm follows the same rule as has been indicated for other dilatations above — namely a destruction of the medial tissues.
By some the disease has been associated with syphilis, and although Verse has found spirochsetze in two cases of gummatous periarteritis he was unable to find these organisms in the nodules of true periarteritis nodosa. It would probably be well to subdivide the cases of nodular periarteritis into those of syphilitic origin and those whose etiology to-day remains uncertain. The lesions of the latter class are often quite acute.
Still another type of aneurysm of the large arteries has been described associated with acute infections and more particularly with infective endocarditis. Acute infections of the aorta are remarkably rare, but when present have serious consequences. Ponfick was the first to describe the acute vascular changes occurring in "embolic aneurysm," associated with endocarditis. He found this condition at the bifurcation of an artery, and believed that the aneurysm was the result of the localized embolus. Hochhaus described a case of advancing infection from the aortic valves which led to aneurysm. The verrucose process extended into the large vessels and along the ductus arteriosus to the pulmonary artery. Eppinger described a series of cases in which aneurysm of the aorta had developed following an acute infection. Eppinger differed from Ponfick's view in that he believed that these aneurysms deyeloped in consequence of an acute septic inflammation of the media. Microorganisms were demonstrated in the damaged tissue of the artery and in the thrombotic mass when present. These aortic lesions were spoken of as mycotic aneurysms. Schroetter recognized the same disease under the name thromboarteritis suppurativa. In England, Church and Langton and Bowlby believed that such aneurysms developed from localized emboli which caused nutritional changes in the arterial wall, in the nature of an infarct.
There are certain characteristics of these unusual aneurysms which are constant. They occur most commonly in the ascending limb of the aorta, are frequently multiple and show acute inflamma-
tory conditions in the media. From the intimal surface they have characteristic linear or stellate knife-like tears in the intima which lead either into the tissues of the media producing a dissecting aneurysm, or perforate the entire wall with fatal hemorrhage. Their onset or development is usually sudden.
Thoma, who opposed Eppinger, took an intermediate stand between the mechanical and inflammatory theories of these aneurysms. He held that he could demonstrate an abnormal elasticity in the media of these vessels, due to atrophy which was the basal feature he believed underlying all aneurysms.
Richter has described seven such cases observed in Heller's laboratory. The lesions were in the aorta and associated with endocarditis. Theile also reported a case with a four-cornered rupture in the ascending aorta, and associated with acute mitral and aortic endocarditis. McCrae recently reported sinother case with multiple lesions in the ascending aorta.
Mycotic aneurysm, therefore, results from a type of acute mesarteritis, probably arising from an infection entering the media by the nutrient vessels. In several cases the bacteria have been demonstrated in the lesion.
In a word we may dispense with the discussion of aneurysms experimentally produced. The earlier investigators obtained in their experiments of mechanical injury to the arteries, dilatation either diffuse or local at the point of damage. Arteries which were crushed or which had a portion of the outer coats excised gave way, sometimes by rupture, at other times in saccular ballooning. This is what one would expect and adds no new information to the observations made upon injured arteries in the human subject. By the method of excision it is possible to determine exactly how much of the external tissues must be lost before the normal pressure produced a dilatation. It is to be remembered that the strength of the coats of a vessel is dependent upon the artery affected, and upon the health of these tissues. So, whereas in a normal vessel, the intima and one third of the media can support the blood pressure natural to that vessel, a vessel with "diseased" tissues will not be able to do so.
upon the media of arteries have clearly shown how intimately medial scleroses are associated with aneurysm. Many of these drugs produce degenerative lesions confined to the media alone and many of these vessels exhibit aneurysms, varying in size dependent upon the extent of the tissue involved. Saccular and fusiform aneurysms are most readily produced, and B. Fischer reports the production of a dissecting aneurysm in the aorta. In no instance was aneurysm ever produced without definite changes in the media, while at the same time aneurysm often occurred in the absence of disease in either the intima or adventitia.
Experimentally aneurysms have also been produced by mechanically and intermittently raising the blood pressure. Such aneurysms have been explained as dilatations resulting from overstrain and fatigue of the elements of the media.
Process Underlying the Various Forms of Aneurysm. — It is not our intention to repeat the discussion concerning the different kinds of aneurysm, but to point out that each type of aneurysm in the accepted classification has its underlying cause which conforms with one of the types of the diseases of the media, as we have arranged them. From this standpoint we are able to more readily appreciate the processes at work in the production of aneurysm, and at the same time develop a classification which is common to medial scleroses and aneurysms respectively.
Granted that we are agreed in the all importance of medial disease for the production of aneurysm, we may adopt the same subdivisions above indicated for medial diseases.
Using these basal divisions we find that in Class I, there is a type of aneurysm (mycotic) associated with an acute infective mesarteritis ; while another type, multiple nodular aneurysms, are associated with the unusual disease, periarteritis nodosa.
As we have seen severe chronic productive or inflammatory processes in the media are mostly of syphilitic origin and give rise to saccular aneurysms of the aorta. That type of chronic productive mesarteritis which is secondary to chronic endarteritis, Chiari's
Type A, gives rise to the sporadic aneurysms in the peripheral arteries, most often seen in the coronary and cerebral arteries, and rarely if ever to saccular aneurysm of the aorta.
Of the second class of medial diseases, the degenerative changes, there are several types which are the forerunners of aneurysm. Simple atrophy of the media, and particularly that of old age leads to slight and diffuse ectases, more commonly obsen^ed in the aorta.
Senile arteriosclerosis of the media of the aorta in which fibroses are not evident, when coupled with strain or trauma is the factor of greatest importance in dissecting aneurysm.
]\Iedial scleroses of the peripheral arteries, which we have referred to as ^loenckeberg's type, are directly associated with, and the precursors of the multiple pouchings which are found in the vessels of the extremities and less frequently in the vessels of the abdomen.
By experimental means we have been able by the use of certain drugs and also by the intermittent increase of the blood pressure to produce fusiform aneurysms and pouchings of the arterial coat. In these instances the media showed degenerative changes like those found in the Moenckeberg type.
It is seen therefore that the different types and situations of aneurysms have their reason in the nature of the medial disease which ■ precedes them ; and that the medial disease is in part dependent upon the artery affected.
SUMMARY.
The media is the mainstay of an artery, and upon its integrity depends the resisting power against intravascular pressure. It is evident that the media is a very important, if not the most important structure of an artery to carry out its proper function, and it follows that the disease processes attacking the media, hold a very important place in the general discussion of arteriosclerosis. The very fact that some type of medial disease underlies every kind of aneurysm, puts this type of arterial lesion among the most important to command our attention.
We have adopted the general term medial arteriosclerosis for all those conditions in the arteries, in which the process in the media is responsible for the hardening of the arterial wall. We have moreover also discussed under this designation the acute stages of the diseases which, when in their process of healing, lead to the true clinical scleroses. It is fallacious to attempt the discussion of any sclerosis without considering the acute stage of the disease, if such was present.
To all types of medial disease of the arteries the term atherosclerosis (Marchand) is inapplicable. True atheroma does not occur in the media save as an extension of the process from the intima. There are, however, many sclerotic processes in the media, for the whole of which the designation of medial arteriosclerosis seems the best. The addition of new terms to an old and well recognized disease can only lead to confusion, and until certain definite types of disease can be segregated from the general one, it is best to leave the nomenclature undisturbed. There is to-day at least one type of medial arteriosclerosis which merits special recognition and that is syphilitic mesarteritis ; to this there possibly might be added a second, Moenckeberg's arteriosclerosis, a degenerative condition of the media following intermittent arterial overstrain.
Sumynary. 101
that the subdivisions as are given above will prove an aid. Specific names are not suggested for any of these classes, for the distinct purpose of retaining the general class name of medial arteriosclerosis for all, and naming the types by their -pathological characters. I have also avoided speaking of the different types of medial arteriosclerosis by the names of their etiological factors, as it is impossible to distinguish those types in this manner. The infectious and the toxic types have under certain circumstances identical appearances, and these in turn have some resemblance to " work " arteriosclerosis. Hence it seems to me that we can do no better than to group the varieties of medial arteriosclerosis according to their pathological processes. In our arrangement of these diseases there are two main classes of medial arteriosclerosis, (I) the productive and (II) the degenerative type. The former can be subdivided into three, the latter into seven groups according to the character of the lesions (see page 17).
In suggesting this classification of the medial diseases of the arteries we fully appreciate the difficulties and the arguments which may be brought against it. Primarily, we cannot deny the frequency with which productive lesions are associated with degenerative ones, but when the given specimen is closely studied it is possible to determine the nature of the primary and most important lesion. Some types of productive arterial changes are prone to be followed by degenerations, while on the other hand degenerative processes are often accompanied by or stimulate productive fibroses. But in classifying an arterial lesion we must consider not only the most apparent condition then present, but also the process bringing it about.
The principal factors leading to medial arterial disease are : ( i ) Infections, (2) poisons, (3) work and (4) old age (physiological wear and tear). The effect of any one of these factors upon the arteries is dependent upon the histological structure of that artery and also upon its function. The same agent may give rise to several kinds of arteriosclerotic processes, but the presence of arterial disease in one system of vessels does not indicate disease in another arterial system. Medial sclerosis is often present in the absence of intimal arteriosclerosis in the same vessel.
character, so that at different times it would be differently classified.
Aneurysms are directly dependent upon the diseases of the media of arteries, and the nature of the aneurysm is determined by the character of the disease in the media. The different forms of aneurysm can be classified along with the particular medial diseases, as is indicated in the previous chapter.
Syphilis is the most important factor leading to chronic mesarteritis and aneurysm of the aorta. On the other hand, medial weakenings from causes other than syphilis are more frequently associated with aneuiysms of the peripheral arteries. Taken all in all, the aneurysms of the peripheral arteries are more common than aneurysms of the aorta. In the peripheral system of arteries, toxins and work are among the important agents leading to medial lesions resulting in aneurysms.
Gefaessen.
Backhaus. Inaug. Disser., Kiel, 1897. Baumgarten. Virchow's Archiv, 1878, Ixxiii, p. 90. Baumgarten. Virchow's Archiv, 1879, Ixxvi, p. 268. Baumgarten. VirchoVs Archiv, 1879, Ixxviii, p. 497. Bates & Mironescu. Ziegler's Beitrage, 1910, xlviii, p. 221. Baumler. Berlin, klin. Wochen., 1905, No. 44. .-^ Beck. Inaug. Disser., Basel, 1903. _ -'''
Benda. Lubarsch und Ostertag, Ergebnisse,''*i904. Benda. Duetsch. Med. Wochen., 1899, xii, p. 69. Benda. Lubarsch und Ostertags Ergebnisse, 1902, i, p. 196. Benda. Duetsch. Path Gessel., 6 Tagung., Kassel., 1903. Beneke. Ziegler's Beitrage, 1890, vii, p. 95. «
Beneke. Habilitationsschrift, Rostock, 1908. Bensen. Inaug. Disser. Goettingen, 1898. Berger u. Rosenbach. Berlin, klin. Wochen., 1879, p. 402. Bostroem. Deutsch. Archiv f. klin. I\Ied., 1888, xxxxii, p. i. Boeshagen. Zeitsch. f. Geburtshilfe, Bd. liii. Bregmann. Inaug. Disser., Dorpat, 1890. Bruns. Berlin, klin. Wochen., 1906, Xo. 8 and 9. Buerger & Oppenheimer. Jour. Expl. Med., 1908, x, p. 354. Buerger. Jour. ]Med. Assoc, 1909, xlviii, p. 1903. Buday. Ziegler's Beitrage, 1891, x, p. 187. Bunting. Jour. Expl. Med., 1906, viii, p. 365. Carrel. - Jour. Expl. Med., 1910, xii, p. 460. Chiari. Prager. med. Wochen., 1896, xiii. Chiari. Verhand. d. d. Path. Gesell., 1903, p.- 137. Chvostek & Weichelbaum. Allge. Wein. 5led. Zeit., 1887, xxviii. Clark. Johns-Hopkins Hospital Report, 1900, ix, p. 593. Cohn. Inaug. Disser. Konigsberg, 1886.
Crisp. On the structure, disease, and injuries of blood vessels, London, 1847. Czyhlarz and Helbing. Cent. f. Allge. Path., 1897, viii, p. 849. Delventhal. Inaug. Disser., Kiel., 1902. Dickson. Jour. Path, and Bact., 1907, xii, p. 31. Dmitri jeff. Ziegler's Beitrage, 1897, xxii, p. 207. Donders and Jansen. Archiv. f. physiolog. Heilk., 1848. Doehle. Inaug. Disser., Kiel., 1885. Duerck. Virchow's x\rchiv, 1907, cxc, p. 62.
Eppinger. Histogenesis und Aetiologie der Aneurysmen, Berlin, 1887. Eppinger. Archiv. f. klin. Chirurg., 1887, xxxv, p. 126. Ewald. Virchow's Archiv, 1877, Ixvi, p. 453. Ferrari. Ziegler's Beitrage, 1903, xxxiv, p. 350. Fischer. Deutsch. med. Wochen., 1905, xxxi, p. 1713. Fischer. Zeitsch. f. Psychiatrie, 1904, Ixii, p. 241. Fletcher. Ziegler's Beitrage, 1892, xi, 323. Foster. Jour. Med. Research, 1909, xxi, p. 297. Freud. Deutsch. Archiv f. klin. Med., 1898, Ixii, p. 537. Goodall. Amer. Jour. Obst., 1909, Ix, p. 921. Guttmann. Zeit. f. klin. ]Med., 1883, vi, p. 131. Gull and Sutton. ^led. Chirurg. Trans., 1872, Iv, p. 273.
| 47,713 | common-pile/pre_1929_books_filtered | arteriosclerosis00klot | public_library | public_library_1929_dolma-0003.json.gz:2761 | https://archive.org/download/arteriosclerosis00klot/arteriosclerosis00klot_djvu.txt |
Ju94Cd-KPYz_VsPi | Rifle training for war, by Lt. Col. S. W. Brookhart...Published by the National rifle association of America for the National board for the promotion of rifle practice. | GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON, IOWA, June 9, 1919. This is the second edition of " Rifle Training in War." The first was written prior to the Small Arms Firing School at Camp Perry, Ohio. In that school and later in the Infantry School of Arms at Camp Benning, Ga., I received many valuable suggestions from Col. Morton C. Mumma and all of the excellent corps of instructors. Those entitled to special mention and credit for this edition are Capt. Don A. Preussner, Capt. James M. H. Wallace, Capt. Arthur D. Rothrock, and Lieut. John A. Dietz.
THE THEORY OF INDIVIDUAL FIRE.
armistice is signed and peace is coming, but rifle training in peace is not different from rifle training in war. The one is reasonable preparation, the other immediate necessity. Both have the same object when we are considering military training. This training may be divided into two parts: First, the training of the individual ; second, the training of the leaders and their units in collective fire.
It is the purpose of this publication to treat only of individual training, and it will begin with a discussion of its theory and relative importance. Before the war there grew up a theory, based largely upon German precept if not propaganda, to the effect that individual rifle training was unimportant if not a military detriment. It was variously stated that "Expert riflemen will not make as many hits in war as will average shots " ; that " Individual instruction should not be given at ranges greater than 500 yards " ; that " Such training as the soldier receives on the target range plays but a minor part " ; that " At 900 yards poor marksmen will obtain 10 times as many ' hits as good marksmen " ; that " When the range is unknown the superior skill of the excellent marksman works to his positive disadvantage " ; and that, firing in modern battle, is "often conducted at ranges of 2,000 yards or even more." (5)
These conciasions \vcre demonstrated by various firing problems. One of the favorites was to organize four companies of 48 men each. The first was experts, the second average shots, the third poor shots, and the fourth recruits. These companies in turn were halted 1,200 yards from a line of targets and were required to set their sights with a 12 per cent error or approximately 150 yards wrong. Each then fired 10 shots per man and it was found the experts got no hits. They missed the targets about 150 yards just as their sights were set. The average shots scattered their fire a little and got a few hits. The poor shots scattered their fire more and got more hits. The recruits scattered their fire most and got most hits. The experts were then taken on an estimating-distance test and their average error was about 12 per cent. They were then informed that the distance given them was exactly in accordance with their own error and the result of their firing was the same as in battle. The result proved that poor marksmen would get 10 times as many hits as good marksmen at long ranges and that superior skill was a disadvantage when the distances were unknown. Hence, individual instruction should not be given at greater ranges than 500 yards and target-range training plays but a minor part.
If the problem were exactly like a battle and if battles must be fought exactly like the problem, then the conclusions would be correct, but neither side ever did or ever will act like the problem. The enemy will not march up and halt in a line at 1,200 yards to be smashed by a scatteration of poor rifle shots. If he did take such a position, the intelligent thing to do would be to use machine-gun fire. If expert riflemen must be used they would not waste 10 rounds of
ammunition in obedience to an erroneous estimate of distance. A trial shot or a trial volley would set them right. The distance would not remain unknown if they were experts. If they were poor shots the correctness of the distance would matter little. They get about the same number of hits, right or wrong. In either case they do not get enough to be decisive, and the shorter the distance the more unreliable they become. There are other conditions of modern warfare that entirely destroy the arguments against the individual training on the target range. The development of the machine gun has certainly taken over most of the long-range collective fire that was formerly assigned to the rifle. This is true even in open warfare. On the other hand, the best defense or offense against the machine gun is in the training of more and better snipers.
In trench warfare the advance by platoon rushes protected by rifle fire is impossible. Most of the advancing is done underground and in the night. The collective fire of the preliminary battle advances is entirely discarded. When the time comes to go over the top, the whole line goes over together, either under the protection of a barrage or as a surprise without artillery preparation. The range is usually very short, nearly always under 400 yards. After the melee starts there is no such thing as fire distribution, fire control, or even fire discipline. In the decisive stages of the fight commands are impossible and communications cease. There is nothing left to rely on except the individual training of the man. If that has been good, the fire control will be good, because each man will save his fire until he can hit something. When the
enemy appears he needs no command to deliver his fire both rapidly and accurately. He will look through the sights, and that means hits and superiority of fire. Misses never give superiority, however great the volume. A great volume of misses encourages the enemy. At these short ranges if the men are properly trained they will accurately know every distance. Even if the distances must be estimated the errors will not cause trained riflemen to miss. A 12 per cent error in distance at 300 yards only raises or lowers the hit 3 inches in the vertical plane, and that would not miss a head. Notwithstanding these facts the whole history of warfare shows that the ordinary army does less execution at the short ranges than at the longer ranges. There are two reasons : the excitement of battle and insufficient individual training. If the training is thorough a large percentage of the men will go back to it in spite of the excitement of battle. If the training is inadequate, the excitement sends the shots high and the ammunition is wasted.
In a quiet sector it has been said that a rifle shot would not be heard in many days. If such is the fact the sector was not properly organized with trained snipers. In any quiet sector the snipers ought to dominate the ordinary situation, and that in spite of machine-gun fire. Such a result can not be obtained without the best trained individual riflemen. It can surely be obtained with them.
If the modern battle ranges are so short, that fact may be urged as a reason why target training should not be done at a greater distance than 500 yards. Such a reason will appeal only to the novice. The good rifleman learned his 500-yard holding at 1,000
yards. He learned more in firing one shot at the longer range than in firing five at the shorter. If he is trained in the harder problem he masters the other with ease and he saves both time and ammunition. The distance should be increased as rapidly as he can hit and change his hits to correspond to his sight changes. Greater improvement at the shorter ranges is sure to follow this kind of training. Besides, every sniper should be trained to hit at 1,000 yards and even at greater distances with telescopic sights.
It is said that individual training will not insure proper fire distribution. If the warfare were open and there were no machine guns, then the spraying of the landscape would of necessity be done with the rifles. The question of fire distribution would then be of great importance. But since we have machine guns the commander would not be justified in exposing a long line of riflemen and shooting away their ammunition when one or two machine guns would do the job better. The machine gun has very greatly reduced the necessity for collective rifle fire and for its systematic distribution even in open warfare. However important the training for these purposes might have been in the past, it dwindles under modern conditions. We have reached the time when an exhaustive study should be given of the proper coordination and division of fire as between machine guns, automatic rifles, and rifles. The occasions and conditions under which each should be used should be carefully analyzed and defined and the training modified accordingly. If the machine gun is taking the place of our old collective fire problems at long distances, it is time to drop so many of them and save that much of our troubles.
When we come to the shorter distances and the more decisive stages of battle, individual training will cause each man to fire on the enemy he is approaching, and that insures the best posible distribution along the whole line. Besides, we have already seen there is nothing else to rely upon at this stage.
From the foregoing discussion it is deduced that individual training in rifle fire is of the greatest importance in war. The discipline that is so necessary for proper teamwork in battle is best attained by training in the work itself. The morale that is so necessary to sustain the shock of battle is best developed by the confidence each man has in his ability to do execution with his weapons.
If this training were properly given it would be divided into three stages. First, the ordinary target range practice at known distances in which every aid to speed and accuracy should be employed. It is possible to give this part of the training quite efficiently in a 16-week period and without neglect of other training, but not upon the ammunition allowance of the firing manual. A plan is outlined in part 13 hereof which would train 2,000 instructors in 24 half days of firing and then each man in the division for 12 half days under these instructors. This would require about 800 rounds of ammunition per man, and every shot would be fired under the direction of a trained instructor. This is a minimum. Every man who is sent into a modern battle is certainly entitled to this amount of preparation. It is less training than he would get in learning to shoe a horse or drive an automobile. It is less than he will get in many minor parts of his military, instruction. It can be done with
a reasonable number of targets, but it has not been done heretofore. This training will not make a war shot out of any man, but it will give him the best basis for it. If possible he should have a second period of training on indistinct and moving targets at unknown distances, but it is a waste of time to attempt this before a man has learned the rifle and the hold in a reliable manner. Also, no satisfactory range for training large numbers of men in this kind of fire has yet been developed. Small sniper ranges have been operated with reasonable success, but the proper solution on a large scale is yet to come. This would end individual training and the third stage is collective fire. The leaders only can be trained in collective fire. The large terrain and the time required make it impossible to train the whole personnel. If the leaders become casualties the whole training is lost. It is, therefore, obvious that the principal reliance can not be put upon training in collective fire. If the individual is well trained the machine will always go ; if he is not, it is always in danger of collapse.
vidual land bring j.
(g) The average diameter of a human hair is 0.0015, which is about the average amount of wear on the rifle land until it is worn out. Gauge figures are for 1917 rifle, but they illustrate for any rifle.
distinct.
(<7) Sear nose and sear must never be filed to correct for drags, creeps, and stops in the final squeeze. (h) Test I and II, Small Arms Firing Manual. (E) Comparison of service rifles.
(J) Metal fouling prevented by use of greased bullets. It may not be advisable to use them in battle because of smoke, but they should be used during the training period for the preservation of the rifle.
(K) Ammonia solution for metal fouling has done many times more damage than good, because it has not been properly used. If used it must be with the greatest care and exactly as prescribed in the descriptive book.
5. SIGHT ALIGNMENT.
(A) Relative position of sights and bull's-eye. (a) Freeze face to stock in such position that top of front sight appears in center of peep.
(&) Sight alignment checked by changing focus of eye from center of peep to top of front sight, then to bull's-eye. It may be necessary to repeat this check several times.
(d) Bright point is optical center of peep, but it is hard to find, and is only found when eye is right distance from the peep, and variation of one-half inch too close or too far from the peep loses it. The first big bright center noticed in a peep can be used in practically all aiming and centering whether on the sky line or not. The others are not seen in 1903 rifle, because sight is too far from eye.
(/) After men become expert at sighting triangles, have groups of three or more sight triangles without moving rifle or target. Note different placing of triangles by different men, hence difference in eyes.
learn accurate shooting.
(a) The alignment of the body 45° from the alignment of the rifle is the best prone position for accurate shooting, and should, therefore, be used during the training period, although it may not often be possible in battle. The best positions bring the best results, and when good shooting is once learned it will follow in any position that may be forced by service conditions.
the shoulder.
(D) There can be no good holding unless the face is frozen hard against the stock, and also against the thumb when it goes around the stock.
breath.
(F) After the trigger is squeezed back a certain distance there is a distinct stop. To take command of trigger means to squeeze it back to 'this stop and hold it there. This should be done before alignment of sights and final squeeze.
or on other aiming point.
(H) The eye having two sights and an aiming point, or bull's-eye, to observe, must focus at least three different times, and the last focus before the final squeeze is on the bull's-eye or aiming point.
(I) After the last focus on the bull's-eye or aiming point has shown the sights in proper alignment with it, everything is ready for the final squeeze of the trigger, which must be prompt and steady, without thinking of the explosion.
( J) After the final squeeze the next business of the mind is to call the shot, which is done by observing the position of the front sight at the time of final squeeze.
8. AIMING DEILLS.
(A) The ten commandments indicate the ten things to do in an aiming drill, and all aiming drills should be conducted with the same care as shooting to hit.
9. RAPID LOADING.
(A) Training in rapid loading with dummies is usually neglected. For this reason it was made a leading subject in this instruction. This must be practiced until each student becomes expert.
(A) Rapid-fire aiming drills are the same as the ten commandment aiming drills, except the speed is increased to rapid-fire time. After rapid-fire time is mastered the maximum rate per minute may be used.
11. SIGHT SETTING.
(A) Corrections should be estimated in inches from the center of the bull's-eye. One point of wind will move a hit 4 inches for each 100 yards distance from the target and in the same direction that the wind gauge is moved. One hundred yards elevation will move a hit on the target in inches equal to the square of the number of hundred yards distance.
(B) Table of exact movement of hits is found at top of page 73, description and rules for 1903 rifle No. 1923. When battle sight is used this windage must be increased by approximately one-third.
(C) Corrections for finding the target when missing should be for one-half the height of target for elevation and one-half the width for windage.
(D) Average speed of wind is estimated over the whole ground and the wind gauge is moved into the wind as shown by the second table, page 73, No. 1923.
(E) 12 and 6 o'clock winds affect only the elevation and the effect is slight at the short and mid ranges. At 1,000 yards 25 yards of elevation equals a 10-mile wind. Table on page 74, No. 1923.
(F) Mirage or heat waves should be treated as a wind flag and corrections made for speed and directions of the wind as shown by the moving mirage and in accordance with the windage tables.
(G) The aiming point is slightly indirect when 6 o'clock is used, being below the hitting point or center of the bull's-eye. When the battle sight is used at short distances it is still lower, hence more indirect. Higher elevation is required to offset the lower aiming point.
(H) The effect of light on sight setting is individual and each man must determine for himself by actual shooting. Care in looking at the outline of the sights and the target will reduce light effect. Heat raises the hit ; cold lowers it ; moisture raises it, and dryness lowers it.
(I) To set a Winchester A-5 telescopic sight, boresight the rifle for both zero elevation and windage. Add together all of the serial numbers for each 100 yards distance; the total will be the number of graduations to raise the sight for elevation up to 600 yards. Above 600 yards 50 per cent more than the serial numbers must be added. For windage move the sight from zero the same as the metallic sight, counting each graduation one-eighth of a point.
on the target.
(c) There is more value in firing one shot at long range than several shots at short range if the holding is good enough to stay on the target and improve after the hits are marked.
RIFLE.
(A) It is not here intended to give the details of description as laid down in pamphlet "No. 1923 — Description and Rules for the Management of the United States Rifle, Caliber .30, Model of 1903," and for a fuller description reference should be made to this pamphlet.
The bolt and magazine mechanism can be dismounted without removing the stock. The latter should never be done, except for making repairs, and then only by some selected and instructed man.
Place the cut-off at the center notch ; cock the arm and turn the safety lock to a vertical position, raise the bolt handle, and draw out the bolt.
Hold bolt in left hand, press sleeve lock in with thumb of right hand to unlock sleeve from bolt, and unscrew sleeve by turning to the left.
Hold sleeve between forefinger and thumb of the left hand, draw cocking piece back with middle finger and thumb of right hand, turn safety lock down to the left with the forefinger of the right hand, in order to allow the cocking piece to move forward in sleeve, thus partially relieving the tension of mainspring; with the cocking piece against the breast, draw back the firing-pin sleeve with the forefinger and thumb of right hand and hold it in this position while removing (27)
tlie striker with the left hand ; remove firing-pin sleeve and mainspring; pull firing pin out of sleeve; turn the extractor to the right, forcing its tongue out of its groove in the front of the bolt, and force the extractor forward and off the bolt.
To assemble bolt mechanism. — Grasp with the left hand the rear of the bolt, handle up, and turn the extractor collar with the thumb and forefinger of the right hand until its lug is on a line with the safety lug on the bolt ; take the extractor in the right hand and insert the lug on the collar in the undercuts in the extractor by pushing the extractor to the rear until its tongue comes in contact with the rim on the face of the bolt (a slight pressure with the left thumb on the top of the rear part of the extractor assists in this operation) ; turn the extractor to the right until it is over the right lug; take the bolt in the right hand and press the hook of the extractor against the butt plate or some rigid object until the tongue of the extractor enters its groove in the bolt.
With the safety lock turned down to the left to permit the firing pin to enter the sleeve as far as possible, assemble the sleeve and firing pin ; place the cocking piece against the breast and put on mainspring, firing-pin sleeve, and striker. Hold the cocking piece between the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, and by pressing the striker point against some substance not hard enough to injure it, force the cocking piece back until the safety lock can be turned to the vertical position with the right hand; insert the firing pin in the bolt and screw up the sleeve (by turning it to the right) until the sleeve lock enters its notch on the bolt
See that the cut-off is at the center notch ; hold the piece under floor plate in the fingers of the left hand, the thumb extending over the left side of the receiver; take bolt in right hand with safety lock in a vertical position and safety lug up ; press rear end of follower down with left thumb and push bolt into the receiver ; lower bolt handle ; turn safety lock and cut-off down to the left with right hand.
(B) To dismount magazine mechanism. — With the bullet end of a cartridge press the floor plate catch (through the hole in the floor plate) at the same time drawing the bullet to the rear ; this releases the floor plate.
Raise the rear end of the first limb of the magazine spring high enough to clear the lug on the floor plate and draw it out of its mortise; proceed in the same manner to remove the follower.
plate, reverse operation of dismounting.
Insert the follower and magazine spring in the magazine, place the tenon on the front end of the floor plate in its recess in the magazine, then place the lug on the rear end of the floor plate in its slot in the guard, and press the rear end of the floor plate forward and inward at the same time, forcing the floor plate into its seat in the guard,
(C) To complete dismounting (not to be done by soldier). — The bolt and magazine mechanism having been dismounted, proceed as follows:
2. To dismount the sleeve lock, drive out sleeve lock pin from the top and remove lock and spring, being careful not to lose the spring.
3. Remove front sight pin and remove front sight.
4. Press in rear end of lower band spring and drive forward the lower band by a few sharp blows on the lug and then on top with a hardwood block.
6. Move upper band forward on barrel until stopped by movable stud, and then remove lower band by slipping it over upper band and movable stud. To remove upper band entirely from barrel requires the removal of the front sight screw and movable stud.
13. Remove cut-off by loosening the screw in the end of the thumb piece until it disengages the groove in the cut-off spindle ; insert the blade of a screw driver in the notch in the rear end of the spindle and force it out. Remove the spring and the plunger, being careful not to lose them.
able base except for the purpose of making repairs.
The fixed base and the fixed stud should never be removed from the barrel. The barrel should never be unscrewed from the receiver. The barrel and receiver may be assembled only at ordnance establishments properly equipped for this work, for which reason requisition should always call for barrels and receivers assembled and not for barrels alone.
In assembling the sleeve lock to the sleeve, be careful to compress the lock and spring while driving in the pin from the bottom of the sleeve.
To assemble the safety lock and sleeve, insert the safety lock spindle in its hole in the sleeve as far as it will go ; then, with the thumb piece vertical and pressed against some rigid object, introduce the point of the tool provided for this purpose between the safety lock spindle and the safety lock plunger, forcing the latter into the thumb piece until it slips over the edge of the sleeve. Further pressure on the safety lock thumb piece, together with the gradual withdrawal of the tool, will complete the assembling.
In assembling pins and screws, note directions for replacing broken parts on page 47, " Description and rules for the management of the United States rifle, caliber .30, model of 1903."
The floor plate spring and the cut-off spring are alike, except in length. The latter being the longer, care should be taken not to substitute one for the other.
(D) In addition to the formal naming of the parts of the rifle, emphasis should be placed upon the important parts. Some of them are so important, the mechanical measurements should be learned. Some of the functions are likewise so important that they deserve special study. Among these the three things that are of the most vital concern are: The lands at the muzzle, the guard screws, and the trigger squeeze.
1. Lands at muzzle. — No rifle will shoot accurately unless the lands at the muzzle are right. This is the most delicate part of the whole rifle. In the manufacture the caliber on the face of the lands is determined by a minimum and maximum gauge. The minimum is 0.2999, or 0.0001 less than .30 caliber, and the maximum is 0.302, or 0.002 more than .30 caliber.
If the barrel will not take the minimum gauge, the caliber is too small, and it is rejected for that reason. If it does take the maximum gauge it is too large and is rejected for that reason. When the rifle is so worn that it will take a 0.304 gauge at the muzzle, it is ready for the worn-out test. The difference between this gauge and the minimum bore is only 0.004 of an inch — there is, 0.0001 tolerance or clearance between the gauge and the bore ; but this may be disregarded because that much is required for the clearance of the gauge in all cases. Therefore, the difference in diameter of the closest made new rifle and the worn-out rifle is only 0.004 of an inch. Hence, a wear on the face of each land of one-half that amount, or 0.002, is enough to wear out the rifle. This is the maximum amount, and since rifles are made with the maximum caliber of 0.302, the difference between that and the worn-out rifle is only 0.001. Whenever the lands are worn even these delicate amounts the rifle is worn out and its accuracy is gone. In order to appreciate these measurements, consider that a human hair is about 0.0015 of an inch in diameter. These gauge figures are for the 1917 rifle, but they illustrate the 1903 rifle with equal significance.
Anyone who will study these figures will be convinced that muzzle cleaning in any form and by any method should be prohibited at all times. Even a cord will easily wear off this delicate amount from the corner of the lands at the muzzle.
the guard screws. Its accuracy depends upon the guard screws being tight. If either guard screw is loose the rifle will surely be erratic in its shooting. If anything goes wrong with the shooting of the rifle, the first thing to investigate is the guard screws. If they are loose, that is the trouble, and to tighten them will cure it. In all cases they must be tight.
3. The trigger squeeze. — The trigger and sear function together. The first bearing of the trigger pushes the sear nose downward in the sear notch. The second bearing, which is the trigger heel, pushes the sear nose out of the sear notch and releases the striker. This double squeeze has a distinct value in rifle shooting. The first squeeze is to give command of the trigger, and the second to release the striker and discharge the piece after the sight alignment is correct. It takes more pressure for a proper final squeeze, but there should be no drags, creeps, or stops in it. The double squeeze and the mechanism that produces it deserve special attention. Every officer should learn the accurate mechanical operation necessary to make a perfect trigger squeeze. This is fully explained in the chapter on repairs.
Model 1903 and Model 1917.
Ammunition. — Both rifles are chambered for the same ammunition, and the initial velocity is approximately 2,700 feet per second for each rifle; perhaps about 60 feet greater for the 1917.
over a pound, and slightly reduces the recoil.
The length of the 1917 model is 46.37 inches, and of the 1903, 43.212 inches. This extra 3 inches in length is divided between the stock and the barrel, the new model being 1 inch longer in the stock and 2 inches longer in the barrel. This slightly increased length of barrel causes a more complete burning of the powder, hence gives a greater muzzle velocity.
Sights. — It will be noticed that the 1917 has no wind-gauge correction, while the 1903 has, and this permits a greater accuracy, for the wind gauge permits the more accurate 6-o'clock hold at all times. It has been found, however, that a fair degree of accuracy can be obtained by proper instruction and practice in holding off for windage.
Battle sight. — The 1917 has a peep battle sight with an elevation of 400 yards, whereas the 1903 has an open battle sight with an elevation of about 547 yards. In other word&, at 200 yards the center of impact in the 1903 model is 26 inches above the point of aim, and at 300 yards it is 28 inches, while the point of impact in the 19i7 is only 14 inches at 200 yards and 10 inches at 300 yards. It is possible with a new model, shooting at the D target, to place all the hits within the 19-inch figure for elevation by aiming at the bottom of the figure on either of the ranges from 400 to 100 yards. With the 1903 model it is necessary to aim 19 inches beneath the figure at 200 yards and 21 inches at 300 yards. The figures relative to the points of impact given above are only approximate, and vary with individual rifles.
There is no argument concerning the relative accuracy of a peep and an open battle sight. Among the better class of riflemen this matter was decided in favor of the peep long ago.
Front-sight adjustment. — In the 1903 we have a variation of front sights from 0.35 inch to 0.41 inch, or 0.06 inch. There are 11 sizes of front sights in the 1917 model starting with minus 0.015 and going to plus 0.135 by 0.015-inch variation, a total of 0.15. This usually permits complete elevation correction for the 1917 model at 200 and 300 yards for the battle sight.
Zero windage. — The 1903 has no adjustment for zero windage. This zero-windage adjustment is made on the 1917 by the movement of the front sight laterally.
Sight radius.— The sight radius of the 1917 is a little over 10 inches greater ; to be exact, the sight radius of the 1903 is 0.215049, the 1917, 0.3169 inch. This increased sight radius increases accuracy of aim.
The fact that the sight on the model 1917 is mounted over the receiver and is closer to the eye does away with part of the muscular strain of the eye and makes it easier to sight the rifle.
In sighting a rifle there is a continual checking of sight alignment by the focus of the eye, first on the sights and then on the target. The larger peep makes the target easier to find, and the fact that the 1917 model has the sight closer to the eye makes it easier to get the proper sight alignment..
in target practice and also in battle for the longer
ranges ; but for the battle sight, because of the larger field and the greater opportunity of catching the target in rapid fire, it is considered better to have the larger size.
Drift. — The 1903 model has the automatic correction for part of the drift, and the 1917 has none; but it must be considered in this respect that the drift as shown by the tables, the total drift on the 1903 at 500 yards is absolutely zero, and the greatest uncorrected drift up to 500 yards, where it is zero, is 0.45 inch at 300 yards, and beyond the 500-yard range the drift at 600 yards is only 0.55 inch. The question of drift is not important at ranges below 700 yards; for it is considerably less in extent than the limits within which the best riflemen can hold.
Elevation adjustment. — The 1903 has very accurate adjustment for elevation, which is a great advantage over the 1917. The 1917 adjusts only by 100-yard notches up to 900 yards, and by 50-yard notches above that.
Conclusion. — Giving due weight to all of these facts, it is a fair conclusion to say that the 1917 battle sight is more accurate, and better suited to men both for battle and target firing, and the margin in its favor is quite substantial. It is equally true that the 1903 with its wind gauge, is more accurate elevation adjustment, and smaller peep is better suited for both target and battle firing at the longer ranges.
Bayonet efficiency. — The 1917 having the greatest length, and also the longer bayonet, it has the advantage, the bayonet of the 1903 being 20.587 inches and the bayonet of the 1917, 21.655 inches.
Bore. — The 1903 has four grooves and four lands of a depth of 0.004 inch; the 1917 has five grooves and five lands of a depth of 0.005 inch. The width of the grooves of the 1903 are 0.1767 inch and on the 1917 0.0936 inch. The width of the lands on the 1903 are 0.0589 inch, and on the 1917, 0.0936 inch. On both rifles the twTist is 1 turn in 10 inches, the twist in the 1903 being to the right and in the 1917 being to the left. These differences do not very materially affect the accuracy of the two rifles. The wider lands of the 1917 may increase the life of the barrel because of the greater thickness of metal wearing against the side friction, and the greater depth of the grooves might slightly increase the dispersion.
Bolt action. — The 1903 is brought to a full cock on the raising of the bolt handle. This is done by means of a camming action of the cocking piece of the bolt. The 1917 half cocks on the raising of the bolt handle by similar camming action, and the full cock is by hand pressure compressing the mainspring on the forward movement of the bolt. The pressure exerted on the forward movement of the bolt must overcome the entire tension of the mainspring. It will thus be seen that it is harder to raise the handle of the 1903 bolt because the mainspring is compressed at that time ; but it is harder to push the bolt forward on the 1917, at which time the mainspring is compressed. A running start can be had and the bolt snapped home on the 1917, but the bolt of the 1903 must be lifted by main strength. After proper training in manipulation the bolt action of the 1917 is better for rapid fire.
Triggers. — The trigger squeeze of the two rifles is substantially the same, based upon the idea of a double squeeze, caused by two separate bearings against the receiver. The first pushes the sear nose well down in the sear notch and gives the "command hold of the trigger." On the final squeeze the heel bearing pushes the sear nose out of the sear notch and releases the striker. The squeeze of the 1917 is usually heavier than the 1903, but that is no disadvantage providing the final squeeze has no drags, creeps, or stops.
THE CARE AND CLEANING OF RIFLE.
In a climate that will permit, all firing should be done with greased bullets during the training period. It may be both undesirable and impossible to use grease in battle, but its use preserves the rifle to such an extent that it should be used in training. A range covered with blowing sand will preclude the use of grease, but there is a wax combination equally good which may be used under these conditions.
The grease or wax must be kept clean. If mixed with sand and dirt it ruins the rifle. If kept clean it will more than double the life of the rifle and reduce acid fouling and prevent metal fouling. Mobilubricant, Polarine cup grease, or Keystone journal grease
are suitable for this purpose, MIM! can be obtained anywhere. A i hin tihn of grease should be applied to the bullet, bul none to the case. 11' grease is used the burned residue will protect the rille for about one day, but the only safe way to care for it is to wipe this residue out and oil thoroughly after firing. Tin* residue is not hard to remove when greased bullets are used. If dry bullets are used the rille must be cleaned immediately and must also be wiped ajrain the next day to prevent acid foil I'm IT.
The rille is preserved by oiling after thorough Cleaning. The main purpose of cleaning is to put the rifle in condition so it can be inspected and so it can be properly oiled. An excessive amount of rubbing the rille with a cleaning patch will wear it out and ruin it. All unnecessary rubbing should be avoided. Knoutfli should be done only to remove the residue.
The oiling is the important tiling. If a rille is insiHvted clean and shining, it should be oiled immediately and inspected a.^ain. The shining inspection is not sullicient. It will show the condition of the rille, but nothing more. If the rille is to be preserved, it must be oiled afterwards. Orders for oiling will not. ^ret ritles oiled. They must be inspected to see that the orders arc carried out. In the field rillcs should be inspected daily for oil. Once a week is enough to wipe them out and inspect them shining.
bore once.
(LM Put warm sal-soda solution CJO per cent strength) in can or pan, insert muzzle of rifle in solution, and pump up through bore by means of wiping
rod and patch. (This can he done by pull through if cleaning rods are not available). Cold soda solution can be used, but is not MS good as warm. It' no s.ii soda is available, use hot water. Common soda is good for this purpose. This removes the powder fouling and prevents the acid rearti«»n from the powder residue.
(3) Dry thoroughly with patches and cleaning rod, keeping the rubbing to a minimum. 'I'll is rubbing is for drying only and not to bring the last patch through P« rfectly clean.
(4) If metal fouling adheres to the bore in visible patches, the rifle should be taken to an expert, who will remove the fouling with an ammonia solution. Th»» ordinary soldier should not use the ammonia solution; it has ruined more. rihVs when so used th:m have been ruined by metal fouling.
oil when rifle is to be kept in daily firing.
If rifle is to be stored 2 and H* must h«« repeated the following day and then apply heavy coating of COBmolinr. The « osmoline should be heated to a liquid. the bore plugged at the breech, the heated cosmoline poured in, filling th»« b«.n«. Mini thru pour This
winter for this oilinir.
Me is in daily u-»- but not tirinj:, "2 and 3 mu<t be repeated the day follow MIL: last tirini: and then apply a coat •Tm oil which has had
>>d in it a small amount of «'o»moljn»'. This will -erve a rifle safely one week unless out in bad ther conditions, in which case it must be oiled
especially recommended and is usually available.
The practice of conserving oil and cleaning materials for future use must be condemned. They should be used now and more provided for the future. A $30 rifle is rusted and ruined when 2 cents' worth of cleaning material would preserve it. If oil and cleaning material are on hand there can be no excuse for rusted rifles, and if not on hand they should be secured at once.
Dissolve cosmoline in sperm oil and apply to all the metal parts of the rifle, and until removed it will prevent injury from a gas attack. If not oiled in this manner after a gas attack, the rifles should be washed with a soda solution, dried, and oiled.
A. POSITION DRILLS.
Position drills are the first in preliminary training. A short time should be devoted to teaching the accurate positions. The variations allowed in the Small-Arms Firing Manual to suit the conformations of the man should be encouraged. Positions should be uniform for the purpose of fitting the rifle and the man together, and not for the purpose of geometrical measurements or forms.
(a) The prone position is the most reliable of all shooting positions. It is the one that will always be used when the terrain will permit. In this position the general alignment of the body should be about
45 degrees from the alignment of the rifle. This permits" a better use of the sling, fits the body to the rifle better, and avoids injury from recoil by an elastic rolling of the body. It may be that this position would not be assumed in battle; that the requirements of protection by cover would even keep the body in direct alignment with the rifle. But none of these things are any argument against taking the best position during the training period. The position that will teach the best hold of the rifle in the shortest time is the best to use during the training. The important thing is learning to hold the rifle. When that is learned the soldier will fire from any distorted position and still hold his rifle because he has learned how to do it and knows well the necessity. There is no other position quite equal to the prone with the sling and without the sandbag.
(&) Next to the prone, the sitting position is the most reliable. It is quite steady and if each man is permitted to adjust his elbows below the points of his knees in such way as to suit his conformation this position will give excellent results. It is impossible to get good results if the elbows are rested on the points of the kneecaps. Each man must find the exact point that fits his own individuality. There will hot be a wide difference, but exact uniformity should not be attempted. The sling may be used in this position with the arm through the loop the same as in the prone position or the grapevine sling may be used. This position is higher and may be used in battle when the prone is impossible.
sitting position. This position is very much improved
when a man can turn his foot and sit on the side of it. This position is authorized and should be encouraged, but it is impossible for about 30 per cent of the men. In the kneeling position the grapevine sling is the best. This position is still higher than sitting.
(d) The standing position without a rest is the most difficult of all. It is easy for the manipulation of the rifle, but very unsteady. However, it must often be used in battle and especially for fire during movement. The grapevine sling is the best for this position. There are several different standing positions used by riflemen. They are the full-arm extension, the half-arm extension, the body rest, and the hip rest. In target practice in light winds the hip rest is most accurate, but it is not so desirable for battle firing. For all purposes the half-arm extension and grapevine sling makes the best combination. This is the highest position and will be used when the view is impossible from the others.
(e) The standing trench position has developed out of trench warfare. It is a very important position and, with the sandbag rest, is almost as reliable as the prone and much easier. In this position the sling should not be used.
B. SLING ADJUSTMENTS.
(a) For the prone position turn the upper loop of the sling and pass the left arm through from the right side. Then wrap the arm around the sling and grasp the stock of the rifle with the left hand at the point to suit the length of the arm. The lower loop of the sling is left loose and really has no function to per-
form. The length of the upper loop can only be determined by trial, but must be made to fit each man. This loop should be adjusted above the muscles of the upper arm and held in place by the keeper. The sling should always be adjusted in such length as to draw tight, which can only be learned by trial.
(&) In the sitting position the sling may be adjusted as in the prone, or the grapevine sling may be used as already noted. In the grapevine sling the hook of the lower loop is brought up into the holes of the upper loop at such a length as will permit the whole sling to be turned and then wrapped around the right arm. The sling then draws tight across the breast and holds the rifle in place on the shoulder. The arm does not go through either loop.
(a) In the prone position with the sling and with the sandbag the hand should rest on the bag and the rifle on the hand. In this position the rifle should not be permitted to touch the sandbag. It is practically the same as the regular prone position with the sandbag adjusted to give support to the hand without changing its position.
(&) The next best prone position is without the sling and the sandbag placed under the point of explosion. This is an easy point of rest to obtain and
it is the easiest of all shooting positions. It is also very accurate and the difference if any between it and the regular prone position is very slight. This difference when it occurs is caused by resting the rifle on the sandbag at a different point. After each man has learned to shoot a good group in this position he should then be asked to take a rest on the sandbag near the muzzle of his rifle, fire a few shots, and note the difference. When the sandbag rest is used it is important that the rifle be rested at the same point for each shot, and the best point is under the chamber where the explosion occurs. This rest stops a large percentage of the recoil, and makes holding much easier. The sling is no assistance whatever, and should be loosened enough to put to one side.
(c) In the standing trench position the sandbag rest should be without the sling and exactly the same as last described for the prone position. The sandbag should be so adjusted that there will be shelf room for the resting of the elbows. If these things are observed the results of this position will be just as good as the prone position with the sandbag and without the sling.
(d) In addition to these positions from parapet, wall top, vertical edge of wall, door, window, tree or such other positions as required by Test No. 8, Charge No. 20, Small Arms Firing Manual should be taught.
D. PUSH AND PULL DRILL.
The push and pull drill is some aid in learning these different positions, but its main value is as a setting-up exercise and no great amount of time should be devoted to it as a firing drill.
In the preceding chapter position drills have been taken up. We now come to a manipulation drill, and hereafter we will treat of an aiming drill. Tell the recruit that aiming is too important to attempt at the very start. Tell him you will have something to say later about real aiming, and the first problem is training the muscles to operate the rifle. He will take the positions of aiming, but in the manipulation drill this is only a simulation. See that he so understands it. See that you so understand it yourself.
Start with the sling and the standing position. Use all the positions, but prone most. Keep the rifle on the shoulder as the bolt is worked in all the positions. Start slowly and increase the speed gradually. This should continue until the reflexes perform the whole operation and leave the mind free to think about the aiming.
The watchword of manipulation is work. The object is speed. In this connection it might be stated that the watchword of aiming is care. The care required will be taken up in the succeeding chapters, but at this point it might be well to state that the degree of care is as much as if your rifle were loaded and your life depended upon hitting. Therefore you do not —
Put up targets promiscuously and casually aim at them in passing and call it a sighting and aiming drill. You may do that kind of manipulation drill but do not call it aiming.
Manipulation drills are prescribed for a distinct purpose. They are to. train the muscles and the nerve centers in the operation of the rifle. During these
drills, soldiers should be made to distinctly understand that they are not aiming drills and that he only simulates aiming by taking the position. The lifting of the bolt handle is the hard part of manipulating the 1903 rifle.
These drills should be conducted in all the positions both with and without the sling. The proficiency test should be made in the prone position and with the sling, because it is hardest to learn. These drills should be conducted first with the trigger tied back. The purpose is to secure rapid manipulation of the bolt. This drill does not meet all the requirements in bolt manipulation because the trigger is not squeezed. However, as this practice is for the purpose of attaining the highest speed it will be found that a trigger squeeze will degenerate into a mere jerk if made a part of the drill. It is, therefore, best to attain this high speed with the trigger squeeze omitted and thus avoid the development of a bad habit in squeezing the trigger.
4. Prone.
The positions should be taken by the regular commands of the Infantry Drill Regulations but with the latitude allowed in the firing manual, and the manipulation should be conducted by the following commands :
1. - - times manipulation. 2. Exercise. The soldier being in position manipulates the bolt as rapidly as possible the number of times designated. Five times are enough for the start.
1. At will. Manipulation. 2. Exercise. 3. Halt. The soldier being in position manipulates the bolt as rapidly as possible until the command halt and without squeezing the trigger. In the beginning this will be done slowly and the speed increased as the muscular control increases.
1. Twenty times, Manipulation. 2. Exercise. The soldier manipulates the bolt as rapidly as possible the required number of times. The same caution is observed as to beginning.
These exercises should be repeated until the manipulation of the bolt in this manner becomes easy and until the soldier has attained the speed of 20 times in 15 seconds in the prone position and in the sling.
The question of aiming will be further discussed in parts 7 and 8. The comparison of the sights on the Model 1903 and 1917 has been fully considered in No. 1. It is only intended here to take up the proper method of sight alignment.
The open sight. — The normal sight alignment is shown by Fig. 1, Plate III., page 30, S. A. F. M. The front sight is centered laterally in the notch of the rear sight, and the top is level with the top of the notch. It will also be noticed that the aiming point is at 6 o'clock below the bull's-eye and on the white. The reason for this is that the eye can see a black sight better on a white background. If the front sight is permitted to touch the bull's-eye, it is impossible to 130339° — 19 4
tell at what part it will be aiming and accuracy of aiming point is lost. The line of white should be the same for each shot. It should be wide enough to see the bottom edge of the bull sharp and distinct. There is no advantage in crowding close to the bull. It tends to blur, strains the eye, and reduces accuracy with many men in some lights. At 1,000 yards the white line must be about 6 inches wide to be seen. There is only 18 inches of white below the bull's-eye, and when the sight appears upon the white it will be 6 inches below the bull and 6 inches above the bottom at least. This only leaves 6 inches to wander over, and that is closer than any man can hold. Therefore the best method at this distance is simply to make sure that you are on the white at 6 o'clock. The peep sight. — Fig. 2 of the same plate shows the normal peep sight alignment. The top of the front sight is brought to the center of the peep and there is the same rule with reference to aiming point on the white.
follows :
" In aiming the eye should be held as close as possible to the peep ; that is, almost up to the comb of the firing pin. Then aim so that the bull's-eye is exactly in the center of the peephole and the top of the front sight in the center of the bull's-eye."
In an ordinary light and upon a bull's-eye target this method of aiming is perhaps as accurate as the 6 o'clock hold of the Small-Arms Firing Manual. It will be found, however, that the top of the front sight
is held at the center of the bull's-eye rather by keeping it in the center of the peep than by actually seeing it at the aiming point or center of the bull's-eye. With a black sight and a black bull's-eye and especially at long ranges it is impossible to distinguish at what part of the bull's-eye the top of the front sight is pointing. But if the top of the front sight is at the center of the peep and the bull's-eye then also brought to the center of the peep as a matter of course, the top of the front sight will be pointing at the center of the bull's-eye without regard to whether the eye sees the center or not. As it is easy to center a round bull's-eye in the peep, this method of aiming at targets is quite satisfactory. If the target is a moving object or figure of a man, the centering in the peep is much more difficult if not impossible. Also with the battle sight, the principle of the aiming point must be followed. In battle fire the top of the front sight will also be aligned on some aiming point. For these reasons the Small- Arms Firing Manual selects the aiming point at 6 o'clock on the white, where it can best be seen, and then directs that the top of the front sight be aligned with it. The Navy method aligns the top of the front sight with the point where the hit is desired. This is the correct idea for battle fire, but in target shooting the alignment is theoretical rather than actually seen. The Army method actually sees the aiming point, but it is indirect, being below the hitting point. With the battle sight at short ranges this is necessary in all kinds of fire. Therefore, the Army training is uniform for both sights, and as the tendency in battle is to shoot high the training should be to aim low. This does not apply to well-trained riflemen. They
set their sights and shoot to hit. If the aiming point is low, they take more elevation. They learn how to set sights for an indirect aiming point when necessary.
The human element is the greatest element in rifle training and the vision is perhaps the greatest element in the human. It is also the least understood. Rifles are made, zeroed and issued without any adjustment for individual eyes. Rules for light and mirage are made and published as if the eyes of men could not vary. In fact, the eyes of men have an individuality almost as universal as individuals themselves. They may stand the same oculist tests and still see the sights differently. The reason is, the eyes must be operated by that wonderful and unfathomable thing, the human mind. Therefore —
and differences in eyes.
On December 7, 1917, the following experiment was conducted at the Winchester plant. Four 1917 rifles were taken from stock to the 200-yard indoor range. Two experts were selected to do the shooting. Both had been shooting on this same range for more than 10 years. Both were perhaps as expert as human beings can become. The problem was to find the distance of impact above the point of aim with the battle sight at 200 yards.
Both men sat in the same testing jchair. Both fired the same ammunition. Both sighted the rifles the same. Both had the same light. Both used the same elbow rest on a testing table. Both fired the same rifles. Both fired 10 shots with each rifle. Here is the result:
Disregarding an inconsequential fraction, one of these men hit an average of 14it inches above his aiming point and the other only 8% inches. It was also observed that the group of the first man was about 4 inches to the left of the second man, but this was estimated and not measured. It is, therefore, certain that these two experts could not look through the sights of the rifle the same even at the short distance of 200 yards. One of them actually sighted these rifles an average of 611 inches higher and about 4 inches farther to the left than the other. Both groups \vere excellent. There was no difference in the expertness of the two men.
The difference was in the eyes. The eyes of both were very accurate, but different. More than 10 years of training had not removed this difference. The difference in eyes c#n not be removed. Each man must sight his rifle with his own eyes. Each man must learn his elevations at each distance with his own eyes.
for wind.
The proper place for zero adjustment is at the rear sight and it is hoped soon to have such an adjustment on both rifles. In this connection it must also be remembered that the same man may get a different elevation and also a different zero in slow and rapid fire. Experts fight hard to keep the elevations the same in both kinds of fire, but do not always succeed. Perhaps the reason is that the same amount of care is impossible in rapid fire because of the greater speed, but these differences do occur in the same man.
Even a telescope sight will not always reconcile the differences between the eyes of individuals. Each man must find his own elevations with telescope sights.
A few eye drills are a good thing. Drills can be invented for everything, even the eyes. For instance, nearly every man is either right-eyed or left-eyed. A simple experiment will tell. Have him hold his finger 15 or 20 inches from his eyes. Sight over the end of it with both eyes open at some small object 15 or 20 feet away. Continue this sighting until both eyes see the object over the end of the finger. One of them will hold the finger in a straight line with the object. The other will let the finger move to one side. If the eye holds the straight line he is left-eyed. In other words, the left eye dominates. In a test of about 4,000 men about 20 per cent were found to be left-eyed.
If the
right eye is much weaker, yes. If the right eye is only slightly weaker, no. Exercise and use of the right eye may change and make him right-eyed. It is a great handicap to manipulate the rifle lefthanded.
Here is a focus drill. Align the finger again with some object 5 or 6 feet distant, and with either one or both eyes focus on the finger. The finger will appear clear and distinct, but the object in line with it will appear hazy as long as the focus is on the finger, although only a few feet distant. Change the focus to the object and it will appear clear and distinct and the finger will become hazy. Jump the focus from one to the other and learn what focusing the eye means.
Here is a centering peep drill. Look through the peep above the sky line with the eye 4 or 5 inches from the peep. Study the light in the peep, and you will find it has a bright center. Some say that the eye automatically centers the peep. It certainly does like the bright center best, and has a natural tendency to find it. However, the bright center gradually disappears as the eye is brought closer to the peep, and is hardly noticeable when very close. It is also affected by shadows, and after all the center of the peep is accurately found only by looking for it carefully.
the rules are reversed.
On a bright day with the open sight the rule still is to see the target more distinctly, and the tendency, therefore, is to hold higher ; but in spite of this, the hit is lower with the open sight than on a dull day. Why this apparent contradiction? The lower hold is more than offset by another element. The other element is the front sight. It is not seen so distinctly on the dull day, hence it is raised higher. It looks the same to the eye, but the dull light actually causes it to stand up higher to produce the same effect on the eye. It is enough higher to overcome the lower hold on the target, and the hit is actually higher on the dull day with the open sight.
Again the rule is upset by many eyes which see everything — even sight, target, and all — more distinctly on the dull day. Every man must study his own eyes and find out whether he sees things better in a bright or dull light and how his hits are effected.
with the open than with the peep sight.
The direction of the light and shadow also affects the seeing. If the light is on the right side of the front sight and the eye sees this side better than the shaded side, the tendency will be to hold the right side directly under the bull's-eye, and that will give a hit to the left.
finding the windage zero. In the forenoon the zero
would be found a half of a point right and in the afternoon as much to the left. In fact, there was no change at all. In the morning the sun was on the right side of the sight and in the afternoon it was on the left. The shooter followed the tendency to use the bright side of his sight only. In the morning he put the right side of his front sight at 6 o'clock under the bull's-eye and in the afternoon he put the left side of the front sight in the same place. This shifted his zero about equal to the width of the front sight.
correct the errors.
Try an aiming drill. Point the right side of the front sight at 6 o'clock. Then point the left side at the same place. Note the difference in the position of the whole sight with reference to the bull's-eye. This can be done even if the sun is on one side and the other shaded. Some eyes will actually see the shaded side better, but almost any eye can see both sides if the attempt is made to do so.
Some claim that differences in eyes are not the causes of individual difference. A different pressure on the rifle in the hold, a different rest, a different pressure in freezing the face to the stock, and a different trigger squeeze may get different hits even if
the sight alignments were the same. All of these things are true but they do not disprove the differences in human eyes, or rather the differences in mental pictures made by human eyes, which also get different hits.
A careful test of experts in sighting triangles shows that they will not place the triangles at the same point even at 100-yard distances. Variations in the placing of the triangles of 1^ inches were found at 100 yards with the small peep sight of the 1903 rifle and a variation of several inches was found with the larger peep sight of the 1917 rifle. In these sighting tests all of the elements were removed except the element of the eyes, and the most expert eyes did not *' look the sights" the same. They made small triangles in each instance but placed them with enough variations to miss the target entirely at 1,000 yards. It is easy to make a sighting triangle test of these conclusions. Place a rifle in a rest and let three men sight triangles on the same paper at 100 yards without moving the rifle or the paper. Their triangles may be very small and accurate, but still several inches apart. A few men will place them nearly the same, but it will not take many tests to find men who place them differently. They will point the rifle with just the same difference when firing.
If spectacles are used care must be taken that they are adjusted at the same relative angle to the eye. If they are removed and not replaced in exactly the same position a change in placing the triangle may result, and there would be a like change in the hits in shooting.
through the sights.
When one eye is closed the pupil expands as every eye expands in the dark. When it is opened there is a difference in the two eyes and the readjustment causes a certain strain. If both eyes are kept open all the time this strain is avoided. Anything that will avoid eyestrain is valuable.
The best way to teach the use of both eyes is to start with an ordinary telescope. After a man can look through the telescope with one eye and keep the other eye open at the same time without confusion of vision, he is ready to do the same thing through the sights of his rifle. A little practice will make it easy for him and he then gains all the advantages of using both eyes open in shooting.
This device is used to give the soldier a correct idea of sight alignment. As soon as he has learned from it the correct centering of the top of the front sight in the peep, and alignment of the two sights with the aiming point, this device has no further use. I). Aiming devices.
The Belgian aiming device and the Ordnance aiming device are devices to assist the instructor in detecting errors in sight alignment. They do assist in this when the error is great and the recruit has no correct idea of the sight alignment. But they should never be used for correction in accuracy. In a general way they will disclose the error of the recruit when he is not properly centering the peep. Because of the wide difference in eyes, however,, the best experts do not center the front sight in the peep in the same way and can not be trained to do so. Their mental picture is different. These devices should not be used as a test for accuracy. With the majority of men proper sight alignment can be made without their use, but sometimes they detect an error and in such cases are quite valuable.
1. Sighting triangles is a very valuable preliminary drill in aiming. They should be sighted at a distance of at least 100 yards and the practice should be continued until the triangle will be covered by a 25cent piece.
2. In sighting triangles a movable bull's-eye should be placed so the front sight is at 6 o'clock, but after the required accuracy has been attained with this aiming point triangles should be sighted "holding off." Let the recruit take an aiming point 12 inches to the right or to the left of the 6 o'clock aiming point and attempt to sight his triangles from this new aiming point. It will be found much more difficult, and it will illustrate plainly his greater error in aiming when he must hold off for wind. The practice should be continued until the triangles so made approximate
applies to the 1917 rifle.
3. By following the direction of the Small Arms Firing Manual in sighting triangles in a bright light, then with the target shaded, then with the rifle shaded, then with both shaded, and keeping a careful record of the results, each recruit can acquire valuable knowledge as to the effect of light upon his aiming. He should also sight triangles in the forenoon when the light is on the right side of the sight, and then leaving the paper in place, and the rifle in its rest, again sight them in the afternoon upon the same paper with the light on the left side of the sight. This situation assumes the sighting direction to the north, and there is no better sighting drill. It will be found that many men see the bright side of the sight more clearly and place that side upon the aiming point. If this is done in the forenoon the right side of the sight will point at the center of the aiming point. If the same thing is done in the afternoon, the left side of the sight will be pointed at the same aiming point center. This makes a variation of the full width of the front sight and is the cause of many so-called changing zeros. In fact, the zeros have not changed, it is only the different way of looking at the sight because of the different light upon it. It is the best possible drill, to teach men to look at both sides of their sight and to place the aiming point center between them. These light drills in sighting triangles will also develop the difference in eyes. Some will place the triangles lower in a bright light ; others will place them higher, and with still others there will be no material difference. Whatever the result, each man can learn by these methods the effect
of light upon his own eyes, and that is the important thing. It must be noted in this connection that, if the triangles are placed higher in a dark light, then the hits will be lower in a dark light, and of course the opposite is true if the triangles are placed lower.
4. One other experiment should be conducted in sighting triangles. Several of the best men who have sighted the smallest triangles should be selected for this purpose. The more expert riflemen they may be, the better the illustration. Place a sheet of paper for the triangle target and rest the rifle with the sights aligned upon it and firmly fixed in place, Without moving either the paper or rifle, let the first man sight two triangles very carefully. If he is expert and sights carefully, the two triangles will be interwoven together. In other words they will be placed near the same spot. Let the next man do the same thing upon the same paper and with the same rifle and without either paper or rifle being moved. Sometimes his triangles will be interwoven with the first and sometimes his eyes may be so different that they will be around a point several inches away even at 100 yards distance. His triangles may be just as small and just as accurate as the first man but he will look through the sights differently and get a different result. With the 1917 rifle tests have shown a difference of 5^ inches in elevation and 3£ inches in lateral deflection at 100 yards, and by the most expert riflemen. After several men have sighted triangle's on the same paper in this way, select the one who placed his triangles lowest, the one who placed his triangles highest, and the one who placed his triangles farthest either to the right or to the left of either one, or
both of these two. Get another piece of paper and have these three men sight triangles upon it again and it will be found that they constantly maintain the same relative difference in the same light. A change of light might remove or modify their differences. It is this sighting exercise which proves beyond question that each man must find the normal elevation and the zero windage of his own rifle. There can be no success in rifle training without a knowledge of this fact. It will be impossible to do all of these things with large numbers of troops, but they are a necessary part of the training of all instructors if error is to be avoided.
A careful study of the mechanical sight adjustment should be made. Commands should be given for sight setting at all ranges, also for windage. Sights should be set by the soldier and inspected by the instructor. After the zero of the rifle is determined, this should be repeated, using the corrected zero.
The first thing a rifleman wants to do is to "sight in" his rifle. In other words he wants to find its " normal elevations " and " zero windage." Most rifles will not shoot as the sights read, and if they did at 6 o'clock in the morning they would not at 1 o'clock in the afternoon. The usual change in the temperature will change all elevations. A warm air is lighter. It resists a bullet less. The bullet goes faster, does not have so long a time for falling, and therefore hits higher. At 1,000 yards, if the air becomes 30° warmer, the bullet will hit 40 inches higher, which is almost equal to 40 yards raise in the elevation on the sight. 130339° — 19 5
and its scatteration would be much greater.
Each man in the trained platoon had learned his normal elevations and had set his sight as his particular rifle shoots for his eyes at the required distance.
A point of windage is equal to 4 inches on the target for each 100 yards distance from the target. Therefore, the lateral errors caused by incorrect zeroes at 500 yards will amount to 30 inches.
The untrained man shoots and misses.
The errors of zero in the 1917 rifle can be corrected in the rifle itself by a lateral adjustment of the front sight. This is an improvement over any other rifle that we have ever had. However, this adjustment can only be made by trial shooting. If the zero is wrong, the sight is moved. Nobody can tell if it has been moved the proper distance except by shooting again. If the adjustment were in the rear sight it could be set as soon as the zero is found. Therefore the correct place for the zero adjustment is with the rear sight. Such sights are now proposed and likely to be adopted for both rifles.
inches right or left as the case might demand.
The untrained man would also hold 20 inches, but, not knowing his zero, this might be 15 inches too much or 15 inches too little. In either case he would miss.
Make a record of the final elevation, sight reading at each distance or of the micrometer reading, and the results are the normal elevations.
tions and zero.
He is so much above or below normal elevations for weather conditions. He is so much right or left of zero for wind. His elevations have changed because of the wearing of the rifle. He is watching carefully to see if his zero has changed also. He is now beginning to talk the language of a real rifleman.
It is simple but important.
Too. much emphasis can not be placed on the importance of trigger-squeeze instruction, and it should be given the recruit separate from the manipulation drills to prevent the probability of his acquiring an incorrect habit.
Trigger-squeeze practice should not be combined with manipulation drills until the instructor feels certain that the recruit understands and executes the trigger squeeze properly.
It is unquestionably one of the basic points that must be observed, for without it the other important points to be learned in connection with successful shooting will do little good. It can be considered as the foundation, or one of the things to be mastered first for it will be necessary before a marksman can get the full benefit of the other points of his training.
until its heel comes in contact with the receiver.
Following this the pressure is applied gradually, not necessarily so very slowly, but it must be slow enough to be a steady squeeze and applied so gradually that the firer will not know when the sear will be released.
always be used in such fire.
If the firer does not put his mind on the trigger squeeze he is sure to know when the explosion is going to occur and there will be an involunt'ary and uncontrollable tendency toward a flinch, that is a muscular movement to counteract or possibly to avoid the recoil of the rifle.
All such movement is eliminated when the mind sees that the trigger is properly squeezed, and to get the best results in marksmanship every movement must be eliminated during aiming, that it is possible to eliminate.
To attain this same end it must be constantly borne in mind that the pressure must be put on the trigger with the least possible muscular movement. Do not increase the tension on the other fingers or any muscle while squeezing the trigger. Do the squeezing with only one finger. The index finger is preferable because it is the most sensitive and is much the handiest in position and in bolt manipulation, but some successful riflemen use the second finger. The choice of the first or second joint of the finger for squeezing the trigger is entirely an individual problem with each rifleman. It depends prin-
the position of his right hand.
When squeezing the trigger correctly the firer will not know exactly when the explosion is going to occur, and when he has reached that stage he will be cured of one very serious trouble, and that is flinching, for if he does not know when the rifle or pistol is going off he will not know when to flinch.
The squeeze should be stopped when anything causes the firer to doubt the correctness of his hold, such as blurring of the vision, fatigue, changing wind or light.
TEN COMMANDMENTS.
1. Aiming drills are just as important as shooting to hit. Any aiming drill that is not conducted with the same care as shooting to hit is an improper drill. The slightest carelessness in an aiming drill tends to develop bad habits of carelessness in shooting. Every part of an aiming drill is important, but the two vital things are sight alignment and trigger squeeze. It was because of this vital importance that they were eliminated from the first manipulation drills. The aiming drill includes the manipulation drill, but adds to it all the other things that must be done in accurate shooting. The aiming drills should be conducted in all the positions,
but should begin in the prone and with the sling. Every aiming drill should be conducted with the "Ten Commandments of the Firing Point":
10. Call shot.
These catch words should be printed on paper and pasted on a small piece of cloth and pinned to the sleeve for easy reference by both the recruit and his instructor. They should also be used as commands and executed as commands until the recruit has become familiar with every element of the aiming drill. For that reason an analysis of each commandment is desired.
1. The position — 45° means that the alignment of the body is 45° away from the alignment of the rifle. It may be true that this position will not be used in battle and especially in the trenches, but that is no reason against it during the training period, providing it is the best position in which to learn the rifle. It is the best position for many reasons. This angle gives the body an elastic and rolling motion, from the recoil of the rifle and, therefore, prevents injury. The rifle and the sling fit more naturally into the man in this position. It gives the firmest and most vital hold. Therefore it should be used until
the rifle is learned. After that there is no objection to firing in any sort of position which the use of cover and the urgency of battle may demand.
2. Adjusting the sling high consists in moving the loop above the muscles of the upper arm and holding it there with the keeper. The value of the sling is greatly reduced if allowed to slip down below the muscles of the upper arm. At this command the recruit should reach across with his right hand and push the sling above the muscles of the upper arm and tighten it with the keeper. In a drill he should feel the sling each time to verify this position even if it is already correctly adjusted.
3. When the butt of the stock is placed on the right shoulder it should rest hard against the shoulder. This is readily accomplished by the proper adjustment of the sling. If the sling is adjusted the right length and then moved above the muscles of the upper arm, the butt will always come hard against the right shoulder. It will also stay in place. If the sling is permitted to slip down near the .elbow it will no longer hold the butt hard against the shoulder and it also permits the muzzle of the rifle to drop toward the ground.
4. The face must in all cases be frozen to the stock. To omit this is to fail in good holding. The face should be frozen in such a position that the eye will see the top of the front sight in the center of the peep. This position gives the proper alignment of the sights with the eye and there is nothing left to do but to move the whole combination of sights and eye together to complete the sight alignment upon the proper aiming point.
5. The breath must be held at the time of sight alignment and until the final squeeze of the trigger. It is impossible to do accurate shooting unless this is done. The proper method is to take a long breath, exhale part until the feeling is easy and then hold the breath until after the final squeeze. It should be done habitually on the first trial.
6. The double squeeze of the trigger is for the purpose of giving the command hold. This command is taken by squeezing the trigger back until the stop occasioned by the heel bearing engaging the receiver is felt. The trigger is held in this position until the sight alignment is complete. Squeezing the trigger back and holding in this position is taking command of it.
7. We have already mentioned a part of the sight alignment when the face is frozen to the stock. By the seventh commandment this alignment is completed by putting the top of the front sight on the aiming point which is normally at 6 o'clock under the bull's-eye with a distinct white line.
(a) First find the center of the peep. The center is clearly marked and can be found in the following manner: Notice whether all parts of the rim of the peep are sharp and clearly defined. If the upper part of the peep is sharp and the lower is woolly, the positon of the eye is too high, and this applies to the same condition at the sides of the peep. When all of the parts of the rim are clear, the eye is in the proper alignment, but still may not be at the correct distance from the peep. By moving the eye forward or backward it will be seen that the appearance of the light within the circle changes. There
is a dark border close to the edge of the peep inclosing a brighter center, and when the eye sees this distinctly it is in the proper position.
NOTE. — In the center of this brighter portion a second reversal of the rays of light takes place. In other words, there is another dark band with a very bright center. This is the exact optical center of the peep, but is usually not visible when the front sight larger bright center. The 1903 sight is so far from the eye that the bright optical center is not seen.
(&) Next pass the focus forward from the peep to the front sight. If the top of the front sight is clear and sharp, it is in the center of the peep, but if it is the least bit indistinct, it should be moved up or down, or from one side to the other until it clears up. When it is sharp the two points, namely, the center of the peep and the top of the front sight, are in alignment.
(c) Next transfer the focus of the eye to the point of contact between the top of the front sight and the bull's-eye. The lower edge of the bull's-eye becomes sharp in its turn when the other two points become relatively less clear, because of the impossibility of focusing the eye upon more than one point at a time. In this position the seventh commandment is fulfilled. The sights are aligned.
8. In aligning the sights the eye will not focus on both sights and the bull's-eye at one time because each is a different distance from the eye. The eye will only focus on one distance at one time ; therefore, the sight alignment is made by jumping or changing the focus of the eye from the center of the rear sight to the top of the front sight, and thence to the aiming
point at 6 o'clock under the bull's-eye. The last focus is on the aiming point at the bull's-eye. It is also true that when this last focus is first made and finds the bull's-eye in the proper place, or finds the sights in the proper alignment with the bull's-eye, then is the time for the final squeeze. The first time this last focus is found to be correct is the best time for the final squeeze. The eye is strained less than at any other time and it will see better.
9. After all of the other eight commandments have been kept and the last focus in the sight alignment upon the bull's-eye indicates the sight alignment to be correct, then is the time for the final squeeze. This is the most critical moment in rifle training. This final squeeze should be directed by the mind promptly and steadily and without any movement of the rifle or any attention to the explosion. The whole business of the mind at this critical moment is to note the sight alignment and direct the prompt and steady squeeze.
10. If the mental attention was upon the sight alignment and if the final squeeze was steady and without movement of the piece, then the firer Is able to call his shot or hold. If the sights were correctly aligned with the aiming point at the time of squeeze, he should call his hold good. If the front sight rose higher than his aiming point, he should call it high. If the front sight moved to the right of his aiming point at the time of final squeeze, he should call it to the right. Practice in this will enable him in a little while to call his shots quite accurately, and this should always be done in the aiming drills and in shooting. To neglect calling the shot or hold, is to neglect the best guide for improvement in rifle firing.
The " ten commandments " are a complete analysis of everything to do in a slow-fire aiming drill in the prone position and in the sling. This should be the first aiming drill. Targets should be provided for the purpose and the ten commandments used as commands. This insures great care in the drill and all aiming drills are useless unless great care is used. They are worse than useless when carelessly done because they develop a bad habit that must be overcome later. The care of the aiming drill must be of the same degree as the care of shooting to hit.
After the aiming drill in the prone position there should be slow-fire aiming drills in all the positions conducted in the same manner and with the same care. Only slight modification of the commands is necessary. For instance, the first can be reduced to the word " Position." The second can be reduced to the words "Adjust sling." The others will apply to any position. For assuming the positions the commands of the infantry drill regulations may be used and then follow with the ten commandments. There is no other preliminary instruction in aiming quite so reliable as this.
There is not much to be said under this subject. If it were not for the fact that rapid loading is nearly always neglected in the preliminary training, it would
not be made a separate subject. Since it is neglected and is very important in rapid-fire training special attention must be called to it. Rapid loading should be learned by practice with dummies. If the recruit will practice loading with dummies until he can load them easily and quickly he has mastered rapid loading. He is not ready for rapid-fire aiming drills until this is done.
tioning.
Rapid loading should be practiced in all the rapidfire positions. The prone is the most difficult to learn. The sling should be lengthened about two notches more than for slow fire. This is true for the rapid-fire aiming drill, the rapid-loading drill, and the rapid fire itself.
Rapid-fire aiming drills are no different from slowfire aiming drills, except in the matter of speed. They should always be conducted in rapid-fire time; for instance, ten times in one minute or in one minute and ten seconds, as the case may be. Everything in the ten commandments is done as in slow fire, except that the speed required makes it impossible to use the commands. The same things will be done but without commands except the regular rapid-fire commands. These drills will be done in all the rapid-fire positions, leaving the prone to the last, because it is hardest. They will first be done without dummies, and the loading will be simulated. They will then be
done with dummies until the recruit can execute them easily and carefully within the time limit. He will graduate in these drills by learning to use all the time so that his aiming will be more careful. Stay within the limit, but use all the time.
As noted under rapid loading, the sling should be lengthened about two notches more for this drill than for the slow-fire drill, and the same is true for rapid fire itself. The speed required in rapid fire demands a freer motion, and a longer adjustment of the sling will give it. (Test X, Small Arms Firing Manual.)
mies and aims and squeezes the trigger as many times as possible in one minute. His speed must always be limited by the care required for good aiming and squeezing.
1. All corrections for sight setting, both for elevation and windage, are estimated in the vertical plane. In other words, the estimate is made on the face of the target and from its center. It should also be made in inches. There is no other unit so convenient and so accurate for rifle fire. The original sight setting for the first shot is based upon the distance from the target. If the elevations of the rifle have not been determined by actual shooting the sight will be set at its normal reading, both for elevation and zero windage. When the shot is fired, if the hit is too high the rear sight will be lowered ; if the hit
is too low the rear sight will be raised; if the hit is to the right the wind gauge will be moved to the left ; and that is true whether the hit be high, low or at the right elevation; if the hit is to the left the wind gauge will be moved to the right. Therefore, the rifleman must know how much in inches the movement of his sight up or down will raise or lower the hit on the target, and how much the movement of the wind gauge to the right or left will also move the hit on the target. There are two simple rules, easy to remember and approximately correct, which can be used for this purpose. The wind gauge of the 1903 rifle is so constructed that each point of wind amounts to moving the hit approximately 4 inches for each 100 yards distance from the target. For instance, if a hit at 600 yards is 24 inches to the left of the center of the bull's-eye, a movement of the wind gauge one point to the right or where it stood when the hit was made will take the next shot 24 inches to the right and to the center of the bull's-eye, providing the hold, ammunition, and all other 'conditions were the same. There will, however, always be such variation in conditions as to modify the results of these corrections. The finest windage correction that can ordinarily be used is one-fourth point, and that is 1 inch on the target for each 100 yards distance. The hit on the target is moved in the same direction as the wind gauge is moved, and the wind gauge must be moved into the wind in order to offset its effect.
The second rule relates to elevations, and 100 yards of elevation will approximately move the hit on the target equal to the square of the distance from the target. At 600 yards, if the sight is raised 100 yards it will raise the hit approximately 36 inches; and
if it is lowered 100 yards the hit on the target is lowered approximately the same. If at this distance a hit were 27 inches below the center of the bull's-eye the rear sight should be raised 75 yards in order to bring the next hit up to the center of the bull's-eye with the same hold and other conditions. This is true without reference to whether the hit was to the right or left of the center of the bull's-eye. In actual firing it will be found that these corrections vary because of the differences in holding the rifle and in other conditions. In all cases it must be noted that the corrections for elevation and for windage are independent of each other. If the hit is low and to the left it is necessary to raise the elevation and also to move the wind gauge to the right. The following table gives the more accurate theoretical movement of the hit on the target for a change of 100 yards in elevation up to 1,000 yards ; and also the windage movement of the hit on the target :
When a micrometer is used for elevations the graduations usually approximate a minute of angle. The hit on the target is moved one inch for each 100 yards distance from the target for each minute of change.
2. The above table in reference to windage is modified when the battle sight is used. The wind gauge is operated by a rotary movement of the rear sight base, and the distance of the battle sight from the pivot is about one-third less, than the distance of the peep sight. Therefore when using the battle sight it is necessary to add about one-third more windage than indicated by the above table.
3. The above description of sight corrections is based upon the presumption that the rifleman hits the target. As a usual thing if he sets the sight for elevation and zero windage as it reads and then makes an allowance for the wind according to windage tables, he will hit the target providing he holds his rifle correctly. In all cases good holding is a necessary starting point for sight setting. At the shorter distances there should be no trouble for the good holder to hit the target the first shot with any rifle, but at mid and long range he will sometimes miss the whole target because of the variation in rifles or because of bad weather conditions. In this case the question of sight setting is more difficult. If he misses the target entirely it is a harder problem to know what to do with the sights. If the wind conditions are strong and unsteady, he is more likely to miss to the right or left. In that event the first corrections should be with the wind gauge. If he is unable to tell whether his hit went to the right or left, then he should move the wind gauge either right
or left, it does not matter which, but enough to move the hit one-half of the width of the target. If he moved the windage gauge right this amount and again missed on the next shot, he should move it the other direction and double the amount; for instance, at 600 yards he missed the target and on his second shot moves the wind gauge 1£ points right from where it was set for his first shot. He again misses, and on the third shot should move the wind gauge back not only the 1£ points but in addition thereto another 1£ points so it would stand If points to the left of his first shot and 3 points to the left of the second shot. This should give him a hit if he missed on account of windage at the first shot unless his first estimate was very wild. If he again misses on the third shot it becomes probable that he is missing for elevation, either over or under. If no hits have been observed in the dirt below the target, it is probable that he is going over. If the weather conditions are good, it is also probable that he is missing for elevation and not for windage. The proper correction to make in this case is to lower the elevation enough to lower the hit one-half of the target, setting the wind gauge at the first and best estimate of the windage. If he misses the target on 'this shot, then raise the elevation twice as much as he lowered. This should give him a hit and thereafter corrections are made on the hit.
4. From the foregoing statement it must not be inferred that the sight should be set at zero for the first shot when the wind is blowing either right or left. The normal zero of the rifle is taken as the starting point when its actual zero has not been de-
termined by shooting. If the wind is blowing either to the right or left, the wind gauge must be moved into the wind enough to offset its effect, and this must be done by estimating the speed of the wind for the first shot; the rule for this is based on the 9 and 3 o'clock directions. The velocity of the wind is always a matter of estimate. There is no way to get the velocity exactly. Even instruments for that purpose only find it at a particular point, and it may be different 100 or 200 yards away. It is the average velocity over all the ground where the bullet is to go that should be estimated. Having made this estimate, multiply it by the range in hundred of yards and divide by 10; the result will give the setting of the wind gauge in quarter points. For instance, if the range is 600 yards, the wind 15 miles from 9 o'clock ; then multiply 6 by 15 and divide by 10 ; the result is 9, which would mean 9 quarter points, or 2£ points of left wind. If the direction were 3 o'clock it would be 2J points of right wind. If the direction were 2 or 4 o'clock this number of quarter points would be reduced by about one-ninth ; and likewise if the direction were 8 or 10 o'clock it would be reduced by oneninth in the opposite direction. The next hours, 1 and 5, and 7 and 11, reduce it about one-half. The other hours, 12 and 6 do not require a movement of the w^ind gauge; it stands at zero for both of these directions.
5. While the 12 and 6 o'clock winds do not affect the lateral movement of the bullet and therefore do not require a wind gauge adjustment, they do affect the elevation. The 12 o'clock wind causes greater resistance and therefore causes the bullet to hit lower,
ad this requires that the rear sight be raised. However, this effect is very slight at the shorter ranges and becomes important only at the longer ranges. The following table shows how much a 5-mile wind from 12 o'clock will lower the hit at each distance from 100 yards to 1,000 yards :
12. 130
In a 6 o'clock wind the hits would be approximately as much higher as they are lower in the above table. As the wind increases in speed the hits would be lowered if the wind were from 12 o'clock and raised if from 6 o'clock, approximately in proportion to the above table for the 5-mile wind. It will be observed that there is no proportion of this variation in hits with the distance because the slowing velocity of the bullet causes a much greater effect in proportion as the distance increases. This makes it difficult to establish a simple rule, except it may be stated that at 1,000 yards a 10-mile head wind requires an increase of 25 yards in elevation, and a 10-mile 6 o'clock wind would require a decrease of that amount.
6. In hot weather and over snow and ice there are certain conditions of light refraction which are commonly called mirage by riflemen. On an ordinary hot day, over the ordinary rifle range, this mirage appears in the form of heat waves, visible to the naked eye,.
and much more visible through an observation telescope or field glass. This mirage produces a certain amount of displacement, sometimes in one direction and sometimes in another, depending upon the angle given by the direction of the wind. These irregularities cause a certain amount of disturbance for the rifleman and to some extent reduce his scores. However, the visible mirage is really the friend and helper of the rifleman as soon as he learns to treat it simply as his wind flag. The mirage is only possible in light winds ; it is entirely dispelled by wind of about 15 miles per hour ; and its effect is always decreased as the wind increases. It can be observed in movement with the wind and is a good index of the speed of the wrind. Mirage will disclose wind movements that would otherwise be invisible. The rifleman who has learned to observe these changes and will make slight changes of his sights to offset them, will stay in the bull's eye when his competitor, who does not judge air movement by movement of the mirage, will get 4's or even 3's. The best way is to simply observe these mirage or heat-wave movements for the purpose of determining the air movement, and then change the sights according to the windage rules. Since mirage is strongest in the lightest winds, it often occurs when the wind is changing from right to left. One shot may require a one-half point right wind and the next shot a one-half point left wind. Changes like this can be determined better by observing the direction and speed of the heat waves or mirage than any other way. If at 600 yards the observation of mirage movement disclosed it moving from 9 o'clock at the rate of 5 miles per hour, the sight setting would be 0.69 to the
roximately three-quarters point left wind. If on the next shot the direction changed and the heat waves moved from 3' o'clock at the same speed the sight setting would be three-quarters point right, and the shots would stay in the bull's-eye. This is an extreme case, but such cases do occur. They often occur where the direction switches from right to left, but not the full switch from 3 to 9 o'clock ; rather from 11 to 1 o'clock, or 10 to 2 o'clock. The following table shows the number of points of deflection or windage necessary to correct for a 10-mile per hour wind, drift not considered ; and for a 5-mile per hour wind the correction would be one-half as much.
IV, X.
The above table indicates the corrections for mirage in lateral motion. There is one other condition of mirage that should be noted, and that is the boiling mirage. This occurs when there is no wind movement in either direction and no windage is required.
best to wait until the same condition is seen for each
shot and make no change of the sights whatever. Time is the controlling factor in this method, and if there is not time to wait then the sights must be changed as above indicated.
There are also conditions under which mirage will be observed going in one direction over one part of the range and in an opposite direction over another part of the range. Under those conditions it is often impossible to determine the sight setting except from hits on the target. If the conditions remain uniform the hit on the target is always the guiding point for sight correction, regardless of whether conditions are good or bad. It is the changing conditions that present the problem to the rifleman.
7. A consideration of the aiming point is of some importance to the subject of sight setting, but more especially with reference to the use of the battle sight. For the peep sight the aiming point is at 6 o'clock and on the white part of the target ; the hitting point is the center of the bull's-eye. This means an indirect aiming point. In other words, the aim is at one point and the hit intended for another. At 200 yards and 300 yards the aiming point is about 6 inches below the center of the bull's-eye ; at 500 and 600 yards it is about 15 inches below the center of the bull's-eye and at 1,000 yards it is about 27 inches below the center of the bull's-eye. This lowering of the aiming point requires a corresponding raising of the rear sight, and in part accounts for the fact that the sights of many rifles must be set at 300 and even 400 yards elevation when shooting at 200 yards distance. At the longer distances the increase in elevation is relatively smaller. The only reason for this
indirect aiming point is the fact that a black sight is seen more distinctly upon a light background, and the rifleman can tell better the exact point at which his front sight is aligned. If the black sight is aligned on the black bull's-eye it is impossible to tell whether it is high or low, right or left. This makes possible a considerable variation in the hold which can not be seen, but it would be seen if the sight were on the light background.
With the battle sight, at 200 and 300 yards the aiming point is still lower, being about 26 inches below the hitting point at 200 yards, and about 28 inches below it at 300 yards. These figures vary Considerably with individual rifles and with individual eyes. With many rifles it is necessary to have aiming points at these distances below the entire target. This makes rapid fire much more difficult, and it should be corrected by putting in the highest size of the front sight when possible. It should be observed that the holding or aiming point is about 2 inches lower at 300 yards than at 200 yards. The reason for this is because the battle sight is set at 547 yards and the rising trajectory has not reached its highest point when 200 yards from the muzzle. Since the bullet will rise over 2 inches more in going the next 100 yards it is necessary to hold that much lower in order to hit the same point.
8. The effect of light upon sight setting in an individual question. No rules can be established that will apply to all men alike. In a bright light one man will hit higher and be required to lower his sight ; another man will get the opposite result ; still other men find no difference. The shade of the sights may
also make a difference in the windage, but this difference may be opposite with different men. If the right side of the front sight is bright and the left side shaded, some eyes would see the right side more distinctly and place it on the aiming point; others would see the shaded side more distinctly and place it on the 'aiming point. This would make a difference in windage about equal to the thickness of the front sight blade. Such differences may sometimes be avoided by using a sight cover, and sometimes by carefully observing the two sides of the sight when aiming. It is always a good rule to carefully look at the outline of the sights in every kind of light, and such care will often correct error caused by changes of light. In every case each man should learn from actual experience the effect of light upon his own aiming, and then make a record of it and set his sights as his individual case demands. This is one of the most difficult problems in the better training of the rifleman.
Other weather conditions that effect sight setting are temperature and moisture. A change of 7?° in temperature will change the hit on the target 1 inch for each 100 yards distance. If the weather becomes 7£° warmer the hit will be 10 inches higher at 1,000 yards ; and the opposite results if the weather becomes colder. In a damp air the hits will be higher, and in a dry air lower. But there is no moisture rule that is reliable like the temperature rule. Many times one set of weather conditions works the opposite of another and thus they offset each other.
In this connection it is also well to note that if glasses are worn they must be kept in a uniform position so the angle with the eye will be constant. A
change of this angle may mean a change of elevations or zero or both. This is more likely to occur with glasses held in place by pinching the nose.
9. Telescopic sight setting has been a source of a great deal of confusion. This can be avoided by bore sighting the rifle. The best method of bore sighting the rifle is to dismount the bolt mechanism, leaving the bolt in the rifle. The aperture for the striker then serves as a rear peep sight in the bore and assists in making the bore sighting accurate. The rifle should then be placed on a sandbag, or, better still, upon an adjustable rest that will hold it firmly in place. It is then carefully sighted through the aperture and the bore, and the bull's-eye of the target carefully put in the center of each. It must remain in this position without being moved, and the telescope sight so adjusted that the center of the cross hairs will cover the center of the bull's-eye at the same time the bore is sighted on the bull's-eye as above indicated. When this is carefully done it gives a practical zero of the telescopic sight for both windage and elevation. The reading of the sight graduations for both windage and elevation should then be carefully noted and recorded as the zero of each. The graduations on the sleeve of the Winchester A-5 telescope represent 25 units corresponding to micrometer readings. Each graduation on the thimble represents one of these units and, therefore, a full turn of the thimble is 25, or the same as a single graduation on the sleeve. The angle of these units moves the hit on the target approximately one-half inch for each 100 yards distance. The windage screw is the same as that for elevation. If after a rifle had been bore sighted and
the elevation sleeve showed 3 red lines and the thimble 9 past the zero point, then the zero of elevation would be stated and indicated as follows : Bore-sighted elevation zero 3+9. If at the same time the windage sleeve showed 4 red lines and the thimble 19 past the zero point then the zero would be designated and indicated as follows : Bore-sighted windage zero 4-fl9. These two readings having been determined by a careful and accurate bore sight will give a starting point from which any rifle can be easily put on the target up to 1,000 yards. If the wind is blowing the wind gauge screw will be moved to the right or left of the zero, figuring each graduation as one-eighth of a point of wind, which moves the hit one-half inch for each 100 yards distance, as above stated. Therefore, estimate the wind and move the sight into the wind, and to the right or left, exactly as the metallic sight would be moved.
For elevation add together all the numbers of each 100 yards distance up to 600 yards and the sum of these numbers will give the number of units to raise the sight for elevation. For instance, if the distance is 600 yards, by adding all the serial numbers from 1 to 6, inclusive, we get 21 ; the sight must, therefore, be raised 21 graduations above the boresight zero for elevation. This amount of raise together with the jump of the rifle will put the hit on the target. If the distance is above 600 yards it is necessary to add all the serial numbers representing the other hundreds, and 50 per cent more. For 800 yards, therefore, add 7 and 8, then 7 more or one-half of the total of the two. This would give a grand total of 43 which the sight must be raised
above the bore-sight zero for elevation to hit the target at 800 yards. After the target is hit it will generaly be found necessary to make further corrections of the sight, and this should be done until the group of hits is around the center of the bull's-eye and then a record made of the actual elevation and windage used to get this group. This record will be more accurate than the bore-sight zeroes with the calculated changes.
After the elevation is accurately obtained by actual shooting at each distance it is a good plan to again bore sight the rifle with the sight set as it was fired. While the bore is centered on the bull's-eye and without moving the rifle again look through the telescopic sight and observe how far the cross hairs are pointing below the center of the bull's-eye. For instance, at 600 yards it will be observed that the cross hairs are pointing about 60 inches below the center of the bull's-eye. If the number of inches from the center of .the bull's-eye down to where the sight points is carefully observed and recorded for each 100 yards distance from the target, and after the sights have been adjusted by actual shooting, it would then be possible to bore sight the rifle upon the target without using any sight graduations whatever. All that would be necessary would be to sight the bore on the bull's-eye and at the same time adjust the telescopic sight to a point the right number of inches below. The windage adjustment must be made as at first indicated herein. This method is not practical above 600 yards because of the greater distance the sight points below the bull's-eye.
GALLERY PRACTICE.
If there is proper equipment and time, gallery practice has considerable value, because it is real shooting. However, if a man must use a strange rifle with a strange trigger squeeze and complicated with an adapter or reducer for the load, it creates such confusion and nuisance as to almost entirely destroy the value. From a military standpoint gallery practice will not be of much value until each man can use his own rifle with a reduced load that will function the same as the regular load at both slow and rapid fire. Even then a large amount of gallery practice is not desirable for the beginner. The absence, of recoil is likely to give him a false idea of the rifle and sometimes good gallery shots become the worst flinchers. Gallery practice should only be considered as a step in the preliminary training. It is an easy method of testing sight alignment, trigger squeeze, and other preliminary instruction. In peace time and for civilian clubs the small bore rifle has great value because of the small expense and the ease with which accessible ranges can be procured.
The animated target affords an advanced course in gallery practice. It is a fascinating sport and it gives some idea of shooting at moving targets. But it is like all other preliminary instruction. It is only a step toward the high-power rifle and must not be substituted. Time enough should be spent on preliminary matters to assimilate the ideas they teach and then put them into the shooting of the military rifle.
SOLUTION OF RANGE PROBLEMS.
After it has been decided that each soldier should have the best training in marksmanship, after the ammunition allowance has been increased until this training is possible, after the officers have been trained in the best system of instruction, still the whole training is likely to prove inadequate for the following reasons :
A. Inconvenient location of ranges.
IB. Insufficient number of targets. C. Improper arrangement of targets. D. Inefficient organization for training instructors.
troops.
The range should always be close to camp or quarters. In all cases where this is impossible, the only alternative is to establish a temporary camp at the range during the firing period. While one-half day of firing is sufficient for any one day, still the other duties of that same day should not be of the heavy fatiguing kind. It is impossible to get good results in marksmanship if the men are worn out in long marches or violent exercises. Short marches, light drills, and study periods are desirable, but not during the same half day they are firing.
Men learn to shoot by shooting, and if the number of targets is insufficient for the allotted time, the training will always be inadequate.
the course to be fired. The course should include such
distances and kinds of fire as will best train a man to learn and operate his rifle, to learn and correct his own faults, and to hit under battle conditions. The latter is the final object to be attained, but it is a mistake to attempt the simulation of battle conditions in the beginning. After a man has become a reliable target shot he is then ready for the battle stunts and he will make rapid progress in them. He gets the essential groundwork of all shooting on the targets. He gets it quicker and better if the targets are arranged in logical sequence and for continuous operation. Long experience has shown that for slow fire there should be the same number for targets at each firing point. It has also shown that men should fire at the long ranges as soon as they can hit the targets. When a man can hit the target at 1,000 yards he gets more training out of one shot than out of five at half the distance. It improves him more rapidly for the short distances. In rapid fire it has been found that one-half the number of targets will take care of the same number of men as at slow fire. Therefore, at all firing points where both slow and rapid fire is required, the targets should be in the proportion of 50 slow fire and 25 rapid.
In training troops in marksmanship it is fundamental that all firing should be under the personal direction of an instructor who knows his business. Even if all officers are 'trained as the best marksmen and best instructors, still they can not give this personal supervision. There are not enough of them. However, there are enough of them to train the noncommissioned officers as instructors, and a school for this purpose should have precedence of all others in war-
time. The organization for this school must fit the range and must include enough students in each unit to provide an instructor for every man when he comes to the firing point.
After these schools are completed the final problem is a firing organization that will give these instructors a chance with their men and give the men a chance to fire the necessary amount during the allotted time. The men must not be hustled and hurried in their firing, but a proper organization will deliver them promptly at the target and conserve the time for the proper instruction in firing.
PROBLEM No. 1 : A cantonment, rifle and pistol ranges are to be located and constructed at a designated point for the training of a division in war time.
General situation : The location of the camp is to be governed by the location of the ranges. The terrain is adequate and suitable. In this division there are 18,000 men armed with the rifle and 12,000 armed with the pistol. The training period will be 16 weeks. The ammunition allowance will be as ordered by the commanding general. The Regular Army course will be fired.
Special situation : You will be assistant" chief of staff in charge of training the division in marksmanship and are called upon for a report upon the location of rifle, pistol, gallery, and triangle ranges; the number of targets required for each ; the arrangement of targets and the firing line; the number of telephones and other special equipment required.
Solution : 1. These ranges should be built on a common firing line parallel to the camp, and at a distance not exceeding 300 yards. North is the best 130339°— 19 7
firing direction, and the ranges should be located accordingly if the terrain permits. If north can not be used, then other directions should be chosen in the following order: Northeast, northwest, east, west, southeast, southwest, south. A change in latitude would change the preference of direction. The direction of fire is of minor importance and will not be permitted to outweigh other important considerations of locating either camp or ranges.
If for any reason the whole range can not be built, then the long-range targets may be omitted or reduced in number. The others are absolutely necessary if the training is to be efficient.
Pistol No. 1, 15 yards, 25 targets, 6-foot centers. Pistol No. 2, 25 yards, 25 targets, 6-foot centers. Pistol No. 3, 50 yards, 25 targets, 8-foot centers.
Gallery No. 1, 50 feet, 50 targets, 4-foot centers. Gallery No. 2, 75 feet, 50 targets, 4-foot centers. The gallery range will be indoors when practicable, 45 targets to each regiment or equal unit.
5. There should be 50 rests for sighting triangles set att a distance of 100 yards, from 50 sighting boards. These rests will require 10-foot length, 12-foot centers, 3 rifles to the rest, and built for the standing position. This triangle range may be placed on either flank of the firing line, or at any other convenient place near to the camp and the firing line.
6. The targets at each firing point will be numbered serially, beginning on the left with No. 1. Each firing point will also be designated by painted signs at each end of its line, reading " Rifle Range No. 1," or " Pistol Range No. 3," or " Gallery Range No. 2." The triangle range will be designated by the words "Triangle Range," and the rests will be numbered 1 to 50.
7. Thora should be one telephone on the line, and one in the pit for each 10 targets. There should also be an efficient buzzer for each target.
8. The firing points should be graded level. Sloping is a disadvantage. Behind the 300 yard firing point should be erected a platform simulating the standing trench position for the purpose of firing with the sandbag rest in that position.
manship in war time.
General situation: The same as for problem No. 1, and with the range constructed and equipped according to the solution of that problem, and the further fact is assumed that all officers have taken the marksmanship course as outlined in this publication.
Special situation : As assistant chief of staff of the division in charge of training the division in marksmanship, you are called upon to report to the commanding general a complete plan of organization for :
pit detail.
2. All of the officers, students, noncommissioned officers, and 70 privates will report to the chief instructor at the range at 7 a. m., the first day of the school, for duty until 12 m. These hours shall be the hours of the school daily, except Sunday. The course
will continue for four weeks.
3. The chief instructor will divide the students into 50 groups of 20 each, give them serial numbers 1 to 50, and assign an officer as instructor for each group. He will assign a senior instructor and three assistants to pistol instruction. Each instructor will subdivide his group into four firing squads and appoint his four most experienced men as squad leaders, and the leader of squad No. 1 shall also be group leader. He will also designate a group statistical officer.
4. The first three days will be devoted to preliminary instruction of the students in both rifle and pistol and to the instruction of the range officers, telephone and pit details, and to putting the range in readiness. The fourth day the students will fire 10 shots slow fire prone at 200 yards under the personal direction of their instructors, and the squads not firing will continue preliminary exercises under their squad leaders. The fifth day 50 additional pit detail will report, and 10 shots slow fire prone will be fired at 300 yards and 10 at 500 yards, the latter under the personal direction of the instructor. The squads will rotate from one range to the other, and when not firing will be employed as on the fourth day. On the sixth day 50 additional pit detail will report, and the school will fire slow fire prone D target at 200, 300, and 500 yards, the squads rotating and continuing preliminary exercises when not firing.
Thereafter the
daily program shall be the record course with 5 shots standing and 5 shots kneeling at 200 yards extra, and pistol at all three ranges. At 200, 300, and 500 yards targets 1 to 50 shall be operated at slow fire, and 51 to 75 at rapid fire. The groups shall be assigned to all slow-fire targets with the same number as the group numbers, and two groups shall be assigned to each rapid-fire and pistol target, and in firing rapid fire and pistol they will alternate man about.
In the rapid fire, groups 1 to 25 add 50 to their group numbers to get their target numbers, and groups 26 to 50 add 25. In the pistol assignments groups 1 to 25 have the same target numbers as their group numbers and groups 26 to 50 subtract 25 from their group numbers to get their target numbers.
6. At each firing point and for each kind of fire the range officer will place a checking blank and each squad leader will check out when his squad finishes by placing his initials in the proper place. The blank will be in the following form:
is one less than the number of firing points, and if
desired and good squad leaders are available the groups may be divided into five squads of four each, instead of the regular organization of four squads. It will be observed that this system of rotation is flexible and can be made to fit any rifle range.
9. Those who qualify to fire at 800 and 1,000 yards will fire at those ranges during the last 10 days and will omit such other ranges as the chief instructor may direct. During the same time the entire school will do part of its slow fire with telescopic sights. When the long ranges are being fired, additional range officers and pit detail will be ordered. When record is being fired, scorers and additional range officers will be ordered, but during instruction practice each man will keep his own score and report it on a daily card to the statistical officer of his group. The statistical officer will submit a daily report of his group to the chief instructor.
10. This school shall be on duty during a half day of each day and five hours on the firing line. During the rest of the day- its entire personnel shall be available for other duties. A second school organized exactly the same will relieve the first school the other half day and also be on the firing line five hours each day and likewise be available for other duties during the rest of the day. If in the short days, one school will relieve the other at midday without intermission in order that each may have five hours of actual firing as near as possible.
11. The details for students in these schools will be proportionately taken from all of the units in the division, including those armed with the pistol.
12. During the progress of these schools preliminary instruction of the troops in both rifle and pistol training will begin and will be so conducted that some units will have completed it before the completion of the school. These units will then be available for firing on the range and all units shall complete their preliminary training before going to the range. The preliminary course of instruction will be the same as in the schools, except that more time will be required.
13. The training of the troops in firing should begin immediately upon the completion of the schools and conducted under the following operation order :
the same as for each school, and from units not firing.
14. Firing detail, 5 groups each of 250 men. These groups may be designated either by number or by letter and each will be divided into 50 firing squads of 5 men each, numbered 1 to 50, and an instructor trained in the school will be assigned to each firing squad and will have personal charge of it at all times and at all ranges and will form and march it from one firing point to another in the regular rotation. The instructors will be assigned to firing squads from their own units. Company and battalion officers will be in general charge, as near as possible, of their own units. The firing will be done by half days the same as in the school, and a new firing detail of the same number and with the same organization will report for the other half day each day. Each firing detail will continue in this training for a period of 12 half days, and during the time will be available for other duty the other half day. The
In all assignments of rifle targets, slow fire, each squad has a target number the same as its own squad number. In all assignments for rapid fire, squads 1 to 25 add 50 to their respective squad numbers for their target numbers and squads 26 to 50 likewise add 25.
In the pistol assignments, squads 1 to 25 have target numbers the same as their squad numbers, and squads 26 to 50 substract 25 to get their respective target numbers.
16. This organization and target assignment will train the whole division to fire the pistol as well as the rifle, and it ought to be so trained. If the 6,000
not armed with the pistol are not permitted to fire it, the men so ruled out will not go to the pistol range with their firing squads. This is better than a separate organization for pistol training and it leaves plenty of room for the officers and men not armed with the rifle.
17. At each firing point and for each kind of fire the range officer will place a blank and as each squad finishes the leader ^will check out by placing his initials in the proper place. The blanks will be in the following form :
Pistol.
During the first day of firing the groups assigned in rotation to begin at 500 and 600 yards shall be omitted from that rotation until after they have fired the shorter ranges. In the regular rotation a firing squad will fire its slow fire at any given range, and then proceed either by pairs or full squad to the rapid fire targets at the same range, and fire its rapid fire, and then proceed as a squad to the next range in the rotation.
19. All men who have qualified for 800 and 1,000 yards will be reorganized into firing squads, and assigned to the best instructors and fire those ranges upon a separate rotation system and in addition to the 12 days' firing hereinbefore prescribed.
20. The firing groups provided in this plan can be increased to maximum of 300, or 6 to a firing squad, or reduced to a minmum of 200, with 4 to a firing squad. The number of groups may be reduced when necessary, and should never exceed the number of firing points. In all cases where odd numbers of men would be left over enough firing squads should be increased to include them.
21. A uniform system of pit details should be followed. All men should have training in the pit. This plan of organization will give each man about half as much time in the pit as on the firing line, and there would be extra pit duty during the schools. All noncommissioned officers and men should be carefully instructed in this plan of organization before going to the range, and also instructed in all of the details and duties of operating the targets. Before one set of noncommissioned officers is relieved the next set should report with them one clay for instruction.
No. 5, 600 yards slow fire, targets 1 to 50.
3. There should be six firing groups each of 200, divided into firing sections of four each, and the table of rotation would be as follows :
4. The firing schedule will also be modified to suit the different ranges. In the preliminary stages the groups scheduled first at 500 and 600 yards will omit
those ranges until they have fired the shorter ranges. After they have qualified to fire at all the ranges the maximum daily schedule will be 10 shots slow and 10 shots rapid at 100, 200, and 300 yards and 10 shots slow at 500 and 600 yards. It is recognized that the mere firing of a prescribed course will not train men to shoot well. They must continue to fire at all ranges and all kinds of fire under proper instruction until they learn to -hit. The beginning should be rjlow and very careful but as fast as the men learn to hit both the distance and the number of shots shoui:! be increased. Under this plan 24 men would fire 240 shots on each slow-fire target in 5 hours, and 48 men would fire 480 shots on each rapid-fire target in the same time. By efficient operation of the targets it would be possible to increase the groups to 250 and the firing squads to 5. This would make 30 men and 300 shots to each slow-fire target in 5 hours or 300 minutes, which is about the maximum ; at rapid fire it would be 60 men and 600 shots in the same time, but that would not reach the maximum.
5. The pit cetail is upon the basis of one man for each target and telephone, ten extra for each pit to prepare and paste -targets and for relief and orderlies, with one noncommissioned officer for each 10 targets, one in charge of extra men in each pit, one in general charge of telephones, and two extra for relief. The detail of officers is upon the basis of one chief range officer, one for each firing point and one for each pit, except one range officer and one pit officer for all three pistol ranges.
6. An organization of this kind will train 2,000 instructors through a four weeks' course by half days. A half day in 24 hours is enough of this training. It will give every other man in the division 12 half days and expend about 800 rounds of ammunition per man. This is a minimum allowance for any man who is going into a fight for his life. In addition to this general training 25 per cent of the Infantry should be trained as snipers, which especially calls for firing at the long ranges and at indistinct and moving targets at unknown distances. The expenditure of this ammunition in training means the saving of many times the amount in battle.
RECORDS.
In order to make the best progress in rifle training particular attention should be given to records. This is especially true when training instructors, and it might also be said that every rifleman should be trained as an instructor.
Notes. — Every student of rifle training should keep a notebook. It can be arranged systematically with numbered subjects similar to the outline herein. Each impressive point of instruction, both theoretical and personal experience, should be noted under its proper number. A well-kept notebook is a valuable asset. The mind is more keenly directed to the matter in point by the writing of the note, and the note does not forget.
very small difference of friction is correspondingly small, and since a difference of friction must exist and since it is small the distance rolled over will be small, comparatively speaking.
of the bullet in the bore of the rifle.
The primer. — The primer ignites the powder in the cartridge. It consists of the cup, percussion composition, disk of shellacked paper, and the anvil. The cup is made of gilding metal and contains a percussion composition which, when the primer is struck, causes the flash which ignites the powder. The disk of shellacked paper is placed over this composition to keep out moisture and to prevent electrolytic action between dissimilar metals. (Cup and Anvil.)
Powder. — The powder is a pyrocellulose composition. The grains are cylindrical in shape and covered \vith a thin coat of graphite. The powder charge is from 47 to 50 grains weight. The varying charge is due to one lot of powder developing more force than another at the same temperature ; so, to retain force constant the powder charge is varied. Hence, if pressure, or force, driving the bullet remains the same, or constant, the velocity of the bullet remains constant. Therefore, anj number of cartridges loaded with different lots ol powder have about the same velocity at the same temperature. The graduations on the sights of the rifles are based on the above theory.
The bullet.— The bullet is 0.308 inch in diameter and weighs 150 grains. It is composed of a lead and tin core, inclosed in a jacket of cupro-nickel.
THE PRIMING OF THE CARTRIDGE IN THE RIFLE.
When the cartridge is primed in the rifle and combustion of powder takes place a volume of gases, at a very high temperature, is given off, which attains a breech pressure of 51,000 pounds per square inch. This gas acts along the path of least resistance (which in this case is the bullet) and as the bullet moves forward it is rotated by the rifling about its own axis, and when the bullet leaves the barrel it has a velocity of 2,700 feet per second and the bullet rotates approximately 3,240 revolutions per second at the time it leaves the barrel. The rotary motion of the bullet about its own axis keeps it flying through space point forward. Forward motion and rotation of the bullet begin in breech of barrel with zero motion and rotation, and in the short distance from breech to muzzle attains the above velocity and rotation. The rifling in the barrel makes one turn in every 10 inches to the right.
PARALLELOGRAM OF FORCES.
Composition of two forces not having the same line of action. — If two forces acting on a particle be represented in direction and magnitude by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram then the diagonal of this parallelogram passing through their point of intersection will represent the magnitude and direction of resultant force. In the above, forces are considered as constant.
The part of the law upon which the above proposition is based may be stated in the following form : When several forces act simultaneously upon a body,
very small difference of friction is correspondingly small, and since a difference of friction must exist and since it is small the .distance rolled over will be small, comparatively speaking.
The primer. — The primer ignites the powder in the cartridge. It consists of the cup, percussion composition, disk of shellacked paper, and the anvil. The cup is made of gilding metal and contains a percussion composition which, when the primer is struck, causes the flash which ignites the powder. The disk of shellacked paper is placed over this composition to keep out moisture and to prevent electrolytic action between dissimilar metals. (Cup and Anvil.)
Powder. — The powder is a pyrocellulose composition. The grains are cylindrical in shape and covered with a thin coat of graphite. The powder charge is from 47 to 50 grains weight. The varying charge is due to one lot of powder developing more force than another at the same temperature; so, to retain force constant the powder charge is varied. Hence, if pressure, or force, driving the bullet remains the same, or constant, the velocity of the bullet remains constant. Therefore, anj number of cartridges loaded with different lots ol powder have about the same velocity at the same temperature. The graduations on the sights of the rifles are based on the above theory.
The bullet.— The bullet is 0.308 inch in diameter and weighs 150 grains. It is composed of a lead and tin core, inclosed in a jacket of cupro-nickel.
When the cartridge is primed in the rifle and combustion of powder takes place a volume of gases, at a very high temperature, is given off, which attains a breech pressure of 51,000 pounds per square inch. This gas acts along the path of least resistance (which in this case is the bullet) and as the bullet moves forward it is rotated by the rifling about its own axis, and when the bullet leaves the barrel it has a velocity of 2,700 feet per second and the bullet rotates approximately 3,240 revolutions per second at the time it leaves the barrel. The rotary motion of the bullet about its own axis keeps it flying through space point forward. Forward motion and rotation of the bullet begin in breech of barrel with zero motion and rotation, and in the short distance from breech to muzzle attains the above velocity and rotation. The rifling in the barrel makes one turn in every 10 inches to the right.
Composition of two forces not having the same line of action. — If two forces acting on a particle be represented in direction and magnitude by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram then the diagonal of this parallelogram passing through their point of intersection will represent the magnitude and direction of resultant force. In the above, forces are considered as constant.
The part of the law upon which the above proposition is based may be stated in the following form : When several forces act simultaneously upon a body,
each force produces the same effect which it would have produced if it had acted singly. In applying the above principles we may consider the forces as producing motion.
Let us suppose two forces P and Q, Fig. 1, to act simultaneously upon the same particle ; each will have the same effect as if it acted alone and is measured by velocity it gives in a certain time and its direction is that of this velocity ; therefore, if these velocities are represented by AB and AD, respectively, Fig. 1, then the same lines must be proportional to forces
P and Q. Since AC represents the resultant velocity in direction and magnitude, a force having this direction, and proportional to AC, must be the resultant force equivalent to combined effects of P and Q.
EXTERIOR BALLISTICS.
To apply above principles to a bullet flying through space. — Here we have three, and sometimes four, forces acting on the bullet at the same time. These forces are kinetic energy, air resistance, gravity, and wind.
Gravity is the attraction of bullet toward center of earth, which retards the bullet on ascending portion of trajectory and accelerates its fall on the descending portion of trajectory. In a vacuum a body falls about 16 feet the first second and at the end of the first second has attained a velocity of 32 feet per second and its velocity will increase at the rate of 32 feet per second. So, if we could take a rifle in a vacuum 16 feet above the horizontal plane and fire the rifle in a level position, then at the end of one second the
bullet.
In the above we have seen that the bullet projected in space drops a certain distance in a given time. To shoot the rifle a long distance, near a horizontal plane or level ground, the muzzle of the rifle must be elevated a certain amount to counteract force of gravity and air resistance. For example : Let us assume that we wish to shoot 1,000 yards. For a range of 1,000 yards the angle of departure will be about 48 minutes above the line of site with the model 1903 rifle.
If no other forces acted on the bullet but the propelling force, the bullet would follow path AD, Fig. 3, but when the bullet leaves the muzzle of the rifle gravity begins, at once, to draw the bullet toward the
earth and the air resistance be.crins to retard the forward motion of the bullet. With the three forces, kinetic energy, air resistance, and gravity acting on the bullet, at the same time, the bullet follows a path called the trajectory, ABC. Fiir. X. We know that the trajectory of a bullet is a curve, which proves
that some of the forces acting on the bullet are constantly increasm- or decreasing with a certain rate of change. In analy/in:: the above we find that kinetic energy of the bullet decreases nt a certain rate, force Of gravity increases at a certain rate and air resistance changes as the bullet moves forward more slowly, or loses velocity.
• us a<sume that wo could 1:0 1 a trajectory of Jlet without any side drift (due to a rotation of the bullet) and no side wind blowing. Then the trajectory will lie in a vertical plane, Fiir. 4. and top view of the trajectory will be represented by u straight line /•;/), Fig. 4.
Let us now analyze a case where the side wind and drift, due to rotation of the bullet, is considered : The drift of a bullet, fired from the 1903 rifle, is to the right due to the right hand twist of the rifling. Let us also assume that wind acting on the bullet is blowing from left to right, at any angle, but in this case, indicated by arrow W, Fig. 5, and that the rifle is aimed at point F, Fig. 5, and fired. We will assume that the bullet struck at E, Fig. 5.
In this case (Fig. 5) the side view of trajectory looks like the previous case, but top view has changed so that instead of DE being a straight line it is now a curve. This is due to the constant slowing up of velocity of bullet and the action of drift and wind, from the left side, on the bullet. Now, to hit point F, Fig. 5, we must point the bore of the rifle at G, to counteract the force of the wind, or drift of the bullet, as the case may be. If a strong right wind is blowing it will act on the bullet from the right, and if the drift due to wind is more than drift due to rotation,, the bullet will drift to the left
With a head wind it is not the air resistance alone that must be considered, but we must also consider the velocity with which the air moves toward the bullet. These two combined will give us the force that retards the forward movement of the bullet. Therefore, if a strong head wind is blowing an increase of angle of departure or elevation on rear sight must be increased for a given range to overcome the increased resistance.
When a rear wind is blowing the resistance of the air on the bullet is decreased a small amount, due to the air moving in the same direction the bullet is moving. Therefore, with a rear wind blowing we must decrease the angle of departure, for the air resistance is less. So, in summing up, we find that to shoot a certain distance with known elevation for that distance we must decrease the elevation for a rear wind and increase it for a head wind.
PLOTTING THE TRAJECTORY OF A BULLET.
Every rifleman or any man who will direct the use of the rifle should know all about the trajectory of a bullet under different conditions, and should be able to plot the trajectory without any decided effort when ordinates of respective distances are given. He should know that the trajectory remains rigid if angles of site above or below horizontal plane are small — that is, we may shoot upward or downward, and if the upward or downward angles are small the trajectory will remain the same. He should
wind deflections are given.
Ordinates of trajectory, wind deflection tables, value of correction for temperature and barometer, penetration of the bullet, in certain materials can all be found in the Descriptive Book, United Statesmagazine rifle, caliber .30, model 1903, No. 1923.
A thorough knowledge of these principles should be obtained, as ability to direct fire power and large part of marksmanship and musketry revolves around the knowledge of the characteristics of a bullet in its flight.
VELOCITY OF BULLET.
Temperature. — For each degree of temperature above or below normal (70° F.) velocity will vary 1.5 feet for each degree. If we had cartridges which would give us a standard velocity of 2,700 feet per second, at 70° F., and we fired the cartridges when the powder had a temperature of 90° F., our velocity would increase 1.5 feet per second for each degree above 70°. In this case the difference in temperature is 20° and 20 multiplied by 1.5 feet would give us an increase in our initial velocity of 30 feet or a velocity of 2,730 feet per second.
Density of air. — Another factor entering in is the density of the air. The density varies with the barometer, thermometer, and moisture in the air. Tables I, II, III and IV, pages 55, 56, and 57, Descriptive Book U. S. Magazine Rifle, will enable a close approximation to be made for a particular condition.
In Table I, will be found the value of dl for different values of temperature and pressures of atmosphere. With value of dl, found in Table I, the corresponding elevation for a given range can be found in Table II, which is calculated for different values of dl.
With this elevation given in Table II the corresponding elevation can be obtained from Table IV, which gives range and sight elevation for corresponding angles of departure.
The difference between 1.10 and 1.096 (the ratio found in this case to represent 90° temperature and 29 inches barometric pressure) equals .004.
POWDER.
For each degree of temperature of the powder above 70° F., the velocity of the bullet will increase 1.5 feet per degree, or in this particular case the difference between 90° and 70°, which is 20°. Then: 20X1.5 feet=30 feet, the increase of velocity.
angle of departure is equal to 44.552 minutes. (See Table III, Descriptive Book.) The difference between these two angles=48.198— 44.552, or 3.646 minutes. The difference between 2,700 and 2,800=100 feet, difference in velocity, and 30 is the difference in velocity due to temperature.
We found that due to conditions in atmosphere (in the above problem) that the angle of departure was 44.390 minutes, but due to temperature of powder we
have an increase of 30 feet in velocity. Therefore, we must decrease the angle of departure by 1.093 minutes, as found above, or 44.690 — 1.093, which gives us 43.597 minutes, the angle of departure for temperature of the powder at 90° F., and barometer reading 29 inches to shoot at a range of 1,000 yards.
TO FIND THE SIGHT SETTING FOB THE ABOVE RESULTS.
We find, from Table IV of the Descriptive Book, that 43.852 minutes equals the angle of departure for 950 yards and that .the angle is greater than the angle found in the above example ; so, by interpolating, we find the correct sight setting for the above conditions :
In the previous example we found that the angle of departure for the powder at 90° temperature and barometer reading 29, for 1,000 yards was 43.597 minutes, and we find from Table IV, Descriptive Book, that the angle of departure for a sight setting of 950 yards equals 43.852 minutes, so the difference between these two known angles would be: 43.852— 43.597, or .255 minutes.
Therefore this result, 3 yards, must be deducted from 950 yards, which will give us 947 yards sight elevation for firing at 1,000 yards with temperature 90° and barometer 29 inches.
flight,
W= Weight of the bullet (in pounds), 0r=32.16 or acceleration due to gravity, 7,000=the number of grains (weight) in one pound
The simple rules heretofore given in the chapter on sight setting will be used. These examples illustrate the method by which corrections are mathematically computed.
RANGE FIRING.
Preliminary instruction is of no avail unless it is used in range firing. The greatest care should be taken by the instructor to see that all of the preliminary instruction is followed when the recruit first comes to the firing point. At this time he is likely to forget even though most carefully instructed. His first shot with the full load is an event and buck fever is often added to his other troubles. A slow, careful start means final speed and progress.
After the ice is broken and a correct start is made, it then becomes a question of plodding, persistent practice. There is no other way to really learn the rifle. All that has been said upon every subject must become a part of the instruction in range firing.
(A) The first firing on the range should always be slow fire, at short range, in the prone position and with the sling. The " ten commandments " should be used for every shot.
(B) As soon as the results of this firing show reasonably good holding then fire for groups at short range. Insist on each shot being held the same and make no sight corrections until after the group is completed. If the aiming point was the same for each shot and the hold good, the shots will all go in a group. Ten shots should be fired in this way, then make a study of the group. If the shots are in a small group around the center of the bull's-eye, the elevation and the zero are correct for that range. If the group is low, the normal elevation is higher. If the group is high, the opposite is true. The amount of change in the sight for normal elevation can be determined by measuring the distance in inches up .or down from the center of the group to the center of the bull's-eye and using the elevation table under sight setting. If the conditions are zero and the group is to the right or left the rifle is off for zero. The amount may be determined by measuring from the center of the group to the right or left, as the case may be, in inches to the center of the bull's-eye, and then using the windage deflection table under " Sight setting." There is nothing more important in rifle training than the proper determination of normal elevation and zero windage. They can only be determined by each man for himself by actual shooting and good holding. The result for one rifle is of no value for another rifle. It is a one-man-one-rifle problem.
(C) While the finding of normal elevations and zero windage is best found by firing groups ; still it can be well done by a good holder by firing only a few shots. If the time is short it may be necessary to do it this way. In any e^vent it should be carefully done.
Thereafter every shot should be a check on the normal elevations and the zero. They are matters for constant study and observation. They sometimes change because of the wear of the rifle and careful observation will always detect the change.
(D) Rapid fire practice should not begin until after the zero and point of aim for the battle sight are carefully determined by slow fire.
(E) Since marksmanship is developed faster and better by longer range firing it is important to properly increase the range. This can be done as soon as the recruit can hit the target at the longer ranges and correct for at least a part of the distance of his hit from the center of the bull's-eye. He is ready for 1,000 yards when he can stay on the target and get a response to his sight changes. The value of each shot fired at long range for training purposes is very much greater than at shorter ranges. The holding is improved much more and there is no other way to learn weather conditions.
(F) Sniping is the final training of the war shot. It requires a special range. The distances should be unknown and indistinct targets should be used. There should also be moving targets and in fact every form of target that simulates battle conditions. Because of the inadequacy of ranges and the difficulties of operating them the amount of practice to be had is not very great. This is a handicap in the most vital part of the training that can only be removed by the invention of better ranges.
No matter how many riflemen or how many scouts may be attached to an army there is always need for that combination scout and marksman, the sniper.
He must first of all possess those strategic talents which permits the scout to go undetected upon his hazardous missions — even to within a stone's throw of enemy lines. He must be expert rifleman enough to make every bullet bring its hit.
He needs the best sight adjustments.
For the ordinary sight the micrometer with graduations that move the hit on the target one inch for each hundred yards distance from the target, both for elevation and for windage, is the best. It should 130339°— 19— -9
policy to precede record firing with cautions for extra
care and effort. These should all be given during the training. When the record test comes there is nothing to do but follow the training. The same is true of firing in battle.
FUNCTIONING AND REPAIRS.
1. To be able to teach the handling of the rifle intelligently, either to officers or enlisted men, it is necessary to know thoroughly the functioning of the various parts of the rifle.
2. Placing a clip of cartridges in the receiver with the clip in the clip slots, they are seated home in the magazine by downward pressure of the thumb, with the fingers grasping rifle,, taking care to keep up the pressure in the proper direction until all the cartridges are in the magazine. A release of the pressure or a change in direction of the pressure will result in a jam in most cases.
3. The bolt is in the rearmost position during this process and is held there by the bolt stop pin. The tension of the bolt stop spring is sufficient to hold the bolt in this position when the rifle is held in a vertical position with the muzzle down.
4. As the bolt is pushed forward the face of the bolt engages the head of the topmost cartridge in the magazine, pushing it forward ahead of the bolt. As the cartridge rises out of the magazine the rim of the cartridge slides behind the hook of the extractor, the point of the bullet being guided into the chamber by the ramp in the receiver,
5. As the bolt reaches its forward position and before the bolt handle is turned down the sear notch on the cocking piece engages the sear nose on the sear. As the bolt handle is turned down the two locking lugs on the bolt engage the locking cams in the receiver, giving the bolt a still further slight forward motion, seating the cartridge home in the chamber and completing the full cock by further compressing the main spring. The rifle is now loaded and cocked and ready to be fired.
In squeezing the trigger, first take command of the trigger. In doing this the bearing on the trigger engages the bottom of the sear nose slot in the receiver. As the heel of the trigger comes in contact with the bottom of the sear nose slot of the receiver a distinct stop is felt in the movement of the trigger- with the trigger at this point the edge of the sear nose and the edge of the sear notch are engaged just ready to be released. A further squeeze on the trigger so slight that the movement can not be detected releases the sear notch, and the firing pin is forced forward against the primer of the cartridge by the action of the main spring.
6. To extract the empty cartridge first raise the bolt handle. Several things happen when this is done. The firing pin is forced to the rear by the action of the cam on the cocking piece and the cocking cam in the bolt; this action continues until the bolt handle is almost in its uppermost position. As the bolt handle reaches its uppermost position, the nose of the cocking piece is forced into the cock notch on the bolt. When the bolt handle is about half way up the extracting
receiver and causes primary extraction.
When the cartridge is fired it sticks or freezes to the walls of the chamber in a greater or less degree, depending on several conditions, such as the cleanliness and smoothness of the chamber and cartridge, the temper of the cartridge brass, and the temperature of the chamber caused by firing previous shots.
The cocking piece while being forced to the rear by the action of the cocking cams depresses the sear nose, thus compressing the sear spring. This compression is not released until the sear notch passes over the sear nose, at which point the bolt handle is very nearly in its uppermost position.
7. To continue the extraction of the empty cartridge, withdraw the bolt by pulling to the rear on the bolt handle. The parts are retained in position by the cocking piece nose remaining in the cock notch and locked by the sleeve lock engaging its notch in the bolt. The cartridge is withdrawn by means of the extractor hook being engaged in the undercut of the head of the cartridge. Just before the bolt is drawn fully to the rear the slotted locking lug strikes the heel of the ejector, throwing its point suddenly to the right in the lug slot. As the bolt moves fully to the rear the rear face of the cartridge strikes against the ejector point and the cartridge is ejected slightly upward and to the right from the receiver. The bolt is now in the rearmost position and the next cartridge can be loaded as previously described.
8. When the rifle is loaded it may be locked by means of the safety lock on the rear end of the bolt. When the thumb piece of the safety lock is turned to
the left the rifle may be fired. When the thumb piece of the safety lock is turned to the vertical position the cam engages the locking groove on the cocking piece, forcing it slightly to the rear, out of contact with the sear, and locks the firing pin. When in this position the rifle can not be fired for the reason just stated, but the bolt handle can be raised and the bolt withdrawn to the rear to permit the removal of the firing pin from the bolt. When the thumb piece of the safety lock is turned to the right its cam continues to engage the locking groove of the cocking piece, keeping the firing pin locked. In addition to this, the end of the spindle engages the safety lock spindle notch in the bolt which prevents the bolt handle being raised. The bolt is now fully locked and is unlocked by turning the thumb piece to the left.
9. The rifle can be loaded from the magazine or it can be used as a single loader. When the thumb piece of the cut-off on the left hand side of the receiver is turned down and the bolt is withdrawn to the rear, the rear end of the slotted locking lug stops against the projecting end of the cut-off body. The bolt in this position has not passed entirely over the topmost cartridge in the magazine or the follower in case the magazine is empty. Thus with the cut-off in this position the rifle will be used as a single loader.
When the thumb piece of the cut-off is turned up and the bolt is drawn to the rear, the rear end of the slotted locking lug stops against the shoulder at the rear end of the magazine groove on the cut-off. In this position the bolt has been withdrawn entirely over the topmost cartridge in the magazine or the follower. Thus with the cut-off turned up the rifle
will be used for magazine fire. When the thumb piece of the cut-off is in the intermediate position the bolt may be entirely withdrawn from the receiver, the slotted locking plug passing by the dismounting groove of the cut-off.
trigger squeeze that is not good for accurate shooting.
If, after having taken command of the trigger, there is a further creep, either smooth or by jerks, the trigger should be " fixed," as the best shooting can not be done with it in that condition. To do this we stone down the heel of the trigger. Never for any reason touch the sear nose of the sear or the sear notch of the cocking piece with a stone that will cut. They may be smoothed, but nothing more, and a mechanic must do it.
The heel will be stoned down until the creep that is present after taking command of the trigger disappears. If a coarse stone is used for rapid cutting it should be finished off with a smooth stone to get an absolutely smooth squeeze. In case, through carelessness, too much has been stoned off the heel the distinct stop that is felt at the end of the movement, called " taking command of the trigger," disappears, and the sear notch is released while taking command. In that case the command bearing must be stoned slightly and the notch between the bearing and the heel stoned in if it has disappeared. Careful stoning and handling of the worst of triggers will make a good trigger. During the operation the parts should be assembled
and the trigger squeeze tried several times to insure that the stoning is proceeding properly. If this is done it will be very seldom that it will be found necessary to stone the command bearing.
INTEREST AND ENTHUSIASM.
This publication does not purport to be a scientific treatise upon all of the details of rifle training. It assumes an elementary knowledge of drills, rifles, ammunition, target ranges, and score books. The things that everybody will learn right anyhow are passed lightly or left unmentioned. It does not present the intricate problems of ballistics nor the mathematics of fire control. Bayonet training is not mentioned.
The importance of these things is not denied and no attempt is made to discourage the best possible training. The American Army is entitled to the best training in all of them. It is getting the best training in all of them.
greatest function of the rifle, shooting straight.
Too many have believed, that shooting, like ballistics, can be taught with blue prints. Too many have believed that straight individual shooting was wholly unnecessary. The war has uprooted these ideas. All who went into the. fight with them came out cured. If only once he faced an enemy and his life depended upon his ability to hit first, the solution of that problem was worth many times the cost of training to do it.
The instructor easily imparts it to the recruit.
But there are some faults of instructors that need to be noticed. Often great riflemen are not good instructors. The great rifleman knows so well how to do everything that he has a strong mental desire to take the rifle from the recruit and show him how to do it. This is a bad mistake. There is only one reason for taking the rifle out of another's hands. Here it is : When the recruit is missing and charges the trouble to the rifle.
rifle and convince him it is all right by shooting it.
After that is done the real work of instruction is just beginning. There is no further reason to show him how you do it. You must show him how he shall do it.
In the very beginning when talking to a class it is well to take the positions, adjust the sling, and illustrate all of the "ten commandments." But that is before they go to the firing line.
personal interest of the instructor is flinching.
The causes of flinching are fear of getting hurt, improper placing of the mental attention at the instant of final trigger squeeze, and stage fright, which the hunter calls " buck fever." All sorts of cures for tl inching have been invented and many of them will work at times, but some should be prohibited in orders. A close analysis of the causes, a full explanation to the shooter, and a distinct drill or exercise to meet each cause are the only rational cures.
prone position with his body " straight with the rifle." Then take hold of the rifle barrel and jam against his shoulder. It will hurt. Tell him it is due to the position. Then swing his body around 45 degrees. Forty-five is not too much and it does not substantially conflict with the " about 35 " of the drill regulations. Again take hold of the rifle barrel with both hands and try to jam his shoulder. It will not hurt. His body is now elastic and gives way to the " jam " of the rifle. The position saves him and will do the same when he shoots. A few drills of this kind will settle the question in his own mind before he ever fires a shot. This removes one cause of flinching.
This is the most delicate problem in the whole psychology of shooting, but proper understanding and proper attention will put the mind of even the dullest recruit where it belongs — and it belongs on the trigger squeeze. It is all analyzed in the " 10 commandments," and each recruit should be instructed until he is thoroughly familiar with every item.
No casual instruction will do this. His mind must be placed on each of the commandments distinctly and separately, but in sequence, and his body must do them not once but many times until he is drilled in all of them.
for example — are delicate and iiot easily understood. He should especially study the trigger squeeze and train his whole mind to control and guide it.
Ten things are a good many to remember and do all at once. The trained rifleman does them automatically and without thinking, but they are an intricate problem to the beginner. Besides, something else is going to happen outside of these 10 things and that is the explosion. That is strictly the business of the rifle and the ammunition, but the recruit is more likely to think about it than about any of the 10 things he must do. His mind must be trained to attention on the things that he does and it must be trained to stay away from the things the rifle does, and especially the explosion. He should neither think, know, nor care when the explosion occurs. It takes an alert instructor to accomplish this result, and here is a sample of what he might say to the recruit in the order of the 10 commandments.
1. You can take your position of 45° without thinking of the explosion. During that time it is easy to think only about the position. The explosion is too far away to get excited about it now.
at the proper time.
6. Take command of trigger, and now you are getting closer to that explosion and the mind may want to jump over and think about the explosion. It must not do this. It must halt and see that the trigger is squeezed back to the first stop and held there.
in this same state of mind.
9. Now comes the critical time. The final squeeze is very close to the explosion. The mind now has a still stronger tendency to jump over and think about the explosion. It must be held in check. It must think about the squeeze. The squeeze will not occur of its own accord ; it must be directed by the mind. The mind must see that the squeeze is steady, strong, and prompt. If the mind is attending to these things, it has plenty to do without figuring out explosions ; and, besides, the explosion performance was all arranged in the factory long ago and needs no mental assistance.
10. Even when the explosion does occur the mind immediately has other business. After final squeeze its next operation is to call the shot. The trained rifleman does not even notice there was an explosion. He heard it, but he did not register it in the record of his achievement. It happened, but it made no impression upon his mind, because he was watching where his front sight pointed at the time he squeezed the trigger so he could call his shot. If the sight was at 6 o'clock he called it a bull, but if the sight moved he called it out in whatever direction the movement
and removes one of the greatest causes of flinching.
The mixing of dummy cartridges with loads without the shooter's knowledge is often advocated as a cure for flinching. This is not a cure and is the source of so much danger that it should be prohibited. Dummies and loads should never be mixed. In a particular case a man will flinch and deny it. He is usually honest and does not know it. He may blame the rifle. A dummy cartridge without his knowledge might convince him that he was flinching, but it would not cure. The cure must come after he is convinced, and, of course, it can not come before. He can be convinced by other methods. The instructor can fire the rifle and show him it is all right. He can then pretend to load it, close the bolt, tell him it is loaded, and have him snap on an empty chamber. This will serve the same purpose and avoid the danger of mixing dummies and loads. After he is convinced he must be cured by the mental training before indicated and by giving him a target easy to hit.
BUCK FEVER.
Everybody has it; that is, everybody with any brains. A bonehead might be exempt. It is the anxiety or fear of failure that enters every appreciative mind at the beginning of any new undertaking. It is no discredit to a new man to have a keen anxiety for his success the first time he shoots or the first time he enters a match.
The new man sees the veteran cool and unconcerned and longs to emulate him. This longing itself makes him worse. He becomes ashamed of himself and tries to conceal his anxiety, and therein lies the greatest vice. The dread of being discovered intensities buck fever many times, and this causes flinching and unsteadiness of the worst kind. In fact, buck fever of the highest degree is a mental illusion of such intensity as to entirely destroy self-control. Can it be cured? Yes. Only a few little things are necessary to dissipate it entirely, but these things must be done in the right spirit and with commanding energy. What are they?
he would any other trouble.
If these three things are actually done it is cured. ^.s soon as a man has discovered his buck fever, reported it, and talked about it, he has mastered it. As soon as his instructor has induced him to do these things he has mastered the finest art in rifle training and gained a psychological control over his man which will be of inestimable value.
Here is a sample course of study for a buck fever school. Assemble the men for a lecture on the subject. Start out by telling them that every intelligent man has buck fever at times and it is no disgrace. Tell them Gen. Bates's story of his first deer hunt. The general says he went cut anxious to make a good
showing and quite confident that he would. When he came to the deer country he carried his rifle ready and up near a port arms. He was expecting to see a deer almost any minute and still he did not exactly expect it at the instant it did jump up. There it stood, full broadside, and only 60 or 70 yards away. It would not stand long but it was a beautiful shot, and the great achievement of his first deer loomed large in his mind. He tried to lower his rifle to aim and the rifle would not come down. He pulled on it, swung his weight on it, and it did not come down, and the deer ran awTay and he never even fired. A genuine case of buck fever. It happened — and it did not happen. The deer was there all right, but the general did not- pull down on his rifle — he was pushing up. He was controlled by a mental illusion. He knew it. was not ashamed of it, and cured it by telling about it. It did not happen again.
If every rifleman will look out for his own case of buck fever, not be ashamed of it, report it to his instructor and talk about it he is cured from that moment. A mental illusion can not exist after it has been discovered by the man who has it. He will drop the illusion out of his mind and proceed with the " ten commandments." But if he is ashamed, denies he has it, and tries to conceal it, he will not become a reliable shot in a long time.
After the instructor has delivered a lecture of this type, then let him issue an order for each man to look out for his own case of buck fever and report it immediately in the presence of everybody. He should not stop with an order, but he should require each man to promise on his honor that he will obey the order.
Having received these promises he can dismiss the class. As soon as he is alone he can make a record in his private notes that not a single man in the whole class will keep his promise. They do not intend to be dishonest. They intend to keep their promises. When they come to the firing line they may even notice their strge fright, but they pull out with only the loss of a few points on the score and then persuade themselves that they did not have it. The instructor should pick the oldest and most reliable shooter in the class and have a private session with him. Tell him these promises will not be kept unless somebody leads off. He can then arrange for this man to fire first and get buck fever and report it in the presence of the others, and then all will follow like a flock of sheep. They will report the slightest case and the cases will get slighter after each report, and in a little while will entirely disappear. Their training will assert itself and the " ten commandments " will be kept as a matter of course. These lessons are of very great value in the training of teams for matches. In this connection it is well to note that no man ever becomes so well trained or experienced but that new and unusual circumstances might give him a bad case of buck fever. Here is an instance. An Olympic rifle champion of the world wanted to coach a State team in the national matches. He was also a good pistol shot and was told that he could not coach the team unless he defeated the State pistol champion in the pistol match. The pistol champion was told the same thing, and then the contest was advertised throughout the camp. Both were old, seasoned shooters, but both came into the match with highly 130339°— 19 10
developed cases of buck fever. The rifleman won his place as coach by a scratch, but both fell down in their scores and were passed by men of very moderate ability. From this it is evident that buck fever can be developed as well as cured by a frame-up. The instructor must learn the human mind and how to guide it. His interest must be personal. He must have this keen interest in every person he instructs. The psychology of such an interest begets an enthusiasm that always means success.
CRITIQUE AND REVIEW.
A daily critique and review solves each man's trouble for everybody. It is also one of the best methods of making the instruction uniform, and it is impressed more distinctly upon the student's mind. One part of it should always be an inspection and criticism of score books,
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t5U3qpkWwB1hO3dZ | The technical procedures in filling teeth by G.V. Black. | PREFACE
This book is printed for the students of Northwestern University Dental School, and is intended to fill an immediate and pressing want in the particular field to which it is devoted — the technical procedures in filling teeth. It consists of a revision of my lectures of last year on that subject. The reprinting of these was not thought of until after the beginning of the school term of this year and the need of it had become especially manifest. The revision has, therefore, been done very hastily. The book is intended to answer a temporary purpose only; or until a more complete work can be prepared.
The absence of illustrations in the book is well supplied in the school work by drawings, blackboard illustrations and lantern slides. Without these much of the matter would be difficult to understand by those unfamiliar with the methods of instruction employed in the school ; but with them, as employed, the need of them in the book is reduced to the minimum. The book is intended for the students of the school, not for the general profession.
Introduction.
Under the term Operative Dentistry we include all those operations upon the natural teeth and soft parts immediately connected with them that are usually performed by the dentist. But for convenience in teaching, and by common consent, certain operations are consigned to other departments. The extraction of teeth belongs to Oral Surgery ; the preparation of natural teeth, or their roots, for crowns and bridges, belongs to crown and bridge work ; the regulation of irregular teeth to Orthodontia, etc., until today operative dentistry is pretty strictly confined to those operations upon the natural teeth and soft parts immediately connected with them for the repair of damage inflicted by caries, to prevent further caries, and the treatment of diseases resulting from exposure or death of the pulps of the teeth. To this is added that group of diseases of the peridental membrane beginning at the gingival border.
The subject matter in this book will be confined to a brief presentation of the technical procedures in filling teeth. No study of pathological conditions will be undertaken ; not even of dental caries, further than a study of the position and forms of cavities, and such observations as may be necessary in the explanation of technical procedures in the preparation of cavities and in filling teeth. The nomenclature relating to cavities and cavity preparation, instruments and instrumentation, will be fully presented.
Nomenclature.
Nomenclature treats of the system of naming things. Dental nomenclature treats of the terms, or names, used in dentistry. The subject is of first importance, for if we do not know the names by which we call things we will be unable to understand each other in speaking of them. Every profession, business or trade has its special system of naming things pertaining to it.
and this nomenclature must be understood before the student can become proficient. In operative dentistry this system of nomenclature is very simple, and comprises but few words. However, these words are used in a fairly wide range of combinations that will be very perplexing to the student who has not a good knowledge of them. Every student who has arrived in the senior class should know them perfectly in their whole range of application. He should understand them when spoken by others, and be able to use them freely and correctly in his ordinary speech. Otherwise he will be unable to understand his professors or fellow-students as accurately as he should, and thus find his studies more difficult than they otherwise would be.
For the most part the words are the same as those used in Dental Anatomy, with which the student should be already familiar. But they are applied differently, and to different subjects. This new application becomes a subject of study.
Cavity Preparation.
Cavity preparation includes all those operations required in the removal of carious material from cavities formed in the teeth by decay, forming the cavities for the reception of fillings, and such extensions and preparations as will best fit the affected surfaces of the teeth to resist decay in future.
surfaces of the teeth in which they occur.
We group cavities together according as the decayed surfaces are similarly situated. A further grouping may also be made into classes, each class including those cavities that require similar treatment.
are divided into two groups, those occurring in the bicuspids and molars forming one group, and those occurring in the incisors and cuspids forming a separate group ; the forms of the surfaces of these two groups of teeth being so different as to require differences in consideration and treatment. Each of these groups are again subdivided into mesial cavities and distal cavities.
furthest from the median line, following the curve of the arch.
Cavities occurring in the lingual surfaces of the upper incisors are considered as a separate group, incisor lingual cavities. Cavities occurring in the labial surfaces of the incisors and cuspids are called labial cavities.
In each of these localities decay has peculiarities in its mode of attack, or there are differences of approach and of instrumentation in their preparation for filling that render differences in their consideration necessary.
Cavities are also divided into two groups, pit and fissure cavities forming one group, and smooth-surface cavities forming a second group. This constitutes a most important division of cavities of decay, calling for a radical distinction in consideration and treatment. The pit and fissure cavities have their beginning in minute faults in the enamel of the teeth known as pits, formed where three .or more lobes of the teeth join, making imperfect closure of the enamel plates, as upon occlusal surfaces of the bicuspids and molars and the lingual surfaces of the incisors, or at the endings of grooves, as upon the buccal surfaces of the molars. Fissure cavities begin in points of imperfect closure of the enamel plates along the lines of the grooves. These latter may occur along the lines of the grooves of any of the teeth, but are seen mostly in the occlusal surfaces of the bicuspids and molars.
Among the groups of cavities all of the occlusal cavities in the bicuspids and molars are, in their beginning, pit or fissure cavities. A part of the buccal cavities in the molars are pit or fissure cavities occurring in the buccal pits or fissured grooves, and part are smooth-surface cavities, occurring in the smooth
8 THE TECHNICAL PROCEDURES IN FILLING TEETH.
portion of the enamel of this surface to the gingival of the pit, or in the gingival third. All buccal cavities in the bicuspids are smooth-surface cavities. All labial cavities in the incisors and cuspids are smooth-surface cavities. All lingual cavities in the upper incisors are pit or fissure cavities, and a few fissure cavities occur in the occlusal half of the lingual surfaces of the molars. All proximate, or mesial and distal cavities, whether in the molars, bicuspids or incisors, are smooth-surface cavities. Lingual cavities in the gingival half of the molars are also smoothsurface cavities.
Pit and fissure cavities occur in surfaces of the teeth that are habitually clean, except as the imperfections of the enamel — pits and fissures — afford places for the lodgment and fermentation of d6bris, which causes the beginning of decay. Therefore, in their preparation for filling they require no extension for prevention of recurrence of decay, further than a sufficient opening of the cavity to completely uncover the^ carious area and to find margins sufficiently level and smooth to allow of a good finish of the margins of the filling. Smooth-surface cavities occur in positions in which the surface of the enamel is habitually unclean, and usually begin in the central portion of the unclean area. The injury to the enamel surface tends to spread superficially from the central area of first beginning toward the margins of the unclean area. Therefore, such cavities require such extension in their preparation for filling as will include the habitually unclean area within their outline in order to prevent the recurrence of caries.
Classification of Cavities.
In a classification of cavities it is the intention to group together in classes cavities of decay that require a similar line of treatment in order that these may be more closely associated.
and molars.
Class i. — Pit and fissure cavities. These cavities are located in the occlusal surfaces of the bicuspids and molars, in the occlusal two-thirds of the buccal surfaces of the molars, in the lingual surfaces of the upper incisors, and occasionally in the lingual surfaces of the upper molars. They are all pit or fissure cavities. They occur in surfaces of the teeth that are habitually clean, except as imperfections of the enamel in the form of pits or fissures afford an opportunity for the lodgment and fermentation of debris which causes the beginning of decay. Therefore, the enamel surface immediately about the cavity being habitually clean, none of them require extension for the prevention of the recurrence of decay in their preparation for filling. All that is required is to remove sufficient enamel to completely uncover the carious area and to obtain margins sufficiently level and smooth to give opportunity for a perfect finish of the filling.
Classes 2, 3, 4 and 5 are all smooth-surface cavities. They all occur in positions in which the surfaces of the teeth are unclean habitually, and usually have their beginnings in the central portion of the unclean area, with a tendency of the carious action to spread superficially upon the enamel surface. They, therefore, all agree in requiring extension for the prevention of the recurrence of decay in such a way as to include within the lines of the enamel margins of the prepared cavity all of that portion of the surface especially liable to decay.
With respect to manipulative procedures, each of these classes has its especial peculiarities. For instance. Class 2, which includes all buccal, labial and lingual cavities, requires in most cases the use of the Hatch clamp to extend the rubber dam sufficiently to the gingival, and the method of instrumentation in their preparation is peculiar to them.
Classes 3, 4 and 5 all agree in requiring the use of the separator to give room for finishing, because all are proximate cavities, but each of these classes presents especial peculiarities in manipulative procedure which will receive attention later.
In chiving the nomenclature of the internal parts of cavities, the rules, and illustrations of each rule, will be given. Students should not burden themselves with memorizing these illustrations, or lists, for if they know the rules and their application they can make complete lists at any time. This should be practiced until the walls and angles of any cavity can be named at sight without hesitation.
Rule : The surrounding walls of a cavity take the names of those surfaces of the teeth adjoining the surface decayed toward w^hich they are placed. Illustration : Occlusal cavities have —
the cavity.
Rule : That wall of a cavity which is to the occlusal of the pulp and in a plane at right angles to the long axis of the tooth, is called the pulpal wall or floor. In case the"^pulp of the tooth is removed and the cavity thus extended to the floor of the pulp chamber it is called the sub-pulpal wall.
A fifth wall, called the axial wall. Rule : That wall of a cavity in an axial surface of a tooth that covers the pulp is called the axial wall. If the pulp of the tooth is removed the cavity is extended to include the pulp chamber and the wall takes the name of the w^all of the pulp chamber.
An axial wall.
But as mesial and distal cavities are usually prepared they become mesio-occlusal (or disto-occlusal) cavities (complex cavities), the occlusal wall is missing and a step is cut in the occlusal surface.
Rule : When one of the surrounding walls of a cavity is missing by reason of extension of decay, or by extension by cutting in the preparation for filling, so as to involve another surface, a complex cavity is formed and the remaining walls extend to the new surface involved. Therefore, when a mesial or a distal cavity in a bicuspid or molar has involved the occlusal surface, the buccal and the lingual walls will terminate at the occlusal enamel margin. The axial wall will also extend to the occlusal enamel margin if no step has been formed, and the occlusal wall will be missing. When a step has been formed its walls will be named as in a simple occlusal cavity, except that that wall toward the cavity from which the step is formed will be missing.
Notice here that in mesial cavities the mesial wall of the step portion will be missing, and in distal cavities the distal wall of the' step portion will be missing.
In a mesio- or disto-occlusal cavity in a molar or bicuspid in which the pulp is removed, the pulpal and axial walls are removed. The floor of the pulp chamber becomes the subpulpal wall of the cavity. This is usually distinct from the gingival wall, because it is on a different level. Therefore, a mesio- or disto-occlusal cavity in a molar or bicuspid with pulp removed has —
Also some portions of the mesial (or distal) wall of the pulp chamber will remain next to the gingival wall as a mesial (or distal) wall. In a bicuspid or molar with a single broad pulp canal the pulp chamber has no floor, and of course there will be no sub-pulpal wall.
When in incisor or cuspid proximate cavities the incisal angle becomes involved so that its removal is required, a complex cavity is formed by cutting an incisal step. There is in this case no change in the naming of the walls of the proximate portion of the cavity, as no one of the walls named has been completely removed. But the step portion will have —
Angles of Cavities.
In naming cavity walls and angles the typical idea of the cavity is that of a cuboid space or the form of a box. And no matter how irregular the actual form of the cavity, its walls and angles are named as if the form were regular.
point angles.
Rule : All line angles are formed by the junction of two walls along a line, and are named by combining the names of the walls joining to form the angle. They are, therefore, named in two terms.
Rule : All point angles are formed by the junction of three walls at a point, and are named by joining the names of the walls forming the angle. They are, therefore, named in three terms.
In simple cavities one set of line angles are formed by the junction of the four surrounding walls with each other, and form lines which run from the enamel margin to the floor or pulpal wall in occlusal cavities, or to the axial wall in axial cavities. A second set of line angles are formed by the junction of the surrounding walls with the floor, or pulpal wall in occlusal cavities, or with the axial wall in cavities in the axial surfaces of the teeth. These are called the pulpal line angles, and the axial line angles, respectively.
The point angles are formed in those corners where the one set of line angles meet the other set at the corners of the cavity. The broader rule for naming angles to which there is but a single exception, is :
A disto-linguo-pulpal angle J In case the pulp is removed the pulpal wall is removed, and the floor of the pulp chamber becomes the sub-pulpal wall of the cavity, and the pulpal angles become sub-pulpal angles. A buccal or a lingual cavity in molars or bicuspids has — A mesio-gingival angle ^
An axio-mesio-gingival angle ^ An axio-mesio-occlusal angle 1 An axio-disto-occlusal angle [ ^^^^^ angles. An axio-disto-gingival angle J A simple mesial or distal cavity in bicuspids or molars has — A linguo-gingival angle ^
Step formed in the occlusal surface, forming a complex cavity. In this case the occlusal wall is missing and all of the angles formed by the junction of this wall with others are also missing. Then the step in the occlusal surface has its angles the same as in a simple occlusal cavity, except that the angles pertaining to the missing wall, mesial or distal, are also missing. This is a universal rule with complex cavities.
A mesio- (or disto-) linguo-pulpal angle j ^^^"^ angles. And a pulpo-axial angle formed by the junction of the pulpal wall of the step with the axial wall of the mesial or distal cavity. The rule illustrated in the above is universal. A buccal cavity united with an occlusal cavity would also have its pulpoaxial angle. The angles belonging to the occlusal wall of the buccal cavity would be missing, and the angles belonging to the buccal wall of the occlusal cavity would also be missing. This, however, makes no difference whatever with the naming of the remaining angles. If, however, the pulp of the tooth is removed, removing the axial and pulpal walls, the angles with these walls are also removed and the angles of the pulp chamber (sub-pulpal angles) substituted.
An axio-disto-incisal angle J Mesial and distal cavities in the incisors and cuspids have, on account of their triangular form, but three angles instead of four. They have :
In mesial and distal cavities in the incisors and cuspids involving the loss of the incisal angle, or corner of the tooth, the incisal angle and the axio-incisal angle will be missing and the incisal step when formed will have its set of angles. These are —
While all angles are theoretically and actually present as named, and according to the rules given and illustrated, these incisal steps are so narrow that it would rarely be desirable to
*NoTE. — The incisal angle given here is the one exception to the rule of naming cavity angles. If the rule were followed strictly it would be the labio-lingual angle, for it is formed by the junction of these two walls. However, the name, incisal angle, can not be mistaken.
in cavity description.
These Hsts of cavity angles may seem long and tedious, but it must be remembered that in any directions for the preparation of cavities, or in cavity descriptions, very few of them need to be mentioned. However, the student should be able to understand just what is meant when any one of them is mentioned, or be able to name any of them in any cavity. This he will not do by memorizing lists that are given, but by so learning the application of the rules as to be able to name at once any angle of any cavity.
Nomenclature of Enamel Margins. The enamel margin includes the whole outline of the cavity and is equivalent to the marginal lines of the cavity. In this sense the enamel margin marks the oudines of the cavity.
The Cavo-surface angle of a cavity, or of the enamel, is the angle formed by the juhction of the wall of the cavity with the surface of the tooth. The cavo-surface angle of a cavity will ordinarily be of enamel ; under some unusual conditions it may be of dentin ; or in buccal and labial cavities that extend beyond the gingival line the cavo-surface angle will be of cementum. The term cavo-surface angle is used especially when it is desired to indicate the form to be given this angle in any particular portion of the enamel margin, or oudine of a cavity ; as, the buccal cavo-surface angle was beveled.
dentin and enamel as it appears in the walls of cavities.
The enamel wall is that portion of the wall of a cavity which consists of enamel. It includes the thickness of the enamel from the dento-enamel junction to the cavo-surface angle.
Walls.
The teeth have three planes which may frequently be used to advantage in cavity description, and especially in speaking of the inclination of cavity walls.
The axio-bucco-lingual plane, or the bucco-lingual plane, passes through the tooth bucco-lingually parallel with its long axis. In the incisors and cuspids this is the labio-lingual plane.
The inclination at which walls of cavities are cut, or of the dentin wall and the enamel wall, when each is specifically mentioned, is reckoned from these planes of the teeth. When great accuracy of statement is desired the inclination may be given in centigrades. More generally the term outward inclination, or inclined outward, is used, with some word expressing degree, as slightly, strongly, etc. In this use of words the wall of the cavity mentioned is always inclined away from the plane of the tooth in passing from within outward.
Whenever we wish to indicate in words the portion of a surface of a tooth involved in decay, or the extent of a cavity, we may conveniently do so by an imaginary division of the surface decayed into thirds, fourths or fifths. This division may be mesio-distally upon a buccal, lingual, or occlusal surface, or occluso-gingivally upon a buccal, lingual, mesial, or distal surface, or it may be bucco-lingually upon an occlusal, mesial, or distal surface. In other words, the divisions may be made upon any one of the planes of the tooth.
For instance, of a cavity in a buccal surface we may say it involves the middle third mesio-distally and the gingival third occluso-gingivally. Or if the cavity is broader we may say it involves the middle three-fifths mesio-distally and the gingival half of the surface occluso-gingivally.
means from mesial to the distal. Bucco-lingually means from the cheek toward the tongue, etc. This use of words is so simple that it should only require mention to be perfectly understood. Surgeons continually use this plan in speaking of the location of fractures of the bones. As, for instance, the humerus was broken at the junction of the middle and upper third, or the radius was broken in the middle of the lower third, etc. There is no need of any specific rules for this use of words in dividing the surfaces of the teeth in cavity descriptions, as any divisions intelligently made will be readily understood, and the portions of the surface involved quite accurately described. If it is said that a cavity in the mesial surface of a first lower molar extends from the occlusal surface to the junction of the gingival and middle third, and bucco-lingually from the mesio-buccal angle to the junction of the middle and lingual third, it should be understood. The same conception of the cavity should be obtained if it is said that it occupies the buccal two-thirds buccolingually, or that it occupies the buccal and middle third. There is scarcely any limit to the use that may be made in cavity descriptions of these divisions of the surfaces of the teeth.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES,
There are certain fimdamental principles that are general to the e.xcavation of carious cavities in the teeth, the observance of which will simplify and facilitate these operations.
The careful observance of this order of procedure by the student will greatly facilitate his operations, lead to more careful consideration of the requirements in individual cases, and will guide him to the use of the approjiriate instrument for the different parts of the operation.
Outline Form is the form of the area of the tooth surface to be included within the outline, or enamel margins, of the finished cavity; the laying out of and cutting to these lines should be the first thing considered and accomplished. In all pit cavities the outline of the cavity will be found by cutting away all enamel overhanging the decayed area, completely uncovering it, and following out any sharp grooves connecting with the cavity to such points as will enable a perfect finish to be given to the margins of the filling when placed. This should always be done before there is any attempt made to remove the decay from the deeper parts of the cavity. As these cavities occur in surfaces of the teeth that are habitually clean, except for lodgments in the pits or fissures in which the decay begins, no further extension for prevention is required. In this class of cavities this work is done generally with chisels and the enamel hatchets. However, in the first opening of pits in which but little decay has occurred, and in following out fissures and grooves, the bur is often the best instrument. In smooth surface cavities, that is, in proximate cavities, and buccal and lingual cavities, which do not begin in pits or fissures, but which occur in the central portion of an area of uncleanliness that is habitual, in which the superficial injury to the enamel tends to spread, the laying out of the outline form of cavities is done upon a different principle. In these it is not simply cutting away overhanging enamel for the exposure of the dentin already decayed, but the object should be to include within the outline of the cavity such portions of the surface as are especially liable to decay in the future. As decay is liable to occur upon surfaces habitually unclean, and only upon the unclean areas, the whole of the habitually unclean area should be included within the outline of the cavity. This requires a careful study of the conditions surrounding each smooth surface cavity and the extension of the cavity outlines to include the area of the surface that may have suffered superficial injury, or is in danger of decay in the future. This will often require that sound enamel and dentin be cut away to obtain the correct outline form, and is known as extension for the prevention of the recurrence of the decay. The study of the case should be made, the outline determined upon, and the cavity cut to the outline form required as the first procedure.
to afford such a seat for the fiUing as will best enable it to withstand the stress brought upon it in mastication. Its importance stands in direct relation to the degree of the exposure of the filling to the occlusion and to the strength of the closure of the teeth. It is necessary to provide for a force of from one to two hundred pounds, and in some cases more. The resistance form consists in a flat seat for the filling, cut at right angles with the direction of the stress of mastication, or usually at right angles with the long axis of the tooth. In occlusal cavities, for example, the floor or pulpal wall is to be cut flat and all of the surrounding walls should be cut to definite angles with the pulpal wall. In proximo-occlusal cavities, in which the greatest possible support is needed, the gingival wall of the proximate portion is cut flat, and in the horizontal plane of the tooth, and extended from buccal to lingual into fairly definite corners or angles. The step is also given a flat horizontal seat. Generally this is easily attained by the same instruments and by the same modes of cutting used in gaining the outline form, if the two objects are held strictly in view.
Retention Form is the provision for preventing the filling from being displaced. A large part of this is provided for by the resistance form. But it is further required that provision be made that will prevent the filling from being thrown out of the cavity by such lateral or tipping force as may be brought against it. All cavities should be provided with ample retention form, but this provision is required in its more perfect form in mesio or disto-occlusal cavities in the bicuspids and molars. In these the provision is made in the form of a step cut into the occlusal surface, which is more or less dovetailed. In most cavities the retention form is made by so shaping certain of the opposing walls that they will be strictly parallel or slightly undercut in order that when the filling material is thoroughly packed between them it will be securely held in place. This is done variously in different situations. It is to be looked to especially when the outline and resistance form of the cavity has been developed. F"ormerly pits and grooves were much depended upon for this purpose, but have proved delusive, so that latterly it has been required that the form of the walls be such as to perform this function.
the formation of cavities, should not be neglected. When the general form of the cavity has been developed, modifications are to be made that will render the form more convenient for packing the filling material. Often by cutting a wall away to a certain inclination the plugger point will reach some portion of the cavity better, or at a more available angle, enabling the operator to pack gold more certainly and more securely in certain important parts of the cavity. Also such cutting may render the filling so much more convenient as to save time and much wear and tear upon both patient and operator.
A second order of convenience form is slight undercuts situated in angles or other parts of the cavity as starting points in packing gold, or that will hold the first portions of the filling material while other portions are being packed, or until the true retention form of the cavity has been filled. The study of the use of these conveniences and the wise placing of them is especially important, as it assists in starting the filling and securing the first portions.
These pits and grooves are usually placed in the axio-linguogingival and axio-bucco-gingival angles of proximate cavities, and in similar positions in other cavities.
Removal of Remaining Carious Dentin. — Generally when the cavity has been cut to form, no carious dentin will remain. But in the larger decays it will often be a question whether or not the pulp will be exposed when all decayed dentin overlaying it is removed. It is especially an object that we do not cut toward the pulp until the cavity is otherwise well prepared, for the reason that if a pulp exposure is found the cavity shall be fully cleaned and ready for the immediate treatment of the pulp in any way indicated. Then when this stage in cavity preparation has been reached, the remaining softened dentin is carefully and completely removed with broad spoon excavators, usually with the 20-9-12. It will often be required that the pulp of a tooth be exposed for the purpose of making an application to destroy it. In all of these cases the overhanging enamel should be removed and the walls of the cavity completely cleaned and so formed as to safely hold the temporary filling, before cutting toward the pulp. When all of this has been done and after the rubber dam is securely in place, lift off the remaining decay
properly done very little pain is induced.
Finishing the enamel ^vall and beveling the cavo-surface angle of the enamel is the last cutting done in the preparation of a cavity. This should always be done with the rubber dam in place and with all provisions made for the immediate placing of the filling material.
The cavo-surface angle of the cavity in every part of its outline should receive especial attention. The plane of the enamel wall should be as nearly as practicable in the line of the length of the enamel rods, or such as will certainly cut more from the outer than the inner ends of the rods, and should be made smooth by a light planing motion of a sharp chisel or enamel hatchet, the motion being in line with the length of the margin. When this has been satisfactorily accomplished the cavo-surface angle of the enamel should be cut to a distinct bevel outward, also by a planing motion of the chisel, enamel hatchet or the gingival margin trimmer, used very lightly. The depth of this bevel should generally not include more than one-fourth the thickness of the enamel wall. The angle of the bevel should be from six to ten centigrades from the plane of the enamel wall. The object is, first, to cut away any loose ends of enamel rods that might afterward fall away and render the margin imperfect ; and, secondly, to strengthen the cavo-surface angle of the enamel as a safeguard against possible checking in packing the filling material.
In this last work, two things should be held closely in view. The cavo-surface angle of the enamel is friable and readily broken by violence, and beveling will materially lessen this liability. But the marginal angle of the filling material which covers the bevel must not be made too thin by too great a be\el of the cavo-surfiice angle of the enamel. If so, it will have no strength and will tend to roughen and in this way render the margin imperfect. Therefore, the bevel of the cavo-surface angle of the enamel must not be too great.
Finally, the toilet of the cavity is to be made. This consists in freeing all of its surfaces from the chips and dust that have accumulated during the excavation. The bulk of this is done, of course, with the chip blower during the progress of the excavating. But there will remain some fine dust upon the
walls and margins that can not be removed in this way. It is not well to wash this with any known liquid, for even with the use of pure alcohol, and after drying with the air syringe, something will be left coating the walls which injures them for the purposes intended. The best thing yet devised is thorough wiping, or sweeping, of all parts of the cavity with absorbent cotton or with bits of punk held in the pliers. This should be well done and then the cavity is ready for filling.
Rule : No moisture of any kind whatever should enter a cavity after the last of the cutting is done, and if by any accident a portion of the cavity should become w^et, it should be dried thoroughly and then that portion that has been damp should be freshened by cutting away the surface.
Instruments and Instrumentation.
The cutting instruments required for preparing cavities have been adopted after long and careful study of the needs of students in school work. The set has been arranged especially with reference to teaching methods of preparing cavities, and for facilitating the actual work. It is such as will be best in learning to do these difficult operations, and it is to this end that they are adopted.
Each of the names we apply to instruments has a definite meaning. They are descriptive of the uses, as excavator, plugger, separator, or the manner of use, as hand plugger. They describe the form of blades of cutting instruments, as hatchet, hoe, spoon, or they describe the form of the shank, as contraangle, bin-angle, cow's-horn plugger.
Note here especially that there are four classes of names. First, those which denote the purpose, which we call order names, as plugger, excavator ; second, those which denote position or manner of use, sub-order names, as hand or mallet plugger, enamel hatchet ; third, those which describe the form of point, class names, as hatchet, spoon ; and fourth, those which describe the form of the shank, sub-class names, as bin-angle, contra-angle, cow's-horn or spiral.
mon-angle hatchet excavator, bin-angle spoon excavator, etc. In these combinations each name is descriptive of some part of the instrument, or of its uses.^
In addition to these we have adopted formula names -for the cutting instruments that describe each individual instrument so accurately that when learned each one will be known when its formula name is spoken. This is necessary in order that a teacher may be understood when speaking of the uses of particular instruments in lectures, or that students may understand the directions of demonstrators in the infirmary.
These formula names are made upon the same principle as that used by the carpenter in naming his chisels or augers, as half-inch chisel, one-inch chisel,^ three-quarter-inch auger, etc. But for us to sufficiently describe the point of an excavator so that we will know the particular instrument at sight, it is necessary that we give three measurements. We give first the class name, as hatchet, hoe, spoon, etc. , and then give the formula of the point, or working part. This formula consists of the measurement, first, of the width of the blade in tenths of a millimeter ; second, of the length of the blade in millimeters ; third, the angle of the blade with its shaft or handle, in centigrades, or hundredths of the circle. Note particularly that the width and length make up the size of the blade. Also, in order that the individual instruments of the set may be easily learned and remembered we confine the set to a regular order of sizes and angles of blade that will give a sufficient variety of forms.
The set of cutting ihstrurnents consists of two lists of formulae. One of these we call ordinaries, and the other specials. Aside from the regular formula lists we have four instruments that are not made upon these formula lines. These we call side instruments.
Dental Instrument Gauge.
This gauge for dental instruments is used especially in the measurement of excavators, pluggers and burs. It is in the metric system. It is used as follows :
I. Measure the width of the blade in the slot numbered from o to 50, which gives the width in tenths of a millimeter. This is the first figure of the formula.
up the formula.
2. Measure the length of the blade in the gradations on the principal shaft, which gives the length of the blade in millimeters. This is the second figure of the formula.
3. Measure the angle of the
blade with its shaft by laying the handle of the instrument on the main shaft of the gauge, parallel with the lines, and bringing the blade (turned toward the small numbers) parallel with one of the gradations of the circular head. This will give the angle of the blade with the shaft in centigrades or hundredths of the circle. This gives the third figure of the formula.
hatchets and nine hoes, or eighteen instruments. In these there are three widths and lengths of blade (three sizes) and three angles of The measurements of these make
Note particularly that the sizes are the same in each of the three angles, and that there are but three sizes and but three angles, all told, of these ordinaries, and also that the formulae are the same for hatchets and hoes. There are nine hatchets and nine hoes in the set. Or there is a large size, a middle size and a small size in three angles. When these facts are in mind and they have been handled a few times, one should be able to name each instrument at sight. To assist in this the formula of each instrument is stamped on the handle, so that each of the three sizes in each of the three angles can easily be picked out and examined. In learning to read the points, or to name them at sight, one should pick out by aid of the figures upon the handles the three sizes of each angle of the hatchets and lay them together; then do the same with the hoes; then change them and lay together each size of the three angles and compare them in this relation .to each other. After doing this a few times one should be able to pick out any instrument without referring to the formula upon the handle. We call them hatchet 12-5-6, hatchet 8-3-12, hoe 8-3-12 or hoe 8-3-23, etc.
The set of ordinaries have been so called because they include the forms that have been most used by dentists in the past. Instruments similar to them, but less perfecdy assorted, are found in every dentist's operating case. The smaller sizes of this set are used but little except in the preparation of cavities in the incisor teeth, and mostly in the final shaping of the walls and angles of these cavities after they have been opened by other instruments.
the labial enamel margins until the proper form has been reached. The hatchet 12-5-6 performs the same office for the gingival wall. Very often, in the more delicate of this cutting, the middle sizes, i. e. , hoe 8-3-6 and hatchet 8-3-6, will serve better and in many cases it will be found more convenient to use the same sizes in the angle of 12 centigrades, or the hoe 12-5- 12 and hatchet 12-5- 12, etc., or the sizes 8-3. The smallest size, or 6-2-6 and 12, are used only in shaping the internal parts of cavities in the incisors and cuspids, and especially in squaring out the axial line angles of these cavities so that they are sharp and definite. The angles of 23 are convenient for reaching certain points not easily reached with the angles 6 and 12, but are used much less than the latter.
The Specials.
The set of specials are so called because each instrument is designed for a special use. The formulee of this set are upon a different set of sizes, the plan of measurement being the same. In these are also three widths and lengths of blade, three sizes and one angle of blade of 12 centigrades for all except the binangled chisels, which are 6 centigrades angle.
* NoTK.^Whcii it becomes necessary to designate the angle of tlie cutting edge of an instrument with its shaft, it is done by sliding it, without rotation, to the left, still keeping it parallel with the longitudinal lines, until the angle of the cutting edge corresponds with one of the lines of the larger numbers to the left. This number is then entered in brackets following the width number. When not so designated the cutting edge is at right angles with the length of the blade.
Discoid, 20, and cleoid, 20.
Of the three last groups of specials, the enamel hatchets are rights and lefts, because of the form of the bevel of the cutting edge. The spoons and gingival margin trimmers are made rights and lefts by the curve of the blade. All the specials are designed for special work. They are used, except the smallest size of the spoons, almost exclusively in the bicuspids and molars, and in these they should be used for almost all of the work of excavating.
The chisels and enamel hatchets are used for chipping away the enamel in opening cavities in the bicuspids and molars, and in cutting the outlines to the required form. The enamel hatchets are used especially for cutting away the buccal, lingual and gingival walls of proximate cavities in these teeth and in shaping them. Also, both the chisels and enamel hatchets are used in the final shaping of the enamel wall and in beveling the cavo-surface angle of the enamel.
The gingival margin trimmers are used for only the one purpose of beveling the cavo-surface angle of the enamel along the gingival wall of proximate cavities in the bicuspids and molars. For this purpose one pair has the edge cut at an angle of 80 centigrades with the shaft, which is right for beveling the gingival cavo-surface angle of the enamel in mesial cavities, and the other pair has the edge cut at an angle of 95 centigrades with the shaft, which fits them for beveling the gingival cavosurface angle of the enamel in distal cavities.
The spoons are used for scooping out softened material (carious dentin) from the deeper parts of carious cavities. They should be used only after the walls have been cut to form by other instruments. They are not at all suited to cutting hard dentin.
Side Instruments. — There are four side instruments in the set. They are called side instruments because their formulae do not coincide with those of either of the other sets. Of these the discoid (disc like) performs a service similar to the spoons, i. e. , the removal of softened dentin from the deeper parts of the cavity after the walls have been cut to form by other instru-
spoons are better.
The cleoid is used most for trimming out the angles of pulp chambers in order to reach the canals with the broach more readily, especially the canals in the mesio-buccal roots of the upper molars and the mesio-buccal and mesio-lingual angles in the lower molars.
The two hatchets, 5-3-28 and 3-2-28, are used only for the purpose of undercutting the incisal angle of proximate cavities in the incisors and cuspids for the purpose of obtaining retention form. They are designed for this special purpose and are used for nothing else whatever.
Instrument Grasps and Rests.
The manner of holding instruments in performing dental operations is very important. There are two principal grasps : The pen grasp and the thumb and palm grasp, with modifications of both.
The pen grasp is used for most operations. As implied in the term, the instrument is held in the fingers in the position, or with the same grasp with which we would hold a pen, and the manipulation is carried on with the instrument held in that position, whether in cutting with an excavator or packing gold with a plugger. Perhaps nine-tenths of these operations should be done with the instruments held in that way. Occasionally positions are found in which the operation may be much facilitated by a modification of this grasp, made by bending the fingers into, or nearly into, the palm of the hand, thus inverting the position of the instrument so that it points directly at right angles to the length of the arm. This is called the inverted pen grasp.
In the use of these grasps certain rests for the fingers should be sought and practiced until they are correctly obtained without especial thought. By the use of these rests operations can be much more accurately performed than without them, and they gready limit the danger of injury to the patient by slips of the instrument.
The rests are generally made by placing the third or fourth finger, preferably the third, upon the teeth of the same jaw in which the tooth operated upon is situated. In operating upon
the molars the rest will be upon the anterior teeth. When operating upon the anterior teeth the rest will be found on either side of the tooth operated upon. Any effort to use the teeth in the opposite jaw for a rest will be found very unsatisfactory, on account of the movements of the lower jaw changing the relation of the rest and the tooth operated upon. Rests upon the soft tissues should be avoided as much as possible, because they are unreliable at best, and always unsteady.
In the thumb and palm grasp the shaft of the instrument is held in the palm of the hand in such manner as to oppose the working point to the thumb, and the thumb of the same hand is placed either upon the tooth upon which the operation is performed, or upon an adjacent one, to steady the instrument and to oppose a counter pressure. This grasp is not oft;^n useful, except when unusual force is to be applied. Neither can it be used successfully in very many positions. However, there are certain operations in which its use is very desirable, and each student should learn these by careful practice. It is especially useful with the Case cleaver in removing the enamel from the teeth for fitting bands for crowns, and may be used upon any of the upper anterior teeth, and often upon the first and second molars.
The thumb and palm grasp may be used very successfully with the chisel in opening cavities in any of the upper anterior teeth, and as far back as the first molars, though only in a limited number of positions. The requirement is that when the chisel is grasped in the palm of the hand and the thumb of the same hand applied to the tooth operated upon, or the one next to it, the instrument will come into position to be used effectively. When these positions are found the chisel can be used much more effectively than is possible with the pen grasp. It is therefore desirable that this grasp be practiced at every opportunity, and its use extended as much as possible.
Sharpening Instruments.
Nothing in dental practice is more important than the care of the cutting edges of instruments. No man ever yet became a good and effective dentist until after he had learned to keep his cutting instruments sharp. It is simply impossible to effectively prepare cavities for filling without sharp instruments. The dental
Student who can not, or will not, learn to keep the edges of his cutting instruments in good condition had better quit and go home, for he will not succeed as a dentist. A good stone is a necessity. It is of first importance that the stone be very hard. Our instruments are small, and if we attempt to use a soft stone the point will catch and ruin both the edge of the instrument and the surface of the stone. The stone should never be smaller than I ^2 by 5 inches. A stone somewhat larger is much better, but a smaller stone is a nuisance. A hard Arkansas stone is best. The hardness should be especially looked to in selecting a stone. The care of the stone is very important. It should be thoroughly oil-soaked and then wiped off. It may then be used dry or with oil, but however used it should be wiped off clean with oil upon a cloth after using. If this be not done the stone will soon fill up with the steel cuttings and it will fail to cut when the effort is made to grind with it. These steel cuttings are removed from the stone by the oil and the cloth. If the face of the stone becomes marred or unlevel from use, it may be refaced by rubbing it on a sheet of emery paper laid flat upon a smooth, level table or board. The facing should be finished on the finest grade of emery paper. A good stone should last a lifetime if well taken care of
The cutting edges of the excavators should be ground carefully, observing that the correct bevel of the edge be maintained and that the edge is kept straight. To this end instruments should be carefully applied to the stone and the correct position maintained throughout the back and forth motions of grinding.
The spoons and discoids are ground by placing them on the stone so that the motion in grinding will be parallel with the length of the cutting edge, and during each stroke the instrument is rotated upon its edge in such a way that every part of the semi-circular edge will come against the stone in some part of each motion. This is easily done after a little practice.
Care as to heating the instrument points while grinding is very important. If heavy pressure is made and the instrument moved rapidly upon the stone, enough heat will be quickly developed to draw the temper of the steel and ruin the instrument. It is well for the beginner to place one finger upon the point of the instrument while grinding, that he may feel the heat develop, until he has learned to judge accurately of this danger,
Use of the Dental Engine.
The dental engine has in recent years become an important instrument in operative dentistry. It is used for certain parts of the work of excavating cavities, for trimming fiUings to form after they have been inserted, and a large amount of the work of polishing is best done with it. For these several purposes engines should be equipped with certain sizes and forms of excavating burs, a few sizes and forms of finishing burs, stones for grinding and sandpaper disks of different grades of fineness, rubber disks for carrying polishing powders, etc.
In excavating, the bur is nowadays indispensable, and yet but a small part of the excavating should be done with burs. The tendency among students is to continually use the bur too much and to use it in improper places.
The forms of bur most useful are what are known as the inverted cone bur and the fissure bur. Round burs are not often used to advantage, and yet there are certain definite purposes requiring round burs.
The sizes of burs are very important. With the dental engines with which we are supplied no large burs can be used to advantage for the reason that the motion is conveyed by a cable which allows large burs to jump and chatter. Cord engines give to the bur a much smoother motion and better cutting power, but are not regarded as so convenient. Practically none of them have sufficient power to run a large bur to advantage. For our use, then, burs for excavating that are over one and one-half millimeters in diameter should not be used at all. The most useful burs are one millimeter and less in diameter. The round bur is used only for the one purpose of opening pit cavities in which decay has only just begun. For this purpose round burs, from a little less than one millimeter to one and a half millimeters in diameter, should be used by placing them in the pit while in motion and swaying the hand-piece to and fro so as to rotate the bur laterally while it is rapidly turning upon its axis. This lateral motion of the hand-piece will cause the bur " to cut much more rapidly than when held simply against the work. Use the smaller size first, and when it has entered the pit change it for a larger, using this in a similar way and follow this again with a larger size. Then the round bur should be
laid aside and the cavity finished, if further enlargement is required, with other instruments. There is no other use for a round bur in excavating cavities. It should never be used for removing decayed dentine. If the pit cavity requires no further extension the round bur should be followed by an inverted cone that will square out the pulpal or axial wall of the cavity and make the angles with the surrounding walls sharp and definite. * " A cavity with rounded angles is the most difficult of all cavity forms to fill perfectly. For other purposes in excavating it is a matter of choice in individual cases between the use of the inverted cone and the fissure burr. These burs should be used in se\eral positions which will be pointed out.
Cutting seats or steps for anchorage in mesio or distoocclusal cavities in the bicuspids and molars. — After the mesial or distal cavity has been well opened with cutting instruments, and the cutting of a step in the occlusal surface is required, choose a small inverted cone or fissure bur, never more than one millimeter in diameter, and begin within the dentin close against the dento-enamel junction, causing the bur to enter, and then draw it to the surface of the enamel ; engage it again in the same way and repeat the motion. With this movement, using a small bur, a groove is readily cut through the enamel into the center of the occlusal surface. In this cutting the line of the mesial (or distal) groove should be followed, because this is the weakest part of the enamel. If the bur is too large, it will not cut so well. It is only by concentrating the force on a small bur that the enamel can be cut to any advantage, and even then the cut should be made from within outward. After this first cut has beea made the groove or channel formed should be broadened by chipping away the enamel with chisels, or the enamel hatchets, and the inverted cone bur again used to undermine the enamel upon either side, which is again chipped away. In this way a seat or occlusal step of any required extent is readily formed, the pulpal wall of which will have sharp and definite angles with its surrounding walls.
Grooves that need to be cut out, merely for the purpose of finding a position for finishing the filling, i. e. , when there is solid dentin beneat^h, are to be cut in the same manner, with the inverted cone or fissure bur. In none of these cases should
any attempt be made to cut the enamel from without inward with the bur. Cutting enamel with the bur dulls the blades very quickly. After the bur has been used for this purpose a few times, it should be discarded and a new one employed. The dull bur may be sharpened by the instrument maker.
In squaring out angles of cavities, the inverted cone bur may often be used to advantage in such positions as are readily accessible, as in occlusal, labial and buccal cavities. Usually this is done by flattening the pulpal wall in occlusal cavities, or the axial wall in buccal or labial cavities. In order to accomplish this with the bur the approach must be such that the square end of the bur may be placed in the plane of the pulpal or axial wall to be formed, or, in other words, the axis of the hand-piece must be at right angles to the pulpal or axial wall to be formed. Then the side or periphery of the bur is engaged in the deeper part of the rounded pulpal or axial wall, and made to cut toward one of the surrounding walls. This is then repeated in another direction, and the bur is finally carried in a similar way around the whole circumference of the cavity in such a way that its square end leaves the pulpal or axial wall flat, and its line angles with the surrounding walls are made sharp and definite.
The right-angle hand-piece is often useful for doing this work in occlusal cavities in the lower second and third molars, and occasionally in buccal cavities in these teeth. With it the proper position of the bur may be obtained in these places that are not accessible to the straight hand-piece. The right-angle hand-piece, as at present constructed, is an awkward instrument, and it should be used only in well chosen positions, inaccessible to the straight hand-piece.^ In most cases this squaring out of the pulpal or axial walls to definite angles with the surrounding walls is done just as easily and quickly with the hoes 12-5-6, 1 2-5- 1 2, or the 8-3-6 or 12, used with a scraping motion. These instruments will reach any of these positions if the surrounding walls have been properly formed previous to their use.
In making extensions for prevention in any of the axial surface cavities the small inverted cone burs may be used to advantage. If, in excavating proximate cavities, we find that
after cutting the gingival wall to sound dentin it is desirable to extend the cavity further to the gingival, place the end of an inverted cone bur, five to eight-tenths of a millimeter in diameter, against the gingival wall upon the dentin, close against the dento-enamel junction, and incline the hand-piece just enough to cause the periphery of the bur to cut, and press it toward and into the bucco-gingival angle, then incline the hand-piece in the opposite direction and press the bur in the linguo-gingival angle. Now, by repetitions of these movements cut as deeply to the gingival as may be required, keeping close against the dentoenamel junction. This undermines the enamel, which is now easily removed with the enamel hatchets. In extending to the buccal or to the lingual the enamel hatchets generally serve best, but occasionally the operation is facilitated by starting a small inverted cone bur in the axio-bucco-gingival angle and drawing it to the occlusal, cutting away the dentin of the buccal wall just beneath the enamel, which is then removed with the enamel hatchet. The same operation is repeated upon the lingual wall.
In this extension it is important that the bur be kept close against the enamel so that it shall not cut into the tooth so deeply as to endanger the pulp. There should be no attempt to cut the enamel with the bur, for the reason, first, that it is not easily done, and second, because it ruins the bur. Whenever it is regarded as important that enamel should be cut with a bur one must expect that the bur will be ruined in the operation. , That is to say, the blades will be so dulled that it will be unfit for further use, and a new bur must be provided for the next operation. A good bur will cut dentin, however, for many operations.
In making starting points for packing gold the smaller inverted cone bur is especially useful. In mesial and distal cavities in nearly all positions, starling points in the axio-linguogingival angle and the axio-gingivo-buccal (or laljial; angle are important conveniences. They are best made by placing the end of an inverted cone bur in the angles named, and by a slight swaying of the hand-piece cause the bur to enter just a little, then draw the bur toward the occlusal (or incisal if in incisor cavities), a short distance, making a slight groove leading away from the pit first formed to give strength to the gold when placed. The pit itself shtjuld not be directed into the
gingival wall, or only slightly, but to the lingual or buccal (labial in the incisors and cuspids), and the groove should be close against the axio-buccal or axio-lingual line angle. In this method of cutting these starting points the square end of the bur gives a square floor to the pit at the point where the first piece of gold is placed, which prevents any tendency of the gold to roll from side to side in the first efforts to condense it, so that a very shallow pit, a mere corner or sharp angle, so to speak, is all that is necessary. It should be remembered always that these convenience points are not anchorage points for the filling, but are simply starting points for the temporary anchorage of the first pieces of gold.
The use of drills should be confined to certain especial purposes. These should be used when for any reason it becomes necessary to cut into the pulp-chamber of a sound tooth, or one that has already been filled. This necessity occurs frequently because of hyperaemia of, or death of, the pulp after a filling has been made, or from death of the pulp from a blow or some unknown cause. In these cases it is often necessary to cut from the surface of the tooth to the pulp-chamber, either through a filling or through the enamel and dentine. The bur is not suitable for this work. The flat drill, bi-beveled to a point, is the proper instrument, or the drill followed by a round bur to enlarge the opening. In doing this where considerable tissue is to be cut through, it is best to use a small drill first, and when this has penetrated some distance, enlarge the opening with a larger drill or a round bur, then penetrate further with the small drill and again enlarge. Proceed in this way until the pulp-chamber is reached. In the attempt to drill deeply with a small flat drill the instrument does not clear itself of chips readily and is apt to heat ; also, it is likely to be broken by any movement of the patient.
The drill is also the best instrument for enlarging root-canals for setting posts or pins for artificial crowns. It will be seen that these uses of the drill are aside from cavity excavation.
The Use of Water.
The use made of water in operative dentistry is very important. Every dental office should have a liberal supply of both warm and cold water. The use of water for the hands of the
operator is in itself important, and the wash basin, while not necessarily before or about the operating chair, should be convenient, and in such position that the patient may at least know when the operator washes his hands. Cleanliness and neatness are important in gaining and in holding a practice.
Water should be constantly ready for use at the operating chair for washing the teeth and gums of patients. For use in the mouth water should genei'ally be heated to about 105 degrees Fahrenheit, or just a little warmer than blood temperature. In the large majority of cases this temperature will be found most grateful to patients. If, however, cases occur, as they will, in which some of the teeth are very sensitive to thermal changes, the temperature of 105 degrees will cause considerable pain, and in such cases the temperature should be carefully reduced to gS}4 degrees, or blood temperature.
For cleaning the teeth preparatory to operating.
For keeping the teeth and mouth free from blood and debris while removing calculus, or in doing any operations upon diseased gums, or while treating diseases of the peridental membranes.
rubber dam.
P'or any and all of these uses a good rubber-bulb water syringe which will hold a little more than a gill is necessary. A little bit of a water syringe is a nuisance. A syringe should be used with which the mouth can be flooded with water, or a strong continuous stream thrown for several seconds.
For cleaning the teeth preparatory to operating, warm water should be used in almost every case, even though the teeth are apparendy in a cleanly condition. In the best of conditions there is usually more or less gummy material containing many micro-organisms about the necks of the teeth, or about cavities, especially proximal, buccal and labial cavities, which should be
loosened up with scalers and removed with a strong stream of water. In very many cases the teeth should be cleaned with a rubber disk and powdered stone and washed clean with a jet of water before anything is done toward excavating cavities. In all cases the field of operation should be made clean as the first procedure.
The use of water while removing calculus is imperative. The field of operation requires to be repeatedly washed with strong jets of water, in order to do both operator and patient justice. This is necessary in order to remove blood and debris that the next step of the operation may be seen. It is necessary to impart a sense of cleanliness and comfort to the patient. It is necessary to the removal of particles of loosened calculus from about the necks of teeth.
In excavating cavities water should be used freely in any portion of the operation that is done before placing the rubber dam. In many cases it is desirable to open cavities and do the rougher parts of the excavating before the dam is applied. During such part of the operation as may be done without the rubber dam the cavity should be frequently washed with strong jets of water of the proper temperature for the purpose of removing all debris from the cavity and from the mouth of the patient.
Before placing the rubber dam water should be used to free the necks of the teeth from micro-organisms, even in the most cleanly mouths. A thin scaler should be passed around all of the surfaces, loosening up any gummy substance adhering to them, and this should be washed away with a strong jet of warm water. If the case is not especially cleanly there is greater necessity for this proceeding, provided, of course, that this has not been done preparatory to ' some previous operation at the same sitting.
The object of this care is especially to prevent pushing a mass of micro-organisms and debris under the free margin of the gum by the rubber and the ligature. Often the gums are more or less bruised by this procedure, and if at the same time a mass of debris containing many active micro-organisms is crowded into the soft tissue and held there for a considerable time, the micro-organisms will take hold of this injured tissue and cause very inconvenient soreness, or actual suppuration.
in this way.
After removing the rubber dam the gums should be treated with a thorough douching with w^arm water while kneading them thoroughly with the fingers of the other hand. This is especially important to the comfort of the patient. The rubber dam has been in place for a considerable time, perhaps for one, two or three hours, and during this tune the free margins of the gums have been tightly compressed by the rubber and the ligatures or other appliances for securing it in place. The circulation of the blood through this part has been stopped. The douching, together with the kneading, causes the blood to return to these tissues, starts it into active circulation again, and removes any poisonous material that may have been forced into the gingival space by the rubber. It imparts a feeling of comfort to the parts and causes at once the most complete feeling of rest from the operation that it is possible for the operator to give.
The washing away of powdered stone and debris during and after polishing fillings should be thorough and complete, and the patient dismissed with a clean mouth, free from all grit and dirt of any sort that has been used. Always look particularly to the comfort of your patients and they will reward you for your care.
The objects to be attained by the use of the rubber dam are : to keep cavities dry and clean while excavating and while making fillings ; to better expose and bring the parts into view ; and to prevent ingress of saliva and micro-organisms during the treatment and filling of root canals.
In using the rubber dam it should be remembered that it is disagreeable, sometimes painfully so, to patients, and, therefore, its use should be restricted to the actual necessities of the case in hand, and the time it remains in place should be made as short as practicable.
When the cavity to be prepared is in sufficiently plain view, and the conditions are such that the saliva will not obscure the seat of operation, the ru'ober dam should not be placed until the rougher parts of the excavating is done. In excavating cavities
in the upper teeth a considerable portion of the work may often be done before applying the rubber dam, but it should always be in place before the excavation is finished, and remain until after the filling is completed. The rule should be that the walls of a cavity should never become damp after the last of the cutting is done in their preparation.
If, however, it appears from the position of the tooth, and the conditions present, that the field of operation will be continually overflowed by saliva, or that the case is particularly difficult to see, the rubber dam should be placed before beginning the operation. In proximate cavities it is generally best to open the cavity by cutting away the overhanging enamel, and to determine the position of the gingival wall of the prepared cavity with some degree of certainty before applying the rubber dam. This will usually facilitate the' application of it, and in obtaining its proper position in relation to the gingival wall.
Preparations for Applying the Rubber Dam.
The rubber dam should be tough and very elastic. Generally a medium thickness should be employed. It should be cut in pieces about six inches square. Before making any effort to apply it, the teeth should be well cleaned and douched with a stream of warm water from the syringe to free them from gummy material, and from collections of micro-organisms that would otherwise be forced under the free margins of the gums, or even into the soft tissues, by the ligatures or clamps. The interproximate space should be cleaned by use of the ligature passed between the contact points. In doing this the difficulties to be met with in passing the rubber between the teeth will be determined. The position and size of the holes in the dam should next be determined, together with the number of teeth to be included. Not less than three, generally four or five teethi should be included. If a front tooth is to be filled, include four or more, always one or two on either side of the tooth to be operated upon ; if a bicuspid or first molar, include one tooth to the distal, and at least two to the mesial ; if the second molar and the cavity involves the distal surface, include the third molar ; if the cavity does not involve the distal surface, the inconvenience of placing the rubber upon the third molar will be greater in many cases than to do the operation with a clamp
field and as much room for operating as practicable.
The holes in the rubber should be placed in such position that when applied it will cover the upper lip, lower lip and chin, but should not cover the nostrils of the patient and interfere with the breathing. The distance between the holes is an important consideration. They should always be as far apart as the mesio-distal breadth of the teeth to be included. In case of bicuspids and lower incisors that have thin necks mesio-distally, the distance should be a little greater. This is necessary to prevent the septum of rubber between the teeth from stretching into so narrow a band that it will fail to hug so closely to the necks of the teeth as to exclude moisture.
The particular manner of grasping the rubber dam when about to apply it is very important, and should be studied with much care in the beginning of the student's experience. Certain ways of grasping the rubber dam are particularly suited to the application of it in certain positions in the mouth, or to certain teeth ; also to certain positions of the operator when applying it. If these are well learned in the beginning it will save much time, and much of the difficulty in attaining facility in this work.
In considering these grasps the side of the rubber which, when applied, will be next the gingivre is called the gingival side, and that which will be toward the occlusal surfaces of the teeth is called the occlusal side.
The first grasp is used when tlie dam is to be applied to the upper front teeth. Grasp the rubber between the thumb and finger of each hand, with the ends of the thumbs on the occlusal side of the rubber and their ends touching together immediately over the hole to be first used, and the finger-ends midway the balls of the thumbs. .Stretch the rubber a litde with the thumbs still touching end to end. Then stretch the rubber a little more, and, standing to the right and in front of the patient, pass the hole o\ er the tooth; the right thumb on the lingual and the left on the labial side. In doing this, first place the free edge of the rubber at one side of the hole between the teeth, and with a slight sawing motion force it past the
contact on that side. Then stretch it over the tooth and force it past the contact on its other side in a similar way. Now carryeach of the thumbs against the gingivae. At this point hold the thumbs in position for an instant, release the hold of the rubber with the fingers and allow it to draw around the neck of the tooth before loosing the pressure of the thumbs. Generally the rubber will be felt to draw around the thumbs, and then they should be given a slight shaking motion which will allow the rubber to draw around the tooth before releasing the pressure, and removing them. When the rubber is applied in this way it will generally be found to cling to the neck of the tooth and have its cut edge turned under the gingivae. Repeat this motion with each hole in the rubber, grasping it anew, and in the same manner for each, and pass it over the appropriate tooth with a similar motion. This grasp and these motions will answer for all of the upper teeth as far back as the first molars. When applying it with this grasp to the teeth of the left side, the face of the patient should be turned strongly to the right; or the operator should pass to the left side of the patient.
The second grasp is a modification of the first, which allows the left hand of the operator to be passed around the head of the patient when standing to the right of, and partially behind, the chair. This will generally be found more convenient for the upper teeth of the left side as far as the bicuspids. In this the rubber is grasped with the right hand in the same way as before, but with the left hand the grasp is inverted so that the forefinger takes the place of the thumb, or is on the occlusal side of the rubber, with the thumb about oj)posite the first joint of the finger. In applying the dam with this grasp the thumb of the right hand is placed on the li;igual side of the tooth and the forefinger of the left on the labial, or buccal side. Otherwise than this change of positions the motions with which the rubber is placed are the same as with the first grasp. This grasp is also suitable for the application of the rubber to the lower teeth of the right side as far back as the second bicuspid, the operator standing to the right and partially behind the patient. In this position the forefinger of the left hand will be placed to the lingual of the tooth and the thumb of the right hand to the buccal.
the two hands are simply inverted, so that the thumb of the left is on the occlusal side of the rubber and the thumb of the right is on the lingual side. In e\ery other way the grasp is the same. This is suited to placing the rubber on the lower teeth of the left side of the mouth as far back as the second bicuspid; the operator standing on the right and passing the left hand around the head.
The fourth grasp is a complete inversion of the first. In this the thumbs are both placed on the gingival side of the rubber, and both forefingers on the occlusal side. The rubber is grasped with the thumbs opposite the first joint of the forefingers, or thereabouts. The ends of the forefingers come together over the hole to be used, not directly end to end, but in the form of a letter V, the finger-ends forming the angle. The rubber is now stretched so as to open the hole slightly while the finger-ends are close against its margins. Then it is carried over the tooth, stretching the rubber sufficiently by spreading the fingers apart, made to pass the contact points between the teeth one after the other by a slight sawing motion, and the finger-ends carried hard against the gingivae, one on the buccal side and one on the lingual side of the tooth. Then the grasp of the thumbs is released while maintaining the position of the fingers and the rubber allowed to draw around the tooth. If the rubber is felt to close on the finger-ends, which it will often do, and fail to close on the tooth, make a slight oscillating motion of the fingers which will allow it to slip past them and hug to the tooth before removing the fingers. The rubber is now gras])ed anew and in the same way to be passed over the next tooth, being careful to place the finger-ends very close on either side of the hole to be used in each instance.
This grasp is i)articularly suited to the upper bicuspids and first molars, the operator standing partially behind and above the patient. For this the head of the patient should be thrown well backward. Often, also, this grasp w ill be very convenient for placing the rubber on the lower bicuspids and first molars, the operator standing to the right and in front of the patient. For this position the head of the patient shoukl be ujiright.
The fifth grasp is used especially for placing the dam on the second and third molars, or where it is necessary to reach far back into the mouth. In this the dam is first taken between
the first and second fingers of each hand with the forefingers and thumbs on the occlusal side. Then the second, third and fourth fingers are closed, or nearly closed, and the dam grasped between the thumbs and second fingers with the thumbs placed opposite the second joint of the fingers, or between the first and second joints. With this grasp stretch the dam a little and engage the two forefingers in it close on either side of the hole to be used and with them stretch the hole open. It is generally necessary that the hole be opened.sufificiently wide so that the tooth to which it is to be applied can be seen through it. Then carry it back into the mouth and pass it over the tooth with the forefingers, the one on the buccal, the other on the lingual, and engage one edge of the hole between the teeth, preferably the mesial first, and cause it to pass the contact by a sawing motion. When this has passed into the interproximate space throw the rubber over the distal surface, and if it is a second molar pass the contact in a similar way. Then carry each of the fingerends hard against the gums on either side, buccal and lingual, of the tooth and holding them firmly in position release the dam with the thumbs and second fingers. The dam will now draw around the tooth, or else it will be felt drawing on the ends of the forefingers. In the latter case a little motion of the ends of the fingers will allow the dam to slide by them and close firmly around the tooth. Then, and not till then, the fingers may be removed. The dam may now be grasped again in the same way and the forefingers engaged on either side of the next hole to be used and it brought over the next tooth, whether to the mesial or distal, in a similar manner. Notice particularly that the grasp on the rubber is to be released entirely at the end of its application to each particular tooth and grasped anew for the next.
It is just as important to know how to remove the fingers from the rubber without pulling the rubber away with them after it has been placed on the tooth as it is to place the rubber over the tooth ; and I wish to emphasize the necessity of noting very carefully the manner of doing this, and draw attention strongly to the fact that the dam should be allowed to fully close around the tooth while the fingers are still pressed against the gums on its buccal and lingual sides. This applies to all grasps whatsoever that may be used in adjusting the rubber dam.
In using the fifth grasp, the operator can use the full length of the forefingers for reaching back into the mouth and yet have full command of the rubber and readily place it on any tooth where the contacts can be passed with a sawing motion of the fingers ; and in ordinary cases it will hold without the aid of a ligature while passing it over other teeth. Of course, there are many molar teeth around which the gums are so high that the rubber can not be passed far enough onto the crown in this way for it to hold. There are also a good many tooth crowns so rounded that the dam must be forced actually to the gingival line and tied down with a ligature or held by a clamp before it can be induced to remain in place. With these grasps, however, everything can be done that it is possible to do with the unaided fingers.
The Use of Ligatures in Adjusting the Rubber Dam.
There are many cases in which the rubber can not be forced between the contact points of adjoining teeth with the unaided fingers, and then it must be forced with the ligature. This is best done by an assistant. However, by careful practice one may learn to do it successfully alone. The ligature may be used with any of the five grasps. To accomplish this, wrap the end of the ligature on the little finger of the left hand and catch a part of its length in the same grasp with the rubber in the thumb and finger of the right hand, leaving just sufficient length ■ between so that the ligature may be tightly drawn by a movement of the little finger on which it is wrapped. Bring this ligature over the contact to be forced beside the finger, or the thumb, of the left hand at the same time that the rubber is stretched over the tooth. Then, by drawing with the little finger of the left hand and by the grasp with the right, the ligature is forced through, carrying the rubber before it. To get just the right length and adjustment of the ligature generally requires a little maneuvering in each individual case. The observant operator will see his way clearer and be better able to avoid difficulties with each failure.
In cases in which considerable force is recjuired to drive the rubber past the contact the grasp with the fingers is often insufficient. The ligature will slip in the fingers and the rubber will be stretched • too much, and a general derangement of the position
will result. In this case it will be necessary to arrange to use greater force. To do this, wrap the ligature on the little finger of each hand, noting carefully that the length between the fingers is just right. It will often be necessary to try this length a number of times before getting it to exactly suit the particular case. Then bring the ligature over the contact and under one of the fingers or thumb with which the rubber is forced down, and stretch down the rubber into the embrasure as far as possible; then draw the ligature with the little fingers so as to tighten it on the rubber to hold it, and work the finger on the opposite side of the tooth onto the ligature, so that it may be forced on both sides of the tooth at the same time. The accomplishment of this last movement is the most difficult point, but it can generally be done after a few efforts, and then the operator has command of the situation. The rubber can be forced into the contact with all of the power of the fingers. After forcing the first contact the grasp of the rubber must generally be released, a second ligature wrapped on the fingers, the rubber grasped anew, and the second contact forced in the same way. This may now be continued until the rubber has been placed on a sufficient number of teeth. Generally, when the rubber has been forced, past one close contact this holds the rubber as a starting point, and the rest is much easier of accomplishment. Very much of the difficulties of adjusting the rubber is relieved by having an assistant pass a ligature, or set a clamp in position in these difficult cases.
Another method of avoiding the most serious difficulty in passing ligatures to force the rubber between teeth far back in the mouth is to set a special clamp on the tooth first, and then throw the rubber over the bows of the clamp. For this purpose the fifth grasp should be used, and the hole in the rubber should be a little larger than usual. The ends of the forefingers should be placed fully to the distal side of the hole, or so that its distal edge is fully between the finger-ends and upon their planter surfaces. Then it must be so stretched that the distal edge of the hole may be passed over the distal edge of the bow of the clamp, starting it first over its lingual portion and sweeping it around over the buccal portion. Then release the rubber, and by a little careful motion of the fingers it is allowed to close around the tooth under the clamp. This is generally done easily
and quickly when the particular relation of the fingers to the hole in the dam is appreciated. After this starting point has been secured it is not so very difficult to secure the rubber over the teeth mesial to it.
Passing the contact with ligatures should be done with much care, for if it is allowed to snap onto the gums it will often induce considerable pain and do the patient a real injury by cutting into the tissues. To avoid this, always catch the ligature very close to the tooth on both the buccal and lingual sides. This will prevent that forcible snap onto the sensitive tissues that is sure to occur if this precaution is not observed.
In manv cases a ligature must be tied over the rubber to hold it in place, or to force the gums sufficiently to the gingival to expose the gingival margin of the cavity. In doing this the ligature should be carefully forced close to the gingival line and tightly drawn with a surgeon's knot. Generally it is not necessary to tie ligatures on every tooth over which the dam is placed. Often when ligatures seem necessary, if the rubber is just drawn well down the ligature may be at once removed and the rubber will remain in position. Ligatures are often painful and when the results can be well accomplished without them they should not be used.
Often there will be difficulty in adjusting the ligature to the lingual side of the incisors with the unaided fingers. The shape of the lingual surface causes it to slip off. In these cases the ligature should be thrown loosely around the tooth and the first half of the knot formed, but before it is drawn up the flat-curved burnisher should be passed to the lingual of the tooth inside the loop of the ligature, and carried to the gingival line and so inclined that when the ligature is drawn with the other hand it will be guided to the right position. Then the burnisher may be removed and the knot closed. This burnisher is useful in many positions as an aid in the adjustment of ligatures.
In tying ligatures about the teeth, the first half of a surgeon's knot should first be formed and tightly drawn. In doing this the ligature should be grasped as close to the knot as practicable, and held close against the teeth, both to the mesial and to the distal. If the ligature is over the biduspids or molars catch the distal end of it over the end of the forefinger of one hand and force it to the distal while pulling the mesial end with the other
hand. If the Hgature has been well waxed, the first half of the knot will not slip or loosen ; but it must not be pulled or disturbed in the least while forming the other half of the knot. Let the ends fall perfectly loose while forming the second half and work it up carefully until it is just right and then draw it tight at a single pull, again keeping the fingers close against the arch, both to the mesial and distal. A ligature tied in this way will always be tight around the tooth.
The question of rubber- dam clamps is always a troublesome one. Nothing is entirely satisfactory in all positions. The selection on the list is as good for the purpose as can be had. With them all can be done that clamps will do.
In filling cavities in the bicuspids the rubber should be secured on the molar tooth distal to them with a rubber-dam clamp. The bow of the clamp holds the rubber out of the way and gives space and a better view of the field of operation. In excavating and filling cavities in the molars this is still more necessary. Whenever practicable the clamp should be placed upon the first molar for operations on the bicuspids, and on the second molar for operations on the first molar. Generally, in operations on the second molar not involving the distal surface, a clamp with a bow standing well to the distal should be placed on the same tooth in order to avoid the difficulty of placing the dam on the third molar. Rubber-dam clamps on the bicuspids are not permissible at all except in cases where the molar teeth are missing; and even then they are of doubtful usefulness, and are so unsteady as to cause the patient much annoyance, and often considerable pain.
In buccal and labial cavities, that approach near to, or pass beyond the gingival line, the special clamp should be used on the molars and the Hatch clamp on the bicuspids and front' teeth. Except in the most difficult cases, the special clamp will answer the purpose if the rubber, after being placed on the tooth, is drawn well away from the buccal and the clamp applied, or if the clamp is put on first and the rubber passed over it. When the Hatch clamp is applied to the front teeth with labial cavities, the rubber must be drawn well away from the labial surface and the points placed in position and the set-
THE ENAMEL, 51
screw made tight. Then the rubber may be allowed to draw tightly around it, and is fairly certain to exclude moisture per• fectly. For this purpose the hole in the rubber should be cut a little larger than usual.
With the most skilful, some impossible cases occur with any and all of these instruments. Then resort must be had to holding the dam in position with an instrument while performing the operation with the other hand. This is difficult, but practicable. The best instrument for this purpose is a straight shaft with a broad flat point cut in the form of a fork, or a V-shaped notch.
Often in proximate cavities, where the gingival wall is very difficult to reach, the rubber may be forced into position and held with a matrix, or the matrix may be placed first and securely tied and the rubber applied over it. Sometimes a similar device will accomplish the same upon buccal surfaces.
When the operation is completed, great care should be had to remove all ligatures before removing the rubber, for if the rubber is pulled away with a ligature on, a ring of rubber will sometimes be torn away and remain around the neck of the tooth unobserved, and do great damage before the cause is discovered. When the contacts between the teeth are close, or when gutta-percha fillings have been placed to seal in treatments, the rubber should be drawn to the buccal or labial, and the septum passing between the teeth cut before removing the rubber. This will avoid the danger of leaving bits of rubber dam hanging between the teeth or of disturbing a soft filling. Finally, when the rubber has been removed, the gums should be well kneaded with the fingers, while being flooded with warm water from the syringe. The gums have been compressed and the circulation interfered with, and this will clean the parts and start the blood into full activity and prevent the severe soreness that is so apt to follow.
The structure of the enamel is of such importance in its relation to the preparation of cavities for filling that it requires special study. It is difiicult to so prepare specimens of the enamel that they show its structure well, and when the specimens are well prepared, it requires a large amount of study to gain that
practice in filling operations.
The enamel when examined macroscopically appears as a very hard, vitreous body, white, or a bluish-white, very dense and brittle, in which no traces of structure can be determined. It cuts with much difficulty, and is much inclined to chip and crumble. If, however, it is examined with a good hand magnifying glass, certain striations can be observed that give a suggestion of histological structure.
Although the enamel seems to be opaque, or, at most, translucent, by ordinary examination, it is found to be almost as transparent as glass when ground into thin sections. When so prepared, very little of the structure can be seen with the microscope usually, without some preparation that will cause its histological elements to appear. It is largely for this reason that so little is seen of the structure of enamel in the sections ordinarily prepared for microscopic observations.
the Preparation of Cavities.
Enamel is composed of rods or fibers cemented together by an intervening cement substance. These rods and cement substance are very nearly of the same density, so that when examined in the perfect state the enamel seems to be almost homogeneous, or without special structure. In the most perfect specimens of enamel only a striation suggesting structure can be seen. It has been learned, however, that the cement substance between the rods by which they are united dissolves more readily in acids than the rods themselves. We may avail ourselves of this fact, and partially isolate the rods by solution of the cement substance with very dilute hydrochloric or lactic acid, and in that way obtain good views of them. We can not, however, carry this solution very far, for the reason that the rods will also be dissolved, and the whole tissue disappear. Still, by working carefully with very dilute acids, good fragments of the rods may be obtained.
The enamel rods seem to be made up of globules or little balls pressed together in a single row or line, forming the rod. One can readily copy this formation by taking small balls of soft clay and pressing one upon the other, forming a rod. In some
enamel these globular forms are very prominent in the apparent make-up of the rod, while in some other specimens these globules are so perfectly fused together and smoothed as to almost disappear ; we then have a smooth enamel rod. This latter is rather the exception than the rule.
The enamel rods are stronger than the cement substance, so that in any attempt to break up or cut the enamel it is inclined to split along the length of the rods. Then, since the enamel is very hard and difficult to cut, a knowledge of the direction of the rods becomes of first importance in any attempt to form cavities in teeth. These rods, while hard to cut, are, when they are parallel, very easy to split apart. Indeed, much of human enamel will split almost as easily as straight-grained pine, if the force is applied in just the right direction. This is because the cementing substance that cements the rods together is much weaker than the rods themselves. In other specimens of enamel the rods, instead of lying parallel with each other, are very much interwoven and twisted together ; so much so, indeed, as to prevent them being readily split apart. This enamel, instead of splitting like straight-grained pine, is more like the pine knot, which is very difficult to split or cut, as compared with the straight-grained wood. Formerly it was supposed that this difference in the enamel to cutting instruments was due to a greater amount of lime salts, or the hardening element. We have learned in recent years, however, that this is not the case. The one contains no greater proportion of lime salts than the other and will not resist decay any better. But the difference is due wholly to the difference in the relative interlacing of the enamel rods.
This interlacing or twisted form of enamel is usually confined to the inner half of its thickness. While in the outer half of the enamel the rods are parallel and will split apart readily, the rods of the inner half are interwoven or twisted in such a way as to prevent splitting. Therefore, when a chisel or enamel hatchet is applied for the purpose of splitting it off it will,if supported by sound dentin, split but about half way, and the remaining half of the thickness is removed with great difficulty. It is then almost a necessity that we undermine this by cutting away the dentin from beneath it, after which we may break it down f|uite reachly.
The enamel rods are almost always parallel AA/^ith each other in the outer half or near the surface of the enamel. This fact you should observe carefully, for it is of the utmost importance in the preparation of the enamel margins of cavities. All that we have said of the splitting apart of the enamel rods applies with all of its force to this outer portion of the enamel, no matter how much the rods may be twisted in the deeper portions, and for this reason the enamel margins of cavities should be so prepared that no portion of the cavo-surface angle will present short ends or rods unsupported; that is, the enamel wall should be parallel with the length of the rods, and the bevel of the cavo-surface angle should cut off the ends so that there may be no loose ends of rods upon the surface to fall away while packing gold or after finishing the filling. This may readily be accomplished if we know the direction of the enamel rods.
The direction of the rods may be known, first, by obtaining a good general knowledge of their course by the study of prepared sections of enamel; second, by observing the direction of cleavage during the preparation of cavities. By the term cleavage we express the tendency of a substance to split or separate in given directions. The direction of cleavage is the direction in which it splits most readily. Therefore, for our purposes the terms cleavage and splitting are practically synonymous.
It may be stated as a general rule that the direction of the enamel rods is from the center of the crown of the tooth tow^ard the surface. Everywhere on the crown of the tooth the ends of the enamel rods present to the surface. Over the greater portion of the crown the direction of the enamel rods is perpendicular to the surface, but in every tooth there are certain portions in which the enamel rods approach the surface at a more or less considerable inclination.
If we draw a line around the crown of a molar or bicuspid tooth in the middle of its length and examine the enamel rods in that section we will find them everywhere very nearly perpendicular to the plane of the surface. If we move, now, gradually, toward the cusps of the tooth we will find the direction of the enamel rods progressively leaving the perpendicular and inclining toward the cusps. This inclination becomes continually greater, until when the point of the cusp is reached the direc-
tion of the enamel rods is parallel to the length of the cusp, or, in other words, the direction of the rods is perpendicular to the surface of the tip or point of the cusp.
If from this line around the crown of the molar or bicuspid in the center of its Length we approach one of the marginal ridges of the occlusal surface, we will also find the direction of the enamel rods inclining toward the marginal ridge in such a way that as we pass over the marginal ridge the direction is so changed that the rods stand perpendicular to the occlusal surface.
If the attempt be made to prepare a cavity upon an axial surface of one of these teeth for filling, and this cavity approaches a cusp or a. marginal ridge, the enamel wall must be inclined outward Tor toward the occlusal) very gready, or else short ends of enamel rods will be left at the surface. And if inclined enough to prevent this, the filling material will be so thin at its margin that it will not have sufficient strength. These facts forbid us laying enamel margins near the occlusal margins of the axial surfaces of the teeth.
If now, we proceed from the center of the length of the crown of the molar or bicuspid toward the gingival line, we will find the direction of the enamel rods again deviating from the perpendicular and inclining toward the gingival line. This inclination is much less in extent, however, but more variable than that found in passing toward the marginal ridges of the occlusal surfaces. The inclination at the gingival line is usually about six centigrades, often less, and the greatest that I have observed has not been more than ten centigrades. An inclination of six centigrades is readily overcome by inclining the enamel wall, or even twelve centigrades inclination of this part of the enamel wall can readily be made and the filling material be sufficiently strong for the locality.
On examination of the occlusal surface of a molar or bicuspid we find a tendency of the enamel rods to incline somewhat toward the pits and grooves, and especially do they incline toward open pits or fissured grooves. If the grooves are well closed and shallow, there will be less inclination toward them.
As we pass from the pits and grooves toward the cusps the direction of the rods first becomes perpendicular to the surface and then begins to incline toward the cusps, and when we arrive
at the point of the cusps the direction will be perpendicular to the surface at the immediate point of the cusp. Or, if we follow the direction of the rods passing from the fossae of the occlusal surface to the marginal ridges, mesial and distal, we find the direction of the rods first deviating from the perpendicular toward the center of the fossae, but as we pass toward the marginal ridges the deviation is toward the marginal ridges, until, when we arrive near the crest of the ridge, the direction of the inclination is decidedly toward the ridge.
Therefore, in the preparation of cavities in the occlusal surfaces of these teeth the enamel wall may be cut perpendicular to the general plane of the occlusal surface, so long as the enamel margin does not approach too closely to cusps or the marginal ridges, for a slight bevel of the cavo-surface angles will insure a solid margin without any short ends of rods. But if the cusps or the marginal ridges are closely approached the inclination of the enamel wall should be toward the ridge and the cavosurface angle beveled rather more strongly in order to insure the removal of all short ends of enamel rods, and to secure a firm margin.
In the incisors and cuspids, if we draw a line around the crown at the junction of the middle and gingival third, we will find the enamel rods perpendicular to the surface upon the mesial, distal and labial surfaces, and generally nearly so upon the lingual surface. In these teeth the direction of the enamel rods at the junction of the middle and gingival third of the lingual surface is very variable, because of the differences of the prominence of the linguo-gingival ridge and the depth of the grooves of the lingual surface. In cases in which the linguogingival ridge is prominent and the grooves deep, or fissured, ' there will be a strong inclination of the enamel rods toward the grooves. If, on the other hand, this surface is smooth and even, with the grooves perfectly closed, so as not to be apparent, the direction of the enamel rods will be perpendicular to the surface.
As we pass from the junction of the middle and gingival third of the crown toward the incisal margin of the lingual surface, the inclination of the enamel rods is more and more toward the incisal. At the junction of the middle and incisal third the inclination is from six to twelve centigrades, and in the incisal third it often is fifteen or eighteen centigrades before the incisal
edge is reached. This very strong inclination of the enamel rods toward the incisal upon this surface renders it exceedinglydifficult to make good margins if the marginal lines of the cavity approach nearer the incisal edge than the junction of the middle and incisal thirds of the crown. If the cavo-surface angle of the enamel is beveled enough to remove all short ends of enamel rods the filling material becomes too thin to stand well. This is the reason we so frequently see imperfect margins when the marginal lines of fillings have been laid inthis position.
On the labial surface of the incisors and cuspids, the direction of the enamel rods is generally about perpendicular to the surface of the junction of the middle and gingival third, and as the incisal margin of the surface is approached there is a gradual inclination toward the incisal. This change is slow in the middle third, so that it is rarely more than six centigrades at the junction of the middle and incisal thirds. In the incisal third the increased inclination to the incisal is much more rapid, so that upon the incisal edge the direction of the enamel rods is parallel to the long axis of the tooth. These directions of the rods must be taken into account in any case in which the marginal lines of labial cavities" approach the incisal margin of the surface. Fortunately, such cavities are rare.
On the mesial and distal surfaces the direction of the enamel rods is generally perpendicular to the surface throughout the middle third of the length of the crown. In the incisal third an inclination toward the angle begins. The extent of this is quite variable. The rule is that the more acute the angle the closer the angle is approached before the inclination of the rods toward the angle becomes pronounced. Therefore, the distal angle being more rounded the inclination of the rods toward it begins further from the angle upon the distal surface, but often approaches the angle quite closely upon the mesial before the inclination becomes great. For this reason cavity lines in mesial surfaces may approach safely quite close to the incisal angle if the enamel is well supported by sound dentin. In the distal surfaces much more care must be exercised in laying cavity lines close to the incisal angle, for the reason that if the enamel wall is inclined enough to give a good cavo-surface angle the edge of the filling is likely to become too thin to stand well.
In following the inclination of the enamel rods around the incisors and cuspids in the circumferential direction, we find them generally standing perpendicular to the surface. A notable exception to this is the approach to the mesial and distal marginal ridges on the lingual surface and over the lingual marginal ridges. Here the enamel rods incline somewhat toward the marginal ridges, but in passing over these ridges their direction or inclination changes rather suddenly. For this reason this becomes rather a dangerous point in the preparation of proximate cavities in the incisors. When the marginal lines of these proximate cavities reach to the lingual marginal ridge, it is rarely safe to leave any of the ridge remaining, because of the very uncertain direction of the enamel rods. Especially is this true of lateral incisors, in which the curve of the ridge is often very abrupt. While this ridge is very strong in the perfect tooth, it becomes very frail when its support on either side has been destroyed, and the only safe course seems to be to cut it away sufficiently to be certain of the direction of the enamel rods upon the margin formed. The rounding of the labio-mesial or labio-distal angles is not so abrupt, and the enamel rods usually hold closely to a direction perpendicular to the surface, so that good margins can be made at any point by observing carefully the form of the tooth and the enamel cleavage.
In passing toward the gingival line from the junction of the middle and gingival third of the length of the crown, the inclination of the enamel rods changes more and more toward the gingival. This varies considerably in different specimens ; generally it is not much more than six or eight centigrades at the gingival margin of the enamel, but in some specimens it is ten or twelve centigrades. This calls for extreme care in beveling gingival cavo-surface angles in cavities that approach close to the gingival line.
The first studies of the enamel rods should, of course, be made by grinding sections and studying these with the aid of the microscope, and in lantern illustrations. But when a fairly good idea of the structure has been obtained in this way it is better to continue the study by noting carefully the cleavage of the enamel
while operating at the chair. In preparing cavities one is handHng the enamel all the time, and by noting the direction of the cleavage and remembering that this cleavage follows the length of the enamel rods, may be continuously studying their direction in ditTerent positions upon any and all of the teeth. This study, when pursued for some time, enables an operator to so place his instruments as to split ofif the enamel easily in opening cavities, which is of immense advantage in this work, as he will do it easier and quicker. The operations will also be greatly improved because of more perfect preparation of the enamel margins. He will come to know very perfectly the direction of the rods, and the proper inclination of the enamel wall in all positions.
One soon learns to feel for the direction of the enamel rods with his cutting instruments and to take advantage of the cleavage in cutting the enamel, and then readily feels this in the formation of the enamel wall and its cavo-surface angle, and knows when his enamel margin is firm and strong. Carry on the study at the chair and become a rapid and strong operator.
The shaving up of the enamel in forming the enamel wall should be looked to with great care. Those points at which the enamel rods are more or less broken apart will generally appear a little whitish, and in pushing a sharp edge lighdy along them the loosened rods are easily dislodged in what appears as a fine powder. By continuing this shaving motion the enamel wall will become clear, and have a firm, vitreous appearance. This condition of the enamel wall should always be obtained in finishing the preparation of the cavity.
In the study of the enamel in sections and on the screen, it has been seen that the lines of the grooves are weak lines on account of the imperfect fusion of the enamel plates in coming together during development. This is true even in those grooves that are most perfecdy closed. But in very many cases they are imperfectly closed, so that along these lines the enamel has no strength.
It should, therefore, be the rule that, when in the preparation of a cavity the marginal lines must approach near a groove, cut to the groove or past it.
This rule should be regarded as applying in all positions upon the teeth if the cavity margin is parallel, or very nearly parallel, with the groove. For instance, I will mention that in preparing
large cavities in the distal surfaces of upper molars the distolingual groove is often approached. In any such case cut to the groove until it has passed over the ridge to the lingual surface, when its direction is more to the mesial, and then break away from it rather suddenly, forming a kind of step, if the enamel of this portion of the lingual surface is well supported by sound dentin.
If the mesio-buccal angle of a molar is so decayed as to make the removal of a considerable part of it necessary, cut to the buccal groove, for if this is not done the intervening portion of enamel is very likely to break away.
The same rule applies to the triangular grooves of the bicuspids that pass to the buccal surface to the mesial and distal of the buccal cusps. If in any case the angles of these teeth are so injured that the cavity lines should approach near these grooves, cut to the grooves.
In any case in which the angle of an incisor must be removed, cut to the labial groove, whether it be mesial or distal. This is for the reason that the lines of the grooves are weak lines, and the enamel is likely to break along these lines.
Excavation of Cavities by Classes.
Note. — The determination of the conditions calling for filling operations is largely dependent upon pathological processes. As it is the intention to confine this book as strictly as possible to the technical procedures of filling operations, these pathological processes will not be discussed. Here we can only take note of the physical conditions presented by individual teeth, leaving pathological processes related to them to be taken up at another time.
Class I. — Cavities beginning in structural defects in the teeth, as pits and fissures. — These occur in the occlusal surfaces of the molars and bicuspids, in the occlusal half of the buccal surfaces of the molars, or in the buccal pits, more rarely in the lingual portion of the disto-lingual groove of the upper molars, and in the lingual surfaces of the upper incisors ; most frequent in the laterals.
The primary physical condition leading to the location of caries in these positions is a foult, or imperlection in the enamel — an imperfect closure of the enamel plates — which leaves an opening of more or less depth as a pit or fissure, and it is in these that decay starts. The surface of the enamel in the immediate neighborhood of these is fully exposed to the friction of mastication and is kept well cleaned. For this reason there is no disposition to the spreading of the carious process upon the surface of the enamel. Therefore, these cavities all belong to the class which do not require extension of the cavity outiines for the prevention of the recurrence of decay. All the extension that is necessary is such cutting away of the cavity walls as will fully uncover the carious area and present a surface upon which a good, smooth finish of the filling can be made. In order that this good, smooth finish may be made, it is necessary that all sharp grooves connecting with the cavity be cut out to a point where the enamel is sufficiently level.
Pit Cavity in Central Fossa of an Upper First Molar No. I.
Description. — Upon examination a small pit in the enamel is found and the point of the exploring instrument passes through it into the dentin, which seems to be softened, show ing that caries has begun. The surface of the enamel about the pit is clear and clean. The buccal groove is deep and sharp, but the mesial and distal grooves are shallow, fairly smooth, and well closed.
Procedure. — A round bur, A millimeters in diameter, in the engine, is placed in the pit while in rotation and fairly strong pressure applied, while the hand-piece is swayed to and fro. In most cases the bur will cut through the enamel and enter the cavity within a few seconds. If it does not do so promptly, it should be removed for a moment and allowed to cool — for heat will develop quickly — and then reapplied in the same manner. This should be repeated until the bur passes through the enamel and enters the softened dentin. Immediately this occurs, the bur should be removed from the hand-piece and a bur, i millimeter in diameter, chosen. This is passed through the opening into the dentin in the same way, thus enlarging the opening in the enamel. This is then exchanged for a larger bur, i i^o millimeters in diameter, which is also passed through the opening.
This completes the use of the round bur, and it is the only use made of it in excavating cavities. An examination should now be made with a curved explorer to determine more nearly the extent of the decay in the dentin. In case no softened dentin extending laterally under the enamel is found, the rubber dam should be applied and an inverted cone bur, equal in size With the last round bur used, should be introduced, and with its square end the remaining decay should be removed, and the floor, or pulpal wall of the cavity made flat. Now, with hoe 12-5-6 used as a chisel (straight chisel 10 or binangle chisel 10-6-6 may be substituted), the enamel is chipped away along the buccal groove as far as it will readily split off". Then an inverted cone bur, 10 millimeters in diameter, is passed into the cavity and made to enter the dentin just beneath the dentoenamel junction toward the buccal groove, and slowly drawn to the surface of the enamel. It is then entered again at the same point, and this motion repeated, making cut after cut, following the line of the groove, until the groove has been opened to a point where it is sufficiently shallow, or the surface of the enamel is sufficiently level for a good finish of a filling to be made. Often it will be necessary to follow this groove to the crest of the marginal ridge. This done, chip away the mesial and distal walls of the slot formed, with straight chisel 15 or 20, sufficiently to remove the inclines of the buccal groove, after which pass a large inverted cone, or a fissure bur (ito millimeters), through the slot, and make its floor square and flat, and smooth up the walls.
A very careful examination should now be made of all parts of the walls of the cavity. If any softened dentin is found, the enamel should be chipped from over it with hoe 12-5-6 or chisel 10, the softened area removed and the pulpal wall of the cavity squared out to the increased area.
The outline of the cavity should now be re-examined to see whether every part of the margin is sufficiently level to permit a good finish of the filling when this has been placed, and if irregularities occur that would prevent a smooth finish, the cavity must be sufficiently extended to obtain conditions that will allow a good, smooth finish of all parts of the margin to be made.
the mo\ement of the edge of the chisel should be in the direction of the length of the margin, or around the cavity. In such a cavity as this, both the dentin and enamel walls may be perpendicular and the opposing walls parallel. The enamel rods will be inclined toward the cavity in every part, and no outward inclination of the enamel walls is necessary. The cavo-surface angle of the entire margin should be slightly beveled to dirninish the danger of fracture in placing the filling material. In such a cavity no starting points for beginning the filling are required, and no further preparation for retention of the filling is necessary, except to see that the opposing walls are parallel.
Variations. — It will often happen that in a cavity of this description a considerable area of decayed dentin will be found beneath the enamel after the burs have been passed through into it. In this case the overhanging enamel must be chipped away with hoe 12-5-6 or chisel 10 or 15, until sound dentin is reached in every direction. When this has been done, the remaining portion of the buccal groove should be cut out as described, first completing the outline of the cavity. Then, if the area has become considerable, the remaining decay is best removed with spoons 1 5-8- 1 2 or 20-9-12, as may best suit the size of the cavity. Enter the blade beneath the softened material, close against the enamel wall at the lingual or buccal side, and force it with a strong thrust in a curved direction to the other side of the cavity ; two or three strokes well made should be sufficient. Then square up the pulpal wall so that its angles with the surrounding walls are sharp and definite, using hoe 12-5-6 or, in some positions, hoe 1 2-5-1 2, with a scraping motion. In many cases this will be as conveniently and accurately done with a square-ended fissure bur, i /,? millimeters in diameter, or with the inverted cone bur. In this use of the bur, the shaft should be held parallel with the long axis of the tooth, so that the square end of the bur will cut the pulpal wall of the cavity flat and make its angles with the surrounding walls sharp and definite. Finish the enamel wall and cavo-surface angle the same as before. In many cases the mesial groove will be so sharp and deep that it will require cutting out well toward the mesial marginal ridge.
Description. — The pit is open so that the exploring instrument readily passes in, giving room to be turned about, revealing a considerable decayed area ; some discoloration shows through the enamel.
Procedure. — Begin the excavation by chipping away the overhanging enamel with straight chisel 15. Or, if the orifice in the enamel is still very small, begin with straight chisel 10, and use the 15 later. This may be done by hand pressure, but mallet pressure is much better. Continue this chipping as far as the enamel can be readily cut in this way, or until sound dentin is found supporting the enamel at every point. Now look carefully to the relations of the outline of the cavity to the surface, and proceed at once to cut out any grooves that will interfere with a perfect finish of the filling. Now take hatchet 8-3-23, or, if the opening into the cavity is too small for this, take hatchet 6-2-23, and sweep its edge around the dentin wall of the cavity with a few vigorous strokes, loosening up and partially removing the softened material from them, and see whether or not there are some points at which decay extends beneath the enamel. If such are found, clip the enamel from over them and perfect the cavity outline. At this point the rubber dam should be adjusted.
The next step should be to square up the dentin walls. If there is a considerable mass of decay obscuring the cavity, it may be first removed roughly by a few vigorous strokes with spoons 20-9-12.
In squaring up the dentin walls a square-end fissure bur (irV millimeters) may be used in cases in which this may be brought parallel with the long axis of the tooth, which can generally be done in the occlusal cavities in the first molars and bicuspids. This is placed with its end upon the pulpal wall, and, while rotating, pressed laterally against one of the surrounding walls, and carried around the whole cavity in a series of cuts. This will square up the surrounding dentin walls to the enamel walls, and its square end will leave the pulpal wall flat, and its angles with the surrounding walls sharp and definite. This is to be taken as the plan of squaring up the surrounding and pulpal walls (and axial walls in buccal and labial cavities) when burs are used for that purpose.
In doing this, care should be had not to continue any single cut so long as to develop considerable heat. Often much unnecessary pain is produced, and occasionally serious injury done to the pulp of the tooth by the heat developed by rapidly rotating burs. Also care must be had as to possible unnecessary exposure of the horns of the pulp of the tooth. In very deep cavities it may be best not to square up the whole central depth of the ca\ity, because of danger to the horns of the pulp, but to cut a shelf, so to speak, around the periphery to form the principal seat of the filling, leaving the central part of the cavity deeper. This deeper portion should then be freed of softened material with the spoon excavators. In no case should any decayed and softened material be left in the deeper parts of the cavity. It is better to expose the pulp of the tooth than to leave it covered only with softened dentin.
In many cases the squaring up of the surrounding walls, and flattening of the pulpal wall, may be more easily done with the hoe 1 2-5- 1 2, or 12-5-6, used with a scraping motion, than with the bur.
When the walls of the cavity have been squared up, and the angles of the pulpal wall, with the surrounding walls, made sharp and definite, and all carious material removed, the enamel walls may be planed to form, and made smooth in every part. Unless the enamel walls approach very close to the marginal ridges, they may be in the same plane with the dentin walls, or parallel to the long axis of the tooth. But if they do approach closely to the marginal ridges, the enamel rods will be inclined toward the ridges, and the enamel wall must be similarly inclined to be in correct form. This may always be discovered by noting carefully the direction of the cleavage of the enamel while chipping it away, and the inclination of the enamel wall should be made to correspond with the enamel cleavage. When the enamel wall is in correct form and planed smooth, the cavo-surface angle must be slightly beveled in every part. This bevel should not extend to more than one-fourth the thickness of the enamel, and often should be much less.
Generally such cavities need no convenience points for starting fillings, but when large, and the operator feels that slight convenience pits will aid him, there is no special objection to their use. They should be placed in the distal portion of the cavity.
Parallel walls and a flat pulpal wall as a seat, or a good strong peripheral ledge in very deep cavities, gives perfect anchorage. No undercuts are required. All of this done, the cavity should be swept free of chips and fine dust and is ready for filling. The use of chip-blower should be sufficiently frequent and thorough to keep the cavity free from cuttings, and the whole field of operations cleared of debris during all parts of the operation.
In second and third molars some differences of procedure and of instrumentation are necessary on account of the differences of position. Often the bureau not be brought into position for effective use in squaring up the surrounding and pulpal walls, and this is done best with the hoes 12-5-6 or 1 2-5-12, or, in some positions, hoe 12-5-23, used with a scraping motion. In a few cases the bur may be used effectively in the right-angle handpiece, but this is an awkward, and generally ineffective, instrument, and its use instead of hand instruments should be reserved for cases of the greatest necessity.
The mesial wall, and especially the mesio-buccal angle of occlusal cavities in the second and third molars, should be so inclined to the mesial and buccal as to allow of packing gold against them easily. The amount of this inclination will depend upon the position and the character of the approach to the cavity. If the mouth of the patient opens well, giving a good view, and allows instruments to be placed very nearly parallel with the long axis of the tooth operated upon, very little inclination to the mesial and buccal will be required. If, on the other hand, the mouth does not open well, and the approach of the instruments must be at a considerable inclination to the distal, the mesial wall and the mesio-buccal angle must be inclined in proportion, or sufficiently to allow of mallet force being applied parallel with the plane of this wall and angle. Any failure in this will require in filling with gold that the gold be packed against this wall by lateral hand-pressure, which greatly increases the difficulty of making a good filling. When the preparation is for amalgam fillings this is not demanded, but it is still desirable.
When the distal pit in the occlusal surface of the upper molars is the seat of operation, the procedure is not essentially different, except that the approach should be rather more from the buccal. The same instruments and the same methods should be employed. In these it is very generally necessary to cut out
the disto-lingual groove to the crest of the hngual marginal ridge, and frequently to follow it over onto the lingual surface of the tooth. This should be done with the inverted cone bur, as previously described (pages 35 and 62).
In the lower molars the grooves are generally deeper and more deeply sulcate than in the uppers, and will much oftener require cutting out to the crests of the marginal ridges. These teeth frequently have a lingual inclination, which renders occlusal cavities less easy of approach. In this they present great variation, many being as easy of approach as the upper teeth, and sometimes easier. Yet frequently there occurs a lingual inclination that renders them very difficult. If these are prepared for filling with gold by the use of direct force, the mesial wall must be inclined to the mesial, and the mesial portion of the buccal wall must be strongly inclined to the buccal to allow of direct force being used. It is in these cases, however, that reverse pluggers have their greatest use, and when such cavities are to be prepared for the use of these, the mesial and buccal walls may be squared up in the axial plane ''^ without inclination by use of the. square-ended fissure bur in the right-angle hand-piece, or with hoes 12-5- 12 and 12-5-23, and the binangle chisels. Gold can then be well packed with reverse pluggers, but not by direct force.
Occlusal cavities in the upper bicuspids are so easy and direct of access, that little difficulty is experienced in their preparation. The principal points of instrumentation are the same as have been described.
Occlusal cavities in the lower bicuspids are difficult only in cases of strong lingual and distal inclination of these teeth. In these cases the instrumentation is similar to that described for the second and third lower molars, except that smaller cutting instruments will be required.
Pit cavities in the buccal surfaces of the molars. — The pit cavities in the buccal surfaces of the molars must be distinguished sharply from smooth-surface cavities occurring in these surfaces. The pit cavities have their beginning only in the buccal pits and arc primarily in the occlusal half of the buccal surface. .Smooth-surface buccal cavities are primarily in the gingival half of the buccal surface and begin in the smooth
portion of the enamel close to the gum margin. They are not always very close to the gingival margin* of the buccal surface of the tooth, because the free margin of the gum often, particularly in young people, considerably overlaps the gingival portion of this surface.
In these cavities the principles of instrumentation are the same throughout as that described for occlusal cavities, except as their location and the direction of approach render differences necessary. Pits, in which decay has just begun, should be opened with burs as described for occlusal surfaces. Where more decay has occurred, so as to allow the use of chisels, or hoes used as chisels, the opening should be made by chipping away the enamel. The squaring up of the axial and surrounding walls and making the axial line angles definite, should be done in the same way as in occlusal cavities, if done with burs, or if done with the hoes and chisels. Sometimes in the second molars and generally in the third molars the angle of approach will be such that the straight hand-piece of the engine can not approach the cavity at the correct angle, and the right-angle hand-piece must be used, or what is usually better, the work must be done with hoes and binangle chisels. In finishing the enamel walls the case is different, in that the enamel rods will generally be found perpendicular to the surface upon the central part, but inclining toward the occlusal as the occlusal margin of the surface is approached. Therefore the inclination of the enamel rods, or the direction of the cleavage, should be closely noted while chipping away, and the occlusal enamel wall finished in inclination to the occlusal, so as to be parallel with the line of the cleavage. If in any case it is found that because of close approach to the occlusal surface, the inclination of the enamel wall to the occlusal will render the filling material too thin at its margin to have sufficient strength, the buccal groove should be opened over the crest of the marginal ridge and the filling carried onto the occlusal surface in the form of a step. Neglect of this precaution is causing the loss of many otherwise good fillings in this position.
* Note.— Distinguish carefully between the terms gum margin and gingival line, or a gingival margin of a surface of a tooth. Gum margin refers to the position of the free edge of the gum, while the gingival line is the line of junction of the enamel with the cementum, or the normal line of the attachment of the gums to the tooth. The gingival margin of a surface of a tooth is at its gingival line.
Pit or fissure cavities on lingual surfaces do not occur in the lower molars, but do occur occasionally as independent cavities in the lingual grooves of the upper molars and rarely in the mesio-lingual groove of the upper first molars, where there is a fifth cusp. The instrumentation in these is on the principles already given and requires no special description.
In pit cavities in the lingual surfaces of the incisors, two points of special caution need to be mentioned. First, the location of the cavity is such that the pulp is easily reached, and accidentally and unnecessarily exposed, unless especial caution be observed. The use of burs should be limited strictly to the first opening of pits but little decayed. Neither inverted cone nor fissure burs should be used in squaring up the axial and surrounding walls, because the angle of approach is such that the sharp angle of the bur is presented toward the pulp, . instead of its square end. This necessarily defeats the object as to squaring up the axial and surrounding walls, and rendering the axial line angles sharp, and especially endangers the pulp. All of this work should be done with the hoes and the smaller chisels.
Except in the smaller cavities, the direction of the enamel rods will be much inclined to the incisal upon the incisal_^wall of the cavity. This should be carefully noted in clipping away the enamel, and the finished enamel wall should have the proper inclination to give it the necessary strength.
Classes 2, 3, 4 and 5 are all smooth-surface cavities. This distinction has been sufficiently described (page 7), but it is so important that it will be repeated here. The special points of distinction will also be further emphasized as the procedures are developed.
Class 2. — Cavities in the gingival third — not pit cavities — of the labial, buccal, or lingual surfaces of the teeth. — Of these the smooth-surface cavities in the lingual surfaces of the teeth are so infrequent that a mention of them seems to be all that is necessary. Difference in position calls for some differences in instrumentation between these and smooth-surface cavities on the labial and buccal surfaces, but the principles of their preparation are the same.
Labial cavities in the incisors and cuspids. — These cavities occur in surfaces of the enamel that are smooth and perfect. There is no pit, groove or fissure which serves as a starting point for the carious process. In this they are totally different in their conditions and surroundings from the cavities which begin in structural imperfections of the surfaces of the teeth, as pits and fissures. In the beginning of pit and fissure cavities, lodgments of d6bris and fermentable material is confined to the pit itself ; the surface of the tooth immediately surrounding the pit or fissure is so situated in relation to the uses of the teeth that it is constantly kept clean by the friction of mastication. Decay never begins upon clean surfaces. Therefore, there is no disposition for decay to spread upon the surface of the enamel, or to make a new beginning in the immediate neighborhood of the pit or fissure ; it spreads beneath the enamel only.
In all smooth-surface cavities the case is reversed. There is no pit or fissure that holds debris, but the position and relation of the surrounding parts of the surface to the first starti-ng point of decay are such that it is not kept well cleaned by the friction of mastication and the motions of the tongue, lips and cheeks. Therefore, it is much of the time in an unclean condition. This area of uncleanness will vary indefinitely, so that the cases met with in practice vary indefinitely. The first beginning of decay in these surfaces is central to the area of habitual uncleanness, or better, central to the greatest constancy of the uncleanness. As this is close to the gum margin, the first beginning of cavities in labial surfaces is usually close to the gum margin. But as the area of uncleanness is spread upon the surface, so has the beginning of decay a tendency to spread upon the surface. For this reason we find in labial and buccal cavities broad, shallow injuries to the enamel, very frequently, and many instances, when seen early, in which the enamel is broken through at a number of points near together, or spread in a line near the gum margin. An examination of these cases show clearly the tendency for the decay to begin in the enamel in a constantly widening area. Therefore, in preparing this class of cavities for filling, the principle is established of so extending the cavity outline as to include the area of the surface, which, under the conditions presented, is especially liable to decay in the
Case I. — A central incisor has shown sensitiveness near the gum margin, and upon passing a pointed exploring instrument over it, it catches at a number of points, and at some of these the point evidently passes through the enamel into the dentin. Examining the condition of the surface carefully, the appearance of an area of habitual uncleanness is found to extend along the gum line, occupying the middle three-fifths of the surface mesiodistally, and about one-third of the surface gingivo-incisally.
The incisor teeth are now well cleaned and the rubber dam adjusted over them, and the Hatch clamp applied to this tooth and the gingivus forced well out of the way. The surface indicated is well dried and examined. The enamel is found chalky, whitish, with openings through its thickness in the central area ; and, extending mesially and distally in a crescentic form, there are whitish lines. In these lines an exploring instrument does not catch when passed lightly, but when a little force is used it does catch, showing a degree of softening of the enamel. Gingivally the line of injury ceases abruptly at the border of the gums. That portion of enamel covered by the gum is smooth and perfect.
Procedure, — One, or two, or three vigorous strokes of chisel 15 breaks up and removes the injured and friable enamel over the central area, leaving the dentin bare, and reveals the fact that it is exceedingly sensitive. An inverted cone bur with sharp blades, i ni millimeters in diameter, is placed with its end perpendicular to the labial surface directly into the central decay and quickly carried over the whole surface, extending the depth a little into the dentin and somewhat enlarging the opening. The effect of this first movement is to remove the hypersensitive area almost, or quite, completely, and the rest of the excavation can proceed with much less pain. The same bur is again introduced and carried along the mark indicating the position of the gum line until the mesial border of the surface is nearly reached and all of the whitish line of the enamel removed. This may possibly have required two or three cuts, but often may be done with one. With the same bur the distal part is cut out the same way and to the same extent. The result is a narrow, crescentshajjed cavity, no wider than the bur, following the gum line
The incisal wall of this is now broken down with the straight chisel, and if still further extension to the incisal seems required, the bur is passed around the incisal wall, cutting away the dentin from beneath the enamel, which is again chipped away with the chisel. This cutting should be carried to the incisal until such portion of the surface as may seem especially liable to future decay has been removed. Generally, it is not necessary to make considerable extension in this direction.
Next, attention is turned to the gingival wall. The first cut has removed all injured enamel in this direction, but the length of the free gum margin will allow of the cavity being extended more, without reaching the gingival line, and a finish can be made against perfect enamel that will be fully covered by the gum margin. This is just such a wall as is most desirable in all smooth-surface labial or buccal cavities. Decay never begins under a covering of healthy gum, and as long as the margin of the filling is thus protected, and the margin well made, it is safe; therefore the enamel is carefully planed away to the proper position with very sharp chisels with a motion along the length of the wall or from mesial to distal, and from distal to mesial. In executing this the thumb and palm grasp is to be preferred.
The dentin wall is now cut back with the same inverted cone bur used previously or with hoe 6-2-12 or 8-3-12, and slightly undercut in order that it may be retentive. Any corrections required in the gingival enamel wall are now made. This should be inclined strongly to the gingival, the particular inclination having been determined by observation of the direction of the enamel rods while trimming away the enamel from this surface. The incisal wall is also squared up and the dentin wall slightly undercut — about as an inverted cone bur placed with its flat end on the axial wall would do it. This is generally easier done, however, with hatchet 6-2-23. Then the enamel wall is finished, .inclining it slightly to the incisal. Its cavosurface angle should be slightly beveled by a planing motion with a very sharp chisel carried very lightly along its length. The mesial and distal angles of the cavity are similarly finished.
Before filling, the operator may, if he thinks it will be more convenient for starting the filling, cut two convenience points, one in the axio-mesio-gingival angle and one in the axio-distogingival angle. This should be done with the square end of an inverted cone bur, about A or A millimeters in diameter, and be about half the depth of the head of the bur. After forcing the bur into the dentin to this depth it should be drawn a little away along the axio-gingival line angle extending the pit into a slight groove that diminishes and runs out at a length of about three diameters of the bur. This little extension will increase the hold of the gold and render the starting easier and more certain.
We now have a crescent-shaped cavity, with somewhat blunt points, with a perfectly flat axial wall that includes the area of the surface most liable to decay.
Case 2. Left upper central incisor with labial decay. — Cavity open and occupying the gingival third of the surface inciso-gingivally, and the middle three-fifths mesio-distally. The incisors are cleaned, the rubber dam adjusted, the gingivus pushed well back with the Hatch clamp, and the tooth dried. It is now seen that a line of injury to the enamel runs from the mesio-gingival angle of the cavity to a filling in the mesial surface, and another such line connects with the distal surface, in which there is a small open cavity. The filling in the mesial surface is good and sufficient except at its labio-gingival angle, where slight decay has begun. These lines of injury show as a w^hitening of the enamel only, there being as yet no apparent loss of substance. The patient is twenty years old and suffering badly from caries.
Procedure. — All overhanging enamel is chipped away from the incisal portion with chisel 20, using the thumb and palm grasp, and the dentin wall squared up to a sufficient depth. Then with chisel 15 the gingival wall is cut away to sound dentin, again using the thumb and palm grasp and cutting from mesial to distal. This wall is found solid and clean very close to the gingival line, only a very slight band of thin enamel remaining, but it is sufficient to prevent actual injury to the attachment of the peridental membrane. This is favorable and regarded as important, because it insures a healthy free margin of gum after the operation. The angles are also cut to sound dentin with the chisel. At the angles the superficial injury to the enamel is
found to be more extended than the decay in the dentin. An inverted cone bur, i miUimeter in diameter, is placed in the mesiogingiwil angle of the cavity with its square end toward the axial wall, and entered into the dentin just beneath the dento-enamel junction and carried along the line of whitened enamel to the point of connection with the filling in the mesial surface. The enamel is chipped from the incisal wall of this cut with chisel 15 and the cut widened by again passing the bur, cutting the dentin toward the incisal. This portion of the incisal wall is now trimmed smoothly to its connection with the incisal wall of the original' cavity. The same bur is now entered in a similar manner into the disto- gingival angle of the cavity and carried to the distal along the line of the whitened enamel to the margin of the labial surface and slightly over onto the distal surface, but not connected with the distal cavity. This cut is stopped at a point upon the distal surface at which the outline of the distal cavity, when prepared, will cut into it. This cut is now widened toward the incisal by chipping the enamel with the chisel and again cutting away the dentin with the bur and smoothly connected with the incisal wall of the original cavity. This completes the outline of the cavity. The surrounding walls are clean and the retention form partially provided for, but the carious material in the central and deeper portions of the cavity is undisturbed. It is still a question whether or not the pulp will be found exposed when this is removed. The righthand spoon 20-9-12, used with the palm and thumb grasp, is now entered under the distal margin of the carious mass and its edge swept across to the mesial, along the incisal wall, cutting out the decayed material. Another similar cut is made, directed to the gingival half of the cavity, by which the last of the carious material is removed, leaving all parts of the cavity clear and white. The pulp is found covered by sound Ijard dentin. The edge of the spoon is now passed carefully over the surface of the cavity with a scraping motion, to be sure that no softened material remains. This central portion being deeper than is desirable to make the surrounding walls, it may be filled for a part of its depth with zinc oxyphosphate as a protection to the pulp, or better, its central portion may be covered with a bit of quill after the anchorage of the filling has been started and the gold built upon and over it. The anchorage is now to be perfected. The
gingival dentin wall which was left inclined to the gingi\al by the chisel is squared up with hoe 12-5- 12 and slightly undercut with hoe S-3-12 or 6-2-12. Then the enamel wall is finished to the mesial and distal angles with chisel 15, and the cavo-surface angle very slightly beveled. A convenience pit is now made, one toward the mesial and one toward the distal in the gingivoaxial line angle with an u> millimeter inverted cone bur, and each extended slightly by grooving toward the central part of the length of this line angle. The incisal dentin wall is slightly undercut with an inverted cone bur held with its square end to the axial wall and passed along from mesial to distal, or better, with hatchet 8-3-23 or 6-2-23. The incisal enamel wall is finished, being inclined slightly to the incisal and its cavo-surface angle very lightly beveled, the straight chisel 20 being used, and cuttmg in the direction of the length of the wall, using the thumb and palm grasp.
This cavity as prepared in\oh'es nearly half the labial surface inciso-gingivally, and the whole surface mesio-distally, the filling in the mesial cavity making a portion of the wall. Upon the distal the filling, after being made, will be cut into when the cavity on the distal surface is prepared. It is a somewhat extreme type of labial cavity.
Labial cavities in the upper laterals and cuspids, in the lower front teeth, buccal cavities in the bicuspids and in the first molars, would be excavated in the same manner and with the same instruments. The thumb and palm grasp of instruments can not so frecjuently be used to advantage in buccal cavities in bicuspids and first molars, as in like positions in the anterior teeth. In the second and third molars this grasp is usually inapplicable.
Generally the inverted cone or square-ended fissure bur may be used with its shaft at right angles to the buccal surfaces as far back as the first molar, and in occasional fa\orable cases in the second molar. Usually the right-angle hand- piece must be used if the bur is employed in excavating buccal cavities in the second or third molars. In most cases, however, the instrumentation is e.'isier, and the excaxation is made quicker by using chisels and the hoe excavators. These may be effectually assisted by using the inverted cfjne bur for making extensions toward the mesial, chijjping tlie enamel from the occlusal wall of the slot cut, and again undermining with the bur.
The difficult point in the preparation of buccal cavities in the second and third molars occurs when considerable extension of the cavity to the distal is required. If the dentin is hard and firm, and the enamel still strong, it is difficult to cut with hand instruments. This work is effectively done by placing an inverted cone bur, i\ millimeter in diameter, used in the rightangle hand-piece, in the distal portion of the cavity, and entering it in the dentin near the dento-enamel junction, and pushing it to the distal, and at the same time drawing it to the surface. By repeating this motion in cut after cut, the required extension may be made. This slot is now extended by chipping the enamel, and again undermining with the bur as described for other positions. This plan of operating is not always available, however. Often the clamp must be used on the second molars, always on third molars, and the bow of the clamp is in the way of the right-angle hand-piece. In this case, if burs are used at all, they must be used by a different method. An A millimeter inverted cone bur used in the straight hand-piece, is placed with its end against the distal wall of the cavity, and its square end entered in the dentin at the dento-enamel junction. Now by swaying the hand-piece back and forth, the bur is caused to enter the dentin to about the depth of its head ; then, by pressure toward the surface while withdrawing the bur, it is made to cut the enamel from its inner surface. By repeating this motion, the enamel may be cut through and a slot formed of any desired extension. The enamel may now readily be pared from the margins of this with straight chisels, the enamel further undermined to the occlusal or to the gingival by cutting out dentin along the dento-enamel junction with the bur, and removing more enamel with the chisel. In_ this use of instruments the axio-gingival and axio-buccal line angles, as made with the bur, are rounded and not in good condition to receive filling material. This is remedied by cutting these to sharp and definite angles with hoe 6-2-12 or 6-2-23, by a scraping motion!. When the cavity is broad gingivo-occlusally, the size 8-3 of tlie hoes may be used.
Buccal cavities often extend so far gingivally that the gingival wall is beyond the gingival line and the cavo-surface angle is of cementum instead of enamel. This must always be regarded as unfortunate, for the reason that the attachment of the gum to
the tooth has been injured and because of the increased difficulty of making the filling. The injury to the attachment of the gums is necessarily permanent, and yet, if the operation is well and smoothly made, a fair degree of health of the gum margin is generally maintained. In these cases it is best to remove the attached membrane from the cementum sufficiently to allow room for the clamp and provide additional room to readily see the cavity margin after the filling is in place, in order that the filling may be, finished definitely and smoothly to the tooth surface. It is better to destroy the attachment a little further and secure a smooth perfect finish, than to risk imperfect work at so important a point.
Class 3. — Cavities in the proximate surfaces of the incisors and cuspids, which do not involve the removal and restoration of the mesial or distal angle.— In the excavation of this class of cavities a much greater range of forms of cutting instruments may be used effectively than in other classes, and a greater variation of method of instrumentation is consistent with rapid and thorough operating. In the work the ordinaries are used almost exclusively, the bur being employed only to accomplish a few special purposes. The cavities are all smooth-surface cavities and the rules of extension for prevention are applied in their preparation.
Case I. — The left upper central incisor has a decay in its mesial surface, just to the gingival of its contact point. Apparently it is small, but a curved exploring instrument introduced from the labial or from the lingual enters through the enamel.
Procedure. — The first procedure is to free all of the incisor teeth of debris or micro-organisms and gummy material, particularly about their gingival portion, and apply the rubber dam. Dry the teeth and apply the- Perry separator and get sufficient separation to pass a thin polishing tape between the teeth. Then, with the 8-3-6 hoe used as a chisel, begin near the labial margin of the cavity to break down the overhanging enamel, chipping from the surface into the cavity. This should generally be done by hand pressure, being careful to place the edge of the cutting instrument very near the margin in each instance and split off the enamel in little flakes. In this cutting the third finger should be very securely rested upon the adjacent teeth and the motions of the instrument so closely controlled that its
edge will not be thrust into the depths of the cavity and cause pain. Continue this cutting until the enamel is found supported by sound dentin, or until the cavity of decay is well exposed. In many cases it will be best in this position, when decay is extensive, to leave some enamel unsupported by dentin, especially when of about full strength, rather than expose so much filling material as the complete removal of the enamel would do. When this wall has been chipped away sufficiently, chip away the lingual wall in the same way and with the same instrument, working from the lingual. This, if the cavity be not very small, will give good access to all of its parts. If the cavity is small, take hatchet 8-3-12 and introduce its blade between the teeth from the labial, with the edge directed to the gingival, catch the enamel near the cavity margin and chip it away by a prying motion, using the proximating tooth as a fulcrum, removing as much enamel in this way as practicable. Only the thinner portions of weakened enamel margins can be removed by this motion ; but now a stronger instrument may be used, sufficient room having been obtained for its introduction. Generally, hatchet 12-5-6 or chisel 10 may be introduced against the labial enamel wall, with its edge directed toward the gingival and the enamel wall trimmed away, using strong hand pressure, and, by changing the direction, the cutting can be continued along the gingival wall to or past the labio-lingual center of the tooth. With the same instruments working from the lingual, the lingual wall is next cut down in the same way, to, and somewhat past, the linguo-gingival angle of the cavity. For trimming the remainder of the gingival wall hoe 12-5-6 will be required, or the 8-3-6 if the cavity is not opened sufficiently to admit the larger instrument. This is done with a scraping motion. Frequently hatchet 12-5- 12 will do this well, working from the labial. The gingival wall should be cut to sound dentin and made as nearly flat in the horizontal plane as practicable.
Now, examine carefully as to the requirements of extension for prevention. In most cases a line of superficial injury to the enamel will be found running away labially, from the labio-gingival angle of the cavity near the gum line. Another line of superficial injury leads away in similar fashion from the linguogingival angle. Often, also, particularly in the smaller cavities, there is superficial enamel injury to the gingival of the gingival
wall. The cavity must now be extended so that it will include all of these superficial injuries. To do this, place a small inverted cone bur (I'V or lu millimeter) in the labio-gingival angle, introducing it from the lingual in most cavities, and enter the dentin close to the enamel junction, and swaying the hand-piece as much as the position will allow, undermine the enamel in the direction of the line of superficial injury, sinking it at first about the depth of the bur head. Then very slowly withdraw the bur, pressing it toward the labial and incisal, thus widening the cut in this direction. Now, with the hoe 12-5-6 or 8-3-6, the undermined enamel may be chipped away. These cuttings may be repeated until the extension in this particular direction seems sufficient. If now it is desirable to extend the cavity to the gingival, the same bur may be introduced as before, and drawn toward the lingual with pressure against the gingival wall, cutting the dentin close against the dento-enamel junction, and the undermined enamel chipped away with the hoes or hatchets, working from the labial. In many cases all of this cutting with the bur can better be done from the labial, keeping the shaft of the instrument as nearly as possible in line with the central axis of the tooth. After some cutting in this way, the attention should be turned to the linguo-gingival angle. To extend this the same bur should be introduced from the labial and its end entered into the dentin at the dento-enamel junction in the direction to undermine the line of injured enamel. In this position the first cut should generally be made as near to the lingual enamel plate as is desirable to cut the cavity, and the bur should be drawn back with pressure toward the gingival, extending the undermining in that direction. It is also generally desirable in this position to again introduce the bur, and while drawing it toward the labial make pressure against the undermined enamel, so as to weaken it. Then it may be broken away with hoe 8-3-12, catching the edge of the instrument on the surface and using a pulling motion, throwing the chips into the cavity, or it may be cut away by using a scraping motion from labial to lingual with hoe 12-5-12, or 83-12 if the first is too broad to enter the cavity well. Also this is well done with hatchets 12-5- 12, or 8-3-12, or enamel hatchet 10-6- 12 working from the labial. If still more extension to the gingival is required, it is readily done by passing the square end of the bur along the gingival wall, cutting out the
dentin close against the dento-enamel junction and afterward removing the enamel. In excavating and extending cavities in the proximate surfaces of the incisors and cuspids, it should be noted particularly that these surfaces are wedge-shaped or triangular, with the base of the triangle at the gingival margin, and that the finished cavity should have that form, with its labio-gingival and linguo-gingival - angles widely extended toward the angles of the surface decayed. The gingival wall should be perfectly flat mesio-distally with the axio -gingival line angle sharp. Labio-Iingually it should be either straight and parallel with the horizontal plane of the tooth, or curved with its convexity to the incisal.
The incisal angle should next receive attention. It often happens that decay has extended along the dento-enamel junction considerably in this direction. The enamel should be chipped away with hoe 12-5- 12 or 8-3-12 until sound dentin has been fully reached, and in doing this, very careful attention should be given to the direction of cleavage with reference to the final inclination of the finished enamel wall. When the outline form has been attained, the incisal angle should be undercut for retention. Usually this should be done before looking specially to the retention in other parts of the cavity, for the strength required of these will depend much upon the strength of the incisal retention. The incisal retention is made by undercutting to the incisal in the form of a groove. The incisal angle is first well rounded and the dentin cut away to some depth from the dento-enamel junction directly at right angles to the axial surface of the tooth, with hoes 8-3-12 and 8-3-23, or equivalent hatchets, using angle 23 mostly close against the labial wall. Then hatchet 5-3-28, or if that blade is too long, hatchet 3-2-28 is used for cutting a groove in the incisal angle, and extending it along the labio-axial line angle. The instrument is introduced from the labial, its edge directed to the incisal, and, beginning at the labio-axial line angle a little removed from the incisal angle, carry its edge toward the incisal and lingual around the angle, in part by a twist of the instrument. Then it is placed well to the lingual and swept in the opposite direction, or toward the labial, all the time cutting close against or slightly into the axial wall. These motions are repeated until the groove is of sufficient depth. Now, with the
8-3-23 hoe, or if the cavity is small the 6-2-23 hoe, introduced from the labial and with its edge turned to the labial or the axial wall, the axio-labial line angle is made sharp and definite along the length of it well to the gingival, using a scraping motion from the gingival toward the incisal. Often the 6-2-23 hatchet will do this as well, using it with a back and forth scraping motion, holding the shaft of the instrument at right angles to the long axis of the tooth. The axio-lingual line angle is now made definite throughout its length, using hoes 8-3-12 or 6-2-12 or the 6-2-23 near the incisal angle. This should be completed to, and into the axio-linguo-gingival angle. Undercutting at the axio-linguo-gingival angle for retention will depend upon the strength of the incisal anchorage ; if this be good, but slight retentive form, just sufficient to serve in starting the filling, is all that is needed in this position. The ' axio-labio-gingival angle, which has been left sufficiently definite by the bur, is now slightly grooved for a short distance toward the incisal, completing the retentive form by squaring out with hoe 6-2-12 or hatchet 6-2-23. Any decay now remaining in the deeper parts of the central portion of the cavity is removed with spoons 10-6-12. Or if the cavity is large, the spoons 15-8-12 may sometimes be better. The cavity is now ready for the finish of the enamel walls and the cavo-surface angles.
The enamel wall is planed smooth in every part and its inclination corrected. If the operator has noted carefully the direction of the cleavage of the enamel at all points while chipping it away, he will be at no loss as to the correct inclination at the different points, he remembering that this shall follow closely the cleavage lines.
This is done in all parts with the chisels, except some portions of the gingival enamel wall and a short reach upon the lingual wall where it joins the incisal angle. The movement of the chisel should be along the length of the enamel wall, cutting very lightly. It must be very sharp to be effective. At the labio-gingival and linguo-gingival angles the outline should form short curves, no matter how sharp the angles of the dentin walls; sometimes it is difficult to plane the whole length of the gingival wall smoothly with the chisel, especially where it joins the curve at the linguo-gingival angle. Here hatchet 12-5-6 or 1 2-5- 1 2 answers better; or occasionally one of the hoes. These
instruments will also smooth the lingual portion of the curve at the incisal angle in many cases. At the incisal angle, the inclination of the enamel wall must generally be strongly toward the incisal, especially in distal cavities, in order to follow the length of the enamel rods.
When the trimming is done, note carefully whether the retentive form has been injured at any important point by trimming too deeply, and make such corrections as may be required.
Finally bevel the cavo-surface angle in all parts of the enamel margin, using the chisel for nearly all this work. At a few points, especially along the gingival, the hatchet 12-5-6 or 12-5-12, or the 10-6-12 enamel hatchet, will do the work easier. Make the toilet of the cavity and fill.
General observations on the preparation of proximate cavities in the incisors and cuspids. — In all cases the enamel margins should be cut sufficiently around the curves of the surface toward the labial and lingual, that the margin will be well away from the contact of the two teeth when the filling has been finished. At the gingival the margin should be well covered by the gum septum when this is in its normal position. The gum septum should be carefully preserved from injury in all parts of the operation, for upon the health of this tissue depends largely the health and good appearance of the tooth. Toward the incisal the cutting should always include the normal contact point in distal cavities. In mesial surfaces the contact point is sometimes so near the incisal angle that this is impracticable. In these cases, unless strictly required by the extension of decay, the original contact point of the enamel should not be removed, but a new contact should be made by a slight fullness of the filling a little to the gingival of the position of the original contact, so that the incisal enamel margin will be held a little apart from contact with the proximating tooth. A very little space at this point is sufiicient, for the reason that to the incisal of the contact, in the use of the teeth, the excursions of food constantly cleans the margin of the filling.
In medium and large cavities it is best to cut the labial wall well over onto the labial surface of the tooth, for the reason that, if cut only to the mesio-labial or disto-labial angle the light will not reflect from the surface of the filling and it will appear as a
dark cavity. A little further extension to the labial relieves this and gives the appearance of a filling. A little careful observation of this point will prevent mistakes that are often very annoying to sensitive patients. The appearance of sharp angles in cavity outlines that are exposed to view should be avoided. Slighdy curved lines are better than straight lines. But the key to good appearance of operations on the incisors is perfect tooth form, including particularly the full mesio-distal breadth of the tooth. In the incisors, and especially in the laterals, the labial embrasure is usually well rounded out, and open, because of the rounded form of the labio-mesial and labio-distal angles of these teeth. Upon the lingual the embrasures are very shallow and close, because of the acuteness of the mesio-lingual and distolingual angles of the teeth, and the flatness of the lingual surfaces from mesial to distal. For this reason the proximate cavities in these teeth often begin well toward the lingual and burrow much more under the enamel of the linguo-mesial or linguo-distal angle of the tooth than toward the labial. The result is that the enamel to the lingual is often undermined and very thin from injury of the inner half of its thickness from backward decay, or decay of its inner surface. Also the lingual marginal ridges are often quite sharp and the course of the enamel rods uncertain, so that a good margin can not certainly be made upon the sharp curves of these ridges. Therefore, when the enamel margin of the cavity must be laid against the enamel of the lingual marginal ridge, it is best to cut away the marginal ridge and lay the enamel margin of the cavity on the lingual surface of the tooth. In this case this enamel wall will be cut parallel with the axial wall of the cavity, or in the labiolingual plane of the tooth. Frequendy this enamel wall will be level with the axial wall of the cavity, and this renders the placing of the filling more than ordinarily difficult. When the amount of tissue will allow, it is well to sink the lingual portion of the axial dentin wall sufficiendy to obtain a slight ledge at the lingual. This is readily done with a few strokes of the 6-2-12 hoe for the gingival third, and with the 6-2-23 hoe for the incisal two-thirds of the lingual wall, introducing these instruments from the labial.
angle, and its restoration. — In this class of cases the proximate cavity is prepared, with the exception of its mesial angle, in the same way and with the same instruments as have been described, except that the anchorages in the labio-gingival and linguo-gingival angles are made deeper and stronger. That is, the axial wall is cut deeper into the dentin in the gingival portion to the lingual and to the labial than in its central area, for the purpose of sinking these anchorage points deeper into the substance of the dentin.
The weak incisal angle is cut away to the labial groove, mesial or distal, as the cavity is to the mesial or distal. This groove, although not very apparent, is a weak line in the enamel at which it most often breaks, and it should always be included when the angle is so weak as to require removal. When this has been done, cut away the incisal edge of the middle lobe of the tooth, i. e. , to the next labial groove mesial or distal, with the corundum stone in the engine or with a small flat jeweler's file, cutting more from the lingual than the labial. The depth of this cutting should depend upon the thickness of the cutting edge of the tooth. If the cutting edge be thick and already somewhat worn, very slight cutting is sufficient. If unworn and thin, the cutting should be greater. A small inverted cone bur, not more than I'ij millimeter in diameter, is now caused to enter the dentin in the proximate cavity, close to the junction of the labial and lingual enamel plates, and carried, by a series of cuts in which the bur is drawn out at the incisal edge, along the length of the incisal edge across the middle lobe, or as far as the incisal edge has been previously cut. In this cutting with the bur, the labial enamel plate should be left complete and the cutting done at the expense of the lingual enamel plate. After the first cut is completed, forming a groove, in which the bur should always reach fully into the dentin between the labial and lingual plates, the lingual plate should be cut away to very nearly or quite the depth of the cut by the bur. Then the bur should again be passed along the slight groove left, cutting it deeper, keeping close to the lingual rather than the labial enamel plate, forming a groove in the dentin between the enamel plates. In making this groove it is an object to leave as much dentin as possible supporting the labial enamel plate. The depth of the cutting toward the pulp of the tooth must be guided by the judgment of the operator,
care being taken not to expose the pulp. But in these cases it is ahvays better to expose and remo\e the pulp, than to fill with an anchorage that is manifestly insufficient. The groove is the principal dependence for the incisal anchorage. This should be squared out with a fissure bur and its walls made parallel. No undercuts or pits are needed. A little broadening and rounding away where it joins the proximate cavity will make this connection stronger. In the incisal enamel walls formed in making this incisal step, both labial and lingual, the enamel rods incline toward the incisal, and these walls should take that form rather than be cut at right angles with the long axis of the tooth, and then the cavo-surface angle must be slightly beveled ip order to give it greater strength.
Teeth with thin, cutting edges are very difficult of management in making incisal steps for the restoration of a lost or weak angle, because the gold built on them is too thin to have sufficient strength. In many of these cases, the incisal edge of all of the incisors, or only the centrals, may be ground away in imitation of normal wear, and the incisal edge thickened without injury to the appearance. In doing this it is well to remember that in very thin teeth the horn of the incisal pulp is likely to be long and slender, and the danger of exposing them in cutting the step is increased.
In cases where there has been such wear of the incisal edges of the teeth that the dentin is exposed, the step should include all of the exposed dentin. In this case very little cutting from the lingual enamel plate will be needed, and generally none from the labial. In the management of this class of cases it should be remembered that in such large cavities the bulk of gold in close proximity to the pulp is liable, through its conductivity of thermal changes, to set up irritation that will destroy its vitality. In cases in which there seems to be imminent danger of this, it is better to remove the pulp at once. It is also better to remove the pulp at once than to run serious risk of losing the filling from insufficient anchorage in the effort to save the pulp alive.
Class 5. — Preparation of cavities in the proximate surfaces of bicuspids and molars. — The preparation of proximate cavities in the bicuspids and molars, if estimated by the comparative number of failures in filling teeth, must be regarded as the most difficult of filling operations. Therefore,
more than usual attention should be given by the student to the specific plans and details of these operations. The instruments used are almost exclusively the specials. There is very little that can be done advantageously with the ordinaries except some occasional cutting with the larger sizes. More cutting away of sound firm dentin and enamel is required than in any other class of cavities. The proximating surfaces are broad, and for success in preventing recurrence of decay, it is required that these be cut away, so that the outlines of the cavity be free from near contact with proximating teeth, and laid in such position that they will be well cleaned by excursions of food over them in mastication. Also, in making fillings it is of the utmost importance that the contact be restored in normal form for the protection of the interproximate gum septum, that this may be retained in health and vigor. To do this effectually, it is required that these fillings be finished to the full mesio-distal breadth of the teeth.
Case. — A right upper first molar has a decay in its mesial surface, which has been discovered by the patient because of a slight breaking away of the mesial marginal ridge, disclosing the cavity. Examination with the exploring instrument shows the cavity to occupy about half of the mesial surface occluso-gingivally and the middle two-fourths bucco-lingually in its extension beneath the enamel, though the enamel opening is very much smaller.
Procedure. — In these cases it always becomes a question as to when the rubber dam and the Perry separator shall be adjusted. It may be done first, or it may be done after the cavity has been opened and the outline form roughly cut. But it must always be done before the final shaping and trimming of the walls and margins of the cavity is undertaken.
Opening the cavity. — With straight chisel 15, preferably by mallet pressure, though hand pressure may be used, begin chipping away the mesial marginal ridge of enamel overhanging the decayed area, first toward the buccal, and then toward the lingual, and continue until the enamel is found supported by sound dentin. In the cutting, especially if done by hand pressure, the edge of the chisel should be set very close to the margin to be chipped, and the enamel cleaved off in little flakes, the direction of the pressure and the motion being almost in the line
of the length of the enamel rods, but slightly inclined in a direction to throw the chips off from the free surface into the cavity. The instrument must be very sharp to be effective. Then cut away the enamel toward the central fossa, as far as it can well be done by the chisel. At this point it is well to take the enamel hatchets 15-8- 12, or 20-9-12 if there is sufficient room, and trim the overhanging enamel from the buccal and lingual walls of the cavity with a few strong, vigorous strokes, or the buccal wall may usually be cut with the straight or binangle chisel, using the enamel hatchet for the lingual wall. Then sweep the enamel hatchets around the gingival wall with a scraping motion, cutting to sound dentin. Note particularly that the enamel hatchet of the right bevel, to cut the lingual wall, 'should cut to the lingual in trimming gingival wall ; while the one with the right bevel, to cut the buccal wall, should move to the buccal in cutting the gingival wall. If the cavity is shallow mesiodistally, this will incidentally remove most of the carious dentin ; but that is immaterial. If the cavity is very deep mesio-distally, no further effort should now be made to remove the carious dentin. The outlines of the cavity are exposed, and that is sufficient. The next procedure is to cut a step in the occlusal surface for the retention, and complete the outline of the cavity in this direction. Select an inverted cone bur not more than one millimeter in diameter, and placing its shaft nearly or quite parallel with the long axis of the tooth, enter the bur sidewise into the dentin just beneath the dento-enamel junction, and draw it slowly to the occlusal surface of the enamel. Repeat this motion in cut after cut, following the mesial groove distally to the pit in, the central fossa. Then with straight chisel 15 or 20, or with the enamel hatchets, chip away the enamel from either side of the slot formed by the bur. Now pass the bur along the slot again, first pressing it strongly to the buccal so as to undermine the enamel, then pressing to the lingual, and again chip away the enamel both to the buccal and to the lingual. Repeat this until the step occupies the full middle third of the occlusal surface bucco-lingually to and including the pit in the central fossa. Now the buccal groove and other sharp grooves should be cut out as in the preparation of occlusal cavities. This gives a step with a flat pulpal wall and definite angles with its surrounding walls, and of perfect retentive form.
Next the proximate portion of the cavity must be extended. When the buccal and lingual walls have been cut away to sound dentin, it is often' necessary to extend them further. They should be cut well into the embrasures, both buccally and lingually, so that the cavity margin will be removed from near contact with the proximating tooth. When much sound dentin must be removed to accomplish this, it is easier to do it by introducing an inverted cone bur into the dentin against the dentoenamel junction, about the bucco-lingual center of the length of the gingival wall, and carry it buccally to the buccal wall, squaring out the bucco-^ingival angle, and then, drawing it along the buccal wall toward the occlusal surface, undermine the enamel along this wall also. Then the undermined enamel is easily cut away with the enamel hatchets, or by chipping with the chisel used from the buccal angle of the tooth through the embrasure. Cut out and extend the linguo-gingival angle and the gingival wall in the same way and using the same instruments. A good rule as to the extent of the extension is to cut the lingual wall to a line where its margin will be in view, past the proximating tooth when looking across the central incisors at the median line, and make the extension of the buccal wall to correspond. In some instances it will be found that after this extension has been made, a line of superficial injury to the enamel extends beyond the margin of the cavity at one or both of its gingival angles. This should be carefully looked for, and when found, the cavity should be further extended so as to include the injured portion.
It must now be determined whether or not the gingival wall has been sufficiently extended gingivally for its margin and its buccal and lingual angles to be covered by the free margin of the gums when the filling is finished. If not, it must be extended further to the gingival. This is difficult to do entirely with hand instruments, but by using an inverted cone bur with its flat end against the gingival wall, it is inclined sufficiently for its corner to engage, and carried, within the dentin, along the dento-enamel junction to the bucco-gingival angle, then inclined in the opposite direction it is carried into the linguo-gingival angle. In this way the enamel to the gingival is undermined and may be much weakened by passing the bur a few times with hard pressure against its inner side. It may then be removed
and definite.
Any decay remaining on the axial wall is now removed with spoons 20-9-12, or in this particular position with the discoid. The enamel walls are now planed to form. ' In all of the occlusal portion these may be perpendicular. On the buccal, the enamel wall must be inclined strongly to the buccal to agree with the enamel cleavage. The lingual enamel wall must be inclined similarly to the lingual. The inclination given the buccal and lingual enamel walls will depend upon their relations to the angles of the tooth. Generally the plane of the enamel wall should be perpendicular to the surface of the tooth at the particular point where the enamel margin is laid. The apparent inclination will therefore vary with its position. If the cavity margin is carried far around the angle onto the buccal surface, the plane of the enamel wall will be nearly or quite in the buccolingual plane of the tooth. If a less distance, the inclination will be less. The gingival enamel wall should be inclined a little to the gingival. The cavo-surface angle of all parts of the cavity outline must now be beveled. All except the gingival and the rounding of the bucco-and-linguo-gingival angles may be done with the chisels. A special instrument is required for beveling the gingival cavo-surface angle, the gingival margin trimmers 20- ( 80) -g- 12 for mesial cavities and 20- (95) -9- 12 for distal cavities. These instruments are used for no other purpose whatever. They have the angle of the edge cut purposely for making this bevel. A few strokes lightly made, and carried around the angle first with the right-hand instrument in the one direction and then with the left-hand instrument in the other direction, are sufficient.
ready for filling.
However, most persons would prefer some convenience points in the gingival portion of the cavity for retention in starting a gold filling. These are made, one in the axio-bucco-gingival angle, and one in the axio-linguo-gingival angle, by pressing an inverted cone bur into the dentin slightly and drawing it a short distance to the occlusal along the bucco-axial line angle and the axio-lingual line angle respectively. These give sufficient starting
in progress.
Variations due to position. — The variations of procedure due to position of the teeth in the mouth and the different degrees of exposure of the parts to view and to approach, relate mostly to the second and third molars and to the lower bicuspids. The upper first bicuspids are usually so well exposed that both the mesial and distal cavities are easily reached, and except that the smaller cutting instruments, as the 15-8-12 and 10-6-12 enamel hatchets and corresponding chisels and spoons, are necessary, the instruments and the instrumentation will be the same. Neither is it often necessary to make any variation in distal cavities in the first molar or mesial cavities in the second molar, above or below.
In distal cavities in the second molar and mesial cavities in the third molar it frequently happens that the inverted cone bur can not be made to approach the cavity at the proper angle to square out and extend the bucco- and linguo-gingival angles. In these cases the bur in the right-angle hand-piece may be substituted, or the cutting may be done entirely with the hand instruments. However, in the greater number of cases in which distal cavities in the second molar are excavated at the same time with mesial cavities in the third, the straight hand-piece may be used for both. This is facilitated by cutting the step in the second molar first and carrying it well to the mesial. This gives additional room for the application of instruments to the distal portion of the cavity and also to the mesial cavity in the third molar.
Occasionally there is difficulty in so placing the inverted cone bur as to begin cutting the step in the occlusal portion from the distal cavity of a second molar. The approach is such that the shaft of the instrument is inclined so much to the distal that the bur cuts the enamel from the surface inward, instead of cutting the enamel from within outward, and for this reason will not cut well. The proper position of the bur may be obtained with the right-angle hand-piece, but if the enamel proves very hard this instrument does not work well. It is better in such cases to enter the occlusal surface through the pit in the central fossa in the usual way of opening pits, or with a drill, if the pit is fully closed, and then enter the inverted cone bur at this point and cut to the distal along the line of the distal groove until the
the step.
The approach to distal cavities in the upper second molars is often somewhat from the buccal, and to facilitate this approach in building the filling the buccal wall should be strongly inclined to the buccal, whenever this can be done without very positive detriment to the case. One should never neglect to obtain such form as will render the filling of the cavity convenient.
In the lower molars, especially those that have a strong lingual inclination, the form of the distal cavity may be made for filling with reverse pluggers. In this case the buccal wall may be cut parallel with the long axis of the tooth and the gold packed against it entirely with the reverse plugger.
The greatest difficulty is met with in distal cavities in lower bicuspids that have a strong distal and lingual inclination. It is in these that a right-angle hand-piece and the reverse pluggers are most needed. These teeth are often small and the crowns long and decayed far to the gingival. They are difficult to reach with direct instruments. In these cases at least two teeth to the distal should be included in the rubber dam. Even if the first and second molars are lost, the rubber should include the third molar, to give good room for the use of the mouth mirror, for light, and to hold the rubber out of the way of instruments. It will then be found that the cavity is easily reached with handcutting instruments and the right-angle hand-piece, and is readily filled with reverse pluggers after having attained facility m their use. In the absence of reverse pluggers much of the filling must be made by hand pressure. The form of the cavity should not differ materially from the forms produced in other teeth. If, however, it is decided that direct mallet force is to be employed to the greatest possible extent, the disto-buccal angle of the tooth should be boldly cut away sufficiently to give access to the gingival wall and the greater part of the cavity walls generally, and the step carried close against the mesial marginal ridge. This will allow a direct approach from the disto-buccal to all of the cavity walls except the axio-bucco-gingival angle, which must be filled by hand pressure.
Bicuspids.
In the lower molars, especially when the contacts are very broad, the proximate cavities are likely to be deepest toward the lingual, and to burrow extensively along the lingual dentoenamel junction. In these cases the lingual wall will be weak at the mesio- or disto-lingual angle of the tooth, and this not infrequently extends to the central line of the lingual surface. In all such cases the removal of the angle, including the lingual cusp, mesial or distal, is imperative. This should usually be done by catching the enamel near the margin of the cavity with the sharp edge of binangle chisel, and with a pull toward the cavity, split it off. This may be thrown off, chip after chip, easily, until a point is found at which it is supported by sound dentin, or strong enough for a filling to be built against it and restore .the lost contour with safety.
In occlusal cavities in these teeth, the central pit in which decay begins is much nearer the lingual than the buccal surface, because of the rounding of the buccal surface toward the occlusal. For this reason the lingual enamel plate is often undermined and weakened in its central portion mesio-distally, even in cavities that are not very much extended in other directions. In these cases the lingual groove should be cut out over the crest of the marginal ridge and the marginal ridge itself removed well toward both the disto- and mesio-lingual cusps. The gap formed in the lingual wall may be built over and the form of the tooth restored. In both these cases the enamel wall remaining should be smoothly cut at right angles to the axial plane of the tooth.
In the upper molars the buccal wall is more often the weak wall. This does not so often occur in case of occlusal cavities, though it is not infrequent. But often in mesial cavities the mesio-buccal angle is found badly undermined by decay. If the decay has spread along the dento-enamel junction or if the decay has reached the enamel and left it unsupported, the cusp should be cut away at once and be restored with the filling material. Often in mesial cavities decay will have extended far to the buccal without undermining the cusp, in which case an extension of the enamel margin will not meet the
In upper first molars, with large disto-lingual cusps, the contact point is often toward the lingual, and caries of the distal surface is therefore likely to begin in such position as to undermine the linguo-distal cusp and weaken the lingual wall of the cavity. Also the disto-lingual groove is usually deep and sharply sulcate in these teeth, and forms a very weak line in the enamel. Therefore, unless the lingual enamel wall is found well supported by dentin, the cusp should be removed and the enamel cut away to the disto-lingual groove, and the cutting continued toward the gingival until good strength is found.
In the upper bicuspids, the buccal angles are most likely to be undermined first because of the contact point being well toward the buccal, and the first beginning of decay occurring just to the gingival of it. When the angle, either mesial or distal, is so undermined that the enamel is unsupported by dentin, it should be cut away to the buccal groove. This groove, though generally so well closed on the buccal surfaces of the bicuspids as not to be very apparent, is still a weak line in the enamel, at which it is more than usually liable to break.
In addition to these special points of liability to weak walls, decay is liable to burrow in any direction, causing weak walls in other, and occasionally in unusual, positions. Any such are to be treated upon the general lines that have been indicated. It should be a rule that when a wall requires cutting away because it has been weakened by decay, and, in the cutting, a developmental groove is approached, it should be cut to, or past the groo\'e.
In mesio-occluso-distal cavities in the upper bicuspids, from which the pulp has been removed, the whole of the occlusal enamel plates should be removed to, and slightly over, their crests to the buccal and lingual, and be restored by filling material. This will bring the work of mastication entirely upon the filling material and prevent the weakened cusps from being split off.
Separating Teeth.
In filling proximate cavities in which the proximate tooth is present, provision must be made before the filling is begun for finishing the filling. If the teeth originally
made a close contact, it is necessary to separate them, or lift them a little apart in order that we may finish the filling to the full mesio-distal breadth of the tooth and restore the contact in correct form, preserving the full breadth of the interproximate space. This is necessary to the maintenance of the health of the interproximate gingivae, the gums, the peridental membranes and the teeth. If the contact of the filling with the proximating tooth is not made in correct form, food will be held between the teeth and will be crowded upon the interproximate gum tissue, causing inflammation and absorption, and finally injure the gums and peridental membranes, perhaps causing incurable disease and final loss of the teeth. Or, by forming a pocket in the gum tissue about the gingival margin of the filling, in which debris undergoes fermentative decomposition with acid formation, recurrence of decay is caused which destroys the filling and the tooth. These considerations, derived from careful clinical observation, render it imperative that we make provision for finishing proximate surface fillings to very exact form by first separating them sufiiciently to give room to do this work.
In all ordinary cases the separation of teeth to gain room for finishing is done best by the use of the Perry separator. This instrument simply catches the two teeth by their necks and lifts them apart by turning a screw. The separation required is done with the least pain possible, is done at once, and without causing especial soreness of the teeth. Generally the separator should be applied before the filling is begun and the teeth separated sufficiently at once. Occasionally, and especially with the molar teeth, when the teeth are very firm, they are difficult to move sufficiently. If in such cases the separator is forced very tight, the instrument springs instead of separating the teeth, B.ut when it is allowed to remain and the filling is proceeded with, it is found that when the filling has been built and is ready for finishing the continuous spring force of the separator has caused them to yield sufficiently. "We should make note of this and be careful not to force the separator too hard upon the single-rooted teeth, for if we attain the full separation required at once we will find when the filling is completed that we have separated the teeth much more than was necessary. All of this you will learn intimately by observation in the infirmary.
upon the teeth they should be made firm by propping them with gutta-percha. To do this the gutta-percha is softened by heat and placed between the bows of the separator and the occlusal, or incisal, surfaces of the teeth, and allow a little time for it to harden before finishing the separation. This should be done at once when the separator has been made just tight enough to retain its position well, for in the after tightening of the screws there is a tendency for the claws of the separator to slip further to the gingival and, coming against the attachment of the peridental membrane to the neck of the tooth, cause unnecessary pain and some injury. This also prevents movements of the separator which causes the patient much pain and inconvenience while operating.
The principal objections to the Perry separator are, first, that in the sets of six, as usually sold, there are not a sufficient number of forms to accurately fit all kinds of cases ; second, that they are very expensive instruments ; and third, that there are many irregular cases with teeth so out of position that they can not be made to fit. This last objection will naturally attach to all mechanical devices for this purpose.*
When the teeth are very irregular in the arch, other means of separation often have to be devised. Wedges of wood may sometimes be used, or cotton can be crowded tightly between the teeth and tied over or about the contact point with a ligature and accomplish a sufficient separation within a few days. Drawing slips of rubber between the teeth and cutting the ends short is a very efifective method of slow separation, but is apt to make the teeth very sore. In using rubber for separating great care should be had that the rubber does not press upon the gum septum. This not only creates unnecessary soreness, but is liable to do great injury to the gum septum.
A method that is excellent for very slow separation in the molars and bicuspids is to excavate the cavity roughly and moisten its surfaces with eucalyptol to make the gutta-percha adhere to the walls, and then fill it solidly with gutta-percha, filling the interproximate space solidly against the proximating tooth. In doing this an instrument of some form should be
NoTK.— A modified form of the Perry separator, universal in its application, is now under trial, which, if successful, will materially reduce the cost, as one instrument will take the place of the set of six.
placed firmly in the interproximate space against the gum septum while the gutta-percha is being packed, and afterward removed. This will protect the gum septum from being absorbed by the continued pressure of the gutta-percha. This point should never be neglected, as a full gum septum is necessary to the health of the parts, and it should be carefully protected against injury. When the patient is discharged temporarily he should be directed' to make vigorous use of the tooth in chewing. The impact of the food will cause the gutta-percha to spread and carry the teeth' apart sufficiently within a week or two. This is a very effective method of slow wedging in cases in which the teeth have dropped together from loss of the contact point, and has the merit of moving the teeth without creating soreness.
In cases requiring much movement it can be hurried a great deal by first putting on the Perry separator and lifting the teeth apart as much as possible, and making the gutta-percha filling, as indicated above, and giving sufficient time for the guttapercha to become fully hard before removing the separator. This may be repeated at intervals of two or three days until sufficient separation has been obtained to fully restore the width of the interproximate space and mesio-distal breadth of the tooth.
It occasionally happens that a tooth has lost the greater part of its crown, and the teeth on either side have dropped together over it, so that the restoration of the form of the crown is impossible without a very considerable separation. In this case the breadth of two interproximate spaces are to be recovered by separation. If the lingual and buccal walls are still sufficiently strong, it is still possible to accomplish this with gutta-percha, but when they are not it is better to cut away most of the remaining portions of the crown, and insert a piece of hard, dry hickory wood in place of the missing crown in such a way that the length of the grain of the wood shall be from buccal to lingual. This should be cut to fit snugly between the two teeth on either side, and forced into position. This will absorb moisture from the saliva, and swell and slowly carry the teeth apart. The wood should be exchanged for a new piece once in two or three days, and continued until space is gained for the restoration of the full mesio-distal breadth of the crown. This plan is especially useful in gaining the necessary space for restoration
Filling Materials.
The fining materials at present in use for permanent operations are, gold, which holds the first place, and amalgam, which holds a second place, in value. Added to these many would reckon tin as holding a place equal or nearly equal to amalgam, but the. general judgment of the dental profession would seem to consign tin to a very obscure position as a filling material, as nowadays very few persons make much use of it.
The qualities most desired in a filling material for permanent operations are indestructibility in the fluids of the mouth, adaptability to the walls of cavities, freedom from shrinkage or expansion after having been made into fillings, and resistance to attrition and the force of mastication.
ence of manipulation.
Of these first qualities gold seems to possess in much the greatest degree those most essential. It is perfecdy indestructible in the fluids of the mouth; it is very perfecdy adaptable to the walls of cavities; it is free from objectionable shrinkage or expansion ; its resistance to attrition is good and it resists the force of mastication better than amalgam.
Of these second qualities gold is not so good. It conducts thermal impressions strongly, its yellow color is objectionable, and it is not very convenient of manipulation. Indeed, it may be said of this last quality, that its successful manipulation requires much study and careful experience, and yet, when this study is given it and the required experience has been obtained, it may be worked into fillings more perfectly than any other material.
Amalgam, as alloys for which are at present produced by the best makers, is possessed of the first (jualities in a high degree, yet inferior to gold in all. It is not completely indestructible in the fluids of the mouth, but oxidizes or sulphurets slightly, just sufficient to change its color from a silvery whiteness to brown or black. Its adaptability to the walls of cavities
is not SO perfect as that of gold, though apparently so easy - when used in a very plastic state as to be very deceptive. Much careful study and experience are required to work it well. Its resistance to attrition is good, but its capability of resistance to the force of mastication is less than that of gold.
Much of the difficulty attending the use of amalgam arises from a lack of an understanding of its qualities. It is a metallic compound in which each element entering into its composition exerts its special influence upon the qualities of the product; and these qualities are varied with every little change in its composition. These changes of qualities and the laws controlling them are as yet understood by but few makers of amalgam alloys, and are not generally understood by the dental profession. For these reasons dentists are in constant danger of using amalgam alloys with which good fillings can not be made because of shrinkage or expansion of the material after being made into fillings.
In secondary qualities its color is bad, so bad indeed that it should never be used in the anterior teeth on this account. Its conductivity of thermal changes is nearly equal to that of gold. Its working qualities render it much more convenient than gold in very large and difficult cavities. It can be placed much quicker, less expenditure of force is required, and much less time, but ordinarily perfection of adaptation is less certain.
Forms of Gold.
Gold is prepared in the form of foil for filling teeth. This foil is prepared in various thicknesses, which are rated on the basis of the number of grains in the sheet four inches square. If a sheet of this size contains two grains it is called No. 2; if three grains. No. 3; if four grains. No. 4, and so on up to what is known as the heavy foils, such as Nos. 30, 60, 120, etc.
Gold is also prepared for use in filling teeth in the crystalline form. These crystals are put up in various kinds of masses, with about as many names as there are makers, and in these forms possesses certain desirable qualities, especially convenience of manipulation. In any of these forms, however, it is much less readily kept in good working condition than foil, and for this reason is not so certain in its working properties. It often fails to weld perfectly, and especially it is often unreliable in
adaptation to the margins of cavities. Great effort has been made to bring this form of gold into general use, but the general judgment of the dental profession has seemed to be against it, for foil has always maintained its position as the form of gold most used.
Welding Properties of Gold.
Gold prepared in the form of foil or crystals welds perfectly in the cold state when clean surfaces are pressed into contact. It is the only metal which has this property in a high degree. In order that the welding property may be successfully used the surfaces of the gold must be clean. As this property of gold is readily lost by improper care, it is well to know intimately the conditions of the development of it, and the loss of it.
All metals, except those known as the noble metals, oxidize quite readily when exposed to the air ; that is, they attract the oxygen of the air and unite with it to form a film of oxide upon the surface. This prevents the contact of clean surfaces and therefore prevents welding. Gold, silver, platinum and mercury do not oxidize in this way, and it is for this reason that they are called noble metals. Silver and platinum do, however, attract oxygen to their surfaces in the form of a transparent film of condensed gas sufficient to prevent their surfaces from coming in contact, which prevents them from welding cold. Gold does not attract oxygen nor nitrogen to its surface and it is for this reason that it can be welded cold. Gold does, however, attract to its surface certain gases that are often present in our atmosphere in such quantities as to prevent its surfaces from coming in contact, and destroy, temporarily or permanently, its welding properties. Some of these gases are such as will Ije removed from the surface of the gold by volatilization when heat is applied (by annealing;, rendering the surface again clean with restoration of welding property. Other gases, notably those of the sulphur and phosphorus groups, condense upon the surface of gold and refuse to volatilize by heat, and in that case the welding property of the gold is permanently destroyed. In these cases it seems probable that compounds in the form of fixed salts — non-evaporablc — are formed on the surface of the gold.
These general facts with regard to gold may readily be illustrated by a few simple experiments, which any one can perform. Ammonia is strongly attracted to gold. Place a small quantity of spirits of ammonia, or of aqua ammonia, in a large glass jar. The ammoniacal gas from this will fill the space above the liquid. Now take a rope of gold which has been annealed and the welding property of which is perfect, and swing it by a thread above the liquid in the jar and replace the cork. In fifteen minutes remove the gold and try its welding property. It will not weld any more than so much tissue paper. If it is swung above chlorine water the welding property will be completely destroyed in two minutes. Now reanneal these ropes of gold ; the welding property is completely restored.
How are we to know that this effect is produced by a condensation of gas on the surface of the gold ? Place the gold first in chlorine gas for ten minutes, and then transfer it to ammonia for an equal time. Now, as these two gases unite to form a volatile salt, ammonium chloride, which readily crystallizes upon any cold substance, place the gold thus treated in a long test tube, and heat it quickly over a bunsen burner. Immediately white fumes begin to leave the gold, and these crystallize in a white ring on the colder portion of the test tube. Chemical examinations of these crystals show them to be ammonium chloride. This could occur only by the condensation of the gases on tha gold, and the amount formed shows this condensation to be in very considerable quantity. The experiment may be varied by placing the gold first in the gaseous ammonia, and then transferring to the chlorine, but in this case there will not be so large an amount of the ammonium chloride formed, for the reason that the ammonia is not condensed on the gold in so large a quantity as the chlorine.
In this experiment the salt formed is volatile, and the gold is readily cleaned by heat. But suppose the salt formed were a fixed salt that we can not volatilize by the annealing temperature ; then the welding property of the gold is permanently destroyed. This is what often occurs when the gold is not well protected. Now one of the principal reasons why the crystalline forms of gold are more difficult to keep in good condition than foil, is the fact that the crystals form a sponge that more readily takes up and holds gases.
By careful experiment it has been found that acid gases are most likely to permanently obscure the welding property of gold ; hence, if the gold be kept in an atmosphere containing a liberal per cent of ammonia, ammonium salts will be formed on the gold. These salts are readily volatile, hence, gold so kept will always be readily cleaned by annealing and its welding property restored.
"We may use gold, non-cohesive or cohesive, as we choose, from the same book, or the same sheet, by simply keeping it in a dra-wer containing a small bottle in which a bit of sponge, punk or cotton is placed and occasionally saturated with spirits of ammonia. Used without annealing this w^ill be perfectly non-cohesive, or when annealed will be perfectly cohesive. This should be taken advantage of in keeping gold in good condition for use in either form.
Annealing Gold.
Gold is annealed to develop its welding property. This annealing is not for the purpose of softening the metal, as in annealing plate, but for the purpose of cleaning the surface of the gold by volatilizing any gaseous film that may have' collected upon it. This purpose is explained sufficiently in the preceding article. The best means of accomplishing this will depend somewhat upon circumstances. For the general work of filling teeth the annealing is very well done in the flame of the alcohol lamp or the flame of a small bunsen burner. The element of time is important in annealing, particularly if the annealing is done at low temperatures, for the gases are not driven off" at once unless a full red heat is obtained. Therefore, in annealing in the flame the gold should always be brought to a glow, and so held for a moment or two. It is also necessary to the best results that every particle of the gold be brought to a glow. In taking up the gold with the pliers, that portion of it that is caught between the beaks, and that very close to the beaks, will not be heated sufficiently to develop its welding property. This will introduce into the filling spots of failure to weld and greatly impair the strength of the work. For this reason great care should be exercised in annealing to see that all parts of the gold are brought fully to a glow. This is especially important when
a corner is to be built up, as in the restoration of the angle of an incisor, or when a very solid surface is to be made, as upon the occlusal surface of a molar that will receive severe wear. Pitting of the surface of fillings is in a large degree the result of the introduction of bits of gold that have not been sufficiently annealed. To prevent the possibility of this it is well to first anneal one part and then lay down the piece and catch it at another point and anneal again.
W^hile the gold should be heated to redness, it should not be heated to the melting point. This ruins the plasticity of the foil and makes it impossible to properly condense it. To avoid these difficulties the gold may be annealed upon a tray over the flame of the lamp. A number of devices for this purpose can be had, most of which are convenient and eflective. The tray may be made of metal, of porcelain, or of mica; it does not seem to make much difference which is used. In annealing in this way the gold may conveniently be exposed to the heat for a considerable time, and therefore a full red heat is not necessary to the complete development of the welding property, so that there is no danger of hardening the gold by melting portions of it. However, the heat must closely approach the point of redness to be effective. Another advantage is that all parts of the gold will become annealed.
The disadvantages of this method are, the presence of such an apparatus upon the bracket which is needed for operating instruments, and that the gold spread upon the annealing tray is liable to movement by every motion, or in the eflbrt to lift pieces from it, and roll together and stick to each other in such a way as to cause much annoyance and delay in handling it. Much of this annoyance can be avoided by having a tray that is so roughened as to prevent the rolling or sliding of the gold.
Filling with Gold.
In filling teeth, cohesive gold or non-cohesive gold may be used, or the cavity may be partly filled with non-cohesive gold and finished with cohesive gold.
Filling with non-cohesive gold for the entire cavity is practiced but very little nowadays, apparently for two reasons. It requires the development of a different order of skill from that
required for cohesive gold, which is somewhat difficult to master, and it can not be used for contouring or even in filling to form in cavities that have lost one or more of the surrounding walls ; for in this manner of filling the principle of wedging the gold between the surrounding walls is depended upon to retain the gold. For this purpose only foil is used and its lamina must extend from the floor to the surface of the cavity. Either the form of the rope or cylinders may be used. In this form of filling the gold is not annealed. With our present ideas of preparing cavities, only occlusal and buccal or labial ca\ ities that have complete and good surrounding walls would be suitable for non-cohesive gold work. The forms in which we now prepare these are as suitable for non-cohesive as for cohesive gold, only that no convenience points for starting the filling are required for non-cohesive gold.
In filling an occlusal ca\ity in a molar with non-cohesive gold cylinders we would prepare these so that the length of the cylinders should be a litde greater than the depth of the cavity. Some should be large and some small, the size of the larger ones depending upon the size of the cavity. Begin with the cylinder which, as loosely rolled, would about fill the cavity full. Set this in the cavity with one of its ends standing upon the pulpal wall and the other protruding from its orifice. Set another cylinder in in the same way and condense it against the first. Repeat this by adding cylinder after cylinder until the distal half or more of the cavity is filled. Then continue by condensing the cylinders against the mesial wall, and in turn the buccal and lingual walls, all the time using the lateral pressure with the side of the plugger point, not with its end. As the work progresses and the cavity room is narrowed, the cylinders introduced must be smaller and smaller. Finally, to obtain room for additional cylinders, a sharp point of a wedge form must be pressed to the floor of the cavity and with a prying motion the gold is wedged against the cavity walls in every direction with great force. The space thus gained is again filled with small cylinders and the wedging repeated so long as it is possible to force in another cylinder. The small cylinders last introduced should be rolled very hard. When it is no longer possible to force another cylinder into the central portion of the cavity,
efforts should be made at various points to force in the sharp, wedge-shaped point and any opening made filled with a small cylinder. When no more gold can be introduced the whole surface should be condensed as completely as possible with the end of a finely serrated plugger. Then the surplus gold should be trimmed partially and the condensation repeated. Then again, trim and condense, repeating this until the surface of the filling is brought to proper form, with its margins just flush with the cavity margins. Generally these fillings should be finished with the burnisher.
Instead of the cylinders, ropes of foil may be used by carrying an end to the bottom of the cavity and folding in fold after fold, so that one end of the loop is on the floor of the cavity and the other protruding from the orifice. These loops are condensed against the walls laterally and finally condensed by wedging, the same way as in filling with cylinders, filling the space gained by other loops. The filling is finished in a similar manner.
In filling buccal or labial cavities with non-cohesive gold the steps of the procedure are practically the same as in filling occlusal cavities. However, the operation is generally rather more difiicult in these, for the reason that the cavities are so generally of less depth in proportion to their breadth. The most convenient cavity to fill with non-cohesive gold is one in which the depth is nearly equal to the breadth.
One who has become skilful with this manner of manipulating non-cohesive gold can make gold fillings in cavities suited to this work in much less time than they can be made with cohesive gold. This plan of filling is often very desirable for first molars for children, and in various cases that come up in practice when it is important to shorten the time of the operation.
These non-cohesive gold fillings do not stand attrition so well as cohesive gold fillings in positions where great wear comes upon them. They are, therefore, more suitable for buccal and labial cavities. If very well done, however, they do excellent service in occlusal cavities where the wear is not extraordinary.
It is the general opinion of those who use much non-cohesive gold that water-tight margins are more certainly made with it than with cohesive gold. I am satisfied that this is correct. With the same care and skill more gold can be put into a cavity
The Application of Force in Filling with Cohesive Gold.
In using cohesive gold in filling teeth all parts of the gold should be welded into one solid mass. This is accomplished by using the gold in small masses and condensing each of these perfectly upon preceding masses with the end of the plugger point, by either hand pressure or the blows of the mallet. The use of hand pressure with sufficient force to accomplish this well, or to obtain the necessary degree of solidity, while it can readily be done, becomes exceedingly tiresome to both the patient and the operator. For this reason mallet force has come into general use. The kind of mallet used for condensing the gold seems to be of much less importance than the particular manner of handling it, and this last must be stated as being a personal equation. That is to say, one person will accomplish a given condensation of gold with much less inconvenience to the patient than another can do, and yet, the differences in the application of force are not such as permit of analysis and a determination of the precise differences in manipulation.
Of the different plans of applying mallet force the hand mallet used by an assistant is by far the best, as it will produce the desired result with the least wear and tear to both patient and operator. The next best, but much inferior method, is by the use of the automatic mallet. Of these instruments there are a variety in the market of almost equal merit. The poorest method practiced is the use of the hand mallet by the operator himself In this use of the mallet he can not handle either the plugger or the mallet properly, and the usual result is great wear and tear upon both patient and operator, and generally much imperfect work in condensing the gold, especially in its adaptation to margins.
In order to condense gold well, and with the least pain to the patient, the mallet force should be combined with a certain degree of hand pressure. The plugger should be placed firmly in position with such force as to bring the looser portions of gold well together, and to force the tooth into a stable position in which the fibers of the peridental membrane are rendered tense, and then the blow from the'mallet follows on the instant this is
done. Experience has, I think, sufficiently shown that the best results are obtained by this method. This is in a good degree copied with the automatic mallets.
The sliding of the plugger point over the surface of the gold while blows are being rapidly applied is very much more painful to the patient if the same results in condensation are accomplished. A number of machines for this kind of malleting have been devised that are very convenient in use, and yet they seem not to be much used, evidently for the reasons I have assigned. It is perfectly practicable, however, to make good gold fillings by any one of these plans of using mallet force. The main questions here are as to ease and rapidity of manipulation in the first instance, and, in the second, as to comparative ease of obtaining good results.
In most fillings hand pressure should be used in the condensation of some particular parts to which mallet force is inapplicable. Mallet force can be applied successfully only in a direct line with the shaft of the instrument. In all cases, in which it becomes necessary to apply force in lateral directions to the shaft of the instrument, hand pressure must be used, unless reverse pluggers can be substituted. This can be done in the more difficult positions in lower molars and bicuspids by judicious study of the capability of reverse pluggers. The filling of the incisal anchorage in incisor cavities requires almost uniformly the use of hand pressure.
The manner in which we now prepare cavities for filling reduces the necessity for the use of hand pressure more than ever before, because of the very free access obtained. Convenience in placing the filling material should always be held strictly in view in the preparation of a cavity.
tion of Force.
A correct appreciation of relation of the size of the condensing area of the plugger point to the force used is of first importance in filling teeth with cohesive gold. The force that can be applied is limited by the capability of the peridental membrane to resist, and the possibilities of the use of more or less force will vary with the strength and endurance of the membrane. People who have very strong peridental membranes
and are accustomed to using their teeth very vigorously in chewing food, will bear much heavier blows of the mallet than those who have weaker peridental membranes and habitually use their teeth more delicately. All of this must be considered in filling operations and the force used limited accordingly. A point of no less importance is the requirements as to solidity and strength of fillings for different persons. Persons with strong peridental membranes who use their teeth vigorously require the strongest possible fillings. Persons who have weak peridental membranes and who habitually use their teeth feebly will not require the same solidity and strength in the fillings in order that they may stand. In either case, however, the adaptation of the gold to the margins should be the same, and in all cases a density that will be moisture-tight is absolutely required.
Because a patient can bear heavy blows of the mallet is no excuse for using a plugger of large impacting area, for the reason that such persons require very dense fillings.
For condensing the main portions of a cohesive gold filling the impacting area of the plugger should never be more than one square millimeter, and generally plugger points of one-half to I'a millimeter area should be used. The area of a plugger point is practically the square of its diameter. That is, a point one millimeter in diameter has an area four times as great as one- half millimeter in diameter. Five-tenths multiplied by five-tenths gives twenty-five as the area, while ten-tenths multiplied by tentenths gives one hundred, or four times as much. This being true, a reduction of the size of the plugger point below one millimeter increases the condensing power of the impact in proportion to the square of the reduced area, and increasing the size of the point above one millimeter diminishes the condensing power of the impact in proportion to the square of the increased area. Twenty-five pounds impact or pressure on a point onehalf a millimeter in diameter is equal in condensing power to one hundred pounds upon a plugger point one millimeter in diameter. Therefore, to make solid fillings small condensing points must be used.
condensing it. Therefore we should not use heavy blows with very small plugger points. For some special places about margins, or packing in delicate grooves, a smaller point used with lighter force is useful. And occasionally a larger area than one millimeter in the form of a foot may be useful in packing over certain cavo-surface angles.
Forms of plugger points. — The form of the impacting area or points of plugging instruments may be round, square, parallelograms, or what is known as the foot forms. All of these have their uses in special localities. For the general work of building cohesive gold either the round, square or parallelogram forms may be used. The foot forms are not suited to general building of gold, but are useful for condensing over certain cavosurface angles and for after-condensation, especially where it is necessary to reach into the interproximate space, or at other narrow points requiring a short crook of the plugger point. The parallelograms, or narrow flat points, are especially useful in condensing gold against the surrounding walls of cavities when the direction of force must be nearly or quite parallel with the cavity wall, for the reason that they tend strongly to wedge the gold between the wall and the condensed gold and perfect the adaptation to the wall. For this purpose the flat side of the plugger point is placed parallel with the wall.
The point or impacting area of the plugger may be smooth (smooth plugger), or serrated (serrated plugger). Gold fillings may be made with either, but for general use the judgment of the profession seems to be decidedly in favor of the serrated point. The principal object of the serrations is to prevent the point from slipping or sliding on the gold, and they should be just sufficient to do this eifectively. Long, sharp serrations should not be used, because they chop into the gold. ^Very fine, short serrations are much the best. Great care should be taken to keep plugger points in good order.
Forms of the shanks of pluggers. — As we now prepare cavities with broad, free access, no great variety of crooks and turns in the shanks are necessary. In the instruments for general use a slight bend in the shank is desirable in order that the shaft may be just a little out of the line of vision. This curve should be from three to five centigrades. For special purposes
we need some special forms of shank. Especially in filling upon the gingival walls of proximate cavities in the bicuspids and molars, a straight or nearly straight plugger would necessarily bring the angle of force almost perpendicular to the plane of the wall. In order that a more desirable angle of force may be had, a contra-angled shank is provided that will reach over the proximating tooth and permit an inclination of about twelve centigrades of the angle of force toward this wall. In your sets there is a pair of these in parallelogram forms of impacting area in which the width of blade is in opposite directions to the plane of the curves of the shank.
For filling the incisal anchorages of incisor cavities an angle of twenty-five centigrades (a right-angled plugger) is provided which is used entirely by hand pressure. This instrument, though used only for this one purpose, is a necessity to every outfit. These are, with the exception of the foot pluggers, the only curves of shanks required, and are quite sufficient for ordinary filling operations.
In addition to these the school has provided reverse pluggers of several patterns, which are issued upon order of the demonstrators for use in some especially difficult positions. These are occasionally needful for certain positions in filling lower molars and bicuspids, especially for packing against buccal walls in teeth that have a strong lingual inclination.
I Automatic Plugger.
Starting cohesive gold fillings. — In treating this subject I will suppose that the cavity has been prepared as has been directed in the article on cavity preparation, and that the convenience points have been arranged for the beginning of the filling. Begin the filling in the most convenient angle of the cavity. In occlusal cavities this will usually be at some point along the pulpo-distal angle. In proximate cavities it will usually be the linguo-axio-gingival angle. In buccal cavities it will usually be the axio-disto-gingival angle. In labial cavities it may be either the axio-gingivo-mesial or the axio-gingivo-distal angle, etc.
Select a plugger point that will easily go into all parts of the convenience point with which to condense the first piece of gold, and have the holding instrument or the assistant plugger ready in the left hand. Select a piece of gold rope, cylinder or block, that seems rather large for the convenience point, and see to it carefully that it is well annealed. Convey it to the point with the annealing instrument and catch it with the assistant plugger ; hold it so while the annealing instrument is exchanged for the plugger selected, and with the two bunch the gold carefully into the angle and catch it with the assistant plugger in such a way that the condensing instrument will have free access to the convenience point. Now, condense the gold into the angle by a few quick blows of the mallet, beginning in the central portion, and drawing the outlying parts of the gold into the angle with the subsequent blows. If the convenience point has been correctly formed this first piece will seldom need to be held afterward, but sometimes a second and a third piece should be added while still holding the gold with the assistant plugger. In case the operator is using a hand mallet with his own hand this first condensation must be done by hand pressure. The first piece of gold should always be sufficient in quantity so that the plugger point will not come in contact with the dentin. The plugger point should never punch through the gold. Remember that if the bottom of your convenience point is round, as made with a round bur, this first piece of gold will roll, but if the bottom is
of gold will remain firm.
Next proceed to build up a mass of gold upon the first piece and extend this along one of the axial or pulpal angles to the second convenience point and unite the two. When this has been done the lodgment of the gold should be so secure that there will be no further fear of movement and the body of the filling may be built upon this foundation.
If the case is an occlusal cavity the building should at first be about equally upon the pulpal and distal walls, forming a triangular mass filling the disto-pulpal line angle and extending to the buccal and lingual walls. Later, after the anchorage has been made still more secure by some building across and across against the lingual and buccal walls, the building should proceed more rapidly upon the pulpal wall until this is covered and the gold brought securely into all of the pulpal line angles.
In no case should there be any attempt to spread a thin layer of gold on the pulpal wall, or any other wall, of a cavity and condense it in a thin sheet. Any such attempt insures a failure of perfect adaptation to the wall of the cavity. Always secure a thick mass of gold along a line angle and build out on the wall gradually, keeping the thickened mass close to the margin of the building as it progresses over the wall that will keep the margin from curling away from the wall as it is condensed.
adaptation.
The direction of force should never be perpendicular to the plane of the wall that is being covered. Whenever possible the angle of force should be inclined as much as twelve centigrades from the perpendicular to the plane of the wall. In adapting gold to the surrounding walls in an occlusal cavity the direction of force should be inclined toward the wall, "if possible, as much as six centigrades. It is quite possible, by using the wedging principle, to secure good adaptation if the angle of force is parallel with the wall, but it is more difficult.
The Wedging Principle.
The stepping of the plugger should always be from the central part of the mass of gold toward the walls, and the last condensation of each individual piece of gold added should be along the wall being covered.
This rule is practically universal to filling with cohesive gold, except when condensing pieces laid upon central parts of the filling, no portion of which is condensed against a wall of the cavity. When the stepping of the instrument is toward the wall, finishing the condensation against the wall, the last of the gold is w^edged betw^een the w^all and that last condensed, thus securing perfect adaptation to the wall. If, on the other hand, the condensation is begun at the wall, the tendency is to pull the gold away from the wall in moving from it in the condensation of the remaining portions, and to make imperfect adaptation.
In condensing each piece of gold added the stepping of the plugger point should be in a regular order, moving only the width of the condensing point at each step, condensing every portion of gold. Regular lines of movement or stepping should be formed generally parallel with the wall that is to be approached, finishing along the wall. Such an order of work, pursued with regularity, secures speed in operating, and accuracy of adaptation of the gold to all parts of the cavity walls and margins.
In the approach to and covering margins, great care should be had not to step the instrument onto the cavo-surface angle of the cavity. If this is done the cavo-surface angle of the enamel will be chipped and rendered imperfect. As the margin is approached the gold should be laid over the cavo-surface angle in sufficient quantity to admit of malleting directly upon it, without danger of the plugger point punching through it and making contact with the enamel. This requires that the gold be built completely over the margin at every point before the filling is regarded as completed.
In finishing the building of the gold to form there should always be an excess to allow for sufficient trimming to remove all instrument pits and marks. It requires much care and good
The Gingival Wall in Proximate Cavities.
The management of the gingival wall in proximate cavities, especially in the bicuspids and molars, has always been the great stumbling-block in filling operations. It is confessedly the most difficult point at which to secure perfect adaptation of gold, or, indeed, any other filling material. In part, this difficulty has been from imperfect preparation of this wall, but the real difficulty in securing adaptation lies in the fact that the tendency is to apply the condensing force in a line perpendicular to the plane of that wall. To make perfect adaptation it is necessary that the angle of force be inclined as much as twelve centigrades to the plane of the wall.
In mesial cavities in bicuspids and molars this is easily accomplished by using the contra-angled pluggers which are made for this especial purpose. These instruments will reach over the proximating tooth and give the correct angle of force. The filling is begun in the convenience points, and these are connected along the axio-gingival angle, as has been described. Then the building proceeds about equally upon the axial wall and the gingival wall, creeping slowly over the gingival wall until its cavo-surface angle is reached and has been built over; always keeping a thick margin of gold to build against while covering the wall and cavo-surface angle. During this building the plane of the surface of gold being built should be inclined about twelve centigrades toward the long axis of the tooth, one margin of this plane being upon the gingival wall, and the opposite margin against the axial wall in a direction toward the occlusal surface in the central fossa, if a molar, and a similar direction if a bicuspid.
When the gingival wall and its cavo-surface angle has been fully covered, then the building may be more rapid in the proximate portion, and the plane of the gold be brought parallel with the horizontal plane of the tooth. The mesial portion of the filling is then extended to the mesial to make the contact with the proximating tooth. The rest of the filling is done according to rules previously given.
In distal cavities in bicuspids and molars it is more difficult to obtain the best angle of force, and often the building must proceed differently. The angle of force inclined from the distal toward the mesial can not generally be obtained, and it is necessary to substitute an inclination from the buccal toward the lingual. In the beginning, build a thick mass of gold in the axio-linguo-gingival angle, and gradually extend it out to the cavo-surface angle of the cavity at that point ; then continue the building, keeping the plane of the surface of gold being built sloping occluso-gingivally from lingual to buccal, gradually covering the gingival wall and its cavo-surface angle, until the bucco-gingival angle is reached. Then wedge the gold into the bucco-gingival angle, between the gold already built and'the buccal wall. After this is accomplished the building will proceed without especial difficulty. In accomplishing this the greatest difficulties will be found in lower bicuspids that have a distal and lingual inclination, and occasionally in lower molars that have a strong lingual inclination. In these the reverse pluggers are a necessity to easy and safe w^ork. With these the procedure is the same as in mesial cavities, except that the order is reversed, as the left hand is the reverse of the right. Begin in the axio-bucco-gingival angle and work along the axio-gingival angle to the lingual, and generally fill the axiolinguo-gingival convenience point with a direct plugger. After this is accomplished the building is not difficult. In making these fillings entirely with direct pluggers, hand pressure lateral to the direction of the shaft of the instrument is often necessary in starting the filling, and in building over the gingival cavo surface angle, and also in much of the building against the buccal wall.
In proximate cavities in the incisors and mesial surfaces of the cuspids, no great difficulty will be found in gaining the proper angle of force in building over the gingival wall and its cavo-surface angle. These, like all other gingival walls and margins, should be covered only after having secured a mass of gold in the axio-gingival line angle, and then keeping the plane of the surface of gold being built sloped at an angle of about twelve centigrades to the long axis of the tooth until the gingival wall and its cavo-surface angle are covered.
Proximate Cavities in the Bicuspids and Molars.
Combinations of non-cohesive and cohesive gold may be used effectively in many positions in filling teeth, but I attach great importance to it only in the gingival portion of proximate cavities in the bicuspids and molars. The best cohesive gold workers fail, when they do fail, oftenest at this point. And so difficult is it to make perfect adaptation of cohesive gold to this wall that my observation teaches me that our very best men fail in ten per cent of their cases. A much larger per cent of success can be obtained by the combination of non-cohesive foil, with a saving of both time and labor. This is sufficient reason why I should urge this plan of filling. It is not, however, an easy matter to learn this method. It will not be gained without careful study and effort in practice.
This combination consists of laying a large flat cylinder or mat of non-cohesive foil on the gingival wall and then beginning upon this to build cohesive gold.
The beginning and continuation of the building with cohesive gold is the same in every respect as if the non-cohesive gold had not been used, except that it will be necessary to continue the use of the assistant plugger for a longer time before the mass is perfectly secure in its position.
The flat cylinder or mat is made by first folding a sheet foil, or such part of a sheet as may be required, to the right width, and then rolling the ribbon formed upon a flat steel instrument of suitable width. The length of the cylinder is controlled by the width of the ribbon, and the breadth is controlled by the width of the flat instrument. The length should be such that when placed flat upon the gingival wall with one end against the axial wall the other end protrudes over the gingival cavo-surface angle of the cavity. The breadth should be such that it will extend fully from the buccal wall to the lingual wall and require some crowding to make it lay flat. Simply lay this in position and begin building upon it, practically as has been described for beginning with all cohesive gold.
Instead of this flat cylinder or mat, ordinary round cylinders may be used by laying the first in the linguo-gingival angle, a second in the bucco-gingival angle, and a third between the two.
Or two cylinders may be used that have breadth enough to fill the space from buccal to lingual. Do not condense the noncohesive gold before beginning with the cohesive. Merely adjust it in position with gentle pressure, and then condense it by building cohesive gold upon it. Then proceed as in all cohesive gold work, except that after the filling is otherwise finished the gingival portion should be very thoroughly condensed from the surface.
The reason that non-cohesive gold is safer in this position is that there is less disposition to curl from the margin, and if there is any disposition to curl from the margin it is easy to make it tight by this after-condensation, because if not tight it moves readily under the blows of the mallet, while cohesive gold does not. Generally a considerable quantity of non-cohesive gold may be used in this way and greatly reduce the labor of making the filling.
This plan of filling is especially adapted to proximate cavities in the bicuspids and molars. These fillings, as we prepare the cavities, are not anchored in the proximate portion of the cavity, but in the step cut in the occlusal portion of the tooth. The filling is supported against the force of mastication upon the broad, flat gingival wall as a seat, and when non-cohesive gold is laid upon this in the manner indicated and condensed by packing cohesive gold over it, it h^s all the supporting strength of the complete cohesive gold filling.
This plan of using non-cohesive gold is not so well adapted to proximate cavities in the incisors and cuspids, for in these we have not the opportunity to make strong occlusal step anchorages, but must depend upon the gingival wall and its angles in part for the strength of the anchorage. To use non- cohesive gold upon the gingival wall would materially diminish the strength of this anchorage. The use of non-cohesive gold upon the gingival wall of proximate cavities in the incisors is not so much needed, for the reason that they are in much plainer view during the progress of building the filling.
Strength of the Bite.
In the consideration of the strength required in fillings, the strength of the bite, or the power with which the teeth may be closed upon food, is a matter of first importance. This is
to be considered with great care by every operator, both in general and in relation to each individual operation. The strength required in fillings is very much greater than was formerly supposed. It has been but a few years since we began to know definitely of the strength of the bite or of the strength actually required of fillings. I believe the first paper that brought this prominently before the profession was one which I presented to the Illinois State Dental Society in May, 1893. Following that, two instruments were presented for measuring the strength of the bite at the meeting of the World's Dental Congress in Chicago, later in the year of 1893, and very considerable interest was at once manifested in this subject, which has led rapidly to considerable changes in the preparation of cavities and to a radically new study of the strength of filling materials. These instruments were presented, one by the late J. J. R. Patrick, of Belleville, Illinois, and one by Dr. George Dennis, of Chicago. The instrument we are now using is a modification of the instrument presented by Doctor Dennis. It was immediately found that the actual strength of the human bite was very much greater than had been supposed, and that the strength of fillings had been insufficient, and this was the cause of the rapid failure of many fillings, particularly proximate fillings. In order that the instrument should well represent the strength of the bite, the surface upon which the biting is done should be spread over the crowns of at least two molar teeth, but as it is the force of the bite is generally expended upon a single cusp of an upper tooth and a single cusp of a lower tooth, which does not give sufficient space to properly present the full power with which the jaws may be closed upon food. The strength of the teeth is found to be ample; one can not break a tooth with the power of the muscles of the jaw, unless the biting is done on steel or some other very hard substance. In biting upon steel, or other substance equally hard, the area of tooth substance presented to the steel will be very small indeed, and by hard biting the enamel may be fractured. But when the substance bitten upon is soft, as a piece of hard rubber, the tooth will sink into it a little and spread the area of stress more upon the surface of the tooth. On hard rubber or the softer metals I have never known a person to check the enamel of a tooth in biting with all the power of the muscles.
Therefore, the teeth are abundantly strong, unless we happen to catch them on a bit ot gravel or a large bit of sand, or something of that kind that is extremely hard. Half a dozen students who tried the force of their bite on the Knatho-dynamometer* during one of my lectures last year, registered respectively, 155, 190, 250, 220, 225 and 150 pounds. This represents very fairly the usual amount, and the variations in the stress persons with fairly good teeth, and of ordinary habits in their use, can exert. A few will exert a greater stress, as much as 275 or 300 pounds. Many people who use their teeth delicately will stop at 100 pounds or less.
Often persons have registered 100, 130, and, occasionally, 200 pounds and over on the central incisors. Generally persons biting upon the instrument stop because it hurts the peridental membranes; they do not register the full power of the muscles of the jaws. A few tell me they have exerted the full power of the muscles without pain, and in these cases I suppose the full power of the muscles is registered.
In chewing food we use, as a rule, very much more stress than is actually required to crush the food. By trying the crushing strength required, with the phago-dynamometer f we may find the crushing power required for the various foods. In chewing meats much difference in the required stress is shown, good beefsteak requires from forty to sixty pounds, tough beefsteak from sixty to eighty pounds, occasionally more. Mutton chops usually require from thirty to forty pounds, pork chops (loin) twenty to twenty-five pounds, broiled ham from forty to sixty pounds, etc. If any one in chewing a piece of beefsteak will notice it he will hear a crackling sound just at the time the fiber of the flesh is breaking up. We can notice that also in the phago-dynamometer, and just at the time that the fiber is breaking up we find that the meat crushes out from between the teeth and the teeth pass through it and come together. Most person in chewing meats of any kind crush their teeth through it at a dash. A person who
chews feebly will not do this. A person who is chewing with artificial teeth generally can not. A person who can use 40 pounds pressure upon artificial teeth is doing very well, and such persons will often find their beefsteak very tough ; but a person who can crush down 200 pounds can eat any beefsteak. In the ordinary chewing of beef or flesh, great force is not required, we may say, and yet, if we catch upon a bone, or in game, upon a shot, we will get a terrible jolt upon the teeth, for we actually use much more than the necessary force. That is as likely to come upon fillings as upon any other part of the tooth, and, of course, will give the strength of the filling a sore trial. In chewing meats the motion is directly up and down ; we do not use the lateral movement in chewing meats. In this we copy the motions of the carnivorous animals. The carnivorous animals have their jaws hinged so that they have but the up-anddown motion used in crushing. We crush our meats ; we do not grind them. In chewing bread, or any of the grains — the cereal foods — we do use the lateral motion ; we grind them ,we can not crush them. The more we crush upon bread the more we pack it between the cusps of the teeth. A little lateral motion will cause it to go to pieces quite readily, but we can not crush even a comparatively soft bread crust with all the force that we can put upon it ; it will simply pack into the sulci between the cusps of the teeth and remain there. This is shown very readily with the phago-dynamometer. If I put a piece of comparatively soft crust in the instrument and put on a pressure of 60, 80 or 100 pounds it is simply packed between the teeth and has not been cut through at all, A litde lateral stress will grind it. Patients used to come to me saying that they had broken the cusp off of a bicuspid, for instance, "just biting a piece of soft bread." Sometimes I thought it was a kind of a joke, and sometimes I felt that it was absolute dishonesty ; I did not know the facts until I began to try the artificial chewing of food. Then I found that there was a substantial reason for it, for in taking a piece of bread crust between the teeth, without having it wet, we may crush with all the force of the muscles and simply pack it between the cusps of the teeth and bring to bear a powerful splitting force, calculated to throw off a cusp from a tooth. In this way we lose the cusps of a good many teeth, and teeth are broken from plates, crowns are broken, bridges
are broken, ' ' just in biting a piece of soft bread crust. ' ' In these several ways very powerful stress is brought upon fillings, and cavities must be cut with the view of giving great strength to the fillings and of maintaining the strength of the teeth.
It is for this reason that cavities are prepared in certain ways. In occlusal cavities, as they are formed by decay, the pulpal wall will usually be rounded — will be circular. This would be the form of the cavity after the removal of the decay. Now, this gives an opportunity for the rolling of fillings ; the filling is not as easily placed ; it is more difficult to make a good filling in such a cavity and the filling is more easily moved by the force of mastication. It might stand for a considerable time in chewing beefsteak, if it had no bones in it, no bits of gravel, or in chewing game, if there were no shot that would come upon a particular portion of a filling and cause it to roll. But if the seat is cut flat, then the filling is supported in such a way that it is not disposed to roll. Again, a still more important point — when in a mesio-occluso-distal cavity in a molar or a bicuspid, with the pulp removed so that the tooth is open through from mesial to distal, the breadth of the pulp chamber is considerable ; and perhaps there has also been decay that has further weakened the dentinal walls. If the filling is finished in the normal form of the occlusal surface, leaving the inclines of the cusps toward the central area of the tooth standing, the food catches between these inclines of the cusps upon the buccal and upon the lingual. In this case the patient crushes down upon a bread crust ; it packs between these inclines of the cusps and great force is brought upon them, and the lingual wall or the buccal wall is broken away, "just biting a piece of bread crust." For this reason it is necessary to take great care in the preparation of all such cavities. Never leave the central incline of a cusp under such conditions. No matter how good it may be, no matter how perfect the enamel may be, no matter if it is supported by dentin immediately beneath, never leave it. It may be strong toward the occlusal, but more toward the gingival it is weak, and it is that weak portion that we need to protect. In all of those cases cut to the crest of the cusp, at least so that when food is packed between the cusps the stress will come entirely upon the filling ; let the filling material take this strain instead of the cusp of the tooth. This will also remove the possibility of
catching a shot or a piece of bone upon the cusp of the tooth and throwing it off. It is that which is caught upon the slope toward the central portion of the tooth that crushes it off, not that which is caught upon the slope toward the axial surface of the tooth. This is more essential in the bicuspids than it is in the molars, because they are less strong. In an ordinary mesiodisto-occlusal cavity, where the pulp is still retained, the inclines of the cusps may be left with perfect safety. All the strength of the muscles will not break it. But when the length of the walls is increased by extending the cavity to the floor of the pulpchamber the case is entirely different. The bicuspids have sharper inclines than the molars, and food wedged into their sulci has a greater splitting force, and in these, with a mesio-occlusodistal cavity, and the pulp removed, it is necessary to protect the cusps in every way possible.
In building out central incisors that have lost an angle there is only about half the stress to contend with as upon the molars ; and yet, in some instances there is as much as 200 pounds brought upon them. It is not uncommon for persons to take a bread crust between the teeth and put stress upon it, perhaps the full strength of the muscles of the jaws, and then tear it off with the hand, putting an additional force upon it. Now, that we have to build against, in building up these angles. We must prepare for this in the anchorage of the fillings and depend upon the strength of the gold when they are built. In this case it is necessary that we have the welding property of the gold perfect in every part ; any carelessness in the annealing of the gold will tell in the breakage of fillings in incisal angles. A little portion imperfecdy annealed will make a fault ; a little imperfection in the malleting will make a fault, either of which will extend over a portion of the area and cause a break. In the preparation of gold for such building we should generally resort to annealing upon a tray, allowing the gold to remain hot for a considerable time in order that every particle may be well annealed. And then pack the gold with a plugger point with a small condensing area, and go over every part of it with great care and use enough force.
The force required in making fillings, and the strength required of fillings, will depend largely upon the strength of the peridental membranes. If the peridental membranes are not
Strong the patient will not use the teeth very vigorously, and fillings of less strength will answer. But be careful not to underestimate that. If the pulp has been removed from a tooth and it is still somewhat sore it may be very difficult to use sufficient force, and one may be deceived ; for when it is well the patient may put great force upon it. One should study each individual case as to the strength of the peridental membranes, the probable habits of the patient in chewing food, and build the filling accordingly. A person whose peridental membranes are strong, who, from the appearance of the teeth, you would suppose used much force in masticating food, particularly in cases where teeth are worn, you may expect that great force is used in the mastication of food, and you must build fillings accordingly, and see that every portion of gold is well annealed and malleted well home. A careful study of persons in regard to the force they use in biting seems to me almost essential in the practice of dentistry. I know it is difficult to do that without being equipped with the proper instruments for this study. I wish every one could be equipped with the instruments for taking the bite of patients. Many patients will become interested in it and it would afford a fund of information that would be of great benefit.
Finishing Fillings.
Except in proximate cavities in the presence of a pro:ximating tooth, trimming fillings to form and finishing presents very little difficulty, and requires no special preparation for the finishing before the filling is introduced. In these it is necessary to the proper finishing that the teeth be separated, either before the filling is begun, or at some time during the building of it, to allow room for finishing the surface to the correct form. This separating has been described.
Before any finishing is begun, the cavity must be filled more than full at every part to allow for sufficient trimming to remove all instrument marks, leaving a surface condensed to an even, perfect hardness.
In occlusal, buccal, labial and lingual cavities, the first trimming may be done with the engine, using fine-cut finishing burs, or corundum stones, as may be most convenient, or in some positions the trimming may be done with the finishing files. Rotary instruments used in the dental engine should be
passed over the surface of the gold in some regular order, being careful not to cut too deeply in some parts, or cutting down irregularly. In occlusal cavities, when the bulk of the trimming has been done in this way, overlaps will remain in the grooves and irregularities of the surface. These are best removed with the discoid excavator, or spoons 20-9-12. These instruments should be very sharp.
In buccal and labial cavities the finishing of the gingival margin is the difficult point. Generally no attempt should be made to cut these fully down to the enamel margin with the bur or stone, but after the first part of the cutting has been done, the gingival margin should be trimmed with the files or with the finishing knives. In some positions this will be done easiest with the knives ; in others it will be done easiest with the files. Generally the knives should do the last part of the trimming, for the reason that the sharp edge (and it must be very sharp to be of use) will catch under the least overlap, find the exact enamel margin, and cut to it with certainty. In using the finishing knives no effort should be made to cut away a thick mass at a single stroke, but rather so catch it as to remove thin shavings and pare down the gold litde by little. Used in this way they will, in positions suited to their use, cut faster than any other instrument used for this purpose. Great care should be taken not to overtrim the gingival margin, cutting away part of the thin enamel, or all of it, leaving a depression. This is very liable to be done by the careless use of the stone, and forms a depression in which debris will lodge, setting up fermentation which will insure the recurrence of decay at that point. This error is a very common one. All parts of the margin of the filling should be trimmed exacdy to the cavity margins. This should be so perfect that a sharp edge or a sharp point will slide from the enamel onto the filling, or from the filling onto the enamel, without the least catch or interference with the perfectly smooth movement. All parts of the surface of the filling should harmonize with the surface of the tooth ; or, in other words, should reproduce the tooth form with accuracy. Then the whole surface should be evenly polished. This is best done by using a rubber disk of triangular form with a sharp outer edge armed with pulverized pumice, rotating rapidly in the engine. Or, on axial surface fillings, the
sandpaper disk may often be used to advantage. When all instrument marks have been removed with this it may be followed by a leather disk and pumice, which at the last is carefully run dry. In using the engine great care must be taken not to develop too much heat, as this is likely to cause severe pain, and may do permanent injury to the pulp of the tooth by setting up hyperaemia.
A hard steel burnisher should not be used on cohesive gold fillings, for, if used with force enough to be of value, there is danger of checking the enamel margins, and for the reason that there is no necessity for its use if the surface of the filling has been well condensed.
Finishing proximate fillings. — The teeth having been separated to give room, and the filling built out sufficiently to allow of its being finished to the original mesio-distal breadth of the tooth, the gold will have been packed very solidly against the proximating tooth. The first thing is to cut through between this tooth and the filling with a Koeber saw, held in the Wilson or Sibley frame. This cut should be close against the proximating tooth, removing as little gold as possible. Now, take a thread saw (made by grinding from the back of a Koeber saw on an ordinary corundum wheel until its width is reduced one-half), place it in the frame with the teeth toward the back, and pass this between the filling and the proximating tooth and work it under the gingival margin of the filling against the neck of the filled tooth and sawing toward the occlusal, cut away the overlap of gold. Afterward the saw may be turned first one way and then the other, and cut away the overlap well around to the buccal and to the lingual in case of very broad fillings. Then the saws have done their full duty. In cutting away the surplus with the saw especial care should be had not to cut too much toward the occlusal, and thus cut away the contact point. Now with the finishing knives begin at the gingival, and cutting fine shavings (the krtives must be sharp), remove any remaining overlap first and shave the proximate surface and the gingival portion of the embrasures to the required form. When the hand has become trained to the use of these knives, and they are kept sharp, this part of the work is quickly done and well done.
trimmed to form, and the contact which has been left flat with the saw must be rounded. This part of the work is best done with the file-cut finishing files.
The blades of these files must be sharp to do this work well. When they have become dulled they are easily sharpened with slips of Arkansas stone, made for this purpose. Each blade is to be carefully ground sharp by drawing the stone back and forth against it. Generally, oil should be used on the stone. When the edge of the stone has become dulled or gaped it may be sharpened by whetting on fine emery paper laid flat on a table. Generally these files may be used with the thumb and palm grasp, and the flat sides applied to the gold, and with short, strong strokes almost parallel with the long axis of the tooth, the excess of gold is quickly removed. As the margins of the blades of these files are thin and sharp, they can pass well into the embrasure toward the contact point, rounding the surface just up to that point without cutting over it. This is done first on the buccal and then upon the lingual, and the contact point sharply rounded, and the embrasures, lingual and buccal, rounded to the proper form.
Obtaining this marble-like roundness of the contact points is the critical requirement in finishing proximate fillings. If the surface is cut flat, the contact will grasp and hold food between the teeth and cause annoyance and pain, and cause injury to the gum septum by forcing the confined food against it. Neglect of this precaution has caused the loss of thousands of otherwise good fillings, and the teeth themselves, either by causing a recurrence of decay or by inducing disease of the peridental membrane.
The occlusal surface, if the case be a molar or bicuspid, is to be trimmed and finished as described for occlusal fillings, after which corrections are made in the occlusal third of the proximate surface, and the whole filling polished.
Polishing of proximate surface fillings should be done partly with tape and partly with disks in the engine. Tapes should be used for polishing the gingival two-thirds of the surface, or all of that portion of the filling to the gingival of the contact point, having especial care not to cut away the contact point. Narrow strips should be used. The embrasures, buccal and lingual, should be polished with disks, usually not more
than five-eighths of an inch in diameter, in the engine. The disks should never be allowed to pass the point of contact, as they would quickly ruin the filling by cutting away the contact point, but should be confined to the embrasures and the buccal and lingual margins. When this has been completed satisfactorily, a very fine tape may be passed a few times over the contact point, rounding it and completing the polish.
The importance of the form of fillings will be considered more fully when the causes of caries and the conditions of its occurrence have been presented.
I will preface the consideration of the manipulative procedures in filling with amalgam by saying that every detail of the cavity preparation should be the same as for filling with gold, except that convenience points for starting the filling need not be made. Neither is it quite so explicitly required that convenience forms of the walls for access be so rigidly observed, though there should not be much difference. If possible, the anchorage should be stronger than for gold, and as amalgam is so much used for very badly decayed teeth, especially in bicuspids and molars from which the pulps have been removed, advantage should be taken of the pulp chamber to strengthen the anchorage. The pulp chamber should be filled solidly with amalgam to the pulpal orifice of the root canals when using it in pulpless teeth. With the amalgam we are using nowadays the teeth will not be discolored if the filling is properly made. The amalgam exposed upon the surface will discolor up to the margins, but the amalgam that is in contact with the walls of the cavity will not discolor, and consequently will not discolor the tooth. It is only when the amalgam filHng leaks about the margins that the tooth is discolored by it, and as we can now use amalgams that do not shrink, discolorations of the teeth will occur only through imperfect manipulation. The fact that amalgams used in the past and until very recently would shrink, causing leakage, is the reason why teeth filled with it have been so generally discolored. It is not easy, however, to make mechanically perfect amalgam fillings, and for one to succeed uniformly requires skill and the utmost care in every detail.
ous surrounding walls during the building of the filling.
We can not build up a corner of a tooth with amalgam and expect good adaptation to the walls, for the material is plastic, and, when pressed upon, the whole body of the filling is liable to movement. Therefore, whenever a cavity presents that has not four surrounding w^alls, the missing w^alls must iDe supplied by artificial walls. This is done by the application of the matrix. It is to be used in filling all proximate cavities, and in any others in which one wall is broken down.
Placing the matrix. — When a proximate cavity is otherwise ready for filling with amalgam, a slip of thin metal plate (copper, brass, German silver or steel) is cut of sufficient width to extend from the occlusal surface of the tooth to near the gingival line, or far enough to fully cover the gingival margin of the cavity, and long enough to encircle about half the tooth. The rubber dam having been applied before the excavation of the cavity was completed, this slip is passed between the teeth and roughly fitted to see that the width and length are right. Then at the corners to the gingival a little ear is turned with the pliers that will prevent a ligature from slipping off to the gingival, when it is drawn tightly around the tooth. Also the cut ends of the metal should be so bent that the sharp angles will not cut the ligature. This is now passed between the teeth so as to cover the proximate portion of the cavity. Then a ligature is thrown two or three times around the tooth, including the matrix, tightly drawn and tied. This is often a difficult operation for the beginner, but after a little experience the manipulation comes easy enough in most cases. A few cases occur where the conditions arc unfavorable and try one's wits, but these can be successfully done by a little effort. When this has been done the Perry separator is applied over the matrix, or in many cases the matrix may be held with the separator without the ligature. It is just as important to separate the teeth for amalgam fillings as for gold fillings, and on no account should this be neglected in cases requiring it. After the preparation is other-wise complete, a careful examination of the gingival margin of
the cavity should be made to see that the matrix is close at that point, and if it is not, it should be brought close, by inserting a small, soft wood wedge from the lingual side with just sufficient force to bring the matrix close. This is most likely to be needed in molars that have broad, flat, proximate surfaces.
Preparing the Amalgam.
It is of great importance to obtain in the beginning the right proportions of alloy and mercury. This proportion will vary with the alloy used. Of the higher grades of alloy we are at present using, this proportion is very nearly equal parts by weight, but generally a slightly greater proportion of mercury is required ; or about 52 per cent. This proportion should be carefully determined for the alloy used, and the proportions weighed for each mix. We think this of such importance in our infirmary work that we have this weighing done, and the propportions put in separate capsules. I have also found that to undertake to knead the alloy with too much mercury results in very imperfect kneading and makes a weak amalgam, while to knead with too little mercury also makes a very weak amalgam, and a mass that is too granular and stiff to work well.
Kneading.
The first of the kneading is done best in a wedgewood or ground-glass mortar. This should be continued until all of the fillings are incorporated with the mercury, when it should be turned into the palm of the hand and vigorously kneaded with the fingers. For this work the hand should be as dry as possible. This kneading should be continued until the mass is perfectly soft, plastic and free from granulation. If in the kneading the mass becomes too very soft there is too much mercury in the mix, and so soon as that is determined a portion of the mercury should be removed by squeezing the mass between the fingers and the kneading immediately continued, for if -the mass is allowed to stand for even a few moments in this condition it is likely to become too stiff for rekneading. When sufficiently kneaded, the mass should not very readily break when rolled into a long roll in the palm of the hand. Everything should be in exact readiness to insert the filling and the packing immediately
FILLING WITH AMALGAM. 129
proceeded with, for if the alloy is just what it should be, the mass will begin to stiffen very quickly, and possibly become unfit to work before the packing is completed.
Packing Amalgam Filling.
The importance of the best form of instrument for packing amalgam can hardly be overestimated. Until I had examined this over and over again, experimentally, under conditions which enabled me to determine results, I had no idea of the importance of the instrument forms for this purpose. The one thing needful in packing amalgam is to grasp the mass as a whole as nearly as possible, and compress it into the cavity. The whole principle of making perfect work is contained in the one word, compression. Therefore, the cavity must be a simple one with complete surrounding walls, or must be converted into a simple cavity by supplying any missing walls with the matrix. Then the instrument point should be flat and as large as the cavity will conveniently admit, and, when practicable, its form should be such as to as nearly fit the cavity as possible. With it and the walls of the cavity the mass of amalgam should be grasped as perfectly as possible and powerfully compressed, so as to force the amalgam into all parts of the cavity. About all the force the hand is capable of should be brought upon it and maintained for an instant. Then more of the mass is added and again pressure applied. This should be done as rapidly as perfect work will admit, until the cavity is full and much more than full. Indeed, more of the mass should be added and compressed as long as compression of the mass in the cavity can be made by adding to the surface, for the time comes when the m.ass added simply spreads out over the cavity walls. If, during the packing, there are narrow parts of the cavity or irregularity of walls into which the instruments do not go well, a smaller instrument should be used to pack the amalgam into them. These should not be used with such force as to crush into the mass and chop it up, but only with such force as will compress. When the cavity is full it should be allowed to rest undisturbed for a few minutes to give it time to stiffen a little before attempting to remove any of the surplus.
Instruments.
In the lists of instruments there are three round points of different sizes from small to large for the more ordinary work, and then there are two pairs arranged with special reference to filling occluso-proximate cavities. One of each of these pairs will fit fairly well into the proximate portion of these cavities, and the other into the step. They grasp and compress the mass well in either of these positions. All of them are serrated to prevent slipping and sliding. These instruments should be used in all amalgam work.
Heretofore many dentists have used burnishers to pack amalgam fillings, thinking they could burnish and amalgam to the walls of the cavity. This is a popular error. I once supposed I could do this, and could prove it by burnishing amalgam onto a tooth-brush handle, causing it to stick so firmly that I could build a great mass upon it and the whole would cling very tightly. In trying some of these in an aniline dye I found that these bubbles became filled with the colored fluid. In trying this in cavities in teeth and breaking the tooth after the amalgam was hard, I found the same thing occurred. Finally, I became convinced that the endeavor to make a perfect amalgam filling with a burnisher was a failure. The thing simply can not be done. The amalgam will flake up from the wall and the adaptation be imperfect.
When the amalgam filling has stood a few moments to stiffen in some degree, the surface should be trimmed to form with a discoid or spoon excavator, if on an occlusal surface, and carefully burnished toward the walls, using a light pressure that will not be liable to move the mass as a whole. If upon an axial surface, as the buccal, it may very conveniently be trimmed with the finishing knives and all overlaps removed, and then carefully but lightly burnished. If an occluso-proximate filling, trim the occlusal portion before removing the separator, as this work will give a little more time for the mass to harden to prevent the filling being crushed by the teeth dropping together.
firmly held between the filling and the proximating tooth.
Any attempt to pull this out is liable to injure the filling. In this case straighten out the ends of the matrix to the lingual and to the buccal and reapply the separator with the matrix between the claw^s. Then tighten the separator sufficiently to loosen the matrix and remove it.
Now, while the separator is in place, with the finishing knives trim the proximate surface to form and remove all overlaps about the margins. Then burnish lightly, remove the separator and the rubber dam. Be careful to note the occlusion, and if a cusp of an opposing tooth strikes the filling, trim it down so that there may be no danger of injury to the filling from that cause.
Trimming to form as described is very important, because it can be done at this time while the amalgam is still but partially hardened, with ease, and very quickly. If we wait until the amalgam is fully hard it is a tedious, difficult operation.
The patient may now be dismissed for one, two or three days, as may be mutually convenient, or until the amalgam is fully hard. Then the whole filling must be polished. This polishing is practically the same, is done with the same instruments as a gold filling, and must be done with the same care. In proximate fillings it is very often necessary to reapply the separator to properly finish the proximate surface and the contact point.
The Cements.
The cements at present available for use in filling operations are the oxy-chloride of zinc and the oxy-phosphate of zinc. The composition of these you have already learned in the chemical laboratory. Formerly the oxy-chloride of zinc cement was much used, but since the introduction of the oxy-phosphate it has fallen into disuse on account of the very irritating qualities of its fluid portion. The phosphate of zinc cement is very much less irritating and is generally preferred for this reason. The cements are received from the dealer in two separate bottles, the one containing the powdered oxide of zinc and the other the fluid. In use a small portion of the powder is placed upon a porcelain or glass slab, and a drop or two of fluid is placed beside it. The two are then drawn together and thoroughly mixed by rubbing them
together with a spatula. This spatulation should be continued until a very smooth, creamy mass has been formed. The mixture of the oxy-phosphate should be much thicker and stififer than the mixture of the oxy-chloride to obtain the best results with the respective cements. Indeed, the oxy-chloride may be mixed so thin and soft as almost to flow and yet become very hard and firm; while the oxy-phosphate, to produce the best mass, should be rather stiff, yet it may be quite plastic.
As yet, there has been very little careful examination of the physical properties of these cements. We do not know accurately the proportions of powder and fluid required to produce the best results. It is probable that these vary with the different makes of these cements, and also with the age, for the fluids seem to be inconstant in their properties. It has been the constant habit of dentists to mix them without any rule, simply observing the plasticity of the mass produced, being governed entirely by the eye and the observation of the results. This must be regarded as a very inaccurate method of using this material, but so long as we are without more accurate knowledge of it than this gives, we can only follow it. Very recently some work has been done on the physical properties of the cements by Doctor Wedelstaedt, of St. Paul, and by Doctor Ames, of Chicago. In this work it has been shown that most of the cements are readily permeated by moisture, while some are not, and also that some of the cements will shrink badly while hardening.
In mixing the oxy-phosphate it seems to be best to draw the powder into the fluid and incorporate it little by little until the required stiffness of the mass has been acquired. Just what this should be can not, in the absence of carefully conducted experiments, be definitely stated. In practice it is varied with the particular use to be made of the particular mix. If for filling and setting crowns, in which case great plasticity is required, the consistency of very thick cream is usually acquired, and this very thoroughly spatulated and used quickly, or before it has begun to stiffen. If for filling cavities in teeth, more of the powder is added and the mix made stiffer, and the spatulation continued somewhat longer, so that the mass assumes a puttylike consistence. It seems to be the general notion that when mixed in this way a much stronger mass is formed. This idea is strongly supported by some recent physical experiments, yet
sufficiently varied as to conditions to give certain working data.
These cements are not impervious to moisture. Some experiments have recently been made as to the qualities of the cements with regard to exclusion of moisture, and it has been found that none of them are actually impermeable, while many of those on the market admit moisture readily. As yet, we do not know with any degree of certainty upon what these differences depend. They are, however, very important. Other things being equal, the cement that is nearest moisture-tight is the best for use. Any one may try cements by making experimental fillings and placing them for a day, or two or three, in a solution of aniline dye, and then breaking them open and observing the penetration of the color into the mass of the material. Some of the cements will be penetrated through and through in a very short time, while others will resist for a longer time.
It appears from experiments already made that those cements which are not permeable by moisture shrink badly while setting. This shrinkage renders them a poorer material for use than some of those that are in a degree penetrable by moisture.
When made into fillings in teeth the cements do not resist perfectly the solvent action of the oral secretions. Thisy are slowly dissolved, or waste away. They are, therefore, not very permanent fillings. In this regard great differences are observed. In a few cases cement fillings have done excellent service for many years, seemingly resisting the action of the oral secretions perfectly. In the majority of cases, however, they dissolve away within two or three years, and in many instances within a few months. We have not yet such a knowledge of the conditions of these variations as will enable us to control them, and must therefore regard cement fillings as temporary in their nature and qualities, expecting to renew them at frequent intervals.
The cements are used for setting crowns and bridges, for temporary fillings, and for preserving for a time teeth that are very badly broken down, or in other conditicHis which seem to render the use of the metallic fillings undesirable at the time.
They may also be used for temporary fillings in cases of very sensitive dentin for the purpose of allaying the extreme sensitiveness, which is generally found to disappear, in large part at least, within a few weeks or months. They may also be used for temporary fillings in cases of hyperaemia of the dental pulp with marked advantage, for the reason that their conductivity of thermal impressions is less than that of the metals, though in this respect gutta-percha is much better than the cements ; also they may be used in capping exposed pulps.
The cements are also much used for sealing treatments in pulp-chambers and root-canals. This last use of the cements is not good practice. They do not perfectly exclude moisture. Gutta-percha is much better for this purpose for the reasons, first, that gutta-percha is impermeable to fluids, and moisture-tight fillings can be made with it; second, gutta-percha is much more easily removed from the cavity in opening it for changes of the applications. It is very painful to cut out a cement filling when the peridental membrane of the tooth is sore, while gutta-percha may be softened by heat and removed with very little pain.
In filling cavities with cement the preparation should be well made, all of the walls being cleaned by perfectly removing all carious dentin to sound tooth structure, and the walls and margins trimmed smooth. Some degree of retention should also be given to the cavity form, but this is not so imperative as with metal fillings.
-The cavity should be perfectly dry at every part, for in this case we may expect that the cement will adhere strongly to the cavity walls and in part sustain the filling in position. The cement should be mixed with as much of the powder as will work into a plastic mass and spatulated vigorously until it has begun to stiffen, and, when at the consistence of putty, should be packed into the cavity in moderately small masses, using as much force as the consistence will allow, adding piece after piece, until all parts of the cavity are full and over-full. Then a few moments should be allowed for the cement to stiffen a little more, after which the filling is trimmed to form with the finishing knives. In this trimming the cement should be so stiff that the stickiness shall have disappeared, for it is only just at this time
polishing strips.
After the filling is completed it should be protected from moisture for some minutes, the longer the better, as the cement will become harder. It seems that when moisture is admitted early a part of the phosphoric acid is dissolved out of the cement, robbing it of a part that is necessary for the most complete hardening of the mass.
These general principles should be observed in all uses of cements. Softer masses must be used in setting crowns and some other operations requiring a plasticity approaching a fluid condition, but it should be remembered that this renders the cement less strong and more soluble, and is to be avoided whenever the conditions of the case in hand will allow.
Gutta-percha is used for various purposes in connection with filling operations. The best form for this purpose is the ordinary base-plate gutta-percha. Besides this, however, a multitude of makes for the purpose of filling teeth are found in the market. None of these are superior to the ordinary base-plate, and the greater number of them are very inferior. Many of them seem to be mixtures of gutta-percha and wax that soften very readily by heat. These are especially to be avoided.
Gutta-percha is the best material we have for root filling, for sealing dressings in root-canals, and for most of the temporary stoppings used in connection with treatment cases. Under certain conditions it is also an excellent material for more or less permanent fillings in cavities in the teeth.
In filling cavities in teeth with gutta-percha the cavity should be prepared almost as for gold or amalgam, but generally convenience points for starting may be dispensed with. The cavity should, however, be made as strongly retentive as possible. When otherwise ready for filling, every portion of the cavity walls should be moistened with eucalyptol or oil of cajuput. These oils take strongly to the cavity walls and also dissolve slightly the surface of the gutta-percha as it comes in contact with it. The
oil then diffuses through the mass of the gutta-percha and is lost, apparently, leaving the gutta-percha adhering firmly to the cavity walls. Therefore, for this purpose the cavity -walls should only be moistened. No excess of the oil should be allowed to remain in the cavity, as the effect will be to soften the whole mass of the filling.
Prepare the gutta-percha by gently warming it over the flame of the alcohol lamp, or upon a warm tray. Care should be had not to heat the gutta-percha too hot. This will develop an inordinate stickiness of the mass, and it will not again become fully hard; the quality of the material is per^ manently injured.
When it is made just plastic by heat, convey it to the cavity in small pieces and build the filling up from the most convenient angle or wall of the cavity piece by piece, sticking the warm pieces to the mass in the cavity with a considerable pressure, and condensing well against all walls and margins. In this work it is well, if possible, to add no more of the material than will just fill the cavity, having none to remove in trimming. If, however, a surplus has been added, warm a small flat burnisher sufficiently to quickly soften the gutta-percha upon contact, and with this cut away the surplus, and immediately condense and adjust the surface of the filling with a cold burnisher that has been laid ready. The finish should generally be made entirely with the burnisher, as we can not polish the surface of the filling by any of the usual means. By waiting until the filling is fully hard it may be trimmed with a sharp knife, but the edge must be very sharp to cut smoothly. This is the best instrument for removing overlaps and making a good finish of margins.
Another plan of filling with gutta-percha that is useful in many cases, especially cavities of easy access, is to form a mass that will just fill the cavity and warm it only sufficiently to obtain the necessary plasticity, (and insert the whole filling in one piece, condensing with a broad, cold instrument, afterward finish as before described.
Much experience is required to handle gutta-percha well, but when once the manipulation has been learned it is not difficult, and requires but little time. It should be the only material used for sealing in dressings, and for the temporary stoppings in connection with treatments.
EXPOSURE AND REMOVAL OF THE DENTAL PULP. 137
Gutta-percha is too soft for permanent fillings in any positions that are exposed to the stress or friction of mastication. In some cavities, where it will not be exposed to wear, it will do most excellent service. It is especially to be recommended for fillino- cavities in the buccal surfaces of the teeth of old people, especially those that are in large part in the cementum, and extend beneath the free margin of the gum.
It is often useful as fillings in the temporary teeth for children. By renewing it from time to time these teeth may be made useful until removed in the shedding process. However, children often wear it out of cavities rapidly, and it needs to be very frequently renewed.
Gutta-percha is also very useful in the treatment of sensitive dentin, and in cavities of teeth with hyperaemia of the pulp. It is tolerated in both of these conditions better than any other filling material, and, if well put in, will generally stand long enough to accomplish good results. But to do well in either of these classes of cases, it must be made to cohere to the walls of the cavity. Otherwise it is liable on account of its softness to slight movement in the ca\ity, and to admit moisture. In that case the condition, especially of sensitive dentin, is liable to be made worse instead of better.
Exposure of the dental pulp. — The pulp of a tooth may be found exposed by caries so that it lies naked and in view ; it may have been reached by the extension of caries but remain covered by a softened carious mass of dentin ; it may become exposed by accident during the preparation of a carious cavity ; the conditions may require that an intentional exposure be made through a carious cavity that has nearly reached the pulp, or that an intentional exposure be made, there being no carious cavity.
The first and second cases are so similar that they may be treated of together, only noticing differences of manipulation as they occur. In both, the supposition is that the pulp is to be destroyed and removed. In the first procedure the problem is the preparation of the cavity for the treatment of the exposed pul[>, and with the least pain and inconvenience to the patient.
of all overhanging enamel and that the surrounding walls be freed from carious material, perfectly cleaned to solid dentin, and cut to a form that will certainly retain a temporary filling for the purpose of sealing in applications that may be required in the treatment of the pulp. It is not required here that the cavity be cut to the full outline form, as it will be prepared to receive the permanent filling later ; nor that permanent anchorages be provided ; but it is required that good and sufficient anchorage be provided for a temporary gutta-percha filling against good clean surrounding walls in every part. It should be opened sufficiently wide to admit of the free and easy application of instruments for the exposure of the pulp. In doing this especial care should be taken that the instruments used be not directed toward the pulp of the tooth and that it be not interfered with in any way until after the surrounding walls are clean and solid in every direction. This excavation is to be done upon the principles already laid down for the excavation of cavities in the class to which the case in hand belongs. If the rubber dam has not been placed at the beginning, it should be placed now and every preparation made for the best possible view of the deeper parts of the cavity. The next step is the removal of the carious material from the deeper parts of the cavity — the axial or pulpal wall — and from about the exposure. In case the exposure is large and the pulp is already laid bare, this need not be very perfectly done at first, the necessity being that applications can be laid directly upon the pulp tissue and perfectly sealed in place by a temporary filling. In case the pulp is covered with carious material only this should be removed and the tissue of the pulp laid bare. In every position this should be done with the broadest cutting instrument that is applicable to the position, usually with the spoons. One should never undertake to remove softened material from over a pulp with an instrument so small that it is liable to penetrate through the opening into the pulp chamber, lacerate the pulp tissue, and inflict unnecessary pain. This should be taken as a principle controlling every procedure in this class of cases, and the operator should see to it particularly that the cavity be so opened and prepared that broad points may be used with facility. When these preparations have been made, if the case be other than a proximate cavity in the incisors, take the spoon
20-9-12, and having determined the best direction in which to make a sweeping cut, start its edge carefully under the carious mass close against one of the walls of the cavity and, with a strong thrust in a curved direction, carry it across the other side, cutting at once to the full depth of the softened dentin, and if possible remove the whole mass at the single cut, laying the pulp bare. This should be carefully planned and firmly executed. If the cut should be through the superficial portions of the pulp, excising a portion of the tissue, it is just as well, for when the hemorrhage has ceased we are sure of the best condition for the absorption of remedies for destroying it, whether this be done by the application of the arsenic or by the use of cocaine under pressure. In some broad cavities in which it may seem that the carious mass is too broad to be removed at a single cut, one or more preparatory cuts may be made to either side, avoiding the pulp, before making the principal cut for its exposure.
An exposure of the pulp made in this way is usually not very painful, and even if it be very sensitive, the duration of the pain is reduced to the shortest limit.
In proximate cavities in the incisors the spoons 20-9-12 can not generally be used for want of room. Much oftener the spoons 15-8-12 or the discoid are applicable. In these cavities the most desirable direction for the final cut for exposing the pulp is from the gingival toward the incisal directly over the pulp. In these cases the opening into the pulp is apt to be long inciso-gingivally, and if the broad cutting edge can be placed at right angles to this it is much safer against dropping into the pulp chamber and producing unnecessary laceration of the sensitive tissues. By proceeding carefully this position or an angle closely proximating it can often be obtained, and then the exposure is made with safety ; a discoid 15 is really the best instrument for the purpose in this position. By working with care the exposure maybe made with hatchet 12-5-12, cutting from labial to lingual, but with much more danger of inflicting severe pain.
Destroying the dental pulp,— When the pulp has been fully exfjoscd, the cavity should be ready for the ap[)lication to the pulp without further [m.-paration. If it is to be destroyed by arsenic, cut a piece of ordinary writing paper of such size and
form that it may be easily so laid in the cavity as to cover the exposure, and try it in place. Then the walls of the cavity should be moistened with eucalyptol or oil of cajuput, to prepare them for receiving a gutta-percha filling, and any excess of oil removed. Then place a small, but sufficient amount of arsenical paste upon this paper, and apply it directly to the exposure, and press it gently in place ; see to it carefully that there is not so much of the paste that it will run out around the margins of the paper, and be in danger of smearing the walls of the cavity, and possibly getting out toward the gingival margin of proximate cavities, for in this case there will be danger of arsenical poisoning of gum tissues. Place over this a guttapercha filling, using especial care not to make unnecessary pressure over the exposure of the pulp that will cause compression and pain. This gutta-percha filling should be as perfect in its adaptation to the cavity walls as it is possible to make it, in order that there may be no leakage of the arsenic outward to poison the surrounding tissues, or of moisture from without inward to interfere with the action of the drug. Another important care should be that in proximate cavities no overplus of gutta-percha be allowed to infringe upon the gum septum and cause absorption. Overplus in this direction is readily avoided by placing any suitable instrument between the teeth at the gingival, such as the shaft of hoe 8-3-6, and making the guttapercha filling against that, and afterward removing the instrument. This gives room for the gum septum, and yet allows the temporary filling to be placed firmly against the proximating tooth. Finally, the filling must be so finished as not to give the patient annoyance, after which the patient may be discharged for forty-eight hours, or until the arsenic has acted.
Anaesthetizing the dental pulp. — If it has been decided to anaesthetize the pulp with cocaine under pressure, the opening into the pulp must be free and large, and the position such that the after manipulation can be readily done. The surrounding walls must be sufficient so that the drug may be readily confined under pressure, and the access fairly direct. Otherwise arsenic should be used.
When the cavity has been fully prepared — an occusal cavity in an upper first molar for example — a sufficient amount of cocaine crystals should be dissolved in a few drops of water in a
capsule (always made fresh for each case), and a small pellet of cotton saturated with this solution is placed in the cavity upon the exposed pulp. Over this place a pellet of soft, or unvulcanized, vulcanite rubber that will completely fill the orifice of the cavity and prevent the escape of the solution. Upon this make pressure with a broad-faced amalgam plugger. The pressure should be gentle at first, and be gradually increased as the pain is relieved, watching for evidence of pain in the countenance of the patient, until very heavy pressure can be made. This should be maintained for several minutes. Then if all has gone well the rubber and the cotton may be removed, and the pulp will be found insensible and its removal may be proceeded with.*
In anaesthetizing the pulp in this way notice particularly that the cavity must be so stopped with the soft rubber as to prevent the escape of the solution along the cavity walls, otherwise the pressure will fail to force the drug into the pulp tissue and the anaesthesia will fail. This is fairly easy of accomplishment in the cavity named above and those of similar form and situation. But in proximate cavities it is often much more difficult to so place the rubber that it will successfully stop the orifice of the cavity and prevent the escape of the fluid. In the molars and bicuspids this may be successfully done by first placing a properly formed piece of rubber against the proximating surface of the adjacent tooth and forcing it against the gingival wall of the cavity, and then doubling it over the occlusal portion so as to close that also, and then applying pressure with a broad instrument point selected to fit the cavity to the best advantage. As one becomes expert in this, most cavities may be so handled as to successfully produce anaesthesia of the pulp.
Opening the pulp chamber preparatory to removal of the pulp. — When the pulp has been destroyed by arsenic, the procedure when the patient has returned for the next sitting is first to adjust the rubber dam. In proximate cavities in which the gutta-percha filling has been placed firmly against the proximating tooth, the filling must first be cut through with a Koeber saw, or trimmed away with a sharp finishing knife in order to allow the rubber dam to pass. When the dam is in position sterilize the field of operation by mopping the teeth included, their interproximate spaces and the adjacent rubber
with 1-2-3, oil of cloves or oil of cassia, and then drying them off with absorbent cotton. Then the gutta-percha filling maybe softened by warming a burnisher and passing the hot point into it, and holding it for a moment to allow the general softening of the gutta-percha, when it may be lifted out.
The cavity is now freed from the arsenic paste and washed out with the antiseptic and dried. It is now ready to proceed with the opening of the pulp chamber. In case the pulp has been anaesthetized with cocaine, the rubber dam will be in place and ready for the opening of the pulp chamber so that from this time the procedures in the two cases will be similar. In either case the pulp should first be pricked cautiously with a very fine broach, to be sure that it has lost its sensibility, for sometimes there is a failure in either way of operating. Having determined that the conditions are favorable for removal of the pulp, the first operation is the opening of the pulp chamber. In the bicuspids and molars this consists in the removal of the entire roof, or dentinal covering, and the manner of doing this will depend much upon the extent and the location of the decay.
In occlusal cavities in the molars in which the decay is large, often the hoe 6-2-23 can be slipped into the opening and the roof of the chamber pulled away, uncovering the entire pulp. But when the dentinal covering is strong, as is usually the case when the opening is only the exposure of one of the horns of the pulp, the better way is to enlarge the opening with a small fissure bur. This is passed into the pulp chamber through the orifice of the exposure, and when the operator is sufficiently sure in his knowledge of the anatomy, he may cut around the pulp chamber parallel with its axial walls and remove the covering in a single piece. Otherwise the opening may be enlarged by carrying the bur laterally toward the central portion of the covering of the chamber and then carrying it around in a circle. Then hoe 6-2-23 may be passed into the opening and its blade turned under the roof covering the pulp, the overhang determined, and the cutting directed, until the whole extent of the chamber is uncovered ; no overhang should be left at any point. In this cutting the greatest care should be taken that the bur be not pressed onto the floor of the chamber and its form marred by cutting into it. When the whole of the roof has been removed, it is generally best to enlarge somewhat toward the mesio-buccal
angle in order to better reach the mesio-buccal root canal. This may be done most readily and in the best form by a scraping movement with the cleoid. The case is now ready for the removal of the pulp. Incidentally much of the tissue of the bulb of the pulp, possibly all of it, will have been removed in doing this cutting, but no attempt should be made to remove the pulp from the canals until this cutting is satisfactorily completed.
In many cases after the first opening has been made the roof of the pulp chamber can be cut away quicker and much more satisfactorily with the chisel and mallet.
If the exposure is from a mesial cavity the cutting will be, of course, to the distal and often will involve the removal of the middle third of the occlusal surface with the whole of the dentin intervening between it and the pulp. If a distal cavity, the middle third bucco-lingually of the occlusal surface with the intervening dentin should at once be removed to a point well toward the mesial marginal ridge.
In the bicuspids the exposures are almost uniformly from cavities in the proximate surfaces, and the chambers are broad bucco-lingually. The cutting for the opening of the chambers must be directed first to the central part of the crown, but later broadened from buccal to lingual ; for the horns of the pulp, when long, in these teeth spread out toward the points of the cusps. These should be fully opened into so that they may be cleaned, also the root canals in these teeth, especially in upper first bicuspids, are given off from the extreme buccal and extreme lingual portions of the chamber, and unless this cutting is broad in this direction, the broach will not have direct entrance into them.
In the incisors and cuspids exposures are generally from proximate cavities. In opening these for the removal of the pulp, the orifice of the exposure should be first extended to the gingival wall of the cavity, and. to the full breadth of the chamber. The approach should be carefully considered. Generally a broach will not readily slide into the canal without being bent more or less. This is unfavorable, and a better approach must be made. Generally when a cavity is so large that the pulp has been reached, the lingual wall should be cut away, and this will improve the approach, the instrument being passed to the lingual
of the incisal edge of the tooth ; rarely the labial wall should be cut away. Then, to improve the approach still more, take a small fissure bur in the engine, and approaching the canal from the direction in which a broach would be introduced, pass it into the canal, and cut by lateral pressure broadening the canal in a direction to straighten the approach. This cutting will be toward the disto-lingual if a distal cavity, or mesio-lingual if a mesial cavity, if the approach is to the lingual of the incisal edge. From whatever the direction of the approach, the cutting is to be so directed that the broadening of the coronal portion of the canal will straighten it. In this cutting special care should be had that the end of the bur should not cut the opposite side of the canal and roughen it, for if it should, the point of an instrument will be catching in the rough points at every effort to introduce it into the canal. By this cutting the curve of the instruments introduced into the canal for the removal of the pulp, or for filling the canal, will be much less abrupt, and these operations can be done more perfectly.
It is particularly desirable that all cutting in opening the pulp chamber be completed, and the cavity cleaned of chips or cuttings before the pulp is removed from the root canals. Often these cuttings will fall into a small canal, and an instrument thrust will so fasten them' as to occlude the canal. If in any case it should become necessary to do more cutting after removing the pulp from one root canal in order to gain access to another, a wisp of cotton to catch any chips should first be placed in the open canal.
Removal of the Pulp.
The instruments used for removing the pulp from the canals are the barbed broach and the smooth broach. Generally the barbed broach should be used first. Usually the bulb of the pulp will have been removed during the opening of the pulp chamber, and the broach selected should be suited in size to the canal. Test the broach before using it by taking the point on the finger and bending it. See that it bends in a regular curve. Occasionally in cutting the barbs the shaft is cut too deeply at some point, which will cause it to break easily — such a broach should be discarded. The broach should be held
in a light handle, but may be used without. Just before introducing the broach dip it into a good antiseptic, preferably 1-2-3, or oil of cloves. This should never be neglected, for the broaches are liable to carry micro-organisms into the canal and infect it. Now pass the broach into the canal, directing it against one of the walls, so that it will pass in beside the pulp tissue rather than through it. Generally the point should be pushed to the apical foramen and then, if it is felt to be held tightly in the apical end of the canal, withdraw it until it is felt to be loose. Now rotate the broach lightly, moving it slightly back and forth to be sure that the whole length is rotating and not being held in some curved part of the canal which would be liable to break the broach. The rotation should not exceed one turn, then withdraw it. In a good many cases the entire contents of the canal will be brought away with the first effort. If not, the movement is repeated. Often the tissue of the pulp will break up into shreds and be but partially removed. In this case the smooth broach with cotton should be used. For preparing this the fingers should be disinfected by taking a bit of cotton moistened with the disinfecting agent used, and rolling it between the fingers and thumb. Then take a small bit of absorbent cotton and pull it between the fingers of the two hands until a small shred is formed containing but a few parallel fibers. Take one end of this between the forefinger and thumb of the right hand and grasp with it the broach at midlength, or with the cotton wisp extending slightly past its point. With the left hand grasp the other end of the cotton wisp and the point of the broach together and rotate the broach in the fingers of the right hand until the cotton is wrapped firmly upon its shaft. When this is properly done the cotton will cling firmly to the broach, and is not likely to be lost in the canal. With the broach thus armed, dip it first in the antiseptic and then pass it into the canal, slightly rotating back and forth. When the full depth has been reached, turn the broach fully upon its axis and withdraw it while in rotation. Generally the shreds of the pulp will become entangled in the cotton and be brought away. This should be repeated until satisfied that all tissue has been removed from the canal to the apex.
in the anatomy.* Difficulty of this kind should not occur except in abnormal cases, and when they do, it is generally because the floors of the pulp chambers have been mutilated with burs, and the openings of the canals filled with chips. This should never be done ; burs should not be used in the floor of the pulp chamber.
No specific directions can be given for abnormal cases. When the pulp chamber is filled with secondary deposits, the effort should be directed to the removal of these, preserving the outlines of the pulp chamber. When the pulp chamber is much narrowed by secondary dentin deposited upon its walls, the openings into the canals should be found before any cutting is done, and then the cutting carefully directed to straightening them. In most instances this is done best with the barbed broach. All small tortuous canals should be enlarged and straightened with the barbed broach. To do this, cause the broach to enter the canal as far as possible and withdraw it. The barbs will impinge upon the walls and cut away the dentin. Repeat this, pressing the broach in a direction that will tend to straighten the canal. By repetitions of the movement, the canal that can be entered by the smallest broach can soon be enlarged sufficiently for filling. Generally partial occlusions of canals are confined to or near their pulpal ends, and where this has been straightened up, the broach will pass to the apex. In elderly people certain canals are often too small for successful cleaning and filling. In cases in which there has been much wearing away of the teeth, the pulp chambers and the pulpal ends of the root canals are apt to be much narrowed by secondary dentin. This applies to all of the teeth in the mouth, i. e., to any that have, from any cause, not been worn away the same as those that are worn.
When the root canals have been cleaned, it is generally necessary that a dressing be laid in the canals and the cavity sealed with a gutta-percha filling until a future time. For this purpose a wisp of cotton should be formed with its fibers mostly parallel, and the end of this caught with the point of the broach with the thumb and finger of the left hand and the broach rotated with the right hand, while the fingers of the left roll the cotton on its
end. In this way the cotton is rolled on the broach in such a way that it will not slip backward on the broach and can be carried to the apical end of the canal ; and when the broach is withdrawn the cotton will remain in the canal. This is now saturated with the dressing, or drug indicated, and laid in the canal. One end of the cotton wisp should project into the pulp chamber in order that it may readily be removed at another sitting, and the cavity sealed with a gutta-percha filling.
Rule : In no case should the saliva be allowed to enter a root canal after the pulp has been removed. At any future sitting the rubber dam must be applied and the included region disinfected before the gutta-percha filling is removed. Any neglect of this precaution is apt to result in alveolar abscess.
In cases of dead pulps, pulps in a state of decomposition, empty root canals, alveolar abscesses, etc., the technical processes of cleaning the canals are not essentially different from those described, though they may require radically different medicinal treatment. This latter is not within the province of this book.
Opening the Pulp Chamber in Sound Teeth.
Frequently it is necessary to open the pulp chamber of teeth that are sound, or have fillings previously inserted that it is not desirable to remove. The pulp may be dead or in such a condition of disease that it should be removed. In these cases it becomes necessary to cut from the surface of the tooth or through the filling. In case of the incisors or cuspids the best place to enter the pulp chamber is through the central portion of the lingual surface. For this purpose a bibeveled drill, one millimeter in diameter, should be first used. With this the enamel should be penetrated and the drill forced a little distance into the dentin. Then this opening should be considerably enlarged by a larger drill or a round bur. Then the small drill should be forced carefiilly into the pulp chamber. If the pulp is alive and sensitive, it should now be destroyed. Afterward the complete opening of the chamber may be jjroceeded with. If the pulp is dead, the fiirther opening of the chamber may be done at once.
the lingual at a considerable inclination, and it is now necessary to make the opening as near parallel with the length of the pulp canal as practicable. To do this use a fissure bur, pass its end into the pulp chamber and bring the hand-piece slowly parallel with the long axis of the tooth, cutting mostly from the incisal wall of the opening first made, but also cutting some from the distal wall of the pulp chamber. This cutting should be sufficient to admit a broach to the full length of the canal, with very little bending. The cleaning and treatment of the canal can then be proceeded with.
Generally, when incisors have proximate fillings that are good, the opening into the pulp should be made from the lingual, without disturbing the fillings. If, however, there is reason for removing a proximate filling, the pulp chamber should be opened through the cavity.
In case of bicuspids and molars the opening should be made through the occlusal surface. In bicuspids the mesial pit should be chosen. In molars it is generally much easier to penetrate the enamel through the pit in the central fossa. In this case, as soon as the dentin has been entered, it is best to introduce a small inverted cone bur, and cut a slot to the mesial, inclining to the buccal, as far as the mesial marginal ridge, and chip the enamel from its margins. The length of this toward the mesial will depend on the position of the tooth and the inclination of the hand-piece in drilling through the dentin. The dentin is thick, and in passing through it, this inclination will often carry the hole considerably to the distal. Therefore, in beginning again with the drill it should be set sufficiently to the mesial so that it will strike the pulp chamber centrally, or to the mesial of its center. In drilling through the dentin the small drill (one millimeter in diameter) should first be made to penetrate a little, and then the hole enlarged, then drilled deeper and enlarged, until the dentin has been cut through. If the pulp is alive and sensitive, it should now be destroyed ; if dead, the opening may at once be so enlarged as to remove the entire roof of the pulp chamber, and the treatment of the canals proceeded with. Never undertake to treat pulp canals through a little bit of an opening.
If the fillings are good, proceed as if the tooth was sound, cutting through the filling, or through the dentin, as the case demands. If there is reason for removing the filling, do so at once, and open the pulp chamber through the cavity.
When it is decided that the conditions are right for filling the root canal, or canals of a tooth, the rubber dam must be placed and the included region disinfected. Then if a treatment has been in the canal the gutta-percha filling and the dressing is removed and a critical examination made as to its condition. If this is satisfactory, first see that the canal is reasonably dry, then flood it with eucalyptol or oil of cajuput, liberally applied upon a wisp of cotton wrapped upon a broach, and dry out the excess with a fresh wisp of cotton that has first been dipped in the oil and well squeezed out with another wisp of cotton. Try the sizes of the root canal pluggers in the canal, always washing the point with an antiseptic first, and select one that will pass nearly, but not quite, to the apical foramen. Select a gutta-percha cone and cut a portion of it about three or four millimeters long of the size which, from the information gained of the size of the apical end of the canal, will be sufficient to fully fill the opening and not force through the apical end. Warm the point of the root plugger selected, and holding the piece of gutta-percha cone in the thumb and finger of the left hand, bring its point quickly in contact with its large end, and hold it a moment, or until the gutta-percha has stuck to the end of the instrument. Dip this into eucalyptol, which will soften the surface of the gutta-percha slightly; convey this to the root canal and start it in carefully, and carry it firmly into its apical end. On withdrawing the root plugger the gutta-percha cone will remain, closing the apical end of the root. Repeat this with other bits of gutta-percha cones ; cut them from larger parts of the cones as the canal is filled to its larger portion and use the larger root canal plugger. After the first two or three pieces the subsequent ones may be slightly softened by passing them quickly over the flame of the annealing lamp and directly into the canal. Continue this until the canal is full.
it is necessary to make a special root canal plugger for the case by cutting ofif the barbed portion of a Donaldson broach of a suitable size and squaring its end on the stone.
Rationale of this procedure. — By flooding the root canal with eucalyptol or oil of cajuput the moisture is effectually removed. The oils have a greater affinity or attraction for the dentin than the moisture and displace it. These oils dissolve gutta-percha slightly, and the little remaining serves to stick the gutta-percha firmly to the walls of the canal. By putting in the gutta-percha in small pieces an opportunity is given to pack every portion of the canal and all of its irregularities full.
In filling root canals that are very large at the apical end, as in young persons, care must be exercised that the first cone selected is not so small that it could be forced through into the apical space. In very small canals, in which there is much doubt of being able to reach the apical end, chloro-percha * should be pumped into them, filling them as completely as possible, and then a small solid cone forced in. This pumping in of chloro-percha is done by wrapping three or four fibers of cotton firmly on a small broach, dipping this in the chloro-percha and conveying it into the canal and pumping it back and forth, repeating the operation until the canal seems to be well filled. Then thrust a root canal plugger of suitable size into it and force out some of the gutta-percha from the pulpal end. Then, having a suitable gutta-percha cone prepared, quickly stick it onto the plugger point, and thrust it as far into the canal as possible. Such canals may not always be perfectly filled by this plan, or by any other. But in each case the best effort should be made. The pulp chamber should not be filled with guttapercha. This material is much too soft to serve as a seat for a metallic filling. In any case in which it is not desirable to fill the pulp chamber with the material with which the cavity is to be filled, oxy-phosphate of zinc should be used.
Horns of pulp chambers. — Attention to the horns of pulp chambers is most urgently demanded in the incisors, cuspids and bicuspids. In incisors particularly, exposures of the pulp, whether made primarily by caries, or by cutting into them, are some distance from the incisal end of the pulp, leaving an end protruding into the incisal end of the crown of the tooth.
FILLING ROOT CANALS. 151
Before filling the cavity this must be looked for and so exposed that every part of it is cleaned and filled. Any neglect in this will result in discoloration of the tooth by the decomposition of the debris left in this neglected portion of the pulp chamber. In cuspids and bicuspids the horns of the pulp are often long and slender, and penetrate far toward the ends of the cusps. Unless these are thought of, and especially looked for and cut out, so that they may be perfectly filled, discoloration of the tooth in some degree is sure to occur.
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oVLdz12tQublKhzC | Finite Mathematics | Chapter 4 Finance
4.6 TVM Solver Calculator
Learning Objective
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Solve annuities, payout annuities, and loans problems with the TVM Solver application
This section presents an alternate way to solve annuities, payout annuities, and loans problems using a Time Value Money Solver (TVM Solver) application. The examples and exercises in this section are the same examples and exercises from Sections 4.2 through 4.5. There are many applications that exist, but one free resource is the Geogebra TVM Solver. You can use the link to open a new webpage with the calculator, or use the one located in the Back Matter of this textbook.
TVM Solver
[latex]N[/latex] is the total number of payments that are made.
[latex]I\%[/latex] is the interest rate, written as a percentage.
[latex]PV[/latex] is the present value. [latex]PV=0[/latex] when you are trying to save money (for example, in savings annuities).
[latex]PMT[/latex] is the payment amount. PMT will always be a negative number when you are typing it into the TVM Solver.
[latex]FV[/latex] is the future value. [latex]FV=0[/latex] when you are paying something off (for example, in payout annuities and loans).
[latex]P/Y[/latex] is the number of payments per year.
[latex]C/Y[/latex] is the number of times the interest is compounded per year.
Note: [latex]P/Y[/latex] and [latex]C/Y[/latex] are always going to be the same number. Some problems may not specify the number of times the interest is compounded per year, and in that case, you will use the same number that you use for [latex]P/Y[/latex].
Finding Interest
In annuities problems, the goal is to save money, meaning [latex]PV[/latex] will be 0 because there is no money in the account when it opens, and [latex]FV[/latex] will always be a value greater than 0. Interest can be found by using the following formula:
- [latex]\text{Interest}=FV-N \times PMT[/latex]
In payout annuities and loans problems, [latex]PV[/latex] is the amount that is in the annuity at the start of the annuity or the loan amount, so [latex]PV[/latex] is going to be a number greater than 0. [latex]FV[/latex] will be 0 because the annuity will have no money in it or the loan will be worth $0 in the future. For these problems, interest can be found by using the following formula:
- [latex]\text{Interest}=N \times PMT-PV[/latex]
Let’s take a look at some examples from Sections 4.2-4.5 and see how we would work the same problems using the TVM Solver. Note that the answers to these problems may be a little different than the problems in Sections 4.2-4.5 due to rounding.
Examples from Section 4.2
A traditional individual retirement account (IRA) is a special type of retirement account in which the money you invest is exempt from income taxes until you withdraw it. If you deposit $100 each month into an IRA earning 6% interest, how much will you have in the account after 20 years?
[latex]N = 20 \times 12 = 240[/latex] because you are making monthly deposits for 20 years.
[latex]I\% = 6[/latex] because the interest rate is 6%.
[latex]PV = 0[/latex] because you are saving money.
[latex]PMT = -100[/latex] because you are depositing $100 into the account.
[latex]FV[/latex] is what you want to know.
[latex]P/Y=12[/latex] because you are making 12 payments per year.
[latex]C/Y=12[/latex] because [latex]P/Y[/latex] and [latex]C/Y[/latex] are always the same number.
Plug all values into the TVM Solver, and click the [latex]\begin{array}{|c|}\hline \text{Solve for FV}\\ \hline \end{array}\;[/latex] button.
The account will grow to $46,204.09 in 20 years.
To find the interest, we can plug values for [latex]FV[/latex], [latex]N[/latex], and [latex]PMT[/latex] into the interest formula:
[latex]\text{Interest}=46204.09 - 240 \times 100=22,204.09[/latex]
So you made $22,204.09 in interest.
You want to have $200,000 in your account when you retire in 30 years. Your retirement account earns 8% interest. How much do you need to deposit each month to meet your retirement goal?
[latex]N = 30 \times 12 = 360[/latex] because you are making monthly deposits for 30 years.
[latex]I\% = 8[/latex] because the interest rate is 8%.
[latex]PV = 0[/latex] because you are saving money.
[latex]PMT[/latex] is what you want to know.
[latex]FV = 200,000[/latex] because you want to have $200,000 in the account in the future.
[latex]P/Y=12[/latex] because you are making 12 payments per year.
[latex]C/Y=12[/latex] because [latex]P/Y[/latex] and [latex]C/Y[/latex] are always the same number.
Plug all values into the TVM Solver, and click the [latex]\begin{array}{|c|}\hline \text{Solve for PMT}\\ \hline \end{array}\;[/latex]button.
So you would need to deposit $134.09 each month to have $200,000 in 30 years if your account earns 8% interest.
Notice that even though the TVM Solver gave us the answer as a negative number, when we talk about payments, we talk about them as positive numbers. So [latex]PMT[/latex] will always be negative when we plug [latex]PMT[/latex] into the TVM Solver, but it will be positive in the interest formula and when it is the solution to our problem.
If you invest $100 each month into an account earning 3% compounded monthly, how long will it take the account to grow to $10,000?
This is a savings annuity problem since we are making regular deposits into the account.
[latex]N[/latex] is what you want to know.
[latex]I\% = 3[/latex] because the interest rate is 3%.
[latex]PV = 0[/latex] because you are saving money.
[latex]PMT =-100[/latex] because you make payments of $100.
[latex]FV = 10,000[/latex] because you want to have $10,000 in the account in the future.
[latex]P/Y=12[/latex] because you are making 12 payments per year.
[latex]C/Y=12[/latex] because [latex]P/Y[/latex] and [latex]C/Y[/latex] are always the same number.
Plug all values into the TVM Solver, and click the [latex]\begin{array}{|c|}\hline \text{Solve for N}\\ \hline \end{array}\;[/latex] button.
We get that [latex]N = 89.37[/latex] months. Our solution is in months because [latex]N[/latex] tells us how many payments are made in total, and you are making monthly payments. If we wanted our solution in years, we could figure it out with a simple conversion.
[latex]89.37 \text{ months} \times \frac{1 \text{ year}}{12 \text{ months}}=7.45[/latex] years
Examples from Section 4.3
After retiring, you want to be able to take $1,000 every month for a total of 20 years from your retirement account. The account earns 6% interest. How much will you need in your account when you retire?
[latex]N = 20 \times 12 = 240[/latex] because you are making monthly withdrawals for 20 years.
[latex]I\% = 6[/latex] because the interest rate is 6%.
[latex]PV[/latex] is what you want to know.
[latex]PMT =-1000[/latex] because you will make withdrawals of $1,000.
[latex]FV = 0[/latex] because after you’ve made all withdrawals, the account has no money in it.
[latex]P/Y=12[/latex] because you are making 12 withdrawals per year.
[latex]C/Y=12[/latex] because [latex]P/Y[/latex] and [latex]C/Y[/latex] are always the same number.
Plug all values into the TVM Solver, and click the [latex]\begin{array}{|c|}\hline \text{Solve for PV}\\ \hline \end{array}\;[/latex] button.
[latex]PV=139580.77[/latex], so you will need to have $139,580.77 in the account when you retire.
Using the interest formula, we find that [latex]\text{Interest}=240 \times 1000-139580.77 =100419.23[/latex]. This means that the interest earned in this account is $100,419.23.
You know you will have $500,000 in your account when you retire. You want to be able to take monthly withdrawals from the account for a total of 30 years. Your retirement account earns 8% interest. How much will you be able to withdraw each month?
[latex]N = 30 \times 12 = 360[/latex] because you are making monthly withdrawals for 30 years.
[latex]I\% = 8[/latex] because the interest rate is 8%.
[latex]PV=500000[/latex] because you start with $500,000 in the account when you retire.
[latex]PMT[/latex] is what you want to know.
[latex]FV = 0[/latex] because after you’ve made all withdrawals, the account has no money in it.
[latex]P/Y=12[/latex] because you are making 12 withdrawals per year.
[latex]C/Y=12[/latex] because [latex]P/Y[/latex] and [latex]C/Y[/latex] are always the same number.
Plug all values into the TVM Solver, and click the [latex]\begin{array}{|c|}\hline \text{Solve for PMT}\\ \hline \end{array}\;[/latex] button.
[latex]PMT=3668.82[/latex], so you would be able to withdraw $3,668.82 each month for 30 years.
Examples from Section 4.4
You can afford $200 per month as a car payment. If you can get an auto loan at 3% interest for 60 months (5 years), how expensive of a car can you afford? In other words, what amount loan can you pay off with $200 per month?
[latex]N =60[/latex] because the auto loan is a 60-month loan.
[latex]I\% = 3[/latex] because the interest rate is 3%.
[latex]PV[/latex] is what you want to know.
[latex]PMT=-200[/latex] because you can afford car payments of $200.
[latex]FV = 0[/latex] because after you’ve made all payments, you owe no money on the car.
[latex]P/Y=12[/latex] because you are making 12 payments per year.
[latex]C/Y=12[/latex] because [latex]P/Y[/latex] and [latex]C/Y[/latex] are always the same number.
Plug all values into the TVM Solver, and click the [latex]\begin{array}{|c|}\hline \text{Solve for PV}\\ \hline \end{array}\;[/latex] button.
You can afford a $11,130.47 auto loan.
Using our interest formula, we can figure out how much interest you will have to pay.
[latex]\text{Interest}=60 \times 200-11130.47 =869.53[/latex], so you will pay $869.53 in interest.
You want to take out a $140,000 mortgage (home loan). The interest rate on the loan is 6%, and the loan is for 30 years. How much will your monthly payments be?
[latex]N =30 \times 12 = 360[/latex] because you will make monthly payments for 30 years.
[latex]I\% = 6[/latex] because the interest rate is 6%.
[latex]PV=140000[/latex] because you will owe $140,000 when you take out the loan.
[latex]PMT[/latex] is what you want to know.
[latex]FV = 0[/latex] because after you’ve made all payments, you owe no money on the home.
[latex]P/Y=12[/latex] because you are making 12 payments per year.
[latex]C/Y=12[/latex] because [latex]P/Y[/latex] and [latex]C/Y[/latex] are always the same number.
Plug all values into the TVM Solver, and click the [latex]\begin{array}{|c|}\hline \text{Solve for PMT}\\ \hline \end{array}\;[/latex] button.
You can afford payments of $839.37.
Using our interest formula, we can figure out how much interest you will have to pay.
[latex]\text{Interest}=360 \times 839.37-140000=162173.2[/latex], so you will pay $162,173.20 in interest.
Consider the $140,000 mortgage at 6% from the previous example. If the homeowner increased their payments to $1,000 per month, how long will it take them to pay off the loan?
[latex]N[/latex] is what you want to know.
[latex]I\% = 6[/latex] because the interest rate is 6%.
[latex]PV=140000[/latex] because the homeowner will owe $140,000 when they take out the loan.
[latex]PMT=-1000[/latex] because the homeowner will make payments of $1,000.
[latex]FV = 0[/latex] because after the homeowner has made all payments, no money is owed on the mortgage.
[latex]P/Y=12[/latex] because you are making 12 payments per year.
[latex]C/Y=12[/latex] because [latex]P/Y[/latex] and [latex]C/Y[/latex] are always the same number.
Plug all values into the TVM Solver, and click the [latex]\begin{array}{|c|}\hline \text{Solve for N}\\ \hline \end{array}\;[/latex] button.
[latex]N=241.4[/latex], so it will take 241.4 months to pay off the mortgage with payments of $1,000. To convert this to years, we can use a conversion factor.
[latex]241.4 \text{ months} \times \frac{1 \text{ year}}{12 \text{ months}} \approx 20.12[/latex] years.
If a mortgage at a 6% interest rate has payments of $1,000 a month, how much will the loan balance be 10 years from the end of the loan?
[latex]N =10 \times 12[/latex] because the monthly payments will be made for 10 years.
[latex]I\% = 6[/latex] because the interest rate is 6%.
[latex]PV[/latex] is what you want to know.
[latex]PMT=-1000[/latex] because you can afford payments of $1,000.
[latex]FV = 0[/latex] because after you’ve made all payments, you owe no money on the car.
[latex]P/Y=12[/latex] because you are making 12 payments per year.
[latex]C/Y=12[/latex] because [latex]P/Y[/latex] and [latex]C/Y[/latex] are always the same number.
Plug all values into the TVM Solver, and click the [latex]\begin{array}{|c|}\hline \text{Solve for PV}\\ \hline \end{array}\;[/latex] button.
[latex]PV=90073.45[/latex], so 10 years from the end of the loan, there will be a balance of $90,073.45.
A couple purchases a home with a $180,000 mortgage at 4% for 30 years with monthly payments. What will the remaining balance on their mortgage be after 5 years?
First we will calculate the monthly payment amount.
[latex]N =30 \times 12 = 360[/latex] because they will make monthly payments for 30 years.
[latex]I\% = 4[/latex] because the interest rate is 4%.
[latex]PV=180000[/latex] because they will owe $180,000 when they take out the mortgage loan.
[latex]PMT[/latex] is what we want to know.
[latex]FV = 0[/latex] because after they’ve made all payments, they owe no money on the home.
[latex]P/Y=12[/latex] because they are making 12 payments per year.
[latex]C/Y=12[/latex] because [latex]P/Y[/latex] and [latex]C/Y[/latex] are always the same number.
Plug all values into the TVM Solver, and click the [latex]\begin{array}{|c|}\hline \text{Solve for PMT}\\ \hline \end{array}\;[/latex] button.
The couple can afford payments of $859.35.
Now that we know the monthly payments, we can determine the remaining balance. We want the remaining balance after 5 years, when 25 years will be remaining on the loan, so we calculate the loan balance that will be paid off with the monthly payments over those 25 years.
[latex]N =25 \times 12[/latex] because we want to know the balance on the mortgage for the last 25 years.
[latex]I\% = 4[/latex] because the interest rate is 4%.
[latex]PV[/latex] is what we want to know.
[latex]PMT=-859.35[/latex] because the couple can afford payments of $859.35.
[latex]FV = 0[/latex] because after they’ve made all payments, they owe no money on the home.
[latex]P/Y=12[/latex] because they are making 12 payments per year.
[latex]C/Y=12[/latex] because [latex]P/Y[/latex] and [latex]C/Y[/latex] are always the same number.
Plug all values into the TVM Solver, and click the [latex]\begin{array}{|c|}\hline \text{Solve for PV}\\ \hline \end{array}\;[/latex] button.
The loan balance after 5 years, with 25 years remaining on the loan, will be $162,805.99.
Examples from Section 4.5
Jenny plans to retire at age 65 and estimates she will need $48,000 a year in retirement for 30 years. To save for retirement, she plans to put money every month into her 401(k) plan at work. If Jenny is currently 25, how much will she need to save each month to meet her retirement goal, assuming her retirement accounts earn an average of 7% per year?
We can think about this as two separate phases: the accumulation phase and the spending phase. We assume Jenny starts with no money at the beginning and will completely spend down her account by the time she’s 95.
To decide which phase to start with, we look to see which we have the most information for. In the first phase, we don’t know how much she will save each month, and we don’t know the ending balance of the account. For the second phase, we know everything except the starting balance of the account, so we will start the problem in the second phase. Basically, we are going to work the problem backward, using her spending requirement to determine how much she needs at retirement, then use that value to determine how much she needs to save each month.
The second phase is a payout annuity problem where:
[latex]N =30 \times 12[/latex] because Jenny is saving money monthly for 30 years.
[latex]I\% = 7[/latex] because the interest rate is 7%.
[latex]PV[/latex] is what we want to know.
[latex]PMT=-4000[/latex] because Jenny is spending $4,000 per month.
[latex]FV = 0[/latex] because there is no money in the account when Jenny is 95 years old.
[latex]P/Y=12[/latex] because Jenny is making 12 payments per year.
[latex]C/Y=12[/latex] because [latex]P/Y[/latex] and [latex]C/Y[/latex] are always the same number.
When we solve for [latex]PV[/latex], we find that [latex]PV= $601,230.27[/latex]
This is how much Jenny will need at retirement to meet her spending needs and fills in a part of our timeline:
Now we can work on the first phase, which is a savings annuity problem where the desired end balance is the $601,230.27 we just found.
[latex]N =40 \times 12[/latex] because Jenny is saving money monthly for 40 years.
[latex]I\% = 7[/latex] because the interest rate is 7%.
[latex]PV=0[/latex] because the account has no money in it when it is first opened.
[latex]PMT[/latex] is what we want to know.
[latex]FV=601230.27[/latex] because the account has $601,230.27 in it when Jenny is 65.
[latex]P/Y=12[/latex] because Jenny is making 12 payments per year.
[latex]C/Y=12[/latex] because [latex]P/Y[/latex] and [latex]C/Y[/latex] are always the same number.
Using the savings annuity formula to solve for the deposit amount gives:
[latex]PMT= -229.06[/latex]
Jenny will need to save $229.06 per month to meet her retirement goals.
Ula just got a new job. She had $70,000 in a 401(k) at her old job that she rolled over into an IRA. She plans to continue contributing $5,000 a year into her IRA. If her account earns 6% compounded annually, how much will she have in her IRA in 10 years?
The challenge with this problem is that our savings annuity formula assumed that our account balance started at zero. While we could try to build a new formula to handle this situation, we can more easily envision it as two different money streams, as if the original $70,000 is invested in a different account than future contributions.
In the first stream of money, Ula has $70,000 earning 6% interest for 10 years, which is a basic compound interest problem:
[latex]P = $70,000, r = 0.06, t = 10, k = 1[/latex]
Using the compound interest formula to solve for the ending balance:
[latex]A = $125,359.34[/latex]
In the second stream of money, Ula is depositing $5,000 a year, a savings annuity problem:
[latex]N =10[/latex] because annual deposits are made into the account for 10 years.
[latex]I\% = 6[/latex] because the interest rate is 6%.
[latex]PV=0[/latex] because the account has no money in it when it is first opened.
[latex]PMT=-5000[/latex] because Ula is depositing $5,000 per year.
[latex]FV[/latex] is what we want to know.
[latex]P/Y=1[/latex] because Ula is making 1 payment per year.
[latex]C/Y=1[/latex] because [latex]P/Y[/latex] and [latex]C/Y[/latex] are always the same number.
Using the savings annuity formula to find the ending balance:
[latex]FV = $65,903.97[/latex]
Now that we know the ending balance of each stream of money, we can add those together to find the total balance of the account at the end of the ten years:
[latex]$125,359.34 + $65,903.97 = $191,263.31[/latex]
Five years ago a couple purchased a home for $260,000, making a 20% down payment and financing the rest with a 30-year adjustable rate mortgage fixed at 3% for the first 5 years. Now that the fixed rate period is up, the couple is facing a higher adjustable rate. They now plan to refinance into a fixed rate 30-year mortgage at 4%. What will their new monthly payments be? Assume there are no costs associated with the refinance.
To determine the monthly payments for the refinance, we first need to know how much the refinanced loan amount will be. The amount refinanced will be the same as the remaining loan balance on the original loan after 5 years. We will start by finding the details of the original loan.
The 20% down payment will be [latex]$260,000(0.20) = $52,000[/latex], leaving $208,000 to be financed.
We start by finding the payments on the original loan:
[latex]N =30 \times 12=360[/latex] because monthly payments will be made for 30 years.
[latex]I\% = 3[/latex] because the interest rate is 3%.
[latex]PV=208000[/latex] because $208,000 needs to be financed.
[latex]PMT[/latex] is what we want to know.
[latex]FV=0[/latex] because no money is owed when the loan is paid off.
[latex]P/Y=12[/latex] because the couple is making 12 payments per year.
[latex]C/Y=12[/latex] because [latex]P/Y[/latex] and [latex]C/Y[/latex] are always the same number.
Solving for the payment, we get
[latex]PMT = $876.94[/latex]
Now we can find the remaining balance on the original loan after 5 years. As discussed in the last section, we can find this by determining the amount of loan that can be paid off with payments of $876.94 in the remaining 25 years:
[latex]N =25 \times 12=300[/latex] because monthly payments will be made for 25 years.
[latex]I\% = 3[/latex] because the interest rate is 3%.
[latex]PV[/latex] is what we want to know.
[latex]PMT=876.94[/latex], which we found in the first part.
[latex]FV=0[/latex] because no money is owed when the loan is paid off.
[latex]P/Y=12[/latex] because the couple is making 12 payments per year.
[latex]C/Y=12[/latex] because [latex]P/Y[/latex] and [latex]C/Y[/latex] are always the same number.
Solve for [latex]PV[/latex], the remaining balance:
[latex]P = $184,926.00[/latex]
So after 5 years, the remaining balance on the loan is $184,926.00, and that is the amount we will refinance in a new 30-year mortgage at the fixed 4% rate:
[latex]N =30 \times 12=360[/latex] because monthly payments will be made for 30 years.
[latex]I\% = 4[/latex] because the interest rate is 4%.
[latex]PV=184926[/latex] because $184,926 is the remaining balance after 5 years.
[latex]PMT[/latex] is what we want to know.
[latex]FV=0[/latex] because no money is owed when the loan is paid off.
[latex]P/Y=12[/latex] because the couple is making 12 payments per year.
[latex]C/Y=12[/latex] because [latex]P/Y[/latex] and [latex]C/Y[/latex] are always the same number.
Solving for the new payment amount:
[latex]PMT = $882.87[/latex]
Because of the higher interest rate, the monthly payment increased even though the loan amount was less at refinance. Most likely this increase is much smaller than the one the couple would have faced from the original loan’s rate adjusting.
Notice also that because of the refinance, the couple will end up making payments for a total of 35 years on the house.
In those first 5 years, the couple paid a total of [latex]$876.94(12)(5) = $52,616.40[/latex] and reduced the loan balance by [latex]$208,000 - $184,926 = $23,074[/latex], meaning they paid $29,542.40 in interest during the first 5 years.
In the remaining 30 years, the couple will pay [latex]$882.87(12)(30) = $317,833.20[/latex] and reduce the loan balance by $184,926, meaning they will pay $132,907.20 in interest during these 30 years.
In total, the couple will pay [latex]$132,907.20 + $29,542.40 = $162,449.60[/latex] in interest over the 35 years.
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- 4.5 05 © Business Precalculus by David Lippman is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike) license | 5,097 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://louis.pressbooks.pub/finitemathematics/chapter/4-6-tvm-solver/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:63107 | https://louis.pressbooks.pub/finitemathematics/chapter/4-6-tvm-solver/ |
L5KLejZjs6TMztEO | 17.1: Why It Matters- Using Technology to Manage Business Information | 17.1: Why It Matters- Using Technology to Manage Business Information
Why learn how technology is used to manage business information?
In this module you will learn ways in which businesses use technology to turn data into information and then use that same technology to manage that information. In the 90’s we talked about the dawn of the “digital age” where old processes were quickly converted to digital processes. That digital age of the 1990’s and 2000’s evolved into what we now refer to as the “information age.” Technology has progressed so rapidly that businesses are able to capture billions of bytes of data everyday. This data is analyzed and converted into information and consequently we now consider ourselves to be living in the “information age.” The primary characteristic of this information age is successful businesses are able to leverage information to create and maintain a competitive advantage over the competition. In fact, in today’s world almost every aspect of business operations is impacted by technology to some extent. But, before we begin our discussion of technology, information and business, let’s get some perspective on the “information age” in the video that follows. | 249 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://biz.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Business/Introductory_Business/Book%3A_Introduction_to_Business_(Lumen)/17%3A_Using_Technology_to_Manage_Business_Information/17.01%3A_Why_It_Matters-_Using_Technology_to_Manage_Business_Information | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:18685 | https://biz.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Business/Introductory_Business/Book%3A_Introduction_to_Business_(Lumen)/17%3A_Using_Technology_to_Manage_Business_Information/17.01%3A_Why_It_Matters-_Using_Technology_to_Manage_Business_Information |
Lpp7wd-vzlrLbrhY | Color Awareness: IU DPT's Handbook for Clinical Signs in All Skin Tones | Cardiopulmonary Assessment
A. Skin appearance
i. Pallor (paleness)1
- Pallor is characterized by a pale appearance of skin, nail beds, and mucus membranes. In individuals with darker skin tones, pallor may present as ashy gray. In individuals with brown skin tones, it may appear more yellowish.
- To help identify pallor in individuals with darker skin tones, one may assess the palms or the sole of the feet, which should appear paler if pallor is present.
ii. Cyanosis
- In individuals with lighter skin tones, cyanosis appears as a bluish discoloration of the lips and nail beds. In individuals with darker skin tones, cyanosis presents a grayish discoloration along the buccal mucosa.2 Therefore an inspection of the inside of a patient’s mouth may be necessary.
iii. Edema
- A condition in which there is an excessive accumulation of interstitial fluid, resulting in swelling. Edema should present similarly in all types of skin tones.2
iv. Scarring
- Individuals with darker skin tones may present with hypopigmentation at the area of scarring, resulting in increased susceptibility to sunburn. Additionally patients with darker skin tones are more prone to keloid scarring.
B. Neck
i. Jugular venous distension
- Jugular venous distention (JVD) is a possible sign of right-sided heart failure. Fluid overload results in increased fluid retention, causing fluid to be backed up into the lungs and venous system, resulting in a swollen jugular vein. JVD should present similarly amongst different skin tones.
C. Extremities
i. Nicotine stains
- Nicotine turns yellow when oxidized, resulting in discoloration. This discoloration is present on skin, teeth, and fingernails.3
- There is currently not much research conducted on nicotine staining amongst different skin tones. To account for possible differences in nicotine staining on different skin tones, look at nails and teeth for presence of discoloration.
ii. Vascular lesions
- Vascular lesions differ in appearance and are caused by a variety of factors, including capillary malformation or trauma. Due to the varied nature of their appearance, it is important to determine the origin of the lesion.
- Examples of vascular lesions:
- Trauma (e.g. nail bed hemorrhages)
- Vasculitis: blood vessel inflammation
- Cherry angioma: a benign lesion that presents as a small, raised papule. The papule may be red, blue, or purple in color. It may also appear black, when thrombosed.
- Examples of vascular lesions:
-
-
- Angiokeratoma: hyperkeratosis that results from capillaries dilating or rupture in the superficial dermis. The papule may appear blue, red, or black depending on the stage of healing.
-
D. Vital signs
i. Oxygen saturation
- Oxygen saturation measurements can be less accurate in patients who identify as black. This is due to a higher prevalence of occult hypoxemia, which is when an arterial oxygen saturation of <88% despite an oxygen
saturation of 92 to 96% on pulse oximetry. In a large study, occult hypoxemia is present in 11.4% of black patients compared to 3.6% of white patients. - The variation in occult hypoxemia risk according to race necessitates the integration of pulse oximetry with other clinical measures.4
E. Special tests
i. Capillary refill test
- The capillary refill test is a measure of arterial flow at the skin surface. The test requires an examiner to compress the nail bed and hold for 5 seconds which will cause blanching, upon release the blanched area should return to the previous color in 3 seconds or less to be considered normal. However, the accuracy of this test can be influenced by multiple factors including skin color and the lighting in the room.
- In patients with a lighter skin tone who have nail polish or artificial nails it is recommended to perform on the adjacent skin area, however this is not possible in patient’s with a darker skin tone since the melanin will prevent the ability to blanch the skin.
- A prolonged capillary refill time can indicate arterial insufficiency5
ii. Elevation pallor
- An elevation pallor test assesses arterial perfusion. The limb is elevated 60 degrees and held in position for 60 seconds, during elevation the sole of the foot is observed for pallor. A normal test result would be no pallor and an abnormal test result is the onset of pallor, which can be timed and a grade assigned. Pallor will present differently based on skin tone.
- In lighter skin tones, the pallor will appear as very pale pink, peach or white.
- In brown skin tones pallor will appear yellow-brown.
- In dark brown or black skin tones, pallor will appear an ash gray.
iii. Dependent rubor
- The dependent rubor test is a test for arterial insufficiency, after elevation of the limb at 60 degrees for 60 seconds, the limb is moved to a dependent position and observed for color changes.
- In patients with lighter skin tones, the rubor will present as a red or pink color.
- In patients with darker skin tones, the rubor will present as either a dark purple color or as a shade darker than their normal skin tone.
iv. Venous filling time
- The venous filling time test is a test for vascular insufficiency. The lower extremity is elevated, until the superficial veins on the dorsal of the foot are drained by gravity. Afterwards, the limb is moved to a dependent position and the foot is observed for the speed at which the superficial veins refill with blood.
- In patients with darker skin tones, venous drainage and refill is not as evident. Palpation may be a better alternative, to determine the rate of venous drainage/refill.
References
- https://mvec.mcri.edu.au/references/identifying-aefi-in-diverse-skin-colour/
- Goodman CC, Fuller KS. Pathology: Implications for the Physical Therapist. 5th ed. 2021.
- https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1570023220301707
- Sjoding MW, Dickson RP, Iwashyna TJ, Gay SE, Valley TS. Racial bias in pulse oximetry measurement. N Engl J Med. 2020:383;25.
- https://dermnetnz.org/topics/arterial-ulcer | 1,262 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://iu.pressbooks.pub/colorawarenessiudpt/chapter/chapter-3-cardiopulmonary-practice-patterns/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:2995 | https://iu.pressbooks.pub/colorawarenessiudpt/chapter/chapter-3-cardiopulmonary-practice-patterns/ |
3C0Q2nMVl-buRa-s | New York Zoological Park : book of views / illustrated by Elwin R. Sanborn. | SERIES NUMBER THREE
For duplicates of this book, information in regard to Souvenir Postal Cards, Guide Books or other Zoological Park publications, address: H.R.Mitchell. Manager of Privileges, Zoological Park. 185th Street and Southern Boulevard. New \ ork City
THE rapid decrease of wild animal life throughout the world, and the inability of the millions to study wild animals in their native haunts, have created a wide-spread demand for zoological gardens and parks. In the United States nearly every large city either has an institution for the exhibition of living animals, or is preparing to establish one.
The New York Zoological Park originated in 1895 with the New York Zoological Society, a scientific corporation, having for its objects "a public Zoological Park, the preservation of our native animals and the promotion of zoology." The Society now consists of 1902 members of all classes, and is charged with the management of the Park.
Unlike most of the Zoological Gardens of Europe, the New York Zoological Park is free to the public on five days of each week. The pay days are Mondays and Thursdays, except that on all legal holidays admission is free. The grounds, many of the buildings, and an annual maintenance fund are provided by the city. The remainder of the buildings and the animal collections are furnished by the Society.
The area of the Park is nearly 300 acres — a magnificent domain to be thus dedicated to zoology and public instruction. It contains thirty-five acres of water, and its land consists of heavy forest, open forest, and meadow glades, in about equal proportions. The extreme length of the Park is 330 feet less than a mile, and its extreme width is about threefifths of a mile.
The principal buildings of the Park are the Elephant House, Lion House, Primate House, Zebra House, Large Bird House, Reptile House, Antelope, Ostrich and Small Mammal Houses, and the Aquatic Bird House. The principal open air enclosures are the Bear Dens, Flying Cage, Pheasant Aviary, and the Eagle and Vulture Aviary, Wolf and Fox Dens, Burrowing Rodent Quarters, Beaver Pond, Duck Aviary, Wild Fowl Pond, and Mountain Sheep Hill.
The most valuable and important collections in the Park are the lions, tigers, and leopards, the tropical hoofed animals in the Antelope House, the bears, the bison herd of thirty-seven animals and the apes and monkeys. The collection of Asiatic deer is second only to that of the Berlin Zoological Garden. The most interesting animals in the whole collection are the chimpanzees and orang-utans, in the Primate House, and the Pygmy Hippopotami. The collections of bears and of tropical antelopes are certainly equal to the largest and finest of their kinds to be found elsewhere, and the collection of reptiles is also unsurpassed.
species.
The creation of a really great zoological garden or park requires a great many people, as well as a great many animals, and much money. The annual expenditures for animal; — all of which is furnished by the Zoological Society — are very considerable, and a large membership is vitally necessary to the existence of this institution. The Society invites to its membership all persons who are interested in the objects it is seeking to promote.
The above figures are for the year 1907, with the exception of New York Zoological Park which is for 1 9 1 1 , and London and Cologne, which are for 1909. On June 30, 1912, the total census of wild animals in the Zoological Park was as follows:
| 785 | common-pile/pre_1929_books_filtered | newyorkzoologica00sanb | public_library | public_library_1929_dolma-0007.json.gz:3689 | https://archive.org/download/newyorkzoologica00sanb/newyorkzoologica00sanb_djvu.txt |
cr-ympMlfrx_Hymu | Trappers of New York, or, A biography of Nicholas Stoner & Nathaniel Foster together with anecdotes of other celebrated hunters, and some account of Sir William Johnson and his style of living / by Jeptha R. Simms. | Tha Inttituta haa attamptad to obtain tho baat original copy availabia for filming. Faaturaa of thia copy which may ba bibliographically uniqua, which may altar any of tha imagaa in tha raproduction, or which may significantly ch«nga tha uaual mathod of filming, ara chackad balow.
Blank leaves added during restoration may appear within the text. Whenever possible, these have been omitted from filming/ 11 se peut que eertaines pages blanches ajouties lors d'une restauration apparaiasent dana le texte, maia, lorsque ceia itait possible, ces pages n'ont paa iti filmtes.
L'Institut a microfilm* le meilleur exempleire qu'il lui a it* possible de se procurer. Las details da cat exempleire qui tont peut-itre uniques du point de vue bibliogrephique, qui peuvent modifier une imege reproduite, ou qui peuvent exiger une modification dans la mithode normele d« fllmege sont indlquAs ci-dessous.
Pages wholly or partially obscured by errata slips, tissues, etc., have been refilmed to ensure the best possible image/ Lea pages totalement ou partiellement obscurcies par un feuillet d'errata, une peiure, etc., ont M fiimies * njuveau de fapon i obtenir la meilleure image possible.
Tha Imagaa appaaring hara ara tha baat quality poaalbia conaldaring tha condition and laglblllty of tha original oopy and In kaaplng with tha filming contract spaclfleatlona.
Original coplas In printad papar covara ara fllmad baglnning with tha rront covar and anding on tha last paga with a printad or llluatratad Impraaslon. or tha back covar whan approprlata. All othar original ooplaa are fllmad baglnning on tha first paga with a printad or llluatratad Imprasslon, and anding on tha last paga with a printad or llluatratad Imprasslon.
Tha last racordad frama on aach microflcha shall contain tha symbol — ^> (maaning "CONTINUED"), or tha symbol ▼ (maaning "END"), whichavar appllas.
Las Imagas sulvantas ont At* raprodultaa avac la plus grand soln, compta tanu da la condition at da la nattatA da I'axamplaira fllmA, at an conformltA avac ias conditions du contrat da fllmaga.
Laa axamplalras orlglnaux dont la couvartura an paplar aat ImprlmAa sont fllmAs an commandant par la pramlar plat at an tarmlnant solt par la darnlAra pagn qui comporta una ampralnta dimpraaalon ou d'llluatratlcn, aolt par la sacond plat, aalon la caa. Tous laa autras axamplalras orlglnaux aont fllmAs an commandant par la pramlAra paga qui comporta una ampralnta d'Impraaalon ou d'lllustratlon at an tarmlnant par la darnlAra paga qui comporta una talla ampralnta.
Un das symbolas sulvants apparattra sur la darnlAra Imaga da chaqua microflcha, salon la cas: la aymbola — ► signlfia "A SUIVRE", la aymbola ▼ signlfia "FIN".
Mapa, plataa, charts, ate, may ba fllmad at diffarant reduction ratloa. Thoaa too larga to ba antlraly Included In ona axpoaura ara fllmad baglnning In tha uppar laft hand corner, left to right and top to bottom, aa many frames aa required. The following diagrams llluatrata the method:
Los cartes, plenches, tableaux, ate, pauvent Atre fllmAa A das taux da rAductlon diff Arants. Lorsque le document est trop grand pour Atre repcodult en un aaul cllchA, II eat fllmA A partir da Tangle supArleur gauche, da gauche A drolte, et de haut an bea, en prenant le nombre d'Imagea nAcessalre. Lea diagrammes sulva its lllustrent la mAthode.
PBEFACE.
" To be ignorant of all antiquity," says a popular writer,* " is a mutilation of the human mind; it is early associations and local circumstances which give bent to the mind of a people from their infancy, and insensibly constitute the nationality of genius." This is a truism. which can not be contravened, and although the world is now full of books for good or ill, yet I venture to add another. Well, as this is only a duodecimo, may I not bespeak for it a little share of public favor ? For if it is but a small volume, it has nevertheless required considerable time and care to collect and arrange its minutiae; The author does not claim for it a place auong classic works, which sparkle with literary gems; but he does claim for it the merit of candor. In a wor)c purporting to be one of truth, he would not impose upon the credulity of others, what he could not believe himself..
6 PRErACK.
This book has been written with the view of giving the reader some knowledge of the per il>env ironed life of a hunter; in connection with the early and topographical history of a portion of northern New York. As the forests disappear, the country is settled and wild game exterminated; that hardy race of individuals which followed the chase for a living will have become extinct: indeed, those who would have been called professional hunters, have now nearly or quite all left the remaining woods of New York, and most of theiii sleep with their fathers. JVfany of their names with their daring adventures are now forgotten.
How important is it therefore, to place on record what can still be gathered respecting them, to live in future story; when some American Scott shall have arisen to connect their names and deeds forever, with the rifle-mimicking mountains, the awe-inspiring glens, the hill-encompassed lakes, and the zigzagcoursing rivulets — upon, within, around, and along which they sought with noiseless footstep t^e bountypaying wolf, the timid deer, and fur-clad beaver.
rtBFAOB. f
history of the state. Says an American scholar/ *' The general historian must gather his facts from the details of local annals, and in proportion as they ire wanting must his labors be imperfect." A imall budget of antiquarian matter, and some interesting incidents of the American Revolution are here introduced; and in connection with this subject, I will take occasion to say, that I am collecting original matter of an historical character, with the intention of publishing it at a future, not distant day. There are yet unpublished, many reminiscences either of, or growing out of, our war fof independence, both thrilling and instructive. Not a few such are now in the writer's possession. They are generally of a personal and anecdotal nature, and many of them were noted down from the lips of men whose heads are whitened by the fiosts of time, or are now laid beneath the yalley-clods.
If such an anecdote should still linger in the mind of a reader of this page, or any old paper of interest remain in his or her keeping, that individual would confer a favor by communicating the same to my ad-
(IrcM. Our Rfvolution is dt'stincd, in iU t'ullnriui of benefit, to imam iputc tho world from tyranny; und every minute incident relating to that great dtruggU i^ not only worthy of record, but highly important, for the proper understanding of its cost to the young, to whose guardianship its principles and advantages must soon be confided.
The diiiiculty of preparing u work for the press, where much of the matter is to be obtained by conversational notes, is only known to those who have experienced the task; and such bej<t know its liability to contain error. The biography of Major Stoncr has nearly all been read over to him since it wa& written out, and corrected; I can with confidence, therefore, promise the reader, as few errors in this as he will find in any work similarly got up. In conclusion, I would fain express my grateful thanks to those individuals who have in any manner contributed towards making this volume.
Chaptkr I.
Parentftfa of NichoUt Stoner — Deicription of hii person — Hit trapptjr'N tires* — His schooling — First s«ttl«ment of Fondt*t Bush — Significifttion of tha name — First settlement at Fish House — Some account of Sir William Johnson — His style of living at Johnson Hall — His household — First school* house in Johnstown — School children how treated — Manners taught — Anecdote of Jacob Show aX school — Schools of former days in New England and Now York — Johnson's Fish House when built -r-- Its site — Fonda's Bush — Plank-roads and ■tage routes — Village of Northvillo — Its first settlers — First Mttlers at Denton's Corners .... Page 17
Reasons for Sir Wm. Johnson's locating in Johnstown — Scenery between the Mohawk and Sacondaga rivers — The great S»condaga Vlaie — Vlaie Creek — Its source and Indian name — Origin of the marsh — Singular discovery of a lake — Stacking-ridgos — Cranberries — Johnson's cottage on Summerhouse point — His carriage road — Nine mile tree — Sacondaga Patent — Summer-house how built and painted — Its garden — Creeks entering the Vlaie — Origin of their names — Summerhouse point in freshets — Wild game — Visit to the Point in
Signification of Sacondaga — Iti great angle — Name for Daly's creek how originated — Rejidcnce of Henrj- Wormwood — Intimacy of Sir William Johnson with his daughteis — His signal for a housekeeper — Four in a bed at the Fish House — Disposal of Wormwood's family — Sale of Fish House and its farm — Cost of Sacondaga bridge — Summer House pomt fortified— Fate of Johnson's cottage — Willie Boiles drowned — Sale of Summer House point — Mayfield settlement — Its.first mill — First mill on the Kennyetlo — Anecdotes of Sir Wm. Johnson — Dunham family ..... 43
Nicholas Stoner's boyhood — He enters the army — Gen. Arnold's device to raise the seige of Fort Stanwix — Evidences of the Oriskany battle — Gen. Arnold in the battle of Saratoga — Stonf>r and Conyne how wounded — Three Stoners on duty in B node Island — Anecdote of a theft — Stoner a prisoner — Japturc of Gen. Prescott — Attempt to capture Stoner and others near Johnson Hall — Signification of Cayadutta — A prisoner from necessity .---.- 55
Biiker for Johnstown Fort — Singular incident at his house, and dangerous situation of Stoner — Residence of Jeremiah Mason — His daughter Anna — The Browse family — Stoner pigeon hunting — He takes his captain on a hunt — Hunters how Alarmed — Browse family remove to Canada — Maj. Andre's gallows how constructed — Stoner eats pie near it — How ho got two floggings — How the British army surrendered at Yorktown — > Errors in pictures — Stoner's first day at the seige — First fire on the British works — Nicholas Hill finds many friends — Henry Stoner leaves llie army — Is mur-
John Helmer in jail - Escapes from it three times - Stoner in New York at the close of the war -Is one of the band performs at Washington's leave taking -. Stoner and his stool pigeon before Col. Cochrane -His return to JchnstownFiret marriage of Anna Mason - Her husband how slain near Johnson Hall -Stoner's marriage -Is deputy sheriff- The Stoner brothers again in the army -British invasion of New lork- Battle of Beekmantown - Anecdote of Maj. WoolBattle of lake Champlain and death of Commodore Downie Gen^ Macomb fires a national salute - Burial of his remains -Mourners at his grave - Celebration at Plattsburg in 1842 — btoner again leaves the army - - - - «fi
Maj. Stoner becomes a hunter - Hunter's law -How accoutred for the forest - Intemperance an attendant on war - De Fonclaiere keeps a tavern in Johnstown - How his horses ran away -Indian hunters at his house - Stoner obtains an ear-
• jewel -An Indian boasts of killing his father -Is branded with a fire-dog - The Indians leave the place - Stoner in jail -How liberated -His celebrity in Canada - . in
Stoner's bear-trap - Precaution in its use- Bait for beaverSeason for hunting -Accident to Capt. Jackson -Dunn in Jackson s place - Hunters' lodges how constructed - Their larder how supplied - Johnstown hunters meet Indian trappers- Fierce quarrel at Trout lake - An Indian falls up-
12 CONTENTS.
OD the shore — Dunn transfixed to a canoe — Stoner ii; th« enemy's camp — Trophies he there obtained — Hunters return home — Stoner and Mason hunt together — Mason discover! bear's tracks — Stoner seeks an interview with Bruin — Discovers him on a log over the Sacondaga — A rifle is heard and tb« bear falls into the river ..... 133
Stoner annoyed by a bear in his wheat and corn-fields — How he loses one leg of his pantaloons and kills the bear — A deer hunt — Hunters swamped at Stoner's island — Have a gloomy night — Frederick's gratitude toward Stoner for saving his life
— Stoner and Mason on a long hunt — Food how cooked — A peep at a hunter's camp — Out of provisions the hunters seek a settlement — Stoner almost shoots another blanketed bear — Mason arrested in Norway as a spy — Is liberated — Hunters return to the woods — They meet two Indians — Stoner mistaken for the hunter White — A quarrel — An Indian's deathyell — His comrade takes leg-bail — Johnstown hunters return home with three guns — Stoner suspected of smuggling merchandise — Anecdote of Green "White .... 134
— Stoner hunts with Capt. Shew at the Sacondaga Vlaie and there shoots a wolf — Stoner and Foster on a hunt trap an oagle — Different trappers with whom Stoner is associated — "With an Indian partner visits the head of (Jrass river — The're met a white hunter with a squaw — Stoner makes a map for him to go to Johnstown — Hunts with the Indian Gill — Latter spears the beaver - Stoner hunts with Obadiah Wilkins •who encounters an In(' in — Magic of Stpner's name — Stoner's last difficulty with Indian hunters — How he loses a trap and
fu: — How he gets his trap and pay for the fur — The Sabbath how regarded by hunters — Admonition of a young Indian — Stoner's dog in trouble — Spirit of Mary Stoner - - 146
Major Stoner a widower — His voluntary marriage — Again a widower — His last marriage — His present residence — Garoga and Fonda plank road — Chase's Patent — Foolish expression of Capt. Chase — Stoner a pilot lor surveyors — Signification of Piseco — Goes to a settlement for food — Has' a warm job of it — Law students in the forest — Ice discovered — Fourth of July how celebrated — Stoner skins a hedgehog— Description of the country — Prospective view of it — Newspaper notice of Lake Byrn — Sundry other lakes — Lake Good-luck, why so called — Water privileges of Hamilton county — Description of the country, by Dr. Emmons — Stoner and others discover a dead man near Jesup's river — Importance of preservi;ig Indian names .... 160
Birth place and marriage of Nathaniel Foster — Settles in Salisbury — Description of his person — His success the first year in hunting — Large game killed by him — Anecdotes of his wolf killing — Supplies museums with moose skins — Is near being shot — His rifles — A tussle with a deer — A wolf for a pet — Where Foster learned to write — Brown's tract of land — Source of Mill stream — Brown attempts to settle hi^ lands — His death — HerreshofF goes there — His birth place and person — Clears up land — Builds a forge — Expends large sums of money — Becomes discouraged and commits suicide — Time of his death — Inquest — Place of burial — Inscription to his memory — Cost of his iron — His taxes — Brown's tract when and by whom surveyed — Its townships — Survey of roads — Moose lake — Indian clear-
Benchlcy^s description of Brown's tract — Usual route to it — Use of drays — Size and power of Moose river — Present condition of early improvements on the tract — Its ore — Effect of erecting a dam — Lakes how numbered — First lake — Dog Island — Second lake — Foster's Observatory — Third lake — Grass island — Fourth lake — Line between Hamilton and Herkimer counties — Extent of tract — Respect for the Eagle — Description of the Indian Foster killed — Effect of liquor — Foster's vision — Five echoes — North Branch lakes and outlet — Fifth and Sixth lakes — Carrying place — Foster at sixty — Prospective use of a lock — Seventh lake — Beautiful view — Character of Green White — His tragic fate — His success in hunting — The hunter Williams — Place for trout — Pitch pine grove — How Foster shoots a deer — Why he would kill a doe — Eighth lake — Racket inlet — Grave of Foster's victim — Floating for deer — Jer■eyfield lake — Jock's lake — Little Salmon and Black River South lakes — Physical outline of this region of country, by Lwdner Vanuxem - - - - - - -191
Brown's tract tcnantlcss — Is a resort for hunter's — Premises Icctsed — Lease assigned to Foster who moves there — Indian Peter Waters or Drid — A debt — Drid threatens Foster's life — Goes to his door to shoot him — An interview — Indian attempts his life — Foster before a peace officer — Apprehensions of Foster's family — Last interview between Foster and his foe — Their threats of vengeance — Foster on Indian's point — Drid's approach — His death — Foster aids in getting his body home — Foster is arrested — Note explaining cut ."^08
Foster ii arraigned before Judge Denio — Is tried and acquitted How he receives the verdict, and leaves the court room — Hit acquittal how received by the public — Anecdote of Joseph Brant 818
Foster^s answer to Gen. Gray — Stoner^s opinion of Foster^ and his own skill as marksmen — How Drid^s friends received his death — Advice to Foster's family — Drid's wife returns to the St. Lawrence — Foster removes to Pennsylvania — Returns to Boonville and dies there — The Indian Hess — Importance of a country tavern — How Foster and Hess meet and part — Running fight with a moose bull — Sudden appearance of Hess — He threatens to kill Foster — Falls from a log over his own grave — Mysterious sayings — How he shot eighteen otters — His eye-sight improved by venison — Signification of Oswegatchie — How Foster carried bullets — AnecL^otc of his rapid firing — How he made his camp in the woods — How he accoutred for the chase ... 241
Incidents in the life of Jock Wright — His birth, habits and appearance — Is a soldier — Captures British officers — How he parts with one of them — He scalps a British ally — Visits his former prisoner in Boston — Again a hun<,er — The rattle snake hunter — A snake fight — Death of a panther — Wright removes to Norway — His family — How he lost and found his jug — The hunter Nicholas — His stock in trade — A reason wanted for his habits — He hunts with Wright — Finds lead ore — His death — Jockos lake — Crookneck the hunter — How he almost caught a deer, and got caught himself — How Uncle Jock kills two moose — His opinion of a certain
Some account of the beaver — Peculiarity of its flesh — Its food — Bait used for its capture — Its social habits — Its dams and dwellings how constructed — A beaver community how forewarned of danger — Habits of the otter — Its food — Form of its feet —i Its sagacity in preparing its burrow — The musk-rat — Not easily exterminated — Its fate in freshets — Habits of the pine marten — Its size — The wolverine — How it annoys hunters — Its great strenth ... 372
Incidents of greater or less interest occur in the lives of almost every member of the human family, which only need be known to be justly appreciated, or subserve some good and wise purpose; but occasionally an individual crosses the broad landscape of life, whose career may be said to consist of a bundle of incidents — the greater part of whose existence is in fact so full of novelty, as to claim, for at least a portion of it, a record for the benefit or amusement of mankind. Of the latter class is Major Nicholas Stoner, some of the most romantic and daring of whose adventures are presented in the following pages.
To say that a man lived through the American Revolution and participated in its perils, is alone a sufficient guaranty that he can, if at all intelligent, recount unique and thrilling scenes as yet untold in history ; but when we meet with one who has not only been ejcposed to the perils of an eight year's war, but has shared in the dangers and hardships of a second war — one, in truth,
ous exposures between an«l subsequent to those wars; we niiiy expeet, almost as a matter of eourse, to learn iVoin him not a little that will prove acceptable to the general ri-ader, nourishing
The facts here given of this celebrated warrior, were noted down by the writer from his own lips at personal interviews ; not a few of which have been corroborated by the testimony of others. It is the fortune of very few individuali to pass through a long life surrounded by such a variety of perils, without receiving more personal injury.
Henry Stoner, the father of Nicholas, emigrated from Germ ny to the American colonies, as is believed, nearly twenty years before their emancipation from British tyranny. He landed at New York, and after a short residence in that city removed to the colony of Maryland, where he married Catharine Barnes, by whom he had two sons, Nicholas and John.
Nicholas Stoner, who was about a year the senior of his brother, was born Dec. 15, 1762 or '63: which year is not now known with certainty, the family record having been burned with his father's dwelling in the Revolution. H^ is five feet eleven inches high, of slender but sinewy form; and though his light brown hair is now ( 1848) silvered by the frosts of fourscore winters, and his body is a little bent, yet his step is still firm without a cane, and his intellect vigorous. He has from boyhood worn a pair of small rings in his ears.
TRAPPERS OP NEW YORK.
His complexion, owiiif? to his mode of life, is now swnrthy. In his younj^jer days he must have been a man of uncommonly prepossessing personal appearance; for his ac(|uaintances of forty years' standi''^, speak of him " as one of the likeliest looking men they have ever known." His walk — indeed, almost every motion — betrays his forest life, for he moves with the caution of a trapper and the stillness of a panther: added to which he becomes impatient and vexed at restraint.
The frontispiece, which gives a good likeness of him at the age of about eighty three, exhibits him accoutred as a trapper. He usually wore a fur cap when hunting, and a short coat, or cloth roundabout. A belt encircled his waist, at the foot of which was fastened a bullet pouch, and beneath which upon the left side were thrust a hatchet and knife j while under his right arm swung a" powder horn of no mean capacity. When trapping for beaver, ho was often loaded with a bundle of doublespring steel traps; which were suspended beneath the le^t arm. The frontispiece was engraved from two daguerreotype likenesses, one of which was taken in the village of Johnstown, on the 10th of Sept., 1846 ; and .as there was a militia general training in the village on that day, the old hero was not only accoutred with little trouble to visit the artist; but was greeted at every turn by numerous friends and acquaintances, all eager once more to grasp his hand and give him a friendly salutation. The other miniature, although it does not exhibit the old trapper in his forest garb, was
20 TBAPFBRfl or NRVr YORir.
tnken sukspquently at hi.i place of re.si(ience, and i.i hj far the be.st lik('iR\s.s. A borrowed cap 8een in the picture, oonceals much of his intelligent brow.
New York city again became the rcdidencc of Henry Stoncr while his children were quite young, during which Nicholas went to school and learned to read* Hie was sent to school by John Binkus (if I have the orthography correct), a man of wealth, who had married Miss Hannah Stoncr, a sister of the young student's father. During the Revolution, this Binkus became a refugee officer in the fainous corps of Gen. De Lancey. Henry Stoncr, who had been a kind of trafficker or speculator in a small way since his arrival in the colonies, after a second residence in New York of a few years, resolved to become a pioneer settler, and removed with his family to FondaV Bush, a place in the Johnstown settlements, so called after Maj. Jelles Fonda, who took a patent for the lamls. The place is situated about ten miles north of east from the village of Johnstown, and the same distance west of north from Amsterdam.
Fonda's Bush signifies the same as if it were called Fonda's Woods, a dense forest covering the soil at that early period — bush being the usual terra for woods on the frontiers of New York. Indeed, the Sugar Bush is the present appellation given to woods fron which maple sugar is .lade. At the time of St^aer's arrival, Johnstown, though but a small villag , was becoming known abroad ; as it was the residence of the Baronet, Sir William Johnson (after whom it was called), who,
New York.
As Stoner was the first settler at Fonda's Bush, he left his family in Philadelphia Bush, while he was erecting a log dwelling four miles distant. The last mentioned place, now in the town of Mayfield, obtained its name from the fact, that one or more of its first inhabitants were from Philadelphia, or the vicinity of that city. Some two years after Stoner fixed his residence in the wilderness, Josepb Scott, and about the same time Benjamin De Line, also located in his neighborhood. I say neighborhood because they were the nearest neighbors of the Stoner family ; although from one to two miles distant. His residence was still on the wild-wood side of his pioneer brethren. The next man who fixed his residence in the vicinity of Stoner, was Philip Helmer, who drove the wild! beasts from their haunts and broke ground two miles to the eastward of him. Andrew Bowman, Herman Salisbury, John Putman, Charles Cady, and possibly one or two others, also settled in and about Fonda'^s Bush before the Revolution. Cady, who married a daughter of Philip Helmer, was one of the first settlers at the West villaf ;. He is believed to have gone to Canada with Sir John Johnson.
It must have been about the time of Stoner's location in Fonda's Bush, that Godfrey Shew, a German, made the first permanent location near Sir William Johnson's
tt TiArrtii or niw Yoke.
fishin(i( io<lp;r, denominated the Fith Noun; and situated on the SacnmiaKa river, eight miles north-caiit of Stoner*!i dwelling. Uefore Shew planted himself at the Fish House, severnl families of squatters had been there, who hud gone " to parts unknown,*' and desirous of getting a wholesome citizen to remain there, the Baronet held out liberal inducements to Mr. Shew, of which he accepted.
In my History of Schoharie County, «<c., I have given some account of Sir William John»on, with several anecdotes of him — described his stately man•ions, and told the manner of his death &c., &c.: but at the time of publishing that work, I was not aware that he had a more celebrated summer residence in the latter part of his life, than that denominated the Fish House. From conversations held within the past year ( 1849) with the aged patriot Jacob Shew, who is a son of Godfrey Shew named above, I am enabled to garner up some more incidents in the life of this nobleman, and authentic memoranda of the classic grounds under consideration, which can not fail to prove interesting to future generations, even though they are little appreciated by the present.
Sir William Johnson, after establishing himself at his Hall, in Johnstown, no doubt lived in greater affluence, or more in the style of a European nobleman of that day, than ever did any other citizen of New York. His household was quite numerous at all times, and not unfrequently was much increased by distin-
f];uinh('(l (^uc»t!<. lie haii n Secretary named I^nfTtrrty, who ua.s a ^uo<l luwyor ami did all hiM U<^al ItttNinesN. ilu liad a BouW'fnasttrt an Irishman named Flood. IJouw is a (irrmun word s'n;^m(y m^ harvest — or uiihcrv (Lscd, an ovcrscvr or manager of the laboring interest of the ilall farm. From ten to fiftcn .slaves asually performed the labor on the farm, i.nd they were under the immediate direction of the bouw-master. The slaves, some of whom had families, lived across the Cayadutta creekfrom the Hall, in small dwellings erected for them. They drest much as did their Indian neighbors, except that a kind of coat was made of their blankets by the Hull tailor.
He had a family Physician named Daly, who practiced but little out of his own household. Doct. Daly was a very companionable man, and often accompanied Sir William in his pleasure excursions. He had a Musician, a dwarf some thirty years old, who answered to the name of Billy. He played a violin well, and was always on hand to entertain guests. He had a Gardener, who cultivated a large garden, and kept that and the grounds about the Hall as neat as a pin. He had a Butler named Frank, an active young German, who was with him a number of years, and who made himself very useful to his master. Frank remained about the Hall until the Revolution began, when he went to Albany county. He had a Waiter named Pontioch, a sprightly, well disposed lad of mixed blood, negro and Indian, who was generally with him when
from home. He had a pair of white, dwarfish-looking WaitexSy who catered to his own and his guests' comfort: their surname was Bartholomew, and they are believed to have been brothers.
The secretary, physician, bouw-master, and all the •waiters remained, after the death of Sir William, with his son. Sir John Johnson, until the Revolution began, and then followed his fortunes to Canada. The Baronet had also his own mechanics. His Blacksmith, and his Tailor, had each a shop just across the road from the Hall. They did very little work for any one out of the royal household. Sir William was a large, welllooking and full-favored in;m. " Laugh and grow fat," is an old maxim, of which his neighbors were reminded, when they beheld this fun-loving man. He was well read for the times, and uncommonly well versed in the study of human nature. Near the Hall he erected two detached wings of stone, the west one of which was used Jby his attorney LafFerty, for an office, and the other contained a philosophical apparatus, of which he died possessed. The room in which the apparatus was kept, was called his own private study. On seeing him enter it, Pontioch used to say — " J\row massa gone into his study to tink oh somesin me know not what."
Sir" William erected a school-house in Johnstown soon after he located there. It was an oblong building "with a desk at one end, and stood on the diagonal corner of the streets from the county clerk's office — on the present site of Lucius L Smith's store. To begin a
village, he also erected at the same time six dwellinghouses in the vicinity of the school-house. They were each some 30 feet long fronting the street, by 18 or 20 feet dee)) — were one and a half stories high, with two s(juare rooms on the floor. Those dwellings, and the school-house were all painted yellow. One of the earliest if not in fact the first teacher of this school, was an arbitrary Irishman namerl Wall, who taught only the common English branches. An Episcopal church was also erected in Johnstown under the patronage of Sir William, several years before his death.
In the street in front of the school-house, public stocks and a whipping-post were placed, the former of which were a terror to truant boys, whose feet not unfrequently graced them. Before Godfrey Shew removed to the Fish House, he resided a mile west of the Hall, at which time his children, with those of a neighbor or two, went to school. In the vicinity of the Hall were usually to be seen a dozen or more Indians, of wI^b the children were afraid; and the fact coming to^W krowledge of Sir William, he spoke to a chief in their behalf, and then assured the little urchins, with whom he liked to chat, that they need borrow no more trouble about tlieir red neighbors.
He had six children at that time by his hand^sonoe brown housekeeper, Molly Brant; and the three oldest, Peter, Betsey and Lana, went to school — George and two little girls being thought too young to send. Wall was yevy severe with most of his pupils, but the
Baronet's children were luude an exception lo his clemency — they being ever treated >vith kind partiality and pointed indulgence. He observed the most rigid formality in teaching his scholars manners; a very important branch of education, and quite too much neglected in modern times. He required his pupils, however, not so much to respect age and intellect in others as in himself. If a child wished to go out, it must go before him with a complaisant — please master may I go out ? accompanied with a bow, a backward motion of the right hand, and drawing back upon the floor the right foot. On returning to the school-room, the pupil had again to parade before the master, with another three-motioned bow, and a very grateful — thank you sir !
The lad Jacob Shew, on becoming initiated into the out-and-in ceremony, accompanied his first bow with a scrape of the left foot. Tak the other fut^ you rascal !
K roared with such a brogue and emphasis by old gogue, as to confuse him, and he flourished the left foot again. Tak the other futy I tell ye ! came louder than before, attended with a stamp that carried terror to the boy's heart. Comprehending the requirement, he shifted his balance — scrapert with the right Jut — heard a surly that HI doh ! and went on his way rejoicing though trembling.
In nearly every school of New England and New York twenty-five years ago, the scholars on entering and on leaving the school-room during the hours of
school, had to make their manners — the hoys to bow — gracefully if they could, hut at an events to how, and the girls to courtesy, genteelly of course. Nor were the manners of the children confined to the schoolroom; for on meeting any sober person in the street, they had to make their obeisance, and learned to take pleasure and pride in so doing. It was then a vei^ pretty spectacle to pass a country school-house at noon, or when the children were out at play, and see them parade as if by military intuition, and give the traveler a united evidence of good breeding. This sight is occasionally seen at the present day, where female teachers are employed.
Traversing the forest in the French war, from Ticonderoga to Fort Johnson, his then residence, no doubt first made Sir William Johnson familiar with the make of the country adjoining the Sacondaga river; and soon after the close of that war he erected a lodge for his convenience, while hunting and fishing, on the south side of the river, nearly eighteen miles disteint from his own dwelling. The lodge was ever after called The Fish House. It was an oblong square framed building, with two rooms below, and walls sufficiently high (one and a half stories) to have afforded pleasant chambers. Its site was on a knoll within the present garden of Dr. Langdon I. Marvin, and about thirty rods from the river. It fronted the south. Only one room in the building was ever finished ; that was in the west end, and had a chimney and
firc-placo. The house was never painted, and in the Revolution it was burnt down, but by whom or whose authority, is unknown. The ground f'roin where the building stood, slopes very prettily to the river. No visible trace of this b'lilding remains.
A village has grown up at this place, containing several hundred inhabitants, and bearing the historic name of Fish House, although the post-office is improperly called Northampton, the .village lying mostly in one corner of that town. The village is built upon gentle elevations, and a degree of neatness and thrift pervades it, that agreeably dis appoints the visitor. Among its early influential inhabitants, were Asahel Parkes, John Trumbull, John Rosevelt, Alexander St John, and John Fay. The last one named located here in 1803, and the others a few years before.
Where the Stoner family settled in Fonda's Bush, a pretty village has also sprung up. It is built mostly upon level sandy land, and contains double the population of Fish House. It is situated in the towa of Broadalbin, and like its sister village, has the misfortune to have its post-office called after the town instead of itself, a discrepancy that should never exist where it can be avoided. A plank road went into operation in 1849, from Fish House to Fonda's Bush, a distance of eight miles ; and another from the latter place to Amsterdam, a further distance of t^n miles, bringing the three places within a few hours' ride of ' taoh other.
The villages of Fish ilouso and Fonda's Bush inu^i grow in inportanci' with their improved facilities for business — indeed, the travel to those places hits l)e<n on the increase for several years. From Edinburgli, a little hamlet in Saratoga county, six miles do>^ a the river from Fish House, a stage runs twice a week to Baliston Spa, stopping at Fish House; and another runs through the place three times a week, from Northville to Amsterdam. Both are mail routes. Northville deserves a passing nof'ie in this plate: it is 8 charming inland village in the town of Northampton, containing two or three hundred inhabitant:;, romantically embowered among the hills on the north bank of the Sacondaga, six miles above the Fish House, and is fast increasing in importance. The ffst settlers at this place were Abraham Van Aernam, Paul Hammond, John Shoecraft, Daniel Lobdell and Daniel Bryant. It is now in contemplation to build a planh road from Northville, to connect at Johnstown with th«; one from that place to Fultonville, on the Erie canal.
At a little place about equidistant between Fish House and Northville, on the south bank of, the river, with a post-office called Denton's Corners, settled Garret Van Ness, Abel Scribner and John Brown. They located there soon after the war of the Revolution closed ; and as they had all three been participators in its perils, they must often have met of a long ■winter evening and fought their battles over. There is, at this place, a bridge across the Sacondaga.
Sir Willintn Johnson was no doubt induccil to locate in Johnstown, partly on a<',co»jnt of the greater facilitieti it would aHbrd him lor hunting and fishing about the Sacondaga river, ov«'r a residence in the Mohawk valley, and partly to obtain more favorable grounds to accommodate the numerous Indians, who at times came to receive presents from the royal bounty. North of the Hall was a forest, in which those visitors were occasionally encamped in great numbers.
The Sacondaga and Mohawk rivers are about twenty miles apart, from Fish House westward, for some distance. The Mayfield mountain stretches across from the former river south-easterly to the latter, and there forms what is called The Nose, while on the north side of the Sacondaga, mountain ranges of hills towering one above the other, bound the view. The lands, on gaining the summit level, a few miles north of the Mohawk, are not mountainous between the rivers, but gently rolling from the Mayfield mountain, some twenty miles to the eastward, until they strike what is denominated the Maxonhill; the northern termination of which at the river the Indians called Scovhirock-a. The scenery, therefore, to the northward of Johnstown and Fonda's Bush, is very fine.
From the resulence of Col. John I. Slu'W, situated on an eminence one and a half milt's from Fonda's Biwh, and on the plank road to Fish Hou.se, is afforded the lover of natural science, in a clear day, one of the richest landscapes in this part of the state. Here the eye, lookfhg north, seems to scan rather more thar one-half of an amphitheatre, an hundred miles in circuit, with rich and varied scenery. Within the view is overlooked the Sacondaga vlaie, a body of from ten to thirteen thousand acres of drowned lands. This immense marsh extends c'ast and west about six miles. A strip at the west end, nearly two miles long, lies in Mayfield, and the eastern part extends into Northampton; but the greatest proportion is in Broadalbin, where it is the widest, being perhaps a mile or more in width.
A fine mill stream, called Vlaie creek, because it courses through the great marsh, rises in Lake Dasolation, near the Maxon mountain in Greenfield, Saratoga county, and making a grand circuit of Broadalbin, passing in its route through the village of Fonda's Bush, it enters the Sacondaga at Fish House, not more than two or three miles from its source ; although some twenty by ite sinuous route. The stream is sometimes called thrf Little Sacondaga. The Indians called it Ken-ny-ett-o, says Isaac R. Rosaj of Fonda's Bush, who saw an intelligent Indian, many years ago, write the name with red chalk on the door of a grist mill The signification of this pretty aboriginal name, after
called, is now unknown.
Thf ori^rin of this innrsh is thus given by Lardner Vanuxt'in, in his voluni«' of the Geology of New York. " The vlie, or natural meadow and .Hwainp which extends along the creek of that name, to near the Fish Hou.se, are the remains of a lake, and show the preexistent state of that country; the drainage of which happened at successive periods, as is beautifully shown, and the extent of alluvial action also, near where the upper and lower roads unite, which lead from Cranberry post-office to the river, near the hill or mountain side. There four well defined alluvial banks exist, resembling great steps or benches ranging by the mountain side, which form a semi-amphitheatre, changing by a curve from a north-east to a south-south-east direction. The upper bank of alluvion rises about a hundred feet above the river; the next below, about eighty feet; the third, from thirty to forty feet; and the lowest, from ten to twelve feet. The upper one is of sand, the second of blueish clay covered with sand, and the two lower ones of sand and gravel.
" The vlie, or natural meadows, are numerous in many parts of the [geological] district: they are the prairies of the west upon a small scale. Their soil, being composed of minutely divided parts or fine earth, is favorable for grass, the rapid growth of which smothers the germinating tree. This is the primary cause why trees do not exist where grass is rank; the
othem nro hut NulMinniiittc ones. One and all in the district show the sainc origin, havin({ hrt'ti ponds or lak«'s ri'Ct'iving thi' wash of" thf country which they (hainid, thi' finer particles ol which heing difTujied thr()ii;{h their waters, have hy su))sidence tbrnied their level hot ton), and their highly productive soil for grass."
It id hy no rnean.s an uncommon occurrence for a pond or lake to become lilled up hy alluvial deposits, NO as to form dry and tillable land; and at times upon the surface of a body of water, a soil is formed that iii (Cultivated without its ever being known to the husbandman, that he is toiling over the bosom of a lake. In confumation of this I would instance a singular occurrence of recent date. On the Michigan Central Railway it became necessary to carry an embankment some fifteen feet thick across a piece of low ground, containing nearly one hundred acres dry enough to plow. The workmen had progressed with the grading some distance, when it became too heavy for the soil to support it, and sunk down into seventi/-nin€ feet of wafer. It then became apparent that the low ground had been a small lake, upon the surface of which, in process of time, a soil had collected, composed of roots, peat, muck, &c., to the depth of from ten to fifteen feet thick; the surface of which had become dry. Had it not been deemed necessary to carry so heavy an embankment over this miniature prairie of now rich arable land, it would probably
On the northerly MJile ot'the vhii(> and to the weNtwaril of the centre, are two strips of hard hind bearing timber. They are ealh«l stacking-ridgfs, Ironi the tact that many tons of liay cut annually on the low grounds contiguous, are stacked upon them to be drawn off in the winter. Blue-joint grass used to f^row, and perhaps «loes to this day on the dryest bogs. Formerly, innnense (|uantitics of ('.ranberries were gathered on the north side of the marsh east of the lower stacking-ridge; on what is called Cranberry poirU. A kitul of 'jhovl with fine teeth wa.s sometimes used to scoop them up, and nearly a quart could thus be gathered at once. This mode of picking injured the vines however. Cranberries are not as plenty here as formerly. Opposite Cranberry point the water in Vlaie creek is said to be very deep.
One of the most interesting features about the vlaie is the fact, that a little knoll or table of hard land elevated some ten or twelve feet, extends into it toward the upper or western end. It is oblong in shape, level upon the top, and gently sloping all round. It lies about north-west and south-east; the summit being some 600 feet long by 150 in breadth; and containing in the whole say ten or fifteen acres of very good land. This tongue of land is called Summer' house point, from the fact that Sir Wm. Johnson erected a beautiful cottajre in the centre of it in 1772,
and thorr spont niucli ol liis time in ihi' itimtniT for Ni'Vcrul NcH.vin.s. From Joliii.stowii to tiiis point, which ihju.st t'ourttrii mill's, tl.i> Hiiroiu't opMinl a curriu^c road. Whilf the road wh.h Murvryiiig, a lar^c tnr UHN inarkfd ut thr md of every mile, and numhered from the Hall. The one d»nominaled Mnc-miU Irte, a lar^e pine, wh.s .standing within twenty-live yearn, nnd was hy the late (ien. Henry Fonda desi^^naled to several persons, who have kept vip;ilan<'eot'its locality. The stump «)!' this tree which has tor seventy yeari* been a landmark, is still standing a little east of James Lasher's dwillin^, in the town of Mayiield.
Siunmur-house point is approaehe<l from the we.st* erly end, upon a strip of arable land, which in very high water is (covered making an island of the point. The Sai^otidaga patent embraced all or very nearly all of the vlaie. The point which lies in Hroadalbin, was embraced in the Sacondaga patent, which conveyed 28,000 a<;res of land, Dec. 2, 171-2, to Lendert Gansevoort, Cornelius Ten Brook, Dow Fonda, Anna J. Wendell and ten others. Of some of the original patentees or then owners. Sir William not only bought the point, but many of the lands in and contiguous to Fish House, in which village the Northampton and Sacondaga patents unite.
The cottage erected on Summer-house point, stood precisely in its centre. It was a tasty one story building, fronting the south, upon which side was its front entrance. The roof sloped north and south. A piazza
supported by square columns iixtcndt'd around the sides anil east end, with a promenade upon the top nearly as hi^h as (lie eaves. It bad a gable window at each end on the first floor, and two windows at each end on the second. A hall ran across the building in the centre, with a square room upon each side of it, handsomely finished, well furnished, and each room lighted by two front windows. It had a nice cellar kitchen, the entrance to which was on the west end, which room was always occupied in the summer season by JVicholas and Flora, a pair of the Baronet's slaves, ■who were there to keep every thing in order, and minister to his comfort during his visits. The cottage was painted white, with the corners, doors, windowcasings anrt columns painted green, as was the English taste of the times — the whole contrasting beautifully with the wild scenery around.
A large garden was cultivated on the point, two cows kept there, and when the Baronet was there two horses also; as he usually rode there in a carriage. He planted fruit trees there, and two antiquated apple trees of a dozen or more are still standing. The stone of which the cellar and well were made, were brought from Fish House in a boat, and as stone were scarce on the sandy lands contiguous, early settlers with sacrilegious propensity have carried off and converted them to other uses. The plow has removed all traces of the well, which was on the verge of the knoll south of the house, and has nearly filled- the cellar, a small
cavity only remaining. A Jog house and well were built on the south side of the point toward the western end just alter the revolution, but the dwelling is now gone, and most of the stone which were used in that cellar. The nearest house now to the point, Is that known as the Brown place, where Samuel Brown, an old pensioner, lived and died.
I have said that the Kennyetto coursed through the vlaie. It enters a narrow strip of it south-west of the point, and runs along the latter upon its southerly side ; where it is some two rods wide, and usually three or four feet deep. The Mayfield creek, a millstream about two-thirds as large as the Kennyetto, runs through that part ot the marsh in Mayfield, and sweeping its north margin, unites with the latter stream at the extremity of the point. The Brown farm lies between the two strips of the marsh named, and near where they approximate. Besides those named, several other streams enter the marsh. On the north side at Cranberry point, a mile from Summer-house point. Cranberry creek runs in, and nearly loses itself before reaching Vlaie creek, as the stream is called after it receives Mayfield creek. On the south side two mill streams run in, in Broadalbin, one nearly opposite Cranberry creek; called formerly Frenchman's creek, and the other a mile below called Hans's creek; and yet so great is the natural process of absorption and evaporation constantly going on here, that the creek, where it issues from the vlaie and enters the Sacon-
daga at Fish House, (li>rhj)r;:;os hiil little if any more water than passes Sunimer-house point, in the Kennyctto: indeed, it is said by some of the observing citizens near itsmotith, that less water issues from the marsh than did formerly.
'Frenchman's creek is so called, because a Frenchman named Joseph DeGolier located at an early day upon its shores about two miles from its mouth. It has since been called McMartin's creek, after Duncan McMartin Esq., who established himself and erected mills upon it many years ago. McMartin was a surveyor and laid out most of the roads in and around Broadalbin. He was a man of wealth and respectability, and was appointed a judge of the common pleas in 1818 — was a master in chancery, &c. &c.; and as an evidence of his enterprise, erected a substantial brick edifice upon his farm, some few years before his death. This same stream has also been called Factory creek, from the fact that a woolen manufactory was established upon it near the residence of Mr. McMartin, as early as 1812 or 1814. It is still in operation. Hans's creek got its name from the following circumstance: Some few years before his death, Sir William Johnson and John Conyne were fishing for trout in the mouth of this stream, when as Conyne was standing up, an unexpected lurch of the boat sent him out floundering in the water. He shipped a sea or two, as the sailor would say, before he was rescued by the helping hand of his companion
from a watery grave. ]\Iy intbrmant heard the Baronet relate the circumstance at Johnson Hall to a large circle of friends soon after, with his usual gusto for such adventures. He not only had a hearty laugh over it then, but often afterwards when telling low Conyne plunged into the water to seek for trout. Hans being the Dutch of John, and the familiar name by which Sir William called his companion in relating the incident ; hence the name for the stream.
There is now along the sides and lower end of Summer-house point, a stunted growth of alder and swamp willow, but when occupied by Sir Willian Johnson; the bushes were all cut off, and the margin ^ of the stream kept clean. He had a beautiful boat there, in which he used to go down to the Fish House, four miles distant, sometimes with company, for he entertained numerous distinguished guests, and at other times attended only by a few servants, or possibly by his faithful Pontioch, who rowed the boat while he sat in the stern and steered it. His greatest time for hunting and fishing, was in the spring and fall. When f e marsh was flooded, a boat would pass over it anywhere, the water raising at Summer-house point, from six to eight feet above low water mark. At such times the prospect was grand from the promenade of his cottage, access to which was gained by an outside stairway, near the hall door. Thousands upon thousands of ducks and wild geese were then floating
upon the waters, at which time his double-barreled gun was in almost constant recjuisition. Some twentyfive years ago, <iucks used to hreed about the vlaie. They are sometimes caught in nets there, and taken Ut market.
Jn company with Dr. William Chambers, Marcellus Weston, Esq., ray patriotic old friend Jacob Shew, Col. John I. Shew his son, and little Haydn Shew, I visited Summer-house point on the 29th day of August, 1849, and well was I compensated for the journey. It is a most delightful place, divested of all historic associations, but clothed with them, it is one of the most interesting spots imaginable. Recreating in fancy the white cottage with green facings, I could almost hear the notes of Billy's old fiddle, as his greatest skill was taxed to please the ear of some fastidious city guest; and at some witticism of the happy host, I seemed to hear peal after peal of merry laughter, and now and then an Indian whoop, as in former days, they rang out upon the gentle breeze. The fairy craft of some forest son seemed once more to be gliding along the grass-hidden stream, with its blanketclad navigator standing; erect as of yore, and bound tor Sacondaga. Imagination pictured Pontioch caressing his favorite steeds, and calling on Nicholas to aid a black driver in rubbing them dry; and as I passed the entrance to Flora's department, to look at the noble animals, I seemed to see upon one sid'j of it
sida of it
scores of pigeons and wild ducks, with the saddle of a deer; and on the other a large heap of golden trout, to supply the cottage larder and feed its guests.
But 1 find I am growing visionary, and will dismiss this subject, with my grateful thanks to the gentlemen who conducted me to Summer-house point, where I trust I may again light up " the council fires " of imagination— again be surrounded by intelligent friends— again see some little Haydn hooking perch or sunfish-— again see the happy hay makers near the upper stacking-ridge— and again seek for some relic of the point's first occupancy, if only to be rewarded by the limb of an old apple tree.
Sa-coiwla-ga is an aboriginal word, which signifies, as the Iiuliuns assured (iodlVoy Shew, muck water. Capt. Gill, an Indian hunter, said it meant sunken or drowned lands. It no doubt has j)articular ret'eri'nce to the flooding of the vlaie. The Saeondaga shooting out from the mountains in Northampton, enters the semi-amphitheatre in a south-eastern course, and continues that direction in what seems a great basin, until it gets to Fish House, where, receiving the Vlaie creek, and striking spurs of the Maxon mountain, its course is changed *o a north-eastern one, thus making two equal sides of a triangle some twenty miles in circuit. The vlaie is about as low as the bed of the river, and when the latter rises suddenly, it sets back up the creek with a heavy current, so as not unfrequently to carry bridges up stream, that were over the streams in the marsh. The Sacondaga continues a north-easterly course, until it enters the Hudson some thirty miles from Fish House. A small steam boat has been plying for two seasons between Fish House and Barber's Dam, a distance of about twenty miles. This dam is situated at the head of what is usually denominated the Horse race, or rapid water, which
extends from tlu'iicc to {\\v Hudson. Conklinville, a small hainlt't, with several mills aiid a leather manuiactory, has recently grown up at the dam.
Daly's creek, a stream running into the Sacondaga on the east side, and near Barber's dam, got its name from tlu! following circumstance. Dr. Daly, the family physician of Sir William Johnson, was at the mouth of this stream with the latter on a fishing excursion, as in days gone by it was a great place foi* trout. A little eddy in the water had caught up a bed of leaves, and the top ones were so curled and dry, as to lead the doctor to suppose they were quietly reposing on the top of a small sand bar. It is not unlikely that Sir William, to please himself or guests that may have been w ith them, humored the joke, if he did not set it on foot. Catching the painter, the doctor sprang out to draw the boat upon the bar — when lo! he went plump up to his arms in the water. This incident not only added a yarn to the Baronet's long budget, which he often spun at the doctor's expense, but served to originate a name for the stream. Some few years after the above incident transpired, Godfrey Shew, his sons John and Jacob, and Edmund Pangburn, were fishing at the mouth of Daly's creek, when a similar little eddy of crisped leaves attracted the notice of young Jacob, and to get the wrinkles out of his legs, he concluded to step out of the boat on the bar. He did so, and down went the leaves, and still deeper down the boy to get a handsome ducking.
and l)t> Inii^hod at hy his cotnradcs when a^ain in the boat. Query: Slioitid not this stream bu called Shuw's crt'ck, soiru' part of the time?
Near the mouth of Ilans's creek, and about halfway from Summer-house point to Fish House, dwelt before the Revolution the family of Henry Wormwood. He had three daughters and two sons. The oldest daughter, whose name is now forgotten, married and went to Schoharie; the other two, Susannah and EliKabeth, lived at home. Susannah, the elde.st of the two, was a l)( autiful girl, of middling stature, charmingly formed, with a complexion fair as a water lily — contrasting with which she had a melting dark eye
' and raven hair. Elizabeth much resembled her sister, but was not quite as fair. An Irishman named Robert or Alexander Dunbar, a good looking fellow, paid his addresses to Susannah, and soon after married her. The match was in some manner brought about by the Baronet — was an unhappy one, and they soon after
^ after she became a grass-widow — at which time she was about twenty years old. Those girls were often at the cottage on the point, and not unfrequently at the fish-house. As the latter place was not furnished, when Sir William went down there, intending
to stay over nipht, hv took down a ht-d from tho point, wliirh, '* as the cvi'iiini; shades prrvailcd," was ma«|p up on the floor. In passing Wormwood's dwelling, soinr lialt" a mile distant from his boat at the nearest point, it' he desired an agreeable eompanion for the ni^ht, he discharged his douhle-harreled gun, and the two shots in (|iii(k succession, was a signal that never faiietl to bring him a temporary housekeeper. Susannah was his favorite, and so pleased was she with his attentions, that she often arrived on foot at the Fish House before he did, especially if he lingered to fish by the way.
Wormwood and his wife sometimes accompanied one of their daughters to the fish-house, where they occasionally remained over night. The old man had the misfortune to break an arm, and by imprudence he kept it lame for a long time. Early one morning he called in at Shew's dwelling, situated over a knoll and perhaps one-fourth of a mile from the fish-house. Rubbing his arm he began to give a sorry picture of its lameness, in which he was suddenly interrupted by Mrs. Shew. "Poh!" said she, "you have made it lame by sleeping on the floor again at the fishhouse."
" No I haven't," said he; " I slept on a good bed; for Sir William brought down from the point a very nice wide one, which was plenty large enough for four"—
To dispose of this family in a few words, which / catered for years to pamper the baser passions of an I infhiential man, liberally endowed with Solomondic J lust; the two sons went to Canada with Sir John Johnson; Elizabeth married someftodyand moved to— , somewhere; and Susannah, with an heir to the Sacon*jr*laga vlaie — sex unknown — remained about Johnstown with her parents until the Revolution was over, and then went to Canada. Old Wormwood was seen at Amsterdam after the war by a former neighbor, ^ who en([uircd w/iere he lived ? " Any where," he replied, " where I can find a house." Poor weak man, .he has beyond doubt parted with his 'mortal coil' long since; but his old bones, we hazard a conjecture,
OJitrd with his son's j'statr iti tin* Hrvoliitlon. Whrn (told 1)) the .s('i|iii>.Ntiatiii^r coiMinittct', it was pnrcha.si'd by Major Nirliolas l''i>li (hi' was a«rMilaiil-i;riicial of militiii ii^'T >h«' war), lor onr hiimlrrd pounds. Maj. Fish sold it at tht- close of thr war to Asa In I Parkts, of Shiirtsl)iiry, Vrrnutrit, who residrd wvi-rai yearn upon it. lie liiiiit a dwelling; upon the low |;roiind a few rotis from the mouth of V'laie ercek; ami the followin;^ sprint; he was driven out of it hy some four feet of water. Tractes of this liuildin^* are still to he Been west of the road, Just above the river hridge. Parkes sold the Fish-house farm to Alexander St. John. The villaf^»' has since heen built upon it.
The bridfjje just alluded to eiosses the rivir wliere it makes its i^reat anghs and only a few rods below the mouth of Vlaie creek. The Sacnndaga at this place is about two-thirds as large as the Mohawk is at Fultonville. The cost of this bridge, u covered one, in Barber & Howe's Historical Collections of Jfew York, is erroneously stated to have been * sixty thousand dollars.' It cost about six thousand dollars, and ( was built by the state's munificence in 1818; at which time Jacob Shew was in the legislature and advocated the measure with success. It was supposed the .state would soon realize the funds again, by the sale of her lands on the north side of the river, a market for which would be more readily found by improving the way to them. How profitable the investment has proved for the state we are unable to say, but the
AmoriK tht' iiiiwi.s#' incaMircN adopted in tli«- early part ot'uur Htru^^lc (or li!,"rty, wa.s that of tortil'yin^ Su miner-house point; it heill^ supposed hy .some that an enemy from the north, would he likely t<» approach tiie point by water. Part of a regiment of eontinetital troops under Col. Ni(;hol.son was stationed here inuth of the summer of 1776. An inlrenehment six feet wide and several l'e<'t deep was tut across the eastern end of the point; while the cotta^«' in j^reen livery, as we may suppose, assinned a warlike aspect. The point as a military post was abandoned at the end of the summer. The sununer-house shured the same fate as the fish-house, in tlu' Utvolution; as they were both burnt about the year 1781. We suppose that, from the fact that this cottap; had been oc(uipied by the Americans as a military post, and that the repossession of it by Sir .lohn Johnson was now j)hiced almost beyond a doubt amon^ the impossibilities; he irave instru('ti()nstosome hostile invaders to burn that and the fish-house, that they should tail to the ownership and occupancy of no one else. All traces of the fortifications on the point have disappeared, the ditch having become entirely filled up by deposits from the marsh.
Just before Summer-house point was garrisoned, a scout of several men was sent from Johnstown to reconnoitre in its vicinity. From the point thf;y crossed
the inarah to th«> l)aiik of the Saronila^a, ami not findiii^{ any traa« ol' an rnrniy'.s appioaih, thry returned to the point. VVIicri rtady to retrace their Nteps to Johnstdwn, they loiind the hont had ht>cn ict't hy some person on the opposite shore ot thr Kerinyetto. In attempting to eross the stream ant! ^et if, oneot the men, named Willie Itoiles, a (Continental .soldier, wan » drowned. His hody was re<;ov«'red and l)uri»'d on the ^ northerly en<l of I lie point, a few rods southerly trom the fence toward the road, and not far distant from the Mayfield ereek. No stone or stake indieate.s the spot.
Summer-house point was sold hy J< remiah Van Rensselaer, one ot the committee for secpiest rat ions, to James Caldwell ol Albany. Who now owns this deli^i;htful spot I am unahle to say. Formerly, when it hecamethe rallyinir spot for hay-makers, cranherrypickers and fishermen, tem|)orary hridi^es were made across the creeks upon its si<les, hy throwing over strinj^ers and coveriiii;- them with hrush and liay. The timher was drawn upon the point iti the winter, to be restored in the suinmer.
A settlement was he^un in Mayfield, some ten miles to the northward of Johnson Hall, under the patronage of Sir William Johnson, about as early as Stoner's location at Fonda's Hush. The first settlers who obtained a title from the Baronet to one hundred acres of land each, were two brothers nanud Solomon and Scely Woodworth, Truman Christie, two brothers named ReynoKIs, Dunham, Cadman,
England; and possibly one or two others. Christie was a Scotchman ; the i est of the settlers, or nearly all of them were enterprising Yankees. The Woodworths were from Salisbury, Connecticut; Seely settled near the present site of Mayfield Corners, and his brother about a mile to the westward of him. The i°st of the pioneers were scattered about the woodman's neighborhood. Perhaps the only descendant of this early settlement now living upon the homestead, is Simon, a son of Truman Christie.
Solomon Woodworth was killed by the Indians in the Revolution, as I have elsewhere published. The circumstances attending his death, as related by an eye-witness, I design to give the public at some future day, as also the captivity of several of the settlers at Fish House and Fonda's Bush, and fate of Eikler and young Shew. Old Mr, Dunham was murdered by the Indians in the war, as related on page 294 of my History of Schoharie County t etc.y where the name is inaccurately printed Durham. His wife was not murdered at the time, as there stated. The house was plundered, but from motives of policy not then burned. Dunham had a son, a young officer imder Capt. Solomon Woodworth, who shared the fate of his braVe commander, as will be shown hereafter.
After Shew located at Fish House, and before the Revolution, John Eikler, Lent and Nicholas Lewis, brothers, Robert Martin, Zebulon Algar, a family of
Ketchums and one of Chadwicks, also settled in that neighborhood. All of them left at the beginning of difficulties, except Shew, Martin and Algar. These pioneers at first had to go to Johnstown for their milling. To accommodate them and the Mayfield settlement. Sir William Johnson erected a small grist mill at the latter place, in 1773 or '74, and had the avails of it (luring the remainder of his life. It was either burnt in the war, or rendered nearly valueless by neglect. The mill property having been confiscated, it was purchased at the close of the war by Abraham Romeyn, the oldest son of the Rev. Dr. Romeyn, who "had been an artificer in the Revolution. He rebuilt the mill again, and put it in operation.
Soon after Romeyn got his mill in operation, Thomas Shankland — who had been a prisoner among the Indians — erecttd a grist mill on the Kennyetto, in the present town of Providence, to which the ^ ish House settlers repaired, as it was a mile or two nearer than the Mayfield mill, with no intervening marsh. This mill is now owned by Jonathan Haggidorn. The^ bolts in those mills to separate the flour from the bran, Vw. were turned by hand. It was the usual practice for customers to turn the bolt for their own grist — a task \ they were by no means pleased with. After the country became more settled, and probably as early as 1800, one Van Hoesen erected a mill also in Providence, situated about half a mile east of Fish House, on a stream which rises on the Maxon mountain.
Speaking of mills, we are reminded of the following anecdote of Sir William Johnson. While he was living at Fort Johnson, he made some alteration in his grist-mill near by — putting in a new pair of millstones. A German named Francis Salts, who was erecting a mill for Messrs. Philip and Jacob Frederick, situated on the Schoharie river, some five or six miles above its mouth, called on th6 Baronet to purchase the old grinders. The price was stipulated, and after some little conversation about the terms of payment, the quondam owner told his customer to take them home, get his mill in operation, and if he would sing ^ a song when the debt was due, that pleased him, he would exact no other pay.
It was not long ere the buzzing and clitter clatter evinced the new mill in successful motion. When pay day for the millstones arrived, Mr. Salts went to Fort Johnson to cancel the debt. He was quite a song singer, and had possibly prepared himself with something new, expressly for the fastidious ear of his creditor. In the presence of several of the Baronet's friends, who were, no doubt, invited in expressly to hear them, song after song was sung, to the evident
i amusement of all save the one he desired to please ; but his features remained uncommonly rigid. Having exhausted his catalogue of German songs, without discovering any expression of delight on the countenance of his creditor, the millwright thrust his hands — into a deep pocket, and drew forth a long pouch of
" Yes, yes," said the now delighted lover of fun, j' « that will do— that's the best of the whole." The ^ songster went home rejoicing, and left the Baronet and his guests to discuss the merit of his songs over a bottle of wine, when he was far away. — Col. Peter Young and Volkert Voorhees.
If Sir William Johnson enjoyed a joke at the expense of some friend, they occasionally got the rig "7 upon him, as the following anecdote will show. Just after the close of the French war, in which he had acted so conspicuous a part, and for which he was placed on the baronial list, Sir William had occasion to go to Albany. At that period there were only two or three dwellings in the whole distance between Albany and Schenectada, and they were little if any better than squatter's lodges of more modern times. There were numerous little swamps and marshes along the road, and the Baronet returning to Schenectada on horseback, passed a little marsh, in which he heard,
'ds he believed, the voice of a new animal. Nearing a house just after, he inquired, What animals wen making such a strange noise ? He was answered witl a gi in, that they were bullfrogs !
Tlie family of which he inquired knew him (indeed tliat iamily which did not know him in Western New York, was behind the times), and soon the nature of his inquiry reached the ears of his most intimate friends, who bored him so unmercifully about it, that he was obliged to own up. He admitted that he never was so ashamed of having asked a question in his life, as he was of that about the new animals on the pine plains below Dorp. — James Frazier.
After the preceding pages were stereotyped, I learned that the given name of Dunham, mentioned on page 49, was Jacob: that when he was murdered, as stated on page 50, which took place April 11, 1779, a son named Samuel met the same fate. Zebulon, another son, was made prisoner, but escaped from his captors while they were plundering and burning the house. John, a third son of Jacob Dunham, fell with Capt. Woodworth, in Fairfield. — Hun. John Dunham j of Wells, N. Y., a son of Ebenezer Dunham, and grandson of Jacob Dunham, above named.
Very little is known of Nicholas Stoner's boyhood, but from his propensity in riper years we may suppose, that if he did not play off some wild pranks, it was only for the want of a butt. With perceptions naturally quick, his city life afforded him a fine school for the study of human nature as developed in the actions of men; but the transition at so early an age to sylvan shades, where, instead of artificial objects he might behold nature by the pencil of God adorned, was genial to his untamed spirit, and he was soon fitted to enjoy to the fullest extent the life of a woodman: finding music in the scream of the panther, growl of the bear and bay of the wo»i.
When a cry from the Boston Cradle announced that the infant Liberty was about to be strangled by its pretended nurse; the Gray Forest Eagle,
he fluttered over the land of his choice, until he aroused the patriotism not only of the indweller of city and village, but of him, who, though isolated his home, eould appreciate untrammeled thought and act.
The first two years of the war of Iiuiependence, the pioneer inhabitants of New York enjoyed comparative tranquillity; for the swift-footed Indian had not fully determined to raise the hatchet of death against un-
I piness for the golden calf royalty had set up: but as the portending storm lowered, and it became known that the red man, having sharptied his scalping knife . and participated in the war dance of his nation, was then on his way to the frontiers; exposed settlers who were inclined to look with favor on the acts of those who were raising an arm of rebellion along the seaboard, found it necessary to remove to thickly peopled neighborhoods. Accordingly, the families making up the small and scattered settlement of Fonda's Bush, except that of Helmer and Putman, removed early in the summer of 1777, to Johnstown : soon after which Nicholas Stoner went to reside with the Fisher brothers in the Mohawk valley.* Living with patriots,
* John and Harmanus Fisher. They resided at that period where the Hon. Jesse D. DeGroff now resides, between the villages of Fonda and Amsterdam, and were both killed and scalped I by the Indians and tories in the summer of 1780 ; at which time the former was a captain and the latter a lieutenant of militia. Col. Frederick Fisher (or Visscher, as he wrote his name in the ' latter part of his lifey, a third brother, chancea to be there at the ft time, and was scalped and left for dead, but recovered and lived 3 many years. For a more particular account of the Fisher family and their sufTerini^s, see my Border Wars of New York.
althou«2:h a lad of only 14 or 15 summers, it is not surprisinc; that young Storur, who had been properly schooled at home as the remo\ al of the family indicates, should have imbibed the spirit which throbbed in older hearts, and been ready to stand or fall with the common cause of his country.
Visiting his friends in Johnstown in the summer of 1777, at which time it had become a military post, Nicholas, for whose ear martial musiio had peculiar charms, needed but little persuasion to become a soldier, and enlisted as a fifer into a company of New > York troops, commanded by captain Timothy Hughes. Not long after his brother John, a mere boy, enlisted under Capt. Wright. Captain W. had been a British drum-major previous to the Revo'.-4tion, and being pleased with John, undertook to perfect him in the I art oifiammadiddles and paddadiddtes — in other words, in the ability to make a world of noise in a scientific ** manner. Henry Stoner, imitating the example of his boys, soon after enlisted under Capt. Robersham for a term of three years. The father and sons were all in' the same regiment, so that they not only saw each other almost daily, but the former could to some little extent, still exercise the duties of a parent. The regiment alluded to was commanded by Col. James Livingston, of which Richard Livingston was lieutenant-colonel, and Abraham Livingston captain; the three Livingstons being brothers. In August 1777, the troops under Col. Livingston joined the army of
Get). Arii()l<l, whilf on its way up flu- Mohawk valley, to Nurroi (!()l, (ransevooit at Korl Slaiiwix. Amonj? the putriotit; ranj^ers who left Johnstown at lliis time was Jacoh Shew, who is still livini;.
Nicholas Stoner saw the spy, llan Yost Schuyler, who was captured at Shoernakei's place ( where Spencer now lives, at the upper end of Mohawk village), set out on his mission to excite the iears of the enemy, and thus save his own neck from a halter.* Hoats
• This Han Yost (John Joseph) Schuyler iind Wulter Butler wero fortunately made prisoners near Fort Dayton, about the time of Arnold's atrival at that post. Butler wiis sent down to Albany as a prisoner. Schuyler had entered the Mohawk vaUey as a spy — was tried by court-martial and sentenced to be hung, his coffin being made ready to receive his remainn. (ren. Arnold thought to turn his life- to more profitable account tlian his death, and agreed to spare him on condition that he would etiter the camp of St. Ledger, and by an exaggerated account of the forces advancing under his command, thus contribute towards raising the siege of Fort Stanwix, then called Fort Schuyler. Schuyler accepted the terms for his life; and his brother Nicholas was retained as a hostage, to suffer in his stead in case of a noncompliance. Han Yost entered the enemy's lines, and his known fidelity tc their cause gave his .representation of Arnold's forces no little weight, Probably Schuyler had been sent below to learn whether American troops were approaching. The camp was thrown into confusion, and it was resolved to raise the siege. Several shrewd Oneidas friendly to the American cause were in the secret, and ere St. Ledger began his retrograde movement, one of them dropped into the camp as if by chance. He was interrogated as to his knowledge of the approaching Yankees, and replied mysteriously, but in a manner to inspire awe. " Are the Yankees numerous?" inquired a tory officer. The Indian pointing to the surrounding
laden with provisions wn« taken up tiie Mohawk, guarded by troops alonp; the shore. As they drew near the theatre of the brave Herkimer's disasters, evidences of the terrible onslaupjht at Oriskany met them. Near the mouth of the Oriskany creek, a f,'im was found standing ajrainst a tree with a pair of [)oots| hanging on it; while in the creek near, in a state bordering; on putrefaction, lay their supposed owner. ^ In the jifrass a little way from the shore, lay a^jfenteely dressed man without coat or hat, who it was suppose<ly luul made his way there to obtain drink. A l)lack silk handkerchief encircled his once aohinpf head." John Clark, a sergeant, loosened it, but the hair adforest replie<l by ask ins;— " Can Oneida count the leaves? Can\' white man count the stars?" The siege was prrcipitately abandonee!, and agreealtiy to arrangement another and another Oneida"^ entered the ranks ot" the foe to add their enigmatic testimony to that of the first. The stratagem succeeded to a charm-, ami find- | ing opportunity to return to tho army of Arnold, and thence to 1 Fort Dajlon, Schuyler saw his brother set free and went back to ' Canada. Subsequent to the war, Schtiyler returned to Herkimer county where he died. Facts from John Roof, who was on duty ill Fort Dayton, and saw the coffin made for Schuyler, and vSo ' was familiar with the circumstances which led to his an it and novel liberation; corroborated by JoAn DocUcWorfer, of Herkimer. Says the latter, this Schuyler had a brother and two sisters who were carrie<l captive to Canada in the French war, and were re-/ tained there until it closed. Herkimer, then called the Palatine^s village, was invaded by the French and Indians in November, nSl, its dwellings, grain, mills, etc., destroyed by fire, and its inhabitants mostly slain or carried into captivity; as we may show at some future day.
Jlt'f^s wiTf 8o swollen, that his (hrr-skiu hrirchcs were rent front top to bottom. Nine dcud bodies lay across the road, disposed in rc^idar order, as was imagined, by the Indians after their death. The stench was so
/ were soon after bleaching upon the ground. A little farther on an Indian was seen hanging' to the limb of a tree by the heels, lie was suspendetl with the traces of a harness from a bafrp;aj;e wagon by the Americans, as believed, after death, (.ol. St. Ledger having made a flying retreat towards (.anada, (ien. Arnold, after giving his troops time to rest, left Fort Stanwix and returned with his command to the army ol Gen. Gates near Stillwater.
At some period subsecjuent to the acttion of September J 9th, in which Gen. Arnold was by many thought the master spirit of the American ollicers engaged, an altercation took place between him and Gen. Gates, supposed by some on account of envy entertained towards the former, either by Gen. Wilkinson or Gen. Gates, and possibly both,* which rosulltd in his being deprived of his command. Consequently, in the sanguinary battle which took place on Bemis's Heights, October 7th, Gen. Arnold had no authority for the glorious deeds he there performed. Towards evening
of that day, that daring chief led a body of troops into the very heart of the llrssian <:unip; carrying dismay | along the vsholo Uritish line. In this impetuous onset he was shot through the leg,* and would to God the ^ ball had passed through his heart; and that that tear- \ less and reckless leader, who, up to that hour had been (tne of liiBKRTY's lioldcst champions, could have ^ sealed with his life-blood his former deeds of glory! Yes, would to (Jot! that that l)rave general, who had faced his country's foes on the snow-cl Abraham, and been a companion lant, warm-hearted Montgomery, could now have found a grave on those hi ights, where his own blood had mingled with that of the foeman! But alas! alas! a sombre destiny awaitt'd him.
Among the dtath-daiing spirits who followed Arnold to the Hessian «'ainp, was Nicholas Stoner, and near the enemy's works be was wounded in a singular manner. A cannon shot from the breastwork killed a , soldier near Stoner, named Tyrrell. The ball demolished his head, sending its fragments into the faceT of Stoner, which was literally covered with brains, J hair and fragments of the skull. He fell senseless, with the right of his head about the ear severely cut
* A wounded Hessian fired on Arnold, and John Rednnan, a volunteer, ran up to baytmot him, but was prevented by his general, \ who exclaimed, " He'x a fine fellow — don't hurt him .'" The Hessians continued to fight after they were down, berause they » had been told by their employers that the Americans would give no i^ quarters . — Stoner .
/cunnrm .shot whi/xcd ho near his own head, that hv Noon returne<l without the ohjei^t ot' hi.s search. Col. Livingston asked Sweeney where the lud Stoner was? • " Ja — s! t'olonel," replied the soldier, " a goo.se has / laid an egg there, and you don't catch nie to stay there!" Lieut. William Wallace then proc«'e<l('il to the spot indicate<l by the Iri.slinian, and found our hero \ with his head reclining upon TyrrelTs thigh, and taking ^ him in his arms, bore him to the American camp. When young Stoner was I'oimd, a portion of the brim of his hat, say about one-fourth the si/e of a nine-pound shot, was observed to have been cut off very smoothly, th(! rest of it was covere<l w'fh the ruins of the head of Tyrrell, who, to use the words of Stoner, did not 'T know what hurt him.
Peter Graff, from Switzer I fill, and Peter Conyne also from the vicinity of Caughiiawaga, were at the American camp as team.sters on the <lay of this battle, and served as volunteers among the troops led on by Arnold. (Conyne having raised a gun to fire on / the enemy, received a bullet in his arm and breast. Young Stoner and Conyne were taken from Stillwater to Albany in a boat with other wounded Americans. Col. Frederick Fisher chanced to be in that city when they arrived, and took Stoner home with him, from
whence he carrinl him t(» Johii.slovMi. He wiiJ< under the care of Dr. Thomas Kerd, h siirneiiu in LivinK.ston'i re((lment, an<l was niri«l. Conyne also reiovered.
In the summer of I77H, the tliree Stoners were all on duty in Rhod«' Island. In an ennaneuH-nt with' the enemy whih- there, the fathrr was wounded by a musket ball, which lodged in his head, lie wa.s sent to Providence, where he was trepanned, ami recovered. The relic (an ^'
of Britain. f
While the Stoners were serving in Rhode Island, the following incidrnt occurred in the American camp. Two soldiers, Williams a Yankee, and Cumming an Irishman, had a (piarrel, in which the former gave the y latter a severe flogging. To revenge his chagrin, the worsted combatant took a shirt from his own sack, and placed it in that of Williams, to gi the appearance of having been stolen, in the hope of seeing the latter punished. The officers found it ne- ^ cas.sary to use severe measures for petty theft, as it was of very frequent occurrence. The missing garment of Cumming having been found in Williams's possession, the latter was tied up with his coat off to"^ .be whipped. The son of Erin, conscience stricken, then advanced into the rinir, J^nd drew off his coat to
/from Williams, and although he had used stratagem to get him publicly flogged, he would rather receive the scorpion-tailed cat himself, than see a man punish((i for a crime of which he was not guilty. So manly a confession on the part of Gumming, excited the admiration of the Rev. John Greenongh, a baptist minister, and chaplain oi the regiment, who interceded with Col. Livingston, and he readily forgave them both.
The Americans had several skirmishes with the enemy in Rhode Island, in the summer and autumn of 1778, in two of which Nicholas Stoner was engaged. Capt. Hughes was out one night with his command as a piquet guard on Poppasquash point, opposite Bristol. The trcops having been observed before dark by a British veSvSel in the vicinity, a body of marines and grenadiers landed and made them prisoners. The enemy having gained the beach in boats, came round a salt marsh which was separated from a corn field by a stone wall. Capt, Hughes and his men were on the marsh side of the wall, and fired on the marines as they approached. The latter called to them not to fire, saying, " we are your own men." As they drew
Tnear, their white belts betrayed them however, and the Americans attempted their retreat. In endeavoring to leap the wall, our hero missed his footing and fell back, at which instant he was seized by the collar by *a British grenadier named John MoGfifTee, At this
veille in the Aineriran camp, but he was soon brought to his seases, and to a situation in which he could ^ get sober at his leisure; in other words, he learned that others were to pipe while he danced. John Stoner was at this time a drummer in the American camp, not far distant from where his brother was a prisoner; indeed, the spangled banner was floating in sight*
Gen. Prescott, the British commander on that station, was captured \Yhile Capt. Hughes and his men ^jv\\'ere prisoners. He had gone to pay his devoirs to a /buxom widow, at a little distance from his own camp, /f and a slave of the lady found means to communicate the fact to the Americans. Lieut.-Col. Barton, of the Providence militia, an officer of spirit, at once conceived the bold project ot his capture. At dead of night, in a bare;e, well manned by stout-hearted volunteers with muffled oars, he landed and approached I the house in which the general was so happily quartered. Feeling quite secure, he had accepted the kind ^lady's hospitality, and resolved to tarry all night. ■^ Possibly his arrest was set on foot by the fair hostess, ^for woman often proved the champion of freedom.
• John Stoner was ctmummer in Col. Livingston's, and afterwards in Col. Cortlandt's regiment, serving his country to the end of the war. He was in one engagement in Rhode Island, and jdobably in others. In battle, the musicians were usually stationed near the dftlors, and were often required, as a part of their Outv. to get ammunition, otr
scattered thoutjhts, or the war-^od to chase the dreams of love from his mind — or, indeed, what was far moic ' uncharitable, time to put on his breeches, he Mas^ hurried off to the rebel barge. Passing through a piece of standing barley, his legs were tickled, as we I may suppose, n( t in the most agreeable manner. So silently had the Americans arrived, and so brief had been their stay, that they were even bending their oars for their own camp before the general's guard' could be mustered. Great was the surprise among ^ the British next day, when it became known that their^ gen«;ral had been spirited n vay. On being apprised of the fact, some of the soldiers were heard to say, • " The rebels have got the old rascal, and I hope they'll T kill him! " He was a man some sixty years of age, was a severe disciplinarian, and not very popular. His capture, which was possibly undertaken with that . ostensible object, soon brought about an exchange of / prisoners; and after several months' durance. Captain^ Hughes and his command wt set at liberty.
In the fall of 1778, the several regiments of New York statt troops having become much reduced, a new organization took place, their nimiber being lessened, at which time Nicholas Stoner jioined the company of Capt. Samuel T. Pell, attached to Col, Cortlandt's regiment, which marched to Schenectada. The state troops were sent, during the winter months, to different frontier stations, and Capt. Pell proceeded to Johnstown for winter quarters.
Small parties of the enemy kept the inhabitants along the frontier of New York, in a state of almost constant alarm. While stationed at Johnstown Nicholas Stoner often went hunting and fishing with other I lads, to provide a dainty morsel for some officer, who I thought more of his palate than of his purse; and con-
^ sequently paid liberally for their success. Young Stoner, in company with three others, one Charlesworth, Charles Darby and John Foliard, all nearly of the same age, went out with guns and fishing tackle, in the vicinity of Johnson Hall. After they had become busily engaged along the Cayadutta,* all at once
y Darby, without uttering a word, was seen to start as if terribly frightened, and run off in the direction of the Hall. His comrades soon learned the cause of his
J alarm, by seeing a small party of Indians emerge from a patch of hem^ not far distant from them, and near the Hall barn. One of them fired on Charlesworth, but the boys scattered, fled and all effected their escape. These Indians, or, as probably some of them Y were, tories disguised, had no doubt visited the settle^ I ment as spies, and were anxious to take back a prisoner as a proof of having aicicompljshed their mission. They were sure of aheir reward, if they could returo
• Ca-ym-ikit-ta sijsTiifies middy crnek. says the Hon. John Dunbam, of Hamilto* county, who had tlie signification from Indian •* hunters. The -reek courses in Johnstown through a soil which ^ gives to the water at most seasons of the year a dirty appearance ; ' hence the aboriginal name.
with occular evidence of having visited the place designated by some British or refugee officer in Canada. (^ Thoin.is Haiter, an inoffensive man, nearly seventy \ years old, who residetl in Scotch Bush, a few miles from Johnson Hall, went to his field, bridle in hand, '^ to catch a horse, and was made prisoner and taken to \ Canada, by a small party of the enemy (in the fall of C^ 1778, or spring of 1779), that did not wish to harm . him, but were anxious to prove they had been to \ Johnstown. His unaccountable absence from home greatly alarmed his family, but their apprehensions • were softened by a tory neighbor, who assured them \ he was alive, but had been taken prisoner as a matter ) of necessity, and would be kindly used. His treatment was not as cruel as that meted to most prisoners, and he lived to return home, to the great joy of his ^ friends.
Conrad Reed, a baker in New York city, married Miss Barbary Stoner, a second sister of Henry Stoner, and removed to Johnstown just before the Revolution. He dwelt some distance from the fort, but was employed to bake for the garrison. "When on duty at Johnstown, the Stoner boys not unfrequently took
(occasion to visit their uncle's family, but those visits were not approved by their father; who knew that - his kinsman was tinctured with royalty, and he often cautioned them against going there. Nicholas called there one evening, and had been but a short time in r the house, when he heard a slight tap upon a window. ^ Mr. Reed instantly disappeared through a trap-door I into the cellar without a candle, and his wife went J out of the house. There seemed a sprinkling of mystery in the affair, but it did not excite Stoner's fears, and he awaited in silence the issue. After a few minutes' absence, his aunt came in having in her hand several gaudy handkerchiefs. She appeared rather more reserved after the singular interruption of the family, and ha soon returned to the fort.
Stoner learned subsequently, that a small party of the enemy, one of whom was John Howell, who dwelt between Johnstown and Sacondaga, had visited the
settlement as spies: that they had sim-m him through the window, ami by a tap on a pane of glass, a signal she well understood, had called out Mrs. Heed, to consult her about making him a prisoner. She told them that if he was captured there, it would be the ruin of their family; for her husband would certainly lose his employ as baker for the garrison, if in fact he was not imprisoned. They reluctantly withdrew, although Howell could hardly consent to let so favorable an / opportunity pass for securing certain evidence of ' , having accomplished their mission. The young fifer / ilid not know until long aller, how near he had been to a Canadian prison. The handkerchiefs left with Mrs. Reed were presents, to adorn the necks of several tory ladies, whose husbands or lovers were in Canada. About a mile from the Johnstown fort (the jail inclosed by strong palisades), ilwelt Jeremiah Mason, whose family was numbered among those in the ^ vicinity, as friendly to the cause of liberty. This Mason had a daughter named Anna, about the same age as our hero; who was a maiden very fair to look^ upon. Nature had given her charming proportions; /> a stature seemly, graceiully jutting out where swell- | ings were most becoming, and bewitchingly tapering ' where diminution is sought in female form. Her skin was clear and fair, and her hair and eyes black, the latter shaded by raven lashes under the control of jnusfcle, that gave to the organs of love a most melting exprc.;:.ion.
72 TltAITKHS OF NKW YORK.
Some distaiicf (.iitlicr fVoin the tort, iiml on the mi I ac road us Mason, dwell a family iiaini'd Hrovvst*; the mall' mrmlM-rs oC wlmii ,vc;»' in tin' camp ol" tint-ncmy. At home wt'tv Mrs. Browsr and two beaut iInl dau^iitcrs. They, too, wi-re in tlieir teens, and like Anna Mason, they had sparkling Mack eyes, rnhy / li|)S and cherry cheeks. The war of the Kevolntion soon rendered nei^;hl)orin^ lamilies distant and Ibrinal, where they looked with div«'rse lavor upon the acts of the contendinj^ parties, even though they had boei; • intimate before. The resolutions of vigilance committees often tended to such a result.
I have remarked elsewhere, that yotmg Stoner, when on duty at Johnstown, went hunting in the proper season. Mis pigeon hunt'mg often gnve him an interview with the young ladies named, and not unfreV"^quently did Anna, as the lumter was about to proceed I farther from the gan ison, with some anxiety and a I reproving look, cast a caution in his jjath from her — father's door, such as " Nicholas, you'll be surprised r yet at that tory house and taken oil" to Canada: you . had l)ett«,'r not go there." If the maiden had not conreived some attachment for the yoimgfifer, the reader ' will agree with me, that she was possessed of sisterly feelings. He was then quite partial to Anna, as he / admits, and we think he mUvSi have promised her to limit his future excursions to a nearer range, else why - the caution observed in another visit.
direction, it was suspected hy more than one at the station that he went sky-larking;, and Janoes Dunn, who was possibly in the secret of his destination, one day told Capt. Pell that " if he did not look out he would lose his lifer, as he not only went upon danger- A» ous jrrounds, but hunted two kinds of pigeons.^^ The captain, whose inrlinations led him to follow all the fortunes of war, took occasion secretly to catechise the younR hunter; and the latter, with his usual dor, owned up. The consequence was, the commander of the garrison concluded the hunting o( pigeons must be rare sport, espec ially if they were not too lean, and Tsoon obtained a promise from young Nimrod to take ^ him where he could find one nestled.
Arrangements having been made for a hunt, secretly of course, a garment was thrown over the back of an old white mare belonging to the widow Shutting, which sought its living around the fort; and selecting a propitious evening, the hunter and his pupil — under cover of a cluster of trees a little distance from the garrison, mounted their Rozinante and set off. The reader may be surprised that they started on a pigeon'^ hunt in the evening, and still more when informed that they left their shooling-irons behind; but this is^ all owing to his ignorance of the policy of war, for he should know that game is easier tal'en on the roost \^ than on the wing.
5 the miturt! of their errand ami thus startle the bcH (Tame : eonsequeiilly a bliml ami eireuitous route wixsi chosen, some; distance from the public, highway. Wh( tiler the animal was too heavily loude<l ornot, we can not judge any better than the reader (sin is said
/to be weighty), but sure it is that in threading an intricate footpath carpeted by a wvh of briars and underbrush along a ravine, the mart! stumbled and went heels over head, sending Fut riders far from her, if not ~ pell-mell, certainly Pell and ^ h. IJestowing some har.^h epithets upon the poor beast, which probably liad the worst of the bargain, they did not attempt to renjount; but leaving the old mare to her '^te, they proceeded on foot.
On arriving near the hunting-grounds, Stoner went forward to reconnoitre, and finding the coast clear, returne<l and conducted his captain into a neat little
necessary for the hunters to leave it: consequently the
r hunter most familiar with the premises, followed the pullet in its flight to a chamber. The other bird soon ' after fluttered past the captain into an adjoining room, ^ whither he pursued possibly to capture it.
in a fart so well rslablishrd, it must 1h' obvious to the^ reader that pigeon hunting nnxy bo rare sport. Some time after the beautiful birds under considerulion had flown to separate rooms, into which we can not think of introduiing the reader, as the cooing was donoA agreeably to the most approved style then in vogue in ^ western New Yorl.-, the loud bark i tig of Mason's dog fell upon the ears of the hunter closeted above. His apprehension was in a moment on tiptoe; for to be surprised by a party of the enemy and either slain or ^ captured with his eiptain in such a place and at such an hour, \ '♦hoi- t-ir having the least means of defence, he reauiij saw must bring scandal if notdis-\ honor upon tlu' American arms; and he descended * (although his bird attempted with a delicate little^ claw to prevent) l'> take a midnight observation.
It turned out that Mason's sentinel was barking at tlie old mare the hunters had abandoned. Having collected her scattered limbs, she too had concluded to go browsing, and was, as the reader will perceive, on i the rigli! track. On the return of his pioneer, the v
cnptain wa.s ((ratifird to Irnrn tliut Ihert' wm no real tausr ol' alanii, ami pigeon hiintiriK Hoon prrwpprHl aKaiii. Towarils the dawn of day llu» Mport.smen rv liiriM'd to till' garrison; ('apt. I'cll (>xactinf{ from his iuu.>i('iari IIh- most solemn assurancrs of secresy n-(ipi'ctiiif; his surt'r,s,sful and oril; attempt at fowling anjonj; the Hrowse, until he ahould meet ivith me.
The female and infant part of many tamilie.s in the border .settlements of New York, whose male ncmbciii were foes of the country, removed about this period to Canada, among m hit h wn.s this Hrowse family; and such others as did not go voluntarily, were compelled to by an act of the state legislaturi* soon after.
In the summer and autiunn of 1780, Nicholas Stoncr was on duty in the valley of the Hudson. He was a filer of the guarri at Tappan, which attended Major Andre from his prison to his gallows; and witnessed the execution of that unfortunate man. The gallows was constructed, as he says, by the erection of two white oak crotchea, with a cross-piece of the same kind of timber, all with the hark on. Not far from the gallows was an old woman selling pies, to whom Stoner directed his steps. He met at la r stand Elijah Cheedle, then a stranger to him. They paid this huckstress $ 100 in continental money, for either an apple pie, or pumpkin pie, which at first she declined receiving: she finally concluded to take it, observing as she did so, " My children, the pie is worth more than the money, but I will take it that I may be able
While statioiuil al Snake Hill, near the IliaUon, youn^ Stoner's ituliiiation to mischiet' procured for him u duplicate ilo^^iii^. There was daily about the cnmp a hoy nainetl Albright, who had been so unfortunate as to |f).se un eye. Stoner, ineliiud to he wa^f^ish with all, procured the eye of a heef butchered in the neighborhood, and olfcrin^ it to Albright, said to him, '' Here, take this and you will then have two I '»yes and be somebody." The boy complained to Ids mother, an Irish woman, who, stating the matter t( the connnandini; oflicer, had the .satisfaction of know inj5 that he was punished for treatiufj; her .son .so un kindly. Stoner did not relish the interference of the mother, as the boy was about his own ape, and bej:ranN to puzzle his wits for .some method of retaliation. A sohlier's a^^ent is powder, although he may be a fder, and loading an ugly looking bone with the dangerous du.st, he watched a favorable opportunity when she\ Wiis near his tent, and applied the match to it. The explosion was greater than he had anticipated, and / tlu' scattering fragments not only tore the old woman's ^ petticf)ats, but severely wounded her arm. Although he had improved a most promising occasion to avoid detection, yet .some trivial incident betrayed Stoner as the artilleri.st, and he was very severely whipped for the act. lie was served rightly no doubt.
In the fall of 1781, Nicholas Stoner was on duty at Yorktown, and when the srlge of that place closed, he sa . ' Gen. O'Hara surrender his sword to Gen. Lincoln.*
The facts were as follows: In May, 17S0, Gen. Lincoln, then in
\ command iit Charleston, S. C, was compelled to surrender his ] sword to Cornwallis. When his lordship found himself obliged to yield to Ihe al'ied army, he knew that Lincoln, who was his ^ equal in rank, was with the concpiorois, and as th(> terms now f^ meted to him were jirecisoly like those dictati'd 1o Lincoln, he possibly may have corijoctured that that ofTicti would be designated <y by the great American commander to receive his own polished blade. Bt; that as it may, certain it is that instead of appearing on the occasion, as a man of real courage and generosity would y have done (for that o/ficer lacks moral courage who can not share \ defeat with his men), ho feigned illness and sent Gen. O'Hara to do the disagreeable honors; and that officer very handsomely performed the ceremony of tendering his sword to Gen. Lincoln, who I*, wjfls appointed by Washington to receive it. Citft, Eben Williams,* who was present assured the writer, that Lincoln received, /reversed, and again restored the hilt of the weapon to its owner, with a dignity and gran', of gesture he could never forget, for he ^ had never seen it iquali^d.
Ill a picture intended to represent this scene, and but recently jgot up. Gen. Washington erroneously appears in the act of receiving the resignation from O'Hara, the latter being on foot. The
Mr. Nicholas Hill, a worthy ami intellig-ent citizen of Florida, N. Y., was also at Yorktown during its seigc, as a young musician. He informed the writer, at an interview in the summer of 1846, that the firing on the British works did not take place until the Americans had completed a line of redoubts and bomb \ batteries, so as to play on the greater part of the ene- j my's fortifications at once. The allied army had raised ^ a liberty pole, and the signal to commence an assault was given in the evening, by a hand-grenade sent up near the liberty pole, attached to a sky-rocket. The gunners stood ready with linstocks on fire, and as soon as the grenade exploded in the air, they were applied to the cannon. (Dr. Thatcher, in liis Military Journal, says Gen. Wasliington applied the first match.) \ The simultaneous discharge of such an array of ordnance, was perhaps never heard before; and nothing
general officers present, American, French and British, as several V witnesses have assured the writer, were all mounted. The picture of this scene by Trumbull, a beautiful steel copy of which is made the fontispiece of Howe's Historical Collections of Virginia, although painted soon after, presents the British general trudging along on foot, and without side arms; while Dr. Thatcher, in his Military Journal, made at the time and published long since, "\ stated that he was elegantly mounted. Col. Abercrombie, who commanded the left wing of the British army on this occasion, was also on horseback. It is to be regretted that more care is not y taken in preparing historical pictures, lest truth be violated, and the young taught popular errors never to be corrected. ^
could in tlie ni^lit exceed the sublimity of the concussion. To use the laiif^uiij^e of Mr. Hill, "i< seemed \' as though the v-orld was at an end — or that the heavens and the earth vere coming together .'" It must have been the mos* maj^nilieent salute ever before given in America. After the; fust discharge the firing continued as fast as tlu; pieces could be loaded.
Xtunale as to obtain eleven guineas from the pocket of a dead Brilon. " While this money lasted," says Stoncr, " we who were so fortunate as to have the ^ pleasure of his ac(juain!atice, lived like lighting cocks." The Hritish |)risorii'rs miide at Yorktown, were S(>nt to interior military posts; and Col. Cortlaudt\s regiment, to which Nicholas Stoner belonged, on its return march to(df live hundred prisoners, destined for Fredericksburg, in charge for some distance. While tilt; troops were crossing at a ferry, i)robal)ly York or Rappahannoc river, Stoner snw a French ofhcer drop J his purse, and lost no time in restoring it to the owner. The ollicir grateful for its nn'overy, although h(» had not yet missed it rewarded him with a half doubloon "^ (iSS), mnnerous bows, and not a few expressions of regard, such as — " You pe a grand poy ! You pe bon U honest American! You p(> a vcr line soldier, be gar! " and the like. The reception of this money, obtained through the generosity of a kind hearted stranger, for ^ an evidence of commendal)]e integrity, afforded young '' Stoner more pleasure, as he assured the writer, than
could possil)ly tlic whole amount the purse contained, had he dishonestly kept it; for to retain that wliich we know anolhei has lost, is almost as great a crime as to purloin it cither by stealth or force; and a "conscience void of oflfence," allows its possessor to sleep V soundly and have pleasant dreams. The young musician had many IViends while his eight dollars lasted, --" for come easy^ go easy^ was the soldier's motto.
Henry Stoner, as elsewhere stated, enlisted for a term of three; years, in the American array. At the expiration of that time he received his discharge at Verplanck's point, soon after which he reenlisted at Groton, for three months, to fill another man's place. After the time of his second military engagement was up, he returned home. For about one year he lived on the farm of Col. John Butler, on Switzer hill, from whi(;h he went to reside near Tribe's hill, not far distant from Fort Johnson. The farm to which he removed from Butler's, is now in the town of Amsterdam, and was long known as the Dr. Quilhott place: the late John Putman, if we mistake not, was residing on this farm at the time of his death.
In the summer of 1782, a paity of seven Indians'^ traversed the forest from Canada to the Mohawk valley, the ostensible object of whose mission was to capture or destroy William Harper, afterwards judge (he resided for some years in Queen Anne's chapel parsonage), John Littel, afterwards sherifT, and such others as chance might throw in their w^ay. Arriving
in the American army, and that he was living in a
f situation from its retirement, exposed to their mercenary designs. Thwarted in their original plan, they directed their steps, piloted by Bowman, to the dwelling of Stoner, and on their way captured a man by the name
V of Palmatier.
Unsuspicious of danger, Mr. Stoner, accompanied by a nephew named Michael Reed (son of Conrad Reed), went early one morning to a field to hoe corn;
J it was the first hoeing for the season. Mrs. Stoner having prepared breakfast, blew a horn to call her friends, and they were about to leave the corn-field, as young Reed, a lad then in his teens, discovered
r two Indians armed with hatchets approaching them from adjoining woods, and directed the attention of his kinsman that way. The latter, who kept a loaded
which, one of his foes ran so as to cut off his retreat.
/v While making an angle in the road, the savage headed him, by crossing a piece of growing flax. ^ Whether the victim offered to surrender himself a
/prisoner to the British scalper, is not known; it is V, very probable he did; but the cry of mercy was unheeded, and the assassin's keen edged tomahawk de-
hat anu what resistance the skull ofTered, and penetrated the brain. The scalping knife was quickly unshr;ithed, an I several fingers of a Imnd the stricken patriot had laid imploringly upon his aching forehead, were nearly r.ni off with the scalp lock — the rnerchan- \ dise that would then most readily command British T% gold. Some of the Indians now ran to the dwelling, which was soon rifled of its most valuable contents, ""• and set on i ^. As they approached, Mrs. Stoner discovered them near the door, and snatching up a frock, threw it out of a back window which was open. The enemy lingered sufficiently long to secure what plunder they desired, and see the house so effectually on J fire as to ensure its destruction, and then directed their course towards Canada. No peisonr.l injury was offered Mrs. Stoner, and soon after the destructives had retired, she obtained the dress cast from the window, the only article she was enabled to save, and went to the house of John Harman, a neighbor, sup- /^ posing her husband and young Reed were prisoners.
Bowman aMod the prisoners in carrying their plunder to a secret hiding place, near the Sacor '^^a, where beside a log, they had concealed food. Talmatier effected his escape on the first night after his '^ capture, to the great joy of his iilends; and the feigned prisoner, Bowman, was allowed to return home the •» night following. From their secret rendezvous, near the present village of Northville, the party journeyed with their captive Reed, by the nou-.crly route to
llaruian, alter the arrival of Mrs. Stoner at his ^ house, suspected Bowman of treachery, and made known his suspicions to some of his neighbors, who went with him to Stoner's premises. Going from the N ruins of his house to the corn fiehl, they found him where he had been cut down, in or near the road. ^ He was still alive, and although unable to speak, signified by signs, his desire for wati r, which was proJ cured in a hat as soon as possible; but on drinking a draught he expired immediately. He was buried be. neath a hemlock tree, near which he ^ad been slain. ' Thus ignobly perished a brave man, who with scores of other citizens on the frontiers, of all ages, sexes, and conditions, found an untimely, grave, because the evidence of their destruction would command a liberal
' price in the camp of the enemy. English freemen, ■^ where is thy blush? Where is thy shame for the \ I deeds of hellish cruelly inflicted by thy hirelings, not / I only on brave men, but on unoffending mothers and •ri smiling inlimts? Lini;uTY purchased at such a price,
in the Johnstown jail, then fortified. A party of whigs, among whom were Godfrey Shew and his son Henry, John Harman, Jamt. Dunn and Benjamin
TUArrisRS OK NKW YORK. 85
DeLine,* assembled, fully dctcnnined to make IJowman confess his evil deeds. Amoii}^ other devices resorted J) to, to make the tory disclose the information desired, a rope was thrown round some fastening overhead with a noose upon his neck; and he was recjuired to, mount a barrel. But lie was interrogated and threatened in vain; and after the patience of his accusers was well nigh exhausted, Dunn, who partook largely ' of the patriotic spirit of the times, swore he should > hang; and kicking the barrel from under him he did hang — or rather stood very uncomfortably upon air'\ for a little time; but was finally taken down, and with I various warnings about his future conduct, was again ^ allowed his Ireedom.
• At the time of Sir John Johnson's invasion of Johnstown and its vicinity in the summer of 1780, DeLine and Joseph Scott were living in Johnson Hall. When Johnson visited there to procure his concealed property, DeLine and Scott were made prisoners and taken to Canada. From his having been a hunter and fa- \ miliar with the forest, DeLine wa.s li({htly bound. This was the -^ second time they were taken to Canada during tlic war, and how long they remained prisoners there tit this time is unknown to the writer.
John, a son of Philip Ilohner, named m one ot the pioneer settlers in Fonda's Bush, who remained there after his patriotic neighbors had removed to Johnstown, accompanied Sir John Johnson to Canada on his removal from Johnson Hall, early in the Revolution. Returning to the settlement not long after, he became an object of suspicion; was arrested by the patriots, and confined at Johnstown. A sentinel was placed over him who was very green in the scn'ice, '^and improving a favorable opportunity, the prisoner JJtook occasion to praise his gun; and closed his adula/^ fXion by requesting permission to look at it, which was
favored his (li,si|^'ri, l)Ut by some mraiis liis plin'o of ^ rofugc luratnc known to thior piitrintic- neif^hbors, . Benjamin Dcliinc, Soloinori Woodworth .'ind Henryy Shew, who di'tcrinint'd on his captuiH.'. Well atraed, they procct'dud one nij(ht to llic vicinity of his father's ^ dwellinji^, and cont'eaU'd thi'msclvcs at a phico where i they had reason to suppose he woiild pass. They had (, not been there long wlien, unsusj)i(',ious of danger, he approached the trio, who poised their fire-arms and he ^ yielded to their authority, and was lodged in the Johnstown jail. The entrance.' to the fort through the picketed enclosure, was on the south side.
Helmer had a sister named Magdalene, the Germans call the name Lana, by this name she was known, y Miss Lana was on intimate terms with a sohlier then on duty at the Johnstown fort; and at an interview ^ with him after one of several visits to her brother, to whom she carried such little comforts as a sister can provide, she got a pledge from him, that when on / sentinel duty he would unlock the prison door and set X the prisoner i'riiv. It was in the night time and while his vigils lasted, that she had found access to the pri- [ soner. True to his j)romise, Lana's lover did set her brother at liberty, and, with another soldier, was seduced from his duty by the prisoner, when both fled in his company. When she vyills it, what can not woman do? A sergeant and five men, Amasa Stevens, Benjamin DeLine, before named, and three continental soldiers were soon upon their trail, which they were
J with (luiii u lantern that they ini(;ht truvcl hy ni^ht, thry came up with and surprised thoin in tho woods. Thi! two soldiers wore fired upon and killed, hut llel-
Xnjer, with a severe hayonct wound in his thij^h escaped: he v.ns afterwards discovered nearly dead, in ■y'fionie bushes where he had concealed himself, and was taken to the fort: there he was cured of his wounds V* and a^ain imprisoned. Bysome unaccountahie nieuiLi ' I he succeeded the third time in effecting his enlargoI ment; fled to Canada, and there remained. He, too, ^f had been a hunter before the war; and was familiar with the forest. A part of the preceding facts were from Jacob Shew. At an interview between Helracr and Nicholas Stoner, which took place in Canada Y subsequent to the war, he told the latter that he suf*A fered almost incredible hardships in making his last Ji journey to that country.
In the last year of the Revolution, Nicholas Stoner belonged to a band of musicians, which marched into New York with troops under Col. Willctt, on its Xevacuation by the enemy. He played the clarionet, as did also Nicholas Hill. During the stay of Gen. Washington in that city, an exhibition of lire-works took plac»-, on which occasion the band alluded to performed. Stoner also saw Washington enter the barge at Whitehall on his leaving New York; and to
Mischief lurked in tho vrins of yntincf Stoncr to ilm A end of <lu' war, inni often brouj^ht him into (lilReulty, from whieh forltine .sometimes extricated him quite as 7 easily as he deserved to be. The summer o( 1783, was one of eompiirative inactivity in the army, as / hostilities had nearly eeasj'd tliut sprinc^. Stoner was with a body of troops whieh were encamped back if ^ NeTfbur|;h, when .i little incident occurred whi h \ afforded some motnt ntury amusement. In the camp was a black soldier, who had frozen olF his toes whilo V under Col. W'ijlett the preceding February, in hi; abortive attai k on Fort Oswego. In consirpience, the poor fellow experienced such difficulty ir» walking,"^ that few coul.j observe his peculiar gait, witl»out / * having their risible faiudties get the mastery.
As he was waddling aloiijj near the young nmsician,\ the latter called him a siuol-pi<^'i'OJi. The words were ** scarcely uttered, ere tht sable patriot, who felt the in-'^ suit sensibly, pursued the offender, armed with a bay- / onet, threatening vengeance. A clarionet was a poor weapon with which to repel an attack, and its possessor fled for dear life, and took refuge in the hut of Lietitenant-Col. Cochrane, who was then entertaining\ several friends. So abrupt an entrance started all to their feet, little doubting that the enemy from New^A York were upon them: but fears of an invasion were soon at an end, as close upon the heels of Stoner came tumbling in the infuriated, frost-bitten hero. WhaVs^
intrusion? several voices were at once demanding, a» the last enterer, almost out of breath, stammered out — \ " Massa curnil! dis deblish musiker, he 'suit me berry •* bad; I'm lame, can't help it; froze my feet, like to /! froze my body too: all under Curnil Will't in de bush j f* spow knee deep: dis rascal call me iocl pigeon; I no stand it." " I comprehend," said Col. Cochrane: "you have I been very unfortunate while in the service of your -^ country, and it grieves you, as well it should, to have any one speak lightly of your misfortunes." ^ "Eezzur!"
brow of Col. C'oihrance, and the young culprit beganX to feel in imagination the whistling lash his unruly tongue had invoked; but no sooner had the complainant closed the rough door, than, in spite of all his efforts to the contrary, he found himself obliged to 7 join his merry companions and laugh heartily. The figure of the limping negro, who, if he did not wear cotton, was anazingly outward-bound, seemed still before him, and turning to the mischief-maker, he with no little effort gave him a sharp reproof for thus j imprudently wounding the feelings of one who should I exite his sympathy; and then, not daring to venture a longer speech, lest he should spoil it with a laugh, he ordered him from his presence with a threat of terrible vengeance at the end of a rawhide, if he ever did the like again.
Bowing his thanks for the easy and unexpected terms meted to him, young Stoner promised to do better in future, and as he left the hut to seek his own,V the walls of the rude dwelling behind him shook with \ the boisterous merriment of its inmates, at their very unique entertainment.
When the war of the Revolution closed and the dove took the place of the eagle — when the prattling infant could nestle in its mother's bosom secure from midnight assassins — when the warrior once more laid aside his sword and musket to grasp the hoe and spade N^ of thrift — when commerce again spread her white wings w^ithout fear of the foeman's fire — when art and
home of her own, invited the oppressed of the earth
tto her embrace, extending to the penury-stricken the horn which needed only his industry to become one of plenty— then and not till then did our hero, grown to man's estate, return again to reside in the vicinity of Johnstown.
Where is the hoary-headed warrior that never felt the melting influence of woman's smiles? If any such there are, let them come forth while I tell them a brief love-story of their own time. I have already informed the reader, that there dwelt at Johnstown in the Ref^ volution, a soft haired, dark eyed maiden named Anna J Mason j and have shadowed forth the fact, that a little I intimacy existed between her and our hero in their youthful days. As no matrimonial engagement had passed between them, not having seen or heard from — the young jwgeon hunter for several long years; and not informed whether the glory of a dead warrior or the triumph of a live one were his; in fact, not knowing if he were alive in a distant colony, but what some other young heart then beat against his own; it is not surprising that she looked upon him as lost to her, however vividly fancy at times may have brought back his graceful figure.
Among the Johnstown patriots was a young man named William Scarborough, who answered also to the name of Crowley. His mother, at the time she
married Jeremiah Crowley, was a widow Scarborough, her husband having been killed in the batteau service, and was already possessed of little Willie, but people did not always stop to consider his true parentage, and after a while he almost ceased to be called Scarborough. On page 477 of my History of Schoharie County, etc., where his death is mentioned, he is called Crowley, as ^ I was then ignorant of his true parentage. William Scarborough, who was in some respects a very worthy young man, paid his addresses to the charming Anna Mason. Now William was a brave youth, and had been in the service of his country, which Anna happened to know, and on which account she the more \ highly respected him; for the women of that period could and did discriminate between right and wrong ;\ between liberty and oppression. To cut a long story short, for wooing is full of mazes and phases, and in- # teresting filagree, William found himself enamored with the bewitching Anna, who, on his making lender advances, cast a long sigh on the war-path of a cer-^l) tain hunter, blushed deeply and reciprocated ardently his attachment.
Early in the year 1781, but in what month we can not speak with certainty, Anna Mason was led to Hymen's altar, an altar on which have been offered many pure affections, but few more unsullied than hers, and became the bride of her heroic William. Days, weeks, even months passed, and still the young wife was happy; should she ever be otherwise? for
who loved and respected her.
The green summer flew past, and autumn with her russet-clad meadows and golden forests arrived, and still Anna Scarborough was cheerful and happy: but alas! a civil war that had raged for years and stained with life-blood the threshold of many dwellings within a few miles, was still devastating the land; and although the war-cry for a little season was removed to a distance, and no immediate danger was apprehended, yet the midnight alarm might again break on the ear, and the most tender ties be sundered in a moment: for
Stained with the blood of martyrs freeWhen thought most distant may be nearest by; And from it fondly cherished may not fly.
On the morning of October 25, 1781, a large body of the enemy under Maj. Ross, entered Johnstown with several prisoners, and not a little plunder; among \ which were a number of human scalps taken the after) noon and night previous, in settlements in and adjoining the Mohawk valley; to which was added the 1^ scalp of Hugh McMonts, a constable, who was surprised and killed as they entered Johnstown. In the course of the day the troops from the garrisons near and the militia from the surrounding coi ntry , rallied under the active and daring Willett, and gave the
enemy battle on the Hall farm, in >vhich the latter were finally defeated with loss, and made good their ^ retreat to Canada. Young Scarborough wus then in the nine months' service, and while the action was going on, himself and one Crosset left the Johnstown fort, where they were on garrison duty, to join in the / fight, less than two miles distant. Between the Hall and woods they soon found themselves engaged. Crosset after shooting down one or two, received a bullet through one hand, but winding a handkerchief
around it, he continued the fight under cover of a hem lock stump. He was shot down and killed there, and 'f his companion surrounded and made prisoner by a f party of Scotch troops commanded by Capt. McDonald. When Scarborough was captured, Capt. McDonald was not present, but the moment he saw him he or-"^ dered his men to shoot him down. Several refused ; ^ but three, shall I call them men? obeyed the dastardly order, and yet he possibly would have survived his wounds, had not the miscreant in authority cut him down 'with his own broadsword. The sword was w caught in its first descent, and the valiant captain drewy it out, cutting the hand nearly in two.
Why this cold-blooded murder? Were those hostile warriors rivals in love? Had the epauletted hero, commissioned at the door of the infernal regions, sought v the hand of the blooming Anna and been rejected because his arm was raised against his suffering country? Or must the prisoner be destroyed because in arnui
p the step-fat!icr of Scarborough, was made a prisoner by the enemy and taken to Canada. Mrs. Scarborough, v.'ho was at her father's on the morning of the action, fled to the fort with her father, Mrs Mason choosing
\ to brave the dangers of the day to save her effects. Mason's house stood a little north of the present site of John Yost's tavern, and on the edge of the Hall farm. The action was fought in its vicinity, and thir-
1* Previpuo to tho war, McDonald and Scarborough Mrero neighbors, and in a political quarrel which took place soon after the commencement of national difficulties and ended in blows, the loyalist was rather roughly handled. A spirit of revenge no doubt prompted him to wreak his vengeance on an unarmed prisoner.— Stoner.
who ha<l been ordered to fire on younp Scarborough and ^ refiLsed to obey, was no disgusted with his captain for / the act, that he deserted the same evening and joined I • the Americans. ^
On the morning after their death, the remains of Scarborough and Crosset were taken to the fort on a I wooden-shod sleigh (hawn by horses.* Need I stop to tell the reader how the young bride, Anna Scarborough, was overwhelmed with sorrow on the day succeeding ( the Johnstown battle? How her keenest sensibilities were on fire, jit beholding the mangled remains of her V beloved William; and what mental agony she endured? But such sufferings are at all times the attendants of a civil war, in which neighbor is clad in armor againstT his fellow, and kinsman against those of his own blood. VJ Some time after the death of her husband, and about eleven months after the sealing of the nuptial vow,\ Mrs. Scarborough was presented with a daughter as a\ pledge of her early love, which tended in no measured ^ degree to reconcile her to the cruel fate war had meted her. This daughter grew up to woman's estate. '^
Time and change of circumstances, with the blessings of social intercourse returning at the close of a protracted war, again restored the young widow, who\ possesed a buoyant disposition, or a spirit to wrestle
* YockuiT. FoUuck, a soldier killed in the Johnstown battle, ^ was found with a piece of meat placed at his mouth, as supposed \ by the Indians in derision. Folluck resided in the vicinity of Johnstown.— Z)arW Zielie.
One ihut hua won, uifuin may win; am! soon aft it the n'turn of Ni«holiis Stoiior to JohnsJ town, he carne within the pale of the young widow's I charms, whic^h in the military camp had often brought I him to his senses, and shortly after sought and obtained ^ her hand in marriage. Although her nff'ections had been chastened by the blight of sorrow, her young heart was still susceptible of an ardent ottering to the one who had inspired the first budding of love there, / and she proved a boon compiuiion and cheerful wife. The fruit ol" this connection was four sons and two daughters. Three of the sons are still living. The daughters were Mary and Catharine: the former married William Mills, and now ( 1847) resides in Fulton county; and the latter died when a young woman.
Nicholas Stoner, the lirst two years after his marriage, lived near Johnson Hall, and then settled at Scotch Bush, now known as McEwen's Corners, in the western part of Johnstown, where he resided many , years. John Stoner, whose temperament did not bring ) him into trouble often, continued in the army to the close of the war; after which he was for several years employed by Col. Frederick Fisher, who built him a farm-house nearly on the site of his homestead, and /where he had been scalped by the Indians. To the location of this dwelling, a substfintial brick edifice, I have alreavly alluded. After John Stoner left the
Soon after the Revolution, Nicholas Stoner was for three years a deputy sheriff under John Littel, Kaq. He was also a captain of militia, and fdled several town offices at different periods. When we again came to blows with England, because of her insolence in searching our ships und impressing our seamen into her service, the Stoner brothers were once more enrolled in the American army; John enlisting in 1812, and Nicholas in 18 13. John Stoner, who was a drummajor in this war, was taken sick at Sacket's Harbor *" and died there. Nicholas enlisted at Johnstown into the 29th New York regiment, of which Melancthon Smith was colonel, G. D. Young lieutenant-colonel,* and John E. Wool, major. He joined the company of Capt. A. P. Spencer, Lieut. Henry Van Antwerp being the recruiting officer under whom he enrolled his name. He proceeded to Utica, and from thence to Sacket's Harbor, where he remained until fall; at which time he went into winter quarters at Greenbush. Early the following spring he joined the army at Plattsburg, going from Whitehall by water.
Lake Champlain and the territory adjoining it, in in September, 1814, became the theatre of some of the most important events which characterized the war
of that period. Thr witlitlruwiil of troopN from I'lHttMbur^ to Muccor Fort Krit', (Ictcriiiiru'd tlu* (governor* / ^vuvral of (*amuia, Sir (icor^c PrcvoNt, to attack it with a force he NUppoNed IrreNiNtihle; and for that pur|io.se he invath'd the territory of the StateN on the 'M day of September, with an army Nome fourteen thousand strong, well equipptnl and provided with a Nplendid train of artillery. About the same time, no aN to make a clean Nweep, Commodore Downie, with a naval force far superior in number of veNsels, guuN and nien, made preparatiouN to engage the American flotilla on Lake Champlain, then under the conunand of the gallant Commodore Thomas McDonnough, who, ten years \ before, had so distinguished himself under Decatur in / a cajjtured Turkish kotch before the walls, and under / the very batteries of the bashaw of Tripoli.
Thrrr was not a litllr rxcitriiunt in tlir Aiiirricaii cuiiip at IMatt.sl)ur(( iis tli<> HritiNli army was advariciiii^ on that |)()Nt, and y;r«>at exertions were ntaile to put it in a fit state lor the enemy's reception. The meritorious younj; Trojan, Captain Wool, as a rrwanl lor his <iarin(( ; induct in storming Queenston heights, in October, 1812, had been appointed major, of the 29th New York re^inunt, and in thenbsenec of it.s colonels, thi! command of it devolved upon him in September, 1814.
As the enemy were approach in^r. Major Wool volunteered his services, ami repeatedly on the 5th of September, urged (Jlencral Macomb to allow liim to meet the enemy ami make at least a show of resistaiirc;\ as nothing more could be expected against sucli odds. *^ The general met his earnest solicitations with some\ coolness, and expressed his apprehensions that if he L went out he would be captured. On the evening of the 6th, the gallant Wool received a reluctant assent to meet the enemy, but was not allowed to do so until morning. So anxious was he for active service, however, that long before day light on the Cth, the major had mustered his corps and was on the Beekmantown / road. Gen. Macomb had assured him Capt. Leonard, with his company of artillery, should accompany him, but the latter declined marching without the expressX orders of the general, and he moved forward without him. His own regiment then numbered only i^OO men, to which were added about 50 from other regiments,
and iioiac 30 volunteer niilitiu: in all nearly 280 men. Gen. Mooers had been .stationed on the Beekmantown road with a regiment of 700 militia, previou.; to Maj. Wool's going there, and the latter was commanded by Gen. Macomb to set the militia an example of firm-
The enemy on the morning of the Gth were advancing by three roads, the eastern road running along the western shore of Lake Champlain; the western leading from Chazy to Plattsburg, and called the Chazy road, and the centre known as the Beekmantown road. Maj. Appling with a body of riflemen was posted on the eastern or lake road, Maj. Wool on the centre ; while the enemy were allowed to advance on the (hazy road without opposition. Maj. Appling directf d his attention chiefly to obstructing the road by ff'iling trees, and fell back in time to join Major Wool near Plattsburg.
On arriving, just at day light, at Gen. Mooers's camp, seven miles from Plattsburg, Maj. Wool found the enemy, 4000 strong, were not far distant on that road, / and already moving. Gen. Mooers made several attempts as the enemy drew near, to form his men for
cover from which and gain a little time, Maj. vVool ordered Capt Van Buren with his company to chargo \, the enemy. The brave captain expressed a doubt about his ability to do it; fearing his men would desert him. was the peremptory order of the enthusiastic major. Van Buren quickly moved forward to execute the command, but when within a I few rods of the foe, satisfied his handful of men could hardly be trusted to charge such a billow of animated matter, he ordered them to halt and fire. That Capt. Van Buren did good service in his morning sa- I lute, is proven by the fact, that twenty of the enemy y^ were carried into the house of a Mr. Howe, living near by. Maj. Wool formed his men in three several double platoons; one occupying the road, and the others the fields or woods a little in rear of the first, and on either side of the road with out-flankers. The British in column continued to advance, and in the order named the Americans kept up a street fight, \ firing and retreating before the enemy: the troops in the street again forming and deploying in the street ^ after each fire, a little in the rear of the field troops; I and those in turn forming and deploying in rear of the platoons occupying the street. Thus did this little detachment of brave men resist the invader's approach
stt'j) by step lor nearly six niiles, doinj; at times feaf' Y fill exeeiition in his ranks, and setting truly an exj ample of firmness that would have done credit to , veteran troo])s, with a Buonaparl.' lor a commander. On an eminence in the road, ( alhtl Culver's hill, Lieut.-Col. Willington, of the 3d regiment of British Buffs, an officer of gallant bearing, hj.s slain, with a <^ number of his men; while a little farther on, forty of the enemy, dead and wounded, were borne into the house of Maj. Piatt, among whom was Lieut. Kingsbury, and possibly some other officers. Learning in the morning that Capt. Leonard had not accompanied Maj. Wool, Gen. Macomb ordered him forward to his assistance. At the junction of the Chazy and Beekmantown roads, called Halsey'§ corners, he joined the infantry with two six-pounders. At this place the militia, having recovered from their panic, were brought into action by Gen. Mooers. They were posted in woods on the right and also in the rear of the artillery; the infantry being mostly behind a stone wall along the Chazy road, to the left of the ordnance.
march.
As the enemy ncared the field-pieces, they were greeted with grape shot, which caused them to halt,^ but the British bugles soon sounded a charge, and the I Americans were obliged to retreat, which they did in good order to Gallows hill,* at which place they made the last stand on the north side of the Saranac. Adjutant Boynton, a young officer of great merit, and whose cervices to Maj. Wool were invaluable on this \ stirring day, was fsent by the latter with orders to ' Maj. Appling to join him. The order was heroically executed though one of great peril, as he was exposed to the fire of many scores of British muskets, and Maj. Appling joined the invincible 29th near Gallows hill. After a brief stand at the latter place, the Americans fell back across the Saranac, and taking up the bridge in their rear they kept the enemy upon the north*^
Stoner assisted in taking up this bridge, and also the y one over Dead creek. The enemy's loss in this long road fight with the troops under Maj. Wool, in killed / and wounded, was about 240, a number nearly equal I to his entire command during the greatest part of the action. The American loss was about 45 in killed and wounded. Maj. For the masterly manner in which he I acquitted himself on this occasion, he was breveted I lieutenant-colonel ; a promotion he could not that day \ have merited, had he not been surrounded by a band ^ of iron-hearted warriors.
In the action at Gallows hill the following incident took place. William Bosworth, a serjeant-major who \ had deserted from the British and entered the AmeriI can service, and on the day in question had greatly distinguished himself, received a musket ball through / his thigh which brought him to the ground. It was / impossible for the Americans to bring off all their I wounded, so closely did the enemy press upon them. \ Apprised of the fact that Bosworth was down. Major Wool, addressing himself to Adjutant Boynton, exclaimed, " See that the boys throw Bosworth on a horse and remove him to a place of safety, for if he I falls into the hands of the enemy they will either W hang or shoot him: he is too good a fellow to be used -i^up in that manner; take him off?'' A horse was / quickly provided which Stoner heW, while two soldiers 1 placed the wounded sergeant upon his back, his blood y running down the animal's side. The wounded man was taken to Plattsburg and afterwards to Burlington, ^ Vermont, where he recovered. The reader may not be surprised to learn, that the generous-hearted major, / who was not unmindful of tk 3 fate of a poor soldier, even in a fearful shower of iron and lead, is the illustrious Major-General W^ool, who has been one of the
The army of Prevost was kept on the north side of the Saranac by Macomb until the 11th of September, at which time Downie prepared to engage with McDonough. Undaunted by the superior naval force of his adversary, the latter met him with a firmness and coolness characteristic of the man. It is stated in a newspaper account of his death, that he engaged the enemy at this time with a confident trust in the God of battles for his success. Calling his brave tars arovnd him on the quarter-deck, as the enemy hove in sight, upon his knees he commended his cause to Him who governs the universe. This engagement was witnessed by both armies, it is reasonable to suppose,^ with intense excitement; as upon its result was sus- / pended the probable fortune of the land forces. At 9 o'clock the contest began, and in less than two hours the Confiance, the enemy's flag-ship, had, with two other vessels, struck her colors to the Americans, and several British galleys had been sunk: the rest of the fleet escaped by flight, the victors being unable to pursue them, as there was not a mast standing in | either squadron to which a sail could be raised. Commodore Downie was among the slain.
A pleasing incident attendant on this battle should be given in its connection. In the midst of the fiery contest, a hencoop on the Saratoga, McDonough's flag- ■ ship, w^as shot away, and a liberated rooster flew into"^
The artillery of the land forces was almost constantly in play during the naval engagement, but when the Confiancc struck her colors, the army of Macomb
)took time to give a huwzaing, that fell on the ej.rs of Prevost like the knell of death. The army of the lat/ ter was in full retreat, early in the evening, for Canada. *** That they might have something to remember their t^ Yankee neighbors by, as they were about to strike their tents, Macomb fired a national salute, mth hall cartridges^ into their camp.
The remains of Commodore Downie, with those of five of his fellow officers, and the remains of five officers of Commodore McDonough's squadron, were brought on shore and buried by Gen. Macomb with the honors of war; on which occasion Maj. Wool was \ master of ceremonies and selected the place of burial. The music which led the procession consisted of some fifteen fifes and as many drums, the latter all muffled, / and was commanded by Maj. Stoner: the tunes Logan Water and Roslin Castle, were played during the ceremony. The bodies were taken to a grove of pines I and arranged side by side in three several rows. Two stately pines are still standing, one on each side of Downie's grave. While on that station Maj. Wool
had the remains of the officers which fell on the Beekmantown road, removed and deposited beside those which fell in the naval service. After the war Mrs. Mary Downie, a sister-in-law, erected a tablet to the memory of her gallant kinsman.
Some weeks after the above incidents transpired, Major Stoner conducted several British officers to the grave of Commodore Downie, where some of them / manifested much feeling, mingling their tears of sym- ^ pathy with the dew-drops of heaven.
When Great Britain became satisfied that her . claims to oceanic rule were not well founded, and the American army was disbanded, Gen. Macomb offered Maj. Stoner strong inducements to join the national -^ army, which he declined.
On the 11th of September, 1842, twenty-nine years after the event, the Clinton County Military Association celebrated the anniversaiy of the battle of Plattsburg at that place, in a very commendable manner, on which occasion monuments were erected to the memory of all the officers which had been buried near Commodore Downie. Gen. Wool and his suite were present by special invitation, to take part in the interesting proceedings. Appropriate addresses were delivered by General Skinner, Col. McNeil and Gen. Wool. The ceremony of placing a monument at Col. Willington's grave, was very properly assigned to Gen. Wool, before whose prowess he had fallen in
How creditable to the enterprise and magnanimity of the citizens of Pluttsburg, in so just and appropriate a manner to meet and mingle their sympathies over the remains, not only of their illustrious friends who had fallen in the service of their country, bu* also over those of their gallant and unfortunate foes, who found a final resting place beneath the pines of a foreign land. Warrior foes, there gently slumber.
I have chosen, in this narrativc> to present Major Stoncr's military life connt'ctedly, although some of the incidents which follow, transpired between the wars.
Fond of novelty and adventure, and inured to privations and hardships in the Revolution, which peculiarly fitted him for a life so full of excitement and / peril, Mnj. Stoner became a celebrated hunter. Nor was he the only gamester who traversed the then wilderness of North-Easter^ New York: several of his companions in arms were often by his side, threading their own intricate foot-paths along a score of crystal lakes, the greater part of which are now situated in the present counties of Fulton and Hamilton. There were other Nimrods, or master spirits, in this particular avocation, two of whom were Nathaniel Foster and Green White. The former lived in Salisbury, Herkimer county, and the latter in Wooster, Otsego county. The Johnstown sportsmen not only met Foster, "White and other sportsmen associated with them — as they usually went in pairs for the greater security in case*} of sickness, accident or difficulties with individuals of (^ the craft — but white men and Indians from the shores of the St. Lawrence.
112 TRAPFEKfl OK NEW YORI.
Ditncultirs sointtimcs aroso between these Ktrangers of like uvoi'ution, nnd in the absence of any other tribunal, might made right. Trouble seldom ori(;^inated between the white hunters, however, as the more noted were not only known to each other, but their traps readily recojrnized by some peculiar mark, were not molested, unless it were to take out game in danger of being lost; in which case some token was lert to apprise the owner who had it, and that it would be accounted for at a subsequent meeting. Overjealous of their rights, the New York and Canadian trappers did not at all times scruple to avenge an injury done them, with the life-blood of the oflender, as I shall have on several occasions to show.
The class of men of whom I am speaking, not only entered the forest with their tra^^s, their rifles, and a good supply of ammunition, their hatchet and knife, and often a jug of rum; but what was all importan!, a pocket compass and some sure means of kindling a fire. Friction matches were then unknown, but fire •was soon enkindled with flint, steel and tinder, or touch-wood; and now and then when they became wet, by a flash in the pan of a gun. If trappers chanced to visit the water courses alone, they almost invariably took with them a well trained dog. Ppok horses were often employed to carry provision** co the hunters' canoes, which were usually moort t in some little eddy, contiguous to which the trapping began.
TKAFPERS OF NIW YOKE. 113
greatly aupmontcd by war, is tlmt of widc-sprriid In- ^ TEMPEiiANcK, 011(1 fi'W who had lu'i-n served for yrars ^ with a (hilly ration of rum or whiskey, could refrain ( from its use in after life: indeed soldiers had not only to drink with each oth( r after the Revolution, as a\ matter ^f courtesy, but every one esteemed it a privi- I lege, nay a duty, to treat a hero who had periled his L life for his fellows: hence many of them who could not say no when invited to drink, had to become a \ walking slop-bowl, and receive flip, kill devil, punch, w or the raw material divested of its lure. Many a scar-honored veteran filled a drunkard's grave, because '^ custom, compelled him, of all others, to drink; and •• not a few more of the same band would have foand such a grave, had not temperance hung her rainbow along Heaven's blue arch, inscribed — My worthy, it shall not only be your privilege, but creditable for you to refrain from the use of that which sets the brain on fire, destroys domestic happiness, and causes pre- ^ mature death.
Vaumane Jean Baptistc De Fonclaiere, a Frenchman who had emigrated to this country in the Revolution, married in New England, and after the close of the war k*^ jt a public house in Johnstown for many years. The first house he occupied is still an inn, and is yet standing, a few doors east of the court house.*
114 TRAITKK.n or SV.Vf VORK.
The Canndinn hiintcn, who woro familiar with (he forest Ix'twcrn Montreal and Johnstown, from having traversed it repeatedly to obtain American Healps, not unfr»'(|ii('ntly visited the latter place when peace returned, to sell their furs, wheru they found a ready market. A party of Jteven arrived there in the sprinj^
/ of the year soon after the llevohilion, with a larj^e cpinntity of fur, and put up at the inn mentioned; disposing of their wealth to John (iraitt, then a village merchant. lie was enabled to carry on the tradic, throiifjjh the agency of Ijeut. Wallace, who could
"mine host," ho BporU tho rcnrmimlcr of hi» tiayi. Thi« Hall building i* now owned ami occupied by Mr. V. Bah'h an a privatt dwelling:. The followinjj unecdoto of the old Frenrhnnan, who u ■till ri>nicml>erpd around Johnstown for his extra bows and es« p«cial ri'^Mrd for the comfort of his customers, was told the author by Thoiuna Marhiii^ Kuq.
J There stanili in Johnstown, on the north side of the street, a /few rods to the eastward of the first inn kept by Do Fondaiere, / an antitinated building with a gambrel roof, owned and occupicii I before the Revolution by M;\j. Gilbert Tire. The latter building j after the war, was occupied as a tavern stand by Michael Rollins, I a son of the ouierald isle. Do Fondaiere kept a span of mettle\ some horses, and when a deep snow had sprr-ad her white mantio \ over the bosom of the earth, and the bells and belles begin to jinI glo and smile, the restless steads harnessed to a sleigh tr, give his I ladies an airing, were brought before the door, with their nostrils snuinng up the wind in the direction of the Mohawk.
TUAPrKRS OF NF.W YORIC. 115
It hnpprnrd ilurinjj; tho stay of tlu'ic northern hunters in Johnstown, that Maj. Slonrr, thrn u jh'puty- \ Bhrriir undt-r Littrl, was in \\w. phicc on profcjwional \ husincss. Nathnniil Thompson, n c.onstahh' whom h(Mh'sin;(l to :ue, he found Ncatod in the kit«hrn at\ Do ronclaiorc's, near a tahip, on which stootl sevcrnl I flasks of li(|U()r, phircd there* at the expense of the Indians, to scorch their own or the throats of those / they wished to make their friends. Gin was formerly imported in eases containing a <lozen or more square bottles, such were those under consith-ration. Ahout
muter, ami ilashcd off at tho top of their upccd. In front of tht\ rival inn utoml a cow dirrclly in llio boiitrn poth, which belonged \ on the premises. Kithcr the (ipecil of mully was instWIIrient for the task of leaping into the deep nnow soon enough, or eUo the reiolveil to (li<tpnte the right of soil with her neighbors in plated gear; ami the hitter in boumlii.' past, threw her upon her haunches besiile the track, ond as chaneo would have it, she rolled on her i back plump into tho sleigh. The party intending to occupy thfl | seat instead of the kine, ciimo to the door in time to see tho latter i drive off in triumph, urging on tho horses by n most doleful bel« | lowing. Nearly a mile distant the sleigh was brought up in a I snow-drift, where team and driver were found unharmed, though I terribly fiightened. This novel incident afforded not a little ^ amusement for a time, at the expense of tho garrulous French- / man, who, by thu by, liked a good joke very well himself. y
The following inscription is from a tomb-stonn in Johnstown. " In memory of John liaptistc Vaumanc Dc Fonclaitre^ formerly a captain in the Martinique regiment, in the service of His Most Christian Majesty, Louis XVI, and for thirty years p I't a citizen of the United States, who departed this life 5th January, 1811, in the Tlst year of his age.''
f of those flasks or some others, observing one of the strangers near Thompson to be of light complexion, addressed him in a friendly, perhaps playful manner, about his origin; and the Indian, not appearing of"~ fended in the least, replied that he was part white. At this juncture, up came another of the party, and in / an insolent manner demanded of Stoner in broken I English, Indian rind French, what business he had to - interrogate his comrade. > said the major, who never would take an insult from ' an Indian with impunity; rolling together threaten-^ ingly at the moment the bones of his right hand.
huge fire-placr filltd wi(l» blazing I'aggots; while upon > the hearth before it stood a platter of fried pork swim- I ming in hot fat, and a ilish of wilted sallad, just taken \ from a bed of coals by some member of the family, who was providing dinner for the fur-sellers. Stoner'*j attempted to east the Indian into the fire, but falling a | little short of the aim, the -latter fell plump into the I
frightful manner.
The fracas had occupied but a few moments, yet the whoops and loud threats of the combattants, with the whys and wherefores of spectators, and screams of women, had been sufficient to throw the whole house into one of uproar and confusion. The honest landlord entered the kitchen trembling between contending emotions of fear and passion, believing that the character and business of his house would be ruined; and with numerous threats against sheriff Stoner, uttered in broken English, as soon as the storm began^ to subside, ran off to get a writ of Amaziah Rust, Esq., then a lawyer of the place. Now Squire Rust, as it happened, was a particular friend of our hero, and knowing what an untamed spirit he possessed, and J withal how he felt toward the race who had murdered / his father, he was probably not much surprised to ^ Lear that the major had worsted an Indian; and lay- ^ ing down his pen and assuming a thoughtful mood he gravely inquired, " Do you not know, sir, that Captain Stoner is apt to be deranged with the changes of •
the moon?" " No, monsieur," replied Fonclaiere, did not know that. 0! le (liable, vat shall I does ^ then? me ruined sartain!" With kind assurances from Mr. Rust (who was less anxious for business than arc some professional men), that all would soon be forgotten — that Stoner would no doubt make full
/reparation for the property destroyed, and that the reputation of his house would not receive any lasting ^ injury on account of the morning's frolic; the landlord was persuaded to go home and overlook the matter.
On returning to his dwelling, how provokingly wrong did the poor Frenchman find things had gone in his absence. Leaving the kitchen after his second encounter with the intrusive Indian, Major Stoner
/entered the hall where he almost stumbled upon an Indian called Captain John, who was lying upon the floor in a state of beastly drunkenness. Excited by the strong waters of death, and impassioned by what k had already transpired, he halted beside the inebriate, \ in whose ear as it lay up, was suspended a heavy \ leaden jewel; the weight of which had caused the boring to become much elongated. Placing one foot 1 upon his neck, and thrusting a finger into the slit in j the ear, the unpolished ornament was torn out in an jy instant, and fell upon the floor. Unconscious of the injury done him, the poor Indian turned over with a I grunt, and Stoner passed into the bar-room: the place ' at that period least calculated of all others, to quiet a raging mind.
The name of Stoner had doubtless fallcin upon the car of a half-drunk Indian in the bar-room, while the kitchen S(;ene was enacting, and reminded him of his former acts; for he had drawn his scalping-knife to boast to several by-standers (one of whom was Abraham Van Skiver), oi' the deeds of blood recorded upon its handle. J\rine marks indicated the number of American scalps he had taken in the late war; "and this" said he, pointing to a notch cut deeper than the rest to indicate a warrior, " was the scalp of old Stoner!" Major Stoner entered the room just in time to hear the savage boast of scalping his father, and as the braggart was dancing before the bar with yells and athletic gestures, cutting the air with the blade which had so many times been stained with the crimson torrent of life: stung to madness by the thought of being in the presence of his father's murderer, he sprang to the fire-place, seized an old-fashioned wrought andiron, and with the exclamation, " You never will scalp another one !" he hurled it, red-hot as it was, at the head of the warrior. His own hand was burned to a blister, even by the top of the iron, which, striking the object of its-aim in the hottest part across the neck with an indellible brand, laid him out at full length upon the floor; the register of death dropping from his hand.
The quarrel having arrived at so dangerous a crisis, some of the friends of Major Stoner succeeded in getting him out of the house j while other individuals ran '
for a physician, restoratives and the like. The Indians of the party who were not disabled or too drunk to stand up, were boisterous in their threats of rc/ venge; but being advised to leave town, and possibly not feeling very secure in their own persons after what j had already happened, they lost no time in preparing I for a departure to the wilderness. A German, mmed Samuel Copeland, was employed to carry them in a wagon to the Sacondaga river, near the fish-housc, where they had left most of their rifles, their squaws and canoes. It was the opinion of the physician and /others, that the Indian with scared ji^gular, could not I possibly survive; but he was, with his fried companN ion, taken alo.ig by his fellows. It was never satisfactorily known in Johnstown whether this party of hunters all reached Canada alive or not, but it was I. . supposed that at least one of the number died on the way.
Fearing this party of red men might return and revenge the injuries done them on the settlement, if no notice was taken of the affair, and not from any ill will towards Major Stoner, some person in Johnstown lodged a complaint against him for the part he had acted at De Fonclaiere's, and he was arrested and put in jail.* As soon as it became known abroad that he had been incarcerated, and only a day or two was */ sufficient to spread the news, a large number of men
of Revolutionary memory, many of whom had been sufTirors in person, property, or frii.'n(!s, by the midnight i assaults of their country*s foes, and who were now disposed to justify the conduct of their former com-^ panion in arms, in his attempt to slay the murderer of / his father, assembled around the prison and demanded L. his enlargement. Of those congregated were several of the Sammonses, Fishers, Putman,\ Wemples, Fon-1 das, Vroomans, Vecders, Gardiniers, Quackenbosscs, \ and a host of others, whose names can not now be remembered. The jailer was unwilling to liberate the prisoner without a formal demand, and the mob, pro- 7 vided with a piece of scantling, stove in the door and , " bi'ought him out.
At this period one Throop kept a tavern near the centre of the village, with whom sheriff Littel was then boarding; and thither the party in triumph directed their steps to drink with the liberated hero. \ After allowing the mob some time to jollify, the jailer went down, and getting Stoner one side, asked him\ if he was ready to return! " Yes," he replid, and at once set out with the turnkey for the jail, some forty ) or fifty rods distant. He Vv-as soon missed, and the liberators, learning that he was again on his way to prison, once more set the law at defiance, and rescued him from the custody of the officer; when, to comply with their yrislics, he went home to his anxious family, and there quietly remained. Thus ended an eventful scene
After the incidents above narrated iiad transpired, and the Indian trappyrs returned to tlwir wip^wams, the pro.vess and A-arless acts of the Johnstown warrior gave iiini no little celebrity alonj^ the water-courses ot' Canada; and many a red pappoosewas taught in swaddles, to lisp with dread the name of Stoner.
WalttrScotl.
Wc arc now to consider a peculiarly t'xcitin*^ portion of our hero's life, and may fail to give the reader but a faint idea of the countless novel incidents following the footsteps of a master hunter, although in fancy full
"Oft have we socn him at tho peep of dawn, Brushing with hasty steps tho dews away, To meet the sun iipcn the upland lawn,"
and thus followed him on to the wood-entangled glen; where the growl of an animal caused a startle and \ placed the thumb on the fire-lock; the rustle of a leaf fevered the blood, and the snap of a forest-twig sent it tingling to his brain.
In trapping, Major Stoncr used heavy steel-traps with two springs for beaver and otter, and occasionally single spring traps for muskrat, when their fur\ would pay. He had one trap four feet long made like the former, and designed expressly for bears. The" jaws of this ugly looking customer, are crossed on the under side by spikes, which, when an animal is en- V
If hunting with a partner, each carried three beaver traps, and when traces of game were observed the traps were set in tlie water, and to them the animals were lured by a peculiar kind of bait called castoreura, V or beaver-castor, remarkably odorous and attractive even in the water. That taken from one beaver was >/ often the agent for exterminating several of its fellows. The usual time of hunting began with cool weather in the latter part of September, and lasted about two months, or until the streams and lakes became frost-bound and the hunter's paths obstructed by snow. The avocation was often renewed for several
One of the indiviihuils with whom Major Stoner sometimes hunted, wasCapt. William Jackson, u man of courage and ^jreat muscular strength. On one oc-^ casion they set out for a hunt towards spring, traveling on snow-shoes. Arriving at u place where they had to cross a field of ice, Jackson took olF his snowshoes. With other indispensahles he was carrying a sharp axe, and hy some misstep he slipped and fell upon it, cutting himself under his chin in a shocking manner. His companion was two days in getting him «• hack to the nearest settlement; which w.is in Chase's patent, now Uleeker, and about eighteen miles fromV where the nccident happened. Leaving his wounded friend well cared for, Stoner retraced his steps to the wilderness; and Jackson sent James Dunn a few days after, to supply his place.
Finding an inviting prospect for tlieir business on the Sacondaga, they began to set their traps. Hunters erected lodges for their accommodation at suitable tlistances from each other. They were small huts made of bark, peeled for the purpose, hence the ne- "\ cessity for an axe; besides, it was needed in preparing ^ fuel, and also in making canoes; which they constructed by digging out a suitable log. Stoner and Dunn, after building huts, preparing for each a tree-\ canoe, and securing the pelts of some six or eight
raont on ('Iiuso'n putmt (or provisioiiM. Tliry left their canors in their aiMfticc, iniiMrrarn runtiin;; I'roin Trout laLc into the Sa(-on(la^ra. Their jouriiry to ob"y tnin food, principally hn a«l,aH hiintriH coulil ^iturally irtipply their larder with ti>h and wiid-^Mine, oceupied only n few <lay8; yet on tlu-ir n-turn they Noon <li.scovered that all was not ri^ht. 'I'he tirut trap they looked for was one that had been set l)y Dunn, on tho
ici u little distance iroin ine lake; it was ^one. Leaving]; ilieir canoe in an eddy made by a deposit of drift-wood, they landed and proceeded with caution up the creek. Arriving; near the lake they hoard a "> loud halloo! to which Stont r responded, although his \ companion thoup;ht it n loon. They now halted and awaited in silence, to learn what human voices besides their own, broke the ji;en»'ral solitudi» of the forest. Soon the lif^ht dash of a paddh; was heard, and iin\ mediately after an Indian in a bark canoe rounded a y point of land, ami a few strokes from his brawny arm nent his fairy craft into the outl"» of the lake, beside, and ver)' ne»r the white hunters. Scarcely had the shoal navigator gained the point named, when another J Indian, on foot, rounded the point also, and stood ^vithin a few paces of the pale-faced strangers. At the feet o^tlio Indian in the canoe lay a rifle and one ^ of Stoncr's traps. The hunter on shore was armed with a tomahawk, carrying in one hand the shell of I Rn immense turtle, which the water had drifted upon I the b*nch. IJoth parties evinced siirprisc at the meet-
lluritt-ri, UM a riais, ore very tenacious of their ri|{hts, an<l priority of oecupatay usually establi8hcM \ n t'laiiri to hunting ^roiuiiis. Some of their traps had been left alon^ the hhore of the lake, in thi! diroetion from vvheoce the Indians made their appearanee; and alter a most fornud meeting, tlie Johnstown hunters charged the strant^ers not only with approprinting their fur to their own use, but also their traps in whieh it had been taken. This w'a?t denied on the part of tlie uecused, notwithstnndinp^ one of the traps was in their possession, and a fierce tpiarrel of worda followed, graced by un exchange uf harsh epithets, until
ings, declared
some distance above, and tnat tney molested. The white hunters insisted upon having the accused go back with them to see if the traps were as they had been left; this the other party attempted\ with sundry excuses to cvac'e doing. The one on land then endeavored to gain a little distance under some pretext, and the other, saying he would go back as desired after gathering some bark, was observed to grasp his rifle, abandon his canoe and leap from it to^ the shore opposite Dunn.
m on shore, wno was nearest to otoner, n the latter vented not a few wicked say-*^ (i that he had seen the traps alluded to at [ ce above, and that they had not been \
At this instant the sharp crack of a rifle was heard, and in the echo sent back by the hills came a yell from the quivering lips of the Indian on the lake shore, not unlike that of a savage in his last moments— the tortoise-shell falling unreclaimed from his hand. Indeed, human bones might have been seen >/on this spot long after the incident here related had transpired. Dunn was a man of small stature, but made up in nerve and agility what he lacked in
r physical strength; and seeing the Indian leap from his canoe, he sprung into it in his pursuit, thinking thus to cross the creek dry-shod and detain him. But the frail barque would not withstand his weight, augmented with his descent from the shore, and he went through it plump up to his waist in the water. Observing that his antagonist was fleeing, without waiting to extricate himself from his unpleasant
/dilemma, he raised his gun and snapped it, but as the priming had been wet by his fall, (percussion locks are an invention of a later date,) the trapper escaped. Had he looked back and observed the plight of his pursuer, he would no doubt have halted long enough to have sent a bullet through his head. Whether these two Canadians were alone on this hunt is not V- known, but their loud halloo would seem to indicate that they were not.
left his companion at their own canoe to get dry as best he could, and being set on the opposite shore, ^ proceeded in search of said camp. To seek this wilderness lodge alone, without knowing its whereabouts or how it might be guarded, was, after what had . transpired, one of the most presumptuous and daring I feats any individual could perform, as a concealed foe might have detected an approaching footstep and speedily revenged the fall of a friend; but the mission was just suited to the spirit of the trapper who had undertaken it, and onward he went, regardless of peril. In a secluded spot some half a mile or more from its outlet and not far distant from the lake shore, he arrived at the object of search. It was a well built cabin for comfort, constructed principally of bark and set against a bold rock, so as to make that subserve \ the purpose of one wall. It had evidently been abandoned with precipitation, for it was not only cheered by a blazing fire, but in it had been left a beautiful bark canoe, finished and decorated in the most tasteful Indian style, a trap with one spring, a spear, and a j scalping-knife. The lattter instrument had no doubt been forgotten in the hot haste attendant on removing fur, eatables, etc., as so indispensable an article to an I Indian's full equipment for the chase would not have \ bten left intentionally, unless it were a duplicate. The articles found in this camp became a lawful prize, according to the custom prevailing at that period amon^ trappers, predicated on the rule of might and
right. The Indians' canoe at the outlet of the lake was constructed of spruce bark, and made near there, but the one at their wigwam was of birch or some very light bark, and had doubtless been transported from Canada. Launching his trophied craft on the bosom of the sheen lake, this white forest son returned in it /to his anxious companion.
The Johnstown hunters, reclaiming all their own traps but one, after continuing their avocation a while longer with some success undisturbed, indeed
Sole monarchs of those crystal streams,
set their faces towards home, to relieve the solicitude •* of their families and engage in cultivating the soil. After another seed-time and harvest had gone by, Maj. Stoner, accompanied by William Mason, his brother-in-law, returned to the same hunting grounds \ that himself and Dunn had visited the preceding I spring. Expecting again to renew the exciting avoJ cation of a trapper, Stoner concealed his traps in the spring in some safe place near Trout lake, after / greasing them thoroughly to prevent injury by rust. Loaded with provisions and Mason's traps, having said the necessary good-byes, the trappers buried themselves in the dark forest, the one familiar with the destination acting as pilot,
Mason's traps, and with a vigilant look-out for other evidences of the desired game, they proceeded on in the direction of Stoner's traps. Next day Stoner sent Mason down several miles, to see if the first trap 'let did not contain a beaver. He returned with an assurance that the trap was not sprung, and whether it had been or not he could not determine; but that on a log which crossed the river near it, he had noticed / the tracks of a bear. Stonor thought it strange that a beaver had not sprung that trap, and still more wonderful that a bear should prowl around it; and the morning after Mason's return they visited it together.^ The instant the practiced eye of the senior hunter caught a glimpse of the foot-print pointed out by his\ partner, provoked at his stupidity in not determining j more readily what animal had made it, he demanded I with a look of surprise, in rather ill humor and possi-I bly at the end of an oath, if bears wore moccasons?\j^ Mason, who now rightly divined how the tracks came ^uere, was almost as much surprised at his dullness of ^^ p fception as his companion had been. On examining the trap, the discriminating eye of the master hunter also discovered that it was not in the position in which it had been left two days before, and it was conjee- '' tured that a beaver had been taken from it and the trap again set.
Stoner now proposed to Mason that he should remain concealed and await Bruin's return to obtain an interview; but the latter, who was a very strong man, A
though timid, refused to remain alone. " Well," said the former, " then I will lay near the trap and see what kind of a bear comes to it." He seci'eted himself, with the young trapper in his rear, and had been there about half an hour, when he heard on the oppo-
\ site side of the stream the mufHcd and cautious tread of the anticipated bear. At this most exciting moment might have been heard a noise in the morning stillness, resembling that of one iron slipping suddenly against another. The delicate ear of the visitant caught the sound, and listening, with head bent for-
N ward, surveyed with scrutiny every surrounding object. All was again silent as death, save the murmur of the rippling rivujet; and reassured that he was alone, and
/ made by the leap of a squirrel, or some small anima] that had suddenly broken a dry twig. Mason's bear, with an eye oft scanning the direction of the trap
J under consideration, stealthily approached the fallen tree, which served as abridge to cross the limpid river. The bear, which, as we have already seen, wore /moccasons, was tall, very r ict, with long, black, I straight hair, and was clad in a smutty blanket, J strongly girdled at the waist. In one of its huge paws it carried a dangerous weapon sometimes called a ^ tomahawk, and beneath the bosom of the blanket above the girdle, peered out the hairless tail and pos/» sibly hind legs of a muskrat. A rifle that seldom required a second poise at the same object, was steadiiv
aimed at this old bear from the time of his appearance until he reached the centre of the log overth*? stream, when it suddenly exploded, and unable longer tain an upright position, Bruin reeled and fell a death-groan, his life-blood crinisoning the pure waters of the Sacondaga.
The traps of the Johnstown hunters were not again ^ disturbed this fall, and at the close of the trapping season they returned home bearing a valuable lot of fur, among which there was at least one muskrat's pelt. The junior trapper, notwithstanding his bear had met with a fate " which," to use the words of his partner, " would let the succotash out of his y stomach and the eels in," could not be induced to visit his traps alone in this excursion after the second — day.
I chief. To destroy this grain destroyer he erected a
/istaging and watched repeatedly for him, but his vigilance was all in vain, and the wheat, when ripe, was harvested. As the corn began to fill in the ear, Bruin again thrust himself upon the hospitality of the major, [is bearship soon found, however, as have some more worthy though less courageous, that the charities of J the world are granted grudgingly to strangers.
at his heels. He leaped a fence into a field M^here a / lot of flax had been spread, and after pursuing some distance the dog returned home. In the morning, blood was observed on the fence where the anima] had crossed, and it was conjectured that if wounded « he would not return. Imagine Stoncr's surprise, therefore, the very next day, when a neighboring woman came running to his house, near which he chanced to be at work, to tell him that the bear had come, back, and was then in their orchard, but a short** distance off.
Leaving the dog confined in his dwelling, to be let out if he fired, armed with his rifle, he ran to the orchard. He was not long in getting a shot, and soon the dog was at his side. The bear, badly wounded, was overtaken by Growler at the roots of a dry tree,^ and several times, as the former attempted to ascend, p the latter pulled him back. Without leaving his tracks after he fired, the sportsman, as was his cus- y^ torn, lodged another charge in his rifle. To his cliagrin he found that the stopple to his powder-horn was broken off, and he was obliged to cut a hole in the horn to obtain a charge of powder. Not pleased with being so unceremoniously drawn back, the bear turned upon his adversary, and succeeded m\, getting a paw of the latter in his mouth.
J of war, lie thrust the inuzzh* of tlu? piece into Hruin's mouth to pry open his jaws and liberate his canine friend. The end of the gun being still in vhc
r animal's mouth, he discharged it and blew out his brains. The yell of the dog attracted the attention of several neighbors, and Just as vStoner fired a second time, Lieut. Wallace and his hired man, Ilulster, ar^ rived at the scene of action, armed with pitchforks.
Major Stoner was not only a trapper, but in the proper season he indulged frequently in a deer or a fox hunt; in which he was generally successful. On a certain occasion many years ago, accompanied by Benjamin DeLine and Jacob Frederick, he went to hunt / deer around the shores of the Canada lake, since by some called Fish lake, and by others Byrn lake. They succeeded in killing two noble deer, and started toward night to cross the lake in the ilireftton of
homo. Their wattr-craft, a tree canoe, when they were all in with their game, was loaded almost as ^ heavily as .she could float; and the wind causing the waves to roll, ma<le the voyage a dangerous one.^ Stoner managed the canoe, while his companions, seated on its bottom, used the utmost caution to pre- / serve its ('(luilibrium: but long before the little barque neared her destined landing, she began to dip water.'\^ Safety re(]uired that his comrades, whose seat became uncomfortable as the water ran round them, should keep quiet, while Stoner renewed his exertions at the paddle to gain the opposite shore. As it became doubtful whether the destined haven could be gained, Stoner steered for the nearest land, which proved to be a projecting point of a small rocky island, which, in the absence of a better name, I shall call Stoner's island."
The farther they sailed, the more the gale increased, and as wave after wave left a portion of its crest in the overlofided canoe; the situation of its inmates be-, came one of the greatest peril. DeLine and Frederick, substituting their hats for basins, used their utmost exertions to keep the boat afloat by bailing, while Stoner, urging upon his friends the necessity of cool- ^ ness and a uniform position, sent her forward rapidly.^ Still several rods from the land, and already up to his knees in water, as the canoe was nearly full; DeLine sprang out and found bottom, although the water was ) several feet deep. Fearing that if their craft found-^
Stoner's island, although preferable to the bottom ^ 0^ the lake, was far from affording the weary hunters a very comfortable night's rest. It had indeetl some trees and wild-wood vines, but nothing like a human habitation; still, as the gale continued with unabated violence, and it was now almost night, it was out of
I the question to think of proceeding farther that evening: they therefore set about making themselves as comfortable as circumstances would permit. As not only their guns and ammunition were. wet, but their materials for kindling a torch, they were obliged to ^ camp down with their clothes saturated and their
The Sun once more came peering o'er the Eart.'k, sending his light in golden streams through the primitive forest which covered the surrounding hills, to leflect their mellowed rays on the glassy waters of Lake Byrn; in the bosom of which Stoner's island lay reposing, as calmly and as quietly as an infant^ nestled to sleep in its mother's arms. The deer-hunters rose betimes, and although their study of cause and effect, as we may suppose, had been somewhat limited, still the contrast of nature's dramatic scenes since the previous evening had been so great, that they could not fail to mark the change, and look with an ad- 1 miring eye on the rich and varied scene Heaven had spread before them. Once more embarked with their treasures, they gained the lake shore in safety, and proceeded home without further adventure. For the kind services rendered him at the lake, said Frederick, on his arriving at his own dwelling, " JVow, JVick\ schurst so long ash I has von cent in de vorldj so long j you shall never wants for any ting, for bulling me oiU*^ from dat tarn vrog-pont mit mine eel'shkin dail.^* '
For saving his life in the manner here related, this worthy German proved the sincere and grateful friend\ of our hero to the hour of his death, just before which event he urged upon his childien as a debt due to himself, that they should never see his lake savior want the comforts of life. It is gratifying to observe
tlmt the FrrilrrifkH (a vt-ry rospiTtahlt' Miin<* in Fufton count)') liuvt' honornt their t'uthvr, cv«n in death, l>)' remaining the warm I^ientb of the old trapptTf their i'ather'N Iricml; havinK eve held theniM'lve.s re* Hpon.sible lor the proper fulfUtnent, it' needNbe,ot' their * parent's unostentatious wish.
On the eve of our luMt war with Great Britain, Major Stoner and William Mason entered the wilderr"ne.s.s with their traps, and were ((one over two months. Their stay was protracted several weeks beyond the titne intended, an<l their anxious friends, who had heard nothing from them, began to consider them as lost forevor.
of incut, Ncorchcd upon one Hide utui nearly raw oii^ tlir other, with n reasonahle allowance of Malt and a . niorMcl of .stale birad, it' not too late in the hunt, Nerved \ with H hearty wehonie iipon the inner ^idr of a clean"! piece of bark; while he i.s .seated upon a lar^e stone, ' or block of woo<l. If he tarried over ni^ht, for an evening's entertainment, he would li.sten to not a fewj perilou.s adventureM in unexpected encounters with( wild aninial.s, or novelties attending the chaHp; and at early bed-time, ho wotdd findhim.selt i retched upon / a hurdle of hemlock boii^h.s in one corner of the Imlge, V gathering himself into as .small a heap as possible; with a secret prayer that no hungry wolf would thrust I its nose beneath the blanket or pelt that covered hrm, I "while midnight visions of scjuaws and benver-skins haunted his brain.
Out of provisions and almost out of their reckoning, Stoner and his friend, having hungup their fur in some safe place which they could again find, were making their way to one of the nearest white settlements, when suddenly they came upon an Indian in the forest, whom the major mistaking for some other animal, possibly a) bear, was about to fire upon. The Indian, whose name was Anderly, proved to be one of the Caughnawaga\ tribe, from Grand river in Canada. He had with him a little daughter, his wife having died in the forest. The sudden appearance of two white men greatly ter-^ rifled this little forest flower; but he» fears were quieted "with an a.ssurance of friendship, and the white hunters^
shared the hospitality of their dusky friends over night. This Indian first communicated to the Johnstown / trappers the fact, that hostilities had commenced beI tween England and the United States. Knowing this fact, and thinking that possibly the whites were either p spies or foes, was what at first caused the fear of the [, young wood-nymph. Parting with their new friends, "with whom they were much pleased, Stoner and Mason journeyed on, and finally came out in Norway, Herkimer county; where they obtained provisions, and where too, they saw several families that were removing from the Black river country to the Mohawk I valley. ' They also came in contact with a body of United States drafts marching to the line between New ^York and Canada.
Trappers in their excursions seldom take shaving utensils with them, and not unfrequently on their return home, they might have been mistaken for the '^ prototype of Lorenzo Dow, of long-beard memory. The Johnstown friends had wandered so long in the forest, that their clothes were much worn ; and Mason, whose appearance was perhaps the most ragged, was
T arrested on suspicion of being a spy, and his gun taken from him. Stoner having been a hero of the preceding war, was fortunately know^n to some of the soldiery,
J and succeeded in effecting the liberation of his comrade and the restoration of his gun ; and after liberally ^ replenishing their larder, they again buried themselves in the moaning wilderness. In this hunt, Stoner car-
ried his rifle and Mason a fowling-gun with which to shoot small game for food. On their way back to the place where they had secreted their fur, and when in a gloomy, mountain-encompassed dell, they accident-\ ally fell in with two Indians, who were there on the ) same errand as themselves. It seems to be a pretty true, though stale maxim, that two of a trade can not ^ agree. The strangers were Canadian hunters, having very little fur, one of whom was armed with a rifle. \ Scarcely had the parties met, when the one last alluded to commenced a fierce quarrel with Stoner. He took " the latter for Green White, another bold trapper, and | accused him of plundering and then burning their (^ camp some two years before. Stoner, enraged at the\ false charge, retorting the harsh epithets of his accuser, denied being White; or having stolen the fur of any . one. The other Indian, who said he had seen WhiteN told his companion that he was not the hunter before |^. them, but this the passionate savage would not admit, and the dispute continued.
Observing that his partner would not be appeased, and that the quarrel must prove a serious one, the Indian without a rifle approached Mason, who, as we have seen, was a little timorous in such an emergency,\ and desired to look at his gun. His object undoubt- \ edly was to arm himself. This seemingly small favor would possibly have been indulged, had not a caution • from Stoner, in the Low Dutch tongue, reached his j friend, to beware of a treacherous design. The master-
After this adventure, the Johnstown trappers pursued their way, without further molestation, to their fur and their traps, and ere long they returned home, to I the great joy of their friends; bearing a most valuable » jj lot of fur, and a spare rifle. It is not improbable that 'a their store of fur was augmented some in that lone I spot, where they had left a human carcass to return to J its earthly affinity.
Major Stoner was gone so long that a rumor prejudicial to his character was put in circulation in Johnstown just before his return. It was reported, and perhaps by some believed, that he had been enV gaged in the contraband trade of smuggling goods J from Canada to that village, for Cornelius Herring and Amaziah Rust. He says the accusation was false, and although he saw goods carrying in the wilderness at this time, which may have been destined for Johns-
town; they were in the hands of individuals who were strangers to him. Squaws generally started with tlicT" merchandise from Canada, and at some designated place they met and gave it over to men employed to\ run it through.
It is not unlikely that Green White, to whom allu- • sion is made in these pages, who was a celebrated and successful trapper, traversing the wilderness from Otsego county to the shores of the St. Lawrence, had numerous and sometimes fatal quarrels with rival \ hunters. John G. Seely informed the writer that he once playfully, though ironically, remarked to White,'^ " he did not like it that he was killing off' all his na-j, tion." The hunter replied, " D — n them, they must not search my traps then. The last one I saw was peeking over the bushes to look into one of my traps, and 1 soon after my dog was shaking his old blanket P* Some further account of this hunter, with his melancholy fate, is given in another part of this volume.
r White hunters as well as Indians wore moccasons on their long hunts; usually making their own from ^ the pelts of wlui animals. Aaron Ciiswold hunted with Maj. Stoner on one occasion, and having killed Ta bear, as his boots chafed his ancles, he was not long lin making himself moccasons from the raw hide, J with the fur inside; and hanging up his boots in some secure place, they journeyed on some fifteen miles.
I his own blanket, which lasted until the return of
J Griswold to his boots; about which time the major —shot a deer, and the breach in his companion's wardrobe was repaired from its skin.
which courses through it. lie had scarcely reached the stream, when he saw tlie tall grass covering the | bog on the opposite shore bending towards him. He at once recognized in the undulatory motion of the 1 grass, the probable presence of some wild animal; which he thought hardly lofty enough in its carriage *'* for a deer. He remained quiet, and soon the object made its appearance near the creek. At first sight he thought it a hunter's dog, but its wild appearance\ undeceived him, and he shot it. This was near night, and the following morning they made a raft of driftwood, on which Capt. Shew crossed the stream to se what Stoner had killed. It proved to be a larg wolf, and a young cub which had just been trying obtain nourishment from it, fled on the hunter's ap proach, (as he had not taken his ^ in along,) and secreted its famishing form in the rank grass. Shew skinned the wolf, and Judge Simon Veeder paid them > twenty shillings, the then legal bounty, for its scalp.
Maj. Stoner shot but one other wolf while hunting, although he trapped them often. He never killed a panther, as none were so reckless of life as to cross V» his path; but he very often heard their startling* scream from their mountain haunts. He killed no^ less than seventeen bears in two seasons. ^
The celebrated Nathaniel Foster and Maj. Stoner were hunting together one fall, when they trapped a) large eagle. They set the trap beside the carcase /v of a deer the wolves had killed on the ice upon '
During the time he was a hunter, a period of forty or fifty years, Maj. Stoner hunted with very many individuals; among whom were several Indians. He was out some time with a man named Flagg, of whom we can say nothing, except that he wore a curious cap, made from the skin of a loon with its J downy coat on. He hunted one season with a St. Regis Indian, named Powlus, and his acquaintances wondered that he dared to do it. With this Indian he explored the head waters of Grass river, which empties into the St. Lawrence. At this place they met with a small area of land with a fine growth of — hickory and oak timber. Persons going from Canada to Johnstown in the summer season, either had to go by way of the Sacondaga river, or else far to the west of it, on account of a large territory of drowned lands in the vicinity of Grass river. The latter district was traversed with ease in the winter, however, by hunters on snow shoes, when the low lands were frozen.
Near the head of Grass river, the Johnstown trappers met a French Canadian hunter, who had a squaw for a wife. He was desirous of going as far south as Johnstown, and Stoncr traced a map of the most feasible route for him, upon a piece of birch bark, to en-/ able him to accomplish the journey. Whether he ever reached the designated point is not known.
Subsequent to Muj. Stoner's hunting with Mason, Dunn, and Jackson, who were most frequently his companions; ho hunted two seasons with another St. Regis Indian, called Capt. Gill; with whom he was very successful. They caught twenty-six beavers and five otters, beside considerable other game, in one'] spring. Beaver usually sold foi about one dollar a pound ; and good skins would weigh about four pounds each. Otter skins sold from five to seven dollars the pelt. Stoner has received one hundred dollars for peltries taken in a single season.
Gill had his squaw Molly with him while hunting, and a daughter, or d Molly junior, who, the Indian said,\ was not his papoose. Indian women usually remained ^ at the carap, and did the cooking for the hunters. Beavers generally built their dams across tlje outlets of the lakes. Gill was very successful in spearing/ those sagacious animals in their houses. While together, they once trapped no less than four beavers in\ a single nfght. This Indian was a catholic, and in a thunder shower would cross himself repeatedly. He
tion, and was present at the destruction of Stone Arabia; but in the last war he took protection under J the authorities of New York. He entertain^^! no lit4 tie fear, and possibly harbored not much love for his J' dlow countrymen; and on an emergency, would perhaps have scrupled as little as did his fearless com^panion, to punish their aggressions.
Kben Blakeman, who several times hunted with our hero, was once on a hunt when the Indians disturbed his traps; but being joined by Stoncr, they left the * hunting grounds sans ceremonie. Obadiah W^ilkins, another lover of the chase, was more than once associated with Major Stoner in trapping excursions. Their wives were cousins. On one occasion when they were hunting in Bleeker, Wilkins, to replenish their larder, took fishing tackle and seated himself on a rock in West Stoney creek, a tributary of the Sacondaga. He had barely gained the position, when ^a stout Indian came to him and inquired rather insultingly, " What doing here ?" He replied, " I am fishf ing." " Have got gun ?" interrogated the visitor. " Yes, at the camp," said Wilkins, a little disconcerted at the fierce manner of his inquirer. Observing .the advantage he had gained, the red hunter continued, r*" This Indian^ s hunting ground — Yankees no business Y here —you must leave him !" As Wilkins made but little reply to the last remark, the speaker continued, " Has white man got partner ?" " Yes, at the camp." « What his name ?" " Nick Stoner."
Had the witch of Kridor risen before him, th«M forest-son would not havo been more disa{];reeably , taken a-back, and he j^ave a loud guttural " Umph! "< Observing the magic wrouglit by the utterance of a single name, Wilkins became reassured, and invited the blanketed hunter to go with him to the camp. ^ " JVo/ Indian go to his own camp ! " he responded, '^ and soon after disappeared in the wilderness. This Indian had frightened a hunter, named Wiieeler, from '' these grounds not long before; but when he heard . that Stoner was in the neighborhood, the air seemed i to oppress his lungs; and hastily collecting his traps, f he broke up his camp and sought afar off a new forest- "* home. The reason assigned by Wilkins to his part- «. nor for being disconcerted at the interrogatories of this savage hunter was, that the latter was armed with *) a hatchet, and himself only with a fishing-rod.
The last difficulty Stoner had with the Indians while trapping, occurred at Lake Pleasant. Dunning, who then lived at the Ox-Bow, four miles from Lake Pleasant, had left his traps in the wilderness w) re he had previously hunted, and was afraid to go after theraV alone at the return of the hunting season. Obadiah Wilkins left home with Stoner on this enterprise, and leaving him to hunt with Dunning's father nearer home, Stoner and Dunning set out to find and use theT hidden traps. Before reaching them, and about thirty miles from the settlement, Stoner set two of his own * traps for beaver, one in the stream and the other on
the shore of a small hike; a little distance further he net another trap fur an otter. Arriving ut a pond which lay in their route, not far from where the last
\ rat skins they had already secured they hung up in the vicinity. Not more than one-fourth of a mile farther on, they came to a deserted camp, with the
On the following morning, as the distance was not very great, Dunning went back to the place where the nearest trap was set, but could not find it; and
) before renewing the journey for his traps, they returned together, if possible to learn the fate of the one, and recover the other two traps. The trap set for an otter ^was indeed clear gone, and about it were Indians' tracks, but the other two were safe. In the one left in the creek a beaver had been caught that proved wise enough to gnaw its own leg ofl*, and escape by J leaving its foot in the trap; and in the other they ^ found an otter.
they now wont to another stream to hunt, where they hud some iucccas. Visiting; their haunts one (iay,they\ found one trap had been robbed of its game; and as it was a very heavy one, the robber not caring to take it along had left it suspended by the jaws upon n ] stump. On their route Lome, the hunters halted where the moose had been slain ; and here they found fresh ^ evidence of intrusion upon their rights. Well was it for the evil doer that he had not lingered there, elsc\ he might have been mistaken for another of Mason's \ bears. The moose-skin had been pulled up and some of it cut off, and the muskrat-skins had found a new % owner.
Arriving at Dunning's Saturday afternoon, they learned that two Indian trappers had just come in at the lake settlement, four miles distant, with fur; at^ which place there was a tavern, a small grocery, store, &c. Capt. Wright kept the tavern, and one Williams the grocery; the latter dealing principally in such articles as ammunition, blankets, rum, &c., to sell to trappers and adventurers. Stoner wished to visit Lake Pleasant to see whether the hunters had not got bis lost trap and stolen fur; but Wilkins de clined going with him, and the younger Dunning^ became iiis companion.
On their arrival at Wright's they learned that the Indian hunters were Capt. Benedict anil Francis, a large yellow-skin, and that they were encamped in the woods about one hundred yards from the inn. As
154 TRAPFRRH OF KKW YORIt.
Jit WHS nrai;!)' «lark, liny coru Imlrd to drfrr a viMJt to tlirir place ol' riNt until inoriiitit^. Soinr time in tlio ^y ni^lit, u sistcr'.s son of VVrij^ht awokr his uricU' to ^ iriiurrn liiiii that tiic (lo^it of tlu* Iridiaii liiintrrs wcro * killing; tluir .slu't'p. StontT f^ot up ami a<'<;()mpariittl tln' youn«; man to thr licld to driv*' iUv dof^s from tlio [^ 8li(«'p, one of wliicli they had already slain. In tho inornini^ Stoticr visited the Indians at their lire in tho woods. Near it lay the do|j;s, and at lianti were two rides, n hasket of potatoes, and a piece ol" pork. Tho \ rifles wore resting; one on each side ol' the hasket, while \ between his knei's F'rancis held a jupj of whiskey, over ^ which lie was sin;.^in!^ a /iim(.<tmnn\i chorus.
[of Stoner's moose-hide, and conspicuously amonij; them appeared his lost trap. It was known the previous evening in the neii^hborhood what the object was of Stoner's vl. 't to the lakes, and when he went to the . hunter's lodji^e early in the morning, \Vri}i;ht, Williams, one Peck, and perhaps others who may have ) taken a nap the less to enable them to, stole up behind trees as near as they could without being observed, on purpose, as they afterwards said, to witness \J the fun they anticipated would follow the interview. After friendly salutations had passed between Stoner and Benedict, the former walked to the traps and
jrrkrd his up from the rest, in(|uiriii^; sliarply how it \ came there? lie would have r('(-o|;rii/i<i the trap* iirnoni^ u thoitsand olhcrM : it wu.s made hy William Maim, of Julm>t()wn, and had on it StoiiciN privaliA himt(.>r*s mark. Wiuii hlacksmith.s made traps for ^ hiinttTs, thry ^fuiraily put somi' prculiar mark on tlirm thrir own fancy Mi'i-.^r.li'd, never placinj; the") same dj'vice upon the traps ofdillerent hunters. Seeini^ Stoner ahout to «ut it loose, Francis exclaimed, "JNo"! Cid him! Ab cut hiinf'^ extendinj^ his hand to privent the act, at which interference the; claimant j raised the whole hundle and knocked tin; intruder I down with it. Ite^ainin<^ his feet and seeing the trap already in the possession of its owner, the con- * Kcience-stricken trapper said gruflly, " //' trap yours^y^ take him r '
Pay was next demanded for the lost fur, and cpi- /s thcts were bamlied between Sloner and Francis,\ of which passion wa.s the parent. Bencdittt, wlio was N evidently ashamed of his company, now intertered, and to some extent pacified his old acfpiaintance, whoy accepted the jj/g" of friendship, and tirank of its supposed healing and cooling, though very fiery waters, f As readily would oil put out a flame, as alcohol haver* quieted the storm of human passion. After a littlev further conversation with Benedict, not wishing to be outdone in generosity, Stoner asked the Indians to go\ to the tavern and drink with him. The invitation "was rei.dily accepted, and Francis, as the partner of 1
The two friends before the bar soon held each a
J tumbler of liquid fire, and Stoner asked Francis to pour out and drink with them. He declined in a very t^ insolent manner, whereupon the former smashed the * W tumbler he held, liquor and all, against his head. The Indian, as soon as he could regain a standing posi^ tion, enraged at the act, closed with his adversary, ^ ap.d in the short scuffle which followed, the latter . proved too smart for his yellow antagonist, and pitched j him neck and heels out of the bar-room door upon ' the ground. He had a hard fall, and when he rose /up several gravel stones remained half buried in his «J cheek and temples. The fight would no doubt have * become a deadly one, had it not been arrested at this point by the by-standers, who held the parties asunder until their ardor and passion had a little time to cool down.
-^ When reason began to assume her throne, Stoner I demanded of Francis either the furs stolen from his J traps or the money for them. The parties now went to Williams's store, where they found the green beaver-skin stolen from the heavy trap, which the Indian had there sold the previous afternoon. He finally admitted having taken that skin from the trap mentioned, but denied having taken the two muskrat pelts, although several were among the fur he had sold Williams, saying that probably some young
Indians who were then hunting in the woods had taken them. A conipromlse was now made, and Francis paid Stoner a certain sum to settle their diffi-7 culties, a receipt for which was drawn up by Williams,' as dictated by Stoner. About this time the young Indians referred to, five in number, came in. They had several marten-skins, but more fully to establish the guilt of the accused they had not the pelt of a single) muskrat. One of the boys, a likely young Indian, who answered to the name of Lige Ell, and who was a son of Benedict, when told that he had been accused! by Francis of having taken Stoner's fur, seemed highly^ offended by the insult. The truth was, the traps of^ Francis being fastened together by strips of the mooseskin, near which the lost pelts had been left, if it did not prove his guilt, was at least strong evidence against him.
Lige Ell went to the store to buy a pocket-knife, but did not like any there. He said of all Williams -7 had, " there wasn't no more fire in 'em t/ian there was j in his nose," Hunters wanted a heavy knife, with which they could not only skin large game, but one the back of which would elicit from flint the spark of comfort in the wilderness. Stoner handed the lad his own knife, with which he vSeemed d^light^d, and as the old trapper was rather partial to the boy, he made him a present of it. The young Indian then, to cap the climax of his happiness, bought a quart (yf the
tby repute he was no siranger, that if he desired to live, he must never show his head in that region again; ^ as, if he did return, he would certainly be killed. It is believed he never afterwards intruded on the hunting grounds of the Johnstown trappers; if he did, he J certainly was cautious not to disturb either their traps or their furs.
It was customary some twenty years ago, in the summer season, for Indian families to come down from the north and locate themselves for weeks, and sometimes for months, in the neighborhood of the Mohawk /river settlements and make baskets, which they exchanged at the nearest villages for trinkets, gay calicoes, liquor, tobacco, scarlet cloth, &c. Three of a party that had taken up their residence one sum\ mer to make baskets in Stoncr's neighborhood, lodged ^ in his barn. One day when he was gone from home, his dog, not pleased with the Indians' canine friend, which he considered intruding upon his rights, took him by the neck and gave him a hard shaking. The owner of the little yelper, armed
death of the offender.
This incident happened when Mary Stoner was in \ her teens, and at the time, she and her mother were at home aloi^e- Hearing an unusual noise, Maiy^ opened the door, and seeing the Indian in pursuit of | their dog, she called it into the house and fastened y it in. Arrested at the door, he uttered numerous threats, and several times stuck his knife into it, at which moment Stoner approached. Seeing an Indian"^ armed with a long knite, attempting to enter his • dwelling, he ran up and knocked him down, and was giving him a few hasty kicks, when the other two Indians came to the rescue of their comrade. The act proved the girl " aY chip of the old block," bu ^.e told her to carry back \^ the weapon, that the Indians would not hurt him. ^ They did not seek his injury, but to rescue their friend. — The day after this dog difficulty the Indians in theT
hunting, forgot to return it.
Maj. Stoner was a very successitL trapper, and frequently brought m such large quantities of fur that many suspected he had obtained it unfairly from other \ hunters, but such he declares was never the case.
rviight be alive and possibly return, prudence preventetl a ceremonial marriage, which could by law con• sign her to the inwr walls of a prison; and they re/ solved to unite theii- stock in trade, and move along
Jcheerfiiiy if thity could, in the great wake of the human family. Thus they did pass on quietly and /" happily until separated by death. They had no chil** dren by this voluntary main-iage. Let the stickler for a rigid adherence at all times to established laws without reference to their operation, imagine this lease wholly their own, before they feel prepared to
duct with the title of crime.
On the 23d day of April, 1840, having been a second time a widower for several years, Maj. Stoner married his present wife; who is considerably young- | er than himself. Her maiden name was Hannah Houghtaling, but at the time of their marriage she \ was the widow Frank.
At the present time ( 1846), the old trapper resides > in the town of Garoga, Fulton county; at a settlement which has recently sprung up, called Newkirk's Mills. He owns a comfortable dwelling in which he lives, draws a pension from the general government,\ and from keeping several boarders, who work in the V mills, which the industry of a smart wife enables " him to do, he passes down the evening of his life^ very comfortably. Garret Newkirk, the proprietor here, has an extensive tannery, and a saw-mill in\ which two saws are almost constantly rending asunder the trunks of the surrounding forest. The place has some fifteen or twenty dwellings, a schoolhouse, a post-office, (called Newkirk's Mills) &c., and is situated pleasantly on the outlet of the Garoga lakes, two crystal sheets of water, each several miles in circuit, located some twelve or fifteen miles to the westward of Johnstown. Since the above was written, a public-house has been opened at this place, several new^ dwellings erected, and a plank-road constructed from thence to Fonda, sixteen miles distant.
I have somewhere alluded to Chase's Patent. Wni. Cha.se, the patentee, was in early life a sea-eaptain, / and in the Revolution became an American privateer. He was captured and taken to Euroj)e, and while there visited France. After the war he removed I'rom Providence, Rhode Island, to lloosick. New York. At the latter place he built a bridge, by constructing which, he was enabled to purchase some 12,000 acres of land in the western part of Fulton county. A large tract of land adjoining his, and which Cliase intended to buy, was subsequently sold in Albany by auction, and was purchased by Barent IJleeker, Cornelius Glen, and Abraham G. Lansing. It was known as Bleeker and Lansing's patent. Failing to secure this tract of land, on which he seems to J have set his affections, Capt. Chase was heard to exrdaini with an oath, " I would rather have lost my y right in Heaven, than a title to this soil ! " People
and common sense, if not, in fact, foolishly wicked.
In most of the surveys of wild land in and adjoining Fulton county, made since the Revolution, Maj. Stoner, who was peculiarly fitted for the task by his
(familiarity with the forest, and his ability to endure fatigue, acted as pilot for the parties. At one time while engaged in exploring lands with Capt. Chase, the latter lost a gold snufF-box which had been a pre-
peace of mind, for he was not a little vexed at the^ misfortune, seeing it glitter in the leaves, picked it/ up aud restored it to the owner, who almost waltzed^ for joy. This same Capt. Chase was not a little eccentric, and usually got up at least once in the nightA' to drink and take a pinch of snuff.
When the lands contiguous to Piseco * lake, known as the Ox Bow trad, were surveyed some years ago, and a road was laid out from the settlements on the north side of the Mohawk into the Piseco country," INIaj. Stoner attended the surveyor and commissioners as pilot, and was thus engaged for two seasons. Law- V rence Vrooman, of Schenectada, was the surveyor > who ran out the lines. On the southerly end of this road, John Rosevelt, of Fish House, was er>gaged as *• an agent or commissioner. Not a few pleasing incidents transpired in the wilderness during this time, to keep the party, which sometimes numbered nearlytwenty, in good spirits. Of the number while laying out the road, who thus enjoyed a portion of the novelty attending a trapper's life, and learned howy. large mosquitoes will grow in the woods if well fed, J were J. Watts Cady, and Marcus T. Reynolds. At
• Pi-se-co is an aboriginal word, and in their pronunciation, the Indians speak it as though spelled Pe-sic-o ; giving a hissing) sound to the second syllable. It is derived from pisco, a fish, and therefore signifies fish lake.— JoAn Dunham.
At one time when the surveying party were near
\ the Ox Bow, a name significant of the shape of one of the lakes, and far removed from any human habitation; they got out of provisions, and the pack-men, whose duty it was to go after a supply, were unwilling to start, entertaining some doubts about ever finding their way back. In this emergency Stoner volunteered to proceed with as little delay as possible to the nearest settlement, which was Lake Pleasant, and relieve the necessities of his comrades. Arriving
)just at evening at the house of a pioneer, named Denny, the family baked nearly all night; and early in the morning, with a sack upon his back, containing nearly a dozen large loaves of bread, and a good " I sized cheese to balance, he set out on his return. r- Knowing the necessities of his forest friends he did j not tarry to let the bread get cold, and as the J weather was warm, his back was almost blistered on ^ his arrival. Before he reached the place of destina• tion, he met a messenger despatched by Vrooman to " assist him ; bringing a junk-bottle of rum.
The old trapper, as he informed tlie writer, look some pains to show the young men named, (who were law students at the time,) how to catch trout, and in the 7 north branch of the Sacondaga, Cady, under his teaching, caught a bouncing one; of which exploit f he was vert^ proud, as in fact he had a right to be; for it made a meal for the whole surveying corps.
Anxious to get through as soon as possible, the party . laying out a road, continued their labors in some in-y stances on the Sabbath. Stoner usually carried a small flag, and while crossing a mountain in advance of the men on Sunday, he discovered a mass of ice between the rocks, and gave a shout that at first excited the anxiety of his comrades, lest some wild beast lingered in their path. The next day they captuied a large turtle on the shore of Piseco lake, ann' from it took one hundred and seventy-two eggs, ol' j which they made egg nogg; cooled before being served round by ice obtained by letting one of the\ corps down between the rocks. About twenty individuals partook of the beverage, among whom were Seth Wetraore, the state's agent for opening the road, Judge Peck, and Obadiah Wilkins. The last named gentleman acted as master of ceremonies in , dressing and cocking the turtle's meat, which afford- V, ed the party a fine repast. This was on the 4th day of July.
carried home with him.
The southerly portion of country under consideration is hilly and in many places mountuinous. Tho soil is generally stony, though in many instances, fertile; but tar better adapted to grazing, than the production of grain. The prevailing rock is of the primitive order, consequently tl. chores of the lakes which sparkle here and there in the glens, abound in deposites of beautiful sand; which often afford good
i* writing sand. The timber is principally beech, birch, maple, hemlock and spruce. Much of the hemlock is sawed into fence-boards, and acres of the spruce
1 annually wrought into shingles or sawed into floorplank; all of which find a ready market at the nearest accessible point on the Erie canal: and since the Garoga and Fonda plank road is favorable to its removal, not a little will find its way to Fultonville, where considerable quantities were landed before the plank road was laid out.
Much of this country still has a primeval look, but its majestic forest lords and advantageous water powers, must in time invite in the thrifty artisan and hardfisted yeoman, to subdue and cultivate it: indeed, the time may not be distant when this new country shall not only " bud and blossom as the rose," but vnth the
u!>oun(ls In waters th«' most limpid, and brcctc?^ the inoftt invigorating. The lakis and thiir triltutaricN lire stored with an abundance of delicious trout; nnd^ if not walled (tastlt-s, stately nnansions may yet rcuf their imposing fronts in those glens; to be known in tuture ages as the rivals of the far-l.imcd glens of* Scotland; when some Seott or Burns shall rise up, to > picture their Indian lcg«nds in story and in song.
The outlets to some of the lakes amund which Maj. Stoner used to trap the sagacious, though too often*^ confiding beaver, run off in a northerly course to swell the Hudson, while other lakes send their tribute in a southerly direction to the Mohawk. The most eastern of the latter ^lass are the Caroga lakes, discharging in a creek of the same name, which runs into the Mohawk in the western part of Palatine. Some two or three miles to the westward of the Garogas is a larger lake, lown among the early hunters as Fish lake, th>: ^ a O; .en called Canada lake, because it pays^ tribute to the East Canada creek.
An anonymous writer in the Geneva Courier, over the signature of Harold, has thus pertinently described this sheet of water and its locality, in that paper, bearing date, Oct. 28, 1845. " Two and a half miles from Caroga [Garoga must be the aboriginal word] is a larger lake, about four miles in length, to which I gavp the name of Lake Byrn. It takes exactly tho^ form of the letter S. I think this is the must romantic ^ spot I ever visited. The surface of the grouiid rising
Imrk from thr shoro, in covcrnl with larpjr irrr(,MiIiirly hhapfd rocks, I'rnin fwv to forty trtt in iliiiinctcr, lyin(( cMtirily al)OY«> ^roiuui, anil often tuinlilin^ to^ftlicr in mountain inasMS, loii^cd and wedded in like dril'twood. Many of these rcH-ks a." riven asunder and the l)ase of each portion thrown outuard from tlu' lin«r of separation, the superior parts resting against earh other, thus forming apaitinents with a solid si tne roof larj^e enouj;h to shelter a do/en or twenty men. This 1 think must have heen the work of fire. Slranj^e as it may seem, all this is in (juite a dense torest, and almost infinite are the shapis taken hy the trees in
rocks. In some instances the roots of a single tree
^have prown astride a hu^e rock, the hase of the trunk resting on its apex, six or eight feet from the ground. The appearance is the same as if the rock were forci-d up from the ground beneath, elevating the tree with it,
J hut not a particle of earth attaches to either; and these are all living, healthy trees. It is in this neighborhood that tradition sjiys large sums of money were ^ buried by certain Spaniards, in the time of the American Revolution; but ' it^s sure never a bate o' it did I '^Jind at all, at allP So said a hard-fisted son of Erin, relating the story. Near the centre of Lake Byrn, is a small rocky island, covered with evergreens, birch / and flowering shrubs." This island, the reader will 1^ remember, I have named Stoner's island. The writer above quoted called on Major Stoner, at the time of
A low miles (iistanl lioin Lake Ilyrn is u i)0<ly of water ol ru-arly ihi? .same ;;!/«' rallrd Pino lakr, on account of ihr lordly pines about its .shon-s: it cmptie.i into till' loiimrr. Two sniull crystal sheets ahove Pine^ lake are culled Stink lakes. Their unpoetie name at- I tatdied from the following incident. Sloncr and I)e I/nu" were Ihcrt* on a hunt, and discovered many f bushels of dea<l fish, principally suckers, whicli hud \ jrot over a heaver's <lam in a freshet; and wliii h, bein^r unable to return, had died on the rc(!e.ssion of tiie water, to the pjreut annoyance of those hunters, who\ thus named the hikes. Their outlet runs into that of Pine lake. Several .small lakes in the southerly part of Hamilton county, unite their waters to form the head of West Canada creek. Lake Good Luck, some ten or twelve miles in circumference, which lies only a few miles to the northward of Stink lakes, empties into the west branch of the Sacondaga, one and a half milos below Devereux's mills. This lake derived its name from the following incident. While Vrooman^ was surveying near it, and several of his party were v. making a large canoe from the trunk of a tree, John Burgess, his son-in-law, discharged his gun at a loonA ofT on the water. The piece burst and scattered its fragments harmlessly in every direction. The acci- "^
About two miics below the mouth of the outlet from Gook Luck, is a small lake called Trout lake. I. abounds in trout, which circumstance originated its name; and not a few anglers visit it to replenish their larder. On the shore of this lake, the reader will re-
I member, a poor Indian once lost a turtle's and his own shell. Stoner at different times, killed two moose in the y edge of tliis lake, while the animals were fighting flies. Satterlee's mills are located on West Sacondaga, at a rapid some two miles below the outlet of Trout lake. From those mills to the outlet of Piseco lake, the stream is rapid, affording fine mill-seats. At this rapid was also a carrying place, where the Indian and other hunters carried their canoes over land to get into Piseco lake. It is some twelve miles from the inlet of Piseco lake, to where the east and west branches of the Sacondaga unite.
The Piseco is the largest of a cluster of lakes in Hamilton county, v/hich empty into the west branch of the Saron(l.it,a, and is some nine miles long, and in places, nerrly three broad, or twenty miles in circumference. (X the lakes in the neighborhood of Piseco, are Mud lake, so called because its shores are muddy; Spy lake, so named by the surveyors, because approached so unexpectedly by them ; Round lake, the name indicating its form; and Ox-Bow lake. The last mentioned is three or four miles long, though not very wide, and shaped like the bow of an ox-yoke. In the territory adjoining, and known as the Ox-bow
tract, Seth Wetraore, a former sheriff of Montgomery county, owned some thousands of acres, a considerable portion of which was received from the state as compensation for opening a road, the survey of which I have alluded to, from the shore of Piseco lake to the Pleeker settlements. Lake Pleasant, another large and beautiful sheet of water, lies off to the northeast of the Piseco; and its outlet, with other streams, forms the eastern branch of the Sacondaga: to the westward of Lake Pleasant, some ten or twelve miles, is a pretty lake, called Louis's lake, after a Canadian Indian, who formerly hunted upon its shores.
The land in the Piseco country, though hilly and often mountainous, is said to be less stony and more fertile than that of the Garoga and Bleeker territory: and when New England gets her telescope upon it, it I will beyond all doubt, be thickly peopled by enterprising inhabitants. Many acres of the soil are covered with a heavy growth of pine and spruce timber, which ^ only needs an avenue to market richly to reward the \ pioneer for the blows of his axe and saw.
From the lakes of Hamilton county, streams run off in almost every point of compass. Besides the lakes named, there are numerous others in different parts of this county; among which are Lake Janet, named after the accomplished wife of Professor James E. De Kay, zoologist of the state in her late scientific survey; Lake Catharine, named after a multitude of good/ Dutch women, and one in particular; Racket and Long
lakes'. The two last named are the largest in the county, hcin^s one fourteen and the other eighteen miles in length. Hamilton county, from her isolated situation w-lh regard to the export of her products; being too far removed to warrant a transport by land to a good market, is mostly in a wild and unsettled condition; she having only one legal voter to every twenty-six hundred square acres of her territory; but could a communication by rail road or canal be opened to some good market place, it would soon teem with a busy population. That a connected water communication is feasible, is thus hinted at by Professor Emmons, in his volume of the New York Geology. Me observes, speaking of the waters of Hamilton county: "These lakes, together with their bays, inlets and outlets, and other waters which may be connected with them, are capable of forming an extended line
J of water communication, by which a large portion of tliis section of country may be traversed ; and probably the time may not be far distant, when it will be thought expedient to form and perfect some of the natural channels of communication which intersect this part of the state."
In one of his annual reports during the geological survey, Dr. Emmons thus describes this region of country. " I have the pleasure of stating that it is
^ far from being the wet, cold, swampy, and barren district which it has been represented to be. The soil is generally strong and productive; the mountains are
not SO elevated and steep, but tliat the soil is preserved of sufficient thickness to their tops to secure their^ cultivation, and most of the marshy lands may be reclaimed by ditching; by this means they will become more valuable than the uplands for producing hay. In fine, it will be found an excellent country for grazing, raising stock, and producing butter and cheese. The^ strength of the soil is sufficiently tested by the heavy V^ growth of timber, which is principally of hard wood, \ as beech, maple, yellow-birch, butternut and elm. The evergreens or pines, are confined mostly to the lower ranges of mountains. Some of them are of the largest l growth of any in the state, and are suitable for the 1 main shafts of the largest of the cotton mills. In the main, the county resembles the mountainous districts of New England, and like these produces the same intermixture of forest trees, and has about the same adaptation for the production of the different kinds of grain, as wheat, rye, oats, pras, barley, together with fine crops of potatoes."
Comparatively little is yet known of northern New ^ York, indeed, a great part of what has heretofore been known, was only so in error; this is my apology, for saying so much about it.
In a hunting excursion accompanied by Lieut. Wallace and one Coffin, Major Stoner went down to Jessup's river, some fifteen miles below Fish House; and in the woods between that river and the ^Sacondaga, they found the body of a white man they supposed
J revenged with death a real or supposed injury.
The local Indian names Garoga, and Kennyetto, I have sought in vain to get the English definition of. If any individual can give the signification of either of them, they will confer a favor by communicating the same to my address. It is not only important that
will drop a tear of pity over the wrongs and injuries
rdone this brave, indeed once noble but now degradt race; and cherish the significant and purely American ^fnaraes they once gave to our lakes, rivers, and mountains, as they would their household gods.
Nathaniel Foster, justly celebrated as a hunter and trapper of northern Now York, was a native of Hinsdale, Wi' ham county, Vermont; the town is now called Vernon. He was named after his father, and was born about the year 1767. At the age of three ' or four and twenty he married Miss Jemima, daughter *" of Amos Streeter, of New Hampshire; a year or two after which, and nine or ten years subsequent to the close of the Revolution, he removed to the town of Salisbury, Herkimer county. New York; at which time tho country around his new home was mostly a \ wilderness.
In person he was nearly six feet high, erect and strongly built, with a large muscular frame that seemed well fitted for fatigue. His features were commanding, l!.ough not finely marked, and when cheer- / fulness lit up his countenance through his ke*. >i dark v eye, they were rather prepossessing. His complexion was sallow, his hair was a sandy brown, but not very gray to the hour of his death, although he grew bald ^ in the latter part of his life.
To adopt the
^hmguajjfe of a correspondent, " lie was a Lout her stock' ling of an original stamp, an devoted to a icild-wood I lifc.^' lie began his pioneer residence in the winter, and the following spring he took a suflieient quantity Tof fur, principally beaver, to purchase a cow and ^ many articles necessary in housekee[)ing. lie afterwards obtained yearly large quantities of valuable ■ fur, such as beaver, otter, musk-rat, marten, &c. He
J has been known to have three or four hundred muskrat traps set in a single season*, employing at times several men to help him tend them.
Deer, bears and wolves were so numerous for years after Foster made his home on the borders wf the forest, that he slaughtered them in great numbers. Indeed, it is believed, that he has killed more of those animals collectively, than any other individual
Jin the state during the same period; having slain no less than seventy-six deer in one season, and ninetysix bears in three seasons. He has also been known ^ to kitt twenty-five wolves in one year; having a line of traps set for them from Salisbury to the St. Lawrence. These animals were so great a pest among ^ the sheep-folds when the country was new, that a j liberal bounty was paid for the'r destruction by the state; increased at times by the liberality of certain counties and towns in whi< ^ they were the most numerous. The avails of his limiting and trapping
amounted in one year, when a liberal price was set upon wolves, to the sum of twelve hundred and fi/l]/\ dollars. lie occasionally killed a panther.
The bounties paid for the destruction of wild animals, often made the taxes of frontier towns a burthen; and a wealthy fiirmer in the neighborhood of Foster, took a stand one season which prevented the paying of such a reward for the destruction of wolves as hunters thought they deserved. The consequence . was, that all the old and young Nimrods in the vicinity turned their attention to other game, and pur-^ posely let the wolves alone; which in a year or two more were greatly on the increase. Foster told his farmer friend at the election, he would be sorry for the manner in which he had voted, and after the animals had had time to increase, he was not much surprised, one morning, to hear a most pitiful story j from him, about the injuries he had sustained the^ night before by wolves ; they had been into his sheepfold and destroyed more property in a single night, * than his tax, when the highest bounty was paid for^ their scalps, had amounted to in several years. He soon found, to use a hunter's phrase, he was barking j / up the wrong tree for sympathy. " Well," said Leatherstocking, with not a little manifest indifference, " I don't know as I can pity you much. If you are unwilling to pay me for protecting your sheep, N you must buy traps and take care of them yourself." C It is perhaps unnecessary to add, the penurious far-
the Albany Museum will there see the skin of a large
J moose which was shot by this hunter, and for which he received from the proprietor some fifty dollars. There is the skin of another large moose in a New York or * Philadelphia museu u, also killed by this hunter. The following incident attended the death of one of those animals. Foster had a favorite dog, as fond of '^hunting as was his master. The bay of this sagacious animal one day called its owner to a retired J spot in the forest, where he discovered Watch holding a moose by the nose; keeping his own body Y> between the fore-legs of his adversary, to avoid the , p heavy blows aimed at him with the antlers of the I I enraged animal, which formidable weapons weighed ^ together nearly thirty pounds.
On nearing the spot Foster sent a bullet through the heart of the moose, which in its death-struggle dashed the dog off with a terrible blow. The print of the dog's teeth remained upon the nose of the moose, but both animals appeared to be dead. Foster took off his noat and laid his canine friend upon it, at which timf a partner in the hunt arrived upon the ground. With a heavy heart Foster prepared to skin
the game, when his comrade observed a moving of ^ the muscles about the dog's neck, and told the former it would recover, but the old hunter shook his head \ doubtingly. After a while Watch raised his head — slowly from the ground to receive the caress of his) master; but as soon as his eye rested upon his fallen antagonist, he sprang to his feet and seized the life-j • less moose by the throat, from which he was with no F little difficulty removed. The restoration of his favorite dog to life, caused Foi.ter more real joy than could possibly the killing of a dozen moose.
One or two years after Nathaniel Foster settled in Salisbury, his father removed from the east with his family, and located in the same town. He, too, was something of a sportsman. Nathaniel had two brothers younger than himself, who, as they attained sufficient age, indulged occasionally in hunting deer. The following incident will show how providentially the elder brother was once saved from harm. His brother Elisha having on some occasion borrowed his gun, sent it home by a young son. The lad as he neared the dwelling saw his uncle going in at the^ door, and to be very smart, as boys sometimes are, he/ drew up the piece and snapped it at him. On entering the house he told his kinsman what he had done; when the old hunter took the piece from the hand of his nephew, walked to the door and snapped it,and a bullet whi77ed through the air from its muzzle.\ He remarked as he went to set it away, that he had^s
^ 'I'hc rifle with whicli Foster usually Ijuiitcd would /carry two balls as well as one; and when he desired ' to render the death of lar^c f^arne doubly sure, he ^ loaded with two bullets. Foster and Stoner had each a rifle at one time made after the same pattern, by ^ Willis Avery, of Salisbury, and called double shatters. They were made with a single barrel with two locks, onc! placed above the other far enough to admit of two charges, and have the upper charge of powder rest upon the lower bullet. The locks were made for percussion pills, and when the pick which crushed the pill at the first lock was down there was no danger to be apprehended in firing the lower charge. J These rifles cost about seventy dollars each. That of Stoner was borne by a soldier into the late Florida war.
s of his J
Klunncd l»y tht; ball striking it near the l)ank-bone, and as the htiiitor niti up to cut its throul, (he animal^ .'fpnmi; upon ills haunches, ami in its own rl<lence 'liuck luriously at hin\ with its untler;^. Quick ;as tloui^ht, lhi;nn()tit rn Lcalherstockinj^ placed tl between his teeth, and grapj)Ied the weapons unexpected I'oe. The strugjjrle for the mastery v as long and fierce, the hunter not darinpj to let fxo bis hold; but, af* ^i^oud luck would have it, he i^ot the head of the deer between two trees, against one of wliich a hotn was broken, and the wouied animal thrown down. Before it could recover, the hunter"** dealt it a bio- , upon the head with a ( lub tortum had placed at his command, when hesucc eded in cutting I its throat. The tussle lasted more than thirty minutes; ^ and wlu'U his brother ariucl upon the ground, hc^ found the grass and bushes trampled down for several v rods around. The strength of the hunter was nearly exhauiited in the engagement; while his tattered garments gave evidence, that a vi.sit lo his wardrobe would alone restore his outward man to the condition it was in an hour before.
On a certain occasion, Shubael Foster visited a wolf-trap, in company with his brother, Nathaniel, in which a wolf was caught by one of its hind \ legs. It crawled under a log on their approach; and the senior hunter conceiving it would make him a fine pet, resolved to take the snarler home alive.'**.
among his intimate friends. His early advantages at
N school were limited, as were those of many of the hardy pioneers of western and northern New York, who chanced to be boys in the great, American contest for liberty. When he settled in Salisbury, he could neither read nor write; but, about the year 1810, William Waterman, then a merchant in Salis-
the author.
The northerly part of Herkimer county was not only a wilderness when Foster began the life of a hunter, but much of it is still in a state of nature. It is dotted with numerous crystal lakes and rivulets, to the shores of which Foster was invited in his hunting excursions, as wild game grew scarce nearer his home. About the year 1793, or 1794, John Brown, a capitalist of Rhode Island, purchased a tract of two hundred and ten thousand acres of wild lands about the head waters of Moose river, a tributary to the Black river. Lying in the north-east part of Herkimer and the western part of Hamilton counties, is a connected chain of
eight small lakes, and their outlet forms one branch of Moose river. It is known there, however, as the Mill stream. These lakes, which lie in a line running nearly east and west, are called in Gordon's Gazetteer, the Fulton lakes, but why they are so called, does not appear.
Brown did not pu) chase this land of the government, as I am informed, but got it of some individual in payment for a debt, and soon after opened a road from Rerasen to it. It is said to have cost Brownl some thirty cents an acre. He visited the tract in the winter of 1798 and 1799, and had then, or previously, several log dwellings, a grist-mill and a saw-mill erect- > ed upon it, with the view of bringing it into market. He spent very little time upon the tract, however, and had not accomplished much in the way of subduing those wild lands at the time of his death, which took place in 1806.
Charles F. Herreshoff having married the widow Francis, a daughter of John Brown, resolved upon making a permanent settlement upon Brown's tract (so called since his purchase), and went on to it with that intent about the year 1812. He has generally been regarded as a German, but in answer to an inO quiry, he assured Darius Hawkins, he was a Prussian 1^ by birth. He had a commanding appearance, being over six feet high and well formed. He was very gentlemanly in his deportment, though extremely proud and aristocratic. He is said to have been a
Although he was not as well calculated as some men of a less enterprising spirit are to settle a new country, still, considering the great diffi-
)culties he had to encounter, which are of a magnitude people living at ease in cities can hardly conceive, he had accomplished much towards the fulfilment of his purpose. He repaired the mills Brown had erected, and in the course of a few years he had cleared up nearly two thousand acres of land, the greater part of which had been heavily timbered, and erected thereon some thirty or forty buildings. The mills were nearly three miles from the most westerly lake of the Fulton chain, and at that place he built a forge for the smeltI ing of iron ore. He also opened several roads to the nearest settlements.
He had expended, it is said, more ih^n fifteen thou^ sand dollars (some persons have named a much larger sum), with as yet the prospect of its paying little or no interest, and made a call on his Providence friends for more money. But alas! for his peace of mind — / the draft was dishonored. Unwilling to survive the mortification attendant on a failure of his schemes.
of means, he became disheartened, loaded a pistol, went into the yard in front of his dwelling, and blew out! his brains; thus effectuaWy settling fiimself. The re- ^ port of the pistol instantly brought out the inmates of the house, who found the victim of ambition sitting^ upon the ground, where, in a few moments he lay a7 gory corpse.
Such -was the melancholy and tragic fate of one of the most enterprising men that ever entered the wild lands of New York, to subdue them. It would almost seem as though he had live4 before his time. Large sums of the money he had expended, were exhausted in searching for iron, where it is very possible, with\ the knowledge modern science has at her beck, little or no expense would have been incurred. That iron and perhaps other valuable ores abound in that part of the state in large quantities, is not unlikely; and* some more fortunate, though less enterprising man than the first active settler upon Brown's tract, may yet reap a rich harvest there for his labors.
The death of Herreshoff took place December 19, 1819, at which time he was boarding with Gardner Vincent, whose family resided on the tract. Herreshoff' took three hundred merino sheep on to his clear-^ ing, where he also kept a span of horses. The body of Herreshoff", after his death, was carried out to Russia Corners, a distance of nearly fifty miles, where an inquest was held upon it by Henry S. Whiting as
the time, wlio rt;(iut'ste(l to takt; tlie body to that place, utU-r the inquest, for burial, and they were permitted to take it. Says Doctor Henry Graves, of Boonvillc, in a communication to the writer: " At this place 1 I examined tlie wound of Herreshoif. The ball entered I the right temple and passed through the head." A few years after his death Ilerrrshoflf's friends placed V at his grave, which is near one corner of the village grave-yard in Boonville, a marble slab with the following inscription:
The cost of his iron gives a principal reason why he committed suicide. The tuxes upon the tract were also heavy for unproductive property. The assessor's^ valuation was one shilling an acre. Samuel (Jiles went in from Russia two seasons (believejl in 1813 and ISM), and collected the tax, which was sixty, dollars each year.
Stephen Smith, 2d, of lluj^sia, was engaged as a surveyor on Brown's tract, in the years 1815, IG and 17. lie was employed by John Brown Francis, a step-son of Ilerreshofl', who has since been governor of Rhode Island. The tract was divided into eight townships, numbering from one to eight. Names arc said to have been given to those paper towns, two of which are believed to have been Economy and Fru-V gality: names very proper for any of those townships, and indicative of the virtues it would be '' necessary to practice, in order to live there.
In 1817, Smith was engaged in laying out a public road through the tract. It began two miles cast of Boonville, and striking the tract it ran through townships number 1, 2, part of 3, and all of 7. From HerrcshofF's mills it ran up on the north side of the lakes, terminating at the Sacondaga state road, leading from Russel, St. Lawrence county, to Lake Pleasant, in Hamilton county, then being surveyed by Judge Atwater, of St. Lawrence county, and located by John Fay, Esq., of Fish House, as commissioner. This road extended southerly to the town of Wells,
as I htivo elsewhere sliown. The greater part of it is now overfjrown with trees. The road opened by Smith was forty miles lonp, and intersected the Sarondaga road twenty-seven miles from Lake Pleasant. Smith was engat^ed on his road, of which he was also
one of the larpfest and purest lakes on the tract, being
0^ several miles in extent, and very deep. It lies a few miles south of the western end of the Fulton chain. Southerly from Moose lake, and farther to the eastwanl, heads what is called the South branch of Moose river. It is three miles from Moose lake to the South branch ; on which stream, and nearly opposite Moose lake is a small clearing of several acres, called Cana-
*■ shagala, an Indian name. Some suppose this clearing was made by the Indians, and others that the timber was destroyed by fire. The stream at this point is a remarkable spot for fishermen.
The survey for the road was first extended up on the south side of the Fulton chain, and north side of Moose lake, to Fifth lake; but as the route was found impracticable for -a good r'>ad, on account of the difficulties to be overcome in the make of the land, it was located on the opposite side of the lakes. The road laid out by Smith, struck the Black river ten miles from the starting point: from thence to Moose river, was six and a half miles; from which place to the
middle settlement, or the Ilerreshotr dwellinp^, it was nearly five miles more, making the wiiolo jlistanco from IJoonville nearly twenty-four miles. The land on each side of the road was taxed to defray the expenses of its survey. Goinp^ in from the Remscn road, Moose river is crossed about one mile south of the clearinj^. Near the road from the middle settlement (on the rif^ht in entering), is a little lake of several acres, called lluckleherry lake, those berries > growing on its shore The outlet of this pond runs into the Mill stream.
Few incidents attending the survey of Brown's tract are now remembered. A porcupine, one day,r claimed a preemption right to the soil, and evinced \ a disposition to dispute the surveyor's title, planting 7 itself in a bristling posture directly in the road. It was an ugly customer to handle without mittens, or rather tongs, and surveyor Smith, acting upon the^ forest hunter's rule, that might makes rights wilfully I and maliciously slew the varmint with his compass \^ staff.
Herreshoft* was a good feeling man, and at tiraes'A rather jovial, liking a little fun withal. Cn some occasion, Smith, accompanied by Herreshoff, Vincent and Silas Thomas, went in a boat to the head of Fourth lake, to select some pine timber. Passing one of the islands in the lake, probably Bear island, Herreshoff desired to be set ashore on a bluff extending -* some rods into the lake. As is generally the case
Mr. W. S. Bonchloy, of Newport, N. Y., who wad well acujuainti'd with Uncle JVW, and who has often been on Brown's tract with Foster and since his day; has at my request kindly furnished me by letter with several incidents in the old trapper*s life, and a description of the tract, or a portion of it, which letter I shall do my readers a favor to present in his ownV words; notwithstandinj^ lie tells me at the outset he is " entirely unused to writing other than common "J business transactions." I trust he will pardon me for the liberty I have taken with his name and letter.
" I have long been acquainted with a part of that region of country called Brown^s Tract. At an enormous expense, Brown has opened three roads on to his tract.* The route now taken to approach it from this direction is, to leave the northern turnpike at Boonville, Oneida county. Taking a north-easterly direction, you pass the last improvement some eight miles from Boonville, beyond which the road is impassable for carriages. Pack-horses, or what we call drays are used for carrying our provisions, &c., in our
" On iTa<liinj; Moose riviT, about fivi- miles from llif last NitlUimnt, wr have to ncow our lugj^aj^e over; and lVi'(iiK'ntly to swim our horses. Moose river at this point is twiee as lar^e as Ihe West Canada creek, anchiuilt' iapi«l. In fact, the entire lenf^lh of the river is one continued fall, or succession of
Tr:ipi(ls; makinp; sullicicnt water-power, if improved, f»)r the use of the whole statt; of New York. Trom Moose river to the lirst clearing we reach on Hrowri's tract, is eleven miles, over a most horribly rocky, «lony, cold region; though very well covered with timber, such as spruce, balsam, beech, birch, some maple and hemlock.*
" The first clearing you enter is called Coal hill, from the fact, I believe, that most of the timber from (his clearing was made into coal for the use of the iron- works erected by Ilcrreshonf, son-in-law to Brown. A short distance from this you enter a large improvement with one framed house, where I lerresholT used to live. [This is in township number 7.] In this clearing he expended a large amount of money V in searching for iron ore; blasting and digging at the base of a rocky hill or mountain running through this
• That much of this tract in an agricultural point of view has a most forbidding aspu-ct, thcro can bo but little doubt. Judp[« Stow, of Lewis county, once observed of it, " that it was so poor rit would make a crow shed tears of blood to fly over it."
improvement. I'ailini^ lu uccomplisli what hu expci'tcii, liL* bccumc di.scuu^a^(.J: \m friends ut tht"! ta.ni* time rrl'u.iin^; to QiJ\un(:e him uny more fundi, j un<i left alone a.H h<: \\as, to bear the bhinte of a fail- \ ure; di.^hcartened ami Npirit-broken, ho died, * ilh the . fool dietli,' by blowir:;; out his brain.i with a pistol.
"Since lifrreshoJl'M death, the improvemints mad« by him have been mostly abandoned, except ^y hunt« ers and lishermen. On leavinfi; this clearing you cross one branch of Moose river, which is the outlet of eight small lakes, of which 1 shall speak hereafter. Passing through several improvements for two and a holf miles, you reach th«! spot where once stood the forge, a saw-mill and grist-mill, with several dwellings; but now entirely gone with the exception of one barnframe with the roof on, otherwise entirely stripped of covering.
" All the improvements at one time must have covered some tiuo thousand acres ^ with about fort}/ families upon them. All the buildings now remaining are two dwellings, one barn, and two frames of barns divested of covering. When Foster left the tract [1833], some remains of the forge, mills, &c., were
the water had found some other outlet.
" At HerrcshofT's dam we take boats for fishing excursions, and three miles up the stream we enter the First lake, a beautiful pond, say one mile by one and-a-half miles in extent, containing one small island, called Dog island; a dog having been found upon it by an early visitor. About half a mile down the outlet, and near a point of land now called In^ dian's point, Uncle Nat shot the Indian. Leaving this lake you pass into the Second lake, separated from the First by sand-bars, with a narrow channel
some twenty feet wide. This lake is some longer than the First, but is not as wide, and has no islands. Alonj^ the nortli shore of Second lake, rises a most grand and sublime mountain, presenting a front of naked rock for nearly one mile, at a height of several I hundred feet. On its summit Uncle Nat told me he had often been, ' that from it he could see numbers of lakes; and that there he could enjoy himself, and not | be troubled by the d — d Indians.' [This bold promontory I shall take the liberty to call Foster's 06servatoryj]
"From the Second you enter the Third lake by passincj through a strait of some ten rods. It is a pretty, pure, deep pond, about the size of the First and Second. In this lake is a small island, called Grass island, because it is well covered with grass, and has few trees or bushes upon it. Leaving the Third you pass up a stream some fifty or sixty rods, and enter the Fourth lake, which is seven miles long, and from one to tw'o miles wide. It has four islands, the first of which in ascending is called Deer island, containinc: about 100 acres of well timbered land."
Desirous of permanently fastening the names of the most celebrated Nimrods of this region upon its scenery, I shall take the liberty to call this island • Benchley's island, after George Benchley; who shantied at the head of Third lake, but a short distance from the island, and who perished in the wilderness while following the fortunes of a trapper.
George and Joseph Benchley (brothers of my correspondent), were engaged in trapping in the fall of 1819, in the region of country under consideration. \ George, who was the oldest, possessed a roving and / very romantic disposition. For a while he was engaged in a sea-faring life, but tiring of its monotony, he severed che halliards which bound him to the " rolling deep," and returned to the home of his childhood. The pursuit of a forest-hunter seemed well suited, from its excitement, to his danger-daring temperament.
The brothers had a line of marten traps, extending from the Fulton lakes to some point on the State road, running from Wells to Russel, not far from Racket
cabins on the route. They were engaged in their
} pursuits u.'itil the last of November, having two men employed to assist them. They took turns in traversing the route, and George was alone on the eastern end of it, when a heavy fall of snow suspended their operations. Joseph and the assistants were at the main shantee, at the head of Third lake, where they remained several days anxiously awaiting the return
/ of the senior hunter. As he did not come in, two unsuccessful attempts were iiade to seek for him; but the great depth of snow ii that direction prevented
While in a feverish state of anxiety about their absent friend, not caring or perhaps not daring tcT^ return home without some tidings of him, an old ^ hunter, named Morgan, arrived at their lodge on snow-shoes. He had come, he said, directly from their eastern shantec on the State road, and assured \ Joseph that his brother was well, and had gone out to I Lake Pleasant to obtain food. Giving full credit to Morgan's statement, Joseph and his men returned home.
The winter wore avay, and nothing further was heard from the absent hunter by his friends at New-'^ port; but, as he was a single man, and well weaned / from home, little anxiety was felt about him, as they \^ supposed him safe at the house of some back-woodsman in Hamilton county. In the spring a message reached Newport, that the body of a man had been found by Indian hunters, in a shantee near Racket \ lake. The probability was, that Benchley's shantee was indicated, and his brothers Jenks and William, anxious to know his fate, made a journey out there,'T in company with two other persons. The body, which I had been buried, was exhumed, and their worst fears « were realized — the remains were those of their kins-\ man.
The hunter Morgan, was a morose and rather petulant fellow, and not very popular among the craft. He traversed the forest for several years, on and about Brown's tract, but finally went off to Canada and died there. He was pretty successful in taking fur, and at times was accused of getting it unjustly. He was one of those devil-daring woodsmen of whom the Indians stood in awe. From this digression I returu to Benchley's description of the country.
" The next island in Fourth lake [above Benchley's island], contains about one quarter of an acre, is a pile of bare rocks, and is known by the name of ElbajN which name can not fail to remind the reader of the I ambitious and unfortunate Buonaparte. It produced a solitary pine, which for many years was its only object of attraction. A Vandal hand has lately cut it, ioJ the deep regret of all sentimental hunters. ^
" The third island in Fourth lake contains ten or fifteen acres of land, and is called Bear island, an early hunter having killed one of those animals upon it. Near the head of this lake, and some fifty or sixty rods from Bear island, is a small island called Dollar | island, from its rotundity of shape. There is, in shoal ^ water, between Elba and Bear island, and about a mile distant from the former a bare rock, called Gull rock. This rock is said to be on the line between Herkimer and Hamilton counties. Brown's tract extends across Herkimer, and into the counties of Lewis on the west, and Hamilton on the east.
^ he said, * the c — d Indians killed them.' He seemed to feel as though he was lord of Brown's tract, and Avthat no one else, especially an Indian^ had as good a right there. With the Indian he shot, I was well acVquainted. He was indeed a noble looking fellow in I ajjpearance. He was of the St. Regis tribe, with a ^ cross of French blood. [Says Dr. Graves, in a communication to the author, " I have often seen the In/dian Foster killed. He was a very friendly, intelli^ gent man, and belonged to the St. Regis tribe on the St. Lawrence."] His wife was slender and very Vfeminine. She was under the most perfect subjection ^j to her husband, and was no doubt often ill treated by y him when tipsy: in fact, I believe that his and Foster's \ difficulties first commenced when they had both been
" Frcqurntly, wlicu on llicsr waters, l-'oslcr would direct my atlt ntion to an object on some distant, tjrassy beach, sayin|^, ' See! tliere is a deer: wateh, and youiwill see it move.' He was never mistaken; still a man unacquainted with the >vo()d, would very seldom sup-) pose that any tiling of tlie kind was in sight.
[To this grove HerresliolF was going when he was compelled to* take a eold bath.] Fivc^ distinct echoes to the human voice may lu; lieard at/ this place, and here I have repeatedly discharged a I gun, to hear mountain after mountain send hack its tardy response, until my rifle's shrill note had becn^ mimicked by five (as 1 suppose) mermaid hunters.
"Lying parallel to the Fullon chain, and mostly opposite Fourth lake, say two miles to the north of it, is a chain of three small lakes, several miles in extent, ■which also discharge their waters into Moos(! river. The stream is called the North branch, and the lakes arc known in the forest by the name of North Branch lakes.
" Leaving the Fourth, you pass up the inlet some Haifa mile, into the Fifth lake, a small pond of eight or ten acres. From the Fifth to the Sixth lake, is a continued fall of three-fourths of a mile. Here is a carrying place; and Foster, at the age of sixty, would / . take his skiff upon his head and shoulders and carry I it from one lake to the other, with but one stop. In fact, at that agi*, Foster was known to carry a decr^
202 TIUITEUS OF NKW VOKK.
^thrcc miles on his back. With ii single lock between Fifth and Sixth lakes, a water communication might easily be obtained the whole extent of the eight lakes. " The Sixth lake is quite small, and after wading and pushing up a narrow, rapid stream, say one and a half miles, you enter the ' Noble Seventh,' as Uncle Nat called it. The visitor on entering this lake, meets with a grand and beautiful view. The lake is about four miles lon'^ and two '.'ido, with a nameless island near its centre, of some fifty acres, covered with rocks and pine timber. [I have mentioned in these pages a forest-trapper named Green White, who was often on the island und( r consideration. With the rciidcr's
Jcessful hunter, was extensively known, and by Indian hunters he was universally feared. The Indians, he said to his friends, never, m^ stole his fur but once. He occasionally crossed the track of Maj. i Stoncr, to whom he was well known, but as he hunted to tho ' westward of Stoncr, they did not often meet.
" At th(! head of Seventli lake is a pfrovc of pitchpinc tiinl)er, whieli limber is not ilsewlierc seen in the district. On entcrinp^ this lake at one tinje with Foster he discovered a deer feediri'^; iipon a Rrassy beach, nearly half a mile distant. Said he, * B., put j mc on shore and I will give you some venison for din- I ncr.' I did so, and then rowed out into the lake, far enough to see the deer. After remaining some time, I s^w Foster step suddenly from the bushes upon the i beach, some distance from the deer. Almost the very
" I should think White had boon dead some fifteen years. lie with another man was corriinjj in from the tract; thoy halted by the way-side, built them a brush shunteo and stopped for tho nifjht. ^ During the night, a small stub of a tree foil across tho shanteej and broke White's leg. Early in tho mornin;;^ the man with Kim V. came to Boonvillo about tcvcntccn miles for help. Ho was brought \ in on a litter; but before a surgeon could be obtained to amputato"^ « it, the limb mortified and he died." *^
In the fall of 181.0, said tho surveyor Smith, White came in from Brown's tract with three hundred dollars worth of fur, and*]?* as usual on such ocasions, ho traincd\xn\\\ it was all gone. While V hunting, after the provisions were gone ho had taken in from tho I settlement, he lived on wild game and fish. This was the usual \^ fare of hunters in the forest. White is said to have been about the same ago of Foster, and is believed to have followed trapping about the Fulton lakes a few years earlier than did Foster. There was a hunter named Williams, on and about Brown's tract in 1815
001 TRAPPI.US OF Ni:VV VOIIK.
J instant tlu< drcr raised its litad iVoui iVcdin^, I saw the flash of his rifle and tlie dtrr lall. At Foster's call I went asiiore, he not knowing that I hud seen ^ tlio doer lall. Well, Uncle Nat, said I, have you J killed him? When you hear him speak, he always tells the truth.' I stepped on •shore and ibund he had put his ball precisely in "the J centre of the deer's forehead, lie must have been full twenty-five rods from the animal, and fired the /instant it raised its head. In a very few minutes he / had a fine piece of venison roasting before a good fire, \ and ere long we had a sweet morse! to dine upon. "At another time, while we sat fishing from our boat, he discovered an old doe with two fawns, the latter about as large as lambs at two months old. They were feeding and playing upon the beach, perhaps a quarter of a mile distant. Foster was on fire immediately. I remonstrated against killing the little , fellows for so small a gain, and proposed to pay bin) *lJ the dollar and let them go. But no; nothing w^uld satisfy him short of a shot. I then rather re 'used to .1^ row him within shot; but one look from him satisfied inc that I might as well comply. However, I managed . in the operation to make noise enough to frighten the
'• From tho S(;\»'nth to the Kij^hth lake is three or four miles, and the lake is sonic lour or hve miles loiif^. From these eight lakes runs the stream on Nvhieh the mills on Hrown's tract were erected. A carrying place iVom the Kighth lake, some two miles, brings you to what is called the Racket inlet, running easterly, down which you can go in a skltF into Racket lake, and I'rom thence down Racket ri\cr to the St. Lawrence.
" The poor Indian Foster killed, was buried on a point near where the mill dam now stands, and a rude cross was erected at his head by his IViends. Last September [1848], I looked for the grave, but it was so overgrown with grass and bushes I could not find it. When ho shot the Indian, he went about five miles to gain Indian Point belbre his victim arrived." V'
The Indian here alluded to, is said to have been ^ quite successful in killing deer. lie often flouted for / them. This was done in the night time. In his bark canoe, behind a few green boughs, he would proceed I as silently as possible along the shore of a lake, and y shoot the timid der there feeding on grass, or standing in the water's edge to cool, as they gazed in w^onder at the torch light in the bow of the craft, which j seemed at times to fascinate them. This mode of kill- y ing deer much displeased Foster, and is believed to\
HcsidcH (he lakes Alrcaily tiaiiinl in the rf^inn of country iinilcr ((Misidciation, tlicrc art* N(>\(>ral others of greater or less importance. The Jcrseyliehl hike, a handsome sheet of water some two mih'S h)n((, and around the shores of whieh l-'oster, in his eailier days, used to himt, lies in the easterly part of Salisbury. Black errek, which is one of the tributaries of WcNl Canada creek, has its soun;e in the Jerseyfield lake.
Jock's lake, so called after Jock (Jonathan) Wri^^ht, an early trapper upon its shores, is a very pretty lake, five or six miles loni^, thoujrh not very wide; and is situated in the north-eastern or wilderness portion of Herkimer county, some ten miles from a place called Noblesborou^h. Its outlet is one of the sources of the west branch of West Canada creek. Some four miles south of Jock's lake is a small sheet of water called Little Salmon lake, and about two miles to tho westward of Jock's lake, is another trout inhabiting pond, called Black River South lake. Around those lakes, and nhng their sti'eams, were iavorite haunts of the trapper Wright.
Of the physical outline of 'Hamilton county and the northerly part of Herkimer, Prof. Lardner Vanuxem, thus remarks in his volume of the Geology of New York. "The most interesting feature of the w'lderness region is its chain of lakes, placed so nearly upon a level that but little labor from man is required to connect those of three counties together. The lakes of Herkimer and Hamilton are arranged upon
With the death of its proprietor, the Herreshoff settlement on Brown's tract became tenantless, and in a short time all the improvements were going to waste and destruction. Hunters occasionally visited the place, and when there, camped in the deserted dwellings. In May, 1830, the premises were leased for a small sum, and in February 1832, Nathaniel Foster, who had for years traversed this region, purchased an assignment of the lease and moved his v family there; that he might with greater convenience J follow his favorite avocation of a wilderness trapper. His family, consisting of himself and wife and his son David and wife, occupied the Herreshoff dwelling nearest the forge. In a hut not far from Foster dwelt an Indian hunter named Peter Waters, familiarly known in the forest by the name of Drid; and in another house erected by the original proprietor, resided three old bachelors, William S. Wood, David Chase, and Willard Johnson. Johnson first entered the forest with Hcrreshofl, to work at his forge. Some part of the time there were three or four other persons en the clearing, increasing the population to some fifteen inhabitants, all of whom depended principally upon \ hunting and fishing for their support. Johnson, who
was a man somewhat advanced in life, often hunted with Foster; and Wood, of whom wc know but little else, would have frozen to death on one occasion, but^ for the attentions of Foster. '
The condition of the other settlers at this period on Brown's tract, was rendered the more comfortable by the family of Foster, whose women were able and ready to dispense the numerous little comforts the sex, can command. A difficulty arose between Foster and his Indian neighbor, which, from one of a trifling na-\ ture, assumed a most serious aspect. A feeling not the most friendly began to gain a place between them, and some person, either from motives of mischief or terror, took occasion to tell Drid that Foster! was unfriendly to him — that lie did not like other I hunters — was a dead shot, and the like. It was a person or persons, no doubt, who had had some misunderstandi.ig with the Indian, and adopted this methodX to excite his fears without intending Foster any in-. * jury; possibly the informer was merely desirous of intimidating him, by making him feel conscious that i one man, at least, who did not fear him, had the U, ability to punish him; whatever the motive was is unknown, but the red hunter's worst passions wereX now aroused, and ere long he resolved to destroy a^ supposed foe, at whatever hazard. On several occasions, when intoxicated, he threatened the life of \ Foster, and to such a state of feverish excitement had
tunity for executing his diabolical threat. The hunter Johnson, on several occasions, accompanied Foster to I prevent a surprise from his avowed enemy.
must not harbor such feelings.
One of the earliest causes of difficulty between these hunters originated as follows; nearly a year before his death, Drid took Foster's boat vithout permission and left it in the river a mile below where he had taken it. He was admonished that he must not repeat such an act if he would not be punished for his
temerity, jit vvliieh just rt'proof he was very in(lif^niui.t ; \ and soon after was heard by several persons to say, ".1/e got a bad heart, me put a bullet through old Fos-'^'' tery It was about the time of the boat disturbance, , that certain indivichials attempted to terrify Drid byA threats of Foster's vengeance.
In July, and about two months before Ids <leath, Drid was returning to the tract in company with a man named John Carpenter, when, as he drew near his home, he fired off his rifle, reloaded jind carefully primed it. His companion inquired why he did \t1 f saying they would then find no game. " He did go to Foster's dwelling, and standing at a little distance from the door, he hailed . several times, to draw the object of search to an exposed situation. Mrs. Foster came to the door, and was alarmed to see the threatening attitude of her | neighbor. He inquired for her husband, and being I told that he was not at home, he exclaimed as he turned to go away, " Me shoot him if he had been ! '^ Next morning the family of Drid being out of provisions, applied as usual to Foster's family for food.X Informed of the Indian's conduct by his wife and Carpenter, Foster took some flour and in company with Carpenter, sought the red ipan's cabin to relieve / the wants of the family. In the presence of the wit- ^ ness he asked Drid if he had not called at his doorW intending to shoot him 1 He admitted that* he had, j
K and assigned as a reason, that he had been told that \ Foster had threatened to kill him for taking his boat. " / made 7io mch threat^'* said the old trapper, " / (said it would not he, well for yoti or any one elsCy *o Xtalce my boat a second time and fasten it a mile from ]) my landing.'^
In August following the above incident, Drid returned from Racket lake with furs, and halted at Foster's door, at which were several neighbors; when the old trapper very civilly asked him to pay his account. '" You arc d — d liar!" " He raised his tomahawk to /^strike the old man, who sp»ang into the house. " Foster threatened to complain of him before a justice of Vthe peace, and he replied, " Fll get there soon as you do — huint no law in woods here ! " The Indian with
V many threats then went off to his cabin.
Soon after this encounter with his adversary, Foster went before Joshua Harris, a justice of the peace in Brantingham, Lewis county, twenty miles from his
The magistrate declined issuing a process against ^Drid, saying that if he proceeded against him, the Jlatter would be as likely to kill him as complainant.
Failing to got a i)rt.('('j)t against his dusky antagonist, some of his acujuaintances advised Foster to remove his family from the forest, but he declared " ^Mwould not he frightened off' by an Indian.''^ He was very malicious, so much so that Aleck Thonipson, an Indian hunter, who had a shanteenear his, would have nothing to do with him, at least, so say the friends of Foster. The apprehcmsions of the Foster family were such all the latter part of the summer, that they seldom lit a candle in the evening, from fear that Drid] would fire in at their windows. Indeed, he had threatened to enter the house in the night time, and stabj him in his bed. He had even inquired on which side of the bed Foster slept, that he might make sure of his victim. When told tha*^ so rash an act would endanger the life of Mrs. Foster, he replied, J/ " She good woman — me no care to hurt her — hut ra- I ther kill 'e/n hoth, than not kill him f " V
On the morning of Drid's death, Foster was, agreeably to an arrangement made the evening before, to accompany Wood and Chase on a hunting excursion to Fourth lake. The Indian had left his traps and rifle at Racket lake, some twelve miles beyond the intended destination of the party, but concluded to\ go up with them as far as they went. Foster called { in the morning to see if the bachelors were ready for a start, and the Indian being present, renewed his^ quarrel with the former and attempted his life. He >• was a stout young raan, between twenty-five and i
/ thirty years of age, and Foster was upwards of sixty. He succeeded in t^etting the old man down upon the floor, but was foih>d in takinjjf his life by the intercession of the by-standers, who drew them apart, not j however until the Indian had cut his arm, in the J attempt to thrust a knife into his heart. Thwarted when he thought his victim sure, he threatened ven•^ geance, and declared at the end of a horrid oath, M"yow 710 live till Christmas!" Foster, whose worst
Foster retired after the difficulty with the Indian, and did not join the party, increased on its setting out by several others, who were going a few miles on a fishing excursion; but well satisfied that his foe
/would return and lurk about his dwelling to shoot him, as soon as he had obtained his rifle, he at once resolved to destroy the Indian, and thus prevent the V possibility of a future surprise. He accordingly proceeded up the river nearly to the First lake, where, upon its northern shore, a point of land projected into the river, now known among hunters and fishermen I as Indian's point. With his rifle carefully loaded with two balls, Foster obtained a commanding position on the point, to await the arrival of the party. J After some delay in getting ready they left the dam at the forge, Drid in a light bark canoe, Wood and Chase in a large bark canoe, and the fishing party,
The Indian, Tearing no doubt iVoni lhi> inornin^^'s encounUr and Foster's lliicat, that liis pen was in jeopardy, kept his little craft near Wood and Chase. At length tlui party neared the point, at which its present occupant knew Mie whiteX hunters must land to (;et some concealed traps. The * fishing party rowed on as the canoes put in for the shore, and passing the point they discovered the old trapper in the bushes, and pointing in the direction of the bushes, they said to the hunters, " there's old\ Foster .'" This announcement caused the Indian, who was then between the other canoe and the shore, change his position, and take the lake side of companions. The object of Foster's visiting the
point was rightly divined by the white trappers, whoV landed and obtained their traps without loss of time, and put off from the shore, when Drid placed his J canoe along side of theirs, so as to bring himself I about midway between them, if possible to endanger ^" their lives should a shot be attempted at himself.
Although Foster was several rods distant from the canoes, still the position of his foe did not secure his\ safety. The Indian's pye caught a glimpse of the fearful figure in the bushes just as the rifle was poised, \ and he threw up his arms in terror at the moment of I the explosion. Both bullets entered his left side near ^ the arm pit, passed through his heart and went out \ just below the right arm. They entered in the same^,^ spot, but left two places of egress opposite. The >
Cthc fairy craft preserving; the cradling motion comniunicated to it by his fall, for some length of time after the spirit of its owner had winged its flight,
^ The party in company with the Indian at ihe time of his death, either from fear or some other motive, did not offer to touch the body, but returned as speedily as possible to the place of starting. Leaving their boats, several proceeded directly to Foster's / house, where they found him lying on a bed. The **• distance from the dam to Indian's point by water is greater than by land, and the old trapper having T" finished his morning's work, had gained his own I dwelling, wiped out his rifle and prepared it for other *) game, ere the messengers arrived there. Foster expressed some surprise at seeing the party return so j soon, and enquired what brought them back. He r^ was answered, that a dead man was up the lake, the ^ Indian Drid, and they desired him to go up and aid I in getting him down. Agreeably to the request, N. Foster went up with the party to get the body, and \ himself took it into the boat, as the rest seemed afraid J to touch it. He also aided in burying it, near the / Indian's former residence. For killing this Indian, I Foster was arrested soon after, bv the authorities of
lii'wis county; luil whdi it was a.sccrt.'^itieiJ tliat the >/ scene of blood \va.s not within the jurisdiction of that county, lie was rtmovid fron» Marlinsltuif; to Ilorkimer, where he f^avc hail for his appeuraiicc when 1 required, and returned to his fuiuil/.
NoTii, explanatory of the engraving. A friend who made a little drawin^r of the Fulton chain of lakes, to give the writer an idea of the position of the parties, inadvertently placed the point on the south side of the kike, which led to an error in the cut representing this scene, as the point is on the north side. The cut, though an ideal one, is said (by persons who have been on the ground) to ijjive a very striking representation of the point, as Foster came » out between two trees. A row of fir trees are seen in the di;stance, said to be more numerous than are here represented. The cut is rather a spirited one, and if the reader will imagine the point transposed to the opposite shore, and the position of the parties changed accordingly, he will get a good idea of the tragic scene.
Havinf( hron indictnl lor iiiunior, at n court of ponrral sessions, in IIirkitiuT county, on the third day of Fobruary, 181)4, tor killing the Indian Drid, or, ns rnllcd in the indi«'tinrnt, Peter Waters; Nathaniel Foster was arraipjned tor trial at th«' circuit court hehl in that (ounty on the fil'tt'etith <hiy of September followin^j;. The trial, which lasted nearly two <lays,\vas / one of very fjjreat interest, arid drew tofrcther an iin' inense crowd of anxious spectators. Several indi\ viduals, some of whftrn were bunters, were sul)p(rnae(l •* to prove the quarrelsome disposition of the Indian killed by Foster; but they were not called upon the stand. The court consisted of his honor, Iliram Denio, circuit judge, and J.)nas Cleland, John B. Dygert, Abijab - Osborn, and Richard Ilcrendeen, indues of the bench of common pleas. After setting .side f/ercn jurors, who wrn* challenged on the ground of having prejudged the cause, the following jurors were impanneled: Jacob Davis, John Harder, Henry Ostrandcr, / James F. Fox, William Bouck, Peter Ilickert, William Shoemaker, James Shoemaker, Lester Green, Nicholas A. Staring, Earl Trumbull, and Peter Bell. FVom the fact that so great a number of jurors were disquarfied for the reason assigned, we may properly
infer thai the circuin.Ntanrrs whit h indiicrd FojttiTto^ take Ihr Indian's Iil'i>, wrrc generally known; and it may hv ([lU'stionrd whrlhrr any twrlvi' fmhoMtTJiA calh'd promiscuously tVotn the county, would have ron- f dcrcd a ditrcrcnt viTdict iVoni that (;ivcn hy the jury iinpannclcd.
James H. Hunt (district attorney), and Simeon Ford, wert' counsel lor the prosecution. The? prisoner was jleletided hy \']. P. Hurlhut, with whom were\ associated J. A. Spencer, A. Ilackley and Lauren Ford Mr. Hunt opened the cause hy observing that the prisoner was arraigned for murder, a rare crime in that county; slatini^ in a brief and pertinent manner, the fa('ts ho evpectcd to show in the progress of the trial. Having cited from the statute laws what would and / what wouM not bo justillublo homicide, ho adduced I the following testimony:
])Avm Chask, sworn. — Was at West Brunswick on the 17th of Septemljcr last; tliere saw Peter Waters; knows the prisoner; saw him also that morning. Jonathan Tyler, William Tyler, Hiram Thomas, and Nelson Stiinpson, started together in one boat to go up the lake; Wood and witness were in a bark canoe; Waters was in a canoe [of bark] alone; they started from the forge in company, and kept up the pond, east, until they came to a point of land about two miles from the forge, when they slopped to get their traps; witness and Wood were going to trap with the Indian in partnershij); Waters's boat was six feet from wit-
ness and along side; the other boat was opposite four or five rods. At this point of hind, First hike commenced; as Wood stepped out to get the traps, witness heard a rattling in the bushes and looked up the lake, thinking it was birds; turntd his head and kept watch; saw Foster, he was bent over a little, apparently, going sideways; saw him while passing, a distance of six or eight feet; had no doubt as to the person. Wood took up a load of traps and brought them to the canoe; does not know but he went again; thinks he brought them in two loads; went back out of sight half a minute; came out very quick; clenched up the traps and threw them in the boat in a hurry, and then moved off; Indian, as he heard a rattling in the bushes, shoved his boat close up to witness; they shoved oir from shore and brought the Indian between witness and Wood, in his own canoe; ; the gun then was heard to go off upon the shore on the point; witness turned and Indian was falling backwards from his canoe; made two motions with his hands; his legs stuck in canoe and thus he died. Witness turned to shore and saw Foster on shore in the direction of the report, and where he saw him before; witness and Wood had each a rifle; neither of their rifles were discharged. Witness called to his companions and said ' here is a dead man.'' W^aters had no fire-arms; an hour from leaving forge to that time, he thinks, bat is not certain. Witness examined the body; under the left arm, about two inches, the balls entered,
and came out abotit six inches below the right arm; these killed him; gun was very heavily loaded; saw no other person on shore but Foster; Wood was in the boat before gun was fired.
Cross-examined. — It was two or three rods from their boat to where Foster stood; after report saw him in the same open spot again; did not see any gun in his hand either way he passed; did not notice any smoke; was pretty badly frightened.
Nelson Stimpson sworn. — Was present 17th Sept. last; saw Waters and prisoner; mentions same party in boat named b}' previous witness; Wood and Chase were in one canoe and the Indian in another alone; went up two miles; is not acquainted there; thinks it may have been an hour before the catastrophe ; saw a wake in the bushes; boat passed along but Wood's boat had stopped; witness saw Foster pass ten fect^ partly bent over (lurking) in the bushes; witness and his party were hallooed to at a distance of thirty rods from this, and after the report of a gun, came back and found Indian's head and part of his body lying in\ the wat«r, and his legs in the canoe; did not see any gun in Foster's hands; did not examine body; Chase fired.off his gun two charges; it was a double shotter, and appeared to have been loaded sometime; Wood discharged his gun; did not see Foster after report of gun; saw no smoke there.
forge same day; went up from forge with party spoken of; they went up to the point (say two miles) in company; Wood and Chase together; Waters alone; all making to this point of land; W. and C. went a-shore; Stimpson spoke "There goes Foster;"
(witness looked and saw a man there that he (witness) called Foster; they rowed round the point out of . sight of the rest; Foster was walking a little stooped I and sideways; rowed thirty yards, heard report of a gun; heard Wood or Chase hallo " come hack as quick as you can; " they went back, and Chase said / they had a dead man there; Waters's head and shoulders were in the water and his legs in the canoe; did not examine his body; two holes in the shirt under one arm; examined guns of the others and found them charged as stated by the other witnesses; saw ^no gun in Foster's hands; bushes two feet high; was ' five or six rods distant when he saw him; witness and Wood went to Foster's house; found Johnson on the hill after this in a house occupied by Wood and Chase carrying in some ha/; Johnson lived with Foster; this was four miles from the place of exe/cution; did not see Foster after report of gun until ' at Foster's house same day, four miles from point.
Cross-examined. — Went to Foster's house on the fwoy from point; found him there lying on the bed; I did not know Foster until the night before; he was a J stranger until then; Foster may have passed eight or / ten feet in witness's sight while they were going
along in the boat; there were bushes there but not so high as elsewhere; some were ten feet high; saw side of his face; judge of him partly from his general appearance; he was without a hat; was bald- J headed; he was leaning the same way they were passing; stooped; did not see his hands; Foster was between two and three rods from the point which was to the left; when they found Foster he was lying on a bed; saw his gun in a corner of the room; does I not know whether it was loaded or not; was nothing I peculiar in Foster's dress; witness was not rowing when he saw Foster in the space; neither saw him before nor after he was at that point.
Direct testimony resumed. — Foster discharged arid reloaded his gun before he started; this was about one quarter of a mile from Wood's house; Foster's house is on the right-hand side of outlet; and he saw him at the other side of the outlet; the nearest way to get to that place from Foster's house was to cross the biidge at the forge; had a conversation with Fo'.er after he fired the gun and reloaded; witness / inquired " have you shot the deer? " " No, that d — d / Indian," showing on his wrist a scratch and blood; t^ " have had a squabble with the Indian and he cut this \ spot; and if it had not been for Mr. Wood and Chase^ the Indian would have killed me; go either forward or behind; I shall not go fishing."
mill's iVom any si'lllcrs; \\\v outirt is iVoni ten to lifti't'M rods wide; lliry liillvcd ol" goin^' lo llu' fourth hdvr; lives in ia-ydon, Lewis county ; the liouses were tlwellinpj-houst'S ert'clcd by sonic past sclllcrs.
Wn,i,i.\M S. Woon sworn. — Knows the prisoner; knew tlie Indian killed; was with (Phaser, did not see Foster Ihere [on the point | that day; went ashore to get traps; heard the report of a u;un; the Indian was killed; saw no person in the hushes; heard no noise; ^ was very busy ; got into the boat about as cpiiek as . usual; was about three or lour yards Ironi Waters when .shot; VV'aters's boat lying slill; witness was in liis boat when the gun was firiul; did not see Foster at all up there; saw him at home lying on his bed after the killing; also before that at my house in tlic morning; it was three fourths of an hour from the time Foster left my house in the morning to the gun report; not far from 9 a.m. when gun was fired; about four miles from my house to the point.
For the prisoner. — The counsel for the defence here ofl'ered to show that the premises where the Indian was killed, were leased on the 4fh of May, 1830, by Caleb Lyon, for himself and as agent, to David and Solomon Maybec; that the Maybee's went in and occupied under the lease, until the 26th of February, 1832; at which time David Maybee assigned the lease for the sum of ten dollars, to the defendant, who took possession and occupied under said lease until the all^^ged murder was committed; at which time his
riplif had nol rvpiicd. JikI'm- Dmio .said tliat tlir dclViidant was ])ri',siiiij('d lo occiiiiy in liis own rij^lil; and icjrctcd (lie evidence offered as (•onvenlional.
Wm.i.iam S. Wood n<cal led. — Has known the Indian eipjhleen months; was Iwt iity-ei^ht years old as*^ ho said; was u short able-bodied Indian; iiuvc lnuitedL, with him.
Counsel for defence. — \Wv. urg(! the eviih^nee, beoaus«; it is eoinp(;tent, and }^o(S to establish tiie fucti of " imminent danger," to the life of Foster; and w whether it sunicentiy i-slablishes tliat fact is for the jury to determine.
Judfjjt! Denio said the testimony was inadn.issibleM and Judfjje l)yf:^ert was of his opinion; but when the wliole licnch was appealed to, behold! th(! other thrc jud<i;es were for adniittinp; it; and for th(! fust tirr and probably the last time in his offieial station, h Honor found himself over-ruled by tlie Common Pie; judges.
Witness. — lias heard Indian at different times threaten to kill Foster. " He said -Foster was calk- y^ ing his boat (this was in July) and he had a mind td\ go up and tomahawk Foster and throw him into the I the river; but his squaw took hold of his coat and! persuaded him to go to his shanlce;" he said he had^
•J Indian, so much for ? Indian said, " Wlicre 's my tomahawk 1 Ny d — m old cuss! " Witness said, " You want no tomaj hawk; be peaceable;" said Indian after Foster went ^ out, " Now Foster wont live to see another Christmas! " It was an Indian
TIIAPPKKS OF NKW YORK. 227
case-knife, i^round off to ;i peak ami poinlod; Foster » was rut across his wrist and lacL' in tlui flesh; IndianN belonged to the St. Regis tribe, a (.'anada Indian^V lJriti,>h Indian stout and athletic; after Foster wentt^ out Indian said, " I shouhl have killed him then if it 1had not been for Chase and witness;" three-fourths of an hour after this, Indian was killeil; witness was with Indian about six weeks, and left him.
Cross-examined. — Did not tell Foster the last threat at witness's house; about a quarter of an hour after . this they started; were about haH' an hour in walking up to forge; Waters went with witness and Chase; were not long at forge; found others at forge; about twenty or thirty minutes at forge, can't say precisely; took perhaps twenty or thirty minutes to go to point; I never told Foster of any of the threats; witness and L Chase and Indian were going trapping together; Chase was not in first partnership of witness and Indian. ^
Counsel for defence. — Object to evidence of de- 1 fendant's confessions, as opening the case anew after I the prosecution had rested; overruled; witness went to Foster's house, and Foster went back with them [to the lake to get the body] ; did not heai* Foster say any thing.
JuDAH C. Marsh sworn. — Was at Foster's between the 15th and 20th of August, a year ago; Foster asked Indian for seventeen shillings, pay for sundry articles; Indian offered to pay a part but not all;
Foster suiil, " I 've K't you liavo artirle.s (o krep you iVom .starving; Indian nioul and potatoes which I Juive carried on my back seventeen niihs; " Indian (jllered to pay a part; "why not pay the whole?
iitU «)f jlour, &,<;., lliat Foster ralliMl ovit; vote nuMitioiuil oiioo ho said it vv:is<:)i(>u|> / iaii spoko tolerably ^00(1 IOnjj;lisli; somo- I
hrokoii; witness staid but oi^^ht or ten <lay.s on tract alter this; David left after October; witness adviso(| defendant to come away; he said h(> should eonio us / soon as he possibly couhl; for ho considered ids lifcV in dan<j;or every moment; Sevonth lake is some lifteon niiie^ from Foster's; Indian had a scjuaw and two children; squaw wont back to St. Ileitis; defendant and wife, son and .son's wife, witness and his wife, and Jolinson were in tlio house, and threi; cliildren, two of J)avid's and one of witness's.
Direct Icstinutni/ resumed. — Foster said, " as soon as 1 can f^el the oM lady away, 1 shall ^^o;'' she was rather i'eeble; sIk; was not able to go with witness; wanted to wait till .sleiffhin}^; David's wife was un-") well; a numb palsy affoction.
Abner Bi-ackman, sworn. — Knew the Indian named and Foster; Foster was narrating a story about Indian's coming to his house; he said the " Indian had loaded his rifle and come to his door to shoot him; Indian said it was well for him that he was not at home, as he came to shoot him; he would have put a bullet through him; he (Foster) would have seen his J God in two minutes;" witness told him that the Indian had told him the same thing, as to his coming
I many times; and indillerent ways; he had spoke of not hein^ afraid of Indian, hut he was really afraid, and looked behind every old lo^ and bush expectinj^ the Indian ready to kill him; ho trembled as he .walked; said ho would have been glad to have got ^ away, if ho couhl conveniently; but his property and family were there; his son's wife unwell, and could not be moved then; he said like this, " he had a gun ^ that had always told liim the truth, and ho had pushed J a bull oflfthe bridge;" ho said they came down to his house for him to go up; he went and found Waters j in the canoe; no one dared to take hold of him; he
itook hold of him and pulled him up; did not tell him how the Indian got killed, nor that ho killed him; •was talking about hunting and killing deer when ho ( said he pushed the bull off the bridge; and, perhaps, -^ about the Indian also; were not talking about the V' Indian when he said his gun always told the truth; has seen Indian at witness's house; heard Indian say he belonged to St. Regis tribe; witness lives in Greig, Lewis county; conversation in that town on witness's way to and from Herreshoff 's; Greig is nineteen or twenty miles from Herreshoff plac?.
he was in fcur of losing his life; that the Indian had threatened to kill him repeatedly; had intimated .several times that Indian had threatened to kill him. " Don't know." " 1)— m him, I'll pile him up"^with my deer by-and-by;" at another time in harvest,
would rave against Foster.
Cross examined. — Indian was there a year ago last October, and often, until killed, shantied [lived in sl\ shantee or hut] on witness's farm, forty rods from house, about two months; was about twenty-eight years of an;e; has conversed with Foster since the death; he intimated as much as though he had killed the Indian; said " he was not guilty of shedding innocent blood; what he had done was done in his own defence;" he was talking about his being taken for killing the Indian, and his trial.
Asa Brown, sworn. — Knows Foster; knew Indian; has heard the Indian threaten the life of Foster; In-N dian came to witness's house in Greig, Lewis county.
Foster ^ood old woman; he went o.; and stat«'<l how well she had used him, and S(|uaw, and little pappooses; then he said, niter the favors, " old I'oster, d — m old euss, want lo make me pay for it;" he said he should not; he meant to kill old Foster; "me Ret
I Rood ride; me shoot strai^'ht; me put hall ri^ht through the heart." I said, " I'cter, you must not talk ^ sueh language as that, lor you are liable to be had up und confined." *' Mo care not n d — m for that; no [^ law on Brown's traet." Said I, if there is no law on the tract, there is here, and will put you where the dogs wont bite you. Witness advised him to peace with Foster. " Mrp. Foster use mc well; good woman; I Foster d — m old cuss; put ball through his heart." j Never saw him alive after that.
of killing.
Wii.i.AUi) JoHNsoM, Nworn. — Knt'W Fostrr nrul Indian; resided on Hiowirs tract; has heard Indian threaten foster to kill him; the first ditlieidty was . nbnit a boat; poster said, *' yon should not do so; if / you want a boat, ask for it." Indian said, "d — ni\ old Foster, I'll put the hall there," pointinj^ his hn^er \^ in J'l'ntcr of hi.s foreh« atl. The next, Foster had let . him have things, and Peter relu-sed U) pay; about two or three months after, can't say exactly, ' isler suid, *y " this is tht' usage I get, I backed in these things and^* paid my money for them." Waters flourished his liatchet; Foster went in quick, and if he had not, he would have struck the hatchet between Foster's shouldeis. Again, the morning before Waters was shot, witness was at his own place, a mile from Foster's, when he saw Waters; talked with him; said . " go along with me and make peace with Foster;"/ " old Foster I will kill, if I can get him out to shoot I him. I'll butcher him in his bed; I know which side ' of the bed he lays; and if you hear anything there,^ don't you come nigh, you may get hurt; old woman I is good; I wont hurt her; but you must not come nigh I me." [The Indian requested Johnson to tell Mrs. W Foster to keep her own side in the bed.]
iif, an Indian; Foster went to swear the peace; Indian was a crabbed sort of a fellow; had no conversation with Foster since Indian was killed.
U black blood, unless it were by secret revenge; he said if he could catch him out any where, he would put him where the dogs would not bite him; they were talking about his complaining against Indian; he said
Cit would be of no use: he would go into the woods before they could take him; but if he should catch him out, he would put him where the dogs wouldn't bite hira; in going back up to the point where killed, witness risked the qiiestion whether he was standing V or sitting the moment he was shot; Foster replied, \ " Sitting down ; why I say he was sitting down is, I that they always did sit down, and never stand up in ^1 a bark canoe ;" Foster went to the place where Indian was killed; they covered up Indian; went back r next morning and re-covered it [the grave] ; might \ have been four hours from time witness saw Foster last to killing.
news to tell you; Peter's dead;" Foster asked, " Did^ he die in a fit ?" Wood informed Foster that he was -y shot and at what place, in answer to his inquiry; pre- / sumcs they generally sit in a bark canoe.
David Chase, sworn. — Don't remember every item of the scuffle; they were fixing to go away that morning; Foster came in his house; said " Good morning;" ( witness was busy packing up things to go away; Foster was eight feet from a small fire place; witness \ about ten feet away, packing; Indian spoke, but don't know what he said; Foster answered, but don't re-*? member what; Indian pitched upon him and grabbed Foster; witness rose up and took Foster's rifle and set it up side of the house, about twelve feet from where they clenched; got back and Indian had thrown Foster; witness got his right hand, and Wood his^ left hand, and told Indian to let loose; Indian rose 'ipj I one called for his tomahawk and the other for his ' rifle; Foster went out, and witness said stay and get your things; he did so; witness went into the house, got his hat and rifle, and gave them to him; after this Foster said, " How long before you will be along V* As witness turned to go back, he saw blood own hand; this was pretty early in the morning was near noon when the shooting happened; between \ three and four hours; Indian, Wood and witness were going trapping.
since.
^ Nelson Stimpson, sworn. The Indian sprang and clenched him, / and jammed the door too, and witness saw no more of it; saw Foster as he came out; he told witness to go down to the forge; four hours from time of scuffle to killing; had some conversation with Foster coming from tract next day.
Francis E. Spinner, sworn. There was some conversation when Foster came down from Martinsburg; / he said something; don't think he said he killed him; \ witness advised him to say nothing; he said there ^^would probably be no dispute about the facts; there / would be proof enough; thinks he said the Indian ' /suspected something, and put up his hands; he said I he examined the body, and in examination found he 'X.was shot with two balls; he said his rifle never told «, a lie; don't know whether this latter observation was in that conversation; he said they were afraid to take care of the body, and he went up; found it was a centre shot; a hole under one arm, close up, and two on the opposite side; is not clear, but he may have
ball could not have entered there.
The testimony having closed, Mr. Hurlbut opened the defence to the jury, and his associates Spencer and Hackley summed up. The cause is said, by spectators, to have been very ably conducted on both sides. \
Judge Denio, who was from another county, a stranger to the parties and unbiased by the prejudices I which made either for or against the prisoner, deter- I mined to try him fairly and impartially. There can be no greater virtue in any tribunal, than that of impar-K tiality in the administration of justice. Indeed, when other motives influence judicial decisions than those of equity, and power is warped to favor, rapine and { anarchy stalk the earth unbridled, honesty wears weeds, and disinterested benevolence fold^ herself up "^ in a garment of sackcloth.
" The court advise the jury, that the law applies to the region of country where the offence was committed. The law pervades every section of the coun- C try. There is no place where crime is not cognizable. ^
" In regard to the race of men to which the deceased belonged, when the question is, what will authorize, the taking of the life of such an one? we answer, no one can take such life without such reasons as would authorize the taking of the life of any ^ other human being.
•• There are two cases ol' killing whicli is not murder. First, when there is killing in a sudden affray: /it is manslaughter. If, at the time of the rencontre in the morning, before his passion cooled, the prisoner had shot the Indian, it would have been manslaughter only. But if his passion cooled, and contrivance or
.70 fence. The court would not abridge that privilege.
If Wood's account be true, if the Indian came with his knife drawn and offered a fatal blow, and Foster had not time to retreat, he would have been authorized to shoot him dead. That would have been a legitimate case of self defence. The law of this
" These views you have a right to overlook. You are not bound to pay any further regard to this opinion, than the superior means of the court of possessing information may entitle it to." The jury retired.
from Foster the most urgent instructions to convict/ him of murder or acquit him altogether. He protcsteil against being found guilty of manslaughter, as j he dreaded imprisonment, even for the shortest term, / * worse than death. '^
The jury, after a deliberation of two hours, returned into court with a verdict of acquittal. As they entered and took their seats, the " cloud of witnesses " became hushed; the moment was one of intense interest;\ and to so great a tension had the feelings of the ohA gentleman been drawn by the excitement his preca- j rious fate had invoked, that his spirit seemed hovering ( between life and death. Says Mr. Hurlbut, " When the jury came in with their verdict, he was insensible; Jk and it was with some difficulty he was roused to consciousness, so as to understand the vt.dict. When V the words not guilty^ after being two or three times / repeated to him by his counsel, struck his senses I fairly, he rose up, stretched out both hands wide over ^ the heads of the Spectators, and exclaiming, ' God •* 6/''w you all ! God hless the people ! ' rushed out of^ the court room, and strode home his well known hun-l ter's pon|r."
A murmur of applause ran throup;h the crowd, the\ sympathies of which were nearly all enlisted in his | favor, as the old trapper left the court room for the^ street, to which he was followed by scores of people of all ages, anxious to offer their congratulations.^ At Little Falls, great was the rejoicing and clapping
rone universal burst of approbation throughout the county. Not because h'i had killed a poor Indian, ^ and been acquitted; but because he was not to be
J hung for having killed a man in his own defence, as they viewed it. There can remain little doubt, when it is known as a characteristic of thi red man that ' y^ he never forgives a known or imagined injuiy, and
y seldom a grudge, especially one he has determined to punish with death, but that he would have killed Foster " before Christmas," if Foster had not slain -^ him.* But we leave this case to Him who set hifj . own mark on the first murderer, Cain; and to whoso / mercy Moses was subjected, when he slew and conI cealed his man in the sands of Egypt.
^^ * The celebrated Joseph Brant, once found it necessary to kill ^J^ bis own son. The latter had taken umbrage at his parent for /8ome cause, and on an occasion, pursued him with a knife, bent I on his destruction. Brant retreated to the corner of a room, rtLTtned with a tomahawk ; and satisfied the son would execute his _j threats, as he rushed upon him, the father sunk the fatal tomahawk in his head. — Isaac H. Tiffany.
About the time of Foster's trial, to an interrogatory from the Hon. Charles Gray, whether he did not consider the lives of the white hunters as greatly endangered, when he directed the balls between them only u few feet apart, which penetrated the heart of his victim? he replied, " No, not at all ! my old rifle never made so great a miss as that! "
Remarking to Maj. Stoner my surprise, that Foster should have dared to fire between two white men in a changing position at a third person, the old Natty Bumpo replied, "Poh! Foster would have shot the Indian's eye out had he desired to! The truth is, either of us could send a bullet just about where we chose to." \i an inanimate and fixed target they were not so remarkably celebrated as marksmen, but give them game nioving sufficiently to excite their anxiety, and these two modern Nimrods may be said to have been a dead shot. At a reasonable distance they would have driven an apple every time from the head of some young Tell, and scarcely displaced a hair, provided the head was moving.
law of his, who was a chief of lijc St. Regis tribe, and a very likely man, came down to llrown's tract to remove his sister, lie said the <lcceased was at times a bad fellow, and hail been expelled from their tribe for some misdemeanor. He had even threatened the lile of this chief more than once; and he did not express any regret that he was killed; on the contrary, he said he thou^'ht Foster was justifiable in taking his life under the peculiar circumstances. Drid's squaw was present when the body was brought down, but instead of manifesting sorrow she smiled, and with a pair of scissors she cut out a piece of his blanket or shirt, having in it a ball hole, and placed it carefully away in a work-pocket. Her brother had the body taken up and interred in Indian style; and before its reburial he cut out that part of the blanket having the remaining bullet holes in it; which he carried home with him. Foster had been sent to Martinsburg before this Indian arrived; but previous to leaving the tract, he advised the members of the Foster family still living there, to leave the place, as they were innocent of Drid's death; and it was possible some of his blood might attempt to revenge his death. He took his sister and her children back with him, that he might provide for their wants. After the death of Drid, Foster visited Brown's tract but once. He feared the Indians might catch him napping; indeed it was said that several were there in wait for him, but a correspondent who says
TUArrms of m:w vonK. 243
he was (here llio next .season, saw no Indians. Foster removed with his fiiinily to Hoonville, Oneida county. From ihcnco hi; went to reside for several years in tlit- nortli part of Pennsylvania, where he again followed his fivorite pursuits. His mind seemed never at rest after killing this Indian^ says a friend, and he would not, after his return to IJoonsville from Pennsylvania, venture out of doors in the dark. He died at the house of Mr. Edgerton, his son-in-law, in the western part of Boonville (now Ava), Oneida county, in Mareh, 1811; at the age of about 74 years. Ilis willow died at the residence of her son, Amos Foster, in Palatine (near Stone Arabia), Montgomery county, in December, 1844.
It is the belief of very many of Foster's acquaintances, that Drid was not the only Indian with whom he had had a fatal rencontre. The following story furnished the author by Mr. Frederick Petrie, comes so well authenticated and corroborated, that there can be very little doubt of its truth.
Before the American Revolution there dwelt about two miles from the present village of Little FaL^, an Indian named Hess, who took an active part in that contest as a hireling of Britain; and who undoubtedly was one of the most cruel and blood thirsty of his race. Some ten or twelve years after the war, this Indian returned to his former hunting grounds, to prosecute his favorite employment. A country inn at this period was, for the spread of knowledge to be
siiinkdi ill and watered, a kind of "rireiilatin;^ inodiiim," a place where in the ahsiiiee of our now thousands of newspapers, the peoph' of the surrounding country met to K>arii news from <|ui(hiiiiics; and as liitth' Falls, with possihly her do/i'ii (much scattered) insi^nilicant dwellings, was then a place of w)mc notoriety, on account of her new inland locks, and old moss-clad rocks, the bar-room of the villaf^o one-story tavern became tlu; place where all the classic e\cnls of olden time, and all the improvements of modern days, particularly those which aided the river sailor in naviujatinjjf the far famed Mohawk, wcrt'i sans parliamentary forms, freely discussed.
fuigned ignorance of the Fnglish language, however, until his while competitor in beaver skins oiled his tongue freely at the bar, when lo! tlu; seal upon his lips was broken, and he spoke Knglisli tolerably well. The two hunters soon after kit the village and traveled some distance together, when the conversation turned upon Revolutionary scenes: boasting of his individual exploits on the frontiers of New York, the Indian exhibited a tobacco pouch. "This," said the crafty warrior, " me got in the war. He also
opened tl box in the breech ufhis rifle, ami exhibitc<l «oine evidence he there carried of the number of prisoners and human sculps U\\:vi\ by him in the war; the tally ran up to the almost incredible number of forty-two. Just before parting;, the Indian in'jinred of Foster his name, and on hearing]; it he exclaimed, " I la ! The boast of murdered innoronce drew a frown across the sunburnt brow and stern features of the young hunter, that seemed to send back defiance to the red man's look of meditated death. They parted soon after, and if not as friends, certainly not as avowed enemies; but each no doubt felt apprehensive, that a second interview might not terminate so fortunately for them both; and c(>rtain it is, that one at least resolved not to be over-reached by the other.
Not long after the above incidents transpired, Foster was threading the forest alone, in the northerly part of Herkimer county, in the pursuit of game. In a secluded spot, he came unexpectedly upon and shot a moose cow. While securing the noble game, its mate, a most ferocious bull, attracted to the spot by
246 TUAirKU.M OF NbW VOUK.
I'liry. Ill a (loiip;iti^ i>.!;i>N tix' liuntrr was (il)li^nl to make Moinc lialf a do/en s\\f){s in rapid Mii('(-cs.siori. Foster ril(>a«lt(l his rifli* bcture iiu vcntiirctl to approach nri anitnal that h.id hccn no tcnacioii.i of lilr, i^lMiou^h (\yU\\s, (he seldom changed his position in the woods wititout a eliar^e in his ^un); and whilu udvaneihf; to it, he was startled to hear a to(»tstep within pistol shot distance of him, and wn.s possibly not less surprised to find in the person of his new visitant, the inuseular form of the Indian Iless.
Supposing, as is presumed, that Foster's rifle waH unloaded, his recent acquaintance, who now experienced no dilHcnlty in " munh-ring the King's English," at the end of a whoop that toM credibly for his lungs and the absence of balsams, shouted aloud, " JVow Foster me got ymt ! me kU' you now! " Hc/tween Hess and his intended victim there was a marsh, over which Wiis a fallen tree. Mounting thn log to appfoach the white hunter, with uplifted tomahawk and death-boding mien, the report of a rifle again echoed amid the fir-tops of the forest, and up sprang the Indian high in air from the log. A bullet had plowed its way through his heart, and with a guttural groan, the dark warrior fell de.id upon the marsh. Lest Hess might not be unattended in the forest, the eagle-eyed marksman, whose rifle had not only been quickly loaded but quickly discharged, stamped the carcase of his victim deep into the mud. Dark mystery hung over the fate of lliis lone hunter
for yi'nrii Many rfmiiiilHTitl tliat his «lisnp|M'nrnnro was NUiliirn ami unr\|)irtnl; :iii(l others that thry ha<l licanl FostiT say, shortly al'trr his inttTvicw with him at liitth' ImiIIs, tliut he had tmt him once^ and only once njhr that time. \\v confulcntially comtiuinirati'd, many yrars al'tiT, to Jacoh I. (/'hristrnan, with whom he was liuntin^, the l'at(> of this unt'ortunutu savage, for whom
The plunivil uiul bowing trefli.
Foster, althoujrh n man of umlouhted verncity, when speaking of his own exploits, made use of aphorisms, or siu'h unexplained expressions, as left them a mystery to his auditors. This was particularly the case where legal advantage could be taken of his sayings and doings; hence, it is impossible to arrive with positive certainty, as is believed, at some of the most interesting incidents in his life. On this point, says a correspondent, " Foster would occasionally tell some of his exploits, but in such a way you could hardly guess his meaning. For instance, " The best shot I ever made, I got two beaver, one otter, and fifteen martin skins; but I took the fdling out of a blanket to do it !' And again, * I was once in the •woods, and saw an Indian lay down to drink at a brook; sofr. thing was the matter; he dropped his face
Says the same correspondent, " On his way to jail, I saw Foster; he said to mo, ' Brother B., I am the man that pushed the bull off the bridge ; I never liked Indians /' While confined at Herkimer, he was asked how he fared? He replied, " 0, very well, only I don't like to Le stall fed among gentlemen ! "
About tho time of Foster's trial, while some friends were speaking of his success as a hunter and extraordinary skill as a marksman, he said the greatest shot he ever made was at otters, securing eighteen of their valuable pelts at a single shot. Although the fame of the (then) old hunter was very great, this story seemed to stagger the faith of his most confidential auditors; and when one ventured to express a doubt as to tho truth of the assertion, he explained as follows. In a hunting excursion he had once fallen in with an Indian, who carried upon his bacfi: eighteen otter skins; that he had no intention of harming the Indian; did not know that he had killed him; but that he never let an otter skin escape him alive. He fired; they all fell; he picked them up and came away.
In the latter part of his life, Foster's sight began to fail him. His brother, Shubael Foster^ who is many years younger than Nathaniel, says he was deer himting with the latter, not many years before his death, in St. Lawrence county, on the " Oswegat-
chie,* in which excursion they If illcd twenty. Informant shot several before his brother got any; wlien they oarae together, tlje latter procured a good slice of venison, saying that if he could get a piece of deer into him, he could see to shoot them. During this hunt, they one day cornered a flock betwec^n them and a ledge, exposing the innocent creatures to their crossfire. They drove the terrified animals from one to the other until they secured five of their number, four of which fell before the old rifle of the senior hunter., So much for eating a good steak of venison.
Foster and Stoner were both remarkably expert at loading their rifles, but the former most so, at least if it became necessary to make several shots in hot haste, and at a short distance. Foster has been known repeatedly, upon a wager, to commence with his rifle unloaded and fire it otf six times in one minute. This, to the reader, if a modern marksman and unaccustomed to taking game upon foot, seems incredible, but it is nevertheless true. While hunting he usually wore three rifle balls between the fingers of each hand, and invariably thus in the left hand, if he had
* Os-wc-gntrhie or Ogh-sxcn-f^atchie, »ft fmlian name, the historian James Macaut-ey, informed the author, whirh signifies going or coming round a hill. The ji^reat Ix^f/J in the Oswegatchie river (or the necessity of it), on the borders of Lf wi« oounty^ originated its significant name. An Indian tribe, bearing the name of the river, once lived upon its banks; but its fat?, like that of many sister tribes, has been, to melt away before the pr^ gressive step of the Anglo-Saxcm.
that number of balls with him. He had a large bony hand, ant! having worn such jewels a long time, they had mad J for themselves cavities in the flesh, which concealed them almost as cfTectually as they were when hid in the moulds in wliich they were run from the fused lead. The superficial observer would not have noticed them.
Foster's quick shooting \ras in the days of flint locks. He had a powder flask with a charger, and with six well pared balls between his fingers, he would pour in the powder, drop in a ball that would just roll down without a patch, and striking the breech of his gun with his hand, it was primed; soon after which the bullet was speeding to its mark. These rapid discharges could omly be made at a short distance, as to make long shots it became necessary to patch the balls and drive them down with a rod, the latter being dispensed with in the former case.
Foster would make his six shots, so as to kill so many men, within one minute, at a distance not exceeding ten rods. A regiment of such riflemen, in close action, would soon decide the fate of a battle.
In the scconil American war with Great Britain, the following incident, says Shubacl Foster, took place in Manheim, Herkimer county. A regiment of riflemen, under Col. Forsyth, passed through that town on their way from the Mohawk valley to the military lines between New- York and Canada, and encamped there over night to wash their clothes.
The celebrity of Foster, as u marksman, cominjr to the ears of Co4. Forsyth, as the hunter was in the vicinity, he had him called to the camp. The most expert rifleman in the regiment was a man named Robinson, from South Carolina. The colonel was desirous of seeing]; a nether Foster or Robinson could make the most effective shots in a minute, at a target ten rods off, each commencing with unloaded rifles. They began to load at a given signal, and Foster sent six bullets into the taiget within the minute; his competitor pulling the sixth bullet into his piece, as that of his own rifle sped to the mark. The whole regiment was astonished to see their fellow member — able, as was supposed, to make the most shots in a given time of any man in the world — fairly beaten by a New- York trapper. A murmur of applause ran through the ranks, and Foster at once became a lion in the camp. Surprised at the unexpected skill of a New-York odsman, and anxious to secure his services. Col. Forsyth offered Foster thirty dollars a month to join his regiment, with the complimentary assurance that he shoula eat at his own table; but as Foster did not approve of the war, he could not be prevailed upon to adopt die life of a soldier.
When hunting, Foster would make his camp in forty-five minutes, where the snow "was a foot deep. He usually set up two crotches, laid a pole across them, and others' from thence to the ground upon the
sides and one end; covering the wliole with hemlock boughs. In front of the open end, for his own comfort and security against wild beasts, he built a good fire. Provisions placed under his head for a pillow at night, were often frozen hard in the morning. In cold weather, he carried a blanket, strapped upon his shoulders as a knapsack. He usually wore a hat, but at times a cap, smd uniformly a cofit when hunting; over his shoulders were strapped a powder horn and bullet pouch, of sufficient dimensions to warrant a lengthy hunt. He was always very careful tc have a pocket compass ^vith him when in the forest.
Since the preceding chapters were written, Col DANiiiL C. Hexdku.son, of Norway, has kindly furnished me with some interesting mcnoranda in the life of Jonathan Wright, a hunter previously named j and several incidents worthy of notice, of several others of like craft, who followed trapping many years ago on and contiguous to Brown's tract. From Henderson's manuscript I glean the following facts.
Jonathan Wright, or Jock, as he was called in the wilderness, was a native of Hinsdale, Cheshire county, New Hampshire;, and of respectable parentage. He was about five feet ten inches in height, rather stoutly built, with a sallow complexion. In the latter part of his life, and when known to my correspondent, he had a very stooping gait, and a walk peculiarly his own; lifting his feet high as though treading upon something light. His peculiarity of motion was no doubt acquired by carrying, as silently as possible, heavy burthens upon his shoulders in the forest, such as traps, wild game, provisions, canoes, &c. He had a keen eye shaded by heavy brows; and upon the whole was rather good looking. He was a man of few words, but they were pithy and uttered
But little is known of Wright's youthful days, except that he was rather eccentric; and early evinced a disposition to be alone in the woods, with his dog and gun. At the age of eighteen he had, in the pursuit of wild game and fur, reconnoitred the northerly part of his native state, knowing more, doubtless, of its topography than of its improvements. When our Revolutionary difficulties began, he was found among the champions of liberty; and five days before the Bunker Hill battle he arrived at the American camp near Boston, accompanied by a neighbor named Moffatt; both armed cap-a-pie for action. He was a volunteer under the brave Prescott, to aid in fortifying Bunker hill the night before the battle, in which he took an active part. When Wright got back to his quarters in the evening, almost exhausted, he heard a call for a guard to prevent surprise from the enemy, " There 's no danger of that," he exclaimed, " the rascals have enough to do to dress their shins and wrap up their fingers for the next twelve hours, without beating up our quarters. I shall sleep for the next ten hours without fear."
The reveille and tattoo savored too much of restraint for the tameless spirit of a hunter, and tiring of camp monotony Wright returned home, and did not again join the army until Arnold's retreat from
Quebec to Ticondfiot^a; when he tliere enlisted under Capt. Whitcoinb; preferring to perforin scouting or other hazardous duty. Capt. W. had been accused of shooting Major (Jordon, a Btitish officer, and rifling his pockets; of which act General Carlton complained, and demanded his trial for murder. The American officer in comnuirid did not think the act, which was one of daring, demanded such a title; but viewed it as a consequence of war, and soon the matter was hushed.
While on duty at Fort Ticonderoga, Wright and his captain went on a scout toward the lower end of lake Champlain, where they unexpectedly fell in with and captured two British officers well mounted. They proved to be a pay-master and lieutenant; who, not expecting a foe so far from the American camp, were off their guard, and easily secured by their rifle-poised captors. The horses could not be taken along, and they were set free in the road, to return to their masters' former quarters. After the prisoners were dismounted and disarmed, they inquired the names of their more fortunate companions. "
"I suppose that I am;" replied the captain. WV: ht, who witnessed the effect of this announcement, divined that a desperate eflbrt might be made by the prisoners to escape, and advanced with a
266 TiurrF.Rs of new yokk.
ready riflf to a commandi..^' nosilion; whoii he assured tliein they slioidd have good (jUiirters, and not be injured unless they tried to escape; in wldeh event they would he sent to oblivion in a hurry ! Tins assurance tended to quiet their fears, and soon the party were thrcadinf];' a circuitous route lor Ticoiuh-roga. The pay-master chanced to have no funds on ids j)erson, on wliich account he may have felt the more secure. When the captures were made, the scout were just out of provisions, and early the next morning, as Wright was the best runner, it was settled that he should proceed to the fort with all possible disi)atch ; obtain food, and return to succor the party, which was to proceed up the lake shore. The adventure was carried out as anticipated, and In a few days all arrived safely at Ticondcroga. Soon after, the captives were exchanged.
Wright ever spake highly of this lieutenant, whose name is now Ibrgotten. Just before they )iartcd, the latter addressed him as follows, " W^right, you have been kind to us, and I shall always retain grateful feelings toward you. Wc shall be down the next campaign, and then you may rely on my friendship, as you must and will be subjugated! "
of the time cilluT as w scout or a spy, until aftor the surrender of Hurj^oync. Some lew days hel'ore that event,* l)einR on a scout in the vicinity of the J^ritish army, a violent rain-storm came on, and he sought a temporary shelter beneath the trunk of a leanin^^ tree; with his blanket over his shoulders, and his rifle in a position to bs kept dry. While thus situated, his quick car detected amid the roaring elements, an approaching footstep; and looking up, he saw a large ■wolf just ready to spring upon him. He carefully raised his piece, and without bringing it to his shoulder, discharged it, the muzzle being within a few feet of the animal's head, which was literally blown off. Thus did he scalp one English ally.
Recollecting his former friend, the British lieutenant, Wright sought for him among the vanquished, and found him an object of commiseration. He had been wounded, and what with his sufferings and privations, had grown defected; sick in body and mindj and did not readily recognize his former captor. When he did he saluted him with great emotion. Indeed, the meeting was such as caused the better feelings of both to mingle in a flow of tears. Wright was the first to regain his self-possessiop, and broke forth in a strain between seriousness and jtsting much as follows:— " By ! you are a lucky devil though. I
supposed you long since dead, as I told you you would be at the end of this campaign; but I rejoice to find you still alive, and hope you may live to repent of
your sins; but hy the lu'avrns, it I (-vrr find you in arnus against tlic States a|;ain, I will surt-ly blow your brains to the lour winds! "
Wright with no little trouble |;ot his iViend in a waj^on und conveyed hiiu to a pbute ot" seetirity, wiiere he wa.H well eared lor, and soon alter they parted, as they supjjost'd, for ever. Th<' winter following, the lieutenant was retained with many other prisoners In iioslon; and havin^j; oeeasiou to visit that city in the mean time, VVri^li' and his British friend again met; the latter then i.. good health and fuu' spirits. After several days of social intercourse the friends finally parted, but not until the lieutenant had pressed upon the acceptance of his guest numerous presents; with an assurance that no consideration would ever indme hirn to be found in arms again, against so brave and generous a people. Wright said in the latter part of his lile, that of all the friends he ever rnet, this military foeman gave him the heartiest welcome.^'
Wright took no active part in the war after 1777, but followed his favorite avocation of a hunter in the northerly part of New Hampshire and Vermont; which the neutrality of the latter state, then a territory in dispute, enabled him to do. Soon after th(! war, he, and a cousin of his, named Belden, who was usually called the Rattlesnake hunter, began to frequent the shores of lakes Champlain and George, and their inlets; as also the sources of the Hudson, in
TIUPPKIln or NBW VORK. 259
qui'st ot' I'ur. HoliU n bore a ilradly hatrcri to riiltlc> Hnnkcs, 'in<l whrn near thi ir haiiiils \\ns i ./jiliniiull)' warrin'i; witli tlu-m; hinci'liis simiifHanl appellalion. The Inllowirii^ iticiilcni alU'tulin^ his siiakr-killiniif, I lihall j:;ivc very rirarly in my rorresiMiiidrnt'.s own Words.
"One day in early sprifif^, m they were on the west shore of till' laki' near fort Ty., ar»d upon a irduje of rocks; thry canu' to a (h-n just as tlif "snakrs had crawh'd from tlicir winUr shirniur, and hty baskinji; ill tlu' warm noon-day sun. Hcldcn was (hes^rd for liiintin^, haviiif^ on a loose woolen frock retiring below the knee, with shoes and lej^tjins to match. Armed with a lonp stick in one hniul, and a short one in the other, Belden led t)ie way to the snakes; and Wricflit followed with his companion's dog and ^un. He befjjan the onset slrikinfif and dealing death at every blow, jnmpinp^ and sprinti;in^ from one to the other, in fear that some mi<^^ht ake shelter in the rocks.
" In his eaf(ei ncss, his foot slipped as he was aiming; a blow at a monsler that lay in a fighting attitude, and be fell forward. He tried to keep himself off I'rom the dangerous reptile, but without effect, and it struck his frock near his chin, ar
over iitiil t>\vr\ l)ii> .•iriiikr coiniiiir ii|) at tlic last roll. Hclilni IxMiiiiicil ii|i, M-i/rd tlir Miaki! routid tli(> neck, loosriml its laiij^s, ami wliippiil it to dcatlt a^niii.st tlu> rocks; as his sticks iiad hccii lost in the lli^ltt. \Vii^j;lit often sai»l this was the oidy U:uv he ever saw nddcn rilht r scared or even started hy danger; hut the snakes had rest tlie reniainchr ol the ihiy."
The two friends loHowcd trappintj fi>r several stnNons in the reii,i(>n of country unih-r consideration, and until heaver he^an to ^row scarce; for the reader must not suppose that they were sole nionarchs there; Indiiui hunt« rs were continually crossini^ their tracks. Am ^anu' j^rew scarce, however; they occasionally hunted for n Hcason as far eastward as the present state of Maine. While hunting in the nei^hhorhood of lake Chani|)lain they used a li^ht skit!' to coast with, and navij^ate streams. On one oc(!asion when they had moored their little hanpie iri some safe nook, they set off to visit their traps in dilferent directions; to meet at mii;ht at the startinfj; point. Wright returned just at sunset much fatigued, and as his comrade was not there, he deposited his ^ame, laid down in the boat, and was soon in a sound slund)er; from which he did not awake until it was quite dark.
He was then aroused by what he supposed the halloo of his companion, and while listening to hear the voice again, J3elden made his appearance, loaded down with a deer and other game, which he deposited in the boat. Wright asked him if he had heard a
liiitnan voiiT, or nuy tliiii;; nsriiiMini^ it, nnd was aii.swrntl in tin* ii< i^ativc VVrip;l(t .s(r|i|M(l to iht; how of the l)o;il In loosen it, wlirii lir WiiH met I*) a loud .st'iraiii iiiid tlic p;laiiii^ cyc-luiils of a nioiislrous imntlu'f dinrlly IhI'oit liiiii. " Well H.ldrn," In; «»xi'liiiini'dstaitiiitr hack, you have brou^'hla line friend to supper!" •• Yes," lepliid the latter, " and just wait until I ^ive him a polite reception." Snat<'hin|^ up his rille he discharged it, almost scorching the animaPs head; si ill it was not hurl or frightened from its piu'pose; hut stood al the how and prevented them from untying. U'riuhl then fnitl also without elKjt. Heidi II had soon reloaded, and with a piece of chalk carried for tht; purpose, he whileiud the harrel of his rifle, took a more deliberate aim at the ^larinp; tar^el and llred a<j;ain; when a scream and a few scratches followed, and all was still. Uelden then haided the animal into the hoal, cast it oil'; and away they steered for their camp. T\w panther proved an exceedingly large and old one; its teeth were mostly gone, and it appeared to have been in the last stage of starvation.
When tlie hunting of fur in his former haur»ts would no longer pay, Wright removed to the westward. About the year 1790, he settled in the present town of Norway, N. Y., at whiih time he was some fortyfive or filly years of age. Jle then had a fanjily, which eonsisled of his wilV, whom he invariably called Nabby, a son, named Jonathan, and threw
(laughters. lie wore, when hunting, a coat, called at thai time a French coat, which fastened tightly round the waist, and moccasons, or shoe packs, as then denominated. He was never known to wear boots or shoes in hunting. When he left home on a hunt, he was laden with his traps, about fifty pounds of corn-meal, and his gun; with possibly some few other jixins. Thus provided he would enter the forest, and at times be gone for months, subsisting on his meal and what his gun and traps could provide him; with the addition of now and then a trout. He had, as all men of his craft have, to eat many scanty meals; but on returning to the settlements he made ample amends for all privations in eating and drinking. He became known soon after his arrival in Norway, l)y the familiar title of Uhcle Jock. Most people at that day were fond of liquor, and our hero among the rest.
" A man who could scent a beaver in the water, codd easily find the course his jug had taken, and soon iie overtook the thief; not, however, until he had secreted the stolen treasure. He refused to disclose where it was, and old Nimrod clenched and threw him upon the ground, where he struggled manfully, but to little purpose; as his hands were soon secured, and his conqueror had one to spare. With an uplifted fist shouted the victor, " Now tell me what you have done with the rum, or to heaven
or hell in a moment!" The brief lime alloted for repentance, instantly disclosed the whereabouts of the jug, and a promise to pay all demands.
Some four or five years before Uncle Jock pitched his tent in Norway, a singular individual named Nichols began the life of a hunter in the forests contiguous to Norway. He was from some place in New Hampshire, upon the Connecticut river. He was to appearance some forty years of age, of middling stature, mild disposition; and in his deportment was simple, honest and obliging. He lived the most of his time in the wilderness by hunting and trapping. He was something of a musician, and kept a fiddle in his camp, with which to cheer his hermitage. The ordy living object of his care was a favorite hound, imported by Arthur Noble, from Ireland; " Which," as my correspondent observes, " was one of no vulgar blood; but a real Johnny Bull pup!" His fiddle, hound, rifle and traps, constituted the principal stock in trade of this secluded hunter.
Nichols was at first an unpracticed hunter, took but little fur, and as supposed made a poor living; for which reason it was thought by the few who now and then saw him; that he must have some resources to lean upon, besides the avails of his avocation; as he was always in funds to paj^ down for his plain wearing apparel, and things needed in his isolated camp. For a long time he avoided society, and was disinclined to speak of his former residence or pur-
suits; but before his death it beeamc known that he was a good ninth-. matician, and a mill-wright of the first order. From him the carpenters in that part of Herkimer count} first learned to frame by the square rule, casting aside for ever their scribe rule* lie was looked upon as a man of superior abilities, and what rould have induced him to adopt a wilderness life was a mystery then, indeed, is to the present day.
When Uncle Jock moved into his neighborhood, Nichols, to whom he was previously known, became his partner in the chase, and under his teaching afterwards proved a very successful trapper. It was not known in Norway until Uncle Jock settled there, that Nichols had left a good property in land and mills on the Connecticut river, to v/hich he never returned, or even looked after. Although it was never satisfactorily known what induced Nichols to abandon his property and friends, still it was believed to be solely attributable to disappointment in love. But whether some fair daughter of Yankecdom sighed her gentle spirit away with " hope deferred," or whether Nichols plodded his weary way through the wilderness in fruitless attempts to forget some maiden,
can not be told, as the secret died with him.
Uncle Jock and Nichols, together in their trapping excursions for beaver and other game, became familiar with nearly every source of the East and West
Canada creeks, Black, Racket, and Sacondaga rivers. They were as familiar with the lakes and watercourses on and contiguous to Brown's tract, as is a hen with her own chickens. Nichols, in tracing a small stream that is tributary to the West Canada creek, obtained upon or near it, a fine specimen of lead ore; but its locality has been sought for since, as yet in vain. In the latter part of his life Nichols renewed his avocation of a mill-wright, and only hunted in the fall and winter. He was drowned while repairing a mill, in 1803
In one of his rambles after his partner's death. Uncle Jock discovered a lake that is now called Jock's lake, to which I have elsewhere alluded. It has for years been a great resort for trout fishing. He said that when he first visited it, it appeared to be alive with fish, and for several years it became known to him alone. From it he would take loads of trout at almost any season of the year to the settlements.
Many individuals not hunters, but who were anxious to have a hunt, if it were only to be able to say that they had been in the woods and camped out with a master hunter; used to urge their company upon Uncle Jock; indeed, not a few of this sort received the tuition of Stoner and Foster. In a few of his trapping seasons Uncle Jock was accompanied by a stout . ble-bodied man, named Simmons, who was usually walled Crookneck, probably from some peculiar inclination of his head. They were on snow-
shoes in tho month of Mar(;h, liuntin<^ marten; or as called by hunters wan-pur-noc-er. The bait used for those animals, uhich are a variety of weasel, is fresh meat; and as the hunters had taken no gun along, they had to depend on a dog to run down deer for marten-bait and their own food; which the crusted snow enabled them to do.
Their dog one day got a large buck at bay, and the hunters approaching to kill it. Crookneck came up first, and hurried up thinking to seize the animal by its antlers and throw it down. As he approached the worried deer, it made a furious plunge at him. Falling short of its aim, it drove a hoof through one of his snow-shoes as Crookneck fell backwards! and not being familiar with the use of such broad " understandings," it turned a somerset and fell upon the top of its antagonist. The newly initiated hunter, by his loud yells for help, gave evidence that his lungs were in good condition; and soon the master hunter was on hand, who drew his hunting knife, cut the deer's hamstrings, and then easily dispatched him. As the liberated hunter regained his feet, Uncle Jock dryly remarked, " Well Simmons, you are older than you might have been ! If the buck hi^d not fallen a little short, you would have been in oblivion now! "
At another time during the hunt, the dog started a large moose, and as the crust cut its legs, it stopped and kept the dog at bay until the hunters approached. Uncle Jock wanted his companion to kill it, but
THArrniis of nfv. vork. 267
nothing could induce him to approach very near it. The senior hurter then initiated Crookneck into a new degree in game killing. He cut a pole, tied his knife to the end of it, and gaining the cover of a tree sufficiently near, he very dexterously \Viclded his polo and hamstrung the animal, when it was easily destroyed. To give his comrade a third degree in the mysterious ^ t of slaughtering large animals in the forest, without a gun; when the dog called them to another moose, Uncle Jock fastened his knife to a long pole, stole up behind a large tree, and plunged the blade into the heart of his victim.
Uncle Jock was ever a firm believer in a Supreme Being, and also that earnest and sincere 'prayer ^ if consistent with our circumstances, would readily be answered by Divine Providence. One day after hearing an over-zealous, ignorant preacher pray at great length, a friend inquired hoio he liked the prayer? " How fortunate it was for him," he replied, "that he was addressing a Being that knew better than he did what he ^ ;.ntcd, or he would have been in h — in a minute ! and at all events if he told the truv,: , he is deserving of a halter or state prison for life I But though a. fool, I think he is not quite as wicked as he represents him ■self."
His own prayers were temarkably brief, and delivered with great earnestness. They could hardly be repeated by another, however, without seeming very profane; and yet there was so much ap^j-'rent sincerity
in their utterance hy him, as to divest tliein of the levity they niifjjht create wlicn repeated hy another. One of them, which tradition has preserved entire, I will insert. He was traj)pin^ narten in the month of Marcli, with Crookneck Simmons ati;ain for a partner, and was severely attacked witli pleurisy. Crookneck soon hecame alarmed and wanted to ^o to the nearest settlement, some twenty miles off, for assistance; much of which distance it would be necessary to travel upon snow-shoes; hut to this proposition Uncle Jock would not consent. K was in vain for him to remonstrate, however. In vain he told Crookneck, that it would take liim two days to accomj)lish the journey, in which time he must perish with cold, if not by disease, as he could not keep his own ':re goings but go he would, and start he did.
Sinunons had been gone but a few minutes, when the invalid, coucious that he must soon die, unless relieved immediately, uttered with great earnestness the following prayer. " Great God, Jehovah, Jems Christ, our Lord! if it is expedient that I should come in and sec JVahby and Jonathan again, let it be brought to a crisis d quick !! "
After tlie utterance of this laconic and eccentric petition, the sick man said he not only felt greatly relieved in mind, but also a consciousness that it would be answered; and in about half an hour Crookneck returned. " The more haste <he less speed," is an old adage, was verified in his case; for in attempting
to proceed as fast as possible, lie j^ot an improper aiififle into his neek, and down he went, hreakini; ono of his snf)w-slioes; and not havint; ingenuity enoufifh to repair it, he returned to tlieir wigwam, where his siek friend was still lying uj)on a hurdle of hendock Loughs. The laller got him to sharpen his hunting knife, and also to cord Ids arm; when he took the knije and hied himself. "
After a copious flow of Llood, the invalid stopped it by thrusting a pin through the orifice, and winding it with a lock of his own hair. In a little while Simmons got about again, and in their camjj-kettle made a strong decoction of hemlock boughs, of which Uncle Jock drank freely ajid laid down, when he experienced, as he said, the greatest relief he ever did in so short a space of time. He fell into a slumber wliich lasted several hours, and when he awoke he was entirely free from pain. The third day after he reached a settlement, and the fourth his jirayer was answered, by again embrueing his dear JWthby and little Joiiiithun.
Uncle Jock, it is believed, never had any serious difficulty with either Indian or white hunters. He often spoke of the hind quarters of a beaver, as affording the most dainty morsel an epicure could obtain; being preferable, as h(! said, to any other meat or fish,
neijs-cxplorer seldom siiid bittn- things ol' any one; but if insulted, the ofl'ender was pretty sure sooner or later, to leel his dry sarcasm. He received a pension from our government tor Revolutionary services, under the fust pension act; which might with proper economy have kept him and his Nabby from want, without the necessity of his hunting, as his children were grown up and married; but it only tended to make liim the more independent of the settlements, and bury himself still deeper among the ever-greens of the forest, from which he could not be weaned.
it was his usual custom to look up suitable locations for fall hunting in June, when trec.'S would peel the best; at which time he would build himself comfortable bark huts for fall and winter use. Hunting seemed to have become with him a second nature, and he followed it to the last. When his eye grew dim and his arm unsteady, so that he could no longer use his trusty rifle, he would still venture, unattended even by a dog into the lar-olf wilderness; and there, armed only with a hatchet, follow his avocation for weeks. " He often said," says my correspondent, " the howling of the wolf, the growling of the bear, and the screaming of the panther, kept him from being lonesome, and was music to his ears. Such is man of the woods! The comforts of social life afford no enjoyment for him."
sat down to lh(! tal)Io to oat, and fell dead u\,c^^ tlu; floor without a striifrgic or groan, wo bcliovc' in tlic Beventy-fd'th year of his age. lie died ubuut the year 182(1.
Death of a Mimrod. — The St. Lawrenc^c Kepubliean says that Mr. Tiionias Mracham, of the town of Hopkinton, St. Lawrcnee county, who died a few weeks ago, and who, for several years, was a resident of the North West Hay road, of what tliey then railed township No. 10, in Franklin comity, on Kasthrook, near the bounds of Hopkinton, was something of a hunter. He kept an exact account of the game killed by him, which amounts to the following: number of wolves, 214; panthers 77; bears 219; deer 2,550.
lU'Iiovin^ that tlic nsulcr who has followod the footstrps of (Mir trappers, would he inlcrcstcd in kiiowint; soiMt'tliini4' morr of llic aniiiiids ihry soiifrht for fur, and of their liahits, 1 hero insert a portion of their liistory. 'I'lie full ^nown Beaver will weiL!;h from fd'ly to sixty ))oun(ls, and is about four feet in length front tho snout to the end of the tail. Tht; tail is a foot lon^% five or six inclies wide, hy one inch in thiekness; and what is peculiar, altiiou^h the hody of the animal is so well covered with fur and liair, the tail is without either, except at its insertion, and is covered with scales. The fore part of the beaver has the taste and consistency of land animals, while the hind le^rs and tail have not only the smell, but the savor and nearly all the ((ualities of fish.
This peculiarity is thoui^ht by some to be accounted for by the habits of the animal, as when in the water its hind lei^'s and tail are submerj^ed and never seen; but it appears rather to be a connectinjj^ link between the inhabitants of land and water, its sinjijularity in this respect bein<^ placed by nature beyond the control of mere circumstance. The beaver, when captured youuf]^, may easily be domesticated, and when hungry will ask by a plaintive cry for food. It is not
The bait usrd to t'Hti<t» lu-avrr (<» a liiinl»'r's trap is Castorcinn, as I have clsrwlurt' rrtiiarkrd, Tl siihstuiKx* \s ()l)taituil froiri the ^latuliiloiis poiK'hcs of the malt! niiiinal, and is often called by hunters barkstone. It is s(|U('( /cil hy hanrl into some vt'ssel such as a cup or hotth*; a full i^rown animal alloniinj; sevc al ounces. Heaver (dstor is soinetinu-s used by physicians in niedieal j)ractice. Oil, extracted from the tail of the bc<iver, is used niedicinally bv tlu* Indiiins. The beaver is found only in cold or norllurn latitudes. Its senses arc acute. In its habits it is very ncftt, anil will allow n > tdth near its habitation. ,
In its natural or forest life, \vher»- undistciilied hy man, th«' beaver is social lu its habits, often numbering^ twenty or more habitations in a single community, containin'jj froui two lo twenty members each at some seasons of the year, us circumstances warrant. The followini^ account of the manner in which those sagacious animals construct their dams and dwellings, is from (iodman's Natural History.
" They are not particular in the site they select for the establishment of their dwellings, hut if in a lake or pond, wln're a dam is not rccjuired, they are ( areful to build where the water is sufficiently deep. In standing waters, however, they have not the advantage aflbrded by a current for the transportation of their supplies of wood; which, when they build on a
place of their residence, and floated down. v
** The material used for the construction of their dams, are the trunks and branches of F,mn\\ birch, mulberry, willow, poplar, &c. They begin to cut down their timber for building, early in the summer, but their edifices are not commenced until about the middle or latter part of August, and are not completed until the beginning of the cold season. The strength of their teeth, and their perseverance in this work, may be fairly estimated, by the size of the trees they cut down. These are cut in such a manner as to (all into the water, and then floated towards the site of the dam or dwelling. Small shrubs, &c., cut at a distance from the water, they drag with their teeth to the stream, and then launch and tow them to the place of deposit. At a short distance above a beaver dam, the number of trees which have been cut down, appears truly surprising, and the regularity of the stumps which are left, might lead persons unacquainted with the habits of the animals to believe, that the clearing was the result of human industry.
" The figure of the dam varies according to circumstances. Should the current be very gentle, the dam is carried nearly straight across; but when the stream is swiftly flowing, it is uniformly made with a considerable curve, having the convex part opposed to the current. Along with the trunks and branches of trees, they intermingle mud and stones, to give
greater security; and when dams have been long undisturbed and frequently repaired, they acquire great solidity, and their power of resisting the pressure of water and ice, is greatly increased by the willow, birch, &c., occasionally taking root, and eventually growing up into something of a regular hedge. The materials used in constructing the dams, are secured solely by the resting of the branches, &c., against the bottom, and the subsequent accumulation of mud and stones, by the force of the stream, or by the industry of the beavers.
"The dwellings of the beaver are formed of the same materials as their dams, and are very rude, though strong, and adapted in size to the number of their inhabitants. There are seldom more than four old, and six or eight young ones. Double of that number have been occasionally found in one of the lodges, though it is by no means a very common occurrence.
" When building their houses, they place most of the wood cross-wise, and nearly horizontally, observing no other order than that of leaving a cavity in the middle. Branches, which project inward, are cut off with their teeth and thrown among the rest. The houses are by no means built of sticks first, and then plastered, but all the materials, sticks, mud and stones, if the latter can be procured, aro mixed up together, and this composition is employed from the foundation to the summit. The mud is obtained from the adja-
276 TUAPPEUS OF NEW YOIIK,
cent banks or bottom of the stream or pond, near the 'door of the hut. Mud and stones, the beaver always cariics by holding them between his fore paws and throat.
" Their work is all performed at night, and with much expedition. When straw or grass is mingled •with the mud used by them in building, it is an accidental circumstance, owing to thn nature of the spot ■whence the latter was taken. As soon as any part of the material is placed where it is intended to remain, they turn round and give it a smart blow with the tail. The same sort of blow is struck by them, on the surface of the water when they are in the act •of diving.
" The outside of the hut is covered or plastered with mud, late in the autumn, and after frost has begun to appear. By freezing it soon becomes almost as bard as stone, effectually excluding their great enemy, the wolverine, during the winter. Their habit of walking over the work frequently during its progress, has led to the absurd idea of their using their tail as a trowel. The habit of flapping with the tail is retained by them in a state of captivity, and, unless it be the acts already mentionejl, appears designed to effect no particular purpose. The houses, when they have stood for some time, and been kept in repair, become so firm from the consolidation of all the materials, as to require great exertion, and the ice chisel, or other iron instruments, to be broken
Open. The laborious nature of such an undertaking may easily be conceived, when it is known that the tops of the houses are generally from four to six feet thick at the apex of the cone."
The tail of the beaver when swimming, serres for a rudder to aid the animal in its changing and often rapid movement in the water. Near their habitations, beavers establish magazines of green bark and soft wood for food, keeping them well replenished; and never do the membeis of one family plunder from the larder of another. A community of beavers, although it may consist of several hundred members, is seldom disturbed by domestic difficulties; peace and harmony being the bond which cements their union. If an individual is threatened with danger, it immediately takes measures to forewarn the whole village; which is done by striking the water furiously with its tail. Thus apprised of an enemy's proximity, the animals take shelter either in the water or their strong dwell ings, which are very tidily kept in order. The entrance to a beaver's dwelling is by a small open door towards the water. The legs of a beaver are short, the foot has four toes, and what is remarkable, the hind feet have membranes between the toes to aid the animal in swimming.
when seeking to find untro/cn water. It ol'tcii travels a great distance at such times, and it' threatened by danger on the snow, it slides on its belly rapidly, leaving a furrow behind it. Some ' upposc it is done by the animal in an attempt to bury itself in the snow. This is not the case, but rather a necessity arising from the shortness of its legs, as proportioned to its body. The animal has been known, not unfrequently, to get upon a hill near its own residence, when covered with snow, and with its fore feet bent back, slide down the hill for several rods, with great rapidity. This feat is evidently performed for a pastime.
The otter usually feeds upon iish, frogs, and other small animals; and when they can not be obtained, it will eat the tender branches and bark growing in or near the water, and sometimes grass. They are bad economists of food, and often annoy a community of beavers, by destroying their husbanded store of growing eatables. The otter is less numerous than the beaver, and its fur more valuable. The foot of the otter has five toes, connected by webs, like the toes of a duck. It displays considerable sagacity in preparing its burrow, which it makes upward under a bank, the entrance being beneath the water, and that in a freshet it shall not be drowned, it opens a small vent to the surface, often concealed by leaves and bushes. The otter taken young has been tamed, and taught to fish for its master.
The Musk-rat in its habits much resembles the beaver, but is small as compared with that animal, being scarcely one-third as large. It is called ihc musk-rat, because it is l'urnii>h(d with a peculiar matttir, of a strong musky odor. The entrance to its burrow like that of the beaver, is usually made under a bank beneath the water. Its food, which is similar to that of the beaver, is usually sought in the night. Although the latter animal entirely disappears as the country becomes settled, it is not so with the muskrat, it continues its proximity to man's abode, occupying marshy lands along the shore of some river or pond, long after the lands are cleared up and cultivated to the water's edge. It is an excellent swimmer, and dives with great celerity. The flesh of the musk-rat is seldom eaten unless in cases of great hunger, because of its powerful odor. It is still quite numerous in and about the Mohawk river, where the country has been settled for more than a century, and is destroyed every spring in great numbers, when driven from its burrows by heavy freshets, at the breaking up of winter. On such occasions the banks of the Mohawk are lined with men and boys, watching .with eagle-eye to shoot the terrified animals, which are often slain in the very villages contiguous to the river. Not unfrequently they are, by freshets, driven up drains into cellars, where they make great havoc among cabbage and other vegetables there stored.
The Pine Marten, or forest weasel, is so called, because of its preference to forests of pine, in the lofty tops of which it resides. It lives upon small quadrupeds and birds, obtained in the forest, and seldom approaches the habitation of man. It sometimes lives in the hollow of a tree, and not unfrequently takes forcible possession of a squirrel's nest, which it enlarges and occupies to rear its young. The fur of the marten is often used in the manufacture of hats, and in ornamenting winter dresses. The animal is about eighteen inches in length to the tail, the latter appendage being about ten inches long. The male is nearly one-third larger than the female. Trappers have often found the taking of the marten profitable. The Wolverine, which annoys the hunter by stealing game from his traps, resembles the skunk somewhat in appearance. It is about two feet two inches long from the end of the nose to the origin of the tail, and the latter, which is quite bushy, is some eight inches long to the end of the hair. The animal is very strong for its, size, having very sharp claws and teeth. It is covered with fur, but not of fine quality. It is said to be able to defend itself against the attacks of much lai^er animalr^ not unfrequently OTer> powering and destroying them.
| 85,116 | common-pile/pre_1929_books_filtered | cihm_26400 | public_library | public_library_1929_dolma-0021.json.gz:1223 | https://archive.org/download/cihm_26400/cihm_26400_djvu.txt |
K-jw0tmDRIf_3LBo | 1.4: Frequency, Frequency Tables, and Levels of Measurement | 1.4: Frequency, Frequency Tables, and Levels of Measurement
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Once you have a set of data, you will need to organize it so that you can analyze how frequently each datum occurs in the set. However, when calculating the frequency, you may need to round your answers so that they are as precise as possible.
Answers and Rounding Off
A simple way to round off answers is to carry your final answer one more decimal place than was present in the original data. Round off only the final answer. Do not round off any intermediate results, if possible. If it becomes necessary to round off intermediate results, carry them to at least twice as many decimal places as the final answer. For example, the average of the three quiz scores four, six, and nine is 6.3, rounded off to the nearest tenth, because the data are whole numbers. Most answers will be rounded off in this manner.
It is not necessary to reduce most fractions in this course. Especially in Probability Topics , the chapter on probability, it is more helpful to leave an answer as an unreduced fraction.
Levels of Measurement
The way a set of data is measured is called its level of measurement . Correct statistical procedures depend on a researcher being familiar with levels of measurement. Not every statistical operation can be used with every set of data. Data can be classified into four levels of measurement. They are (from lowest to highest level):
- Nominal scale level
- Ordinal scale level
- Interval scale level
- Ratio scale level
Data that is measured using a nominal scale is qualitative . Categories, colors, names, labels and favorite foods along with yes or no responses are examples of nominal level data. Nominal scale data are not ordered. For example, trying to classify people according to their favorite food does not make any sense. Putting pizza first and sushi second is not meaningful.
Smartphone companies are another example of nominal scale data. Some examples are Sony, Motorola, Nokia, Samsung and Apple. This is just a list and there is no agreed upon order. Some people may favor Apple but that is a matter of opinion. Nominal scale data cannot be used in calculations.
Data that is measured using an ordinal scale is similar to nominal scale data but there is a big difference. The ordinal scale data can be ordered. An example of ordinal scale data is a list of the top five national parks in the United States. The top five national parks in the United States can be ranked from one to five but we cannot measure differences between the data.
Another example of using the ordinal scale is a cruise survey where the responses to questions about the cruise are “excellent,” “good,” “satisfactory,” and “unsatisfactory.” These responses are ordered from the most desired response to the least desired. But the differences between two pieces of data cannot be measured. Like the nominal scale data, ordinal scale data cannot be used in calculations.
Data that is measured using the interval scale is similar to ordinal level data because it has a definite ordering but there is a difference between data. The differences between interval scale data can be measured though the data does not have a starting point.
Temperature scales like Celsius (C) and Fahrenheit (F) are measured by using the interval scale. In both temperature measurements, 40° is equal to 100° minus 60°. Differences make sense. But 0 degrees does not because, in both scales, 0 is not the absolute lowest temperature. Temperatures like -10° F and -15° C exist and are colder than 0.
Interval level data can be used in calculations, but one type of comparison cannot be done. 80° C is not four times as hot as 20° C (nor is 80° F four times as hot as 20° F). There is no meaning to the ratio of 80 to 20 (or four to one).
Data that is measured using the ratio scale takes care of the ratio problem and gives you the most information. Ratio scale data is like interval scale data, but it has a 0 point and ratios can be calculated. For example, four multiple choice statistics final exam scores are 80, 68, 20 and 92 (out of a possible 100 points). The exams are machine-graded.
The data can be put in order from lowest to highest: 20, 68, 80, 92.
The differences between the data have meaning. The score 92 is more than the score 68 by 24 points. Ratios can be calculated. The smallest score is 0. So 80 is four times 20. The score of 80 is four times better than the score of 20.
Frequency
Twenty students were asked how many hours they worked per day. Their responses, in hours, are as follows:
5; 6; 3; 3; 2; 4; 7; 5; 2; 3; 5; 6; 5; 4; 4; 3; 5; 2; 5; 3.
Table lists the different data values in ascending order and their frequencies.
| DATA VALUE | FREQUENCY |
|---|---|
| 2 | 3 |
| 3 | 5 |
| 4 | 3 |
| 5 | 6 |
| 6 | 2 |
| 7 | 1 |
Definition: Relative Frequency
A frequency is the number of times a value of the data occurs. According to Table Table \(\PageIndex{1}\), there are three students who work two hours, five students who work three hours, and so on. The sum of the values in the frequency column, 20, represents the total number of students included in the sample.
Definition: Relative frequencies
A relative frequency is the ratio (fraction or proportion) of the number of times a value of the data occurs in the set of all outcomes to the total number of outcomes. To find the relative frequencies, divide each frequency by the total number of students in the sample–in this case, 20. Relative frequencies can be written as fractions, percents, or decimals.
| DATA VALUE | FREQUENCY | RELATIVE FREQUENCY |
|---|---|---|
| 2 | 3 | \(\frac{3}{20}\) or 0.15 |
| 3 | 5 | \(\frac{5}{20}\) or 0.25 |
| 4 | 3 | \(\frac{3}{20}\) or 0.15 |
| 5 | 6 | \(\frac{6}{20}\) or 0.30 |
| 6 | 2 | \(\frac{2}{20}\) or 0.10 |
| 7 | 1 | \(\frac{1}{20}\) or 0.05 |
The sum of the values in the relative frequency column of Table \(\PageIndex{2}\) is \(\frac{20}{20}\), or 1.
Definition: Cumulative Relative Frequency
Cumulative relative frequency is the accumulation of the previous relative frequencies. To find the cumulative relative frequencies, add all the previous relative frequencies to the relative frequency for the current row, as shown in Table \(\PageIndex{3}\).
| DATA VALUE | FREQUENCY | RELATIVE FREQUENCY | CUMULATIVE RELATIVE FREQUENCY |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2 | 3 | \(\frac{3}{20}\) or 0.15 | 0.15 |
| 3 | 5 | \(\frac{5}{20}\) or 0.25 | 0.15 + 0.25 = 0.40 |
| 4 | 3 | \(\frac{3}{20}\) or 0.15 | 0.40 + 0.15 = 0.55 |
| 5 | 6 | \(\frac{6}{20}\) or 0.30 | 0.55 + 0.30 = 0.85 |
| 6 | 2 | \(\frac{2}{20}\) or 0.10 | 0.85 + 0.10 = 0.95 |
| 7 | 1 | \(\frac{1}{20}\) or 0.05 | 0.95 + 0.05 = 1.00 |
The last entry of the cumulative relative frequency column is one, indicating that one hundred percent of the data has been accumulated.
Because of rounding, the relative frequency column may not always sum to one, and the last entry in the cumulative relative frequency column may not be one. However, they each should be close to one.
Table \(\PageIndex{4}\) represents the heights, in inches, of a sample of 100 male semiprofessional soccer players.
| HEIGHTS (INCHES) | FREQUENCY | RELATIVE FREQUENCY | CUMULATIVE RELATIVE FREQUENCY |
|---|---|---|---|
| 59.95–61.95 | 5 | \(\frac{5}{100} = 0.05\) | \(0.05\) |
| 61.95–63.95 | 3 | \(\frac{3}{100} = 0.03\) | \(0.05 + 0.03 = 0.08\) |
| 63.95–65.95 | 15 | \(\frac{15}{100} = 0.15\) | \(0.08 + 0.15 = 0.23\) |
| 65.95–67.95 | 40 | \(\frac{40}{100} = 0.40\) | \(0.23 + 0.40 = 0.63\) |
| 67.95–69.95 | 17 | \(\frac{17}{100} = 0.17\) | \(0.63 + 0.17 = 0.80\) |
| 69.95–71.95 | 12 | \(\frac{12}{100} = 0.12\) | \(0.80 + 0.12 = 0.92\) |
| 71.95–73.95 | 7 | \(\frac{7}{100} = 0.07\) | \(0.92 + 0.07 = 0.99\) |
| 73.95–75.95 | 1 | \(\frac{1}{100} = 0.01\) | \(0.99 + 0.01 = 1.00\) |
| Total = 100 | Total = 1.00 |
The data in this table have been grouped into the following intervals:
- 61.95 to 63.95 inches
- 63.95 to 65.95 inches
- 65.95 to 67.95 inches
- 67.95 to 69.95 inches
- 69.95 to 71.95 inches
- 71.95 to 73.95 inches
- 73.95 to 75.95 inches
This example is used again in Descriptive Statistics , where the method used to compute the intervals will be explained.
In this sample, there are five players whose heights fall within the interval 59.95–61.95 inches, three players whose heights fall within the interval 61.95–63.95 inches, 15 players whose heights fall within the interval 63.95–65.95 inches, 40 players whose heights fall within the interval 65.95–67.95 inches, 17 players whose heights fall within the interval 67.95–69.95 inches, 12 players whose heights fall within the interval 69.95–71.95, seven players whose heights fall within the interval 71.95–73.95, and one player whose heights fall within the interval 73.95–75.95. All heights fall between the endpoints of an interval and not at the endpoints.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{1}\)
- From the Table \(\PageIndex{4}\), find the percentage of heights that are less than 65.95 inches.
- Find the percentage of heights that fall between 61.95 and 65.95 inches.
Answer
- If you look at the first, second, and third rows, the heights are all less than 65.95 inches. There are \(5 + 3 + 15 = 23\) players whose heights are less than 65.95 inches. The percentage of heights less than 65.95 inches is then \(\frac{23}{100}\) or 23%. This percentage is the cumulative relative frequency entry in the third row.
- Add the relative frequencies in the second and third rows: \(0.03 + 0.15 = 0.18\) or 18%.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{2}\)
Table \(\PageIndex{5}\) shows the amount, in inches, of annual rainfall in a sample of towns.
- Find the percentage of rainfall that is less than 9.01 inches.
- Find the percentage of rainfall that is between 6.99 and 13.05 inches.
| Rainfall (Inches) | Frequency | Relative Frequency | Cumulative Relative Frequency |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2.95–4.97 | 6 | \(\frac{6}{50} = 0.12\) | \(0.12\) |
| 4.97–6.99 | 7 | \(\frac{7}{50} = 0.14\) | \(0.12 + 0.14 = 0.26\) |
| 6.99–9.01 | 15 | \(\frac{15}{50} = 0.30\) | \(0.26 + 0.30 = 0.56\) |
| 9.01–11.03 | 8 | \(\frac{8}{50} = 0.16\) | \(0.56 + 0.16 = 0.72\) |
| 11.03–13.05 | 9 | \(\frac{9}{50} = 0.18\) | \(0.72 + 0.18 = 0.90\) |
| 13.05–15.07 | 5 | \(\frac{5}{50} = 0.10\) | \(0.90 + 0.10 = 1.00\) |
| Total = 50 | Total = 1.00 |
- Answer
-
- \(0.56\) or \(56%\)
- \(0.30 + 0.16 + 0.18 = 0.64\) or \(64%\)
Exercise \(\PageIndex{3}\)
Use the heights of the 100 male semiprofessional soccer players in Table \(\PageIndex{4}\). Fill in the blanks and check your answers.
- The percentage of heights that are from 67.95 to 71.95 inches is: ____.
- The percentage of heights that are from 67.95 to 73.95 inches is: ____.
- The percentage of heights that are more than 65.95 inches is: ____.
- The number of players in the sample who are between 61.95 and 71.95 inches tall is: ____.
- What kind of data are the heights?
- Describe how you could gather this data (the heights) so that the data are characteristic of all male semiprofessional soccer players.
Remember, you count frequencies . To find the relative frequency, divide the frequency by the total number of data values. To find the cumulative relative frequency, add all of the previous relative frequencies to the relative frequency for the current row.
Answer
- 29%
- 36%
- 77%
- 87
- quantitative continuous
- get rosters from each team and choose a simple random sample from each
Exercise \(\PageIndex{4}\)
From Table \(\PageIndex{5}\), find the number of towns that have rainfall between 2.95 and 9.01 inches.
- Answer
-
\(6 + 7 + 15 = 28\) towns
Collaborative Exercise \(\PageIndex{7}\)
In your class, have someone conduct a survey of the number of siblings (brothers and sisters) each student has. Create a frequency table. Add to it a relative frequency column and a cumulative relative frequency column. Answer the following questions:
- What percentage of the students in your class have no siblings?
- What percentage of the students have from one to three siblings?
- What percentage of the students have fewer than three siblings?
Example \(\PageIndex{7}\)
Nineteen people were asked how many miles, to the nearest mile, they commute to work each day. The data are as follows: 2; 5; 7; 3; 2; 10; 18; 15; 20; 7; 10; 18; 5; 12; 13; 12; 4; 5; 10. Table \(\PageIndex{6}\) was produced:
| DATA | FREQUENCY | RELATIVE FREQUENCY | CUMULATIVE RELATIVE FREQUENCY |
|---|---|---|---|
| 3 | 3 | \(\frac{3}{19}\) | 0.1579 |
| 4 | 1 | \(\frac{1}{19}\) | 0.2105 |
| 5 | 3 | \(\frac{3}{19}\) | 0.1579 |
| 7 | 2 | \(\frac{2}{19}\) | 0.2632 |
| 10 | 3 | \(\frac{3}{19}\) | 0.4737 |
| 12 | 2 | \(\frac{2}{19}\) | 0.7895 |
| 13 | 1 | \(\frac{1}{19}\) | 0.8421 |
| 15 | 1 | \(\frac{1}{19}\) | 0.8948 |
| 18 | 1 | \(\frac{1}{19}\) | 0.9474 |
| 20 | 1 | \(\frac{1}{19}\) | 1.0000 |
- Is the table correct? If it is not correct, what is wrong?
- True or False: Three percent of the people surveyed commute three miles. If the statement is not correct, what should it be? If the table is incorrect, make the corrections.
- What fraction of the people surveyed commute five or seven miles?
- What fraction of the people surveyed commute 12 miles or more? Less than 12 miles? Between five and 13 miles (not including five and 13 miles)?
Answer
- No. The frequency column sums to 18, not 19. Not all cumulative relative frequencies are correct.
- False. The frequency for three miles should be one; for two miles (left out), two. The cumulative relative frequency column should read: 0.1052, 0.1579, 0.2105, 0.3684, 0.4737, 0.6316, 0.7368, 0.7895, 0.8421, 0.9474, 1.0000.
- \(\frac{5}{19}\)
- \(\frac{7}{19}\), \(\frac{12}{19}\), \(\frac{7}{19}\)
Exercise \(\PageIndex{8}\)
Table \(\PageIndex{5}\) represents the amount, in inches, of annual rainfall in a sample of towns. What fraction of towns surveyed get between 11.03 and 13.05 inches of rainfall each year?
- Answer
-
\(\frac{9}{50}\)
Example \(\PageIndex{9}\)
Table \(\PageIndex{7}\) contains the total number of deaths worldwide as a result of earthquakes for the period from 2000 to 2012.
| Year | Total Number of Deaths |
|---|---|
| 2000 | 231 |
| 2001 | 21,357 |
| 2002 | 11,685 |
| 2003 | 33,819 |
| 2004 | 228,802 |
| 2005 | 88,003 |
| 2006 | 6,605 |
| 2007 | 712 |
| 2008 | 88,011 |
| 2009 | 1,790 |
| 2010 | 320,120 |
| 2011 | 21,953 |
| 2012 | 768 |
| Total | 823,356 |
Answer the following questions.
- What is the frequency of deaths measured from 2006 through 2009?
- What percentage of deaths occurred after 2009?
- What is the relative frequency of deaths that occurred in 2003 or earlier?
- What is the percentage of deaths that occurred in 2004?
- What kind of data are the numbers of deaths?
- The Richter scale is used to quantify the energy produced by an earthquake. Examples of Richter scale numbers are 2.3, 4.0, 6.1, and 7.0. What kind of data are these numbers?
Answer
- 97,118 (11.8%)
- 41.6%
- 67,092/823,356 or 0.081 or 8.1 %
- 27.8%
- Quantitative discrete
- Quantitative continuous
Exercise \(\PageIndex{10}\)
Table \(\PageIndex{8}\) contains the total number of fatal motor vehicle traffic crashes in the United States for the period from 1994 to 2011.
| Year | Total Number of Crashes | Year | Total Number of Crashes |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1994 | 36,254 | 2004 | 38,444 |
| 1995 | 37,241 | 2005 | 39,252 |
| 1996 | 37,494 | 2006 | 38,648 |
| 1997 | 37,324 | 2007 | 37,435 |
| 1998 | 37,107 | 2008 | 34,172 |
| 1999 | 37,140 | 2009 | 30,862 |
| 2000 | 37,526 | 2010 | 30,296 |
| 2001 | 37,862 | 2011 | 29,757 |
| 2002 | 38,491 | Total | 653,782 |
| 2003 | 38,477 |
Answer the following questions.
- What is the frequency of deaths measured from 2000 through 2004?
- What percentage of deaths occurred after 2006?
- What is the relative frequency of deaths that occurred in 2000 or before?
- What is the percentage of deaths that occurred in 2011?
- What is the cumulative relative frequency for 2006? Explain what this number tells you about the data.
Answer
- 190,800 (29.2%)
- 24.9%
- 260,086/653,782 or 39.8%
- 4.6%
- 75.1% of all fatal traffic crashes for the period from 1994 to 2011 happened from 1994 to 2006.
References
- “State & County QuickFacts,” U.S. Census Bureau. quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/download_data.html (accessed May 1, 2013).
- “State & County QuickFacts: Quick, easy access to facts about people, business, and geography,” U.S. Census Bureau. quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/index.html (accessed May 1, 2013).
- “Table 5: Direct hits by mainland United States Hurricanes (1851-2004),” National Hurricane Center, http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/gifs/table5.gif (accessed May 1, 2013).
- “Levels of Measurement,” infinity.cos.edu/faculty/wood...ata_Levels.htm (accessed May 1, 2013).
- Courtney Taylor, “Levels of Measurement,” about.com, http://statistics.about.com/od/Helpa...easurement.htm (accessed May 1, 2013).
- David Lane. “Levels of Measurement,” Connexions, http://cnx.org/content/m10809/latest/ (accessed May 1, 2013).
Review
Some calculations generate numbers that are artificially precise. It is not necessary to report a value to eight decimal places when the measures that generated that value were only accurate to the nearest tenth. Round off your final answer to one more decimal place than was present in the original data. This means that if you have data measured to the nearest tenth of a unit, report the final statistic to the nearest hundredth.
In addition to rounding your answers, you can measure your data using the following four levels of measurement.
- Nominal scale level: data that cannot be ordered nor can it be used in calculations
- Ordinal scale level: data that can be ordered; the differences cannot be measured
- Interval scale level: data with a definite ordering but no starting point; the differences can be measured, but there is no such thing as a ratio.
- Ratio scale level: data with a starting point that can be ordered; the differences have meaning and ratios can be calculated.
When organizing data, it is important to know how many times a value appears. How many statistics students study five hours or more for an exam? What percent of families on our block own two pets? Frequency, relative frequency, and cumulative relative frequency are measures that answer questions like these.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{11}\)
What type of measure scale is being used? Nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio.
- High school soccer players classified by their athletic ability: Superior, Average, Above average
- Baking temperatures for various main dishes: 350, 400, 325, 250, 300
- The colors of crayons in a 24-crayon box
- Social security numbers
- Incomes measured in dollars
- A satisfaction survey of a social website by number: 1 = very satisfied, 2 = somewhat satisfied, 3 = not satisfied
- Political outlook: extreme left, left-of-center, right-of-center, extreme right
- Time of day on an analog watch
- The distance in miles to the closest grocery store
- The dates 1066, 1492, 1644, 1947, and 1944
- The heights of 21–65 year-old women
- Common letter grades: A, B, C, D, and F
Answer
- ordinal
- interval
- nominal
- nominal
- ratio
- ordinal
- nominal
- interval
- ratio
- interval
- ratio
- ordinal
Glossary
- Cumulative Relative Frequency
- The term applies to an ordered set of observations from smallest to largest. The cumulative relative frequency is the sum of the relative frequencies for all values that are less than or equal to the given value.
- Frequency
- the number of times a value of the data occurs
- Relative Frequency
- the ratio of the number of times a value of the data occurs in the set of all outcomes to the number of all outcomes to the total number of outcomes | 4,544 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://stats.libretexts.org/Courses/Diablo_Valley_College/Math_142%3A_Elementary_Statistics_(Kwai-Ching)/Math_142%3A_Text_(Openstax)/01%3A_Sampling_and_Data/1.04%3A_Frequency_Frequency_Tables_and_Levels_of_Measurement | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:11502 | https://stats.libretexts.org/Courses/Diablo_Valley_College/Math_142%3A_Elementary_Statistics_(Kwai-Ching)/Math_142%3A_Text_(Openstax)/01%3A_Sampling_and_Data/1.04%3A_Frequency_Frequency_Tables_and_Levels_of_Measurement |
nomu2a-DimTMW3jd | 11.8: Electromagnetic Waves (Answer) | 11.8: Electromagnetic Waves (Answer)
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Check Your Understanding
16.1. It is greatest immediately after the current is switched on. The displacement current and the magnetic field from it are proportional to the rate of change of electric field between the plates, which is greatest when the plates first begin to charge.
16.2. No. The changing electric field according to the modified version of Ampère’s law would necessarily induce a changing magnetic field.
16.3. (1) Faraday’s law, (2) the Ampère-Maxwell law
16.4. a. The directions of wave propagation, of the E field, and of B field are all mutually perpendicular.
b. The speed of the electromagnetic wave is the speed of light \(\displaystyle c=1/\sqrt{ε_0μ_0}\) independent of frequency.
c. The ratio of electric and magnetic field amplitudes is \(\displaystyle E/B=c\).
16.5. Its acceleration would decrease because the radiation force is proportional to the intensity of light from the Sun, which decreases with distance. Its speed, however, would not change except for the effects of gravity from the Sun and planets.
16.6. They fall into different ranges of wavelength, and therefore also different corresponding ranges of frequency.
Conceptual Questions
1. The current into the capacitor to change the electric field between the plates is equal to the displacement current between the plates.
3. The first demonstration requires simply observing the current produced in a wire that experiences a changing magnetic field. The second demonstration requires moving electric charge from one location to another, and therefore involves electric currents that generate a changing electric field. The magnetic fields from these currents are not easily separated from the magnetic field that the displacement current produces.
5. in (a), because the electric field is parallel to the wire, accelerating the electrons
7. A steady current in a dc circuit will not produce electromagnetic waves. If the magnitude of the current varies while remaining in the same direction, the wires will emit electromagnetic waves, for example, if the current is turned on or off.
9. The amount of energy (about \(\displaystyle 100W/m^2\)) is can quickly produce a considerable change in temperature, but the light pressure (about \(\displaystyle 3.00×10^{−7}N/m^2\)) is much too small to notice.
11. It has the magnitude of the energy flux and points in the direction of wave propagation. It gives the direction of energy flow and the amount of energy per area transported per second.
13. The force on a surface acting over time \(\displaystyle Δt\) is the momentum that the force would impart to the object. The momentum change of the light is doubled if the light is reflected back compared with when it is absorbed, so the force acting on the object is twice as great.
15. a. According to the right hand rule, the direction of energy propagation would reverse.
b. This would leave the vector \(\displaystyle \vec{S}\), and therefore the propagation direction, the same.
17. a. Radio waves are generally produced by alternating current in a wire or an oscillating electric field between two plates;
b. Infrared radiation is commonly produced by heated bodies whose atoms and the charges in them vibrate at about the right frequency.
19. a. blue;
b. Light of longer wavelengths than blue passes through the air with less scattering, whereas more of the blue light is scattered in different directions in the sky to give it is blue color.
21. A typical antenna has a stronger response when the wires forming it are orientated parallel to the electric field of the radio wave.
23. No, it is very narrow and just a small portion of the overall electromagnetic spectrum.
25. Visible light is typically produced by changes of energies of electrons in randomly oriented atoms and molecules. Radio waves are typically emitted by an ac current flowing along a wire, that has fixed orientation and produces electric fields pointed in particular directions.
27. Radar can observe objects the size of an airplane and uses radio waves of about 0.5 cm in wavelength. Visible light can be used to view single biological cells and has wavelengths of about \(\displaystyle 10^{−7}m\).
29. ELF radio waves
31. The frequency of 2.45 GHz of a microwave oven is close to the specific frequencies in the 2.4 GHz band used for WiFi.
Problems
33. \(\displaystyle B_{ind}=\frac{μ_0}{P2πr}I_{ind}=\frac{μ_0}{2πr}ε_0\frac{∂Φ_E}{∂t}=\frac{μ_0}{2πr}ε_0(A\frac{∂E}{∂t})=\frac{μ_0}{2πr}ε_0A(\frac{1}{d}\frac{dV(t)}{dt})=\frac{μ_0}{2πr}[\frac{ε_0A}{d}][\frac{1}{C}\frac{dQ(t)}{dt}]=\frac{μ_0}{2πr}\frac{dQ(t)}{dt}\) because \(\displaystyle C=\frac{ε_0A}{d}\)
35. a. \(\displaystyle I_{res}=\frac{V_0sinωt}{R}\);
b. \(\displaystyle I_d=CV_0ωcosωt\);
c. \(\displaystyle I_{real}=_{Ires}+\frac{dQ}{dt}=\frac{V_0sinωt}{R}+CV_0\frac{d}{dt}sinωt=\frac{V_0sinωt}{R}+CV_0ωcosωt\); which is the sum of \(\displaystyle I_{res}\) and \(\displaystyle I_{real}\), consistent with how the displacement current maintaining the continuity of current.
37. \(\displaystyle 1.77×10^{−3}A\)
39. \(\displaystyle I_d=(7.97×10^{−10}A)sin(150t)\)
41. 499 s
43. 25 m
45. a. 5.00 V/m;
b. \(\displaystyle 9.55×10^8Hz\);
c. 31.4 cm;
d. toward the + x -axis;
e. \(\displaystyle B=(1.67×10^{−8}T)cos[kx−(6×10^9s^{−1})t+0.40]\hat{k}\)
47. \(\displaystyle I_d=πε_0ωR^2E_0sin(kx−ωt)\)
49. The magnetic field is downward, and it has magnitude \(\displaystyle 2.00×10^{−8}T\).
51. a. \(\displaystyle 6.45×10^{−3}V/m\);
b. 394 m
53. 11.5 m
55. \(\displaystyle 5.97×10^{−3}W/m^2\)
57. a.\(\displaystyle E_0=1027V/m, B_0=3.42×10^{−6}T\);
b. \(\displaystyle 3.96×10^{26}W\)
59. \(\displaystyle 20.8W/m^2\)
61. a. \(\displaystyle 4.42×10^{‒6}W/m^2\);
b. \(\displaystyle 5.77×10^{‒2}V/m\)
63. a. \(\displaystyle 7.47×10^{−14}W/m^2\);
b. \(\displaystyle 3.66×10−^{13}W\);
c. 1.12 W
65. \(\displaystyle 1.99×10^{−11}N/m^2\)
67. \(\displaystyle F=ma=(p)(πr^2),p=\frac{ma}{πr^2}=\frac{ε_0}{2E^2_0}\)
\(\displaystyle E_0=\sqrt{\frac{2ma}{ε_0πr^2}}=\sqrt{\frac{2(10^{−8}kg)(0.30m/s^2)}{(8.854×10^{−12}C^2/N⋅m^2)(π)(2×10^{−6}m)^2}}\)
\(\displaystyle E_0=7.34×10^6V/m\)
69. a. \(\displaystyle 4.50×10^{−6}N;\)
b. it is reduced to half the pressure, \(\displaystyle 2.25×10^{−6}N\)
71. a. \(\displaystyle W=\frac{1}{2}\frac{π^2r^4}{mc^2}I^2t^2\);
b. \(\displaystyle E=πr^2It\)
73. a. \(\displaystyle 1.5×10^{18}Hz\);
b. X-rays
75. a. The wavelength range is 187 m to 556 m.
b. The wavelength range is 2.78 m to 3.41 m.
77. \(\displaystyle P'=(\frac{12m}{30m})^2(100mW)=16mW\)
79. time for 1 bit = \(\displaystyle 1.27×10^{−8}\) s, difference in travel time is \(\displaystyle 5.34×10^{−8}\) s
81. a. \(\displaystyle 1.5×10^{−9}m\);
b. \(\displaystyle 5.9×10^{−7}m\);
c. \(\displaystyle 3.0×10^{−15}m\)
83. \(\displaystyle 5.17×10^{−12}T\), the non-oscillating geomagnetic field of 25–65 \(\displaystyle μT\) is much larger
85. a. \(\displaystyle 1.33×10^{−2}V/m\);
b. \(\displaystyle 4.34×10^{−11}T\);
c. \(\displaystyle 3.00×10^8m\)
87. a. \(\displaystyle 5.00×10^6m\);
b. radio wave;
c. \(\displaystyle 4.33×10^{−5}T\)
Additional Problems
89. \(\displaystyle I_d=(10N/C)(8.845×10^{−12}C^2/N⋅m^2)π(0.03m)^2(5000)=1.25×10^{−5}mA\)
91. \(\displaystyle 3.75×10^7km\), which is much greater than Earth’s circumference
93. a. 564 W;
b. \(\displaystyle 1.80×10^4W/m^2\);
c. \(\displaystyle 3.68×10^3V/m\);
d. \(\displaystyle 1.23×10^{−5}T\)
95. a. \(\displaystyle 5.00×10^3W/m^2\);
b. \(\displaystyle 3.88×10^{−6}N\);
c. \(\displaystyle 5.18×10^{−12}N\)
97. a. \(\displaystyle I=\frac{P}{A}=\frac{P}{4πr^2}∝\frac{1}{r^2}\);
b. \(\displaystyle I∝E^2_0,B^2_0⇒E^2_0,B^2_0∝\frac{1}{r^2}⇒E_0,B_0∝\frac{1}{r}\)
99. Power into the wire=\(\displaystyle ∫\vec{S}⋅d\vec{A}=(\frac{1}{μ_0}EB)(2πrL)=\frac{1}{μ_0}(\frac{V}{L})(\frac{μ_0i}{2πr})(2πrL)=iV=i^2R\)
101. 0.431
103. a. \(\displaystyle 1.5×10^{11}m\);
b. \(\displaystyle 5.0×10^{−7}s\);
c. 33 ns
105. \(\displaystyle sound:λ_{sound}=\frac{v_s}{f}=\frac{343m/s}{20.0Hz}=17.2m\)
\(\displaystyle radio:λ_{radio}=\frac{c}{f}=\frac{3.00×10^8m/s}{1030×10^3Hz}=291m; or 17.1 λ_{sound}\)
Challenge Problems
107. a. \(\displaystyle 0.29μm\);
b. The radiation pressure is greater than the Sun’s gravity if the particle size is smaller, because the gravitational force varies as the radius cubed while the radiation pressure varies as the radius squared.
c. The radiation force outward implies that particles smaller than this are less likely to be near the Sun than outside the range of the Sun’s radiation pressure. | 1,422 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://phys.libretexts.org/Courses/Kettering_University/Electricity_and_Magnetism_with_Applications_to_Amateur_Radio_and_Wireless_Technology/11%3A_Electromagnetic_Waves/11.08%3A_Electromagnetic_Waves_(Answer) | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:7640 | https://phys.libretexts.org/Courses/Kettering_University/Electricity_and_Magnetism_with_Applications_to_Amateur_Radio_and_Wireless_Technology/11%3A_Electromagnetic_Waves/11.08%3A_Electromagnetic_Waves_(Answer) |
eHYEwkDQbwZMwbsx | 5.7: Common Forces | 5.7: Common Forces
- Define normal and tension forces
- Distinguish between real and fictitious forces
- Apply Newton’s laws of motion to solve problems involving a variety of forces
Forces are given many names, such as push, pull, thrust, and weight. Traditionally, forces have been grouped into several categories and given names relating to their source, how they are transmitted, or their effects. Several of these categories are discussed in this section, together with some interesting applications. Further examples of forces are discussed later in this text.
A Catalog of Forces: Normal, Tension, and Other Examples of Forces
A catalog of forces will be useful for reference as we solve various problems involving force and motion. These forces include normal force, tension, friction, and spring force.
Normal force
Weight (also called the force of gravity) is a pervasive force that acts at all times and must be counteracted to keep an object from falling. You must support the weight of a heavy object by pushing up on it when you hold it stationary, as illustrated in Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)(a). But how do inanimate objects like a table support the weight of a mass placed on them, such as shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)(b)? When the bag of dog food is placed on the table, the table sags slightly under the load. This would be noticeable if the load were placed on a card table, but even a sturdy oak table deforms when a force is applied to it. Unless an object is deformed beyond its limit, it will exert a restoring force much like a deformed spring (or a trampoline or diving board). The greater the deformation, the greater the restoring force. Thus, when the load is placed on the table, the table sags until the restoring force becomes as large as the weight of the load. At this point, the net external force on the load is zero. That is the situation when the load is stationary on the table. The table sags quickly and the sag is slight, so we do not notice it. But it is similar to the sagging of a trampoline when you climb onto it.
We must conclude that whatever supports a load, be it animate or not, must supply an upward force equal to the weight of the load, as we assumed in a few of the previous examples. If the force supporting the weight of an object, or a load, is perpendicular to the surface of contact between the load and its support, this force is defined as a normal force and here is given by the symbol \(\vec{N}\). (This is not the newton unit for force, or N.) The word normal means perpendicular to a surface. This means that the normal force experienced by an object resting on a horizontal surface can be expressed in vector form as follows:
\[\vec{N} = -m \vec{g} \ldotp \tag{5.11}\nonumber \]
In scalar form, this becomes
\[N = mg \ldotp \tag{5.12}\nonumber \]
The normal force can be less than the object’s weight if the object is on an incline.
Consider the skier on the slope in Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\). Her mass including equipment is 60.0 kg. (a) What is her acceleration if friction is negligible? (b) What is her acceleration if friction is 45.0 N?
Strategy
This is a two-dimensional problem, since not all forces on the skier (the system of interest) are parallel. The approach we have used in two-dimensional kinematics also works well here. Choose a convenient coordinate system and project the vectors onto its axes, creating two one-dimensional problems to solve. The most convenient coordinate system for motion on an incline is one that has one coordinate parallel to the slope and one perpendicular to the slope. (Motions along mutually perpendicular axes are independent.) We use x and y for the parallel and perpendicular directions, respectively. This choice of axes simplifies this type of problem, because there is no motion perpendicular to the slope and the acceleration is downslope. Regarding the forces, friction is drawn in opposition to motion (friction always opposes forward motion) and is always parallel to the slope, w x is drawn parallel to the slope and downslope (it causes the motion of the skier down the slope), and w y is drawn as the component of weight perpendicular to the slope. Then, we can consider the separate problems of forces parallel to the slope and forces perpendicular to the slope.
Solution
The magnitude of the component of weight parallel to the slope is
\[w_{x} = w \sin 25^{o} = mg \sin 25^{o},\nonumber \]
and the magnitude of the component of the weight perpendicular to the slope is
\[w_{y} = w \cos 25^{o} = mg \cos 25^{o} \ldotp\nonumber \]
- Neglect friction. Since the acceleration is parallel to the slope, we need only consider forces parallel to the slope. (Forces perpendicular to the slope add to zero, since there is no acceleration in that direction.) The forces parallel to the slope are the component of the skier’s weight parallel to slope w x and friction f. Using Newton’s second law, with subscripts to denote quantities parallel to the slope, $$a_{x} = \frac{F_{net\; x}}{m}$$where F net x = w x - mg sin 25°, assuming no friction for this part. Therefore, $$a_{x} = \frac{F_{net\; x}}{m} = \frac{mg \sin 25^{o}}{m} = g \sin 25^{o}$$ $$(9.80\; m/s^{2})(0.4226) = 4.14\; m/s^{2}$$is the acceleration.
- Include friction. We have a given value for friction, and we know its direction is parallel to the slope and it opposes motion between surfaces in contact. So the net external force is $$F_{net\; x} = w_{x} - f \ldotp$$Substituting this into Newton’s second law, \(a_x = \frac{F_{net\; x}}{m}\), gives $$a_{x} = \frac{F_{net\; x}}{m} = \frac{w_{x} - f}{m} = \frac{mg \sin 25^{o} - f}{m} \ldotp$$ We substitute known values to obtain $$a_{x} = \frac{(60.0\; kg)(9.80\; m/s^{2})(0.4226) - 45.0\; N}{60.0\; kg} \ldotp$$This give us $$a_{x} = 3.39\; m/s^{2},$$ which is the acceleration parallel to the incline when there is 45.0 N of opposing friction.
Significance
Since friction always opposes motion between surfaces, the acceleration is smaller when there is friction than when there is none. It is a general result that if friction on an incline is negligible, then the acceleration down the incline is a = g sin \(\theta\), regardless of mass. As discussed previously, all objects fall with the same acceleration in the absence of air resistance. Similarly, all objects, regardless of mass, slide down a frictionless incline with the same acceleration (if the angle is the same).
When an object rests on an incline that makes an angle \(\theta\) with the horizontal, the force of gravity acting on the object is divided into two components: a force acting perpendicular to the plane, wy , and a force acting parallel to the plane, wx (Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\)). The normal force \(\vec{N}\) is typically equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the perpendicular component of the weight w y . The force acting parallel to the plane, w x , causes the object to accelerate down the incline.
Be careful when resolving the weight of the object into components. If the incline is at an angle θ to the horizontal, then the magnitudes of the weight components are
\[w_{x} = w \sin \theta = mg \sin \theta\nonumber \]
and
\[w_{y} = w \cos \theta = mg \cos \theta\nonumber \]
We use the second equation to write the normal force experienced by an object resting on an inclined plane:
\[N = mg \cos \theta \ldotp \tag{5.13}\nonumber \]
Instead of memorizing these equations, it is helpful to be able to determine them from reason. To do this, we draw the right angle formed by the three weight vectors. The angle \(\theta\) of the incline is the same as the angle formed between w and w y . Knowing this property, we can use trigonometry to determine the magnitude of the weight components:
\[\cos \theta = \frac{w_{y}}{w},\quad w_{y} = w \cos \theta = mg \cos \theta\nonumber \]
\[\sin \theta = \frac{w_{x}}{w},\quad w_{x} = w \sin\theta = mg \sin \theta\nonumber \]
A force of 1150 N acts parallel to a ramp to push a 250-kg gun safe into a moving van. The ramp is frictionless and inclined at 17°. (a) What is the acceleration of the safe up the ramp? (b) If we consider friction in this problem, with a friction force of 120 N, what is the acceleration of the safe?
Tension
A tension is a force along the length of a medium; in particular, it is a pulling force that acts along a stretched flexible connector, such as a rope or cable. The word “tension” comes from a Latin word meaning “to stretch.” Not coincidentally, the flexible cords that carry muscle forces to other parts of the body are called tendons. Any flexible connector, such as a string, rope, chain, wire, or cable, can only exert a pull parallel to its length; thus, a force carried by a flexible connector is a tension with a direction parallel to the connector. Tension is a pull in a connector. Consider the phrase: “You can’t push a rope.” Instead, tension force pulls outward along the two ends of a rope. Consider a person holding a mass on a rope, as shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\). If the 5.00-kg mass in the figure is stationary, then its acceleration is zero and the net force is zero. The only external forces acting on the mass are its weight and the tension supplied by the rope. Thus,
\[F_{net} = T - w = 0,\nonumber \]
where T and w are the magnitudes of the tension and weight, respectively, and their signs indicate direction, with up being positive. As we proved using Newton’s second law, the tension equals the weight of the supported mass:
\[T = w = mg \ldotp \tag{5.14}\nonumber \]
Thus, for a 5.00-kg mass (neglecting the mass of the rope), we see that
\[T = mg = (5.00\; kg)(9.80\; m/s^{2}) = 49.0\; N \ldotp\nonumber \]
If we cut the rope and insert a spring, the spring would extend a length corresponding to a force of 49.0 N, providing a direct observation and measure of the tension force in the rope.
Flexible connectors are often used to transmit forces around corners, such as in a hospital traction system, a tendon, or a bicycle brake cable. If there is no friction, the tension transmission is undiminished; only its direction changes, and it is always parallel to the flexible connector, as shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\).
Calculate the tension in the wire supporting the 70.0-kg tightrope walker shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{6}\).
Strategy
As you can see in Figure \(\PageIndex{6}\), the wire is bent under the person’s weight. Thus, the tension on either side of the person has an upward component that can support his weight. As usual, forces are vectors represented pictorially by arrows that have the same direction as the forces and lengths proportional to their magnitudes. The system is the tightrope walker, and the only external forces acting on him are his weight \(\vec{w}\) and the two tensions \(\vec{T}_{L}\) (left tension) and \(\vec{T}_{R}\) (right tension). It is reasonable to neglect the weight of the wire. The net external force is zero, because the system is static. We can use trigonometry to find the tensions. One conclusion is possible at the outset—we can see from Figure \(\PageIndex{6}\)(b) that the magnitudes of the tensions T L and T R must be equal. We know this because there is no horizontal acceleration in the rope and the only forces acting to the left and right are T L and T R . Thus, the magnitude of those horizontal components of the forces must be equal so that they cancel each other out.
Whenever we have two-dimensional vector problems in which no two vectors are parallel, the easiest method of solution is to pick a convenient coordinate system and project the vectors onto its axes. In this case, the best coordinate system has one horizontal axis (x) and one vertical axis (y).
Solution
First, we need to resolve the tension vectors into their horizontal and vertical components. It helps to look at a new free-body diagram showing all horizontal and vertical components of each force acting on the system (Figure \(\PageIndex{7}\)).
Consider the horizontal components of the forces (denoted with a subscript x):
\[F_{net x} = T_{Rx} − T_{Lx} \ldotp\nonumber \]
The net external horizontal force F net x = 0, since the person is stationary. Thus,
\[F_{net x} = 0 = T_{Rx} − T_{Lx} \ldotp\nonumber \]
\[T_{Lx} = T_{Rx} \ldotp\nonumber \]
Now observe Figure \(\PageIndex{7}\). You can use trigonometry to determine the magnitude of T L and T R :
\[\cos 5.0^{o} = \frac{T_{Lx}}{T_{L}}, \quad T_{Lx} = T_{L} \cos 5.0^{o}\nonumber \]
\[\cos 5.0^{o} = \frac{T_{Rx}}{T_{R}}, \quad T_{Rx} = T_{R} \cos 5.0^{o} \ldotp\nonumber \]
Equating T Lx and T Rx :
\[T_{L} \cos 5.0^{o} = T_{R} \cos 5.0^{o} \ldotp\nonumber \]
Thus,
\[T_{L} = T_{R} = T,\nonumber \]
as predicted. Now, considering the vertical components (denoted by a subscript y), we can solve for T. Again, since the person is stationary, Newton’s second law implies that F net y = 0. Thus, as illustrated in the free-body diagram,
\[F_{net y} = T_{Ly} + T_{Ry} - w = 0 \ldotp\nonumber \]
We can use trigonometry to determine the relationships among T Ly , T Ry , and T. As we determined from the analysis in the horizontal direction, T L = T R = T:
\[\sin 5.0^{o} = \frac{T_{Ly}}{T_{L}}, \quad T_{Ly} = T_{L} \sin 5.0^{o} = T \sin 5.0^{o}\nonumber \]
\[\sin 5.0^{o} = \frac{T_{Ry}}{T_{R}}, \quad T_{Ry} = T_{R} \sin 5.0^{o} = T \sin 5.0^{o} \ldotp\nonumber \]
Now we can substitute the vales for T Ly and T Ry , into the net force equation in the vertical direction:
\[F_{net y} = T_{Ly} + T_{Ry} - w = 0\nonumber \]
\[F_{net y} = 0 = T \sin 5.0^{o} + T \sin 5.0^{o} - w = 0\nonumber \]
\[2T \sin 5.0^{o} - w = 0\nonumber \]
\[2T \sin 5.0^{o} = w\nonumber \]
and
\[T = \frac{w}{2 \sin 5.0^{o}} = \frac{mg}{2 \sin 5.0^{o}},\nonumber \]
so
\[T = \frac{(70.0\; kg)(9.80\; m/s^{2})}{2(0.0872)},\nonumber \]
and the tension is
\[T = 3930\; N \ldotp\nonumber \]
Significance
The vertical tension in the wire acts as a force that supports the weight of the tightrope walker. The tension is almost six times the 686-N weight of the tightrope walker. Since the wire is nearly horizontal, the vertical component of its tension is only a fraction of the tension in the wire. The large horizontal components are in opposite directions and cancel, so most of the tension in the wire is not used to support the weight of the tightrope walker.
If we wish to create a large tension, all we have to do is exert a force perpendicular to a taut flexible connector, as illustrated in Figure \(\PageIndex{6}\). As we saw in Example 5.13, the weight of the tightrope walker acts as a force perpendicular to the rope. We saw that the tension in the rope is related to the weight of the tightrope walker in the following way:
\[T = \frac{w}{2 \sin \theta} \ldotp\nonumber \]
We can extend this expression to describe the tension T created when a perpendicular force (F \(\perp\) ) is exerted at the middle of a flexible connector:
\[T = \frac{F_{\perp}}{2 \sin \theta} \ldotp\nonumber \]
The angle between the horizontal and the bent connector is represented by \(\theta\). In this case, T becomes large as \(\theta\) approaches zero. Even the relatively small weight of any flexible connector will cause it to sag, since an infinite tension would result if it were horizontal (i.e., \(\theta\) = 0 and sin \(\theta\) = 0). For example, Figure \(\PageIndex{8}\) shows a situation where we wish to pull a car out of the mud when no tow truck is available. Each time the car moves forward, the chain is tightened to keep it as straight as possible. The tension in the chain is given by T = \(\frac{F_{\perp}}{2 \sin \theta}\), and since \(\theta\) is small, T is large. This situation is analogous to the tightrope walker, except that the tensions shown here are those transmitted to the car and the tree rather than those acting at the point where F \(\perp\) is applied.
One end of a 3.0-m rope is tied to a tree; the other end is tied to a car stuck in the mud. The motorist pulls sideways on the midpoint of the rope, displacing it a distance of 0.25 m. If he exerts a force of 200.0 N under these conditions, determine the force exerted on the car.
In Applications of Newton’s Laws , we extend the discussion on tension in a cable to include cases in which the angles shown are not equal.
Friction
Friction is a resistive force opposing motion or its tendency. Imagine an object at rest on a horizontal surface. The net force acting on the object must be zero, leading to equality of the weight and the normal force, which act in opposite directions. If the surface is tilted, the normal force balances the component of the weight perpendicular to the surface. If the object does not slide downward, the component of the weight parallel to the inclined plane is balanced by friction. Friction is discussed in greater detail in the next chapter.
Spring force
A spring is a special medium with a specific atomic structure that has the ability to restore its shape, if deformed. To restore its shape, a spring exerts a restoring force that is proportional to and in the opposite direction in which it is stretched or compressed. This is the statement of a law known as Hooke’s law, which has the mathematical form
\[\vec{F} = -k \vec{x} \ldotp\nonumber \]
The constant of proportionality k is a measure of the spring’s stiffness. The line of action of this force is parallel to the spring axis, and the sense of the force is in the opposite direction of the displacement vector (Figure \(\PageIndex{9}\)). The displacement must be measured from the relaxed position; x = 0 when the spring is relaxed.
Real Forces and Inertial Frames
There is another distinction among forces: Some forces are real, whereas others are not. Real forces have some physical origin, such as a gravitational pull. In contrast, fictitious forces arise simply because an observer is in an accelerating or noninertial frame of reference, such as one that rotates (like a merry-go-round) or undergoes linear acceleration (like a car slowing down). For example, if a satellite is heading due north above Earth’s Northern Hemisphere, then to an observer on Earth, it will appear to experience a force to the west that has no physical origin. Instead, Earth is rotating toward the east and moves east under the satellite. In Earth’s frame, this looks like a westward force on the satellite, or it can be interpreted as a violation of Newton’s first law (the law of inertia). We can identify a fictitious force by asking the question, “What is the reaction force?” If we cannot name the reaction force, then the force we are considering is fictitious. In the example of the satellite, the reaction force would have to be an eastward force on Earth. Recall that an inertial frame of reference is one in which all forces are real and, equivalently, one in which Newton’s laws have the simple forms given in this chapter.
Earth’s rotation is slow enough that Earth is nearly an inertial frame. You ordinarily must perform precise experiments to observe fictitious forces and the slight departures from Newton’s laws, such as the effect just described. On a large scale, such as for the rotation of weather systems and ocean currents, the effects can be easily observed (Figure \(\PageIndex{10}\)).
The crucial factor in determining whether a frame of reference is inertial is whether it accelerates or rotates relative to a known inertial frame. Unless stated otherwise, all phenomena discussed in this text are in inertial frames.
The forces discussed in this section are real forces, but they are not the only real forces. Lift and thrust, for example, are more specialized real forces. In the long list of forces, are some more basic than others? Are some different manifestations of the same underlying force? The answer to both questions is yes, as you will see in the treatment of modern physics later in the text
Explore forces and motion in this interactive simulation as you push household objects up and down a ramp. Lower and raise the ramp to see how the angle of inclination affects the parallel forces. Graphs show forces, energy, and work.
Stretch and compress springs in this activity to explore the relationships among force, spring constant, and displacement. Investigate what happens when two springs are connected in series and in parallel. | 4,520 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://phys.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/University_Physics/University_Physics_(OpenStax)/Book%3A_University_Physics_I_-_Mechanics_Sound_Oscillations_and_Waves_(OpenStax)/05%3A_Newton's_Laws_of_Motion/5.07%3A_Common_Forces | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:12722 | https://phys.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/University_Physics/University_Physics_(OpenStax)/Book%3A_University_Physics_I_-_Mechanics_Sound_Oscillations_and_Waves_(OpenStax)/05%3A_Newton's_Laws_of_Motion/5.07%3A_Common_Forces |
tLsJ-TfpVtSWhGL1 | Biology Part I | 100 Key Terms
- anaphase
- stage of mitosis during which sister chromatids are separated from each other
- binary fission
- prokaryotic cell division process
- cell cycle
- ordered series of events involving cell growth and cell division that produces two new daughter cells
- cell plate
- structure formed during plant cell cytokinesis by Golgi vesicles, forming a temporary structure (phragmoplast) and fusing at the metaphase plate; ultimately leads to the formation of cell walls that separate the two daughter cells
- cell-cycle checkpoint
- mechanism that monitors the preparedness of a eukaryotic cell to advance through the various cell-cycle stages
- centriole
- rod-like structure constructed of microtubules at the center of each animal cell centrosome
- centromere
- region at which sister chromatids are bound together; a constricted area in condensed chromosomes
- chromatid
- single DNA molecule of two strands of duplicated DNA and associated proteins held together at the centromere
- cleavage furrow
- constriction formed by an actin ring during cytokinesis in animal cells that leads to cytoplasmic division
- condensin
- proteins that help sister chromatids coil during prophase
- cyclin
- one of a group of proteins that act in conjunction with cyclin-dependent kinases to help regulate the cell cycle by phosphorylating key proteins; the concentrations of cyclins fluctuate throughout the cell cycle
- cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk)
- one of a group of protein kinases that helps to regulate the cell cycle when bound to cyclin; it functions to phosphorylate other proteins that are either activated or inactivated by phosphorylation
- cytokinesis
- division of the cytoplasm following mitosis that forms two daughter cells.
- diploid
- cell, nucleus, or organism containing two sets of chromosomes (2n)
- FtsZ
- tubulin-like protein component of the prokaryotic cytoskeleton that is important in prokaryotic cytokinesis (name origin: Filamenting temperature-sensitive mutant Z)
- G0 phase
- distinct from the G1 phase of interphase; a cell in G0 is not preparing to divide
- G1 phase
- (also, first gap) first phase of interphase centered on cell growth during mitosis
- G2 phase
- (also, second gap) third phase of interphase during which the cell undergoes final preparations for mitosis
- gamete
- haploid reproductive cell or sex cell (sperm, pollen grain, or egg)
- gene
- physical and functional unit of heredity, a sequence of DNA that codes for a protein.
- genome
- total genetic information of a cell or organism
- haploid
- cell, nucleus, or organism containing one set of chromosomes (n)
- histone
- one of several similar, highly conserved, low molecular weight, basic proteins found in the chromatin of all eukaryotic cells; associates with DNA to form nucleosomes
- homologous chromosomes
- chromosomes of the same morphology with genes in the same location; diploid organisms have pairs of homologous chromosomes (homologs), with each homolog derived from a different parent
- interphase
- period of the cell cycle leading up to mitosis; includes G1, S, and G2 phases (the interim period between two consecutive cell divisions)
- karyokinesis
- mitotic nuclear division
- kinetochore
- protein structure associated with the centromere of each sister chromatid that attracts and binds spindle microtubules during prometaphase
- locus
- position of a gene on a chromosome
- metaphase
- stage of mitosis during which chromosomes are aligned at the metaphase plate
- metaphase plate
- equatorial plane midway between the two poles of a cell where the chromosomes align during metaphase
- mitosis
- (also, karyokinesis) period of the cell cycle during which the duplicated chromosomes are separated into identical nuclei; includes prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase
- mitotic phase
- period of the cell cycle during which duplicated chromosomes are distributed into two nuclei and cytoplasmic contents are divided; includes karyokinesis (mitosis) and cytokinesis
- mitotic spindle
- apparatus composed of microtubules that orchestrates the movement of chromosomes during mitosis
- nucleosome
- subunit of chromatin composed of a short length of DNA wrapped around a core of histone proteins
- oncogene
- mutated version of a normal gene involved in the positive regulation of the cell cycle
- origin
- (also, ORI) region of the prokaryotic chromosome where replication begins (origin of replication)
- p21
- cell-cycle regulatory protein that inhibits the cell cycle; its levels are controlled by p53
- p53
- cell-cycle regulatory protein that regulates cell growth and monitors DNA damage; it halts the progression of the cell cycle in cases of DNA damage and may induce apoptosis
- prometaphase
- stage of mitosis during which the nuclear membrane breaks down and mitotic spindle fibers attach to kinetochores
- prophase
- stage of mitosis during which chromosomes condense and the mitotic spindle begins to form
- proto-oncogene
- normal gene that when mutated becomes an oncogene
- quiescent
- refers to a cell that is performing normal cell functions and has not initiated preparations for cell division
- retinoblastoma protein (Rb)
- regulatory molecule that exhibits negative effects on the cell cycle by interacting with a transcription factor (E2F)
- S phase
- second, or synthesis, stage of interphase during which DNA replication occurs
- septum
- structure formed in a bacterial cell as a precursor to the separation of the cell into two daughter cells
- telophase
- stage of mitosis during which chromosomes arrive at opposite poles, decondense, and are surrounded by a new nuclear envelope
- tumor suppressor gene
- segment of DNA that codes for regulator proteins that prevent the cell from undergoing uncontrolled division | 1,199 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://louis.pressbooks.pub/generalbiology1leclab/chapter/key-terms-10/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:59500 | https://louis.pressbooks.pub/generalbiology1leclab/chapter/key-terms-10/ |
54XMo4PUygBxmoxB | Testing Clone Dec 2020 | Grammar – High Beginning Videos and Exercises
This/That and Calendar Vocabulary
This/That and Calendar Vocabulary – Watch the video and complete the exercises.
Exercise 1: This and That
Read the sentences. Choose the word “this” or “that” . Click on the word between the brackets. Click the check button.
[h5p id=”66″]
Exercise 2: These and Those
Read the sentences. Choose the word “these” or “those”. Click on the word between the brackets. Click the check button.
[h5p id=”67″]
Exercise 3: Calendar Vocabulary
This exercise has two questions. Question 1. Drag the word to the drop zone box to match the definition.
Click the next arrow.
Question 2. Type vocabulary words in the blanks.
[h5p id=”68″]
Exercise 4: Time Vocabulary
Match the vocabulary. For example, 7:30 is “time”. Drag matching words to the drop zone boxes.
[h5p id=”69″] | 178 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://opentextbc.ca/testing/chapter/8-2/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:914 | https://opentextbc.ca/testing/chapter/8-2/ |
prvpneFKbdYZpJo4 | Methods for Stress Management | Chapter 5: Managing Anger
Methods of Anger Management
The goal of anger management is to reduce both your emotional feelings and the physiological arousal that anger causes. You can’t get rid of, or avoid, the things or the people that enrage you, nor can you change them, but you can learn to control your reactions.
Are You Too Angry?
There are psychological tests that measure the intensity of angry feelings, how prone to anger you are, and how well you handle it. But chances are good that if you do have a problem with anger, you already know it. If you find yourself acting in ways that seem out of control and frightening, you might need help finding better ways to deal with this emotion.
Why Are Some People More Angry Than Others?
According to Jerry Deffenbacher, PhD, a psychologist who specializes in anger management, some people really are more “hotheaded” than others are; they get angry more easily and more intensely than the average person does. There are also those who don’t show their anger in loud spectacular ways but are chronically irritable and grumpy.
People who are easily angered generally have what some psychologists call a low tolerance for frustration, meaning simply that they feel that they should not have to be subjected to frustration, inconvenience, or annoyance. They can’t take things in stride, and they’re particularly infuriated if the situation seems somehow unjust: for example, being corrected for a minor mistake.
What makes these people this way? A number of things. One cause may be genetic or physiological: There is evidence that some children are born irritable, touchy, and easily angered, and that these signs are present from a very early age. Another may be sociocultural. Anger is often regarded as negative; we’re taught that it’s all right to express anxiety, depression, or other emotions but not to express anger. As a result, we don’t learn how to handle it or channel it constructively.Research has also found that family background plays a role. Typically, people who are easily angered come from families that are disruptive, chaotic, and not skilled at emotional communications.
Is It Good To “Let it All Hang Out?”
Psychologists now say that this is a dangerous myth. Some people use this theory as a license to hurt others. Research has found that “letting it rip” with anger actually escalates anger and aggression and does nothing to help you (or the person you’re angry with) resolve the situation.
It’s best to find out what it is that triggers your anger, and then to develop strategies to keep those triggers from tipping you over the edge. | 572 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://psu.pb.unizin.org/kines082/chapter/managing-the-anger-within/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:97362 | https://psu.pb.unizin.org/kines082/chapter/managing-the-anger-within/ |
PghFMpUyUPXLflYg | Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods | Chapter 17. Content Analysis
Introduction
Content analysis is a term that is used to mean both a method of data collection and a method of data analysis. Archival and historical works can be the source of content analysis, but so too can the contemporary media coverage of a story, blogs, comment posts, films, cartoons, advertisements, brand packaging, and photographs posted on Instagram or Facebook. Really, almost anything can be the “content” to be analyzed. This is a qualitative research method because the focus is on the meanings and interpretations of that content rather than strictly numerical counts or variables-based causal modeling.[1] Qualitative content analysis (sometimes referred to as QCA) is particularly useful when attempting to define and understand prevalent stories or communication about a topic of interest—in other words, when we are less interested in what particular people (our defined sample) are doing or believing and more interested in what general narratives exist about a particular topic or issue. This chapter will explore different approaches to content analysis and provide helpful tips on how to collect data, how to turn that data into codes for analysis, and how to go about presenting what is found through analysis. It is also a nice segue between our data collection methods (e.g., interviewing, observation) chapters and chapters 18 and 19, whose focus is on coding, the primary means of data analysis for most qualitative data. In many ways, the methods of content analysis are quite similar to the method of coding.
Although the body of material (“content”) to be collected and analyzed can be nearly anything, most qualitative content analysis is applied to forms of human communication (e.g., media posts, news stories, campaign speeches, advertising jingles). The point of the analysis is to understand this communication, to systematically and rigorously explore its meanings, assumptions, themes, and patterns. Historical and archival sources may be the subject of content analysis, but there are other ways to analyze (“code”) this data when not overly concerned with the communicative aspect (see chapters 18 and 19). This is why we tend to consider content analysis its own method of data collection as well as a method of data analysis. Still, many of the techniques you learn in this chapter will be helpful to any “coding” scheme you develop for other kinds of qualitative data. Just remember that content analysis is a particular form with distinct aims and goals and traditions.
An Overview of the Content Analysis Process
The First Step: Selecting Content
Figure 17.2 is a display of possible content for content analysis. The first step in content analysis is making smart decisions about what content you will want to analyze and to clearly connect this content to your research question or general focus of research. Why are you interested in the messages conveyed in this particular content? What will the identification of patterns here help you understand? Content analysis can be fun to do, but in order to make it research, you need to fit it into a research plan.
| New stories | Blogs | Comment posts | Lyrics |
| Letters to editor | Films | Cartoons | Advertisements |
| Brand packaging | Logos | Instagram photos | Tweets |
| Photographs | Graffiti | Street signs | Personalized license plates |
| Avatars (names, shapes, presentations) | Nicknames | Band posters | Building names |
Figure 17.1. A Non-exhaustive List of "Content" for Content Analysis
To take one example, let us imagine you are interested in gender presentations in society and how presentations of gender have changed over time. There are various forms of content out there that might help you document changes. You could, for example, begin by creating a list of magazines that are coded as being for “women” (e.g., Women’s Daily Journal) and magazines that are coded as being for “men” (e.g., Men’s Health). You could then select a date range that is relevant to your research question (e.g., 1950s–1970s) and collect magazines from that era. You might create a “sample” by deciding to look at three issues for each year in the date range and a systematic plan for what to look at in those issues (e.g., advertisements? Cartoons? Titles of articles? Whole articles?). You are not just going to look at some magazines willy-nilly. That would not be systematic enough to allow anyone to replicate or check your findings later on. Once you have a clear plan of what content is of interest to you and what you will be looking at, you can begin, creating a record of everything you are including as your content. This might mean a list of each advertisement you look at or each title of stories in those magazines along with its publication date. You may decide to have multiple “content” in your research plan. For each content, you want a clear plan for collecting, sampling, and documenting.
The Second Step: Collecting and Storing
Once you have a plan, you are ready to collect your data. This may entail downloading from the internet, creating a Word document or PDF of each article or picture, and storing these in a folder designated by the source and date (e.g., “Men’s Health advertisements, 1950s”). Sølvberg (2021), for example, collected posted job advertisements for three kinds of elite jobs (economic, cultural, professional) in Sweden. But collecting might also mean going out and taking photographs yourself, as in the case of graffiti, street signs, or even what people are wearing. Chaise LaDousa, an anthropologist and linguist, took photos of “house signs,” which are signs, often creative and sometimes offensive, hung by college students living in communal off-campus houses. These signs were a focal point of college culture, sending messages about the values of the students living in them. Some of the names will give you an idea: “Boot ’n Rally,” “The Plantation,” “Crib of the Rib.” The students might find these signs funny and benign, but LaDousa (2011) argued convincingly that they also reproduced racial and gender inequalities. The data here already existed—they were big signs on houses—but the researcher had to collect the data by taking photographs.
In some cases, your content will be in physical form but not amenable to photographing, as in the case of films or unwieldy physical artifacts you find in the archives (e.g., undigitized meeting minutes or scrapbooks). In this case, you need to create some kind of detailed log (fieldnotes even) of the content that you can reference. In the case of films, this might mean watching the film and writing down details for key scenes that become your data.[2] For scrapbooks, it might mean taking notes on what you are seeing, quoting key passages, describing colors or presentation style. As you might imagine, this can take a lot of time. Be sure you budget this time into your research plan.
Researcher Note
A note on data scraping: Data scraping, sometimes known as screen scraping or frame grabbing, is a way of extracting data generated by another program, as when a scraping tool grabs information from a website. This may help you collect data that is on the internet, but you need to be ethical in how to employ the scraper. A student once helped me scrape thousands of stories from the Time magazine archives at once (although it took several hours for the scraping process to complete). These stories were freely available, so the scraping process simply sped up the laborious process of copying each article of interest and saving it to my research folder. Scraping tools can sometimes be used to circumvent paywalls. Be careful here!
The Third Step: Analysis
There is often an assumption among novice researchers that once you have collected your data, you are ready to write about what you have found. Actually, you haven’t yet found anything, and if you try to write up your results, you will probably be staring sadly at a blank page. Between the collection and the writing comes the difficult task of systematically and repeatedly reviewing the data in search of patterns and themes that will help you interpret the data, particularly its communicative aspect (e.g., What is it that is being communicated here, with these “house signs” or in the pages of Men’s Health?).
The first time you go through the data, keep an open mind on what you are seeing (or hearing), and take notes about your observations that link up to your research question. In the beginning, it can be difficult to know what is relevant and what is extraneous. Sometimes, your research question changes based on what emerges from the data. Use the first round of review to consider this possibility, but then commit yourself to following a particular focus or path. If you are looking at how gender gets made or re-created, don’t follow the white rabbit down a hole about environmental injustice unless you decide that this really should be the focus of your study or that issues of environmental injustice are linked to gender presentation. In the second round of review, be very clear about emerging themes and patterns. Create codes (more on these in chapters 18 and 19) that will help you simplify what you are noticing. For example, “men as outdoorsy” might be a common trope you see in advertisements. Whenever you see this, mark the passage or picture. In your third (or fourth or fifth) round of review, begin to link up the tropes you’ve identified, looking for particular patterns and assumptions. You’ve drilled down to the details, and now you are building back up to figure out what they all mean. Start thinking about theory—either theories you have read about and are using as a frame of your study (e.g., gender as performance theory) or theories you are building yourself, as in the Grounded Theory tradition. Once you have a good idea of what is being communicated and how, go back to the data at least one more time to look for disconfirming evidence. Maybe you thought “men as outdoorsy” was of importance, but when you look hard, you note that women are presented as outdoorsy just as often. You just hadn’t paid attention. It is very important, as any kind of researcher but particularly as a qualitative researcher, to test yourself and your emerging interpretations in this way.
The Fourth and Final Step: The Write-Up
Only after you have fully completed analysis, with its many rounds of review and analysis, will you be able to write about what you found. The interpretation exists not in the data but in your analysis of the data. Before writing your results, you will want to very clearly describe how you chose the data here and all the possible limitations of this data (e.g., historical-trace problem or power problem; see chapter 16). Acknowledge any limitations of your sample. Describe the audience for the content, and discuss the implications of this. Once you have done all of this, you can put forth your interpretation of the communication of the content, linking to theory where doing so would help your readers understand your findings and what they mean more generally for our understanding of how the social world works.[3]
Analyzing Content: Helpful Hints and Pointers
Although every data set is unique and each researcher will have a different and unique research question to address with that data set, there are some common practices and conventions. When reviewing your data, what do you look at exactly? How will you know if you have seen a pattern? How do you note or mark your data?
Let’s start with the last question first. If your data is stored digitally, there are various ways you can highlight or mark up passages. You can, of course, do this with literal highlighters, pens, and pencils if you have print copies. But there are also qualitative software programs to help you store the data, retrieve the data, and mark the data. This can simplify the process, although it cannot do the work of analysis for you.
Qualitative software can be very expensive, so the first thing to do is to find out if your institution (or program) has a universal license its students can use. If they do not, most programs have special student licenses that are less expensive. The two most used programs at this moment are probably ATLAS.ti and NVivo. Both can cost more than $500[4] but provide everything you could possibly need for storing data, content analysis, and coding. They also have a lot of customer support, and you can find many official and unofficial tutorials on how to use the programs’ features on the web. Dedoose, created by academic researchers at UCLA, is a decent program that lacks many of the bells and whistles of the two big programs. Instead of paying all at once, you pay monthly, as you use the program. The monthly fee is relatively affordable (less than $15), so this might be a good option for a small project. HyperRESEARCH is another basic program created by academic researchers, and it is free for small projects (those that have limited cases and material to import). You can pay a monthly fee if your project expands past the free limits. I have personally used all four of these programs, and they each have their pluses and minuses.
Regardless of which program you choose, you should know that none of them will actually do the hard work of analysis for you. They are incredibly useful for helping you store and organize your data, and they provide abundant tools for marking, comparing, and coding your data so you can make sense of it. But making sense of it will always be your job alone.
So let’s say you have some software, and you have uploaded all of your content into the program: video clips, photographs, transcripts of news stories, articles from magazines, even digital copies of college scrapbooks. Now what do you do? What are you looking for? How do you see a pattern? The answers to these questions will depend partially on the particular research question you have, or at least the motivation behind your research. Let’s go back to the idea of looking at gender presentations in magazines from the 1950s to the 1970s. Here are some things you can look at and code in the content: (1) actions and behaviors, (2) events or conditions, (3) activities, (4) strategies and tactics, (5) states or general conditions, (6) meanings or symbols, (7) relationships/interactions, (8) consequences, and (9) settings. Table 17.1 lists these with examples from our gender presentation study.
Table 17.1. Examples of What to Note During Content Analysis
| What can be noted/coded | Example from Gender Presentation Study |
|---|---|
| Actions and behaviors | Men are depicted standing while women are sitting |
| Events or conditions | Many more depictions of women "in crisis" over appearance |
| Activities | Men fixing things vs Women cooking and baking |
| Strategies and tactics | How to sections of magazines: how to ask for a raise (men's magazine) |
| States/conditions | Women often presented as in a state of worry or being harried |
| Meanings/symbols | A "pipe" is used as shorthand for "man" while an outline of a "skirt" is used as shorthand for "woman" in a comic |
| Relationships/interactions | Men often shown "helping" women (out of cars, through doors, fixing things) |
| Consequences | A fictional story shows an independent woman getting injured and regretting turning down a marriage proposal |
| Settings | Men often portrayed in office setting or outdoors; women in kitchens and living rooms |
One thing to note about the examples in table 17.1: sometimes we note (mark, record, code) a single example, while other times, as in “settings,” we are recording a recurrent pattern. To help you spot patterns, it is useful to mark every setting, including a notation on gender. Using software can help you do this efficiently. You can then call up “setting by gender” and note this emerging pattern. There’s an element of counting here, which we normally think of as quantitative data analysis, but we are using the count to identify a pattern that will be used to help us interpret the communication. Content analyses often include counting as part of the interpretive (qualitative) process.
In your own study, you may not need or want to look at all of the elements listed in table 17.1. Even in our imagined example, some are more useful than others. For example, “strategies and tactics” is a bit of a stretch here. In studies that are looking specifically at, say, policy implementation or social movements, this category will prove much more salient.
Another way to think about “what to look at” is to consider aspects of your content in terms of units of analysis. You can drill down to the specific words used (e.g., the adjectives commonly used to describe “men” and “women” in your magazine sample) or move up to the more abstract level of concepts used (e.g., the idea that men are more rational than women). Counting for the purpose of identifying patterns is particularly useful here. How many times is that idea of women’s irrationality communicated? How is it is communicated (in comic strips, fictional stories, editorials, etc.)? Does the incidence of the concept change over time? Perhaps the “irrational woman” was everywhere in the 1950s, but by the 1970s, it is no longer showing up in stories and comics. By tracing its usage and prevalence over time, you might come up with a theory or story about gender presentation during the period. Table 17.2 provides more examples of using different units of analysis for this work along with suggestions for effective use.
Table 17.2. Examples of Unit of Analysis in Content Analysis
| Unit of Analysis | How Used... |
|---|---|
| Words | Identify and count the usage of particular salient words; compare and contrast over content data and time |
| Themes | Identify and count themes; look for patterns in how themes get funneled into a "main" theme and when |
| Characters | Who are the main characters (real or stock, as in the "irrational woman" or "outdoorsy man")? How much space is taken up with these characters? Do they change over time? |
| Paragraphs | How much space is devoted to whatever it is you are looking at? In an article, how many paragraphs are dedicated to talking about X? |
| Items | How many items in your collected data are about X? (similar to paragraphs but useful for non-written data) |
| Concepts | Identify and count the usage of important concepts; compare and contrast over content data and time; link to words used and devoted space |
| Semantics | Note how strong or weak words and images are that are used around your key issue or focus. Note that "crazy women" has a different intensity than "irrational women" |
Every qualitative content analysis is unique in its particular focus and particular data used, so there is no single correct way to approach analysis. You should have a better idea, however, of what kinds of things to look for and what to look for. The next two chapters will take you further into the coding process, the primary analytical tool for qualitative research in general.
Further Readings
Cidell, Julie. 2010. “Content Clouds as Exploratory Qualitative Data Analysis.” Area 42(4):514–523. A demonstration of using visual “content clouds” as a form of exploratory qualitative data analysis using transcripts of public meetings and content of newspaper articles.
Hsieh, Hsiu-Fang, and Sarah E. Shannon. 2005. “Three Approaches to Qualitative Content Analysis.” Qualitative Health Research 15(9):1277–1288. Distinguishes three distinct approaches to QCA: conventional, directed, and summative. Uses hypothetical examples from end-of-life care research.
Jackson, Romeo, Alex C. Lange, and Antonio Duran. 2021. “A Whitened Rainbow: The In/Visibility of Race and Racism in LGBTQ Higher Education Scholarship.” Journal Committed to Social Change on Race and Ethnicity (JCSCORE) 7(2):174–206.* Using a “critical summative content analysis” approach, examines research published on LGBTQ people between 2009 and 2019.
Krippendorff, Klaus. 2018. Content Analysis: An Introduction to Its Methodology. 4th ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. A very comprehensive textbook on both quantitative and qualitative forms of content analysis.
Mayring, Philipp. 2022. Qualitative Content Analysis: A Step-by-Step Guide. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Formulates an eight-step approach to QCA.
Messinger, Adam M. 2012. “Teaching Content Analysis through ‘Harry Potter.’” Teaching Sociology 40(4):360–367. This is a fun example of a relatively brief foray into content analysis using the music found in Harry Potter films.
Neuendorft, Kimberly A. 2002. The Content Analysis Guidebook. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Although a helpful guide to content analysis in general, be warned that this textbook definitely favors quantitative over qualitative approaches to content analysis.
Schrier, Margrit. 2012. Qualitative Content Analysis in Practice. Thousand Okas, CA: SAGE. Arguably the most accessible guidebook for QCA, written by a professor based in Germany.
Weber, Matthew A., Shannon Caplan, Paul Ringold, and Karen Blocksom. 2017. “Rivers and Streams in the Media: A Content Analysis of Ecosystem Services.” Ecology and Society 22(3).* Examines the content of a blog hosted by National Geographic and articles published in The New York Times and the Wall Street Journal for stories on rivers and streams (e.g., water-quality flooding).
- There are ways of handling content analysis quantitatively, however. Some practitioners therefore specify qualitative content analysis (QCA). In this chapter, all content analysis is QCA unless otherwise noted. ↵
- Note that some qualitative software allows you to upload whole films or film clips for coding. You will still have to get access to the film, of course. ↵
- See chapter 20 for more on the final presentation of research. ↵
- . Actually, ATLAS.ti is an annual license, while NVivo is a perpetual license, but both are going to cost you at least $500 to use. Student rates may be lower. And don’t forget to ask your institution or program if they already have a software license you can use. ↵
A method of both data collection and data analysis in which a given content (textual, visual, graphic) is examined systematically and rigorously to identify meanings, themes, patterns and assumptions. Qualitative content analysis (QCA) is concerned with gathering and interpreting an existing body of material. | 4,854 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://open.oregonstate.education/qualresearchmethods/chapter/chapter-17-content-analysis/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:65742 | https://open.oregonstate.education/qualresearchmethods/chapter/chapter-17-content-analysis/ |
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M Reaolution frori the Cnmmittee on Foreign Afl'airs, requirine: the President to notify Great Brit^iin of the intention of the United States to terminate the joint occupancy of Oregon, and to altrogutc the convention of 1827, Iteing under .:«nsideration in Committee of the Wliole — ^
picioii, that their purpose has been to exhibit
the minority in a false light before the country.'— to put them in a position they nevi;r meant to oc< cupy, and to impute to them sentiments and opinions they never entertained, but do utterly repudiate? Tliis might be considered an uncharitable suspicion — and, of course, I would exempt from it all who might be entitled to escape under the plea of ignorance; but with regard to those who are wise and discreet, what could they say, why sentence should not be pronounced upon them? I shall not undertake to affirm, what has been the object of this most extraordinary discussion; but I have no hesitancy in saying what it has, in fact, done: It has perverted and falsified everything it has touched. It has sent forth no shining light to the country, but enveloped everything in darkness. Its only tendency has been, to produce that very thing, which it is the object of fl-ee discussion to destroy — ignorance. Sir, I choose not to refrain from speaking with a degree of freedom on this occasion. Sentiments of profound indignation impel me.
Mr. Chairman, let us see what is the quefition, this committee ought to have been discussing, and to which my friends in the minority have vainly endeavored to draw your attention.
We have a convention with Great Britain for the joint use and occupancy of the northwest territory. That convention provides, that either party may annul it, by giving twelve months' notice to the other party. And the only question before the committee, upon which there is diflerence of opinion, is, Shall the notice be given? So, the question ia merely one of notice. Nor does it involve the substance of notice, but only the time. All are agreed, that the notice should be given, at some period not very remote. But is it expedient, is it good policy, to give it at the present time? I think it is not. And as it ia preposterous to pretend that national honor, or dignity, or essential right, is involved in this matter of time, I maintain that considerations of good jiolicy and expediency ought to direct our councils, and determine our action. And this, sir, ia the issue that gentlemen ought to have met, and which the honor of our country, and the welfare of the people, made it their duty to meet, and discuss in an honest and statesmanlike manner. And dismissing every fceling of prejudice from my mind, I now propose to express some views upon this question.
Wc nrc not, Mr. Clinirmnn, the Rdvoratca of total inactivity >ii tiiis sul)ject. On tiie contrary, I believe the nine has conic when it is proper to adopt such measures na will promote the settlement of the Ore^jon territory, and f!:iv. law and i)rotection to our people there. But I do not lieieve the time has yet come for ahroj^ating the convention of joint occupancy.
it has suited the vicwa luiu purposes of gentlemen, to represent this policy of masterly inactivity as a South Carolina schemi,'; as thouj,'h it was not adopted, as far back as 1818, by tho united councils of the nation; as thoufjh. after an experience often years, it was not again established in 1827, by a unanimity almost unexampled; a.s thougli it was not adhered to throughout the twelve years of Andrew Jackson's Administration, and that of Mr. Van Burcn; as thoujjli South CaroUna were doing anything more than advising you not to disturb whot so much wisdom and disinterested patriotism had devised and sanctioned, and what so long a period of time had proved to be beneficial. You, sir, and not we, are proposing innovations and new schemes of policy. You are adTising to set at naught the councils that have endured throughout five Administrations; — the wisdom of whicn councils was, all the while, so selfevident and palpable, that the cunning selfishness of party, or the schemes of plotting ambition, never ventured to make a question about it; anj I am at a loss to sec what else ever could have made a question about it.
Let the committee follow me a moment, while I give a brief account of this matter. Gentlemen represent Great Britain as aiming to keep off, as long as possible, this question of notice; and ourselves, as the dupes of her temporizing policy, destined to be caught in some snare she has laid in the future, for us. I deny that this policy is of British origin. It is our own, both in its beginning and its continuation. The first conception of it we find, in the instmctions §iven, in 1818, to Mr. Rush, at that time our Minister at the Court of St. James. It was the desire of Lord Castlcreagh, the English Minister, that the conflicting claims of the two countries, in relation to the northwest territory, should be included among the subjects of negotiation, then pending at London, and be brought to a final adjustment. Mr. Rush sought instructions from his Government, and Mr. J. Q,. Adams, then Secretary of State, in his instructions to Mr. Rush, for the first time, sets forth distinctly and most comprehensively the policy of ' taking Oregon upon time." Alluding to .some things proper to be mentioned by Mr. Rush to Castlereagn, in regard to this matter, Mr. Adams proceeds as follows:
• nuteness of the present interest, either to Great ' Britain or the United Jtntes, involved in thiscon' cern, and the unwillingness, for that reason, of
He then adds, that Groat Britain could li •' no solid inlin .1 " to prevent the exMension of territory "until all possibility of doing so, ^: have vanished."
Here, sir, is the first conception of the i that time would best secure our rights in Ore-; and by recurring to tlic language of our Seereir (Mr. Adams,) it might be inftTred thai he ei, tained some doubts, wliether it would ever ber^ an object of iniportanre to the United States po8s> ss themselves of tliat country. But I ndi he spoke as a diplomatist.
Now, in 1818, Great Britain was in the exch and udverse possession of Oregon. And '^ct. high a value did our diplomatist set on the ac of time, to fortify our rights, he desired to a^ all negotiations, and leave to Great Britain all advantage which exclusive and adverse po.sses would give her in future ne<jotiations. He thoi time worth more to us than exclusive, adv possession to Great Britain. But fortunatel' species of convention was hit upon, which, w it did not conflict with our nolicy of procrasi lion, gave nothing to Great Britain, but in faci stroyed the adverse character of her possess and prevented the legal effect of such a posses in future negotiations upon the title. And gentlemen tell you this convention was a scIp of Great Britain to advance her interest and uii mine ours! I have said. Great Britain, in p of fact, took nothing by the convention. Her elusive occupancy was a state of things pn istent to the convention. We did not stipu for the purpose of occupying, but, simply, occupancy, claimed l)y both parties, as a r prior to, and independent of, convention, sli' not be made a cause of quarrel. You will : ceive, therefore, from what has been said and i ted, our diplnmati.^t, so far from being disinci: to the convention, was, in fact, in the first inst;i anxious to adopt a policy far less to our advaiit that is, to avoid oil negotiations, and leave G Britain in exclusive and adverse possession.
Such, sir, was the beginning of this policy, I masterly act of diplomacy; and who amonir great and patriotic men of tlie day disajiprovec
Well, sir, in 1827, the term of the conyentic 1818 was about to expire, and negotiations v to be renewed: Was any new pcdicy then rec mended by the venerable gentleman from IM:i chusetts, then President of the United States? sir. Notwithstanding we had acquired tho tii Spain, and, perhaps, supposed we ' -id some son to feel uulignant, that Great Britain, under new state of the question, should still dispute t; with us, the stipulations of 1818 were renews 1828; and I have yet to learn that the peoj.!' not, with one voice, ajiprovo. What said M son, Monroe, Gallatin, Crawford, Clay, Low i Clinton, and Van Buren ? What did Andrew .1 I .scm say r At this time the second contest betv Mr. Adams and General Jackson had rcaclit .! highest pitch of excitement. The whole pi>l. ■life of Mr. .\danis was scrutinized with no ' ! ings of indulgent charity. It was a favorite ( of the opposing party to fix upon him an uiifi- •
linens to the interests of hifl own counfr;-, in h'lis diplomatic transactions. Every saying aiid doing of his, that mii»;iit be worked up into available political stock, was afisiduously collected and exhibited in bold coloring to the country. And yet, I liave never lu-ard that the treaty of 1828, which, ftistidious gentlemen now say, subjected our soil to be dishonored by Briti.<^h footsteps, was brought forward as one of tlie misdeeds of Mr. Adams. It was never once oltjected, that, setting no value upon the newly ac«|uired title of Sjiam, he sanctioned « treaty in lHf.'8, no more favorable to his country than that of 1818, when we were not possesued of the Spanish title.
Nor can it be pretended there was some strange oversight in this matter — that it was kept as a Cal)inet secret. The \v!ioIe suluect came up incidentally in tliis House, :'nd was here placed before the American people; and what said James K. Polk on that occasion ? ♦' Ry dday we can lose nothing; by acting now we hazard much." The subject directly under discussion was a bill extending law to Oregon, and authorizing a military establishment at the mouth of the Coliimltia river; but not for giving this •• notice."
In connexion with the treaty of 1828, there is another fact not to be overlooked. Notwithstanding the acquisition of the Sjmnish title, and the greatly-increased wealth and strength of our country, wc were again desirous that the convention should be made irrevocable for ten years, as in 1818. But the British Minister objected. Seeing liow time was working for us and against his sovereign, he insisted on the right, at any time, to abrogate the convention, by giving twelve montlis' •• notice;" and this was the British part of the policy. Hut it is not at all surprising that this fact should be overlooked by g<!ntlemen.
In 1H29 Andrew Jackson took the Chair of State. Who ever suspected Old Hickory of being afraid of anything? Or who ever charged him with beins on the British side of any question? The dii>lomatic transactions of 1828 were then fresh. What said he to them ? Our Oregon interest was committed by the country to the charge and keeping of the treaty-making power. He was the great head and initiatory functionary of that power. There was a noramount ol)ligation resting on him to see that tlie country suffered no detriment in this matter. Unless he acted first, no one el.se could act at all; and he had it in his power to cause the notice to be given at any time. But throughout the period of his eight years of public service, and the four years of Mr. Van Burcn, which followed, not a word was said by either on this subject, indeed, the Jackson party, in the year 1829, voted d'lwn the bill of Governor Floyd, which went no furtlier than to give law and protection to our emigrants to Oregon; and I am proud to be al)le to say, that there is no other difference between General Jackson and ourselves on this subject than this: while he was not only unwilling to give I lie notice himself, l)ut opposed, also, to the ena'tment of any laws for Oregon, which might indu'-e Great Britain to give the notice, we are opposed to notice only, and are in favor of laws. While he declined both to give notice, or to take tiie risk of receiving it, we are prepared to take th.1t risk.
tory of our Oregon policy. I have shown how it has been approved liy all our statesmen, patriot*, and warriors; by the people and the politiciani; by all political parties, uniformly, from the beginning to a very recent date; when, all of a sudden, the discovery is made, that it is an anti- American policy; that it is dishonorable to the country; that It has tarnished the national escutcheon, and brought a very pollution upon our soil; and that all who advocate it are f)n the British side of the
But certain gentlemen have come to the highminded conclusion, that it would be dishonest to take Oregon by operation of time under the convention. This is a most unaccountable objection. The conventiim is no stipulation for mutual favor or advantage; no agreement between the parties for the reciprocal supj)ort of each other's rights and interests. It is in the nature of an armistice. Each nation claimed rights prior to, and independent of, the convention; not reciprocal, but adverse and antngonistical; and being unable to adjust the difficulty, they agreed not to go to war, but to forbear for a season. I say, the convention was, to all intents and purposes, an armistice. And who ever heard that an armistice disabled the parties to make ready for war? or, when war did come, made it dishonorable for them to use any advantage that time or other resource had placed in their hands ? Sir, the consideration of the advantage that time would bring us, was the only consideration that induced us to enter into that convention; and our Minister | openly avowed it. Our Secretary instnictcd Mr. Rush to say to Lord Castlereaghj of course, in as I polite a manner as possible, •• that if, in the course ' of future events, it [Oregon] should ever become 'an object of importance to the United States, it I 'could scarcely be supposed that Great Britain! ' would find it useful or desirable to resist theirl ' claims." Castlereagh saw the policy of the Uni-| ted States, and himself predicted it would be successful in the end. And yet, when we propose| to avail ourselves of the only consideration that induced us to enter into the convention, we are toldl it would be a fraud upon Great Britain ! But will argue no longer a proposition so consummately ridiculous. If making laws for our citizens in Oregon displeases Great Britain, let her give the "no-J tice."
But while some gentlemen think our reliance upon time inconsistent with good faith, oiliers esJ teem it deceptive and futile. What, they ask, will delay do for us ? What, I ask, has it done for us since 1818? It has increa.sed ten millions of peoj pie to twenty millions; covered the valley of th« Mississippi with a warlike race of men; extendec population, arts, and agriculture, far towards thd region of Oregon. Time has, in all respects, adl vanced our strength, relatively to Great Britain ano the world. The last three years have sent 7,C" people to Oregon; exceeding, threefold, the BritisI residents there. If we had had forty millions people, Mr. Polk would never have offered to cor promise upon 49°; and if we had had twenty millionl m 1818, we would never have entered into the cor vention; for twenty millions then would have givej us as great relative strength as forty millions no\ These are the things that time is doing; and thil progression is, in all respects, still steadily anl
rapidly onwftnl. Ociiilt men urc soiiftiljlc of this, and liuvt! cxputiutod on the very idia, without being conscionH tliiy wen: nrgiiing ii^uiiiMl llinu■civtH. In what vivid colors has the gentleman from Missouri [Mr. Bu\vi.in] puintrd the growing;
SreatnesH and fulvnc grandeur of our eountry ? Lud yet, in a few utomentN, he asks, what is time going to do for us towards getting Orejjon? He
K'cturvd to the imni;iiiation the valley of the Great iver, in a politital and eonnnercinl point of view, rising in colossal magnifii'enre, with iiii hundred millions of human iteings, and innumerahic citieH, and marts of uninniginahle wealth, throwing the petty Atlantic States into utter insignifieanre by the OMitmst; and yet he gravely asks, what is time going to do for us? lie has ga7.ed at our western tideof immigration, now heating against the Stony mountains, now flowing heyond and spreading over the great geopraphic, sl(»pc of the Pacific oceun; he has seen, in fiuicy, our children going west, instead of east, to Ja|)an and China, and has exhibited to our wondering vision myriads of rich and elegant fabrics, from the workshops of those ancient peoples, (numl)criii^ 300,000,000,) gorging every storehouse of (uir western cfHitinent ; and still he asks, indignantly, what is time going to do for us? And all this stupendous future he represents to be close at hand, looming, as it were, in the sensible horizon, like the blue eminence of the Stony mountains. But he docs not cease to exclaim, impatiently, what is tiiTie going to do for us? Why, sir, can it be possible, that the honorable member means to intimate, that these .sublime results, this tremendous destiny, is to depend upon our first gettini' •"' ■':etting at this very moment, the barren de, he everlasting snows, the mountain crags ", cms, north of the 49th parallel ?
Mr. Chikirmnn, it is l)ecause I have a degree of fhith in the gorgeous picture drawn l)y the honororuble member, that I would, confidently, have left this matter to time. Time, which is to bring to pass these great events, will bring with them, and as a part of them, Oregon — the whole of Oregon. The period is rapidly approaching, when Great Britain will perceive the usclcssncss of attempting to resist our claims — when, in the language of the venerable gentleman from Massachusetts, in 1818, '• all hope of doing so will have vanished." You will thus avoid the calamities of war, and yet be iblc to make your own terms. You may take the whole of Oregon, if you think you are entitled to ,he whole. England will be at your mercy — at V'our mercy not only in relation to Oregon, but all .he possessiojis she has upon this continent.
Gentlemen have laid down the proposition that •the notice is not war itself, or cause of war;" ind, with earnestness and gravity, have argued out he proposition. I shall not venture a rencontre ipon this point; but will beg gentlemen to listen to .n observation or two. The convention of 1818 vas, in the language of the venerable gentleman rom Massachu-setts, ♦' the alternative of instant trar." Now, the notice w'ill take away this alterative; and though •' not war itself or cause of /ar," it will prove it.self a most potent destroyer f a cause of peace. In 1818, the cause of war was le disputed title to Oregon. 1 he notice will again ender this cause active and operative, and leave o alternative but negotiation or war. And I beeve thert arc none who will deny, that, if we in-
sist on our claims to 54° 40', negotiations will be impossible, and war inevitable. I, therefore, feel at liberty to say, that all win) vote for this notice, with a view to claim the whole territory, knowing* ly vote for war; and they ought, in candor, to admit ine fact, and not deceive the countryMr. Chairman, it is a remarkable fact, that although I stand here in a minority, the views I entertain and policy I advocate meet the approbation of a large majority of this body and of the other branch of the National Legislature. I know what I am saying, and I know the ground uptm which I stand when I say ii. The great majority of the Whigs, if not all of them, admit, I think, that the lime had not come for abrogating the convention, and deprecate the agitatirm of this (picslion; but they say, now that the matter is .set on foi>t, the sooner we get rid of it the better. Well, sir, the veneral)lc gentleman from Massachusetts, [Mr. AuAM8,] the author of the convention of 1818, and its renewal in 1827, still believes it the true policy for getting the whole of Oregon, and he has abandoned that policy solely on account of the admission of Texas into the Union; and this I will prove out of his own mouth. At the last session of Congress, in debating the Oregon bill reported by Mr. Brown, of Tennessee, the venerable member said: •' At the last session I was not prejmred to act
• to do so, and am sati-sfied this subject should now 'be settled." * • • • << I am as much as any ' member of this House for bringing this issue to
• that I came to the determination, before this debate ' commenced, to agree to give notice to the British ' Government that this tiling must be settled."
The Oregon debate, at the last session, commenced two days after the passage by the House of the Texas resolutions; and by considering carefully the extracts I have read, it will appear that during that short interval, or thereabouts, the views of the venerable gentleman in regard to Oregon underwent a radical change. Just before then, " he was not prepared to act at all" on the subject of Oregon; then " he was as much as any member of this House for bringing this issue to a point." But I need not labor to connect the gentleman's purposes in regard to Oregon with his sentiments concerning Texas. He himself hos made the thing sufficiently manifest. In the conclusion of the speech alluded to, he uses the following remarkable language:
• world for our taking seven degrees of latitude, ' and perhaps more; and when we took it, too, he ' hoped we should have it defined geographically, ' denned politically, and, more than all the rest, ' defined morally.'^
Who does not remember the vehement emphasis with which the venerable gentleman announced the word morally. If what I have stated is not satisfactory, go read carefliUy the speeches to which I have alluded, and the proof will be found so perfectly conclusive, that the venerable gentle-
man rouM not, in the fare of this Hoiwc, deny the fart, without jeopurdiziii'^ bin <-harnr,ti'r as a mmi of honor. Doubtless the hon(»ral>Ie ijontlemttti considered it perfectly fair to ;;ct additional territory north, tocounlerpoiseTeXiw in the Kouih. But there is one consideration worthy of your special attention: the honorable gentleman nas himself afforded the mo!<l conclusive evideni;e that the settled and abiding conviction of his mind has been, that the tme and effectual policy for securing Oregon, is the joint-occupancy scheme. Now, if it be, in renin y, the ol)ject of the h(moralilc gentleman to save i)it"j;im, why should he, on account of Texas, abandun that oolicy? Why not, rather, adhere the closer to it? (!an it be that the honorable gentleman has been reasoning, as all prudent and sagacious men have been reasoning altoiil this city, that a war with Great Hritain would end in the loss of Oregon, ami llie acrjui-iiiion of New Brunswick and the Canadas? Good backing for the t'aslern States against both the Houth and the West !
I could bring to the attention of the eommillee other collateral causes that have aided in generating this large majority for the notice; but I forbear.
1 have, however, a matter to propound to certain of my western friends, who have signalized themselves in this debate, as going fi>r the •' whole of Oregon^'"' and a little l>eyond, to make it al)Rolutely certain, they get enough. Some three or four of these gentlemen, the most ultra of all, do admit the fact, that Mr. Piilk having offered the 49lh
1)arallel, will iie bound to accept it, if it should now )e oflered by Great Britain. And they acknowlcdi::e they would feel bound to sustain him in the fact. Now, if lho!»e genlUinen are sincere in professing to go for more of Oregon than the rest of us, why will they, by passing this notice, force on negotiations uttdcr auspices so unfavorable .' Why V. ill tlw y, by itiukliig an issue that may lead to war, put Great Britain under the urgent motives the alternative of war w«iuld present, to make the proposal which Mr. Polk is bound to accept? If this notice be not, with them, a mere humuug; if this cry for the " whole or none" be anything else than a political hobby, why will not gentlemen permit this matter to lie over, until a new Administration shall come in unconnnitted to 49^. Am I to suspect that gentlemen are really anxious for the settlement of this question, and to be relieved of its terrible responsibilities; and that this whole-hoffism is only meant to be used hereafter as an ex post facto hobby in elections; when, having been opposed to giving up any part of Oregon, is to constitute a high claim to office; just as lioving f'ftn opposed to the northeastern boundary treaty seems, at this time, in certain quarters, tr) be relied on as constituting a meritorious claim to popular favor ?
I have not, Mr. Chairman, thought proper to argue the question of title. It is not properly before the committee. The question here is as lo the most elfeclual means of securing our rights inOre-
fon. We are not debating rights, but remedies, have investigated the matter (^f title laboriously, and have come to conclusions satisfactory to myself. And I think we should never give up any portion of the territory south of 49°. But the people, having to do the fighting if war come, and being, therefore, entitled to decide for themselves
whether there shall be war, and how mucii of Oregon they can conscicniifnislypo to war for; should, when they take the matter in hand, be pottsessed of the full argument mi both sides. And as the letters of Messrs. Calhoun and Biichi* inn have been sent forth, I deem it nroper to 8ii;''gcnt that their arguments were intenticd for the British Minister, and not for the puldic; and if you flup|>oM they considered all they said •\n gosoel, you never labored under a greater mistake. What ore the circumstances ? Here is a eoinrovcrsy about land between Great Britain and the United States. The United States engage Messrs. Calhoun and Buchanan to argue our side of the question; Great Britain appoints Mr. Pakcnhain to argue hers. Now, it was the business of each to make the most of his side of the question. This in the practice of lawyers the world over. If Mr. Pakenham left hia side unargued, it was not .Mr. Calhoun's business to .irgiic it for him. I would not insinuate that our 'r'ecretaries suited anything that was not true. I mean to say, it was their duty to sum up the facts and considerations in our favor, and nothing besides. But when the argument shall be taken out of diplomacy, and committed to the people, they will act in the character of judges; and a judge should always hear both sides of a question fuUy and fairly stated, especially if he i.i al)oiit to dccidle upon his own rights.
Mr. Chairman, the prominent position held by the venerable gentleman from .Massachusetts upon this questitin, the reliance which the friends of '♦ n(»tice" seem to place upon his co-operation, and the great weight his name is likely to have with the comniunily and the world, make it my duly, as I conceive, to take some further notice of hia course in this matter. All eyes liere are turned towards him ; all encomium and adulation are heaped upon him; and, indeed, if anyone here iiitiy \)c ctllcd a leadi^r, he is, un<iueslioitably, that person. The venerable gentleman professes to be the friend of peace; but look, sir, at his conduct. Last winter he pronounced the notice a war meaa* ure; calling it a " tcrrilde question." Nor can he pretend it was an inadvertency; for the point before the House was, whether the power to give the notioc was with the Congress, or with the President; and his whole argument in favor of the power being in Congress, rested upon the single proposition that ihe "notice was war." His effort, at that time, was to postpone action until Greenliow's book, ordered by the House, could be procured, and the people made acquainted with the evidence of our title. This ex parte argument would, he supposed, stimulate the popular mind up to 54° 40'. Let his speech be consulted. Well, sir, havin;; carried this point most successfully, he now tells you to •• pass the notice; it is perfectly pe;iceful; no harm in it."
Thus the only important objection isjainst notice being removed, he then assures you that you can pass no laws in relation to Oregon until you have first given the notice; leaving you no alternative, but to give the notice, or abandon utterly your people there, and every measure to promote the settlement of the country: notwithstanding he, himself, in 1825, recommended certain laws to be pas-^ed on the sul)ject, and notwithstanding, too, the British Government admitted our right to make needful laws, and denied expressly that Great
Britain intended to ** nrcvent the progi-csR of Amor- ' snmc impnrt to Great Britain, upon the nupnoiition ican settlements." By nil tiuH, he would pcrHiiadc lliiit INIr. I'olk uhuiild Mtnnd firm. TIiuh uurN he you that the notice is both n hiirmlesH thin;; and
an indivpen^iiiblo thing; and, aa aiich, of counie no one could heaitntc to vote for it. Conceiving, then, the convention to be abrog;ntud and the contont to be brought to a point, the next oltjcct to bo attained is, to excite trie two nations to tne moat uncomEromisin^ pertinacity in their rc8|)cctivo demundu. [c therefore, in terms of taunt and derision, predicts that if Great Britain should stand firm, *'Mr. Polk and the Democratic party will back out." He then turns about, and apj>lic8 language of the
aim to nettle each party to the conflict, by all those powerful impulses that spring ftom national pride and Hensil)ility. Two haughty and imperious nations, that would rather sutler annihilation than be humbled and aliased before tlic world. And yet the vrneral>le gentleman says he is opposed to war. He opposed to war ! What more could he, or any one man, have done,
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7u97tON0ia0Mbfwx | 41.3.13: Chapter 14 | 41.3.13: Chapter 14
Unfolding Case Study
1.
c.
Because this client is taking both aspirin and ibuprofen (which are both NSAIDs), and because she is taking ibuprofen on an as-needed basis, it is important to determine how much ibuprofen the client is taking.
2.
d.
This dose exceeds the 3200 mg maximum dose for ibuprofen and, based on the client’s report of black tarry stools, has already caused gastric bleeding.
3.
c.
Hydromorphone is a semisynthetic derivative of morphine that is used to treat moderate to severe pain.
4.
a.
The use of an opioid, such as hydromorphone, with alcohol can result in sedation and respiratory depression.
Review Questions
1.
b.
The client’s pain is considered chronic because it has been going on for more than 3 months.
2.
c.
Pain is a subjective rating, and the nurse should define pain as “whatever the client says it is.” Therefore, the nurse should administer the pain medication.
3.
d.
Eight tablets of 500 mg acetaminophen is 4000 mg, which is the amount of acetaminophen that should not be exceeded in a day.
4.
c.
Ibuprofen is the only option that is an anti-inflammatory drug.
5.
b.
The affected nerves were damaged by the varicella-zoster virus. Shingles pain, or postherpetic neuralgia, develops in up to 50% of individuals over the age of 65 who contract the disease.
6.
b.
Naloxone works as an opioid receptor antagonist and is the drug of choice to quickly reverse the effects of opioid intoxication, which is indicated here by the client’s unresponsiveness and shallow breathing.
7.
d.
This client most likely experienced a reaction to histamine caused by morphine. This adverse reaction is most often seen with morphine and codeine, which is converted into morphine.
8.
b.
Naltrexone is an opioid antagonist that can be used orally and intramuscularly to aid clients who are attempting to quit using opioids. While the client is taking naltrexone, any opioids taken will not be able to activate opioid receptors, blunting the effects of opioids and the feelings of euphoria.
9.
b.
Tolerance is a natural occurrence in clients receiving chronic opioid agonists. It frequently requires the dosage of the opioid agonist to be increased to achieve adequate pain management.
10.
c.
Severe shivering with chills (also known as rigors) may occur in clients who received anesthesia. The treatment of choice for this is meperidine. Because of the well-known toxicities of meperidine in older adults and those with poor renal function, it should almost never be used for pain. | 544 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Nursing/Pharmacology_for_Nurses_(Openstax)/41%3A_Appendix/41.03%3A_Answer_Key/41.3.13%3A_Chapter_14 | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:15367 | https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Nursing/Pharmacology_for_Nurses_(Openstax)/41%3A_Appendix/41.03%3A_Answer_Key/41.3.13%3A_Chapter_14 |
NJHYqNeV19XglFCN | 4: Strategies and Interface I/O | 4: Strategies and Interface I/O
Learning Objectives
At the end of this unit, the learners will
- Explain the Strategies of Interface I/O
- Distinguish between handshaking and buffering
- Understand the programmed IO mode of data transfer
- Describe a DMA transfer.
This section introduces the learners to the strategies of I/O interfaces. They include: polled, interrupt driven and DMA.
-
- 4.4: Unit 4 Summary
- At the end of this unit, the learners will be conversant with the strategies of I/O interfaces. This involves accessibility of devices connected to the processor and where I/O transfers must take place between them and the processor. the various access methods, e.g. polling, interrupt and DMA. The interrupt process is also learned in this section. | 161 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://workforce.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Information_Technology/Information_Technology_Hardware/Advanced_Computer_Organization_Architecture_(Njoroge)/04%3A_Strategies_and_Interface_I_O | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:42161 | https://workforce.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Information_Technology/Information_Technology_Hardware/Advanced_Computer_Organization_Architecture_(Njoroge)/04%3A_Strategies_and_Interface_I_O |
NFQeVJKmFserUgGu | 1.8: Geometry of Numbers | 1.8: Geometry of Numbers
We have already seen that geometrical concepts are sometimes useful in illuminating number theoretic considerations. With the introduction by Minkowski of geometry of numbers a real welding of important parts of number theory and geometry was achieved. This branch of mathematics has been in considerable vogue in the last 20 years, particularly in England where it was and is being developed vigorously by Mordell, Davenport, Mahler and their students.
We shall consider a very brief introduction to this subject. First, we shall examine a proof of the fundamental theorem of Minkowski due to Hajos (1934), then we shall discuss some generalizations and applications of this theorem, and finally we shall investigate some new results and conjectures that are closely related.
In its simplest form the fundamental theorem of Minkowski is the following.
Let \(R\) be a region in the \(x-y\) plane of area \(A > 4\), symmetric about the origin and convex. Then \(R\) contains a lattice point other than the origin.
First, some preliminary remarks. In the condition \(A > 4\), the 4 cannot be replaced by any smaller number. This may be seen by considering the square of side \(2 − \epsilon\), centered at the origin. Indeed this example might at first suggest that the theorem is quite intuitive, as it might seem that squeezing this region in any direction and keeping its area fixed would necessarily force the region to cover some lattice point. However the matter is not quite so simple, as other examples reveal that neither central symmetry nor convexity are indispensable. As far as convexity is concerned what is really needed is that with the vectors \(\vec{V_1}\) and \(\vec{V_2}\) the region should also contain \(\dfrac{1}{2} (\vec{V_1} + \vec{V_2})\). The symmetry means that with \(\vec{V_1}\) the vector \(-\vec{V_1}\) should also be in \(R\). Thus the symmetry and convexity together imply that, if \(\vec{V_1}\) and \(\vec{V_2}\) are in \(R\), so is \(\dfrac{1}{2} (\vec{V_1} - \vec{V_2})\). This last condition is really sufficient for our purpose and may replace the conditions of symmetry and convexity. It is implied by symmetry and convexity but does not imply either of these conditions.
Another example that perhaps illuminates the significance of Minkowski’s theorem is the following. Consider a line through \(O\) having irrational slope \(\tan \theta\); see Figure 4. This line passes through no lattice point other than the origin. If we take a long segment of this line, say extending length \(R\) on either side of \(O\), then there will be a lattice point closest to, and a distance \(r\) from,
this segment. Hence, no matter how large \(R\) is, we can construct a rectangle containing this line segment, which contains no lattice point other than \(O\). By the fundamental theorem of Minkowski the area \(4rR\) of this rectangle does not exceed 4. Thus \(r \le \dfrac{1}{R}\). Note that if \((p, q)\) is a lattice point on the border of the rectangle then \(\dfrac{p}{q} \approx \tan \theta\), so that the fundamental theorem of Minkowski will give some information about how closely an irrational number can be approximated by rationals.
Let us now return to Hajos proof of the fundamental theorem of Minkowski. Consider the \(x-y\) plane cut up into an infinite chessboard with the basic square of area 4 determined by \(|x| \le 1\), \(|y| \le 1\). We now cut up the chessboard along the edges of the squares and superimpose all the squares that contain parts of the region \(R\). We have now compressed an area > 4 into a region of area 4. This implies that there will be some overlapping, i.e., one can stick a pin through the square so as to pierce \(R\) into two points say \(V_1\) and \(V_2\). Now reassemble the region and let the points \(V_1\) and \(V_2\) be the vectors \(\vec{V_1}\) and \(\vec{V_2}\). Consider the fact that the \(x\) and \(y\) coordinates of \(V_1\) and \(V_2\) differ by a multiple of 2. We write \(V_1 \equiv V_2\) (mod 2), which implies \(\dfrac{1}{2} (V_1 - V2) \equiv 0\) (mod 1). Thus \(\dfrac{1}{2} (V_1 - V_2)\) is a lattice point different from O (since \(V_1 \ne V_2\)) in \(R\).
The fundamental theorem of Minkowski can easily be generalized to \(n\)-dimensional space. Indeed we need only replace 4 in the fundamental theorem of Minkowski by 2n and Hajos’ proof goes through. Many extensions and re- finements of the fundamental theorem of Minkowski have been given. I shall return to some of them later.
One of Polya’s earliest papers has the long and curious title “Zahlhlentheoretisches und Wahrscheinlichkeitstheoretisches \(\ddot{u}\)ber die Sichtweite in Walde und durch Schneefall”. A proof of Polya’s main result in this paper can be greatly simplified and somewhat refined using the fundamental theorem of Minkowski. The problem is this.
Suppose every lattice point other than \(O\) is surrounded by a circle of radius \(r \le \dfrac{1}{2}\) (a tree in a forest). A man stands at \(O\). In direction \(\theta\) he can see a distance \(f(r, \theta)\). distance f(r,θ). What is the furthest he can see in any direction? That is, determine
\(F(r) = \text{max}_{\theta} f(\theta, r)\)
By looking past the circle centered at (1, 0) (Figure 5), we can see almost a distance \(\dfrac{1}{r}\). On the other hand we can prove that \(F(r) \le \dfrac{1}{r}\). For suppose that we can see a distance \(F(r)\) in direction θ. About this line of vision construct a rectangle with side \(2r\). This rectangle contains no lattice point, for otherwise the tree centered at such a lattice point would obstruct our line of vision; see Figure 6.
Hence, by the fundamental theorem of Minkowski \(4F(r) r \le 4\) and \(F(r) \le \dfrac{1}{r}\) as required. Note that no lattice point can be in either semicircle in the diagram. This enables us to improve slightly on Polya’s result. I shall leave the details as an exercise.
A more significant application of the fundamental theorem of Minkowski concerns the possibility of solving in integers a set of linear inequalities.
Consider the inequalities
\(|a_{11} x_{1} + a_{12}x_{2} + \cdot\cdot\cdot + a_{1n}x_{n}| \le \lambda_1,\)
\(|a_{21} x_{1} + a_{22}x_{2} + \cdot\cdot\cdot + a_{2n}x_{n}| \le \lambda_2,\)
.
.
.
\(|a_{n1} x_{1} + a_{n2}x_{2} + \cdot\cdot\cdot + a_{nn}x_{n}| \le \lambda_n,\)
where the \(a_{ij}\) are real numbers and the \(\lambda_1, \lambda_2, ..., \lambda_n\) are positive numbers. The problem is to find sufficient conditions for the existence of integers \(x_1, ..., x_n\), not all 0 satisfying the system. The fundamental theorem of Minkowski can be used to prove that a solution will exist provided the determinant det(aij) of the coefficients is, in absolute value, less than the product \(\lambda_1 \cdot \lambda_2 \cdot\cdot\cdot\cdot\cdot \lambda_n\). This comes about in the following way. Geometrically, the inequalities determine an \(n\)−dimensional parallelepiped whose volume (or content) is
\(\dfrac{1}{\text{det} (a_{ij})} \cdot 2^n \cdot \lambda_1 \cdot \lambda_2 \cdot\cdot\cdot\cdot\cdot \lambda_n.\)
If \(\lambda_1 \cdot \lambda_2 \cdot\cdot\cdot\cdot\cdot \lambda_n > \text{det} (a_{ij})\) then the content exceeds \(2^n\) and so contains a lattice point different from \(O\).
A very recent analogue of the fundamental theorem of Minkowski is the following. Let \(R\) be a convex region, not necessarily symmetric about O, but having its centroid at \(O\). If its area exceeds \(\dfrac{9}{2}\), then it contains a lattice point not \(O\). The constant \(\dfrac{9}{2}\) is again best possible, but an n-dimensional analogue of this result is unknown.
The following is a conjectured generalization of the fundamental theorem of Minkowski, which we have unfortunately been unable to prove. Perhaps you will be able to prove or disprove it. Let \(R\) be a convex region containing the origin and defined by \(r = f(\theta)\), \(0 \le \theta < 2 \pi\). If
\(\int_0^{\pi} f(\theta) f(\theta + \pi) d \theta > 4\)
then \(R\) contains a nontrivial lattice point. For symmetrical regions \(f(\theta) = f(\theta + \pi)\), and the conjecture reduces to the fundamental theorem of Minkowski.
Here is a somewhat related and only partially solved problem. Let \(M(n)\) be defined as the smallest number such that any convex region of area \(M(n)\) can be placed so as to cover \(n\) lattice points. Clearly \(M(1) = 0\). It is not difficult to show that \(M(2) = \dfrac{\pi}{4}\), i.e., any convex region whose area exceeds that of a circle of diameter 1 can be used to cover 2 lattice points. To determine \(M(3)\) already seems difficult. What one can easily prove is that \(M(n) \le n -1\) and we conjecture the existence of a positive constant \(c\) such that \(M(n) < n - c \sqrt{n}\). | 1,825 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://math.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Combinatorics_and_Discrete_Mathematics/An_Introduction_to_the_Theory_of_Numbers_(Moser)/01%3A_Chapters/1.08%3A_Geometry_of_Numbers | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:31784 | https://math.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Combinatorics_and_Discrete_Mathematics/An_Introduction_to_the_Theory_of_Numbers_(Moser)/01%3A_Chapters/1.08%3A_Geometry_of_Numbers |
iI8a5CK5PMSh54PO | 8.1: Lab 8- Digestive System | 8.1: Lab 8- Digestive System
Measurable Outcomes
- Label the anatomical structures of the digestive system on available models.
- Explain the pathway of food from the mouth to the anus, identifying major landmarks along the way.
- Deduce the pathway of major arteries and veins that supply the organs of the digestive system.
- Identify the histology of the digestive organs on microscope slides.
- Demonstrate an adequate understand of the material in this section.
Background
The digestive system consists of the gastrointestinal tract (also known as the alimentary canal), a hollow muscular tube extending from the mouth to the anus, and accessory organs, including the liver and pancreas. Technically, until food is absorbed in the intestines it is considered to be outside of the body. To promote absorption, the intestines have villi which contain hair-like structures called microvilli. Like the alveoli of the lungs, microvilli substantially increase the surface area of the intestines to between 180 to 300 m 2 (the size of the average American home). These structures and organs form a hollow space from mouth to anus and function to chemically and mechanically catabolize and absorb nutrients. Along the way organs such as the salivary glands, liver, gallbladder and pancreas release enzymes to aid digestion and are known collectively as accessory structures.
The organs of the GI tract are made from four layers, the inner lining or mucosa , the submucosa containing blood vessels and lymphatics, the muscularis or smooth muscle layer, and the outermost layer or serosa/adventitia . Each layer plays a vital role in the digestive system ranging in their capacity to form a protective barrier from the highly acidic contents of the stomach to supplying hormones, producing muscle contractions and draining lymph. Furthermore, specialized cells such as the foveolar, chief cells of the stomach are supporting cells which produce a protective layer of mucus and gastric acid for digestion. Other supporting cells, such as the gastric parietal cells of the stomach and the ductal and acinar cells of the pancreas release zymogens, inactive forms of digestive enzymes.
The peritoneum is a large serous membrane which lines the abdominal cavity and coverers most of the digestive organs. some organs are only partially covered by the peritoneum while others are entirely uncovered. These organs are referred to as being retroperitoneal. Formed by the double folding of the peritoneum is a continuous set of tissues known as the mesentery. This organ was relatively recently reclassified as an organ after discovering its complex constitution. The mesentery houses lymphatic vessels as well as providing a conduit for the blood vessels for the small and large intestines.
Vocabulary for Digestive System can be found on page(s) 165-166 . | 583 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Anatomy_and_Physiology/Human_Anatomy_Lab_Manual_(Wilk-Blaszczak)/08%3A_Lab_8-_Digestive_System/8.01%3A_Lab_8-_Digestive_System | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:2165 | https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Anatomy_and_Physiology/Human_Anatomy_Lab_Manual_(Wilk-Blaszczak)/08%3A_Lab_8-_Digestive_System/8.01%3A_Lab_8-_Digestive_System |
YmMTdZLggV_9fwpb | Critical Literacy III | 13 Strategy: Reading Effectively in Math
Math text typically alternates passages of explanation in English with pieces of mathematics such as example problems.
When reading explanatory material in a math text…
- Read every word, one word at a time. You can’t catch the “drift” by skimming
- Every word counts (even 2-letter ones)
When looking at mathematics (equations and numerical expressions)…
-
- See how each line follows from the line before
- Read any written explanations the author gives you
- Know where each line comes from before going on
- Do not skip steps!
- Read with pencil and paper in hand
- Try to work out each line for yourself, step by step
- Go over problems that the author has worked out in detail
How to work a solved problem in the textbook
-
- Work through the problem one step at a time
- Close the book and try to work it again on your own
- Repeat until you can reproduce the solution with the book closed
- Try not to memorize the solution
- Keep track of “what to do” to move from each line to the next
- It’s okay if your version has more lines than the author’s (it may take you two or three steps to accomplish what the author does in one). This is a good sign that you’re thinking for yourself!
Math texts with visual illustrations
Spend time studying any pictures. Every line and symbol is there for a specific reason. Take the time to understand the picture thoroughly—in detail. Pay special attention to graphs and charts (they convey lots of information in a small space).
The bottom line is to go slow when reading math text. It’s not a race to see how fast you finish, but how much you understand.
So be patient, remember that “slow is fast,” and enjoy math reading!
Annotation is essential to reading any subject matter in school or work. While reading slowly and thoroughly make certain to annotated your thoughts, questions, and/or answers either in the margins or insert a piece of notepaper to the text in that section.
Built-In Practice: Reading Effectively in Math
Use the above strategies to read the following Math exercises.
1.A real estate agent received a 6% commission on the selling price of a house. If his commission was $8,880, what was the selling price of the house?
2.An electric motor makes 3,000 revolutions per minute. How many degrees does it rotate in one second?
1a. 6% x = 8,880 : x = selling price of house. x = $148,000 : solve for x.
2a. 3000 revolutions / minute = 3000×360 degrees / 60 seconds = 18,000 degrees / second
https://www.analyzemath.com/high_school_math/grade_10/problems.html | 592 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://mlpp.pressbooks.pub/criticalliteracy2/chapter/strategy-reading-effectively-in-math/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:26536 | https://mlpp.pressbooks.pub/criticalliteracy2/chapter/strategy-reading-effectively-in-math/ |
8DA9_LDJcDv0a7Sk | Complete Works of Shakespeare | 75 The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Complete Works of William Shakespeare, by William Shakespeare
ACT II
Enter Gower.
GOWER.
Here have you seen a mighty king
His child, iwis, to incest bring;
A better prince and benign lord,
That will prove awful both in deed and word.
Be quiet then as men should be,
Till he hath pass’d necessity.
I’ll show you those in troubles reign,
Losing a mite, a mountain gain.
The good in conversation,
To whom I give my benison,
Is still at Tarsus, where each man
Thinks all is writ he speken can;
And to remember what he does,
Build his statue to make him glorious:
But tidings to the contrary
Are brought your eyes; what need speak I?
Dumb-show. Enter at one door Pericles talking with Cleon; all the train with them. Enter at another door a
Gentleman with a letter to Pericles; Pericles shows the letter to Cleon; gives
the Messenger a reward, and knights him. Exit Pericles at one door, and Cleon
at another.
Good Helicane, that stay’d at home.
Not to eat honey like a drone
From others’ labours; for though he strive
To killen bad, keep good alive;
And to fulfil his prince’ desire,
Sends word of all that haps in Tyre:
How Thaliard came full bent with sin
And had intent to murder him;
And that in Tarsus was not best
Longer for him to make his rest.
He, doing so, put forth to seas,
Where when men been, there’s seldom ease;
For now the wind begins to blow;
Thunder above and deeps below
Make such unquiet, that the ship
Should house him safe is wreck’d and split;
And he, good prince, having all lost,
By waves from coast to coast is tost:
All perishen of man, of pelf,
Ne aught escapen but himself;
Till Fortune, tired with doing bad,
Threw him ashore, to give him glad:
And here he comes. What shall be next,
Pardon old Gower,—this longs the text.
[Exit.]
SCENE I. Pentapolis. An open place by the seaside.
Enter Pericles, wet.
PERICLES.
Yet cease your ire, you angry stars of heaven!
Wind, rain, and thunder, remember earthly man
Is but a substance that must yield to you;
And I, as fits my nature, do obey you:
Alas, the sea hath cast me on the rocks,
Wash’d me from shore to shore, and left me breath
Nothing to think on but ensuing death:
Let it suffice the greatness of your powers
To have bereft a prince of all his fortunes;
And having thrown him from your watery grave,
Here to have death in peace is all he’ll crave.
Enter three Fishermen.
FIRST FISHERMAN.
What, ho, Pilch!
SECOND FISHERMAN.
Ha, come and bring away the nets!
FIRST FISHERMAN.
What, Patch-breech, I say!
THIRD FISHERMAN.
What say you, master?
FIRST FISHERMAN.
Look how thou stirrest now! Come away, or I’ll fetch thee with a wanion.
THIRD FISHERMAN.
Faith, master, I am thinking of the poor men that were cast away before us even
now.
FIRST FISHERMAN.
Alas, poor souls, it grieved my heart to hear what pitiful cries they made to
us to help them, when, well-a-day, we could scarce help ourselves.
THIRD FISHERMAN.
Nay, master, said not I as much when I saw the porpus how he bounced and
tumbled? They say they’re half fish, half flesh: a plague on them, they
ne’er come but I look to be washed. Master, I marvel how the fishes live
in the sea.
FIRST FISHERMAN.
Why, as men do a-land; the great ones eat up the little ones: I can compare our
rich misers to nothing so fitly as to a whale; a’ plays and tumbles,
driving the poor fry before him, and at last devours them all at a mouthful.
Such whales have I heard on o’ the land, who never leave gaping till they
swallowed the whole parish, church, steeple, bells and all.
PERICLES.
[Aside.] A pretty moral.
THIRD FISHERMAN.
But, master, if I had been the sexton, I would have been that day in the
belfry.
SECOND FISHERMAN.
Why, man?
THIRD FISHERMAN.
Because he should have swallowed me too; and when I had been in his belly, I
would have kept such a jangling of the bells, that he should never have left,
till he cast bells, steeple, church and parish up again. But if the good King
Simonides were of my mind,—
PERICLES.
[Aside.] Simonides?
THIRD FISHERMAN.
We would purge the land of these drones, that rob the bee of her honey.
PERICLES.
[Aside.] How from the finny subject of the sea
These fishers tell the infirmities of men;
And from their watery empire recollect
All that may men approve or men detect!
Peace be at your labour, honest fishermen.
SECOND FISHERMAN.
Honest! good fellow, what’s that? If it be a day fits you, search out of
the calendar, and nobody look after it.
PERICLES.
May see the sea hath cast upon your coast.
SECOND FISHERMAN.
What a drunken knave was the sea to cast thee in our way!
PERICLES.
A man whom both the waters and the wind,
In that vast tennis-court, have made the ball
For them to play upon, entreats you pity him;
He asks of you, that never used to beg.
FIRST FISHERMAN.
No, friend, cannot you beg? Here’s them in our country of Greece gets
more with begging than we can do with working.
SECOND FISHERMAN.
Canst thou catch any fishes, then?
PERICLES.
I never practised it.
SECOND FISHERMAN.
Nay, then thou wilt starve, sure; for here’s nothing to be got
now-a-days, unless thou canst fish for’t.
PERICLES.
What I have been I have forgot to know;
But what I am, want teaches me to think on:
A man throng’d up with cold: my veins are chill,
And have no more of life than may suffice
To give my tongue that heat to ask your help;
Which if you shall refuse, when I am dead,
For that I am a man, pray see me buried.
FIRST FISHERMAN.
Die quoth-a? Now gods forbid’t, and I have a gown here; come, put it on;
keep thee warm. Now, afore me, a handsome fellow! Come, thou shalt go home, and
we’ll have flesh for holidays, fish for fasting-days, and moreo’er
puddings and flap-jacks, and thou shalt be welcome.
PERICLES.
I thank you, sir.
SECOND FISHERMAN.
Hark you, my friend; you said you could not beg?
PERICLES.
I did but crave.
SECOND FISHERMAN.
But crave! Then I’ll turn craver too, and so I shall ’scape
whipping.
PERICLES.
Why, are your beggars whipped, then?
SECOND FISHERMAN.
O, not all, my friend, not all; for if all your beggars were whipped, I would
wish no better office than to be beadle. But, master, I’ll go draw up the
net.
[Exit with Third Fisherman.]
PERICLES.
[Aside.] How well this honest mirth becomes their labour!
FIRST FISHERMAN.
PERICLES.
Not well.
FIRST FISHERMAN.
Why, I’ll tell you: this is called Pentapolis, and our King, the good
Simonides.
PERICLES.
The good Simonides, do you call him?
FIRST FISHERMAN.
Ay, sir; and he deserves so to be called for his peaceable reign and good
government.
PERICLES.
He is a happy king, since he gains from his subjects the name of good
government. How far is his court distant from this shore?
FIRST FISHERMAN.
Marry sir, half a day’s journey: and I’ll tell you, he hath a fair
daughter, and tomorrow is her birth-day; and there are princes and knights come
from all parts of the world to joust and tourney for her love.
PERICLES.
Were my fortunes equal to my desires, I could wish to make one there.
FIRST FISHERMAN.
O, sir, things must be as they may; and what a man cannot get, he may lawfully
deal for—his wife’s soul.
Re-enter Second and Third
Fishermen, drawing up a net.
SECOND FISHERMAN.
Help, master, help! here’s a fish hangs in the net, like a poor
man’s right in the law; ’twill hardly come out. Ha! bots
on’t, ’tis come at last, and ’tis turned to a rusty armour.
PERICLES.
An armour, friends! I pray you, let me see it.
Thanks, Fortune, yet, that, after all my crosses,
Thou givest me somewhat to repair myself,
And though it was mine own, part of my heritage,
Which my dead father did bequeath to me,
With this strict charge, even as he left his life.
‘Keep it, my Pericles; it hath been a shield
’Twixt me and death;’—and pointed to this
brace;—
‘For that it saved me, keep it; in like necessity—
The which the gods protect thee from!—may defend thee.’
It kept where I kept, I so dearly loved it;
Till the rough seas, that spares not any man,
Took it in rage, though calm’d have given’t again:
I thank thee for’t: my shipwreck now’s no ill,
Since I have here my father gave in his will.
FIRST FISHERMAN.
What mean you sir?
PERICLES.
To beg of you, kind friends, this coat of worth,
For it was sometime target to a king;
I know it by this mark. He loved me dearly,
And for his sake I wish the having of it;
And that you’d guide me to your sovereign court,
Where with it I may appear a gentleman;
And if that ever my low fortune’s better,
I’ll pay your bounties; till then rest your debtor.
FIRST FISHERMAN.
Why, wilt thou tourney for the lady?
PERICLES.
I’ll show the virtue I have borne in arms.
FIRST FISHERMAN.
Why, d’ye take it, and the gods give thee good on’t!
SECOND FISHERMAN.
Ay, but hark you, my friend; ’twas we that made up this garment through
the rough seams of the waters: there are certain condolements, certain vails. I
hope, sir, if you thrive, you’ll remember from whence you had them.
PERICLES.
Believe’t I will.
By your furtherance I am clothed in steel;
And spite of all the rapture of the sea,
This jewel holds his building on my arm:
Unto thy value I will mount myself
Upon a courser, whose delightful steps
Shall make the gazer joy to see him tread.
Only, my friend, I yet am unprovided
Of a pair of bases.
SECOND FISHERMAN.
We’ll sure provide: thou shalt have my best gown to make thee a pair; and
I’ll bring thee to the court myself.
PERICLES.
Then honour be but a goal to my will,
This day I’ll rise, or else add ill to ill.
[Exeunt.]
SCENE II. The same. A public way, or platform leading to the lists. A
pavilion by the side of it for the reception of the King, Princess, Lords,
etc.
Enter Simonides, Thaisa,
Lords and Attendants.
SIMONIDES.
Are the knights ready to begin the triumph?
FIRST LORD.
SIMONIDES.
Return them, we are ready; and our daughter,
In honour of whose birth these triumphs are,
Sits here, like beauty’s child, whom Nature gat
For men to see, and seeing wonder at.
[Exit a Lord.]
THAISA.
It pleaseth you, my royal father, to express
My commendations great, whose merit’s less.
SIMONIDES.
It’s fit it should be so; for princes are
A model, which heaven makes like to itself:
As jewels lose their glory if neglected,
So princes their renowns if not respected.
’Tis now your honour, daughter, to entertain
The labour of each knight in his device.
THAISA.
Which, to preserve mine honour, I’ll perform.
The first Knight passes by, and his Squire presents his
shield to Thaisa.
SIMONIDES.
Who is the first that doth prefer himself?
THAISA.
A knight of Sparta, my renowned father;
And the device he bears upon his shield
Is a black Ethiope reaching at the sun:
The word, Lux tua vita mihi.
SIMONIDES.
He loves you well that holds his life of you.
The second Knight passes by, and his Squire presents his
shield to Thaisa.
Who is the second that presents himself?
THAISA.
A prince of Macedon, my royal father;
And the device he bears upon his shield
Is an arm’d knight that’s conquer’d by a lady;
The motto thus, in Spanish, Piu por dulzura que por forza.
The third Knight passes by, and his Squire presents his
shield to Thaisa.
SIMONIDES.
And what’s the third?
THAISA.
The third of Antioch;
And his device, a wreath of chivalry;
The word, Me pompae provexit apex.
The fourth Knight passes by, and his Squire presents his
shield to Thaisa.
SIMONIDES.
What is the fourth?
THAISA.
SIMONIDES.
Which shows that beauty hath his power and will,
Which can as well inflame as it can kill.
The fifth Knight passes by, and his Squire presents his
shield to Thaisa.
THAISA.
The fifth, an hand environed with clouds,
Holding out gold that’s by the touchstone tried;
The motto thus, Sic spectanda fides.
The sixth Knight, Pericles,
passes in rusty armour with bases, and unaccompanied. He presents his device
directly to Thaisa.
SIMONIDES.
And what’s the sixth and last, the which the knight himself
With such a graceful courtesy deliver’d?
THAISA.
He seems to be a stranger; but his present is
A wither’d branch, that’s only green at top;
The motto, In hac spe vivo.
SIMONIDES.
A pretty moral;
From the dejected state wherein he is,
He hopes by you his fortunes yet may flourish.
FIRST LORD.
He had need mean better than his outward show
Can any way speak in his just commend;
For by his rusty outside he appears
To have practised more the whipstock than the lance.
SECOND LORD.
He well may be a stranger, for he comes
To an honour’d triumph strangely furnished.
THIRD LORD.
And on set purpose let his armour rust
Until this day, to scour it in the dust.
SIMONIDES.
Opinion’s but a fool, that makes us scan
The outward habit by the inward man.
But stay, the knights are coming.
We will withdraw into the gallery.
[Exeunt. Great shouts within, and all cry ‘The
mean Knight!’]
SCENE III. The same. A hall of state: a banquet prepared.
Enter Simonides, Thaisa, Lords,
Attendants and Knights, from tilting.
SIMONIDES.
Knights,
To say you’re welcome were superfluous.
To place upon the volume of your deeds,
As in a title-page, your worth in arms,
Were more than you expect, or more than’s fit,
Since every worth in show commends itself.
Prepare for mirth, for mirth becomes a feast:
You are princes and my guests.
THAISA.
But you, my knight and guest;
To whom this wreath of victory I give,
And crown you king of this day’s happiness.
PERICLES.
’Tis more by fortune, lady, than by merit.
SIMONIDES.
Call it by what you will, the day is yours;
And here, I hope, is none that envies it.
In framing an artist, art hath thus decreed,
To make some good, but others to exceed;
And you are her labour’d scholar. Come queen of the feast,—
For, daughter, so you are,—here take your place:
Marshal the rest, as they deserve their grace.
KNIGHTS.
We are honour’d much by good Simonides.
SIMONIDES.
MARSHALL.
Sir, yonder is your place.
PERICLES.
Some other is more fit.
FIRST KNIGHT.
Contend not, sir; for we are gentlemen
Have neither in our hearts nor outward eyes
Envied the great, nor shall the low despise.
PERICLES.
You are right courteous knights.
SIMONIDES.
Sit, sir, sit.
By Jove, I wonder, that is king of thoughts,
These cates resist me, he but thought upon.
THAISA.
By Juno, that is queen of marriage,
All viands that I eat do seem unsavoury,
Wishing him my meat. Sure, he’s a gallant gentleman.
SIMONIDES.
He’s but a country gentleman;
Has done no more than other knights have done;
Has broken a staff or so; so let it pass.
THAISA.
To me he seems like diamond to glass.
PERICLES.
Yon king’s to me like to my father’s picture,
Which tells me in that glory once he was;
Had princes sit, like stars, about his throne,
And he the sun, for them to reverence;
None that beheld him, but, like lesser lights,
Did vail their crowns to his supremacy:
Where now his son’s like a glow-worm in the night,
The which hath fire in darkness, none in light:
Whereby I see that time’s the king of men,
He’s both their parent, and he is their grave,
And gives them what he will, not what they crave.
SIMONIDES.
What, are you merry, knights?
KNIGHTS.
Who can be other in this royal presence?
SIMONIDES.
Here, with a cup that’s stored unto the brim,—
As you do love, fill to your mistress’ lips,—
We drink this health to you.
KNIGHTS.
We thank your grace.
SIMONIDES.
Yet pause awhile. Yon knight doth sit too melancholy,
As if the entertainment in our court
Had not a show might countervail his worth.
Note it not you, Thaisa?
THAISA.
What is’t to me, my father?
SIMONIDES.
O attend, my daughter:
Princes in this should live like gods above,
Who freely give to everyone that comes to honour them:
And princes not doing so are like to gnats,
Which make a sound, but kill’d are wonder’d at.
Therefore to make his entrance more sweet,
Here, say we drink this standing-bowl of wine to him.
THAISA.
Alas, my father, it befits not me
Unto a stranger knight to be so bold:
He may my proffer take for an offence,
Since men take women’s gifts for impudence.
SIMONIDES.
How? Do as I bid you, or you’ll move me else.
THAISA.
[Aside.] Now, by the gods, he could not please me better.
SIMONIDES.
And furthermore tell him, we desire to know of him,
Of whence he is, his name and parentage.
THAISA.
The king my father, sir, has drunk to you.
PERICLES.
I thank him.
THAISA.
PERICLES.
I thank both him and you, and pledge him freely.
THAISA.
And further he desires to know of you,
Of whence you are, your name and parentage.
PERICLES.
A gentleman of Tyre; my name, Pericles;
My education been in arts and arms;
Who, looking for adventures in the world,
Was by the rough seas reft of ships and men,
And after shipwreck driven upon this shore.
THAISA.
He thanks your grace; names himself Pericles,
A gentleman of Tyre,
Who only by misfortune of the seas
Bereft of ships and men, cast on this shore.
SIMONIDES.
Come, gentlemen, we sit too long on trifles,
And waste the time, which looks for other revels.
Even in your armours, as you are address’d,
Will well become a soldier’s dance.
I will not have excuse, with saying this,
‘Loud music is too harsh for ladies’ heads’
Since they love men in arms as well as beds.
[The Knights dance.]
So, this was well ask’d, ’twas so well perform’d.
Come, sir; here is a lady which wants breathing too:
And I have heard you knights of Tyre
Are excellent in making ladies trip;
And that their measures are as excellent.
PERICLES.
In those that practise them they are, my lord.
SIMONIDES.
O, that’s as much as you would be denied
Of your fair courtesy.
[The Knights and Ladies dance.]
Unclasp, unclasp:
Thanks gentlemen, to all; all have done well.
[To Pericles.] But you the best. Pages and lights to conduct
These knights unto their several lodgings.
[To Pericles.] Yours, sir, we have given order to be next our own.
PERICLES.
I am at your grace’s pleasure.
SIMONIDES.
Princes, it is too late to talk of love;
And that’s the mark I know you level at:
Therefore each one betake him to his rest;
Tomorrow all for speeding do their best.
[Exeunt.]
SCENE IV. Tyre. A room in the Governor’s house.
Enter Helicanus and Escanes.
HELICANUS.
No, Escanes, know this of me,
Antiochus from incest lived not free:
For which the most high gods not minding longer
To withhold the vengeance that they had in store
Due to this heinous capital offence,
Even in the height and pride of all his glory,
When he was seated in a chariot
Of an inestimable value, and his daughter with him,
A fire from heaven came and shrivell’d up
Their bodies, even to loathing, for they so stunk,
That all those eyes adored them ere their fall
Scorn now their hand should give them burial.
ESCANES.
’Twas very strange
HELICANUS.
And yet but justice; for though this king were great;
His greatness was no guard to bar heaven’s shaft,
But sin had his reward.
ESCANES.
’Tis very true.
Enter two or three Lords.
FIRST LORD.
See, not a man in private conference
Or council has respect with him but he.
SECOND LORD.
It shall no longer grieve without reproof.
THIRD LORD.
And cursed be he that will not second it.
FIRST LORD.
Follow me, then. Lord Helicane, a word.
HELICANUS.
With me? and welcome: happy day, my lords.
FIRST LORD.
Know that our griefs are risen to the top,
And now at length they overflow their banks.
HELICANUS.
Your griefs! for what? Wrong not your prince you love.
FIRST LORD.
Wrong not yourself, then, noble Helicane;
But if the prince do live, let us salute him.
Or know what ground’s made happy by his breath.
If in the world he live, we’ll seek him out;
If in his grave he rest, we’ll find him there.
SECOND LORD.
Whose death’s indeed the strongest in our censure:
And knowing this kingdom is without a head,—
Like goodly buildings left without a roof
Soon fall to ruin,—your noble self,
That best know how to rule and how to reign,
We thus submit unto,—our sovereign.
ALL.
Live, noble Helicane!
HELICANUS.
For honour’s cause, forbear your suffrages:
If that you love Prince Pericles, forbear.
Take I your wish, I leap into the seas,
Where’s hourly trouble for a minute’s ease.
A twelvemonth longer, let me entreat you
To forbear the absence of your king;
If in which time expired, he not return,
I shall with aged patience bear your yoke.
FIRST LORD.
To wisdom he’s a fool that will not yield;
And since Lord Helicane enjoineth us,
We with our travels will endeavour us.
HELICANUS.
Then you love us, we you, and we’ll clasp hands:
When peers thus knit, a kingdom ever stands.
[Exeunt.]
SCENE V. Pentapolis. A room in the palace.
Enter Simonides reading a
letter at one door; the Knights meet him.
FIRST KNIGHT.
Good morrow to the good Simonides.
SIMONIDES.
Knights, from my daughter this I let you know,
That for this twelvemonth she’ll not undertake
A married life.
Her reason to herself is only known,
Which yet from her by no means can I get.
SECOND KNIGHT.
May we not get access to her, my lord?
SIMONIDES.
Faith, by no means; she hath so strictly tied
Her to her chamber, that ’tis impossible.
One twelve moons more she’ll wear Diana’s livery;
This by the eye of Cynthia hath she vow’d,
And on her virgin honour will not break it.
THIRD KNIGHT.
Loath to bid farewell, we take our leaves.
[Exeunt Knights.]
SIMONIDES.
So, they are well dispatch’d; now to my daughter’s letter:
She tells me here, she’ll wed the stranger knight,
Or never more to view nor day nor light.
’Tis well, mistress; your choice agrees with mine;
I like that well: nay, how absolute she’s in’t,
Not minding whether I dislike or no!
Well, I do commend her choice;
And will no longer have it be delay’d.
Soft! here he comes: I must dissemble it.
Enter Pericles.
PERICLES.
All fortune to the good Simonides!
SIMONIDES.
To you as much. Sir, I am beholding to you
For your sweet music this last night: I do
Protest my ears were never better fed
With such delightful pleasing harmony.
PERICLES.
It is your grace’s pleasure to commend;
Not my desert.
SIMONIDES.
Sir, you are music’s master.
PERICLES.
The worst of all her scholars, my good lord.
SIMONIDES.
Let me ask you one thing:
What do you think of my daughter, sir?
PERICLES.
A most virtuous princess.
SIMONIDES.
And she is fair too, is she not?
PERICLES.
As a fair day in summer, wondrous fair.
SIMONIDES.
Sir, my daughter thinks very well of you;
Ay, so well, that you must be her master,
And she will be your scholar: therefore look to it.
PERICLES.
I am unworthy for her schoolmaster.
SIMONIDES.
She thinks not so; peruse this writing else.
PERICLES.
[Aside.] What’s here? A letter, that she loves the knight of
Tyre!
’Tis the king’s subtlety to have my life.
O, seek not to entrap me, gracious lord,
A stranger and distressed gentleman,
That never aim’d so high to love your daughter,
But bent all offices to honour her.
SIMONIDES.
Thou hast bewitch’d my daughter,
And thou art a villain.
PERICLES.
By the gods, I have not:
Never did thought of mine levy offence;
Nor never did my actions yet commence
A deed might gain her love or your displeasure.
SIMONIDES.
Traitor, thou liest.
PERICLES.
Traitor?
SIMONIDES.
Ay, traitor.
PERICLES.
Even in his throat—unless it be the king—
That calls me traitor, I return the lie.
SIMONIDES.
[Aside.] Now, by the gods, I do applaud his courage.
PERICLES.
My actions are as noble as my thoughts,
That never relish’d of a base descent.
I came unto your court for honour’s cause,
And not to be a rebel to her state;
And he that otherwise accounts of me,
This sword shall prove he’s honour’s enemy.
SIMONIDES.
No?
Here comes my daughter, she can witness it.
Enter Thaisa.
PERICLES.
Then, as you are as virtuous as fair,
Resolve your angry father, if my tongue
Did e’er solicit, or my hand subscribe
To any syllable that made love to you.
THAISA.
Why, sir, say if you had,
Who takes offence at that would make me glad?
SIMONIDES.
Yea, mistress, are you so peremptory?
[Aside.] I am glad on’t with all my heart.—
I’ll tame you; I’ll bring you in subjection.
Will you, not having my consent,
Bestow your love and your affections
Upon a stranger? [Aside.] Who, for aught I know
May be, nor can I think the contrary,
As great in blood as I myself.—
Nay, come, your hands,
And lips must seal it too: and being join’d,
I’ll thus your hopes destroy; and for further grief,
God give you joy! What, are you both pleased?
THAISA.
Yes, if you love me, sir.
PERICLES.
Even as my life my blood that fosters it.
SIMONIDES.
What, are you both agreed?
BOTH.
Yes, if’t please your majesty.
SIMONIDES.
[Exeunt.] | 5,709 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://openwa.pressbooks.pub/shakespearecompleteworks/chapter/the-project-gutenberg-ebook-of-the-complete-works-of-william-shakespeare-by-william-shakespeare-168/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:76462 | https://openwa.pressbooks.pub/shakespearecompleteworks/chapter/the-project-gutenberg-ebook-of-the-complete-works-of-william-shakespeare-by-william-shakespeare-168/ |
uWY-eR1sf_H20ae4 | American Literature I: An Anthology of Texts From Early America the Early 20th Century | 55 On Sarah Pierrepont
Jonathan Edwards
“They say there is a young lady[1] in (New Haven) who is be loved of that Great Being, who made and rules the world, and that there are certain seasons in which this Great Being, in some way or other invisible, comes to her and fills her mind with exceeding sweetdelight, and that she hardly cares for anything, except to meditate on him — that she expects after a while to be received up where he is, to be raised up out of the world and caught up into heaven ; being assured that he loves her too well to let her remain at a distance from him always. There she is to dwell with him, and to be ravished with his love and delight forever. Therefore, if you present all the world be fore her, with the richest of its treasures, she disregards it and cares not for it, and is unmindful of any pain or affliction. She has a strange sweetness in her mind, and singular purity in her affections; is most just and conscientious in all her conduct ; and you could not persuade her to do any thing wrong or sinful, if you would give her all the world, lest she should offend this Great Being. She is of a wonderful sweet ness, calmness, and universal benevolence of mind; especially after this Great God has manifested himself to her mind. She will sometimes go about from place to place, singing sweetly; and seems to be always full of joy and pleasure; and no one knows for what. She loves to be alone, walking in the fields and groves, and seems to have some one invisible always conversing with her.” — Jonathan Edwards.
(1723)
Source:
The Heart of a Puritan: Selections from Letters and Journals, Elizabeth Deering Hanscom, ed., Public Domain
- Sarah Pierrepont was then thirteen years of age. ↵ | 416 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://viva.pressbooks.pub/amlit1/chapter/on-sarah-pierrepont-1723-jonathan-edwards/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:72035 | https://viva.pressbooks.pub/amlit1/chapter/on-sarah-pierrepont-1723-jonathan-edwards/ |
ti6BfwxbfKfQTDAc | 29.8: The Particle-Wave Duality Reviewed | 29.8: The Particle-Wave Duality Reviewed
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Explain the concept of particle-wave duality, and its scope.
Particle-wave duality --the fact that all particles have wave properties--is one of the cornerstones of quantum mechanics. We first came across it in the treatment of photons, those particles of EM radiation that exhibit both particle and wave properties, but not at the same time. Later it was noted that particles of matter have wave properties as well. The dual properties of particles and waves are found for all particles, whether massless like photons, or having a mass like electrons. (See Figure 29.9.1.)
There are many submicroscopic particles in nature. Most have mass and are expected to act as particles, or the smallest units of matter. All these masses have wave properties, with wavelengths given by the de Broglie relationship \(\gamma = h/p\). So, too, do combinations of these particles, such as nuclei, atoms, and molecules. As a combination of masses becomes large, particularly if it is large enough to be called macroscopic, its wave nature becomes difficult to observe. This is consistent with our common experience with matter.
Some particles in nature are massless. We have only treated the photon so far, but all massless entities travel at the speed of light, have a wavelength, and exhibit particle and wave behaviors. They have momentum given by a rearrangement of the de Broglie relationship, \(p = h/\gamma\). In large combinations of these massless particles (such large combinations are common only for photons or EM waves), there is mostly wave behavior upon detection, and the particle nature becomes difficult to observe. This is also consistent with experience. (See Figure 29.9.2.)
The particle-wave duality is a universal attribute. It is another connection between matter and energy. Not only has modern physics been able to describe nature for high speeds and small sizes, it has also discovered new connections and symmetries. There is greater unity and symmetry in nature than was known in the classical era -- but they were dreamt of. A beautiful poem written by the English poet William Blake some two centuries ago contains the following four lines:
To see the World in a Grain of Sand
And a Heaven in a Wild Flower
Hold Infinity in the palm of your hand
And Eternity in an hour
Integrated Concepts
The problem set for this section involves concepts from this chapter and several others. Physics is most interesting when applied to general situations involving more than a narrow set of physical principles. For example, photons have momentum, hence the relevance of "Linear Momentum and Collisions." The following topics are involved in some or all of the problems in this section:
- Dynamics: Newton's Laws of Motion
- Work, Energy, and Energy Resources
- Linear Momentum and Collisions
- Heat and Heat Transfer Methods
- Electrical Potential and Electric Field
- Electric Current, Resistance, and Ohm's Law
- Wave Optics
- Special Relativity
PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGY
- Identify which physical principles are involved.
- Solve the problem using strategies outlined in the text.
Example illustrates how these strategies are applied to an integrated-concept problem.
Example \(\PageIndex{1}\): Recoil of a Dust Particle after Absorbing a Photon
The following topics are involved in this integrated concepts worked example
- Photons (quantum mechanics)
- Linear Momentum
A 550-nm photon (visible light) is absorbed by a \(1.00-\mu g\) particle of dust in outer space. (a) Find the momentum of such a photon. (b) What is the recoil velocity of the particle of dust, assuming it is initially at rest?
Strategy Step 1:
To solve an integrated-concept problem , such as those following this example, we must first identify the physical principles involved and identify the chapters in which they are found. Part (a) of this example asks for the momentum of a photon , a topic of the present chapter. Part (b) considers recoil following a collision, a topic of "Linear Momentum and Collisions."
Strategy Step 2:
The following solutions to each part of the example illustrate how specific problem-solving strategies are applied. These involve identifying knowns and unknowns, checking to see if the answer is reasonable, and so on.
Solution for (a):
The momentum of a photon is related to its wavelength by the equation:
\[p = \frac{h}{\lambda}.\label{29.9.1}\]
Entering the known value for Planck’s constant \(h\) and given the wavelength \(\lambda\), we obtain
\[p = \frac{6.63 \times 10^{-34} J \cdot s}{550 \times 10^{-9} m}\] \[= 1.21 \times 10^{-27} kg \cdot m/s.\]
Discussion for (a):
This momentum is small, as expected from discussions in the text and the fact that photons of visible light carry small amounts of energy and momentum compared with those carried by macroscopic objects.
Solution for (b):
Conservation of momentum in the absorption of this photon by a grain of dust can be analyzed using the equation:
\[p_{1} + p_{2} = p'_{1} + p'_{2} \left(F_{net} = 0 \right).\label{29.9.2}\]
The net external force is zero, since the dust is in outer space. Let 1 represent the photon and 2 the dust particle. Before the collision, the dust is at rest (relative to some observer); after the collision, there is no photon (it is absorbed). So conservation of momentum can be written \[p_{1} = p'_{2} = mv, \label{29.9.3}\] where \(p_{1}\) is the photon momentum before the collision and \(p'_{2}\) is the dust momentum after the collision. The mass and recoil velocity of the dust are \(m\) and \(v\), respectively. Solving this for \(v\), the requested quantity, yields \[v = \frac{p}{m},\label{29.9.4}\] where \(p\) is the photon momentum found in part (a). Entering known values (noting that a microgram is \(10^{-9} kg\)) gives \[v = \frac{1.21 \times 10^{27} kg\cdot m/s}{1.00 \times 10^{9} kg}\] \[= 1.21 \times 10^{-18} m/s.\]
Discussion:
The recoil velocity of the particle of dust is extremely small. As we have noted, however, there are immense numbers of photons in sunlight and other macroscopic sources. In time, collisions and absorption of many photons could cause a significant recoil of the dust, as observed in comet tails.
Summary
- The particle-wave duality refers to the fact that all particles -- those with mass and those without mass -- have wave characteristics.
- This is a further connection between mass and energy. | 1,355 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://phys.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/College_Physics/College_Physics_1e_(OpenStax)/29%3A_Introduction_to_Quantum_Physics/29.08%3A_The_Particle-Wave_Duality_Reviewed | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:761 | https://phys.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/College_Physics/College_Physics_1e_(OpenStax)/29%3A_Introduction_to_Quantum_Physics/29.08%3A_The_Particle-Wave_Duality_Reviewed |
nviPyOb_hJxPjgwX | 22.7: Sample problems and solutions | 22.7: Sample problems and solutions
-
- Last updated
- Save as PDF
Exercise \(\PageIndex{1}\)
A square loop of wire with side length, \(L\), carries current, \(I\), as shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\). What is the magnetic field at the center of the loop?
- Answer
-
The square loop is simply made of four straight sections of wire of length, \(L\). The magnetic field from each section of wire is into the page, which you can easily verify with your right-hand (with your thumb in the direction of current, your fingers curl in the direction of the resulting magnetic field).
The magnetic field at the center is just four times the magnetic field produced by a single segment, which we determined in this chapter. The magnetic field at the center of the loop is thus four times the magnetic field at a distance, \(h = \frac{L}{2}\), from a wire of length, \(L\):
\[\begin{aligned} B=4\times\frac{\mu_{0}I}{2\pi\frac{L}{2}}\frac{L/2}{\sqrt{\frac{L^{2}}{4}+\frac{L^{2}}{4}}}=2\sqrt{2}\frac{\mu_{0}I}{\pi L} \end{aligned}\]
Exercise \(\PageIndex{2}\)
Helmholtz coils are an arrangement of two parallel loops of current which produce a nearly uniform magnetic field. Helmholtz coils are formed by two identical circular loops of radius, \(R\), carrying the same current, \(I\), where the centers of the coils are separated by the distance, \(R\), as illustrated in Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\). Determine the magnetic field as a function of \(z\), along the axis of symmetry of the coils, where the origin is located half way between the two coils. Make a plot of the magnetic field as a function of \(z\) from each coil, as well as the total electric field to show that it is close to uniform between the coils.
- Answer
-
We know that the magnetic field at a distance, \(h\), from the center of a loop of current, along its axis of symmetry is given by:
\[\begin{aligned} B(h)=\frac{\mu_{0}I}{2}\frac{R^{2}}{(R^{2}+h^{2})^{\frac{3}{2}}} \end{aligned}\]
For the two coils in the Helmholtz configuration, the magnetic field from each coil will be in the same direction. The center of the two coils are located at \(z = ±\frac{R}{2}\). Thus, if we are located at position, \(z\), along the \(z\) axis, one coil will be at a distance of \(z +\frac{R}{2}\), and the other at a distance \(z −\frac{R}{2}\). The total magnetic field as a function of \(z\) is then given by:
\[\begin{aligned} B^{tot}(z)&=B\left(z+\frac{R}{2}\right)+B\left(z+\frac{R}{2}\right) \\[4pt] &= \frac{\mu_{0}I}{2}\frac{R^{2}}{(R^{2}+(z+\frac{R}{2})^{2})^{\frac{3}{2}}}+\frac{\mu_{0}I}{2}\frac{R^{2}}{(R^{2}+(z-\frac{R}{2})^{2})^{\frac{3}{2}}} \end{aligned}\]
We can plot this function, as well as the two individual terms using python. For information, we show the code below. In order to make the plot, we need to choose some reasonable values for the radius of the coils and the current through the coils, for example:
- \(R=0.3\text{m}\)
- \(I=0.1\text{A}\)
Python Code 22.7.1: Numerical integration of a function
#Import the modules that we need: import numpy as np import pylab as pl #Define some constants: mu0 = 4*np.pi*1e-7 #4 pi I = 0.5 R = 0.3 #Define the values on the z axis, from -2R to +2r, in 100 increments z = np.linspace(-2*R,2*R,100) #Determine the magnetic field from the coils at those values of z #The coil at z=-R/2: B1 = (mu0*I)/2 * R**2/((R**2+(z+R/2)**2)**(3/2)) #The coil at z=+R/2: B2 = (mu0*I)/2 * R**2/((R**2+(z-R/2)**2)**(3/2)) #The sum: B = B1 + B2 #Make the plot p1.figure(figsize=(10,6)) p1.plot(z,B1,label='Coil at z=-R/2') p1.plot(z,B2,label='Coil at z=+R/2') p1.plot(z,B,label='Total') p1.legend() p1.xlabel('z position [m]') p1.ylabel('Magnetic field [T]') p1.show()
Output 22.7.1:
Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\) : Magnetic field from each coil, as well as their sum, for two coils in the Helmholtz configuration.
As advertised, we see a region between the Helmholtz coils where the magnetic field is nearly uniform. | 759 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://phys.libretexts.org/Courses/Berea_College/Introductory_Physics%3A_Berea_College/22%3A_Source_of_Magnetic_Field/22.07%3A_Sample_problems_and_solutions | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:4623 | https://phys.libretexts.org/Courses/Berea_College/Introductory_Physics%3A_Berea_College/22%3A_Source_of_Magnetic_Field/22.07%3A_Sample_problems_and_solutions |
iUR0jFfZSUQ4QYf3 | 11.3: Worksheet | 11.3: Worksheet
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Work in groups on these problems. You should try to answer the questions without referring to your textbook. If you get stuck, try asking another group for help.
Plague Assay
Record your results below. A countable plate has between 30-300 plaques. If there are more than 300 plaques record TMTC (too many to count), if there are fewer than 30 plaques record TFTC (too few to count) (1).
| A | B | C | D | E | F | G | |
| Plaques Counted | |||||||
| Sample Volume | 2.5 mL. | 2.5 mL. | 2.5 mL. | 2.5 mL. | 2.5 mL. | 2.5 mL. | 2.5 mL. |
| \(\frac{PFU}{mL}\) | |||||||
| \(\frac{PFU}{mL\;of\;starting\;tube}\) |
1. Why is it important in this assay to make sure that there are enough bacteria present to produce a lawn? (1)
2. What would happen if you had not waited the 15 minutes that the protocol requires? (1)
3. Why was the water bath set to 50°C? (1)
4. What is the difference between a CFU and a PFU? (1) | 257 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://bio.libretexts.org/Courses/Ohio_State_University/Microbiology_Lab_SP25/11%3A_Lab_11/11.03%3A_Worksheet | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:14151 | https://bio.libretexts.org/Courses/Ohio_State_University/Microbiology_Lab_SP25/11%3A_Lab_11/11.03%3A_Worksheet |
-Bdwo4l2mozv2Pze | 20.3: Farmers Revolt in the Populist Era | 20.3: Farmers Revolt in the Populist Era
The challenges that many American farmers faced in the last quarter of the nineteenth century were significant. They contended with economic hardships born out of rapidly declining farm prices, prohibitively high tariffs on items they needed to purchase, and foreign competition. One of the largest challenges they faced was overproduction, where the glut of their products in the marketplace drove the price lower and lower.
Overproduction of crops occurred in part due to the westward expansion of homestead farms and in part because industrialization led to new farm tools that dramatically increased crop yields. As farmers fell deeper into debt, whether it be to the local stores where they bought supplies or to the railroads that shipped their produce, their response was to increase crop production each year in the hope of earning more money with which to pay back their debt. The more they produced, the lower prices dropped. To a hard-working farmer, the notion that their own overproduction was the greatest contributing factor to their debt was a completely foreign concept (Figure 20.3.1).
In addition to the cycle of overproduction, tariffs were a serious problem for farmers. Rising tariffs on industrial products made purchased items more expensive, yet tariffs were not being used to keep farm prices artificially high as well. Therefore, farmers were paying inflated prices but not receiving them. Finally, the issue of gold versus silver as the basis of U.S. currency was a very real problem to many farmers. Farmers needed more money in circulation, whether it was paper or silver, in order to create inflationary pressure. Inflationary pressure would allow farm prices to increase, thus allowing them to earn more money that they could then spend on the higher-priced goods in stores. However, in 1878, federal law set the amount of paper money in circulation, and, as mentioned above, Harrison’s Sherman Silver Act, intended to increase the amount of silver coinage, was too modest to do any real good, especially in light of the unintended consequence of depleting the nation’s gold reserve. In short, farmers had a big stack of bills and wanted a big stack of money—be it paper or silver—to pay them. Neither was forthcoming from a government that cared more about issues of patronage and how to stay in the White House for more than four years at a time.
FARMERS BEGIN TO ORGANIZE
The initial response by increasingly frustrated and angry farmers was to organize into groups that were similar to early labor unions. Taking note of how the industrial labor movement had unfolded in the last quarter of the century, farmers began to understand that a collective voice could create significant pressure among political leaders and produce substantive change. While farmers had their own challenges, including that of geography and diverse needs among different types of famers, they believed this model to be useful to their cause.
One of the first efforts to organize farmers came in 1867 with Oliver Hudson Kelly’s creation of the Patrons of Husbandry, more popularly known as the Grange. In the wake of the Civil War, the Grangers quickly grew to over 1.5 million members in less than a decade (Figure 20.3.2). Kelly believed that farmers could best help themselves by creating farmers’ cooperatives in which they could pool resources and obtain better shipping rates, as well as prices on seeds, fertilizer, machinery, and other necessary inputs. These cooperatives, he believed, would let them self-regulate production as well as collectively obtain better rates from railroad companies and other businesses.
At the state level, specifically in Wisconsin, Minnesota, Illinois, and Iowa, the Patrons of Husbandry did briefly succeed in urging the passage of Granger Laws, which regulated some railroad rates along with the prices charged by grain elevator operators. The movement also created a political party—the Greenback Party, so named for its support of print currency (or “greenbacks”) not based upon a gold standard—which saw brief success with the election of fifteen congressmen. However, such successes were short-lived and had little impact on the lives of everyday farmers. In the Wabash case of 1886, brought by the Wabash, St. Louis, and Pacific Railroad Company, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled against the State of Illinois for passing Granger Laws controlling railroad rates; the court found such laws to be unconstitutional. Their argument held that states did not have the authority to control interstate commerce. As for the Greenback Party, when only seven delegates appeared at an 1888 national convention of the group, the party faded from existence.
Explore Rural Life in the Late Nineteenth Centuryto study photographs, firsthand reports, and other information about how farmers lived and struggled at the end of the nineteenth century.
The Farmers’ Alliance, a conglomeration of three regional alliances formed in the mid-1880s, took root in the wake of the Grange movement. In 1890, Dr. Charles Macune, who led the Southern Alliance, which was based in Texas and had over 100,000 members by 1886, urged the creation of a national alliance between his organization, the Northwest Alliance, and the Colored Alliance, the largest African American organization in the United States. Led by Tom Watson, the Colored Alliance, which was founded in Texas but quickly spread throughout the Old South, counted over one million members. Although they originally advocated for self-help, African Americans in the group soon understood the benefits of political organization and a unified voice to improve their plight, regardless of race. While racism kept the alliance splintered among the three component branches, they still managed to craft a national agenda that appealed to their large membership. All told, the Farmers’ Alliance brought together over 2.5 million members, 1.5 million white and 1 million black (Figure 20.3.3).
The alliance movement, and the subsequent political party that emerged from it, also featured prominent roles for women. Nearly 250,000 women joined the movement due to their shared interest in the farmers’ worsening situation as well as the promise of being a full partner with political rights within the group, which they saw as an important step towards advocacy for women’s suffrage on a national level. The ability to vote and stand for office within the organization encouraged many women who sought similar rights on the larger American political scene. Prominent alliance spokeswoman, Mary Elizabeth Lease of Kansas, often spoke of membership in the Farmers’ Alliance as an opportunity to “raise less corn and more hell!”
The Conner Prairie Interactive History Parkdiscusses the role of women in rural America and how it changed throughout the end of the nineteenth century.
The alliance movement had several goals similar to those of the original Grange, including greater regulation of railroad prices and the creation of an inflationary national monetary policy. However, most creative among the solutions promoted by the Farmers’ Alliance was the call for a subtreasury plan. Under this plan, the federal government would store farmers’ crops in government warehouses for a brief period of time, during which the government would provide loans to farmers worth 80 percent of the current crop prices. Thus, farmers would have immediate cash on hand with which to settle debts and purchase goods, while their crops sat in warehouses and farm prices increased due to this control over supply at the market. When market prices rose sufficiently high enough, the farmer could withdraw his crops, sell at the higher price, repay the government loan, and still have profit remaining.
Economists of the day thought the plan had some merit; in fact, a greatly altered version would subsequently be adopted during the Great Depression of the 1930s, in the form of the Agricultural Adjustment Act. However, the federal government never seriously considered the plan, as congressmen questioned the propriety of the government serving as a rural creditor making loans to farmers with no assurance that production controls would result in higher commodity prices. The government’s refusal to act on the proposal left many farmers wondering what it would take to find solutions to their growing indebtedness.
FROM ORGANIZATION TO POLITICAL PARTY
Angry at the federal government’s continued unwillingness to substantively address the plight of the average farmer, Charles Macune and the Farmers’ Alliance chose to create a political party whose representatives—if elected—could enact real change. Put simply, if the government would not address the problem, then it was time to change those elected to power.
In 1891, the alliance formed the Populist Party, or People’s Party, as it was more widely known. Beginning with nonpresidential-year elections, the Populist Party had modest success, particularly in Kansas, Nebraska, and the Dakotas, where they succeeded in electing several state legislators, one governor, and a handful of congressmen. As the 1892 presidential election approached, the Populists chose to model themselves after the Democratic and Republican Parties in the hope that they could shock the country with a “third-party” victory.
At their national convention that summer in Omaha, Nebraska, they wrote the Omaha Platform to more fully explain to all Americans the goals of the new party (Figure 20.3.4). Written by Ignatius Donnelly, the platform statement vilified railroad owners, bankers, and big businessmen as all being part of a widespread conspiracy to control farmers. As for policy changes, the platform called for adoption of the subtreasury plan, government control over railroads, an end to the national bank system, the creation of a federal income tax, the direct election of U.S. senators, and several other measures, all of which aimed at a more proactive federal government that would support the economic and social welfare of all Americans. At the close of the convention, the party nominated James B. Weaver as its presidential candidate.
In a rematch of the 1888 election, the Democrats again nominated Grover Cleveland, while Republicans went with Benjamin Harrison. Despite the presence of a third-party challenger, Cleveland won another close popular vote to become the first U.S. president to be elected to nonconsecutive terms. Although he finished a distant third, Populist candidate Weaver polled a respectable one million votes. Rather than being disappointed, several Populists applauded their showing—especially for a third party with barely two years of national political experience under its belt. They anxiously awaited the 1896 election, believing that if the rest of the country, in particular industrial workers, experienced hardships similar to those that farmers already faced, a powerful alliance among the two groups could carry the Populists to victory.
Section Summary
Factors such as overproduction and high tariffs left the country’s farmers in increasingly desperate straits, and the federal government’s inability to address their concerns left them disillusioned and worried. Uneven responses from state governments had many farmers seeking an alternative solution to their problems. Taking note of the labor movements growing in industrial cities around the country, farmers began to organize into alliances similar to workers’ unions; these were models of cooperation where larger numbers could offer more bargaining power with major players such as railroads. Ultimately, the alliances were unable to initiate widespread change for their benefit. Still, drawing from the cohesion of purpose, farmers sought to create change from the inside: through politics. They hoped the creation of the Populist Party in 1891 would lead to a president who put the people—and in particular the farmers—first.
Review Questions
Which of the following was not a vehicle for the farmers’ protest?
- the Mugwumps
- the Grange
- the Farmers’ Alliance
- the People’s Party
A
Which of the following contributed directly to the plight of farmers?
- machine politics
- labor unions
- overproduction
- inadequate supply
C
What were women’s roles within the Farmer’s Alliance?
Women were able to play key roles in the alliance movement. The alliance provided them with political rights, including the ability to vote and hold office within the organization, which many women hoped would be a positive step in their struggle for national women’s rights and suffrage. In the end, nearly 250,000 women joined the movement.
Glossary
- Farmers’ Alliance
- a national conglomeration of different regional farmers’ alliances that joined together in 1890 with the goal of furthering farmers’ concerns in politics
- Grange
- a farmers’ organization, launched in 1867, which grew to over 1.5 million members in less than a decade
- Populist Party
- a political party formed in 1890 that sought to represent the rights of primarily farmers but eventually all workers in regional and federal elections
- subtreasury plan
- a plan that called for storing crops in government warehouses for a brief period of time, during which the federal government would provide loans to farmers worth 80 percent of the current crop prices, releasing the crops for sale when prices rose | 2,737 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/History/National_History/U.S._History_(OpenStax)/20%3A_Politics_in_the_Gilded_Age_1870-1900/20.03%3A_Farmers_Revolt_in_the_Populist_Era | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:4068 | https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/History/National_History/U.S._History_(OpenStax)/20%3A_Politics_in_the_Gilded_Age_1870-1900/20.03%3A_Farmers_Revolt_in_the_Populist_Era |
ig2spM-OVlB2FEST | The Argive Heraeum, by Charles Waldstein ... with the coöperation of George Henry Chase [and others]. | Pit. D., L. H. D., Litt. D.
SOMETIME DIRECTOR OF THE AMERICAN SCHOOL OF CLASSICAL STUDIES AT ATHENS SLADE PROFESSOR OF FINE ART , UNIVERSITY READER IN CLASSICAL ARCHAEOLOGY , AND FELLOW OF KING'S COLLEGE , CAMBRIDGE SOMETIME DIRECTOR OF THE FITZ WILLIAM MUSEUM , CAMBRIDGE, ETC., ETC.
WITH THE COOPERATION OF
GEORGE HENRY CHASE, HERBERT FLETCHER DE COU, THEODORE WOOLSEY HEERMANCE, JOSEPH CLARK HOPPIN, ALBERT MORTON LYTHGOE, RICHARD NORTON, RUFUS BYAM RICHARDSON, EDWARD LIPPINCOTT TILTON HENRY STEPHENS WASHINGTON, AND JAMES RIGNALL WHEELER
VOLUME II
TERRA-COTTA FIGURINES, TERRA-COTTA RELIEFS, VASES AND VASE FRAGMENTS, BRONZES, ENGRAVED STONES, GEMS, AND IVORIES, COINS, EGYPTIAN, OR GRAECO-EGYPTIAN, OBJECTS
This work is issued by the authority and under the auspices of the Archaeological Institute of America and the American School of Classical Studies at Athens, which share the financial responsibility for it. The supervision of its publication has been intrusted to a Committee which consists of representatives of both bodies.
Each contributor has been left entirely free to express his opinions and sentiments regarding the subjects treated by him-— even where in these he differed from his asso¬ ciates — and is therefore solely responsible for the statements made in the articles written by him.
PREFATORY NOTE TO VOLUME II.
In the preface to the first volume of this publication I expressed my regret at the delay in bringing before the world the results of our excavations which were completed in 1895. I also regretted that we were obliged to issue the first volume before the completion of the second. I then thought myself justified in announcing that the second volume would “ follow within a few months.” Circumstances over which I have had no control have extended this period of a few months to what will now in all probability exceed a twelvemonth. As in the case of the first volume I deplore this, not only because it has kept from the archaeological world the material which we have to offer for study, but also because full justice cannot be done to my collaborators, especially to Dr. Hoppin and Mr. Chase, whose work has been completed and in type for several years. Quite apart from the question of priority with regard to the antiquities we have excavated as well as the deductions we may have drawn from them, the work of my collaborators may not be justly appreciated when considered in the light of more recent discoveries, — I mean those that have been made since our excavations were completed. I have in mind especially the important discoveries made in Crete, Melos, and the more recent excavations of Thera. In any case, the complete and final publication of the work on those sites was not available for our purposes ; while in the case of Crete, notably of Cnossos, the exca¬ vations themselves have not been brought to a termination, and the material furnished does not present itself in a form admitting of final conclusions and general deductions. Still, it may not seem right that, covering as we do similar fields of inquiry to that of recent work on other Aegean sites, we should not have considered at least the suggestions which they offer in the elaboration of our own material ; and it may not be unfair to criticise us for not having redistributed all the type set years ago and rewritten all that had been written. But I venture to think that the scientific value of the archaeological material which we here offer in our publication, and even of the conclusions which we have drawn from the study of them, is increased by the fact that in our study we have confined ourselves to what was actually before us in our own material, and to the defi¬ nitely published results of the work that had preceded us. Whether our results as here published are confirmed, rejected, or modified by those of future excavators and inquirers, our exposition can but gain in its claim to trustworthiness from not having been biased by premature side-glances at the foreshadowed results of contemporary exca¬ vation ; while those who must elaborate the discoveries made since our own will be able to make the better use of ours in their independent presentation, even if this use should be to controvert our conclusions.
considered the work done since our excavations were completed on wider questions of historic and prehistoric archaeology, in which our own material must find a place as evidence. These include especially the wide and complicated problems of the earliest ethnology of the ancient world, together with the greatly expanded study of Hellenic and primitive mythology. The whole question of the Mycenaean age and the periods that preceded and followed it has entered a new phase, owing to the remarkable work done by such writers as Professor Ridgeway and Dr. J. G. Frazer, and to the cognate discoveries and inquiries of explorers and scholars like Professor Flinders Petrie. I have been directly criticised for not having, in my General Introduction in the first volume, clearly taken sides on the main issues raised by such important inquiries. Dr. Rouse, in his review of our first volume,1 says: “Dr. Waldstein has not thought well to examine the bearing of this book (Professor Ridgeway’s Early Age of Greece) on his Introduction, part of which might have been modified by it. He does indeed mention Professor Ridgeway in a footnote, not without approval ; but there was time to have formed a more definite opinion than he gives on the new theories, whether to accept them or to reject.” Now, all that I have urged above regarding the undesirability of entering into wider inquiry beyond the range of our own material in this publication applies still more emphatically to the questions raised by Professor Ridgeway’s bold and far-reaching work. I wish in no way to discourage this stirring expansion of the study of classical antiquity into wider spheres, where it establishes its immediate relationship to general ethnology, — nay, to anthropology. The day may come when all our views of the early history of man, including the peoples of Ancient Greece and Rome, will present a picture containing a full and organic composition instead of the smaller groups and single portraits which we now have before us ; and when the whole image of the past in the eyes of our poster¬ ity may gain in truth and even in clearness. But to my mind this day has not yet come ; because the material for such wider generalization, which we may reasonably hope for in the future, is not yet to hand. Excavations, not only in Egypt, in Assyria, in the whole of Asia Minor, in the northern portions of Ancient Greece, in the islands of the Aegean, in Sicily and in Italy, but also in many other centres of Europe and other parts of the world, will have to yield their treasures of the past, before a great genius, happily arising, is prepared to fuse the disjointed ingots of evidence together, at the slow and steady fire of sober yet imaginative induction, into the great and malleable bar of precious metal out of which the monumental forms of truth are forged and cast. In the mean while, how¬ ever, truth is advanced by a select few who form legitimate scientific hypotheses in presenting theories by means of which, for the time being, we can in some way grapple with the vast mass of material before us. But in presenting the results of our excava¬ tions of one site, and in drawing our conclusions from the material before us, we are emphatically not called upon to take sides on problems of much wider issue, the solution of which may ultimately be furnished by our facts and our exposition.2
Still, since the first volume was published, the final and official publication of Troja and Ilion has been issued by Dr. Dorpfeld and his collaborators. Furthermore, the work done and the wonderful results attained by Dr. A. J. Evans and his colleagues in Cnossos of Crete, as well as that of Professor Halbherr and his colleagues at Phaestos, though the excavations are not completed, have led to preliminary publications in which final conclusions have in some instances been drawn which hear directly upon essential points of our discoveries at the Argive Heraeum. As the conclusions thus arrived at by the excavators of Cnossos seem to militate against my main contention with regard to the Argive Heraeum, I feel that I must in a few words touch upon this question, even at the risk of being premature.
I claimed preeminent importance for the Argive Heraeum, because, as compared with sites like Troy and other early “ classical sites ” including Crete, it was one about which there could be no doubt in regard to its intrinsic association from the earliest times with what is to us Hellenic life ; while, on the other hand, in contradistinction to Tiryns and Mycenae, which only present definite periods in the development of Hellenism, the Argive Heraeum was continuously, in all ages about which we know anything, an important centre of that life. I maintained, and I still maintain, that our excavations have yielded material giving undeniable proof that this site was occupied in what is commonly called the Neolithic period. By an oversight the first volume contained no illustrations of stone implements found in our excavations. I wish here to supplement this deficiency by inserting specimens of such Neolithic articles of use.
Stone Implements from the Argive Heraeum.
From the Neolithic age onward there is abundant evidence of a continuous occupation of that site, be it as a citadel or as a temple, down to Roman times. I wish here to emphasize more strongly than I have done in the first volume that the earliest walls and dwellings, together with the stone implements, confirm the tradition which I maintained 1
from him. Any suggestion I received from him has been some of our material before publication. We are neiduly acknowledged ; just as he has acknowledged, both in tlier of us responsible for the other’s views and concluhis article in the Hellenic Journal in 1896, as well as in sions.
PREFATORY NOTE
is given in Bacchylides (xi. 43-84), that the site of the Temple of Hera was also that of the Pre-Proetean citadel of Argos. On every side there is thus evidence of a PreMycenaean civilization at the Heraeum ; and in tradition, monuments, and minor works we have there an illustration of the systematic origin and organic growth and develop¬ ment of the Mycenaean civilization and the periods following it. No doubt there is evi¬ dence (which moreover we should a priori expect) of waves of foreign influence. But the main current of civilization leading up to the Mycenaean age, through it and beyond it, is central and continuous on the site of the Argive Heraeum. As far as our evidence goes, there is no reason for assuming that the Mycenaean civilization came to the Argolid from without, and that it was not continuously developed in that centre of ancient life.
Now, the conclusions which Dr. Evans has drawn from his Cnossian discoveries tend to make Crete the earliest focus of Mycenaean civilization from which it radiated to other parts of the world, including Greece Proper. Mr. Mackenzie, moreover, in a very ingen¬ ious and able article1 has endeavored to prove this definitely by the evidence of the vases found at Cnossos. He maintains that the evolution of the Mycenaean ceramic style out of the Kamares ware, which again is evolved from Cretan Neolithic ware, is to be found in Crete. He further maintains that from Crete it found its way into the Argolid and the other parts of the ancient world. In short, it is maintained that Crete is “ the cradle of the Mycenaean, and hence of Hellenic, civilization.”
This seems to me improbable. Moreover, if it were true, my own conclusions with regard to the position of the Argive Heraeum would he unfounded. In spite of the prematureness of any attempt to arrive at a final decision on the nature of the Cnossian excavations while they are not yet completed, and before the objects there found have been subjected to a thorough examination in their completeness, I wish, in view of the partial publication of such conclusions on the part of the excavators, to enumerate briefly my doubts, and to commend them to the consideration of the Cretan explorers.
On the one hand, I do not doubt of the ample evidence as to the early settlement of the Cnossian and other Cretan sites in the Neolithic period, and I view favorably Dr. Evans’s suggestion of a chronology reaching back much farther than we have hitherto been wont to conceive, namely, well into the third and even the fourth millennia b. c. As Dr. Dbrpfeld has admitted, the earliest layers of Hissarlik distinctly point to such remote ages ; and I have always expressed my belief that we should have to go much farther back when looking for the beginnings of early Greek civilization.
But, on the other hand, we are informed that the objects on the Cnossian site end witli the Mycenaean period, that there are no objects belonging to a later date found there, and that therefore the life they reflect antedates that of the sites in Greece Proper, and that the Mycenaean civilization found in the latter is derived from Crete.
It is now some years ago 2 since I expressed the view that it is a mistake to believe that the Mycenaean and Geometric forms of art production ceased in all parts of Greece at the same time, and were superseded in the same period by the archaic forms of 1 J. II. S. XXIII. 1903, pp. Iu7 £f. 2 At a public meeting of the American School of Athens in 1892.
distinctly “ Hellenic ” character. It then appeared to me that, especially in ceramic art, the familiar polychrome, black-figured and red-figured vases never became the indigenous manufacture of certain portions of the ancient world ; but that the Mycenaean and the Geometric forms of ornamentation as well as the so-called u Proto-Corinthian ” (our later Argive-Linear) maintained themselves long into the historic period. Of this survival, this persistency of earlier styles, Crete seems to me a most probable instance. Though the Cnossian city reach far back into the remotest antiquity, and nothing later than Mycenaean ware has as yet been found there, we must at least await the completion of those excava¬ tions and those of other Cretan sites before we exclude the possibility, nay, the probability, that the latest of the “ Mycenaean ” remains at Cnossos reach far down to the gates of the historic Greek periods when elsewhere in the Hellenic world other Hellenic forms had been developed. The grounds for my doubt in the face of the mass of evidence which is even now adduced by the Cnossian excavators are based upon the intrinsic char¬ acter of this evidence itself.
To begin with the more general point of view (though I cannot enter upon a minute critical estimate of the ethnological “ evidence ”), the confused tangle of ancient tradition concerning the early inhabitants of ancient Crete, — the Eteocretans, Pelasgians, Achaeans, Dorians, the Carians, Leleges, and their relation to the Lycians, — does not point to a unity of organization and civilization which could have produced the Mycenaean style foreshadowing the typically Hellenic art.
Moreover, I cannot feel that the literary traditions concerning the Minoan Cycle in any way warrant us in assigning a central position to it in the formation of Hellenic tradi¬ tion. In its relation to the established and predominant body of earliest tradition it par¬ takes of what I should like to call an u episodical ” character. We can conceive of the organism of Hellenic myth and heroblogy retaining its organic character if this cycle were expunged. An intimate connection with Greece Proper, so as to suggest an essen¬ tial influence in the form of civilization, is not manifest, certainly not as regards the Argolid. The only real point of union in this sphere is with Attica in the Thesean story ; and here it is of a passing nature, indicating a war which implied no conquest or lasting occupation of the country. On the contrary, the balance of evidence in the tradition of Daidalos points, as regards art and style, rather to an influence from the mainland (in this case Attica) upon Crete, than from Crete on Greece Proper. This is quite different from the wave of influence which we can clearly trace in sculpture in the Daedalids, the so-called Ionian period, when we are at the very gates of the Historic period.1 In fact, I cannot help feeling that the Minoan and Thesean tradition is comparatively late, as the complex elaboration of the tradition concerning the life and deeds of Theseus and his worship bears traces of contamination and points to a late date compared with the body of Greek myths and heroology.
paramount, when accordingly the life in Crete, especially at Cnossos, must have been most thriving and have manifested itself in active art-production. This is the period which in the history of sculpture we call the Ionian period : when the craft of making temple-statues, the profession of the dyaX^aTonoLo^ was really established and introduced from these centres into Greece Proper. According to the literary traditions the chief centres whence this art sprung were Crete, Chios, and Samos. The activity of these schools of sculptors, immediately derived from Daidalos (in my opinion the historical Daidalos), and the most effective transmitters of this skill, were the Cretan Daidalidae, Dipoinos and Skyllis. These we can trace in their journeys through the Greek continent engrafting their craft at Sicyon, through the Peloponnesus, and as far north as the Aetolian Ambracia. Is it not startling to find that of this period, corresponding to the orientalizing wave in ceramic art in Greece, concerning which we have undoubted evi¬ dence as to the predominant position of Crete, not a single trace should have been found, especially in such centres as Cnossos ? Is this conceivable ? Are we not justified in ask¬ ing for some reasonable explanation of such a singular phenomenon ? And may I not suggest that, however early some of the Cnossian remains and the earliest building may be, some parts of the palace, especially its plastic decoration in stucco as well as some of the wall-painting, belong to this later historical period? We need not expect to find “ archaic Greek” objects there, unless they were imported ; hut the native orientalizing style, which presents a continuous survival of the Cretan-Mycenaean art down to these later historical times, we can expect.1
But let us turn to the more specifically archaeological evidence.
(1) The architecture of Cnossos in its “ Minoan ” periods appears to me to be of a distinctly later date than the Cyclopean structures of Tiryns and of those parts of the Heraeum of the “ Tirynthian ” period — a fortiori the earlier walls of more primitive settlements. If the Cnossian walls correspond most closely to the sixth layer of HissarlikTroy, it stands to reason that the earliest Heraeum walls, which correspond to the first, second, and third layers of Hissarlik, are distinctly earlier. The walls of the Heraeum present a continuous development from these primitive beginnings through all ages to the later Roman period, and thus admit of no break or hiatus.2
1 Since I wrote the above, my attention has been drawn to a passage which I overlooked in Mr. Evans’s Report on the Excavations of the Palace of Knossos in the Annual of the British School at Athens, vii. (1900-1901), p. 118 ff. In it is an account of the find of “ bone ‘ fish ’ ” upon which were incised signs. “ Out of twenty-one varieties, ten are practically identical, both in shape and position, with later Greek alphabetic forms, while four more are the same, though in a different position. Thus we have A, A, H, A/,1, n, P, Y, + and a form approaching the digamma, etc. . . . Yet the Mycenaean date of these bone pieces is as well ascertained as anything' found within the walls of the Palace.” I must ask : What is the “Mvcenaean date ” here referred to as an established
fact ? The date of the “ later Greek alphabet ” we do know. Do not these later Greek objects speak rather in favor of my view, that the Mycenaean style survived in the Palace of Cnossos down to historical Greek times ?
2 Quite recently Professor Noack ( Homerische Palaste, 1903) has pointed out that there is a “ contrast ” (ein Gegensatz) between the elevation and ground-plan of the “ Greek ” (Troy, Tiryns, Mycenae, and Arne) and the Cretan palaces. It seems strange to me that he should nevertheless consider the Greek palaces to have been in¬ fluenced by the Cretan form, especially when he (pp. 27 ff.) refers the principle of the breitstirnige Front which distinguishes Cretan from “ Greek ” palaces to the East, Syria and Egypt, for its origin. This “ oriental ” ele-
(2) Though the Terra-Cotta figurines from Cnossos have not yet been published sys¬ tematically, occasional publications have given enough to show that they do not present that full and organic development which Mr. Chase and I have endeavored to demon¬ strate in this publication. None of the specimens from Crete which I have since seen represent the earliest beginnings as illustrated by our first and second class ; nor do they show the continuity of development of our Tirynthian-Argive class out of its primitive beginnings. The causes for regret at the delay in our publication are exemplified by the fact that in the excellent publication of ancient Terra-Cottas just issued by Dr. Winter1 he should have had to rely for the choice of his terra-cottas from the Heraeum upon my preliminary publication of our first year’s work published in 1892, and that he has thus been unable to use for his general exposition the richest find of such objects, represent¬ ing the most varied classes and presenting instances of such continuous development. In view of what I had put in the first volume 2 on the nature of the typically Mycenaean terra-cottas and their “ ceramic ” style, he could hardly have given to them a position earlier than our Tirynthian-Argive, still less than our primitive class.3
(3) As regards the pottery from Cnossos, we are already in possession of much fuller publication ; and quite recently Mr. Duncan Mackenzie 4 in a very thoughtful and able article has made an attempt to give a systematic account of the evolution of Cretan pottery. The discovery of Mr. J. L. Myres established the fact that the pottery to which he gave the name Kamares ware is peculiar to, and characteristic of, Crete. Mr. Mac¬ kenzie has in a conclusive manner shown how the earliest form of this Kamares ware is immediately developed out of the primitive Neolithic pottery with incised patterns. Upon this follows a class of “ early Minoan ” ware which, according to him, is the precursor of the Mycenaean ware, out of which, in fact, he maintains the Mycenaean style grew. But this Minoan class presents two different, if not antagonistic, groups : the one monochrome, the other polychrome in its decoration. On his own showing (p. 171) the polychrome was the more favorite style of the two. Now he maintains that these two groups contend with one another, as it were, mingle their influence, the monochrome ultimately winning the day, and that the final result is the establishment of the Mycenaean style.
It is on this most important point with regard to the evolution of the Mycenaean style that Mr. Mackenzie’s arguments have failed to convince me. For the whole nature of this polychrome style in the Kamares as well as in the Cretan-Mycenaean ware is to my
ment (contrasted with the “Greek” element) in the Mycenaean style of Crete would correspond exactly to what I maintain below characterizes the Cretan pottery of the Mycenaean age.
2 Vol. I. p. 45.
3 When Dr. Winter, l. c. (p. xxx.), says of these earliest classes : Die Entstehungszeit auch der primitiv gebildeten Stiicke diirfte kaum sehr iveit fiber das achte Jalirhundert zuriickreichen, it is enough to point to the tray, examined
by Mr. Chase, containing the objects from a tholos tomb at Mycenae in which a Heraeum terra-cotta of our second (Argive-Tirynthian) class was found, to prove that even our second class can at least not be later than the Myce¬ naean period. Cf. p. 102.
4 J. Hellen. Stud. XXIII. (1903) pp. 157 ff. Other articles dealing with Cnossian pottery have appeared by Mr. D. G. Hogarth, British School Annual, VI. 18991900, p. 74 ; by Dr. A. J. Evans, B. S. A. VII. 19001901; by the same writer, B. S. A. VIII. 1901-1902, pp. 88 ff.
mind a most characteristic differentiation of Cretan pottery ; one, moreover, which also differentiates it from the essential characteristics of the Mycenaean style as presented to us in the representative vases from the mainland of Greece and other sites. The very first specimens of Mycenaean vases found in Crete which were shown to me some time ago gave me the impression that they had local characteristics mixed up with the Mycenaean style which distinguished them from the general run of Mycenaean ware, and which I con¬ sider foreign to the main feature of Mycenaean ware, in some sense antagonistic to it. For want of a better word I should describe this differential characteristic as “ orientalizing.” I mean by that term those features of decoration which are found in a much later age, namely, the “ orientalizing ” period as illustrated in the Corinthian vases preceding the development of the archaic black-figured vases which are more purely Greek in style. The distinctive decorative features of this “ orientalizing ” style are a tendency towards the polychrome or piebald in color and towards a redundancy of ornaments in design. Plate XII. vol. XXII. of the Journal of Hellenic Studies will illustrate my meaning. The bronze age vase (No. 1 in the middle) from Zakro is in shape and general ornamen¬ tation distinctly Mycenaean. But the manner in which the partly naturalistic and other ornaments have been scattered about the whole body and neck of the vase (with a redun¬ dancy which has led German archaeologists to talk of such as “ Fullornamente ”) is foreign to the essential characteristics of the pure Mycenaean vase and style. Yet we must not he astonished to find this characteristic in a Mycenaean vase from Crete when it is manifestly already the leading characteristic of the “ early Minoan ” style, the precursor of the Mycenaean period, in that island. The primitive Cretan painted vases published by Messrs. Hogarth and Welsh in 1901 1 with the polychrome and characteristic Kamares vases given on Plates VI. and VII. will illustrate this more fully; while the polychrome cups Nos. 1 and 2 on Plate VI. of Mr. Mackenzie’s article will most strikingly illustrate the principle of the “ Fullornamente'' at the early stage of Cretan ware preceding the Mycenaean period. Thus, through a careful and sober study of the style in the Cretan remains themselves, without the intrusion of any further theory, I cannot feel on the one hand that this polychrome style could ever lead to the Mycenaean style, and, on the other hand, that the distinctive characteristics which it embodies could ever be entirely expunged from the ware manufactured in Crete at any period of its production. It is to be found in the Mycenaean ware of distinctly Cretan origin, and, in some form or other, the devel¬ oped Kamares ware manifests a similar character. It is a significant and interesting fact that the place where these characteristics of Cretan style manifest themselves in a strong survival most clearly in a far later period is Naucratis, where we find the main features of the Kamares ware in the ornamentation of the interior of the characteristic Naucratite pottery.
With the evidence furnished up to this moment before us, it seems to me more probable that the active influence which won the day in Crete for the monochrome decoration contending with the polychrome style was the introduction of pure Mycenaean patterns
which probably came into Crete from elsewhere, and which were never assimilated in their complete purity of character. This course in the history of ceramic decoration seems to me more probable than that the elements of the Mycenaean style were engrafted from Crete upon the ware of those centres, notably the Argolid, where the Mycenaean style has hitherto been supposed to have had its native home. As far as the Heraeum is concerned, there appears to me to be no room for Mr. Mackenzie’s hypothesis. For we have there, as I have endeavored to trace it,1 a continuous and organic development from the incised and early painted ornamentation of the Neolithic ware, through the dull-colored linear ornament with free-hand drawing of the early Mycenaean ware, to the fully developed forms of that style; and it appears to me that, out of the principle of free-hand drawing with spirals and curved lines and waved patterns in the dull-colored vases, the natural¬ istic ornament of the period of advanced ceramic art in the Mycenaean age naturally follows. There is no room in the chain of development for the intrusion of the peculiar early Minoan vase.
One important point Mr. Mackenzie has succeeded in making highly probable, namely, that the use of glaze-color in vase decoration, which is to be found at the very earliest period in Crete, may have originated there, and may have spread thence to other parts of the Mycenaean area. This is most probable in view of the large numbers of such specimens found in Crete ; though all sites of the ancient world have not yet been exca¬ vated. But the introduction of such a technical innovation is readily made from one part of the world into another ; not so the introduction of a characteristic style. The isolated specimens of distinctively Cretan Mycenaean ware which have been found in other parts of the Mycenaean world do not justify the conclusion of such a predominant influence on the part of the Cretan style, when we consider the paucity of these isolated specimens in their proportion to the pure Mycenaean ware found in the Argolid and elsewhere. We must wait for a careful differentiation between the peculiar Mycenaean ware found in Crete and the ware which is purely Mycenaean and corresponds to the predominant class of Mycenaean vases found in the Argolid, and, comparing their relative numbers, we must then ask whether there is not actual evidence which makes it probable that a great quantity of Mycenaean ware may have been imported into Crete from the Argolid. I may finally add that the evidence from Troy confirms me in this supposition ; for we there find a pronounced and distinctive form of primitive ware with its characteristic material, shape, and ornaments ; while the advent of the Mycenaean style in the sixth layer is foreshadowed in the adoption of spiral ornaments in the previous layer, which, though incised in the predominant system of Trojan vases, manifests a decorative feeling intro¬ duced and adopted from elsewhere. Dr. Dorpfeld says of these ornaments : 2 “ Ebenso neu, aber nicht eigentlich troisch, sind die eingetieften Spiralen, welche in der Zeit der dritten Periode aufkommen.” These designs correspond to the usual ornaments as we find them on the earliest dull-colored vases in the beginning of the Mycenaean period.
said before, be premature, and I am quite ready to retract the statements here made when fuller evidence warrants such a change. But as it was not proper to ignore the brilliant results and the excellent work of the Cretan excavators while presenting this volume to the public, it was not possible to consider them without giving such a critical estimate of the bearings of their work upon ours.
In the preface to the first volume I announced that “ the principle which I followed in this publication was to allow each member intrusted with a department as much inde¬ pendence as possible ; ” and that “ I have not stood in the way of expression of wellfounded individual opinion for which each collaborator deserves the credit and retains the responsibility.” This clearly applies to Dr. Hoppin’s conscientious publication of the Vases. It will be seen from his own statement that there is a point on which we differ, namely, the question of the Argive-Linear Avare. But upon examination it will be found that the difference is but slight and not of essential importance. Dr. Hoppin accepts what is, after all, the most important point, which I raised some years ago, and which to my knoAvledge had not been put before, namely, that the linear ornament (we might call it the geometric system of ornamentation — not to be confused with the later geometric period of Greek ceramics) preceded the naturalistic ornamentation of the Mycenaean vases. As far as I can ascertain, the more recent excavations in Crete and Melos and other ancient sites have strongly supported the view I urged in 1892. I have not yet come across any specimen of early dull-colored Mycenaean vases, nor of Neolithic vases from classical sites, which can be held to contain ornamentation that is not purely linear in character. Moreover, Dr. Hoppin admits that in the more advanced and wheel-turned vases of the Mycenaean period an important part of the ornamentation ahvays remains linear ; Avhile in many of the small vases which he attributes to the Mycenaean period this linear system alone appears. Furthermore, in some small vases which he attributes to the Geometric period, the same principle applies ; Avhile, of course, in the succeeding period his own Argive-Linear, there is nothing but linear ornamentation. He can thus not deny my contention that in the early vases from the Heraeum the linear principle of ornamenta¬ tion Avas never absent, from its beginnings in the incised Neolithic Avare to the end of the Prehistoric period. Our difference of vieAV thus narrows itself down to what is almost a difference of Avords. In vieAv of the continuous presence of a certain system of ornament, its predominance at the earliest period, as Avell as at the latest, I have maintained that there Avas thus in the vase decoration a continuous Argive-Linear system at the Heraeum, the pedigree of which goes back to the Neolithic period, and the flourishing day of which is to be found in the later Argive-Linear period, formerly called Proto-Corinthian. Dr. Hoppin believes that my later Argive-Linear ware marks the degeneration of the Mycenaean system, and he proposes to restrict the term Argive-Linear to that later development. I am quite Avilling and quite ready to grant the main point of Dr. Hoppin’s observation, namely, that the linear principle could not have asserted itself so strongly in the later period if the naturalistic element, predominant in the Mycenaean period, had not lost its vitality. But in vieAv of the fact that in none of the previous periods had the linear
principle of decoration been eliminated, it cannot be correct to imply that there is any new departure in its more exclusive assertion when the Mycenaean style lost its vitality. Nor can it be correct to maintain that in this later period it originated out of the decline of the Mycenaean system immediately preceding it, when it was the predominant principle in the period preceding the Mycenaean, out of which this grew.
The conscientious work that Mr. DeCou has bestowed upon the publication of the Bronzes will be manifest to all readers. But they cannot realize the infinite care and persevering labor which, before he wrote, he bestowed for several years upon the cleaning and sorting of the confused mass of shapeless material with which he had to deal. He has chosen to avoid drawing any wider conclusions from his facts, — a course which is thoroughly justifiable and has much in its favor. But we should have also been grate¬ ful to him if he had given us the fruits of his experience in further historic and archaeo¬ logical appreciation of his material, seeing that there is hardly any archaeologist alive who has had more experience in dealing with ancient bronzes than he.
Professor R. Norton’s work is of high interest. If he is right in his classification, there are two distinct classes of engraved stones preceding the distinctly Mycenaean stones. This would furnish very strong evidence of artistic activity on our site before the developed Mycenaean period. Moreover, the numerical preponderance of the u new type Argive ” stones over the Mycenaean stones is significant. I would suggest as an explanation of the comparative paucity of Mycenaean stones on this site, that this class of gem was not commonly used as a votive offering. They are thus generally found in graves, and were used in life as ornaments or amulets. At the same time, the presence of comparatively large numbers of stones on the Heraeum site antedating the Mycenaean period might be a confirmation of our view that in these earlier times the site was a citadel and not merely a sanctuary, as it became in the later period.
1 Since this has been in type, and nearly two years after Volume I. of this publication appeared, a review is published in the Berliner Philologische Wochenschrift (June 25, 1904, pp. 811 If.) by Professor Furtwangler which is a caricature of all that a fair review ought to be. This I answered in No. 39, September 24, of the same journal. To all who are acquainted with the nature of the controversies carried on at present between us his action will be intelligible. In this long review he passes over the most important question of the Polycleitan char¬ acter of the Heraeum sculptures — the main subject of controversy between us — with a few lines. Readers of Volume I. (pp. 184 ff., and elsewhere) will remember how fully I dealt with the question of the Polycleitan character of the sculptures, and how I controverted in detail Professor Furtwangler ’s dogmatic statement that “ all these sculptures have not the least relation to Polycleitus
and his school. . . . The head of Hera and most of the sculptures from the Heraeum known to me are certainly Attic.” While denying all my views in his review, he inserts the phrase that two of the metope heads “ may he admitted to have something of Polycleitan style.” What does this retreat from his former position mean ? That two heads of this chief Argive temple, in which Polyclei¬ tus, the leader of the Argive school of sculpture, made his famous statue, are admitted by him to be Polycleitan in character. If any of the metopes show Polycleitan style, the leading art of the place was present in the sculptured decorations. As a matter of fact, with minor differences among each other (such as the Parthenon marbles and all other temple-sculptures show), all these Argive sculptures from this temple are of the same style.
PLATES
*** The descriptions of the Plates begin at the pages indicated, but the Plates themselves are grouped and placed as follows : Plates XL1I.-XL VIII., after page 44 ; Plate XLIX., after page 54 ; Plates L.-LXIX after page 188 ; Plates LX X.-CX X X V II. , after page 340 ; Plates CXXXVIII.-CXL., after page 354 ; Plates GXLI., CXLII., after page 304 ; and Plates CXLIII. and CXLIV., after page 374.
By CHARLES WALDSTEIN and GEORGE HENRY CHASE
The great bulk of the Terra-cotta Figurines found at the Heraeum belong to what must be called pre-archaic Greek types. When we consider the find as a whole, we dis¬ cover the following significant facts : —
I. The number of terra-cottas dating from the clearly historical periods of Greek civilization, i. e. the eighth century b. c. and later times, is very small. Out of 2865 figures preserved by us, not counting the ordinary figures of animals and small objects, which cannot be accurately classified, there are 2557 of pre-archaic style to 308 of archaic and later types.1
II. Among the terra-cottas of the archaic and later periods, a strikingly small pro¬ portion belong to the periods of advanced archaism and technical freedom ; in fact, there are only fifty-two specimens of the former and two specimens of the latter.
Thus it will be seen that the closest parallelism exists between the main conditions of the find in terra-cottas and those of the vases, bronzes, and other objects ; namely, the absolute preponderance of “ prehistoric ” material, the absence of works of the later Greek periods, and the fact that in the layers which we excavated, hardly any object is syn¬ chronous with the erection of the Second Temple or of a later period.2
The bulk of the find in terra-cottas was made in the black layer about and below the foundation walls of the Second Temple, as well as in the deposits on the southeast and southwest slopes of the Second Temple terrace.3 But this general statement must be qualified by the following significant facts : —
found beneath the surface of the upper or Old Temple platform.
2. Nearly all the specimens of the archaic and subsequent periods were found on the southern slope and the southeast corner and slope of the Second Temple (not in the black layer about the foundations of the Second Temple).
3. No prehistoric Greek specimens were found within the large West Stoa (one speci¬ men of a draped female figure, belonging to the archaic period, was found here), and none at all on the site of the Roman Building.
The fact that no terra-cottas were found on the site of the Old Temple, as it pre¬ sented itself to us for excavation, may lead us to any one of three conclusions : (1) that our terra-cottas belong to a later period than that marked by the site ; or (2) that the custom of offering such figurines did not exist at the time when the temple was built —
2 Cf. General Introd. vol. I. pp. 37 ff.
3 The custom of burying the smaller objects dedicated in temples, often apparently with great care (cf. the find of terra-cottas made by Orsi at Terravecchia near Granmichele in the Province of Catania, Mon. Ant. VII. pp. 201-274, esp. pp. 212 ff.), is one which has been illustrated by a large number of excavations upon Greek soil and
elsewhere (cf. Homolle, ‘ Donarium ’ in Daremberg et Saglio, Diet, des Ant. Gr. et Rom. II. pp. 363 ff., esp. p. 371, note 130). In the case of the Heraeum, these offerings seem to have been used as “ dry rubbish ” in leveling up about the Second Temple, just as the offer¬ ings upon the Acropolis which were demolished by the Persians were later used in leveling that site.
tory for such votive offerings. We are inclined to one of the latter views.1
The two other points, while they show that the main sites excavated about the Second Temple were pre-archaic Greek, and that the Argive .period of the Heraeum marks the change in the entrance from the west side to the south slope, also show that the main hulk of our terra-cottas belong to the pre-archaic period.
With such a mass of material before us, even in the selected specimens which we brought to Athens, our first care was to find some principle of classification. Two courses seemed open to us : We might classify our figures either according to their form and style, or according to their decoration. On mature consideration, the former method has appeared preferable, especially as a classification by decoration must confine itself almost entirely to plastic decoration — the paint having disappeared entirely from many of our figures. Moreover, no systematic chronological development could be established on the decora¬ tive principle only. At the same time, the principle of classification by decoration has seemed to us a sound one, and we have employed it as a secondary principle for dis¬ tinguishing a few classes,2 and for drawing distinctions within one class.3
Class I. — Such, then, being our principle, our first class, which we have called “ Prim¬ itive Argive,” consists of a great number of very rudely modeled figures, to which, in fact, the term “ modeled ” can hardly be applied. They are really nothing but a small lump of clay, elongated, then pinched in the middle to indicate a waist, the resulting projection above forming two stumpy arms, while another pinch at the top indicates the head. This head soon develops into the well-known bird-like head, in which the beak-like nose is formed by a compression of the clay between the two fingers of the “modeler.”4 These are the characteristics of the earliest specimens.5 * Later, two disks are plastered to the sides of the “ beak ” to represent the eyes,5 a lump of clay is added to form a kind of pilos or cap,7 or a strip of clay wound about the head forms a stephane,8 while in many figures one or more short strips of clay are added to the back of the head to represent the hair 9 (exceptionally the hair is indicated in a few early specimens by grooves at the back of the head). So one sometimes finds — though this is quite exceptional — a fig¬ ure in which the artist has tried to imitate nature more closely, in which two lumps of clay are added to the front of the figure to represent the breasts ; 10 the fall of the dra¬ pery in front is rudely reproduced by one or more grooves,11 or a cutting across the “ beak ” forms a rude mouth.12 But even in the most advanced figures of this class, the development is exceedingly slight, and the body always remains essentially a rude lump of clay.13
12 Cf. Nos. 9 and 10.
18 We might have subdivided this first “Primitive” class into three minor classes, according to the differences enumerated above. But we find it desirable at this stage not to confuse by too minute classification, leaving it to future inquiry to accentuate these, or even to estab¬ lish further distinctions.
PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION
bent at the middle and supported by two stumpy legs,1 a process which prevails down to the latest period of this class. Even in the most advanced specimens, the employment of a separately made chair as a support is rare. But although this change is of little impor¬ tance technically, it is of great importance historically. It marks the change in the con¬ ception of the goddess which is represented in the traditions of Argos by the story of Pirasus and his seated figure of Hera dedicated at Tiryns.2 Now it is a striking fact that, aside from the Heraeum and Tegea (of which we shall speak later), Tiryns is the place where these seated figures have been found in greatest numbers. We have there¬ fore ventured to call the figures of this class “ Tirynthian Argive,” and we believe that they represent roughly the period of the supremacy of Tiryns in the Argive plain.3
In these “ Tirynthian Argive ” figures, we have a long and complicated development of the drapery ; while the figures themselves, although constantly increasing in size, remain, with very few exceptions, a mere oblong piece of clay, bent forward into the seated posture, and the heads still have the “ bird face.” This development of the drapery even affects the standing type, and we find in our later standing figures a tend¬ ency to elaboration which corresponds closely to the development in the seated types. The various steps in this development are exceedingly interesting, and we shall revert to them later. Suffice it here to say that, for practical purposes, we have divided our “ Tirynthian Argive ” class into three subordinate groups, basing our distinctions upon the greater or less elaborateness of the ornamentation.4
The next step in the development of this type, of terra-cotta figurines is the change from the “ bird face ” to the human face, with all the features carefully distinguished. But before we take up this class of “Advanced Argive” figures, we must speak of two intermediate classes, which we have set apart by reason of their decoration as well as their form and style. We mean the Mycenaean and Geometric classes.
Class III. — The “ Mycenaean ” terra-cottas differ from those of the Primitive and Tirynthian Argive classes in that they show a quite different technique, both in regard to the fineness of the clay and in regard to ornamentation. A careful comparison of the Mycenaean figures with the preceding classes, moreover, brings out the following facts :
(2) Prima facie, the schematic outline of these figures, ending below like the foot of a vase, and above with the polos, like the neck of a vase,G the whole crossed by round or pelta-shaped body and arms,7 is much less naturalistic than the figures of the primi¬ tive and Tirynthian Argive classes. On the other hand, the detail workings of the body, such as the indication of the breasts,8 show far greater knowledge and skill in modeling than we find in Classes I. and II. Both these facts would seem to indicate that we are dealing with a later class of figures. Moreover, the color decoration shows the same use of glaze color, applied in a similar manner, that we find in Mycenaean vases. We thus consider this class of terra-cottas an intrusion into the general and con¬ tinuous scheme of Argive terra-cottas, which began and ceased during the period of our first and second classes, but which, strangely enough, was but very little influenced by the Primitive and Tirynthian Argive styles, and exercised little influence on them.'1
1 As it happens, the most primitive specimen of the seated type which we found (No. 12) is provided witli a separate four-legged chair, but this is exceptional.
The peculiarities of this Mycenaean style, we believe, are due to the fact that it was essentially a development from vase painting, perhaps even the work of the Mycenaean /cepap-eu?, not of the coroplast proper.1 We believe this for these three reasons: —
The use of glaze color is certainly borrowed from vase painting.
In this matter of the use of glaze color, we have come to a question which requires much greater amplification, and which will lead us much further afield. In the figures of Classes I. and II. (as also, to a less extent, in the later classes), the whole figure was usually covered with a white, chalky slip, and upon this was applied a simple line deco¬ ration in red and black.2 * This white slip, owing to its flaky character, has in many cases been entirely lost,'5 and is often preserved only in cracks and holes.4 The isolated instances in which figures of Classes I. and II. have a glaze color applied directly to the clay seem to us to point to an introduction of this specifically Mycenaean technique to contemporary specimens of those classes. Indeed, we have a number of specimens in which the white coat is used for the upper part of the body, while the lower part is given a solid color, applied directly to the clay,6 and this is common in the later, “ Ad¬ vanced Argive ” specimens.7 The use of the white slip, however, appears to have been the specifically coroplastic method, which obtained throughout all periods down to the latest times s — a fact which strongly confirms our contention that these terra-cottas (in which the color is applied directly) were made under the influence of the /cepa/xeus-9
Class IV. — The single female figure (No. 75), which we have assigned to a distinct “ Geometric ” class, seems to us to warrant this distinction by reason of its peculiar decora¬ tion, which, with its bands of geometric ornaments, divided by straight lines, is very similar in plan to the decoration of the large Geometric vases which form this class. Its position in the series is determined by the fact that the face was evidently of the primitive “ birdfaced ” type. With this figure we have grouped another distinctly Geometric specimen (No. 76), a horse of the type so common upon the covers of Geometric vases.10 The two specimens do not represent the entire influence of the Geometric style upon our terra¬ cottas. Traces of that influence are to be seen in a number of other figures, especially among the animals and small objects,11 but the two which we have placed together are the only ones which are so distinctly Geometric in character as to warrant a place by themselves. In fact, though at Olympia a large number of Geometric animals (especially horses) have been found, it is a noteworthy fact that we can hardly identify any plastic representations of the human figure with this period. It appears to us that this
2 Cf. Nos. 1, 2, 3, 5, 9, etc.
4 It is this perishability of the white slip, doubtless, that led Schliemann to speak so often of “ unpainted ” terra-cottas from Tiryns (cf. Tiryns, pp. 150 ff.). In the light of our discoveries, there can be no doubt that nearly all, if not all, the figures from Tiryns were originally painted.
9 This matter of the interaction of vase painting and coroplastic art has never been carefully worked out. The early Tanagra “ irairaSes,” for instance, show distinct traces of the Geometric influence. The white Athenian lekythi, on the other hand, seem to be a result of the ap¬ plication of coroplastic technique to vase painting.
Class V. — A very marked advance in the development of the terra-cotta figurines found at the Heraeum from the earliest primitive type onward is made when once the “ bird face,” which obtains in all the classes hitherto mentioned, is superseded by the human head.1 This type we have called “Advanced Argive.” The figures of this class are plainly a development from our second, Tirynthian Argive, class. Even in the most advanced specimens, with very few exceptions,2 the bodies of these figures are essentially the same flat oblong which we found in the figures of the Tirynthian Argive class. The heads, on the other hand, are of archaic type, with wide, staring eyes, large ears placed high, the mouth often having the well-known archaic smile.3 Most important of all, these heads, almost without exception, were made in moulds. Here, then, we see the beginnings of that use of moulds which later became the prevailing mode, and revolu¬ tionized the manufacture of terra-cottas. Another characteristic of this class of figures is the tendency to elaborate ornamentation, of which we shall have more to say later.4
In the colored decoration of the figures of this class, also, we find again the two pro¬ cesses which we have before noted. Thus, while the use of the white slip as a basis for decoration in color is always retained for the upper parts of the figure, and in many cases is used for the entire figure as well,5 in the large specimens the color is often applied directly to the chiton, usually a red stripe at the top, and dark brown for the rest of the garment.6
It is also a noteworthy fact that in these figures the seated type prevails almost exclu¬ sively. Indeed, the only standing figure which we have ventured to place among the advanced Argive specimens differs from them so widely that we have even doubted whether it ought not to be placed in a category by itself. This is No. 107, a figure which again illustrates the influence of ceramic upon eoroplastic art. This figure has traces of a human head. In the upper part of the figure there is a certain degree of naturalness, but the lower part of the body is emphatically conventionalized, without any attempt at naturalism. The roundness is so complete that it at once suggests mechanical work, such as the turning of the potter’s wheel. The use of the wheel is still further confirmed by the application of the brush in making the accurate parallel lines in groups of three, and the broad line at the waist around the cylindrical body. The ornamentation, as well as the structure of the figure, thus points to the influence of the Kepafievs, belonging to the period of the fully developed Argive-Linear,7 as the Myce¬ naean terra-cottas showed the influence of the Mycenaean Kepapevs. We have placed it among the advanced Argive figures on the ground that it has a human head and a conventionalized body,8 and that the decoration would mark it as belonging to about the period to which we must assign our advanced Argive figures.
Class VI. — Our next class, “ Figures under Oriental Influence,” consists of a small number of figures which are marked out as a separate category by their subjects — two lions, heraldically grouped, winged female figures like the so-called Nike of Arehermus,9
several figures of the Egyptian lies, and a number of representations of the Sphinx.1 With these we have grouped a small figure of a horseman,2 which is certainly of Egyp¬ tian manufacture. It would of course have been possible to catalogue these figures under our next class of archaic figures, as they are all archaic in style ; but it has seemed to us more desirable to collect in one category the specimens which distinctly show the influence of the East, just as in vases this influence is recognized in the so-called Corin¬ thian vases. It is the analogy of the history of vases, moreover, in which the Corinthian style follows the Argive style, that has led us to place this category immediately after the class of advanced Argive figures.3
Class VII. — With the beginning of the historical Greek period, the art of terra-cotta making becomes more dependent upon sculpture, and from this time on, its history is bet¬ ter known and more easily traceable. To the beginning of this archaic period we must assign a number of figures rudely made by hand,4 which, although they still preserve a high degree of conventionalism, manifest an endeavor on the part of the eoroplast to imi¬ tate more closely the forms of the human body. Their conventionalism, moreover, is the conventionalism with which we are familiar in the early statues of Greek art (the tjoava), beginning with the Nieandra statue from Delos.5 * We have therefore classed these figures, and those immediately following them, as “ Early Archaic,” but have subdivided them into two groups : —
period proper.
Group b. — Mould-made Figures. The archaic period proper begins with the intro¬ duction of the use of moulds for the whole figure, the second step — the modeling of the heads of the advanced Argive figures being the first — toward the developed terracotta figurine of later centuries. Here we have, at the beginning of the class, a very interesting transitional specimen,1 in which we have a mould-made torso, decked out at the shoulders with two disks,7 such as are common in the primitive and advanced Argive types.8 After this we have a long series of both seated and standing figures, in which we can trace, as in the work of the sculptor, the struggle of the artist with his material, the gradual advance in the representation of the folds of the chiton,9 the development of the arms from mere stumps to well-modeled members of the body,10 which are raised to the breast,11 and carry attributes.12 The final period of this de¬ velopment corresponds to the period of the well-known female figures on the Athenian Acropolis.13
2 Cf. No. 117.
; Here, too, might be placed Nos. 207-213, which also show traces of Oriental influence ; but it seemed better to catalogue them among the archaic heads, for in them it is the archaic, rather than the Oriental ele¬ ment, which is most characteristic.
7 Cf. p. 10.
8 It should be noted, however, that this figure is almost without a parallel in our finds. For the most part, these archaic terra-cottas were very little influenced by the Ar¬ give type, although the two classes must have existed side by side for a considerable period.
in parts.2
Class VIII. — Of terra-cottas belonging to a later age than this early archaic period we have but few specimens, and these are almost exclusively heads of figures and votive busts, in which, owing to the very gradual development of the archaic style, no sharp line of demarcation can be drawn between early and later specimens. We believe, however, that the forty-two specimens3 which we have included in an “Advanced Archaic” class will be found to mark a higher stage of development than is attained by any specimens of Class VII.
Class IX. — Finally, we come to the last group, which, as has been said above, is re¬ presented by a remarkably small number of specimens. In regard to Nos. 239 and 240, there can be no doubt that they belong to the best period of Greek terra-cotta work, and we have not hesitated to place them as “ Figures of Free Style,” in a separate class.
The figures of animals and of various small objects are in general so rudely modeled that they do not lend themselves to any classification based upon style.4 We have therefore been led to adopt the manifest principle of classification according to subject, and thus to distinguish two further classes, — “ Animals ” (under which Ave include fig¬ ures of men and women seated upon animals) and “ Various Objects.”
So much for the principles upon which Ave have based our classification, and the gen¬ eral development of the manufacture of terra-cottas at Argos, as represented by our finds. But, as Ave ha\Te already suggested, these classes are by no means of equal importance. Nothing, indeed, is more instructive than the table of the numerical strength of the classes, which is as follows : —
That is, of 2865 specimens, not counting animals and various objects, 2492, or over 85 per cent., are figures of the flat-bodied type, with either the “ bird face ” (2083 speci¬ mens) or Avith the archaic head Avhich is its successor (409 specimens). It is the pre¬ ponderance of this type which justifies us in calling these specimens distinctively Argive. They have been found, it is true, in other places, notably at Tiryns 5 6 (as Ave have recognized by our qualification of a certain class of them as Tirynthian), at Haghios Sostis (Tegea),G
4 The only exception which we have made to this rule is in the case of Mycenaean and Geometric animals, where the decoration leaves no possible doubt as to their place.
glou, Nuove Mem. clell ’ Ins. II. pp. 72-70, pi. vi. ; Martha, Cat. des Fig. du Mas. d’Athenes, Nos. 541 ff. These Tegean figures present the closest parallels to our Argive types. They occur with human as well as with “ bird faces,” and the later specimens are often very elaborately decorated. They were found in such numbers as to preclude the theory that they were imported from Argos. We must conclude, therefore, that the art of the coroplast passed through much the same development at Tegea as at Argos,
and sporadically elsewhere.1 But nowhere have they been found in such numbers or exhibiting such a clearly marked development as at Argos. They are hardly found at all at Mycenae." We feel justified, therefore, in giving them the distinctive name of “ Argive.”
But if these Argive figures form the great bulk of our find in terra-cottas, they also present the most serious and difficult problems of all our figures. How, for instance, shall we designate the great mass of plastic ornament which is so characteristic of the later “advanced” type, and also, to some extent, of the earlier specimens? In the pre¬ liminary publication of the Heraeum finds, it was suggested that the elaborate orna¬ ments upon the shoulder of the Argive figures might be bunches of flowers, having some reference to Hera Antheia.3 But further consideration has convinced us that, for the great mass of our figures, this view is untenable. In the first place, the large orna¬ ments for which this interpretation was suggested 4 are plainly developed from the small round bosses of earlier figures.5 The beginning of this development is very plain in one specimen, 11 where the wedge-shaped ornament at the shoulder is no more than an elongated boss. Now in many later specimens 7 this boss develops into a regular fibula of the “four-leaved clover” type,8 which Helbig9 proposes to identify with the Homeric eXt^.111 Moreover, in one fragment11 we have the most evident attempt to represent a bronze fibula of the usual “bow” shape;12 while with the elaborate ornaments like
or (what seems to us more probable) that the coroplasts of Tegea were strongly influenced by those of Argos, and that there was an intimate connection between these two places (cf. Ridgeway, J. II. S. XVI. [1896], p. 99, on the close connection between Tegea and Argolis); Curtins, as Ridgeway remarks, pointed out (Gr. Gesch. I. p. 156) that Nauplius is represented as the servitor of the king of Tegea. We may also point to the fact that the priestess Chrysis sought and found refuge at Tegea after leaving the Heraeum (Pans. III. 5. 6).
1 At Bathos, on a spur of Mt. Lycaon (cf. Bather and Yorke, J. II. S. XIII. [1893], p. 228;; in Cyrenaica (cf. Heuzey, Fig. Ant. pi. xl. 1); at Thisbe in Boeotia (cf. Arch. Anz. 1895, p. 220, 4) ; one or two specimens were found by the English School at Phylakopi in Melos. There are a few specimens very similar to ours (all with human faces) in the museum at Syracuse, but the Sicilian terra-cottas are for the most part of a far less primitive character than those of Argos ; cf. the figures from Agrigentum (cf. Kekule, Ant. Terrakotten, II. pp. 17, 18, figs. 21-27), from Gela (ibid. p. 22, fig. 47), and the specimens from the vicinity of Terravecchia near Granmiehele, published by Orsi (Mon. Ant. VII. pp. 239 If., figs. 31, 32). Finally, a number of vases from Cyprus in the British Museum, of Geometric style, are decorated with figures very similar to our advanced Argive type ; they are placed on the neck of the vase, and hold in one hand a small jug which served as a spout to the vase.
2 A tray in the Central Museum at Athens (numbered .3071) contains a number of figures of the type of our primitive and advanced Argive specimens, which came from a tholos tomb near Mycenae. Dr. Tsountas in¬ forms us, however, that the roof of this tomb had fallen in and the contents had been disturbed, so that no sure conclusions can be drawn from them.
Fragment of a Mycenaean vase.
Several of the figures have pins of the “ dumb-bell ” shape (cf. No. 84), while the “clover-leaf” type (cf. su¬ pra) also occurs. One of the advanced heads has a calathos and a double taenia, closely resembling Nos. 101104. We think it right to draw attention to the fact that this beehive tomb, even if it was disturbed, contained no object later than the Mycenaean period. In so far, the presence of the “ Tirynthian Argive ” terra-cottas would place them not later than the Mycenaean period.
3 Cf. Waldstein, Excavations of the American School at the Heraeum of Argos, 1892, p. 20. Cf. No. 52, where the ornament certainly suggests a mass of flowers.
tup: argive type
No. 84, we may compare fibulae found in our own excavation,1 and others published by Montelius.2 It thus appears evident that these ornaments are intended to represent simply the pins by which the Doric chiton was fastened at the shoulder, whether this be the straight pin (nepovr)), or the fibula of the clover leaf or bow form ; and we have therefore had no hesitation in so designating them in our descriptions. There is room for doubt, perhaps, in the specimens which have only the simple round boss, whether this boss is meant to represent a fibula of the type or a simple straight pin. We have used the term u pin,” therefore, to include both fibulae and 7repocat.
The bands across the breasts of our figures3 are in many cases evidently meant to represent necklaces, and we can perhaps distinguish in some cases between the lo-0/juov, or close-fitting necklace, of Homer4 and the op/ro?,5 or long necklace. Certainly the many cases in which we find bands ornamented with pendants1 *’ can be meant for nothing but necklaces. But very often our band extends only from shoulder to shoulder, and appears to have some intimate connection with the pins which we have just discussed.' Schliemann 8 called such ornaments simply “ bands,” while Perrot,9 in describing a figure very similar to No. 34, calls the ornament “a sort of scarf.” In the later development,10 when the figures are adorned with a large number of these bands, the lower one is usually so wide, and is stretched so straight from shoulder to shoulder, that there can be no doubt that it is the fold of the Doric chiton.11 Moreover, in specimens like No. 30, the band is plainly the fold of a garment arranged like the t/xart ov in later works.12 It must be said, however, that even in fairly early specimens the “ bands ” often become subordinated to a general principle of elaborate ornamentation, so that it is impossible to assign a given ornament to one class or the other, to say categorically, it is a neck¬ lace or it is a fold. In the most advanced Argive specimens 13 we find a further com¬ plication in the elaborate plastic ornaments across the breast, which seem to be made in imitation of lace or metal adornments attached to the fold itself, or possibly of longchains, such as the women of modern Greece wear on feast days. But even if they are such, they are plainly developed from the earlier necklace and simple fold, and these are the most characteristic forms of decoration of the Argive type. It is the constant recurrence of these bands which has led us to adopt, as convenient subdivisions of our Tirynthian Argive class, the following categories : 14 —
tadpLov’ ladpbs b TpaxyAos. toOpiov obv irepLTpaxvAiov Kitrpov irepiireirAeypevov, ov pevroi Koap-ppard rt va iKKpep.dp.eva. Kal HaAois’ neptTpaxyAiov, evdev ku\ irapiadpia ■ Siacpepei Se tov ttppov. t b pev yap -rrpoaex^TaL tQ rpaxv Acp, b Se oppos KexdAaarai.
14 For the advanced Argive terra-cottas no such dis¬ tinction seems necessary, as they are practically all of the elaborately ornamented type.
It will be found, in general, that increasing elaborateness of ornamentation at the shoulders of these figures corresponds to the multiplication of bands, and that both advance with the growth of perfection in technique.1
It remains to note the other decorative elements, which, although they are not of sufficient importance to form a basis for classification, yet display a very considerable development in our series of figures, — namely, the earrings, the hair, and the head¬ dress. Of the earrings not much need be said. They begin comparatively late in the series (the small size of the earlier figures naturally precludes the use of such ornaments) with much-decorated “bird-faced” figures, and develop from the simple disk to the disk with a central boss,2 the rosette,3 and even the disk with pendant.4
The development of the hair is more complex. In the earliest figures, as we have before stated,5 the hair is not represented at all, or at best it is marked by a few par¬ allel grooves at the back of the head or by two or three strips of clay attached to the back of the head and falling to the shoulders, most usually notched or twisted. Then one or two strands are brought forward over the shoulders,6 7 while a corkscrew curl is added to each side of the forehead.' The use of the simple mass to represent the hair as it falls to the shoulders 8 seems to be a later development. It is employed almost exclusively in the most advanced heads,9 where the front hair is usually represented by two notched bands,10 or by large curls which leave between them a wide parting.11 In a few cases we find over the forehead a row of small, separate curls, similar to those commonly given to archaic heads in stone.12
In the headdress we find a development very similar to that which we have noted for the hair. Very early in our series, as we have already pointed out,13 we find a simple band of clay wound about the head to represent the stephane. This is often so broad and high that it might more properly be called a polos or stephanos.14 To this is often applied a single boss,15 or a double boss,16 or even a number of bosses in a row, with perhaps a double boss in the middle.17 In one case 1S the edge of the stephane is pierced with holes, apparently to receive metal ornaments. But the stephane (stephanos, polos) is not the exclusive headdress of our figures. As the coroplast came to model larger and taller figures, he evidently began to feel the need of a more stately headdress to correspond to the elaborate adornment of the body. Thus we find that in the later figures the most common headdress is the high, bell-shaped calathos.19 This is usually bound about the bottom with a taenia, and is often decorated at the top with bosses.20 Most remarkable, of all, however, are the horn-like adornments which are the final deco-
1 It is not always possible to use the number of bands as an absolute criterion, for there are cases in which other decorative elements, such as applied layers of clay, representing the garments (ef. Nos. 56, 60, 61), or the in¬ fants which the KovpoTpicpos figures bold (cf. Nos. 37, 57, 58, etc.), take the place of the bands. But, for the most part, the distinction of the classes according to the num¬ ber of bands upon the figures will be found to have been carried out with considerable strictness.
ration of this later type.1 These consist of a strip of clay, bulging slightly at the extremities, placed about the calathos in such a way that the two ends rise above it in front. A boss is sometimes added to each end for further effect,2 and between the “ horns” a disk or rosette is quite usual.3 We are inclined to regard these “ horns” as an attempt to represent plumes of some sort, although we know of no parallel cases.4 5 * 7
Another point which naturally arises in connection with these “ Argive ” figures is the question, Whom do the figures represent ? Now the most striking fact about them (as, indeed, about the human figures in general) is the great preponderance of female forms. In the whole find of terra-cottas, there are but sixty-six figures which are male beyond a doubt, and of these forty-eight belong to the well-known type of the mounted warrior, and eight to the type of the Egyptian Bes. ' This fact would naturally lead us to the conclusion that our female figures represent the chief goddess of Argos, Hera, and many arguments can be brought to support this interpretation. Thus, the great majority of our Argive figures are seated, and we know from the Pirasus story and from Pausanias’s account of an early image of Hera, as well as from his account of the statue of Polycleitus, that Hera was conceived at Argos as a seated divinity. The head¬ dresses which we have noted upon our figures, stephane, polos, stephanos, and calathos, belong to the regular wardrobe of Hera ; G while as a goddess of childbirth ' she could be represented with an infant in her arms. But such arguments as these are extremely fallible ; and for the early time, especially, we certainly cannot postulate any such fixity in the functions and attributes of the goddess as such statements imply. The proof of this fact is not far to seek ; for in Tegea, where, as we have already stated,8 9 we find figures exactly similar to all classes of our Argive terra-cottas, these figures were dedi¬ cated to Demeteiv1 The headdresses that we have mentioned are found in the Tegfean figures, as in those of Argos, and they are by no means the exclusive property of Hera. The KovpoT pocfios figures are much better explained as human mothers,10 especially as Hera (and the divinities of the Argive plain in general) is rarely represented with an infant in her arms,11 and the epithet Kovporpocpos for Hera rests upon very doubtful authority.12 Again, the groups of two seated females,13 while they might be taken as Hera and Hebe
4 Mr. De Con suggests that these adornments may be borrowed from the headdress of Isis, and that the disk or rosette may then represent the sun. If this theory be correct, we should then find in these figures another trace of Oriental influence.
5 It may be said that the early numbers of our series are so rude as to be practically sexless. But the early development of the hair and the ornaments, which points distinctly to female figures, as well as the great pre¬ ponderance of female figures in the later types, make it practically certain that our early figures, also, are meant to represent females.
B Cf. for the polos, the well-known head from Olym¬ pia, Botticher, Olympia, p. 237, fig. 44 ; for the stephane, Overbeck, K unstmylhologie, pis. ix., x. ; for the stephanos, ibid. vol. III. Hera, Miinztafel ii. ; for the calathos, ibid. Miinztafel i. Nos. 1-9.
10 On the analogy of the woman with an infant on her back (No. 39), the woman kneading bread (No. 24), and the performers upon musical instruments (Nos. 21, 22, 23). This is the interpretation which we are inclined to favor for these /couporpif^os figures. A third possibility, that these figures are modifications of the Oriental Astarte, seems to be excluded by the fact that they bear such close resemblance to the Argive type, and are plainly only a development of it.
Bernhardy (cf. Suid. ed. Bern. IT.1 p. 1101) refers Kovporpbfw to Apollo. Athenaeus (XIII. 592) refers the verses to Sophocles, and says the poet calls on Aphro¬ dite.
or Hera and Eileitliyia, seem to us, to judge from the analogy of similar groups in later times, to be better taken as representations of the Earth-mother and her daughter, the later Demeter and Kore.1 In the case of these Argive terra-cottas, therefore, we can only say that they prove to us the existence at the Heraeum, in very early times, of a cult of the primitive female divinity, the real “ great mother of the gods,” whether we call her Ge, or Demeter, or Aphrodite, or Cybele, or Hera, or perhaps even Athena or Artemis. She was early conceived as a seated figure, and this conception strongly influ¬ enced the ideas of later times, when men began to call her Hera, and to reproduce her image in wood and stone. Finally, the use of exactly the form that is employed to repre¬ sent the goddess for figures that are certainly human 2 proves conclusively that we are here dealing with one of those early types which are already familiar to us in the seated figures from Branchidae, the “Apollo” figures from all over the Greek world, the standing types of the Acropolis, and many other works.
We have dwelt thus at length upon the “Argive” figures both because they form the most important and characteristic part of our find, and because this type has never heretofore been subjected to the careful study which it deserves, and which, fortunately, our numerous finds of early figures in so unbroken a series enabled us to make.
The remainder of our finds belong, for the most part, to well-known types, and can be dismissed in a few words. Of the Mycenaean figures, the greater part belong to the common type with round or pelta-shaped bodies. The large bull’s or cow’s head is, we believe, unique in terra-cotta, although this subject is common enough in Mycenaean art in other materials.3 The paucity of figures of this class of terra-cottas at the Heraeum is very striking, in view of the large numbers of them that were found at Mycenae and at Tiryns, and suggests the explanation that these figures were not regarded as appropriate offerings at this particular temple. The Argive style, in fact, had become invested with a hieratic character, and was regarded as the proper object of votive dedication at the Heraeum.4 The same remark holds true of figures of Geometric style, of which the paucity is very striking, in marked contrast to the early figures of Boeotia, which are distinctly Geometric.5
So, too, even our 283 figures of the Archaic class form a strikingly small proportion of the find, when we consider the prevalence of this class on other early sites.0 Here, indeed, tire figures themselves seem to show that these archaic terra-cottas are not a natural Argive product. We do not mean to say that they were not made at Argos.
3 Cf. the parallels cited on p. 23.
4 So at Athens, in early times, the fashion seems to have been for figures of Athena of archaic type (cf. Winter, Arch. Anz. 1893, pp. 141 If.). At Corcyra the popular offering was apparently a figure of Artemis (cf. Lechat, B. C. //. XV. [1891], pp. 1 ff.). At Tegea the Argive type was later superseded by an archaic hydrophoros type (cf. Pervanoglou, Nuove Mem. dell' Ins. II. pp. 74 f.). In Sicily archaic figures carrying a pig are found in great numbers (perhaps connected with the cult of Deineter and Kord ; cf. Lidnard, Gaz. Arcli. 1880, pp. 1.1 ff.; Caylus, Rec. d'Ant. vol. VI. pi. xxxvii.). On the subject of “fashions” in terra-cottas, cf. the re¬ marks of Paris upon the terra-cottas of Elateia, B. C.
5 Cf. Heuzey, Fig. Ant. pi. xvii. 3 ; Jamot, B. C. H. XIV. (1890), pp. 207 ff., figs. 1, 2, 5, and pi. xiv. ; Mar¬ tha, Cat. des Fig. du Mus. d’Ath'enes, Nos. 213 ff. These figures are interesting as examples of coroplastic art developing on lines parallel to those which it followed at Argos, yet differing from Argive art in many particulars. In Boeotia, as at Argos, the flat, conventional body of the “ bird-faced ” type was retained long after the advent of the archaic style of head. In marked contrast to the Ar¬ give figures, the standing type is, in Boeotia, the prevail¬ ing one, and the ornamentation is almost entirely painted, not plastic. The technique, too, is ceramic, rather than coroplastic, i. e. the paint is applied directly to the clay.
6 Cf. the excavations cited in note 4, and especially those conducted by Orsi in Sicily — at Megara Hyblaea (cf. Mon. Ant. I. p. 089, esp. pp. 913 ff.), and at Terravecchia (ibid. VII. p. 201, and esp. pp. 210 ff.).
MYCENAEAN AND ARCHAIC FIGURES. ANIMALS. VARIOUS OBJECTS 15
The large number of replicas 1 would prove that most of them were made there, if such proof were necessary ; but they seem to be the product of outside influences, rather than the result of native development.2 So we find a number which show traces of the schools of Rhodes and of Cyprus.3 So, too, the great majority of these archaic figures are standing types, whereas the conception of Hera which prevailed at the Heraeum was, as we have seen, that of a seated figure. Moreover, a number of these archaic figures are shown by their attributes to be representations of goddesses in no way connected with Hera, or even hostile to her. Such are the figures of Artemis and Aphrodite.4 5 For the rest we can only say that the archaic figures without attributes may be meant for statues of Hera, and in many cases, doubtless, were so thought of by the donors ; but in many others they may have been meant for priestesses or even persons unconnected with the cult of the goddess, who offer their own image to her. We are again dealing, that is to say, with a type, and all attempts to dogmatize at this stage on the subjects of these figures are futile. ’
The animals display all the variety usually found in temple offerings. They include horses (both with and without riders), bulls, dogs, pigs, bears, cocks, and birds, and even some less common types, such as the centaur, the serpent, the tortoise, the monkey, and the bull attacked by a lion. It does not seem possible that even the lively imagina¬ tion of the Greeks can have thought of any very definite association of all these animals with the goddess. But few of the animals represented are sacrificial, so that the idea that they are “ substitutions ” e for actual sacrifices is in most cases excluded. At best this explanation can hardly apply to more than the cows,7 the rams, and the pigs. In most of our figures, therefore, we are inclined to see only examples of the cheap kind of offerings which were sold at the entrance to the temple, — offerings whose value depended not so much upon their intrinsic worth as upon the spirit of the donor.
The same must be said of most of the “ various objects ” which we have catalogued in our last class. The rough pear-shaped weights 8 and the cones,9 — which were probably meant for use upon the loom,10 — the spools,11 and the rude oven 12 — probably from a baking scene — are not inappropriate offerings to a female divinity like Hera. So, too, the dish of cakes 13 and the numerous fragments of tables 14 are doubtless to be regarded in the light of banquets offered to the divinity. The flower-like disks,15 which occurred in
4 So we interpret the figure holding a bow and a deer (No. 179), and the figures which have in their hands a hare (Nos. 176-178), or a flower (Nos. 166, 174), or a fruit (Nos. 172, 173, 197), or a dove (Nos. 166-171, 199, 200). Some of these, to be sure, may be connected with the cult of Hera, as the figure with the wreath (No. 175) probably is. Thus we know that Hera as Eileithyia was represented with how (cf. vol. I. p. 8) ; and the fruit of Nos. 172, 173, and 197 may be a pome¬ granate (cf. Philost. Apoll. Tyan. IV. 28 : Tl f. )da 5e /xdioj (pvrSiv rfj "H pa <pv*Tcu). But such attempts are certainly far-fetched, and if we consider the wide distribution of these types (see the references under the separate numbers), the connection with Hera does not seem prob¬ able.
Myth. p. 410 : “ Docli ist der Typus ein so allgemeiner, dass er aucli fiir andere Gottlieiten, ja auch sterbliche, die Votivgaben darhringen, beniitzt wurde.”
6 Cf. Perrot et Chipiez, Hist, de V Art, VI. p. 818.
7 It is interesting to note that the large Mycenaean hull’s or cow’s head (No. 72) has a hole in the top, which may have been meant to receive a bronze axe (cf. the references given in the catalogue, p. 23).
10 Pottier and Reinach (La Necrople de Myrina, pp. 248 ff.) explain these cones as cakes “by substitution,” and give the literature of the subject. The older inter¬ pretation of them as loom-weights seems to us to be pre¬ ferable.
such numbers, have reference, perhaps, to Hera Antheia. But the appropriateness of the foot with a sandal 1 (which seems too elaborate to have been part of a human fig¬ ure), of the object which we have called a tree,2 of the whorls 3 and the rings,4 it is impossible to see. Here, then, we doubtless again have examples of small, inexpensive offerings, which were turned out by the score by the coroplasts, and served to satisfy those among the poorer classes whose means did not permit them to present more elabo¬ rate offerings.
But these, after all, are points of minor importance. The chief interest and value of our find of terra-cottas lies in the fact that they reveal to us — in the figures of the “ Argive ” classes — the existence of an artistic tradition which began long before the period of the distinctly Mycenaean civilization, and continued unbroken for centuries after it. They thus strengthen us in the position which we have been led to take from a general survey of the whole result of our excavations.
Fig. 2.
1. (Plate XLII. 1.) Rude standing figure, modeled by hand, — a simple strip of clay, pinched together at the middle to form a waist and a stumpy pair of arms (now broken), and pinched at top into a pointed head. No traces of color. Height, 5 cm. Dark red clay.
3. (Fig. 2.) Similar figure with a lump of clay attached to each side of the nose to represent the eyes, and another lump on top of head, to form a sort of pilos or cap. The figure is attached to a base and possibly formed part of a group. No traces of color. Height, 5 cm. Dark red clay.
strip of clay wound about the head, forming a stephane.
Below this stephane, at back, three strips of clay are applied to represent the hair. The figure stands on a plinth and may have formed part of a group. The body is painted brown ; the face is covered with a white slip. Height, 5.5 cm. Clay, reddish yellow.
5. (Fig. 5.) Similar figure, wearing stephane. The body is pierced by a round hole, apparently for the purpose of suspending the figure. No traces of color.
Yellow clay.
9. (Fig. 7.) Similar figure, with the usual lumps for eyes, represented by a cutting across the “ beak.” The ver¬ tical grooves in the lower part of the figure seem to represent the folds of the chiton. No trace of color.
The eyes are not indicated, but the lower part of the “ beak ” is drawn out to form a beard, and the mouth is represented by a short cutting. Body and stephane
11. One hundred and eleven fragments of figures similar to Nos.
1-9, showing the same development of hair and stephane, but no devel¬ opment of drapery. They are all of small dimensions, made by hand, of rather coarse clay, and generally show traces of a white coat, with simple line patterns applied in red and black.
12. (Plate XLIII. 1.) Seated female figure, simplest form. The figure is made in the same way as No. 1, but it is slightly bent in the middle, and to the back is applied a four-legged support (cf. p. 5, note 1). There is a simple stephane on the head, and the feet are represented by two lumps applied to the bottom of the figure. White slip, traces of red on stephane. Height, 4.5 cm. Dark yellow clay.
13. Seventy-five fragments of figures similar to No. 12, exhibiting no adornment other than stephane and slight development of hair. They are usually covered with a white coat, and decorated with red and black lines.
14. Fragment of figure similar to No. 12, broken at waist, and at neck and left shoulder. Above the waist are two holes for inserted arms, with fragments of arms still in place. Traces of white. Height, 6.5 -cm. Clay, reddish yellow.
15. (Fi g. 9.) Bearded seated figure, broken at waist and lacking arms. Eyes, the usual lumps. Round pilos-like cap. Mouth, a deep cut, and beard marked by four vertical grooves. White slip. Height, 6.5 cm. Yellow clay.
Olympia , Ergebnisse : Die Bronzen , pi. xvii. 288.
17. (Fig. 11.) Seated figure with feet extended. Part of face, both arms, feet, and legs of chair missing. The figure has a stephane with boss, but otherwise is unadorned.
Length, 6.5 cm. Yellow clay.
21. (Fig. 12.) Flute player of uncertain sex. Right arm and right half of flute broken away. With the exception of the face and the flutes, the figure is entirely covered with dark red paint. Height, 7 cm. Light yellow clay.
22. (Fig. 13.) Performer on the syrinx — the “ bird-faced ” type, with simple stepliane. The nature of the Pan’s pipe is clearly indicated by a cross strip at top and bottom of the instrument.
Small disks of clay represent the dough in the pan. Traces of white on arms of woman and on pan, of red on stephane, of brown on woman's body. Height, 6 cm. Clay, reddish yellow.
48, and p. 662, fig. 448.
25. (Plate XLII. 3.) Standing female figure, showing an attempt at more careful re¬ presentation of the hair. Under the stephane there is a large curl over each eye, and an oblong strip of clay at the back of the head, now mostly broken away. Stephane, red ; hair and body black. Height, 8 cm. Red clay.
Cf. Schliemann, Tiryns , pi. xxv. k.
26. (Fig. 16.) Flute player (flutes now missing), showing further development of hair into two strands in front of each shoulder, and four curls across forehead. There is also an attempt to represent the feet. Traces of white slip. Height,
27. (Plate XLII. 4.) Standing figure, with close-fitting necklace (cf. p. 11) extending to nape of neck, and bosses at shoulders, to represent -n-epovai. The figure has a stephane. Traces of white. Height, 7.5 cm. Red clay.
28. (Plate XLII. 12.) Similar figure, with wide band stretched from shoulder to shoulder, surmounted by round bosses (cf. pp. 10 f.). The hair is represented by curls across the fore¬ head, bound with a taenia. White slip, traces of red lines on band and down left side. Height, 11 cm. Light yellow clay.
29. F orty-three fragments of figures similar to Nos. 27 and 28, adorned with one necklace only. Almost all have the stephane, and show some development of the hair. They also have very considerable traces of white coat and ornamentation in red and black.
30. (Plate XLII. 2.) Standing figure, arms, head, and feet broken away, with narrow band which passes over left shoulder and under right arm. About the neck are traces of a close-fitting necklace. Slight traces of white. Height, 6 cm. Yellow clay.
Here the band seems clearly to represent the fold of an outer garment, arranged in the manner of the later himation (cf. the Acropolis statues, Musees d' Athenes , pis. ii. and iii. ; Heuzey, Fig. Ant. pi. xii. 4; and our own Nos. 163, 164, and 175). The oblique band is very similar to that of the primitive vase in human form from Hissarlik, Schliemann, Ilios , p. 343, No. 235.
31. Two fragments of similar figures, with bands passing from left shoulder to right side.
32. (Fig. 17.) Standing figure without stephane. The hair is formed by curls arranged about a centre. The arms and all the upper part of the body were enveloped in a thin layer of clay, which formed a sort of shawl (now preserved only on right side).
12, but decorated with a necklace from shoulder to shoulder. The eyes are not indicated plastically. The stephane has a boss. The feet are indicated by two projections. Covered with white slip, marked with red and black horizontal lines on chiton and chair. Height, 9 cm. Red clay.
34. (Plate XLIII. 3.) Similar figure, with ends of necklace enlarged into iTcpovai.. The figure has no separate support, but is held upright by two legs attached directly to the back. Covered with white slip, traces of red lines at neck and waist. Height, 9.5 cm. Red clay.
35. Four hundred and ninety-one fragments of figures similar to Nos. 33 and 34, with stephane and single necklace, both with and without separately made chairs. They all show the same sys¬ tem of decoration in red and black lines on a white ground, with occasional use of color applied directly (for the bodies). Clay, usually red or yellow.
36. (Plate XLII. 5.) Standing figure with two necklaces. The hair was formed by four notched strands at back of head, and shows traces of a stephane. Hair, eyes, and body painted black, face and breast natural color of the clay. Height, 6.5 cm. Dark yellow clay.
37. (Plate XLII. 11.) Similar figure with two necklaces and Trepovai as Korporpo^os (with an infant in her arms). The head of the child is broken away. White slip, traces of red on neck¬ lace, on infant, and on lower edge of chiton. Height, 7.5 cm. Red clay.
at front and at back.
40. (Plate XLII. 10.) Standing female figure of usual type in stephane, with one double and (originally) two single bosses. She wears a close-fitting necklace with pendant, and long double necklace across shoulders, between two round pins. Plentiful traces of white slip, and of red lines on stephane and neck¬ laces. Height, 8 cm. Dark yellow clay.
41. (Plate XLII. 13.) Similar figure, but without stephane. The hair was originally long curls, now broken away. She has three necklaces, consisting of a twisted band between two plain ones, and double bosses represent the dress-pins. The fold of the chiton between the legs seems to be represented by a slight indentation, but this might be due to a defect of the clay. The body is painted black. Height, 7.5 cm. Gray clay.
42. (Plate XLII. 7.) Similar figure in high stephane with three bosses. Hair, simple mass, crossed by horizontal grooves. Long necklace with three pendants across breast. Large round pin on left shoulder ; the one on the right is broken away. The feet are carefully indicated by wedge-shaped projections, and the figure stands on a plinth. White slip, with traces of red on
43. (Fig. 19.) Fragment of figure with two necklaces and peculiar form of pin on right shoulder ; this consists of a wedge-shaped piece of clay, and is plainly only an elongated form of the round pin of earlier numbers ; it forms a transition, however, to the elaborate pins of later numbers. Hair two large curls, surmounted by stephane. Traces of white. Height,
44. (Fi g. 20.) Similar female figure, with elab¬ orate applied ornaments. She has a stephane with double boss, bound about the bottom with a taenia.
The hair is represented by four spiral curls over forehead, three long curls at back. Four neck¬ laces (one twisted, one with pendant), and under them (appearing at left side) two more bands, which can hardly be anything but an attempt to represent the fold of the chiton. On the right shoulder is an elaborate pin, consisting of two cross-bars and two bosses, with traces of a third cross-bar (type of No. 84). The feet are marked with three grooves each. A wide band of clay, broken at both extremities, appears under right arm, and there are traces of a similar band under left arm. These may have served to form a loop for suspension, for the figure could never have been intended to stand. White sli p, with red lines on face and breast ; stephane, taenia, and body red ;
dark yellow.
45. (Plate XLII. 8.) Similar figure, with deep indentation in beak, which brings out nose and chin. The figure wears a simple stephane. Hair, two large curls over forehead, six notched strands at back. There are three necklaces (simple band between two notched bands), with flower¬ shaped Trepovy] on left shoulder. Face and necklaces show thick white slip; the body has horizontal red lines. Height, 18.5 cm. Clay, greenish yellow.
46. (Plate XLII. 9.) Similar figure with the same indentation for mouth. The hair con¬ sisted originally of thick twisted braids (two pieces only are preserved). Four necklaces — twisted band between two plain ones, topped by waved band. The fibulae were elaborate ; each consisted originally of two large bosses of three concentric circles, with small bosses between. Thick white slip on face and necklaces, narrow red line at waist. Height, 11.5 cm. Clay, reddish yellow.
scheme of decoration.
49. ( Plate XLII I. 6.) Seated figure with stephane (broken at front) and two necklaces; also originally with pins at the shoulders. The hair is treated as a single mass over each eye. Cus¬ tomary white slip, some traces of red horizontal lines on neck (to represent another necklace?), necklace, waist, and lower part of chiton. Height, 12. .5 cm. Clay, red.
51. ( Plate XLIII. 10.) Fragment of similar figure, broken at waist and right shoulder, with three necklaces (a plain band between two twisted bands), ending on each shoulder in two round bosses. The mouth is distinctly marked by a straight groove across beak. The figure has earrings consisting of one boss applied to another, and stephane. The hair is treated as a single strand over each eye, notched in front, as a mass at back, criss-crossed with vertical and horizontal grooves, and notched at sides of head. Traces of white. Height, 5.5 cm. Dark yellow clay.
TIRYNTHIAN ARGIVE
52. (Fig. 21.) Upper part of female figure, with a remarkable brooch on right shoulder — a large spiral, adorned with rosettes and bosses. (In this single case, it seems possible that this ornament is of a floral nature, and has some connec¬ tion with Hera Antheia; cf. p. 10.) Hair, a large mass, which covers head and shoulders, hatched with horizontal and vertical grooves. The earrings have the form of rosettes, with raised bosses in the centre. Traces of white.
53. (Plate XLIII. 8.) Similar figure, elaborate decoration. It has six necklaces, four plain and two twisted bands ; the lower one passes around the back. Earrings in the forms of double bosses. The stephane also has a large boss. The hair is treated as a long notched curl over each eye, with five spirals at back of head. Traces of white, with red on stephane. Height, 7 cm. Reddisli yellow clay.
54. (Plate XLIII. 9.) Elaborate figure, broken at waist ; left arm and right forearm missing. The figure has no necklaces, but a deep groove runs across the breast and around the shoulders and back, to mark the edge of the chiton. The stephane is pierced by three holes, probably intended for inserted ornaments. Earrings in the form of rosettes. The hair consists of two bands above forehead, filled with irregular lines of small holes, — a not altogether unsuccessful attempt to indicate the texture of the hair. Below these bands the hair falls in spiral curls (originally there were two which fell in front of shoulders, and four at back), which remind one strongly of metal work. The treatment of the body at the waist marks a style which is net constructively that of terra-cotta figures, but is more like the technique of beaten metal. On the shoulders are fibulae in the form of four-leaved clovers (cf. p. 10). Some traces of red on chiton and on stephane. Height, 8.5 cm. Gray clay, now black from burning.
55. F ive hundred and seventy-seven more or less broken seated figures of the type of Nos. 49-58, with two or more necklaces, usually with stephane and pins. Some traces of decoration in red and black lines on a white ground, with occasional application of paint directly to the clay.
56. (Fig. 22.) Upper part of “bird-faced” figure, broken at waist. Hair, single wavy curl above forehead. The figure is entirely wrapped in a sort of •shawl, which rises to a point over the head. Thick white slip ; traces of red and black on fragment of back of chair. Height, 6.5 cm. Yellow clay.
57. (Plate XLIII. 4.) Seated female, figure, holding infant (heads of both figures missing). The seated figure is of the regular Tirynthian type, with a necklace from shoulder to shoulder. The child is an oblong lump of clay, with a groove at bottom to mark the feet. Some traces of white. Height,
clay is added to represent a child. Some traces of white. Clay, red to yellow.
59. (Plate XLIII. 11.) Fragment of female figure, broken at neck and waist, on wide seat, which was evidently intended for two figures. The fragment preserved wears a waved necklace of two bands, and was doubtless of the “ bird-faced ” type. In her lap she holds an object like a broad roll or band, marked with five grooves, which evidently extended to the other figure of the group. Slight traces of white, with red on taenia and black on the body of the woman. Height, 6.5 cm. Length, 8.5 cm. Reddish yellow clay.
60. (Plate XLIII. 5.) Female figure from a similar group (the seat is here broken close to the figure, but was plainly intended for two figures, as it shows no traces of legs at the point of breakage. The face is of the usual “ Tirynthian Argive ” sort, with a single mass of hair over each eye. The entire figure is wrapped in a mantle (cf. No. 56) meeting in front, which rises to a point above the head. In the lap are traces of a roll or band, similar to that of No. 59. Traces of brown on hair and lower part of chiton. Height, 8.5 cm. Reddish yellow clay.
61. (Fig. 23.) Similar female figure from right hand side of group. The mantle is here broken at the back, while in front it leaves the neck and shoulders bare. The figure has a simple stephane and a single necklace, adorned with three bosses. White slip, traces of red on necklace. Height, 6 cm. Clay, reddish yellow.
62. Fragment of a similar group of large size (only left hand figure preserved, broken at shoulder and at lower right hand corner). In the lap is a fragment of a broad band, similar to the bands of Nos. 59 and 60. General traces of white. Height, 11 cm. Red clay.
The interpretation of these groups is an interesting problem. So far as we can judge, both the figures were feminine, for in Nos. 59, 60, and 62 we have the left hand figure of the group, and in No. 61 the right hand figure, and these are all feminine. Moreover, the traces of the second figure, preserved on the seat of No. 59, point to a female rather than to a male figure. This fact at once declares against the theory that we are here dealing with a representation of Zeus and Hera, a sort of Upo s y d/xos (such as the group given by Overbeck, Kunstmythologie , Hera, fig. 4 a, from Gerhard, Ant. BildwerJce, pi. i.), which we should most naturally expect to find at a sanctuary of Hera.1 The association of Hebe with Hera, as she was later associated with her in the group of Polycleitos and Naukydes, seems hardly probable at the early date to which we must assign these groups. We are reduced, then, to the view that we have here an early form of two female divinities like the later Demeter and Kore. (For another very primitive group of these goddesses, cf. Heuzey, Fig. Ant. pi. xiii. 3 ; later examples are pis. xviii. bis. 3 : xxiv. 1. Cf. the same author’s article, ‘ Groupe de Demeter et Ivore,’ in Mon. grecs pub. par V Assoc, pour V encouragement des etudes grecques en France , 1876.) The roll may then be the symbol of the bond between the two goddesses.
63. F our hundred and thirteen fragments of bodies of the early seated type — lower parts only preserved. They usually show some traces of the white coat, and often are decorated at the lower edge and at the waist with simple line patterns in applied red and black.
III. MYCENAEAN.
65. (Fig. 24.) Fragment of female idol of the usual Mycenaean form — round body — broken at waist and neck. Ornamenta¬ tion in wavy lines, brown to black. Height, 4.5 cm. Fine yellow clay.
ornamentation.
67. ( Fig. 25.) Female figure with arms raised (peltashaped body.) Ornamentation in red lines. Height, 8 cm. Fine yellow clay.
mentation in red, changing to brown and black.
69. (Fig. 26.) Female idol with arms (two applied strips of clay) crossed below breasts, which are also represented plastically, by applied disks. Broken at top and bottom. Ornamentation in red lines. Height, 5.5 cm. Fine yellow clay.
Fig. 20. Cf. Schliemann, Mycenae and Tiryns , pi. C, fig. 1.
1 The Ileraea mentioned by Paus. (II. 24. 2) probably whole subject, cf. ibid. pp. 177-181 ; Roscher, Lex. der had some relation to the Upbs ydpos (cf. Daremberg et Myth. I2 p. 2098; Forster, Die Hochzeit des Zeus u. der Saglio, Diet, des Ant. ‘ Ilidros gamos,’ p. 179). On the Hera, Breslau, 1867.
70. (Fig. 27.) Body of Mycenaean figure with arms raised, broken at top and bottom. The breasts are connected by a crescent-shaped band (meant to represent a neck¬ lace? cf. No. 36, and the Tirynthian Argive figures generally). Usual wavy lines, shading from light to dark brown. Height, 3.5 cm. Reddish yellow clay.
71. Twenty-six fragments of Mycenaean ware, so broken that the exact form cannot be determined ; same fine clay, with ornamentation in wavy lines.
72. (Fig. 28.) Large bull’s or cow’s head, broken at neck and minus horns. Ornamentation in light red, straight lines on fore¬ head and nose, circle around eyes and end of nose, hatched lines
peculiar ornament at back of neck (Fig. 28 6). In the middle of the forehead is a vertical hole, possibly meant to contain a bronze axe or some other ornament (cf. Schliemann, Mycenae, p. 218, figs. 329, 330 ; and the large silver head,
Fig. 28 b. ibid. p. 216 f., figs. 327, 328). The theory of Perrot ( Histoire de V Art, VI. p. 822), that this axe symbolized the axe used to slaughter the victim, seems to us probable. Height,
analogies to the elaborate Tirynthian Argive figures. The nose was originally of the “ beak ” type. The eyes are incised triangles. Ear very large, with large pendant. The hair was a large mass, now broken away. A single band passes from the neck under each arm, and there ai-e two simple necklaces, which carry a large brooch, broken at lower edge. On the shoulders are “ clover-leaf ” pins, with five bosses each. The decoration in color is Geometric (Dipylon), in red paint, shading to black. It consists of horizontal lines, zigzags, and dots below waist, of dots alone on necklace, pins, and brooch. Height, 12.5 cm. Reddish yellow clay.
Cf. pp. 6 f.
76. (Plate XLVIII. 13.) Geometric horse, legs broken. The deco¬ ration is entirely in straight lines, except at shoulder, where there are two curved lines. This horse is very similar to the horses which are so com¬ mon upon the covers of Geometric vases (cf. Rayet et Collignon, Histoire jrIG 30 de la Ceramique Grecque, p. 33, fig. 21), and perhaps came from a vase.
V. ADVANCED ARGIVE.
77. (Ei g. 31.) Seated female figure, varying from primitive type only in that the head has eyes, nose, and mouth carefully modeled. The face is of pronounced archaic type — mouth turned up at corners, eyes wide and staring. The body is still a mere oblong piece of clay ; it shows traces of two necklaces. General traces of „ white. Height, 7.5 cm. Clay, red.
78. (Fig. 32.) Similar figure, broken at waist, and lacking right arm. Face of marked archaic type — eyes, protruding masses. Hair, single long curl over each shoulder, topped by stepliane with (originally) seven small bosses. The breasts were modeled separately and applied, as is evident from depression to receive right breast. In the hand, the thumb and the fingers are distinguished, and a hole is left between them (for holding an object?). Traces of white, of red on stepliane. Height,
8 cm. Red clay.
79. (Pl ate XLIV. 2.) Seated figure, which shows some attempt at model¬ ing the body. The swell of the breast is quite well reproduced, the hair is moulded with the face, the ear is fairly well given, although placed too high.
The stepliane has long ends behind, and thus forms a sort of taenia. The dresspins are of the usual “ boss ” type. The band is here plainly a necklace, for the fold of the chiton is reproduced at the neck. There is no chair, but only two legs attached to the back of the figure. Color, white, with red on necklace, at waist, and on lower edge of chiton. Height, 12 cm.
80. (Plate XLIV. 1.) Flat-bodied figure (head missing), seated in elaborate chair. She wears three necklaces — the second has three pendants, and the third ends in small round pins. On the back and arms of the chair are round bosses. Ground color, white ; the shorter necklaces are red ; the long one has oblique lines; back of chair, vertical lines; arms of chair, horizontal lines; bosses, radiating lines; broad band at waist and below knees — all red. Height, 8 cm. Yellow clay.
in Dresden, Arch. Anz. 1895, p. 220, 4.
81. (Fig. 33.) Fragment of seated figure, broken at neck and below waist. Simple necklace with pendant, followed by twisted necklace, and wide band, which is probably here the fold of the chiton. The fragment on the right shoulder is pai't of a large fibula. The figure is interesting as showing the method of attach¬ ing the head in these advanced Argive figures; the body was drawn out into a wedge-shaped projection at the top, upon which the head was fitted ; the joint was then covered by a necklace in front and by the mass of the hair behind. This figure also shows the legs of chair attached directly to the figure. General traces of white ; slight traces of red on orna¬ ments. Height, 12 cm. Clay, red.
82. (Fig. 34.) Fragment of right shoulder, with fibula of the usual bronze type (cf. p. 10). The figure
has two twisted necklaces, and the fold of the chiton is distinctly marked by an applied band of clay; to this is affixed the fibula in form of a semicircle, with two pairs of rings for decoration. Slight traces of white, and of red on fold. Height, 4 cm. Reddish yellow clay.
of a long bar, decorated with rosettes, and with cross-bars of dumb-bell shape. Four bars and three rosettes are preserved, and this is probably the original number, as the pin begins to narrow considerably at the points of breakage. The ends undoubtedly curved forward, as in No. 84. The figure has two necklaces (one twisted) and distinctly marked fold. Traces of white on neck, neck¬ laces, fibula, and back, of red on fold and on cross-bars of fibula. Height, 12.5 cm. Clay, red.
84. (Fig. 36.) Fibula of most elaborate type, broken from its figure. It has three pIG ;>(; cross-bars and two rosettes, and curves for¬ ward at the ends. Ground color white, cross-bars marked with red and black criss-cross lines, rosettes with radiating red and black lines ; lower tip red. Height, 7 cm. Clay, yellow.
Head and left arm of seated, flat-bodied figure, with an infant on her arm (only legs and feet of infant preserved). Of the hair, only a single mass, with horizontal grooves, is preserved over the left temple. The figure wears a necklace with three pendants. General traces of white, red lines below neck¬ lace, red band at infant’s knees. Height, 8 cm. Red clay.
86. (Plate XLIV. 3.) Large seated female figure, broken at neck and at left lower edge. She held an infant in her arms, of which traces are pre¬ served only in her lap. Elaborate adornment with double necklace, which carries two pendants at the sides, double waved band, double straight band, and wide fold. The pins, strangely enough, are only small disks, as in the earlier types. Left arm disproportionately short. The chair was made separately. Traces of white, with applied red on upper body and child. Lower body is painted brown with red horizontal lines. Height, 18 cm. Yellow clay.
dant, which was entirely hidden. The child wears the chiton, with small, round pins at the shoulders. The woman’s face is round, with protrud¬ ing eyes. The hair is treated in notched strands. Traces of white, of red on shawl. Height, 7.5 cm. 4 ellow clay.
(plain necklace between two twisted ones), double waved band and wide fold. On the back are traces of hair treated as a mass, and of back of chair. General traces of white, with red on fold. Height, 12 cm. The entire figure must have been fully 40 cm. tall. Red clay.
white, fold red. Height, 10 cm. Yellow clay.
90. (Plate XLIV. 4.) Torso of seated figure with very elaborate adornment. About the neck runs a simple necklace decorated with a line of holes, followed by a twisted chain with large pen¬ dants, which are decorated alternately with grooves and rows of holes. The chiton is a distinct layer of clay. From shoulder to shoulder, over the chiton, runs a waved band, adorned with fine holes ; between the turns of this band are rosettes (an imitation of lace ? or should we find here a trace of the metal ornaments found by Schliemann, which were intended to be sewn to the garment? cf. p. 11). The pins are of the “clover-leaf” type, with double bosses in the centre, and single bosses on the leaves. At the back are traces of curls, and two notched bands are stretched from shoulder to shoulder over the chiton. General traces of white on neck and neck¬ laces, body brown. Height, 8 cm. Clay, light yellow.
91. (Plate XLIV. 5.) Similar elaborate torso. The chiton is a separate layer of clay. Two twisted necklaces. Over the chiton in front is stretched a waved stripe, decorated with incuse disks (such as are found in ceramic ware) followed by a line of pendants, with similar incuse disks, bosses at top and notches at bottom (cf. p. 11). The pin is similar to that of No. 90, but larger. Behind, there are traces of curls and a line of pendants from shoulder to shoulder. Traces of brown paint on chiton. Height, 8 cm. Clay, yellow.
92. One hundred and eighty fragments of figures similar to Nos. 77-91. The plastic decora¬ tion is throughout very elaborate ; the painted decoration consists sometimes of red and black lines on a white ground. Sometimes this treatment is applied only to the upper part of the body, and the lower part is given a solid brown color, applied directly to the clay.
93. (Plate XLV. 11.) Head and shoulder of advanced Argive type. The headdress is broken away. The hair was a row of curls over the forehead, topped by a notched mass, with the usual simple mass at the back, now broken away. The figure has two close-fitting necklaces with three pendants, followed by three larger ones (one of them twisted), decollated at the shoulder with a pin of the round boss type. The fold of the chiton is represented by two narrow bands ; it was held by a large fibula of the usual elaborate kind, of which only the upper part remains. White slip, red on ornaments. Height, 12 cm. Yellow clay.
94. (Plate XLV. 13.) Similar head and shoulder, color well preserved. Close-fitting necklace with pendant, followed by three others (simple band between two twisted bands) and double waved band. The pin is placed altogether too high, so that it can only be intended for ornament, — possibly as a pendant to the necklace. Disk earrings with pendants. Hair, two masses above forehead, with horizontal grooves, large mass at back, notched at sides of neck, The headdress consists of a calathus, bound by a wide taenia. The ground color is white ; black is found on hair (except at sides of neck), above the eyebrows, and inside of eyes; in radiating lines on ear¬ rings, in dots on pin and waved band; red appears in radiating lines on earrings, in dots on pin and waved band, and in two wide streaks above and below close-fitting necklace. All the colors are carelessly applied, and seem to be meant simply to enliven the figure, without much regard to its anatomy. Height, 12 cm. Clay, yellow.
95. ( Plate XLV. 2.) Head of advanced Argive type, with double stephane. The hair consists of four loops over forehead, single long curl at each side. Ground color, white ; traces of red on hair. Height, 5.5 cm. Gray clay.
96. (Plate XLV. 4.) Similar head, with stephane and boss. Hair, two notched strands over forehead, topped by two masses with horizontal grooves ; single strand over shoulder. Simple disk earrings. Traces of white. Height, 5.5 cm. Yellow clay.
97. (Plate XLV. 8.) Similar head ; has stephane with double boss, bound by a taenia. Hair, two notched strands over forehead, and mass at back. Double boss earrings. Traces of two necklaces. Ground color, white ; stephane, red ; hair, brown. Height, 6 cm. Yellow clay.
98. (Plate XLV. 9.) Head of advanced Argive type, in high calathus with three bosses and double taenia. Hair, two masses over forehead, wedge-shaped mass at back. One earring is pre¬ served — a simple disk. Traces of one plastic necklace, with pendant and boss, and of two painted necklaces, red. Ground color, white ; hair, black ; red stripes on calathus, necklace, and neck. Height, 9 cm. Yellow clay.
99. (Plate XLV. 5.) Similar head. The calathus has three bosses and is bound by double taenia. Hair, two notched strands, topped by two masses over forehead, large mass at back. Plain disk earrings. White slip ; taenia, red ; hair, black. Height, 7 cm. Clay, yellow.
100. (Plate XLV. 7.) Head of advanced Argive type with high calathus, fronted by two plumes (cf. p. 13) with a disk at the base. Hair, notched mass over forehead, topped by wide strands, which extend to shoulders. Earrings, large disks. A wide band represents the fold of the chiton. White coat ; traces of red on brows, earrings, side hair, and fold. Height, 8.5 cm. Dark yellow clay.
101. (Plate XLV. 10.) Similar head, plumes broken away. Double taenia. Hair, two notched masses over forehead, topped by large curls, mass at back. Plain round earrings. Traces of necklace. White slip ; hair, black ; red on taenia. Height, 9.5 cm. Red clay.
7.5 cm. Clay, gray.
103. (Plate XLV. 6.) Similar head. The plumes are here connected behind the calathus, and the one that is preserved is adorned with a disk. Double taenia. Round earrings. Hair, large curl over each temple, mass at back. Traces of necklace with pendants. Slight traces of white. Height, 11 cm. Clay, dark yellow, shading to red.
104. (Plate XLV. 12.) Similar head, with large rosette between plumes, which here, also, are connected behind calathus. Double taenia. Rosette earrings. Hair, mass over forehead and at back, topped by two large curls. Slight traces of necklace with pendant. White slip ; hair black ; red on necklace. Height, 9 cm. Dark yellow clay.
105. (Plate XLV. 3.) Head of advanced Argive type. The features are very sharp and dis¬ tinctly archaic, — indeed, it may be a question whether this head ought not to be placed in the “ Archaic ” class. The eyes are wide and staring, mouth accentuated, in that the region separating the mouth from the cheeks and the chin is here defined by a round hollowing, which at the same time gives hardness. Hair, tight curls over forehead, treated in a conventional manner, like
107. (Fig. 41.) Body of standing female figure, broken at neck. The body is a perfect cylinder ; in fact, it seems to have been made on the wheel. The hair was a simple mass at back, red. The ornamentation consists of a broad stripe at waist, and four series of thi'ee fine red lines below waist — very similar to Argive-Linear work (see p. 3) in vases. Height, 8.5 cm. Reddish yellow clay.
Plaque with heraldic lions, broken at right lower corner. The position of the lions is very schematic ; each rests one fore paw on a pedestal, and raises the other horizontally, so that the two raised legs meet for their whole length. The tail is curved over the back. The heads turn and look backward. The surface is treated rather superficially, and the muscles are but little developed. No trace of color. Height, 10 cm. Clay, red, in many places burned black.
The Lion gate at Mycenae is strikingly similar to this plaque, as well as some Mycenaean gems (for instance, the one published by Tsountas, ’E</>. ’A px1888, p. 175, 2 ; pi. x. 2). Between the two lions of our plaque probably stood a pedestal or altar (the upper edge can still be made out) similar to those of the gate and the gem. The plaque would seem to belong to the end of the Mycenaean civilization. On the whole subject of heraldic animals, see Curtins, ‘ Uber Wappengebrauch u. Wappenstil im gr. Alterthum,’ in his Gesammelte Abhandlungen , II. pp. 77-115, pi. i. (cf. with our plaque especially Nos. 8 and 11).
109. (Fig. 43.) Upper part of winged female figure, broken at waist. The face is badly worn, but plainly archaic. Three notched strands of hair fall to each shoulder. The head is surmounted by a stepliane. Arms akimbo, — the hands held sickle-shaped objects, badly worn. Hair, red ; red bands on stephane, body, and wings. Height, 7 cm. Yellow clay.
This figure is very similar to the Delos statue (A5. C. II. III. [1879], pp. 393-399, pis. vi. and vii.), and, like it, was undoubtedly a running figure with one knee touching the ground. In terra-cotta, we have similar figures in Martha, Cat. des Fig. du ]\Ius. d' Athene s, No. 9, and in Dumont et Chaplain, Les Ceramiques de la Grece Propre , II. p. 229, No. 46. These are both explained as gorgons, and that is the interpreta¬ tion. we are inclined to give to our figure. On the subject of running figures, cf. Curtins, ‘ Die knieenden Figuren d. altgr. Ivunst,’ in GesarnL bhandlungen , II. pp. 116 ff. pi. ii., and Gerhardt, ‘Uber die Fliigelgestalten der alten Ivunst,’ in his Gesammelte Akad. Abhandlungen , I. pp. 157 ff. pis. ix.-xii.
appears is the body, with arms akimbo, a small part of right wing, right leg to knee, and left leg to middle of thigh. But the figure is plainly an archaic running; figure. Traces of white ; some red on chiton.
111. (Fig. 45.) Squatting male figure, type of the Egyptian Bes, broken at knees. The figure is that of a dwarf with hands placed on the abdomen, which is abnormally developed. Hair, a mass with horizontal grooves.
EARLY ARCHAIC
114. (Plate XLYIII. 16.) Fragment of large sphinx, broken at middle of body. The figure is very rude, consisting of no more than a head and neck (in full face), set upon a winged body (whether of a lion or of some other animal it is impossible to determine). The technique is most interesting, for all the surfaces of the face are plane surfaces, and appear to have been made with a knife or some similar tool ; this is true, too, of the wing. Moreover, there are no traces of paint on the head or on the wing, whereas they are plentiful on the other parts of the figure. It appears, then, that the figure was finished and painted, and at some later time the surfaces which show the knife marks were formed by cutting away the original contours. The paint, which appears on legs and body, is red. Height, 11 cm. Yellow clay.
An interesting head for comparison is published by Tsountas, ’E<£. ’A py. 1892, p. 13, pi. iv. 4 and 4"; cf. also the poros heads from the Acropolis ( liev . Arch. XVII. [1891], pp. 304 ff. pi. x.), which, some have held, were made by a workman during the noonday rest, exactly as our figure may have been remodeled.
Surface, green enamel. Height, 6.5 cm. Light, sandy material.
This figure is stamped as Egyptian by its enamel. Moreover, Professor Petrie, in his Naukratis (p. 14), speaks of “ figures of light, friable, sandy ware ” — a description which applies exactly to our plaque ; and Professor Ernest Gardner informs us that some of these figures were exactly similar to ours. There can be no doubt, then, that we have here an imported article, as is also the case with a small fragment of similar material and glaze — the lower portion of a squatting figure, very much like the type of the Egyptian Bes, Nos. 111-113.
figure presents many analogies to primitive Argive figures — the eyes are round lumps, the nose is almost a beak, and the hair consists of four strands falling to the shoulders behind and a wavy curl on top of the head. Yet the mouth and chin are plainly indicated, and there is some attempt at modeling in the body, which produces something the effect of the early Apollo figures. The body is covered with a thick white slip, with applied red on hair, red lines at breast and waist, and red hatchings on legs (meant to represent pattern on chiton ?). Height, 11 cm. Clay, red.
119. Fragment of seated male figure, broken at hips. The upper part is a mere wedge, to which was attached a face in front, and a mass of hair behind. The atSoia are roughly represented, but far too high. Slight traces of dark brown on left arm, back of head and lower abdo-
series of notched strands falling to shoulders. The arms are raised to the breasts, and three grooves at the end of each mark the fingers. General traces of white. Height, 8 cm. Light yellow clay.
121. Standing female figure with remarkably long neck, broken at waist, arms missing. Face very rude, nose very much like a beak, but distinguished from chin, mouth not indicated. The breasts are rudely applied lumps. Eyes, two incised circles. Hair consisted of notched mass at top and strands down the back (now broken off). White color is preserved in circles of eyes. Height, 10.5 cm. Clay, reddish yellow.
122. (Fig. 50.) Standing female figure with nose and mouth care¬ fully distinguished. Eyes, however, are lumps — a reminiscence of the earlier types. Hair, nine notched strands, spreading over shoul¬ ders. A slight groove from shoulder to shoulder marks the fold of the chiton. The forearms (now broken off) were extended forward.
Three grooves extend from waist to bottom of chiton on each side, doubtless to represent folds. The ground color is black, covered with yellow dots, even on the parts of the neck above fold of chiton : between the grooves, on the lower part of the figure, are hatchings of light yellow. Height, 11.5 cm. Clay, grayish yellow.
ing. Traces of white. Height, 8.5 cm. Red clay.
This figure stands in the same relation to the two preceding figures that the statue of Cheramyes (cf. Collignon, Hist, de la Sculpture Grecque , I. p. 163, fig. 73) does to the Nicandra statue (ibid. p. 120, fig. 59). It is an attempt to vary the monotony of the square, board-shaped body by another form, which, however, is equally summary and untrue to nature.
124. (Fig. 52.) Rude round figure of a pregnant woman, head, arms, and feet broken away. The feet were attached to two stumps inserted in the lower part of the figure. The edge of the chiton below the neck is carefully indicated by a deep cutting.
Representations of pregnant women are not uncommon in all periods of Greek terra-cottas ; cf. Schliemann, Bericht iiber die Ausgrabungen in Troia im Jahre 1890 , pi. i. 3 ; Dorpfeld, Train. 1893, p. 101 ; Schone, Gr. Beliefs , p. 67, No. 142, pi. xxxvi. ( — Bull. 1868, p. 54, No. 20); Stephani, Compte Bendu , 1865, pp. 193, 194, pi. vi. 6 ; Ant. du Bosphove Cimmerien , II. p. 91, pi. lxix. 7. But all these figures are plainly intended for caricatures, whereas our figure, as a temple gift, can hardly be anything but a thank offering for a successful childbirth. It is appropriately dedicated to Hera as Ei\36vi.a. (Cf. Hesycli, s. v. EiAei6WW "H pa iv "Apyei, and on the whole sub¬ ject, Roscher, Lexicon der Mythologie , I2 pp. 2087 ff.
125. F brty-four fragments of figures similar to Nos. 118-122, mostly bodies of the cravls type, roughly made by hand. A few show traces of applied plastic ornamentation. The painted orna¬ mentation is simple ; it consists principally of lines and dots, usually in red and black, although there are a few cases of applied white (to mark the girdle), and one figure has two purple bands falling from the girdle in front. The only pattern is found on the right side of one figure, where we may suppose the fold of the Doric chiton to be : —
126. (Fig. 53.) Torso of female figure of coarse clay, round-bodied type. On the right shoul¬ der is an elaborate fibula of the “ clover-leaf ” type, and the left shoulder shows traces of a similar fibula. At the back are traces of strands of hair, and also of an applied band which was stretched from shoulder to shoulder. The ground color is red, covered by a black coat, with
Height, 6 cm. Clay, yellow.
127. Similar torso, forearms (which were extended) broken off. Traces of four strands of hair at back, and of one strand in front of each shoulder. Fold of chiton represented plastically and decorated with “ laufender Hund ” pattern in light brown. The entire body is covered witli a light brown coat, to which is applied dark brown on bust and arms. Dark brown stripe at waist. 1 1 eight, 5.5 cm. Yellow clay.
129. Fragment of heavy, seated figure of coarse clay (similar to the clay of Nos. 126-128), broken at neck and below knees. The woman leans forward and rests her elbo .vs on her knees. The forearms are broken off. Color, black, with red lines at upper edge of chiton and at waist. Traces of large fibula at left shoulder. Height, 8.5 cm. Yellow clay.
130. (Plate XLYII. 3.) Bust and head of rudely made figure of archaic style, with a mod¬ eled head. This figure presents striking analogies to the advanced Argive figures ; it has a low stephane, six large curls, large earrings, and a close-fitting necklace. Yet it is a real archaic figure ; the body was of the same type as Nos. 126-129. Paint applied directly : pupils of eyes, hair, and body, black ; brows, brown. Height, 6.5 cm. Yellow clay.
131. Fragments of four replicas of No. 130, with varying amounts of plastic ornament. Three have necklaces, the fourth is broken close to the neck. One has marks of a long necklace from shoulder to shoulder at the back. Two have applied earrings, while of the others, one has the ear¬ rings represented by circles sunk in the clay, the other has none at all. The hair consists in three cases of curls ; in the other it is a mass. All show marks of having had a stephane. The system of color is the same in all — body, solid color, in one case black, shading to red ; in the others, black ; necklace, a row of dots ; pupils of eyes, brows, and hair, same color as the body — in one case red, in the others, black. One figure has a black dot in the centre of each earring. Height, 3.5 cm. to 6.5 cm. Clay, yellow, except one figure, which is of gray clay.
ure is interesting only because it has at the shoulders round pins similar to those of the early and advanced Argive styles (cf. p. 8). General traces of white. Height, 4 cm. Clay, red.
133. Fragment of similar figure, without pins. The lower body is no more than a squared lump of clay ; the arms are stumps. Fold of chiton represented by a slight groove. Traces of white. Height, 7.5 cm. Reddish yellow clay.
135. (Fig. 56.) Badly worn figure of similar make, no orna¬ mentation. At height of shoulders, two supports were fixed to the back to hold the figure upright (cf. the Argive seated fig¬ ures). Traces of white. Height, 8.5 cm. Yellow clay.
136. Th ree fragments of similar figures, all showing remains of supports at level of shoulders. They all show traces of white coat. Heights, 4.5 cm. to 8 cm. Yellow clay.
137. (Fig. 57.) Lower part of large moulded figure, in very high relief (broken at waist). The chiton hangs in a long straight fold between the legs (cf. Musees d' Athenes, pi. v.).
arms, pink. Height, 10 cm. Reddish yellow clay.
138. (Fig. 58.) Similar fragment in lower relief, with line ornamentation in pur¬ ple (simple vertical lines, joined by horizontal and criss-cross lines ; at sides, rude horizontal lines only). Height, 6 cm. Clay, reddish yellow.
From the waist down, the figure is a mere case, in which all the forms disappear, but there is an attempt at representing the feet. Above the pJG ^ waist, the modeling is summary, but fairly accurate. The breasts are clearly brought out, as are also the lower edge of the chiton and the indentation of the girdle (cf. Musees d' Athenes, pi. x.). The figure stands on a narrow plinth, which was included in the mould. White slip, with red bands around lower part of chiton. Height, 7 cm. Clay, gray.
141 and shrank in baking.1 It shows only traces of white. Height, 7 cm. Red clay.
143. (Fig. 60.) Fragment of similar figure, broken at waist. The hair is represented by notches and falls to shoulders. The ear is too high, as is usual in archaic work. The edges of the chiton at neck and waist are dis¬ tinctly marked. Traces of white, of red on chiton. Height, 4.5 cm.
144. (Fig. 61.) Fragment from the same mould as No. 143, minus face and broken at knees. This figure shows not only the lower edge of the fold of the chiton, but also the indentation of the Arms held close to sides. Slight traces of red. Height,
Upper part of similar figure in high calathus (broken at Fold of chiton and indentation of girdle well marked. Color, traces of red on calathus. Height, 5 cm. Clay, red.
edges of the mould. Arms hang close to sides. Edges of chiton marked by grooves at neck and waist, also at sides. The hair is represented by grooves, worked after the figure left the mould. Slight traces of red. Height, 8.5 cm. Dark yellow clay.
149. Fragment from the same mould as Nos. 147 and 148, broken at neck and knees.
150. (Plate XLVI. 14.) Bust of large standing figure broken at waist. High round stephane. The hair is carefully represented by curls in low relief over forehead, and three long curls in front of each shoulder. The eyes are remarkably long and triangular. Traces of white, of red on left side. Height, 10 cm. Gray clay.
151. (Fig. 63.) Somewhat similar fragment, broken at waist, face badly broken. Edges of chiton very plainly marked, also edge of girdle. Hair, large mass at back. Ears, remarkably large. No traces of color. Height, 10 cm. Red clay.
153. (Plate XLVI. 1.) Rudely modeled figure, with arms bent at elbows, hands touching shoulders. No attempt at representing details. Traces of white.
154. (Fig. 64.) Fragment of figure with arms simi¬ larly bent (broken at neck and above knees). Very careless modeling. Traces of white. Two red lines at waist, one at neck.
155. (Plate XLVI. 6.) Standing figure in stephane, with hands raised to breast. All the lines are remarkably deep ; they seem to have been made with a pointed instrument. Hair treated in notches. Two grooves mark the lower border of chiton. No trace of color. Height, 8 cm. Clay, dark red, shading to black.
lower edge of chiton.
157. (Plate XLVI. 2.) Somewhat more advanced archaic figure, showing an attempt to represent the folds of the chiton. The figure wears the stephane, and the arms are represented as bent at the elbow, although the forearms are mere stumps. Traces of white coat. Height, 8.5 cm. Red clay.
159. Figure very similar to No. 157 — folds of chiton fairly well given (broken at neck). The arms hang slightly forward, and are entirely given in the mould. Traces of white. Height, 6 cm. Clay, reddish yellow.
160. Fragment of left side of archaic figure — forearm and hand grasping edge of chiton preserved — with fairly careful reproduction of folds. This figure is not flat at back, but hollow, with thin walls, corre¬ sponding to the later technique. No traces of color. Height, 8 cm. Red clay.
161. (Fig. 65.) Lower part of archaic figure, showing still greater development of folds of chiton. Here, not only the vertical folds which fall from the arm are brought out, but the folds between the legs are also fairly well reproduced. The modeling of these folds is softer than in most of the other figures of this class, giving an impression of greater freedom. This may partly be due to the fact that this was perhaps made
163. (Plate XLVI. 3.) Figure of the “ Spes ” type, broken at neck and at knees. The himation falls from right shoulder and passes under right arm. The chiton was doubtless indi¬ cated in color. Right hand raised to waist, and pierced by a hole for an attribute (perhaps a flower?). Left hand holds edge of himation. The folds are very carefully indicated. Himation, red — color applied directly to clay. Height, 8.5 cm. Yellow clay.
Cf. Winter, ‘Die Terrakotten von der Akropolis,’ Arch. Anz. 1893, pp. 140 ff., esp. figs. 5, 11, 15; Lechat, ‘ Terres Cuites de Corcyre,’ B. C. II. XV. (1891), pp. 1-112, esp. p. 79, No. 74, pi. viii. 2 (the specimen there mentioned had a hole in the hand, exactly as No. 163 has) ; Heuzey, Fig. Ant. pi. xl. 2 (from Cyrenaica) ; Martha, Cat. cles Fig. du Mus. d' Athenes, No. 733 (provenance unknown, but probably Greek). The best short discussion of the “ Spes” figures is that of Orsi, in his publication of the Megara Hyblaea terra-cottas ; see Mon. Ant. I. pp. 924 ff.
164. (Plate XLVI. 10.) Fragment of figure similar to No. 163 — broken at neck and waist. Same arrangement of himation, same careful adjustment of folds. Right hand raised to waist, left doubtless grasped edge of garment. Slight traces of white. Height, 5 cm. Light yellow clay.
165. Fragment of archaic figure, broken above waist and below knees. The folds are hastily indicated. The left hand hangs somewhat forward and holds an apple. At the back is a very plain thumb-mark. Traces of white. Height, 6.5 cm. Dark red clay.
166. (Pl ate XLVI. 9.) Aphrodite of archaic type, broken at neck and knees. Folds of chiton barely indicated. Both hands are raised, the right, carrying a dove, to breast ; the left, with flower, below it. Traces of white. Height, 5.5 cm. Clay, reddish yellow and very fine.
169. Similar figure, badly broken. Right holds dove, left raised edge of hima¬ tion. The folds of the himation are carefully given. On the shoulders, traces of three locks of hair. Traces of white. Height, 7 cm. Clay, reddish yellow.
170. Fragment of similar figure, broken at neck and waist. Right hand holds dove. In front of shoulders, four notched strands form the hair. Traces of white. Height, 6 cm. Reddish yellow clay.
Cf. on all these figures, Nos. 166-171, the marble statue in Lyons ( Gaz . Arch. 1876, p. 133, pl. xxxi.) ; also the terra-cottas, Heuzey, Fig. Ant. pl. xii. 5; Orsi, ‘Megara Hyblaea,’ Mon. Ant. I. p. 925, pl. vii. 11; Michaelis, Arch. Zeit. 1864, p. 137, pl. clxxxii. 1; Martha, Cat. cles Ficj. du Mus. cV Athenes, No. 433.
172. ( Plate XLVI. 4.) Figure of usual archaic type, broken at neck and at knees. The figure wears the chiton, with a thick fold between the legs, and over it another garment (yii-omo-Kos ?) reaching to the knees (cf. the statue, Musees cl Athenes, pl. v.). Both hands are raised in front of body, the left below the right, and each holds a fruit. Traces of white. Height, 7.5 cm. Clay, liglit yellow and very fine.
175. (Plate XLVI. 8.) Fragment of archaic figure, broken at neck and at waist. She wears the himation falling from right shoulder to left side, and holds in front of her, with her right hand, a wreath. Traces of red on himation. Height, 4.5 cm. Clay, yellow and fine.
Cf. the statue from the Acropolis (Collignon, Hint, de la Scidpture Grecque , I. p. 353, fig. 178), which holds a wreath in the right hand and a jar in the left; Orsi, ‘ D’ Una Citta Greca a Terravecchia presso Granmichele in Provincia di Catania,’ Mon. Ant. VII. p. 234, fig. 24 ; Kekule, Ant. Terrahotten , II. p. 9, fig. 4. It seems not unlikely that this figure has reference to the cult of Hera Antheia.
176. (Plate XLVI. 7.) Standing figure in chiton (edge at neck and waist, with folds at shoulder and below girdle carefully rendered). Broken at neck and at knees. Right hand holds a small animal (probably a hare) ; left grasps edge of sleeve of chiton at breast. At back are marks of a thumb and two fingers. Traces of white. Height, 11 cm. Dark red clay.
Dark red clay.
179. (Plate XLVI. 11.) Similar archaic figure, broken at neck. She wears chiton with thick fold between legs, and long overgarment like that of No. 172. Both hands hold attributes — right, an animal (stag?), left, bow (cf. p. 15). The break at the left shoulder is interesting, as it shows the method of manufacture by layers — the outer layer is of much finer clay than the inner (filling) layer. Traces of white. Height, 11.5 cm. Fine, light yellow clay.
Cf. Heuzey, Fig. Ant. pi. xviii. bis. 1 (from Tliespiae) ; Stephani, Compte Hendu , 1872, p. 161, pi. iii. 4 (from Kertsch ; the figure looks as if it had come from the same mould as No. 179) ; Lechat, ‘ Terres Cuites de Corcyre,’ B. C. H. XV. (1891), p. 48, No. 37, pi. iii. 2 ; p. 51, No. 40, pi. iii. 1 ; Berlin Museum, 6831 (Attica) and 6262 (Thespiae) ; Syracuse, large terra-cotta room, case III. (Megara Hyblaea).
Clay, light yellow to red.
182. Basis of large statue of archaic type, with fragment of the figure from the knees down. The feet are carefully modeled and fairly correct. The bottom is pierced by a round vent. The chiton was red. Height, 7 cm. Height of plinth, 2 cm. Length, 6 cm. Width, 5 cm. Clay, reddish yellow.
The dimensions vary from 3 cm. X 3.5 cm. to 5.5 cm. X 7.5 cm. Clay, light red to yellow.
184. (Fig. 67.) Very rude seated figure, broken at bottom. The figure varies little from the standing type, except that it is slightly bent at the middle and has two supports behind (cf. No. 135). The arms, which are resting on the knees, are little better than two stumps. On the breast is a pendant. The upper part forms a rude stephane. The figure hardly appears to be modeled at all, yet the surface shows plainly that it was. Traces of white. Height, 5.5 cm. Red clay.
185. Similar figure with supports behind. She wears stephane and necklace with pendant (these made in the mould), and long veil falling to shoulders (a separate piece added after the figure was complete). Traces of white ; three red lines on bottom of chiton. Height, 10.5 cm. Reddish yellow clay.
187. (Fig. 68.) Seated figure, very summary modeling — only feet, hands, and features brought out at all. The figure rests on a high plinth, which was moulded with it. The hair is a simple band above forehead. She wears a stepliane, from which a veil falls over shoulders. Solid, pierced only by air-vent. Traces of white. Height, 8 cm. Dark red clay.
For all these carelessly modeled figures, cf. Heuzey, Fig . Ant. pi. xi. ; Perrot et Chipiez, Hist, de V Art, III. p. 425, fig. 299 ; Ivekule, Ant. Terrakotten, II. p. 9, fig. 3 ; Martha, Cat. dcs Fig. du Mas. dk Athene s, Nos. 227 If. ; Panofka, Terrakotten des K. Mas. zu Berlin , p. 12, pi. ii.
192. (Fig. 69.) Hastily modeled seated figure, wrapped in flowing chiton, under which, how¬ ever, the outlines of arms, hands, and breasts are carefully brought out. The figure is pierced by an air- vent. Traces of white. Height, 7.5 cm. Reddish yellow clay.
Cf. Gerhard, Ant. Bild. pp. 338 tf., pi. xcv. 1, 2 (Sicily); also in stone, the seated figures, discovered at Branchidae by Newton ( Discoveries at Halicarnassus , pp. 530 ff., pis. Ixxiv., lxxv.), and the archaic statue in the National Museum at Athens (Kavvadias, No. 6 ; ’E<£. ’Apy. 1874, p. 480, pi. lxxi. Aa and A/3).
yellow and red.
194. Similar figure showing an attempt at reproducing the folds of the chiton where it falls across the breast. Arms still at sides, hands resting on knees. Fragments of two supports at back. White slip with red lines
197. (Plate XLVI. 16.) Figure similar to No. 192, but with much better treatment of folds across breast and at waist. The outlines of the legs are also well brought out. The hands rest on arms of chair, and both hold round objects (probably apples; cf. Nos. 172, 173, and p. 15). The figure is pierced by an air-vent. Traces of white. Height, 7 cm. Dark red clay.
198. (Plate XLYI. 13.) Similar figure, with careful, though stylistic representation of folds by deep vertical lines, from breast to feet. Hands at knees ; fingers rudely indicated. The figure lias an air-vent. Red line at neck. Height, 6.5 cm. Clay, light yellow and very fine.
199. (Plate XLVI. 15.) Similar figure without indication of folds, but with right hand raised, holding a bird to breast. Left hand rests on left knee. The throne on which she sits is carefully distinguished. Traces of red on chair. Height, 6 cm. Clay, light yellow and very fine.
202. Thirteen small heads belonging to the type of Nos. 198 and 199. They are flat at back, of pronounced archaic style. The hair is usually a mass falling to shoulders, slightly notched over forehead, with polos or stephane. General traces of white. Heights, 2.5 cm. to 5 cm. Clay, fine, ranging from yellow to red.
203. Th ree very similar heads, not, however, flat at back. The features are archaic. Hair, mass. One head has the polos. Traces of white, of red on polos. Heights, 3 cm., 3.5 cm., and 4 cm. Clay, light yellow to red.
204. Lower part of crouching male figure with hands (disproportionately large) on knees. The figure corresponds very closely to one from Megara Hyblaea (cf. Mon. Ant. I. pi. vi. 5), and was undoubtedly a satyr or silenus. Traces of white. Height, 6 cm. Reddish yellow clay.
shading to red.
These heads (Nos. 207-209) have the marks of the Rhodian ware as described by Heuzey ( Cat. des Fig. du Mus. du Louvre , p. 220), “ la machoire inferieure osseuse et developpee a l’exces, ce que nous appelons le menton galoche ; de gros yeux triangulaires, dont la paupiere superieure est seule arquee.” They are probably, therefore, imported, although a few may be local imitations. Cf. Heuzey, loc. cit. pp. 229, 230; Kekule, Ant. Terrahotten , II. p. 12, fig. 16, and p. 18, fig. 34; Winter, Arch. Anz. 1893, p. 147, No. 28 ; Orsi, ‘ Megara Hyblaea,’ Mon. Ant. I. p. 805.
210. (Plate XLVII. 15.) Head of pronounced archaic type — eyes set obliquely to nose, mouth raised at corners. The headdress is very high, a sort of tiara (the kydaris ?), and from it a veil falls to the shoulders. Traces of white. Height, 7.5 cm. Clay, light yellow.
Heights, 5.5 cm., 5.5 cm., and 7 cm. Yellow clay.
These heads (Nos. 210 and 211) again resemble very closely a Rhodian type (cf. Heuzey, Fig. du Mus. du Louvre , pi. xi. 2), which is found pretty generally distributed in the basin of the Mediterranean — in Greece, in Sicily, in Italy, and even in Phoenicia.1 Yet they show some di¬ vergences, for instance, the eyes are not set quite so obliquely as those of the Rhodian figures, and they are not so narrow ; so that they are probably of local manufacture, imitating Rhodian work, like the Syracusan figures mentioned by Heuzey.2
212. (Plate XLVII. 14.) Archaic head, with elaborate treatment of the hair. This consists of two rows of curls over the forehead, moulded in the form, then a row of elaborate applied spiral curls, with eight curls at the back (now broken), the whole topped by a double, twisted taenia. The eyes are wide and very long, nose in two planes, mouth straight, ending in a pad of flesh at each corner; a deep furrow extends from cheek-bone to chin on each side of nose. Traces of white. Height, 5 cm. Yellow clay.
213. (Plate XLVII. 12.) Large archaic head, very similar to No. 212. Same type of face. The hair here consisted of a row of scallops moulded in the form, with a row of applied curls above and large mass behind. The figure had large earrings, now broken. Traces of white. Height. 8.5 cm. Light yellow clay.
analogy in the Heraeum finds is the bronze bust, 5, pi. II. 1, 2 ; and in terra-cotta, the head pub¬ lished by Cesnola, Coll, of Cypriote Ant. Ill pi. xv. No. 117 (cf. the sculptures, ibid. II pi. xciii. Nos. 622 and 623 ; pi. xcvii. Nos. 662 and 663). We are inclined, therefore, to regard these two heads as imported.
214. (Plate XLVII. 4.) Head of archaic style, with very sharp features. The hair is an applied mass at back, marked with notches and bound with a taenia. The ground color is greenish yellow, to which red was applied on eyes, cheeks, and brows. Hair, red, shading to black. Height, 4.5 cm. Yellow clay.
suspension hole. Traces of white.
227. (Fig. 71.) Upper part of standing figure with high stephane (broken at waist). Hair, a simple roll below stephane. At the shoulders were two projections (now broken off), which doubtless served to suspend the figure. Some traces of white coat. Height, 9.5 cm. Reddish yellow clay.
228. Very similar smaller figure, broken at waist. This figure also lias stephane and projections at shoulders. Traces of white. Height, 6 cm. Yellow clay.
229. Lower part of seated figure with hands on knees. The figure is hollow, like the later terra-cottas of free style. The folds of the chiton, however, are still represented in a stiff, archaic fashion. The color is well preserved — white slip, with traces of applied red. Height, 5 cm. Clay, reddish yellow.
IX. FREE STYLE.
239. (Plate XLVII. 7.) Fragment of large votive head, broken at left side. The whole treatment is in large surfaces, free from archaic restraint ; the mouth has the natural curve, the outlines of the eye are correctly given, even to the lapping of the upper lid over the under. A ridge down the middle of the face seems to show that the head was made in two pieces. Traces of white. Height, 8.5 cm. Red clay.
This head, in spite of its fragmentary condition, seems to us to represent the great style of the
fifth century, and has inherent traces of the influence of some large statue. The peculiar marking of the hair, undercut and thus relieved from the face, and falling on either side in a mass of curls (here boldly sketched, though not elaborately modeled), is closely analogous to the Argive coin in which a copy of the Polycleitan Hera has been identified. It also suggests a comparison with the newly identified marble head in the British Museum (see General Introd. to Sculpture, p. 23). We are thus encouraged to consider this terra-cotta head as immediately related to the great Polycleitan Hera. Cf. Waldstein, 1 The Argive Hera of Polycleitus,’ J. II. S. XXI. (1901), pp. 30 ff., especially pp. 43, 44, and fig. 2.
240. (Fig. 74.) Votive bust, broken at neck, but with original edge at waist. The folds of the chiton and of the long veil which falls over the shoulders and the arms are all given with perfect freedom and naturalness. The figure is covered with a white coat. Height, 9 cm. Clay, reddish yellow.
X. ANIMALS.
241. (Plate XLVIII. 7 and Fig. 75.) Group, representing a bull attacked by a lion. The lion grasps the bull around the shoulders and bites him in the neck. The execution of the group is fair — the anatomy of the bull’s head is quite well given, and the muscles are fairly well brought out. The fore legs of the lion are too long, otherwise he is well modeled ; his mane is formed of a number of round disks, close together. Technically, it may be noted that the bull seems to have been made complete (his tail curls over his back), and the lion was then “ applied.’’ so to speak, to him. White slip ; black lines on forehead of bull and front legs of lion ; red
Length, 10 cm. Height, 5 cm. Clay, light yellow.
The motive of a bull attacked by one or more lions is one of the oldest, and one of the com¬ monest in Greek art. In Mycenaean times, we find representations of this subject on gems (cf. Tsountas, ’E 0. ’A px- 1888, p. 177, No. 25, pi. x. ; ibid. 1889, p. 166, No. 18, pi. x. ; Perrot et Chipiez, Hist, de V Art, VI. p. 771, pi. xvi. 21) ; and on an ivory placjue from Sparta (B. C. II. II. [1878], p. 213, pi. xvi. 4). In archaic art it is very common ; cf. for example, the frieze of the temple of Assos (Clarac, Musee de Sculpture, II. pi. cxvi. B, No. 5) ; the Lycian relief (Clarac, op. cit. II. pi. ccxxiii. No. 189) ; the relief from Marsala (Arch. Zeit. 1872, pp. 133,
II. XIII. [1889], p. 139, and Rev. Arch. XVIII. [1891], p. 137, pi. xiv. bis.). The motive is also common in branches other than sculpture in stone ; cf. the shield from Amatlius published by Cesnola (Cyprus, pi. xx.) ; the tripod from Vulci (Braun, Annali, 1842, pp. 62 ff. ; Mon.
III. pi. xliii.) ; and the oenoclioe (Gerhard, Aus. Vas. II. p. 134, pis. cxxii., cxxiii). In terra-cotta, I know of no examples except two reliefs — one in Berlin (Gerhard, Ant. Bild. p. 317, pi. Ixxviii. 2), the other in Palermo (Kekule, Ant. Terrakotten , II. p. 82, pi. liv. 2).
in red stripes is common to both. In fact, it seems probable
that our group was copied from a work of sculpture similar to the Acropolis group, and dates from about the same time, i. e., the first half of the sixth century b. C.
242. (Plate XLVIII. 11.) Fragment of a centaur, top of head, legs, and horse’s body missing. The break at buttocks shows plainly that the figure was a centaur. He has a long, pointed beard, in which a triangular hole marks the mouth. The left hand is pressed against the left hip ; the right was apparently raised. White slip. Height, 6.5 cm. Light yellow clay.
Cf. the figure from Limniti, Arch. Anz. 1889, p. 88, E.
243. (Plate XLVIII. 6.) Horse carrying a woman of primitive type. She faces the horse’s right side, and no saddle is represented. Eyes and breasts of woman and eyes of horse are applied disks. White slip, with applied red lines on neck, waist, and knees of woman. Height, 6.5 cm. Red clay.
Reinach, in a study of female figures associated with horses (La Necropole de Myrina , pp. 401 ff.), comes to the conclusion that “ l’on pent hesiter entre Eos, Selene et Aphrodite, mais sans exclure la possibility d’une antre hypothese.” At Argos, a figure like No. 243 is much more likely to be associated with Hera IWios (cf. Paus. V. 15. 5), but this cannot be regarded as anything more than a conjecture.
244. (Plate XLVIII. 2.) Mounted warrior of the ordinary primitive type. Face, a beak, with disks for eyes ; high helmet. He has no shield, but extends his arms to the sides of the horse’s head. Traces of white. Height, 7.5 cm. Red clay.
shoulders of horse are preserved. Traces of white. Height, 9 cm. Red clay.
246. (Plate XLVIII. 3.) Similar warrior, no part of horse preserved. The warrior wears a peculiar helmet, the effect of which resembles that of the American “cocked hat.” White slip. Height, 7 cm. Light yellow clay.
of a white slip. Clay, usually red.
For this very common type, cf. Martha, Cat. cles Fig. du Mus. d' Athenes, Nos. 602, 603 (from Tegea) ; Jamot, B>. C. II. XIV. (1890), pp. 217 ff. (Tanagra figures); Cesnola, Coll, of Cypriote Antiquities, IIP pi. lxix.
257. (Plate XLVIII. 14.) Small human-headed bird, with ring for suspension. The face is archaic, with high coiffure, two braids falling over right shoulder and one over left ; mass at back. Traces of white with applied red. Height, 5 cm. Dark yellow clay.
Cf. Martha, Cat. des Fig. du M^ls. d' Athenes, Nos. 241, 242, 964; Ivekule, Ant. TerraJcotten , II. p. 26, figs. 63 and 64 ; Ileuzey, Fig. du Mus. du Louvre, pi. xiii. 6. We agree with Heuzey (Joe. cit. p. 11), in regarding this figure as a Siren or Harpy, borrowed by the Greeks from the Egyptian representation of the soul.
This type is very common. Cf. Martha, Cat. des Fig. du Mus. d' Athenes, Nos. 11-13; Dumont et Chaplain, Ceramiques de la Gr'ece Propre, II. p. 229, No. 45; Girard, ‘ Sur Quelques Necropoles de la Grece du Nord,’ B. C. Id. III. (1879), p. 217, No. 2 ; Stepliani, Compte Bendu, 1868, p. 71, pi. iii. 14 ; Rayet, Cat. de la Coll, d' Ant. Gr. de M. 0. Payet, p. 8, No. 30 ; there are similar specimens in Syracuse.
Cf. Martha, Cat. des Fig. du Mus. d’Athenes, No. 100 ; Frohner, Collection Barre , No. 464. It is probable, from the position of the arms and from a remnant of some object on the left shoulder, that our figure held a spear in the right hand, and carried a shield on the left arm — the attitude of a similar figure from Megara Hyblaea in Syracuse (vase room, central case).
Undoubtedly an offering “ by sub¬ stitution ” to the gods ; cf. Pottier and Reinach, La Necropole de Myrina , pp. 246 ff.
268. (Fig. 78.) Table, legs broken close to top. The edges are grooved to form an ornamental pattern. On the table, thin strips of clay, applied irregularly, seem to us to represent food (cf. No. 267). Traces of white and some red. Length. 7.5 cm. Yellow clay.
269. (Fig. 79.) Top of a table, legs broken. At each corner is a boss, meant, possibly, to represent a bronze nail-head. Top painted with cross-lines and round dots in maroon, shading to black. Length, 5.5 cm. Width, 5 cm. Yellow clay.
270. Forty-eight fragments of similar tables, mostly small, flat pieces of tops, with incised patterns of parallel and criss-cross lines. They are usually painted solid red, but a few have the reg¬ ular white coat, with applied red and black lines.
277. (Fig. 84.) Terra-cotta mould. The objects repre¬ sented come out more plainly in the impression (which is here given) than in the mould itself ; but they are difficult
The objects represented in this mould make it appear probable that the mould was used for making offerings of food, “ by substitution,” to the goddess. Cf. No. '267, and the reference there given.
278. (Fi g. 85.) Small set of three large-handled vases, set into one another. They served no practical purpose, but were simply a votive offering. Traces of white. Height, 6.25 cm. Dark red clay.
Orsi, in his article ‘ Megara Hyblaea ’ (. Mon . Ant. I. p. 874 ), quotes a case of two stanmi set into each other in a grave (No. cxciii. of his enumera¬ tion).
280. (Fi g. 87.) Small tree (?) with seven projections about main stalk (to represent branches?). White coat, ornamentation in red and black lines. Height, 7 cm. Clay, reddish yellow.
282. Twenty-two fragments of similar disks. They are all painted, usually in maroon and black, sometimes in solid color. Length, 1.5 cm. to 5 cm. Yellow clay.
288. Forty-nine similar spools, with simple designs, usually a single circle or simple rosette ; two have a Gi’eek cross. They almost never show traces of color. Heights,
Diameters, 2.25 cm. to 6 cm. Clay, light yellow to red.
290. Large pear-shaped weight (probably loom-weight), perforated 4.5 cm. from top. The bottom, which is flattened, is pierced by three holes, apparently unconnected, and another hole, parallel to the axis, enters at the side. On one side, at bottom, is stamped an anthemion. No trace of color. Height, 14.5 cm. Greatest diameter, 7 cm. Dai-k yellow clay.
291. Twenty fragments of similar large weights, perforated at top, and with one to five holes at bottom, but without decoration. No ti-aces of color. Height, 7.5 cm. to 13 cm. Clay, usually red.
It is to be regretted that these pages were in type before the appearance of Hadaczek’s two articles, ‘ Zur Schrauckknnst des altgriechischen Mittelalters ’ and ‘Die Fibel des Odysseus, Helikes und Kalykes ’ ( Jahres hefte d. oester. arch. Inst, in Wien , Y. [1902], pp. 207 ff., and ibid. VI. [1903], pp. 108 ft’.), so that it was impossible to give definite references to the Argive figures which he mentions. We are pleased to note that his conclusions as to the dress of these figures are substantially in agreement with our own, as expressed on pp. 10 ft. and po.ssim.
The Terra-Cotta Reliefs form a portion of the interesting finds among the objects of the lesser arts which the excavations at the Argive Heraeum has yielded. The greater number of them were found during the first season in 1892, in what we termed the “ black layer ” below the foundation walls of the Second Temple. Though we are not justified in saying that this black layer ran continuously round the foundations of the whole Temple, earth of this consistency, containing objects of the same character, was found at so many points in the filling for the Second Temple that a certain degree of continuity may be assumed. Still, at times, the black earth was found in greater thickness and the objects in greater profusion ; so that we were led to use the term “ pockets.” Other specimens were discovered, chiefly on the south and southwest slopes, in the third layer of earth which had been massed as filling for the Second Temple ; so that on the whole, the provenience of all these objects may be designated as the filling below the Second Temple. The chronology of all objects found in this filling would thus be fixed in the one direction as being prior to the year 423 b. c. The other limit cannot be determined in the same way by the conditions of excavation ; especially as objects mani¬ festly belonging to widely different periods were found together in this filling. We may, however, anticipate and mention one fact which will necessitate fuller explanation on some future occasion, namely, that none of these terra-cottas were found on the same level as the Mycenaean walls erected on the bed-rock below the filling. Further points, in so far as they can now be determined, will be noted as we examine each individual fragment.
The terra-cotta reliefs will be considered in two groups : first, those that ornamented flat objects of terra-cotta — plaques, files, pinakes, bricks, etc. ; and, secondly, those that evidently formed parts of terra-cotta vessels or vases decorated in relief. We shall in this chapter confine our study to the former group.
1 This chapter, descriptive of them, is here reproduced 2 An eleventh fragment, similar in form to No. 2, but as published in the American Journal of Archaeology with only a foot showing in the field, was too much muti(vol. II. 1898, pp. 173-186), with slight corrections and lated to be published, additions.
is made of a very coarse greenish yellow clay, in which small stones are visible.
The question what purpose these plaques served is not easily determined. There are two classes of ancient metal relief work : repousse, or beaten work, and pressed, or stamped work. The stamped work, especially in soft and thin gold, was evidently made from a mould 1 upon which the thin metal was pressed. ' The use of so brittle a material as clay, however hard the baking may have made it, and however thick such brick-like plaques as Nos. 2, 3, 4, and 5 may be, would be strange. Still it is not impossible that the examples just mentioned may have served that purpose. All these reliefs are influ¬ enced to some degree by the style suggested by metal work. It is not impossible that they may have served as “ backing ” for a thin coating of metal. But this is not likely, because for this the same objection of the softness and brittleness of the material might be adduced. Moreover, there is no trace whatever on their surface that such a covering existed. And, considering the peculiar adhesive effect the oxydization of bronze exerts on extraneous objects (many vases being found at the Heraeum to which bronze objects were stuck fast), it is inconceivable that no traces of such a covering should have been found. A specimen of a mould in terra-cotta was found at the Heraeum, 0.11 m. in length, 0.7 m. in width, and about 0.01 m. in thickness, flat on one side and curved on the other. In the flat side were several holes of varying shapes, sunk to a depth of several millimetres. A cast taken from this mould showed a series of objects, one of which undoubtedly represented a mollusk, the rnurex , or purple shell, so common on Mycenaean vases. The artist has made the common mistake in representing this shell sinistral instead of dextral ; he has also made the anterior canal too wide. Whether the others represent nuts, fruit, or seeds of various shapes, we cannot decide. The nearest analogies to such a mould are found in Naucratis,2 and the so-called “ cake-stamps ” (JVau/cratis, 1. p. 45, pi. 29), which are clearly of a very late date. Mr. Cecil Smith
RELIEF NO. 1
informs us that there are in the British Museum, thus far unpublished, stamps of a similar shape to ours, but none with the same subject. The presence of the raurex might point to a somewhat early date for our mould, but there is no further clue to the date.
That all these plaques are ex votos is the only natural explanation of their existence at the Heraeum. Nos. 9 and 10 certainly serve that purpose, as the holes in their upper parts for hanging them up show, and Nos. 1, 6, and 7 can hardly be anything else.
The technical method seems to have been the same in all, namely, that the clay was stamped while soft, and afterwards fired. Nos. 8 and 9 present the peculiarity of being treated with a sharp knife after firing, in order to express details and to emphasize lines ; this is apparent from the knife-marks on the surface of the clay, and from the fact that in several places the outlines have been trimmed down, leaving a fainter line at the back of the relief.
No. 1. — This relief is especially interesting in that while, as we shall see, it manifests Hellenic elements, it has traces of Oriental influence more strongly marked than the others. In fact, we may say that the terra-cottas in relief manifest the ‘ Oriental ’ charac¬ ter in far greater proportion and pronouncedness than is the case with the terra-cotta figurines in the round. While we found but few specimens among our many hundred figurines which bore clear traces of Oriental influence, the proportion of terra-cotta reliefs which show this influence is very large, and, as in No. 1, this Oriental character is clear and pronounced. This is a very significant fact, strengthening, as it does, our convic¬ tion, based upon much testimony from other quarters, that Greek sculpture in the round, the statue of pure art, is a specifically Greek development ; while Oriental influences only find their way into Greece through the channels of decorative art, especially through ornamental vessels in ceramic art and metal ivork.
The subject represented is, at first sight, quite simple. It is a nude, winged figure. The upper part of the body, as well as the head, is in full face, while the lower part from the waist downwards is in profile. This want of unity in composition is the rule with reliefs, as well as figures in the round, of this early period. Such inconsistency in atti¬ tude, by a curious effect of conventionalism, survived long after the artists had advanced beyond this point of archaic awkwardness. Ceramic art is a case in point, since not till after the Persian wars was this conventionality abandoned, and instances in sculpture are too numerous to mention.
The head 1 is surrounded by a mass of hair, which falls down to the shoulder on both sides in a heavy, ribbed mass, while over the forehead it lies in waves. On the left eye is a slight indentation which at first sight seems like an iris, but which on a careful examination proves to be merely accidental, no such hole being apparent in the other eye. The nose is flat and the mouth hard and straight, a slight effort being made to model the lips and chin. The scheme of the hair is strikingly like that of the Melian or the Tenean Apollo.
The wings present this peculiarity, that they grow directly from the breast, in front of the shoulders, which they entirely conceal. The arms are comparatively thin, a result, perhaps, of the difficulty the artist found in dealing with several different planes, the arms being drawn behind the wings.
former. When it is carefully examined, the traces of a very short wavy chiton can he discovered, at a slight distance below the waist. Female figures in archaic art are never represented, as far as we know, in a chiton of such shortness. Though there are many points of difference, a comparison of this plaque with the bronze relief from the Acro¬ polis1 induces us to believe that our figure is male.
The thighs are large in proportion to the body, with careful modeling of the muscles, especially about the knee. The nates are small in proportion to the thighs, a peculiarity seen also on the Selinus Metope of Heracles and the Cercopes. The legs from the knee downwards are extremely thin, similar to those of the Tenean Apollo. In fact, our relief seems to afford a mixture of the exaggerated muscularity of the Selinus Metope and the slimness of the Tenean Apollo.
The attitude of the figure is not necessarily that of one walking, hut is due rather to the inability of the artist to represent the legs and feet from the front. What the hands hold is clearly not a wreath, but a conventionalized flower or branch. This forms part of the action itself, since each hand holds an end of the ornament, and it thus becomes a sort of contaminatio of a plant and scroll ornamenting the background, introduced at the same time into the action of the figure itself. This action is, in reality, a reminis¬ cence of the well-known “ Thierbandigerschema,” 2 of which the Persian Artemis,3 falsely so called, is a good example. The winged figure in this connection was one of the types adopted by the Greeks, and was remodeled to suit their own peculiar needs, since, though the Hellenic character of the Persian Artemis is now established, no one denies that the original type was a foreign importation. The addition of the wings seems to be a fea¬ ture of the later archaic art,4 since they are certainly unknown as attributes of the human figure in Mycenaean or Geometric art, nor do we find them on the “ Island Stones.”5
The mythological significance of the relief, if such it has, is not clear to us. We can only say that it is a winged figure treated in an ornamental manner. We use the term “ ornamental ” advisedly, with a more literal signification than is generally given ; for one of the most peculiar and striking features of this representation is the action of the figure. The winged “ genius ” is holding in both hands a mere ornament, a decorative design, which certainly is no implement of use, nor has it any special significance. But the use made of it here is quite distinctive and original. It is as if the decorative feeling of the modeler of the plaque had been so strong that it obtruded itself into his represen¬ tation of a human figure, becoming an integral part of the attitude and action, at the expense of the logic of representation, as far as the human figure itself is concerned. This introduction of the ornament seems to point to two customs in the decoration or framing of scenes and representations of figures on vases, bronzes, terra-cottas, etc. ; namely, the continuous scroll or other ornament bordering these scenes, as with a frame, and the introduction of ornaments into the field or background, which the Germans have called “ Fullornamente.” Such framing bands and “ Fullornamente ” are the composite motives which appear to have led the artist to introduce this new form of ornament into the field of this relief.
Dodona,1 but of a manifestly later date. Here, however, the ornament has been treated in a precisely similar fashion, the ends of the scroll being- held in each hand. In spite of the lateness of the Dodona plaque, a quasi-Oriental influence may easily be detected. A similar position of hands may be noticed on the Euphorbus plate.2
An almost exact duplicate of our figure may be found on the gold hormus from Camirus.3 Though the centaur, with whom our figure invites comparison, has no wings, the most striking similarity of style is noticeable when we compare the two. The treat¬ ment of the hair, body, nates, and legs is identical. The wings are supplied by the Arte¬ mis on the same jewel, and, moreover, present the same peculiarity we have commented on before, namely, that they grow directly from the breast, concealing the upper part of the arm and shoulder. Our figure, in fact, might almost be composed by a combination of the centaur and the Artemis on the hormus. This jewel, which is certainly Rhodian, exhibits more than any other work known to us so marked a similarity of style and technique with our plaque as to suggest some very close connection between them. More than this we do not venture to say, since it has not yet been determined whether Rhodians were influenced by Argives, or vice versa. It may well be the case that the Rhodian types are derived from Argos, since Camirus, according to legend, was a colony of Argos, founded by the Heraclid Tlepolemus,4 and was counted as one of the towns of the Doric Hexapolis. The presence, also, of the Argive alphabet in Rhodes is well known. (Cf. the Argive lambda on the Euphorbus plate.) As a last comparison, we might mention a relief somewhat similar in style, but probably earlier, found at Aegina.5 This relief exhibits the greatest similarity in the treatment of the hair. That it is Pelo¬ ponnesian and not Aeginetan seems fairly evident.
In summing up, we may say that, while our plaque exhibits Hellenic features, espe¬ cially in the modeling of the figure, the spirit of the composition and the introduction of the wings are distinctly of Oriental origin. Moreover, we find absolutely no Mycenaean or Geometric elements, but those which are characteristic of the early Corinthian vases. We are forced, however, to assign our relief to a slightly later date than those vases which exhibit this “ Thierbandigerschema,” since the conventional and decorative treat¬ ment of the ornament of our plaque, admittedly without a meaning, is certainly later than this schema, not earlier. Therefore we may assign it approximately to the begin¬ ning of the seventh century b. c. Even in the best period of Greek art, such a deco¬ rative solecism may be met with, as, for instance, in the beautiful red-figured vase of astragalus shape, signed Svpt<r/co9 iiroUae, in the Papa Giulio Museum at Rome.
Nos. 2-5. — These are all of similar technique, and evidently contemporaneous. Frag¬ mentary as they are, we have still enough to show that their dimensions were from 0.10 to 0.12 m. long and 0.7 to 0.9 m. wide. Of all our reliefs, these show the metal influ¬ ence in a most marked manner, the incuse circles being probably an imitation of the nailheads used to fasten bronze sheathing to wood, while the division into fields, as well as the technique, finds its parallel in the series of bronze reliefs from Olympia,6 Dodona,7 the Acropolis,8 and the temple of the Ptoan Apollo.0 The subject of the reliefs Nos. 2-4
is the same : two winged figures moving rapidly to the left in the usual “ knielaufschema.” 1 What the objects are they hold in their hands cannot be determined with certainty; that in the right hand is paralleled by a similar object in the hands of the figures on the terra-cotta reliefs from Sicily 2 of later style. Kekule, however, refrains from defining these objects. That in the left hand resembles an axe. To identify these figures as gorgons seems impossible, and we must be content merely to term them winged daemons. They are similar in style to the reliefs from Olympia,3 which contain figures called by Furtwangier “ Daimons,” retracting the view he had previously expressed in Roseher’s Lexicon .4 It is impossible to tell whether the figures are male or female, though the latter seems more probable considering their similarity to the figures on the relief previously cited, which are certainly female. It may be here noticed that these figures bear a strong resemblance to the “ Nike of Archermus,” but with the same differ¬ ence that we shall plainly see when we compare them with gorgons. Such monsters, while generally represented in the “ knielauf-schema,” 5 6 have always the body in profile and head en face, and in the case of our figures both head and body are represented in profile. Moreover, our figures are not holding the usual bird or animal. Only one relief in terra-cotta of similar technique, though of different subject, is known to us; G it repre¬ sents the Persian Artemis in profile, holding a bird in each hand. The incuse circles are precisely similar to our reliefs, and a rosette there is similar to those on No. 8. Though little connection may be assumed between the Persian Artemis and our daemons, we see that the same Oriental influence was at work at the time of their manufacture.
No. 5. — What the subject of No. 5 represents is extremely doubtful, and several inter¬ pretations are open to us. It might be a boxing match, if such be the correct identifica¬ tion of the two Olympia reliefs ( Olympia , IV. pis. 39, 703, 704 a ; ef. also Furtwangier, Bi ’ onzefnnde , p. 91), or the similar group on the Geometric vase of Copenhagen.7 A certain similarity may be detected if we compare our relief with a group on the wellknown Tripod vase from Tanagra in Berlin.8 Save that no traces of a wreath can be discovered, the scene on our relief further resembles one of the Ptoan reliefs already cited (B. C. II. 1892, pi. xi. 3; No. 45 in De Ridder, op. cit.). Again, were it not for the lack of the tripod, a connection might be assumed with the scene on the mould in the Ashmolean Museum we have already referred to. Perhaps we might recognize in it the aVpo^eipicr/xo? or the preliminaries of the wrestling match. Instances of this have been identified in several monuments.9 Or perhaps the action of our relief may be only a salutation. More than this we cannot say.
In style there is a closer analogy between this relief and bronze relief work than is the case witli Nos. 2, 3, and 4. The treatment of the figures is precisely identical with that of the above-mentioned Ptoan relief, both in the hair and in the build of the bodies. The profiles, too, are similar. Thus the question of dating our plaques becomes much
Waldstein, in Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological
Society, 1882, p. 2, where, in connection with Arist. Eth. Nic. III. 1. 17, p. 1111 (Bekk.), the following illustrations are mentioned : A vase in the possession of the late Camille Lecnyer at Paris, a relief in Clarac, Musee de Sc. II. pi. 184, No. 55 ; Krause, Gymnast, und Agonistik, II. pi. x. 29. Cf. also Vase Catal. Brit. Mus. III. E. 78, as well as Gerhard, Ant. Bildw. pi. 89, also Baumeister, Denkmdler, I. p. 502, fig. 544. I have recognized another represen¬ tation of such a scene in a vase in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, which 1 hope soon to publish.
simplified. For, though we cannot say witli absolute certainty which of the two is earlier, the fact that they are contemporaneous (at least they would both belong to the same decade) is too evident to be doubted. These bronze reliefs belong approximately to the beginning of the seventh century, which gives us a similar date for our reliefs.
No. 6. — This design here seems rather more advanced in style. The subject of a char¬ ioteer in his chariot was not only common through Egyptian and Assyrian art, but was a favorite theme throughout the whole Mycenaean period, as is shown by the grave-stelae found by Schliemann at Mycenae. We owe the introduction of the quadriga to the Dipylon period, from which certain features of our relief are evidently derived, namelv, the connection of the pole to the wagon by a rope or staff extending from the dashboard.1 The avTvt; has the usual curved form seen on Egyptian wagons, and the wheels are of the common type found on most of the Dipylon chariots. A counterpart of this group may be found on the Frangois vase,2 the figure of Zeus in his chariot at the marriage proces¬ sion of Peleus and Thetis. In fact, we are in a position to date this relief between the Dipylon period and the Frangois vase. Its Hellenic origin need not be questioned ; there is certainly no trace of Ionic influence.
No. 7. — The technique of No. 7 is vastly inferior. It has also suffered far more from abrasion. This makes it difficult to decide whether one or two persons are represented in the chariot, more probably only one. Doubt also exists as to whether the charioteer is holding the reins or is in the act of shooting an arrow, and from the curious posi¬ tion of the body with regard to the chariot, a certain similarity may be deduced with the marble relief3 from the Acropolis of the figure mounting a chariot. At all events, the chariot shows the same influence as No. 6. Its chief peculiarity lies in the fact that but one horse is represented, which fact must be assigned to the incompetence of the artist, since never, in Greek art, does a chariot of this form, drawn by one horse, occur.
Nos. 8 a and b. — That these fragments fit together is fairly evident ; but unfortunately the sides of the fracture, owing to the soft texture of the clay, have been considerably worn away, and thus the breaks, while following the same lines, do not coincide exactly. Still, the foot in the upper right-hand corner of a is the continuation of the leg of the figure in b. Aside from its peculiar technique, to which we have already called atten¬ tion, its chief interest lies in the seeming irregularity. Portions of three fields are pre¬ served, two of which are separated by the same incuse circles met with in Nos. 2, 3, 4, and 5. The rosette of a falls beneath the field of b, being used instead of an incuse circle, as we found in the case of the Lenormant plaque from Mycenae. It is impossible, however, to tell the general form of the relief, how many fields it contained, or what subject is represented. As in the case of Nos. 2 to 5, the connection between this and the metal reliefs is obvious.
The centaur, the chief figure of the relief, is represented with a horse’s fore legs plainly visible, though their lower part is missing. This type of a centaur with the fore legs of a horse is later than that with human fore legs.4 When exactly the later type was introduced cannot be determined, there being no distinct dividing line between the two types, which often appear side by side.5 On archaic gems,1’ however, only the later type occurs. Evidently the two styles continued together for a considerable period. So far
in regarding our relief as one of the earliest examples of that type.
To restore the kneeling figure is impossible. It suggests faintly the “ knielauf,” but that can hardly be the action. The position of the legs resembles to a certain degree that of the figure on the metal relief from Olympia.1 As no trace of a bow or arrow can be found on our figure, its reconstruction as an archer is impossible. Apart from the carefulness of detail, the dress of the figure is a most interesting feature. The figure wears a broad belt, and above it the lines of the chiton are indicated by incisions in the clay. No trace of any lower garment can be discovered. Whether this, as well as the fact that the sex of the figure is not indicated, points to any intention on the part of the artist to denote a close-fitting under-garment is doubtful. Carelessness is again the probable explanation. This garb is paralleled by the figures on the Vapliio cups,2 which wear the broad belt continued below the waist as a sort of breech-cloth, though the upper part of the body is left bare. The portion remaining of the third field is so small that we cannot determine what the figure was. It might be the rear portion of a bird, and the whole a figure of the Persian Artemis type.
While assigning an Hellenic origin to No. 8, we must nevertheless class it among the works of the so-called Oriental Greek style, of which the Argive-Corinthian is a part. The incuse circles we have already discussed ; the rosette is a favorite form of decoration all through the “ Corinthian ” period, besides occurring on bronze reliefs.3 The orna¬ ment above the centaur is characteristic, and may be found on a Melian vase.4 Here we have the use of the ornament in the field as an instance of the horror vacui so charac¬ teristic throughout the “ Corinthian ” period, a feature which does not obtain in the succeeding periods. We may, therefore, be justified in assigning this relief to the end of the seventh century, perhaps a little later. Earlier than the spread of the Oriental influence it cannot be.
Nos. 9 and 10. — These fragments properly belong together, since both are complete and illustrate admirably the pinax form. This in itself would show their connection with the Corinthian pinakes 5 in Berlin, since the pinax does not seem to have been used prior to this period. The lion on No. 9 is chiefly remarkable for the enormous size of his head in proportion to his body. From the absence of any ornaments in the field, as well as from this peculiarity of head, which strongly resembles that of the lions on “ Early Attic” vases,0 we should feel inclined to assign this plaque or pinax to a later stage of the Corinthian period, perhaps about the early part of the sixth century. No. 10, on the other hand, shows traces of Dipylon characteristics. In spite of the abrasion from which the relief has suffered, it is evident that two women are represented, but in a more advanced style than is characteristic of the Dipylon period ; the horses, however, show the feeling of Dipylon art. Nothing of the chariot is plain, except that the wheels are probably four-spoked, though even this cannot be decided. No. 10 is to be assigned to a later date than the Dipylon period, but probably earlier than No. 6.
PREFACE
The publication of the Vases and Vase Fragments from the Heraeum has proved a far more arduous task than I expected when the work was intrusted to me eight years ago. As the time for committing it to the press approaches, I am keenly conscious of its many shortcomings, for, in the six years which have elapsed since the completion of the work and its final revision before going to press, the quantity of new material found in Greece, which might serve to throw new light upon many of the problems the vases from the Heraeum afforded, has increased enormously, and the greater part of it, being as yet unpublished, has been inaccessible to me. I could also wish that it had been possible for me to make the final revision of the work in Athens, with the actual material at ray command, since I realize very clearly that many of the points which have presented themselves to me during the six years since 1 left Athens must remain all too super¬ ficially treated, owing to incomplete notes and a memory sometimes treacherous. Such cases, I hope, will not prove of vital detriment to the value of the work.
Two facts must be mentioned to secure a fair understanding of the work. First, owing to the smallness of the means at my command, I am unable to publish the mate¬ rial as I had originally hoped, and consequently have omitted much which, though not of supreme importance, would have been of distinct benefit had it been possible to retain it. Secondly, I see very clearly that the enormous mass of material should, to secure the best results, have occupied the attention of several workers for at least twice the length of time I have been able to devote to it. Thus the work as it now appears is a small selection of the total material, and cannot in the strictest sense be called either final or complete. I have endeavored as far as possible to present, or at least to mention, all the types and classes that were found; but important omissions must inevitably occur when over two hundred thousand fragments are to be dealt with. Classes like the Geometric or Argive should each be treated in as much space as the whole of this volume, if their elaboration were to be considered final. But the desire to make known to the world as soon as possible the results of one of the most important modern excavations has induced us all to hasten the completion of our several tasks, and leave the various finer points to be more carefully investigated by our successors.
It is a great pleasure, on the completion of my task, to look back on the warm friends it has brought me, and to thank them for the many and various kindnesses received at their hands. First and foremost, I wish to thank most heartily my friend and chief, Professor Charles Waldstein, for the ready help and encouragement he has always given me, for his keen and intelligent interest in my work, and for the various suggestions and theories he has outlined for my benefit. The departure from Athens at the end of the first year’s work of Dr. Theodore Woolsey Heermance, who had shared with me the dis¬ agreeable task of cleaning and sorting the fragments, deprived me of most valuable assist-
ance during' the more interesting stage of studying and classifying the material ; and I feel sure that, had it been possible for him to have shared the responsibility of the whole work with me, the result would have been far more satisfactory. I am indebted to him for the Appendix on the inscriptions that have been found on some of the fragments. Mr. Cecil Smith of the British Museum will always have my warmest gratitude for the many kindnesses and useful suggestions so ungrudgingly given me during my work in London.
F urther, I wish to express my thanks to Messrs. Kavvadias, Stais, and Tsountas of the National Museum at Athens, for their courtesy and kindness in extending to me, during my three years in Athens, the utmost privileges of the Museum ; to Professor Wolters and Dr. Zalni of the German Archaeological Institute at Athens, for putting the material from the Acropolis and Aegina so openly at my disposal ; and to Mr. David Hogarth, sometime Director of the British School at Athens, for an opportunity of seeing the pottery found in his excavation at Melos. I have also received many valuable suggestions from Professor Ernest Gardner of University College, London, Mr. Paul Perdrizet of the French School at Athens, and Mr. Carr Bosanquet, Director of the British School at Athens.
I must not forget to thank Mr. Gillieron and Herr Rohrer for their careful and pains¬ taking work in preparing the drawings and photographs. I am especially grateful to Janni Papadakis, vase-mender in the National Museum at Athens, who for three years helped and spared me in every way.
Last of all, I wish to express to my dear friend, Professor Richard Norton, Director of the American School at Rome, my grateful thanks for reading the manuscript of the work during its preliminary stage (a labor of love), and for the valuable suggestions he has given me.
In fairness to this section of the Heraenm publication the following facts should be stated. The manuscript was delivered to the committee on April 1, 1899. Two years later, in the hope of a speedy publication, it was revised as thoroughly as circumstances permitted. At the present date (November, 1903) the larger part lias been in type for a year and a half, and any further revision is impossible for many obvious l’easons without a complete rearrangement of the material. That it should not have been possible to consider the vases and fragments from the Heraeum in connection with the new phases of the Mycenaean erawevealed by the recent excavations in Crete, no one regrets more than the writer.
INTRODUCTION
Early in the autumn of 1895, Dr. Heermance and I began cleaning the fragments of vases. These had been brought up from Argos to Athens in small baskets,1 2 and included fragments varying from a foot square to pieces no larger than a finger-nail. None had been touched save a few baskets of the first and second year’s digging, which had under¬ gone a very superficial cleaning two winters before. Every fragment was thickly coated with a hard crust of dirt, and hydrochloric acid proved the only satisfactory cleanser. Large bowls were used containing a solution, two thirds acid and one third water, into which a basketful of fragments was put, stirred round for a few minutes, and then care¬ fully rinsed in fresh water to avoid any after-effects of the acid. The fragments were then sorted, each class in separate baskets, laid out, and a search made for the component parts of a vase, a task attended with very unsatisfactory results, since in only a few cases could a vase be reconstructed in anything like entirety.
The number of fragments was enormous. No less than two hundred and sixty-five baskets, all more or less full, were cleaned. Owing to the removal of a good deal of waste dirt and closer packing of the baskets, the total material was compressed into about one hundred and fifty baskets. Just how many fragments were included is difficult to say ; some baskets which contained large fragments held perhaps several hundred, while in others containing small fragments of the Argive and Corinthian classes, the number
Miscellaneous .......
By “ plain ” are meant all fragments which bore no decoration of any kind what¬ ever." These included a large number of fragments of Mycenaean and Geometric vases, hut the bulk consisted of coarse fragments of wheel-made vases, which might belong to any period. In “glazed” are included all fragments which had been covered with a dark brown or black glaze, generally dull, but without other decoration. Some few
tions, about 25 cm. in height and .30 cm. in diameter. to preserve all the fragments of such description, which
2 It must also be remembered that the hulk of the undoubtedly included a large number belonging to the fragments found at the excavation had no decoration of “ Primitive ” class, their number would have been mateany kind, and were therefore not preserved, but thrown rially increased.
LOCATION OF THE FRAGMENTS
of these belonged to vases of the Black or Red-Figured period, but the bulk bore no distinguishing characteristics. In addition to the whole number, five baskets contained vases in an intact or in slightly broken condition.
Baskets of the first year’s digging contained fragments from the Second Temple Ter¬ race, but no more definite information is preserved. Fragments of every kind were found in all these places, but certain classes were more common in certain spots than in others ; for instance, on the Old Temple Terrace1 and in the corner of the second platform below the Cyclopean wall and east of the Chambers, the Geometric fragments were much more numerous than any other kind, while in the southwest corner (east of the retaining wall of the West Building) Mycenaean predominated. The Argive (so-called ProtoCorinthian) style was found in greatest quantities in the southwest corner and on the Old Temple Terrace. Other classes were divided with comparative evenness all through the excavation.
Little advantage is to be gained from the knowledge (in the case of the vases, at least) whence each separate fragment came. Throughout the preliminary stages of the work the fragments from each spot were kept carefully separate, but this proved impossible after the task of piecing them was begun. In several cases fragments from the same vase were found several hundred yards apart. It must be remembered that no apparent trace of layers which could be chronologically divided was observable in any of the different finding places, for the pockets where the fragments abounded in greatest quantity showed that the material had been shoveled in helter-skelter, and it was quite usual to find Mycenaean fragments near the top and Argive near the bottom. In the case of vases of any especial importance, the finding place will always be given in the course of this work.
It is extremely difficult to make a precise estimate of the number of vases which these fragments represent. The number of vases intact or only slightly broken amounted to a little more than a thousand. From the fragments about ten vases were reconstructed almost entirely, about fifty partially so ; while those represented by only half a dozen fragments apiece amounted to between two and three hundred. If we should make the extremely modest calculation of four or five fragments to a vase, we should have about fifty thousand vases.
1 Professor Waldstein informs me that to the best of which were clearly labeled “ Old Temple Terrace,” his recollection this statement is not correct. My only contained numerous fragments of the Geometric style, authority for the statement is that several of the baskets,
THE VASES AND VASE FRAGMENTS
In planning this work, I have endeavored, as far as possible, to model it on Furtwangler and Loeschcke’s Mykenlsche Vasen. The chief difficulty experienced among such an enormous mass of fragments was in making a collection for publication which should be representative. In doing so I preferred to err on the side of presenting more fragments than were absolutely necessary, believing that such a plan was better than presenting too little, but I have not hesitated to omit types which are universally known.
Roughly speaking, the Heraeum vase fragments cover almost the whole period of Greek ceramic art from its birth to its decline, a period of perhaps over two thousand years. It will be further shown how the bulk of this material is characteristic of the Argolid, a genuine home industry, and that little was imported. The indigenous types represented are : —
Roman.
Now, though the list of imported types is larger than the local, the amount of such material is scarcely a tenth of the latter. The reason for the exclusion of foreign pro¬ ducts, especially Attic, will be shown later.
The reader may notice that the discussion and exposition of the various vase-classes given here differs materially from that given by Professor Waldstein in the Introduction to this publication. In order that there may be no room for misunderstanding with regard to this point, I desire to state specifically the reasons for this discrepancy.
After two years’ work on the fragments, I had independently reached the conclusion that the so-called Proto-Corinthian style included more varieties of vase-classes than had usually been assigned to it, and that it was probably of Argive origin, — a conclusion which confirmed the views expressed by Professor Waldstein four years before. Also that the style was an offshoot of the Mycenaean style, and contemporary with the Geo¬ metric, having as its chief motives the arrangement of parallel bands so characteristic on My cenaean vases. After communicating this view to Professor Waldstein I found that lie not only had reached the same conclusion, but was disposed to regard the style as one of tlie links in a chain which went much farther back, as a development of the principle which lie calls “ Linear,” and which he claims existed in an unbroken sequence from the earliest times. He has already developed his theory so carefully that I do not feel the need of repeating what has been better expressed by him in the Introduction. This is not the place for me to discuss this theory, but simply to define my own attitude in regard to it.
and as to the Argolic origin of the so-called Proto-Corinthian style. I do not, however, agree with him in his contention that this style can he traced in an unbroken line throughout the Mycenaean period as far hack as the earliest primitive vases, nor do I accept the general classification he has already outlined. It is, of course, fitting that in the General Introduction he should have discussed the relation of the Heraeum vase-fragments to the whole excavation and history of the sanctuary. In so far as the work concerns myself, it seems to me more suitable, avoiding general theories as far as possible, to confine myself to a careful classification of the material, omitting those conclusions which, from my unfamiliarity with all the finds of the excavation, would not have as stable foundations as those expressed by Professor Waldstein. The classifi¬ cation adopted here is the result of careful study of the material for three years ; and though I am far from claiming that the results reached or the theories expressed are the only ones possible, I have not hesitated to base the whole of this division of the publication upon them, since they have forced themselves upon me from the material. In fairness, therefore, to both Professor Waldstein and myself, I would state that, as I cannot accept his entire theory, it has seemed to me best to abide by my own exposition and leave the decision to the judgment of scholars.
As to the classification, I may say that I have endeavored, as far as possible, to hold by the old rules and to be as conservative as I could ; at the same time, such a large amount of new material demanded in many cases an entirely new arrangement. But it must not be forgotten that no classification can be regarded as final ; its main object is convenience ; and although several groups may be distinguished, they invariably have, in the case of one group succeeding another, their connecting links, and slide into each other almost imperceptibly. On the Lake of Geneva there is a threefold division, the Petit, Grand, and Haut Lacs, each a separate sheet of water ; but one can scarcely draw a straight line across the lake and say where the Petit Lac begins and the Grand Lac ends. In the case of our vases, we have the separate classes, but so gradually removed from each other that we can only emphasize the fact of their division, without being too specific as to the actual point.
I have tried to treat the vases from a relative, not an absolute, point of view. Unless it be recognized that the study of Greek vases is a means to an end, not the end itself, their value is lost. They are not among the grand arts ; in fact, the scanty references to them in Greek literature show that the vase-painter or potter, while pursuing an honor¬ able trade, could not claim to be an artist in the great sense of the word. It is true that during the earliest periods vase-painting was one of the few forms of artistic expression, but not the highest form. A civilization which could produce the fortresses, the BeeHive tombs of Mycenae and Orchomenos, the gold cups of V apliio, the golden ornaments and sword blades of Mycenae, is not to be measured by mere vases of terra-cotta ! Not but that the vases are artistic ; whatever work a Greek did was never anything else.
As historical documents they are extremely valuable. They respond to the various influences at work on Hellas from the earliest times, and reflect in a thousand different ways the life and tastes of its people. It is not a lofty idealism we find in them, but a realism in all its forms. Owing to the crude state of plastic and pictorial art through¬ out the periods to which our vases belong, we cannot place them on a level with Attic vases of the sixth and fifth centuries ; but we can see the steady development towards the later, finer forms.
ment,1 there is but one explanation : they were dedicated to the use of the goddess.2 In only a few cases has a dedication been scratched on a vase. It is very probable that such offerings were those of the poorer classes, who could afford nothing more expensive than a vase. As the centuries went by, the temple must have become overcrowded with such a mass of pottery, and the presence of numerous rubbish heaps proves that there were periodical cleanings out of the sanctuary. Whether such vases were ever in actual use is doubtful.
From the fact that at the Kabirion in Thebes, potters sat outside the walls of the Temenos and sold their wares, it is probable that such was the fact at the Heraeum, and that from the earliest times the pottery of the Argolid was in great demand, and so cheap and common as to make the introduction of foreign vases rather like bringing “coals to Newcastle.”
At first sight the vases from the Heraeum are somewhat disappointing ; there is a noticeable lack of strange or beautiful designs, and none of the vases seem to rise above a common level. But the chief value lies, not in the fragments or vases them¬ selves, but in their relation to the results of other excavations, especially those in Sicily and Aegina. It is Aegina that is shown in the closest relation with Argos, since many of the more unusual types found at the Heraeum may also be found in Aegina and nowhere else.
Such a connection forms a valuable contribution to the history of the two states. We know that it was during the reign of Phidon of Argos that the two came together, since Phidon had his mint at Aegina. Phidon’s date is variously given — b. c. 770 by Holm,3 745 by Stais,4 while Beloch5 * asserts that he could not have lived earlier than the sixth century. Whether he really introduced the coining of money into Greece, as tradi¬ tion relates, is another question. As most numismatists are agreed that this could not have taken place before b. c. 700,° we must either abandon tradition or else side with Beloch. Holm7 thinks that he may have introduced Oriental weights and measures into Greece, and thus the introduction of coinage, which followed shortly after, was attributed to him. But the main question does not centre about Phidon so much as about the actual date of the coming’ together of the two states.
In the recent excavations at Aegina conducted by Stais 8 fragments of the Mycenaean style were extremely scarce, but large quantities of Geometric and Argive (so-called Proto-Corinthian) ware were found. Moreover, all the Geometric ware found there resembles that from the Heraeum much more closely than that from Attica, and several types occur which can be duplicated only at Argos. It is also most probable that most of the vases of the Geometric and Argive styles found at Aegina were imported, not manufactured there. As Argos, through the Mycenaean as well as the later periods, was one of the chief centres for the manufacture of vases, it becomes almost certain that after the Mycenaean period she exported her wares into Aegina.9 Whether Phidon or
1 Dr. Waldstein believes that there was here a primi¬ tive settlement to which primitive cooking-pots, etc., would belong See General Introduction, vol. i.
265 if.
9 As the question of the origin of such styles as the Mycenaean, Geometric, Argive (so-called Proto-Co¬ rinthian), and Corinthian, which are found in Aegina, Argos, and Attica could not he settled with positive cer¬ tainty from the outward appearance of the fragments themselves, a microscopical analysis of the clay by an expert geologist seemed to offer the only solution of the
some other man was ruler of Argos at that time is not essential to the argument, hut it would seem that Holm and Stais are right in considering him king of Argos and assigning to him a date in the first half of the eighth century. That this connection lasted until the sixth century, when the Argives assisted the Aeginetans in repelling an Athenian invasion,1 the presence of the vase fragments at Aegina would seem to show.
So far as can he judged from the extremely small number of fragments of vases of foreign (i. e. outside of the Argolid) make, such as Dipylon, Early Attic, Corinthian, Cyrenean, Attic Black and Red-Figured, etc., it seems probable that almost all the rest were made in the Argolid. Without doubt all fragments belonging to the Mycenaean style were of such origin. This I judge from the fact that all such vases bear the closest relation to those from Mycenae and show none of the features characteristic of other Mycenaean types
difficulty. Accordingly I sent to Dr. H. S. Washington a number of sherds of the Primitive, Mycenaean, Geo¬ metric, Argive (Proto-Corinthian), Corinthian, Black and Red-Figured styles selected from the following sites : the Heraeum, Mycenae, Tiryns, Nauplia, Melos, Attica (Athens, Menidi, Markopoulo, Thorikos), and Eretria. His report is to appear elsewhere, hut we may here men¬ tion the following facts quoted from Dr. Washington’s letter, which were given in reply to the following ques¬ tions : (1) What is the connection between pottery found at Argos and Aegina ? (2) What is the connection be¬
(1) “ The primitive fragment from Aegina is coarse and contains fragments of mica-schist. As this rock is not found on the island, the presumption is that this especial piece is of foreign (i. e. extra-Aegina) manufac¬ ture. In the Peloponnesus the nearest localities of these rocks are in the Xiris mountains, and near and south of Doliana towards Sparta; they also occur in Attica. The Geometric fragments of Aegina are coarse with quartz and feldspar grains, possibly derived from schist, but no remains of this or of volcanic rock are visible ; it may be native. The two Mycenaean fragments from Aegina are rather coarse, and show fragments of quartz, feldspar, and augite (a mineral of volcanic rocks on the island), so that these are almost certainly of native (Aeginetan) manu¬ facture.
“ The Proto-Corinthian and Corinthian fragments from Aegina do not differ in any essential respect from the corresponding specimens of Argos. The Proto-Corin¬ thian are much finer than the Corinthian, and I should say that the Aegina Corinthian are rather coarser than the Corinthian fragments found at Argos.
“ Of the Argive specimens, the Proto-Corinthian are by far the finest, though the Corinthian come close to them. A fragment of a ‘local type’ (v. p. 161, Plate LXVII.) is also dense, as are two of the red-figure style. A prim¬ itive fragment is also quite fine, but shows carelessness in manufacture in areas of coarser material and in the presence of limestone fragments. The fragment of the Geometric plate (v. p. 116, Plate LVIII.) resembles the corresponding one from Aegina, and may possibly contain a little augite (in very small crystal fragments), which would indicate an Aeginetan derivation. All the Geo¬ metric fragments are coarser than the Proto-Corinthian, but the Mycenaean are rather better, though less dense, than the Proto-Corinthian.
“ On the whole, the only pottery which is, one may say, undoubtedly Aeginetan is the Mycenaean from there, the Argive Mycenaean being distinctly different. There is practically no difference between the respective ProtoCorinthian and Corinthian, and either might come from any good clay bed, and with the material well washed, which would tend to eliminate all heavy portions such as augite.
(2) “ Argive, Attic, etc. The fragments of the Myce¬ naean style from Mycenae, Tiryns, Daulis, Markopoulo, and Nauplia are all practically identical with that of Argos. The Geometric fragments from Markopoulo and Eretria are coarser and resemble the Geometric from Argos. The only specimen from Athens (Dipylon) is also coarse, and contains much feldspar, an evidence of carelessness in washing.
“ The pottery from Melos is quite distinctive in con¬ taining fragments of minerals of volcanic rocks of the island, as well as here and there fragments of the rocks themselves, such as obsidian, etc.”
“ Pottery is made of decayed rocks in which most of the original and distinctive minerals have disappeared, and those left are still further done away by the washing of the clay, so that it would be only in the most early and archaic periods that we should expect to find tell-tale minerals.”
Although Dr. Washington’s report is somewhat incon¬ clusive, the following conclusions would seem to be jus¬ tified: (1) That with the exception of a few fragments of the Mycenaean style and the Geometric plate mentioned on p. 116, none of the sherds of the Geometric, Argive (Proto-Corinthian), or Corinthian styles are indigenous to the island, but were most probably imported there. (2) The Geometric fragments from Attica, except the pure Dipylon style, resemble very strongly those from Argos. But these same conclusions do not seem to militate against the theories advanced on pp. 119 ft', and 103 ft\, that the Argive (Proto-Corinthian) style originated in the Argolid, and that the earliest beginnings of the Geometric style proper are to be sought for in that locality, al¬ though, as stated on p. 104, no attempt has been made to prove that the Geometric style necessarily originated in the Argolid, and was taken up by the other states, but ratlier that the external influence which probably created the Geometric style first made its appearance in Argos, and penetrated into Attica in a very short time.
such as Tlieran, Cypriote, and those from the various islands. At the same time, the complete absence of the first class, lustrous finish of the Mycenaean style, would seem to exclude Mycenae itself as the only factory.
Though it is a point that admits of much discussion, I am inclined to follow Furtwangler and Loeschcke’s view that the Dorian invasion proved the downfall of the Mycenaean civilization, and that the Geometric style arose in consequence of this invasion 1 and can¬ not be traced to the Ionians, Carians,2 or Egyptians.3 This point will be further elabo¬ rated in the third chapter, but we may anticipate a little. It is oidy recently that the connection between the Mycenaean and Geometric styles has been satisfactorily estab¬ lished. Wide4 has analyzed the survival of Mycenaean elements in the Geometric style and shown how much more the Island types of the Geometric followed the Mycenaean than those of the mainland, but his assumption that, owing to the lack of these Myce¬ naean features in the Geometric style of the mainland, the centre of the Mycenaean fabrics lay in the islands is not necessarily true, since these same features can be detected in the Geometric vases from the Heraeum.
The recent excavations of Flinders Petrie in Egypt, Cecil Smith and Hogarth in Melos, and Evans in Crete have thrown new light on the beginnings of the Mycenaean style, since a large number of sherds have been found there which, though akin to the Myce¬ naean, are nevertheless earlier, and have been called “Aegean.” These sherds would seem to show a greater tendency towards a naturalistic or pictorial form of ornamentation than towards a linear. As yet the connection between them and the Mycenaean sherds of Greece proper has not been thoroughly established, but it may be assumed that such a connection exists.
The Mycenaean style in Greece proper would seem to show the following development. As Professor Waldstein has already pointed out, the earliest Mycenaean fragments show the embodiment of a Linear principle which would naturally be expected in vases which succeed the so-called “ Primitive ” style. In a very short time, owing no doubt to the maritime character of the Mycenaean civilization, and more probably to the influence of the Aegean pottery, the tendency to employ a species of pictorial or naturalistic orna¬ mentation, especially of marine life, became widespread.
Later again the spirit of conventionality crept in, and in the last days of the Mycenaean style we find a wealth of ornament treated in a purely conventional and rather flamboyant manner, but without the introduction of any fresh ideas ; in fact, the general tendency seems a return to the early Linear feeling. After the Dorian invasion we see this same linear principle marching off in two different styles, the Geometric and the Argive or Proto-Corinthian, which flourished side by side in the Argolid for a considerable period. During the seventh century the increasing commercial and trading facilities brought about the introduction of foreign, especially eastern influences, into Greece, with the result that the Geometric style died out, while the Argive absorbed the new influences, from which the Corinthian style probably had its origin (see p. 123). Attica in the meanwhile, after experimenting largely with the Geometric style, had worked her way into the Early Attic style, and after absorbing the Oriental influence from Corinth through the so-called Corinthian-Attic, evolved the Black-Figured style which, during the best part of the sixth century, was the most prominent form of Greek ceramic art.
A glance at the accompanying figure shows the way in which this development took place, and how the elementary principle, starting from the Mycenaean style, and working its way through two separate channels, united again in the Attic Black-Figured style.
It cannot, of course, be said that the progress traced above is absolute, nor can it he worked out exactly with mathematical precision. It is the result of a careful study of the progress of ceramic art as illustrated by the two great centres of Argos and Athens, with especial reference to the vases from the Heraeum. To trace the development of ceramic art in any given place is, after all, largely a matter of theory, and though I do not wish to maintain that the theories of development here expressed are the only ones possible, it is upon them that the whole of this work is based.
As the term “ Proto-Corinthian ” is now so thoroughly unsatisfactory, 1 fully agree with Professor Waldstein that it should be abandoned, and that, as the Argolid offers greater claims for being the home of this style (as I shall endeavor to show later), it is best to call the style Argive. But, as stated before, the use of the term in this part of the publica¬ tion is rather more restricted than that employed by Professor Waldstein, since it is here used entirely with reference to those vases which are post-Mycenaean, and does not include all the varieties which Professor Waldstein would include under the title of “ Argive Linear.”
PRIMITIVE VASES.
The pottery representing the “ primitive ” period, i. e. all pottery (prior to the Myce¬ naean civilization) which shows the employment of the usual incised linear decoration, so common on the various sherds in the lower settlements of Hissarlik, is rather scarce at the Heraeum. For this fact two explanations are possible : (1) As we have pointed out before, a large number of fragments, without decoration of any kind, wheel or hand made, which might well belong to vessels of the earliest periods, were not preserved, since there Avas no evidence of any kind to sIioav what their age was. (2) Sites in which such AArare has been found in greatest quantities, such as Hissarlik, Tiryns, Thera, etc., Avere all settlements Avliere the pottery Avas in actual use by the inhabitants. The Heraeum Avas a sanctuary and not a settlement ; and as the cult of Hera Avas probably not developed until the Mycenaean period, the custom of dedicating pottery would not have been general, and hence Ave should not expect to find many primitive sherds on the site. If, however, there had been here an early settlement, vases would have been in constant use, and would therefore not have been found in large quantities, as Avliere in a sanctuary only there Avere constant deposits of votive offerings in vases.
Of the plain pottery already mentioned in the Introduction, a great number of frag¬ ments seem to have belonged to large jnthoi, similar to those at Hissarlik. Such large vases, of coarse unpainted clay, are characteristic of all periods, and may just as Avell fall in the later as in the earlier Greek times. Many of them, in fact, are not dissimilar to common pots used by the people of Greece to-day.
The bulk of this “ primitive ” ware consists of fragments of yellow or reddish clay Avith incised ornamentation, only a feAv vases being preserved entire. Most of the frag¬ ments are hand-made ; but as Avheel-made ones are found, no general laAv can be stated for the use of the Avheel. It is probable that some of the wheel-made prehistoric frag¬ ments are older than hand-made Mycenaean vases. Beside the fragments already men¬ tioned, a large number of very coarse Avheel-made fragments Avere found, decorated only Avith a series of incised parallel lines very close together, evidently made by some pointed instrument held against the clay as it revolved on the wheel. To date them is impos¬ sible; the nearest analogies maybe found in Phoenician Avare in the British Museum and the Louvre.1
Not more than tAVo baskets of the total number contained sherds Avith incised decora¬ tion, and it Avas extremely doubtful in the case of many of the fragments whether they could with propriety be classed among the primitive vases. Some, by their similarity to the vases from Hissarlik, the tumulus at Bos-ojiik in Asia Minor (Koerte, Athen. Mitt. xiv. (1899), pp. 1 ft*., pis. i.— iii.), and the Cyclades (Tsountas, ’E^p/x. ’A py;. 1898, pp. 137 ft*., pis. ix., x.) seemed to belong to the last of the third or the beginning of the second mil¬ lennium in c. Probably none of them are earlier than the second settlement at Hissarlik, and the majority contemporaneous Avith the sherds of the third, fourth, and fifth settle-
and Geometric elements without seeming to belong to either style.
No attempt can he made to give anything hut an approximate date to the fragments of the primitive period from the Heraeum. As the primitive vases from the Cyclades furnish the nearest parallels to many of our fragments, we may date them as Tsountas does the island tombs, b. c. 2500-2000 ; those which show a more advanced style of decoration may he placed in the first part of the second millennium b. c. ; hut it is doubtful if any of our fragments to which the term “ primitive ” can he applied are later than the beginnings of the Mycenaean civilization.
Koerte, loc. cit. pi. iii. 19.
2. Coai’se dark yellow clay with small black stones, hand-made. Probably part of amphora. Handle missing. Decoration of small circles, evidently done with some instrument like a punch. To left of the handle, breast-like protuberance.
the sieve vases from Troy, as the circles do not go clear through.
Two variations in the type occur; (1) where the circles have a central part left (as in 2) and (2) where the circle is a complete hole. (3) Similar decoration occurs on ivory objects from Troy (Ilios, p. 566), as well as from the Heraeum, and on fragments from graves of the Hallstatt period in Vienna.
Nos. 5-8 are all of a yellow or reddish clay, hand-made and ornamented with scratched lines. Similar fragments were quite numerous at the Heraeum, and probably belong to the earliest period. The plastic band on 5, with its perforated ornament, is a common feature in prehistoric ware.1 Cf. Schliemann, Ilios , p. 491, fig. 454.
21. Reddish yellow clay. From neck of aryballos. Plastic tongue pattern on shoulder.
The technique of 19-21 is decidedly more advanced than that of the other fragments. At the same time it is open to question whether, with the possible exception of 21, they can be regarded as later than the Mycenaean period.
VASES.
1. (Fig. 1.) Three-legged bowl, two of the feet restored. Hand-made; height, 0.092 m. ; diam¬ eter of opening, 0.08 m. Black clay with brick-red slip, burnt dark brown. Scratched ornamentation on rim, neck, and belly. The handle is divided into two twisted divisions, also ornamented with scratches. On the front, two breast-like protuberances.
This arrangement of scratches is similar to that of ’E<^^. ’Apy. 1898, pi. x. No. 1, but not so regular, and is undoubtedly earlier. The shape is similar to Ilios , Figs. 59 and 1130. (Cf. also Koerte, Hoc. cit. pi. ii. 9.) Such vessels have usually been classed among cooking-pots.
2. (Fig. 2.) Vase with long neck, without handle; height, 0.07 m. Black clay, polished and burnt. The shape of our vase is similar, though a trifle more advanced, to a vase from the same place.
The polishing of the clay is a common feature among primitive vases. It may 1m; observed on a large number of vases and sherds from Hissarlik, and also on the vases from Bos-ojiik. Cf. Koerte, loc. cit. p. 25.
0.025 in. Black clay, burnt, with incised border on shoulder.
Shape of vase cannot be determined, but it rather recalls the latter oinoclioe type. Similar decoration may be found on a Trojan vase of the Fig- 3. fourth settlement. Cf. also, ’E ’Apy. 1899, pi. ix. 24.
xv. 3), and assigned l>y him to his early indigenous Geo¬ metric class. This would seem significant for dating our fragment, and also for showing that the pre-Dorian ele¬
THE MYCENAEAN STYLE
Further, about twenty very small hand-made vases were found, which had no decora¬ tion, but were uniformly of a dark gray or reddish clay, showing traces of burning. They included two-handled vessels, similar to ’E^/r. ’A px- 1898, pi. ix. 2, and Koerte, loc. cit. pi. ii. 7 ; several three-handled jugs of similar shape to those on p. 100, and a vase without handles, similar to Koerte, loc. cit. pi. ii. 9.
A series of vases, which, though not prehistoric in character, seem more nearly related to the earlier than the later vases, is represented by 4 6. They are all of a very dark clay, hand-made and burnt black in most cases, some with a decoration of incised lines running from neck to foot, others without decoration, and chiefly remarkable for a very brilliant polish, giving nearly the effect of dull jet. These vases are very similar to several from Rhodes in the British Museum, and it may be questioned whether our vases are not as are those, a product of the eighth century. At the same time, owing to their scratched ornamentation, they are more fitly included in this chapter, and if of a later date are probably the last links of the chain begun in prehistoric times.
Much of the outer surface worn off.
Several others were found at the Heraeum. An aryballos precisely similar is in the British Museum (A. case 6, No. 658, from Rhodes).
The development of the Mycenaean style at the Heraeum finds its parallel in the Mycenaean fragments from Mycenae and Tiryns. But unfortunately the Heraeum frag¬ ments throw no light on the question whether the Mycenaean style is of Achaean (as is usually supposed), Pelasgian (cf . J. II. S. XVI. [1896], pp. 77 ff.), or foreign origin. That prototypes of the Mycenaean style exist in the Aegean pottery is now, I think, gener¬ ally admitted, and it may well be the case that the beginnings of the civilization are to be looked for in the Aegean islands, especially Crete. The connection, however, between the Mycenaean ware at the Heraeum and the Aegean pottery is not easy to establish ; the earliest elements of the style in the former site are, as Professor Waldstein has pointed out, distinctly linear in character ; and that, as far as I can judge from the island pottery I have seen (e. g. Melos), does not seem to be the case in Aegean pottery. If anything, the characteristics of the Aegean pottery are more naturalistic than linear. Perhaps the most probable explanation is that the Mycenaean style in the Argolid developed directly from the primitive linear types, and that the influence of the islands brought about the change to naturalistic forms of ornamentation.
The two great classes of the Mycenaean style, vases with dull decoration (J latt metier ei) and with lustrous decoration ( Firnissmalerei ), are both represented at the Heraeum, the former in very small quantities. Although it is usually supposed that “ dull ”
older than “ lustrous,” certainty on this point is impossible. The character of the dull style is linear and as such more in keeping’ with the prehistoric motives ; also as the invention of a lustrous glaze is a distinct innovation in ceramic art, it is probably an improvement on the u dull ” technique. But that the manufacture of dull vases continued almost as long as that of lustrous vases, is proved by the fact that both dull and lustrous fragments lay side by side in the same levels.
VASES WITH DULL DECORATION.
Four small vases (to be described later) and about fifty fragments of this style were found, none belonging to very large vases. To establish a classification with a material so scanty and unsatisfactory is impossible. Furtwangler and Loeschcke divide this type into two classes: («) vases made of red clay (“ Rotthonig ”) and (b) vases of pale clay (“ Blassthonig ”). Such a classification in the case of the Heraeum fragments proved im¬ possible, since the clay ran through the various shades of red, yellow, gray, and green, and no vital difference in the decorative forms of fragments of red or pale clay could be distinguished, and the polish, according to Furtwangler and Loeschcke, a characteristic feature of class a, was noticeable only on vases of pale clay.
It is true that the majority of our dull fragments show a decoration decidedly linear in feeling, and also that some show a pictorial or naturalistic decoration very similar to vases of the lustrous style. That the first are the earlier of the two seems probable. At the same time the difference is not so great as to warrant our assigning; the fragments to different classes, since many fragments bearing linear motives may well have belonged to vases which also showed pictorial ornamentation and vice versa. The classification of fragments alone is far more unreliable than that based upon entire vases. Hence, in the case of “ dull ” fragments, no attempt has been made to separate them into two classes, though they have been arranged with a view to the character of their ornamentation, be it linear or pictorial.
Only the most important fragments are shown in Plate LI. There were many which bore no decoration, though clearly belonging to the same vases as some of the fragments here reproduced ; many again bore only a part of a band or stripe running around the belly. A certain difference can be detected in that in some of the fragments the clay is covered with a fine slip and in some not. The majority of the fragments show this feature, which seems to have been a characteristic of the style from its beginning, since even those vases with the simplest linear decoration show it. As it runs through all the shades of clay, it offers no ground for classification. The polishing of the surface seems to have been the general custom. The clay runs through all varieties and colors, from a very coarse variety with black stones still apparent on the surface to extremely fine clay, cleaned and polished. The majority of the vases and fragments were made on the wheel, though a few are hand-made.
PLATE LI.
1. From bowl with large opening. Form, Myh. Vets. xliv. 48 : height, 0.165 m. ; width, 0.125 in. Coarse pale greenish clay, polished on outside and inside. On inner part of rim series of three short parallel dashes. Decoration in black, faded. Cf. Myh. Thong, iv. 17.
6. Neck and shoulder of jug similar to 4. Fine reddish clay with greenish yellow slip.
7. Fairly fine pale reddish clay, dull polished surface. Three narrow black bands inclosing a dark red zigzag, and a broader band of dark red ; traces of another zigzag also in dark red. This fragment is almost identical with Myk. Thong, v. 20.
This use of two different colors, one (in this case the red) added after the first firing, is an extremely common feature in the Heraeum fragments, and will lie analyzed more thoroughly in a later chapter. No. 7 was the only fragment of the dull finish which showed its employment.
A few fragments of a very dark red clay with a dark red slip on exterior and interior and black decoration were found. They are in all respects similar to the vase from the Bee-Hive tomb near the Heraeum. Cf. Myk. Tliong. xn. 52 ; Athen. Mitt. III. p. 271.
ished, with light brown decoration.
9. From large bowl, similar in form to Myk. Vas. xliv. 75, but with single handles, about 25 cm. in height and 24 cm. in diameter. Coarse reddish clay, which has received a very high polish and presents a peculiar soapy feeling to the touch. Zigzag band below rim in dark red, very much faded. (Fig. 7.)
A few other vases and fragments from the Heraeum showed this same peculiar surface, which otherwise is unknown to me. It is probably due to some accident either in the composition of the clay or the peculiarity of the soil in which it is found.
10. Coarse brownish clay with white slip outside. Violet brown decoration.
All these fragments show a decided “ linear ” tendency ; the rest (10-16) are more nat¬ uralistic in character. The similarity of decoration in 14-16 to vases of the lustrous finish would warrant our assigning them to a later period. They evidently do not belong to the earliest essays in dull decoration.
kylix and a skyphos, one handle missing. Bands and a continuous spiral.
Another vase of exactly the same shape and dimensions, but in¬ tact, was found in the same tomb. The surface is completely cov¬ ered by a hard incrustation of lime, hut as far as can be seen the decoration is the same as 17.
los wall above the South Stoa. The technique is the same in all, a fine yellow clay, highly polished, without a slip, the decoration in violet black, laid on heavily. All are hand¬ made. For photograph of tomb see vol. I. p. 41, fig. 13.
The introduction of lustrous paint in the manufacture of Mycenaean vases was revolu¬ tionary in its effects. Henceforth all vases exhibit this feature. But as we have said, on its introduction the dull finish was not at once abandoned, but continued side by side with the lustrous technique for a considerable period; just how long it is impossible to say, but certainly until after the best period of the lustrous style.
Until lately Furtwangler and Loeschcke’s division of the lustrous style has been univer¬ sally followed. This classification has, however, proved inadequate for our vases, and for those from the Acropolis and Thoricus. A second classification,1 proposed by Wolters, is more satisfactory, and has proved a better standard for arranging ours. But in spite of its many advantages, it is somewhat unwieldy, so that I have ventured to adopt a middle course, in order to reconcile both Furtwangler and Loeschcke’s and Wolters’ arrangements. The three are here presented side by side.
coarse clay, entirely covered with a fairly dull black slip, on which the ornamentation is thinly laid in white and dark red.
Vases of coarse clay, covered
with a thin slip of finer clay, now white (in the case of vases from the Bee-Hive tomb near the Heraeum),nowyellowish brown,
ration run through all shades
from yellow to dark brown. This, through action of fire, becomes bright red in many cases, which, especially in vases of the finest technique, is evidently inten¬
ity of the work. The style
throughout is distinctly a natu¬ ralistic or pictorial one, there being no thought of convention¬ ality. The vase from Tliorikos
torial ornamentation, precisely similar to II., save that the exe¬ cution is more delicate, which is natural, seeing that the vases
greenish or a somewhat dull
yellow, occasionally reddish yel¬ low, hut far duller than the pre¬ ceding- class. The decoration is black or yellowish brown, occa¬ sionally burnt red, but never at¬ tains to the brilliancy of vases of class III. In the case of vases with a wide mouth, the interior is always glazed.
raeum.
It may be noticed that in Professor Wolters’s classification the separation of Mycenaean lustrous vases into two great periods is hinted at, if not expressed. We may commence by drawing a sharp line between the pictorial and the conventional, since the progression from naturalism to conventionalism is a greater one than from one plane of technical skill to a higher. We may therefore keep Furtwangler and Loesc-hcke’s four classes and separate them into two groups, I. and II., III. and IV. It will thus be seen that dividing III. and IV. into two classes each, as Wolters does, and connecting III. 1 with II., and III. 2 with IV. is somewhat awkward. Also the line between naturalism and conventionalism is not properly emphasized, since they occur in the same class, which is clearly impossible if Ave are to follow a classification based on ornamental development. By separating II. into two divisions we adhere to the close connection emphasized by Wolters Avliile confining the principle of naturalism to one class.
With III. Ave enter upon the second or conventional group, and Ave divide this into tAvo classes, III. 1 and III. 2, which correspond to Wolters’s III. 2 and IV. 1. Their connection is too strong (the difference between them being purely technical) to warrant their being separated as they are by Wolters, Avliile at the same time we are more in accord Avith Furtwangler and Loeschcke, except for the transferring of a small part of their class TIT. to II. There seems to be no valid reason for separating IV. into tAvo groups. Cer¬ tainly the difference betAveen IV. 1 and IV. 2 (Wolters) is as great, both from a technical and ornamental standpoint, as betAveen III. and IV. (Furtwangler and Loeschcke).
Wliat the chronological differences are between these various classes it is difficult to say. According to Furtwangler and Loeschcke, I. is the oldest; but it is extremely doubt¬ ful whether any difference in time exists between I. and II. As I. is found in but few other places outside of Mycenae, it is fair to suppose that it was a style more or less local. Judging from the entire lack of this class at the Heraeum, and the fact that the style of ornamentation of II. 1, which is the oldest class of lustrous vases at the Ileraeum, is practically identical with that of I., there seems good reason for supposing that the two are synchronous.
Moreover, the difference between II. 1 and the dull vases is so extremely slight that it can be detected only by a carefully trained eye, and even then cases occur where the decision is doubtful. This would show that the lustrous technique at the beginning did not differ materially from the dull, and is another point in favor of assigning II. 1 to the beginning of the lustrous style.
II. 2 differs from II. 1 mainly in the technical advance, but this advance is sufficiently apparent to enable us to see in II. 2 the successor of II. 1. The step between II. 2 and III. 1 is even greater, since the style of ornamentation has radically changed, and all motives which II. drew from the marine life that played so great a part in the mari¬ time civilization of the Mycenaean epoch have become conventionalized and are used more with a view to their decorative effect than as an attempt to reproduce nature. Such a change could have come only during the acme of the Mycenaean epoch.
With IV. we see the point to which the bad taste of a decadent art had come. The wealth of ornamentation, elaborated from a given motive, with the introduction of foreign motives, illustrated by “ Heraldic ” designs and those taken from Oriental embroideries, may be accounted for by this rampant spirit of conventionalism combined with the increased commercial activity of the age.
A few words may here be said as to the latest results in dating the whole Mycenaean period. Through the numerous excavations recently conducted on Greek soil, and the corresponding increase of Greek pottery brought to light, the chronology has been worked backwards to the fourteenth century. But the excavations of Flinders Petrie 1 in Egypt, and the finding, in the towns of Illahun, Tel-el-Amarna, Kahun, and Gurob, of rubbish heaps containing large masses of “ Aegaean,” i. e. Mycenaean pottery, may be said to have absolutely established the date of the Mycenaean civilization, since the objects of Egyptian workmanship lying in these rubbish heaps, along with the pottery, can be dated not later than this eighteenth dynasty, circa b. c. 1450. Pseud-amphoras of Class III. were found in tombs of a date not later than b. c. 1300. The placing of the acme of the Mycenaean period during the fifteenth century thus accords with the hypo¬ thesis advanced by Furtwangler and Loeschcke on the basis of Egyptian wall paintings.2 As Class IY. was not found by Petrie, we may assume that it is later than b. c. 1300 ; but there is no reason for assuming' that the manufacture of Class III. ceased after that date. We must also allow at least a hundred years for the development of the Mycenaean style from its beginning, so that to place the manufacture of dull vases as early as the sixteenth or seventeenth centuries is permissible. We thus obtain a period of about five
invasion, or whatever the upheaval was which led to its decline.
That all the vases of the Mycenaean style found at the Heraeum were manufactured in the Argolie plain, and not imported from some other centre, seems unquestionable. Whether the Argolid was the chief centre of the Mycenaean civilization or not cannot be absolutely affirmed, though the evidence seems to point to this supposition. At any rate, the amount of vases found at Mycenae, Tiryns, Nauplia, and in the various tombs throughout the plain, is so great that we can safely assert them to be of home manufacture. That Class I. is found at Mycenae and not at the Heraeum may perhaps be accounted for by a difference of taste in the two places. The Heraeum, which was one of the largest sanctuaries in Greece, must have kept several potters’ factories busy to supply the faithful with the requisite vases for ex votos, and that certain styles should have been popular there and others not so is not extraordinary.
Several facts may be noticed in regard to our fragments which are significant. The singular uniformity of all the fragments of the Mycenaean style, both in clay and technique ; the complete absence of Class I., and, lastly, the equally complete absence of any foreign variations (e. g. Tlieran, Melian, Cypriote, etc.) of the regular Mycenaean types. These facts would seem to indicate: (1) That the potteries which produced the ware found at Mycenae were not the same as those which produced our fragments ; had such been the case it is scarcely credible that no traces of Class I. should have been found. (2) That all Mycenaean pottery found at the Heraeum was the product of one or more particular centres of activity, situated near the sanc¬ tuary. (3) That this manufactory reserved its wares exclusively for home consump¬ tion, and neither exported its product or imported similar wares. This last assumption is based on the fact that those particular varieties which are indigenous to some foreign spots are hardly represented at the Heraeum, and the few exceptions to this rule are probably accidental. On the other hand, no Mycenaean vase found outside of the Argolid can be proved to have been manufactured near the Heraeum.
CLASS II., DIVISION 1.
Of this class only a few dozen fragments were found, and no whole vases. Only a few fragments clearly belonged to the same vases, and the reconstruction of any vase proved impossible. The characteristics of these fragments are similar to those of a jug in Athens ( Myk . Vas. p. 49, fig. 29) and a three-handled vase from Thoricus ("EcfiTjjjL. ’A px- 1895, pi. xi. 1), though the decoration is extremely simple and monoto¬ nous, with no attempt at any elaborate design.
Only a few of the fragments are here reproduced. The technical features are : very coarse quality of clay, with frequent small stones, varying through the different shades of red and brown to green ; a thin wash of white, yellow, or red ; ornamen¬ tation in violet, brown, or red.
1. (Plate LI. 17.) From belly of vase, form uncertain. Dark red clay, with a darker central core, and light red wash, dark red decoi’ation. Two fishes advancing- towards a monster of some sort whose head and forelegs alone are visible. To identify the character of the fishes or the monster is impossible. Cf. Myk. Vas. x. 63, xxxix. 401a ; Schliemann, Mycenae , Fig. 317 ; Imhoof-Blumer and Keller, Tier und Pftanzenbilder , vi. 47, 48, vn. 3.
6. (Fig. 11.) Fragment of large amphora: height, 0.108 m. ; width, 0.12 m. ; very coarse brick red clay, pale reddish wash, dark red decoration. (Flower pattern.) The height of the amphora cannot be determined, but the opening mea¬ sured certainly 18 cm. in diameter. Cf. Myl 'c. Vas. xxi. 156.
The fragments of this particular class were far more numerous than those of the pre¬ ceding, and are uniformly of a finer character, though the pictorial style of ornamentation remains the same. They represent throughout smaller vases. The clay is of a better cpiality, carefully cleaned, running through all the shades of red, brown, yellow, and pale green, the decoration generally red or brown. The technical method is the same in all. Over the natural clay a slip is laid, of very fine red or yellow clay, on which the design is painted and the surface polished. In some cases the slip is on the inte¬ rior as well. Occasionally the decoration is laid on so thickly as to stand out from the surface of the clay, and be easily friable. Cases occur where a whitish wash has been applied, as in Class II., 1. Fragments which resemble this class very strongly have been found in the Bee-Hive tomb near the Heraeum, already referred to.
In only a few cases were fragments clearly part of the same vase and no entire vases were found. The style of ornamentation is uniformly naturalistic or pictorial, the motives being taken almost exclusively from flowers, while marine subjects are hardly used at all. In but a few instances can the form of the vase be determined.
1 a and b. Two fragments from the same vase, form uncertain. Reddish clay, yellow slip, red brown decoration. Flower wreath, a is perhaps the best example of Class II. 2 at the Heraeum. Fragments very similar have been found in Crete ; v. Haussonlier, Rev. Arch. XL. (1880), p. 359, pi. xxiii., and more recently by Evans at Cnossus. Cf. Arch. Anz. 1900, p. 149, fig. 6. Cf. also 3Iyk. Vas. p. 23, fig. 12, and the fragments from the Bee-Hive tomb near the Heraeum: Myk. Thong, xn. 64; cf. also 3Iylc. Vas. xxvii. 213, 217 : A. J. A. VI. (1890),
pi. xxii.
2. Reddish yellow clay, brilliant red brown slip, red brown decoration. Two other small fragments from the same vase were found. This fragment is an exact duplicate of one from the Bee-Hive tomb ; v. Myk. Thong, xii. 57.
3. Similar to 1 but slightly coarser clay, slip, and flaky decoration. Probably part of shonlder of a three-handled vase (form, Myk. Fas. xliv. 32). A similar smaller fragment, but from a different vase, was also found.
21. Rosette.
22. Form uncertain. This fragment, as well as several others, shows a peculiar technique, the addition of a white streak to the decoration after firing, but before glazing. For similar technique, cf. Mylc. Vas. xxvi. 203.
26. Greenish clay. Cf. Mylc. Thong, ill. 9.
27 a and b. Two fragments from the same vase. Reddish clay and decoration. Alternate buds and flowers. In spite of a certain conventionality of treatment, and indifferent technique, the resemblance of these fragments to those from Tlierasia ( Mylc . Vas. xn. 78) justifies their position in this class.
A considerable number of fragments representing three-handled vases similar to Myk. Vas. vn. 45, ix. 52, were found. This seems to have been one of the favorite shapes of this class. As a rule, ornamentation is introduced into the space above the scallops.
tain. Whether it had a foot is
doubtful, so that the height cannot be estimated. Coarse reddish clay (thickness 0.012 m.), with a yellow slip, more reddish in tone on the inside. Decoration in light and dark red.
On the outside (b) a row of tall leaves, separated by stalks ; on the inside, on rim a variety of “ tongue pattern,” with a milled border. In field two fishes and an eel.
This plate is perhaps the most
interesting specimen of Class IT., 2. The form is unknown to me in any other vase. It varies from the regular plate type in that the subject is different on the two sides. The pattern on the rim is clearly a very early instance of the “ tongue pattern” so common
THE MYCENAEAN STYLE: CLASS III., DIVISION 1
in later vase-painting. Cf. Myk. Vas. xxxiv. 344. The leaf pattern on the outside is only a symmetrical arrangement of the design on Myk. Vas. xxxn. 314. The species of the. fishes (perhaps carp) remains doubtful, but the naturalness of the drawing is an advance of No. 1 on Plate LI.
We now cross the great bridge which divides the Mycenaean style and find that the old naturalism has given place to conventionalism. But this is not the only dif¬ ference between Classes II. and III. ; technique itself has made great progress. The clay used is generally red or yellow in color, of a fine clear quality, carefully cleaned from impurities. The quality of the decoration is more lustrous and glossy, while in the best specimens the glaze takes on an intense brilliancy. The style of ornamentation changes, and certain motives used occasionally in the previous classes now become the favorites, such as spirals, etc. The old plant and marine motives with a few exceptions (e. g. the murex) have disappeared, and those which are now prominent are paralleled in other forms of Mycenaean art in stone and metal.
Though the conventionalism of Class III. follows the naturalism of Class II., and in this sense is a later style, we are not to assume that the manufacture of Class II. ceased. In fact there is positive proof that the two flourished side by side, since in the Bee-Hive tomb which we excavated (cf. p. 91 ff) were found vases of both classes. Such a radical change as that from naturalism to conventionalism is not the work of a day ; it must have extended over a long period. But such a fact does not argue against a classification based on ornamentation, where a difference of time is not necessarily demanded.
Nor should the relation of III. 1 to III. 2 be misunderstood. We cannot regard them as two absolutely distinct and unrelated styles. I do not for a moment intend to imply that for a certain period of years Mycenaean potters continued to manufacture vases of a certain “ hall-marked ” excellence and then suddenly began to go down hill. What we call III. 1 is undoubtedly the best work of a certain period of Myce¬ naean ceramic art ; III. 2 is the general average of such a period. As the best work of a given period is only a small proportion of the whole, the small amount of III. 1 com¬ pared to III. 2 bears this out. III. 1 bears the same relation to III. 2 that the work of Euphronios, Hieron, Duris, and Brygos does to the mass of red-figured vases produced in Athens prior to the Persian wars ; it is the best ceramic art of the time.
The fragments reproduced on Plate LII. are not all that were found, but the number was not large, and those represented illustrate the group. The technique of all the fragments is substantially the same, the clay red or bright yellow (more often the former), the decoration varying from red to brown, with black occasionally used and the glaze of surpassing brilliancy and fineness. The favorite ornaments seem to be the spiral and the murex.
nected. Cf. Myk. Vets. viii. 46.
29. Rim of one-handled bowl. Clay extremely delicate. Outer band of spiral brown, inner bands red. Cf. Myk. Vas. xxix. 258. Both form and decoration seem to be the same as on the vase in Cassel. Ai'ck. Anz. 1899, p. 57, fig. 1.
red decoration. For the toothed edge of c, cf. Myh. Vas. xxm. 171.
The murex or purple fish ornament is extremely common. It is curious that tve cannot trace its origin to an earlier class, since it does not occur in Classes I. and II. Even in Class III. it is impossible to trace any preliminary steps unless we recognize one of the early essays in the cup from Ialysos ; 1 that, however, seems rather too conventionalized for a prototype. The arrangement of the pattern varies, the most common being a row of double murexes as in Myk. Vas. xxxi. 297, or else they are laid diagonally on their sides.
Vas. xxx. 273.
36. ( freenish clay. The design cannot be reconstructed. The nearest similarity lies in two fragments of Class IV. {Myh. Vas. xxxvn. 378, 379), and it is possible that we may have here as there the combination of a spiral and a ray.
Class III. 2 forms the bulk of all Mycenaean pottery, no matter where found. Though the largest class of all, it is, as a whole, uninteresting save in regard to its bearing on contemporary art. There is little exercise of skill on the part of the potters, who seem to have been contented to turn out large numbers of vases varying little in form or decoration.
The class differs principally from its predecessor in that the quality as a whole is decidedly inferior. The clay is coarser and not so carefully cleaned, varying in shade, red and yellow predominating. The decoration is of many colors, the different shades of red and brown being the favorites. The paint also is of a very inferior quality, and on many vases has almost entirely faded. The glaze is generally dull, and never reaches that lustrousness so characteristic of the preceding class.
Loeschcke has been followed, since the general succession of our fragments differs in no great degree from that of other Mycenaean fragments. Only a few of the Heraeum fragments are here presented, but they illustrate all the principal types and the gen¬ eral development of the ornamentation.
The condition of the fragments was extremely had. Out of the whole class we succeeded in reconstructing only three vases, one of which coming from a small tomb had almost all the fragments preserved. Another half dozen had about half their fragments remaining, and twenty or more were represented by perhaps a dozen frag¬ ments apiece. More than a hundred were represented by from two to five fragments apiece. What the total number of vases represented by the fragments was, is impos¬ sible to say, as no calculation can come near the truth ; the number certainly ran into the thousands. As a rule where several fragments from the same vase were forth¬ coming, only one or two are here given, unless the scheme of ornamentation was not plain. As so many cases occurred where fragments of identically the same clay and technique clearly belonged to different vases, the relation of several fragments to one vase has been ignored, unless their common origin was clearly shown by a joining or otherwise.
The field in which our fragments lie is practically covered by plates xvn.-xxxv. of the Mykenische Vasen. The fragments corresponding to plates xxv. and xxvi. we have already assigned to Class II. 2. It has proved impossible in all cases to follow Furtwangler and Loeschcke’s arrangement exactly, and such variations as are introduced are justified by the demand of the particular frag¬ ments under discussion. I have endeavored to discuss the natural sequence of the ornamentation,
i. e. to treat the conventionalizing; of naturalistic motives first and the linear ones last, since we find the Mycenaean style as a whole passing from linear to naturalistic motives and through the
Reddish clay, with yellow slip and dull black decoration. From a grave back of the peribolos wall above the South Stoa. Small part of vase re¬ stored in plaster.
This was the only vase which allowed a fairly complete reconstruction. The ornamentation is similar to that of the amphora in Myk. Vas. xxvi. 223, save that the central design and the buds of the flower are treated in a slightly different fashion.
For form, cf. Myk. Vas. xi. 66.
This jug was labeled as coming from the same tomb as the four small vases of the “ dull ” finish mentioned on p. 74. Professor Waldstein informs me that the label is wrong, as a photograph of the tomb shows only the four vases already referred to. It is probable that this jug comes from the same tomb as Fig. 13.
14. The same. Introduction of ornament (semicircle) in field. Similar to Myk. Vas. xxvini. 245, save that here the ornament is unconnected with the spiral.
20. Cf. Myk. Vas. xxix. 253. Several other fragments of this bowl were found. Its chief peculiarity lies in the greenish yellow slip of the exterior. The decoration is considerably faded. Though no fragments fitted each other, it is plain that the scheme of decoration was a row of spirals, the loops curving upwards and unconnected.
Flower Patterns.
The flower pattern in Mycenaean art is one of the earliest motives ; we have already found it in Class II. 2 (cf. Plate LI I. 6 and 7), and similar though not identical plants may be found on the sword-blades from Mycenae.1 A comparison of our fragments with those in Myk. Van. xxx. shows many points of similarity, but the progression towards conventionalization mentioned by Furtwangler and Loeschcke (p. 60) can hardly be seen here, since in none of our fragments is the drawing of the pistils, seed-bags, and leaves at all apparent, and all our fragments have arrived at the conventional stage. The pseud-amphora is the commonest form, though many fragments of bowls like Myk. Vas. xxx. 276, were found.
35. Series of zigzags used as border lines.
36 a and b. Two fragments from the same vase ; another smaller fragment was also found. Brick red clay, probably burnt. The zigzag pattern is used almost exclusively, and suggests a transition style to the geometric. The half circles as ornaments in field are used in similar fashion to the “ Running Dog ” pattern. Cf. Flinders Petrie, Tel-el-Amarna , xxvil. 41-43 ; Myk. Vas. xv. 96.
8. Top arranged in triple form, half circles unconnected.
9. Part of large bowl. Triple arrangement of corona, in elaborate form, combined with the murex. Cf. Myk. Vas. xxxi. 298, p. 61. Whether the murex is paired or single cannot be told with certainty, but probably the former case is true. This combination is a common feature on vases of this class.
10. Cf. Myk. Vas. xi. 72. Similar, but not as elaborate.
11. Half a dozen other fragments of almost identical clay and technique were found. Those fragments, however, had different motives, and it seems impossible that so many different themes should be combined on one vase. Hence no reconstruction was attempted. The arrangement of the motive here is clearly connected with the flower branch just discussed.
Murex , or Purple Fish Patterns.
The murex pattern is generally arranged in series of single ones, or pairs, the tops touching the border of the rim of the vase. Furtwangler and Loeschcke’s statement,1 “ das Ornament wird besonders haiifig an Bechern und Napfen verwendet, docli nur an solchen deren Innenseite ungefirnisst ist,” is not correct, since on several of the Heraeum fragments, with glaze on the interior, was this ornament found.
13. Side of a large bowl, form Myk. Vas. xxxi. 297, about 30 cm. in diameter. Height cannot be determined, but it was probably the same as the diameter. The clay is of a warm yellow, but with a tinge of red and yellow slip. Decoration changes from black to brown and dark red. Muriees in single series. Several other fragments of same vase were found.
xv. 96, xx. 146, xxi. 154.
20. Muriees in pairs, points curving outwards. Dotted circle between the pairs. This varia¬ tion where the points curve outwards, and the pair combined in single form, is extremely rare. Cf. Schliemann, Tiryns , pi. xxii. 1), Myk. Vas. xxxi. 299.
Linear and Textile Patterns.
The conventionalization of the pictorial ornaments now leads to a steady employment of linear and textile patterns. Whether the latter are really drawn from those used in embroideries is impossible to say.‘J
The principle in the following fragments seems to be the division of the vase into a series of metope-like squares by vertical lines, the vacant spaces being filled by natural ornaments conventionalized or else textile motives.
1. Reddish clay with darker core, plastic mouldings on upper and lower edges. Form uncer¬ tain, but probably that of a three-liandled pyxis with rounded base, as in Myk. Vas. xliv. 34. Ornament a variation of the “ RunningDog ” pattern (see below) growing out of the loops already mentioned. Perhaps the ornament may have been intended for a guilloche. Cf. Myk. Vas. xxxiv. 347.
Fig. 15. Bowl. Form, Myk. Vas.
xxxm. 328 ; height, 0.104 m. ; diame¬ ter, 0.145 m. Light red clay, with warm yellow- slip, circular bands on interior. Sim¬ ilar decoration on both sides, three perpen¬ dicular series of lines, the outer inclosing a lieri-ing-bone pattern, the central one zigzags with a dotted semicircle on each side. Cf. Myk. Vas. xxxm. 327, 330. Numerous other fragments of precisely this scheme of ornamentation were found.
rosettes. Good technique.
4. The ornament is probably a variation of the palm-tree (cf. Myk. Vas. xxxi. 296). I have been unable to find another instance exactly similar. Lozenge chain introduced between the perpendiculars. Another small fragment of the vase was also found.
It is well to consider here the line decoration, or linear principle, which runs all through My cenaean decoration from the earliest times. The examples here cited (Plate LV.) ought strictly to fall in several of the classes already considered ; but as this linear prin¬ ciple has a peculiar bearing on later periods, especially the Argive style, it is best to treat these fragments for a moment in one special class. Only those fragments have been selected which afford an example of fine line decoration ; fragments of large vases with broad lines as their only decoration were extremely common.
Though some line decoration occurs on almost every vase of the Mycenaean epoch, it is only during this period, when Class III. flourishes, that we find the steady employ¬ ment of the fine as well as the heavy line, used chiefly on vases of the pseudamphora type. The shoulders of such vases are generally filled with various motives, hut from the shoulder to the base the vase is ornamented with a series of parallel lines, heavy and fine. Such fragments were extremely common at the Heraeum. Their rela¬ tion to vases of the Argive style will be more fully discussed in chapter iv.
28. Lower part of funnel-shaped vase, of the so-called “ Ialysos ” type. Cf. Myk. Vas. vn. 42 ; xi. 71. The opening runs the whole length of the vase. Fragments of such vases were fairly common at the Heraeum, and as far as could be seen the only form of decoration on them was linear.
and style, are certainly not older than Class III. 2, and most probably belong to it.
Vases of a reddish yellow clay, carefully polished, but without decoration. Frag¬ ments of these vases were numerous and filled several baskets. Some specimens were found in the Bee-Hive tomb (see p. 91). Only a few vases could he restored from the fragments, and represent mostly kylixes and amphoras.
Another series, which seems to belong to a separate class, was formed by fragments exactly similar to the one-handled cups from the Bee-Hive tomb. (Cf. Fig. 32.) The clay is generally fine, red or yellow in color, with a brilliant glaze, the rims and feet being ornamented with bands. The body of the vase is covered with a decoration hard to describe ; it seems as if the color had been sprayed on the surface of the vase. Whether this is the same technique exhibited by the vases from Aliki (Myk. Vas. xviii. 119, 125), I cannot say ; it is not common, and thus far the only similar speci¬ mens I have been able to note are from the Acropolis at Athens and Aegina. Just what position they occupy in the Mycenaean style is doubtful, but the several points of technique, clay, glaze, and color would seem to assign them to Class III. in the first division rather than the second.
Of the class of small, hand-made vases, mentioned in Myk. Vas. p. 63, the Heraeum furnished one intact (Fig. 16) and numerous fragments of others. This is a one-handled jug (height, 0.065 m.) of light reddish clay, with yellow slip, the decoration varying be¬ tween black and red. Cf. Myk. Vas. xv. 101,
Another vase belonging to Class III. is Fig.
17 ; height, 0.06 m. ; diameter, 0.051 m. Two legs and handle restored. Greenish clay, with black bands on body and legs, dots on rim.
CLASS IV.
The number of fragments belonging to Class IV. is very small. In only a few cases were more than three fragments of the same vase found, and even then the design could not always be reconstructed. The peculiar fact is that the fragments of this class which we possess do not show the wealth of ornamentation we should have expected. A very slight study of vases belonging to this class from other localities shows that it is thor¬ oughly decadent, with a wealth of ornamentation linear rather than pictorial in charac¬ ter. The Heraeum fragments show this linear feature, and even though the wealth of ornamentation be lacking, the similarity between them and other vases of the class, in decoration, clay, technique, etc., is strong enough to warrant our placing them in Class IV. without question.
The clay of all our fragments of this class is much coarser than in the previous class, and is generally greenish in tone. The color has lost the lustre which was prominent before, while the glaze is generally dull and never rises to the level of that of Class III. in point of brilliancy. Though the forms of the vases cannot always be determined, it is safe to say that bowls were the most common. It may also be stated that fragments of this class which belong to vases with large openings do not always have the interior glazed (Myk. Vas. p. 63), or, to put it differently, the absence of glaze on the backs of large fragments of bowls is no proof that they are not connected with Class IV. In fact, among the Heraeum fragments of this class, glaze on the back was the exception rather than the rule.
chronological order, nor, indeed, could any satisfactory classification of ornamentation be found, since in an over-elaborate style like Class IV. it is a difficult task, when dealing with a few scattered fragments, to evolve any definite scheme. In the main the order is based upon plates xxxv. and xxxvi. of the Mykenische Vasen.
Fig. 18. Half of bowl. Form, Mylc. Vas. xxxiii. 318 ; height of fragment, 0.069 m. ; clay light red, with warm yellow slip, red decoration fairly brilliant. Though half of the design is miss¬ ing, there can be no doubt that it was somewhat similar to Mylc. Vas. xxxi. 296, with a lozenge of interlaced lines on either side.
38. Possibly a development of Mylc. Vas. xxxi. 296. Though dots are frequently employed as the groundwork of a design, their use in place of the line is very curious. A somewhat analogous use occurs in fragments from Tiryns. (Cf. below No. 46.) The “Heraldic” scheme suggests Mylc. Vas. xxxv. 356.
43. Reddish clay, fine technique. Elliptical lines inclosing series of zigzags curving to a point.
44 a-d. Four fragments from same bowl. Greenish clay, with black decoration. The arrange¬ ment of the design is extremely difficult to restore. That a bird was intended seems fairly evident if a (the head) be compared with Mylc. Vas. xxxvi. 364, and c (the wing) with xxxvi ii. 383. Perhaps like Schliemann, Tiryns , pi. x. 45.
Though the use of figures, animal or human, is one of the later innovations of the Mycenaean style and a characteristic feature of Class IV., all vases which show this use do not necessarily belong to that class. Such figures seem to have been introduced during the latter period of Class III. Only half a dozen of such fragments were found at the Heraeum, but no satisfactory explanation of the lack of such fragments is forth¬ coming. All except the last (No. 47) belong to Class III.
45 a and b. Two fragments from the same vase. Brick red clay, with dark red decoration. Two birds, somewhat resembling a wild duck, are represented. Both fragments show an ex¬ tremely advanced style of technique and belong to Class III.
represented. Class III.
The arrangement of fishes in a symmetrical series with a flower branch between them is a natural characteristic of the third class. The use of crosses instead of dots as decoration for the body is quite akin to that on plate xi. 48 of Schliemann’s Mycenae. A similar arrangement may be noted on a lebes from Cyprus in the British Museum. ( Excavations in Cyprus, p. 35, fig. 66, No. 1038.) Cf. also Petrie, Kahun , Gurob , and Ilawara , pi. xxviii. 9.
with a tree or branch.
This is the only Mycenaean fragment from the Heraeum on which the human figure occurred. Its treatment is somewhat curious, and savors more of those figures on Geo¬ metric vases. However, it seems doubtful whether any Geometric influence can lie here recognized..
Fig, 20 (Form, Myli. Vas. xliv. 63 ; drawing on Plate LXIV. 1.) One-handled jug : height, 0.054 m. Found at the southeast of the Second Temple. Yellow clay and slip with decoration varying from black to red. On base rays, and figure zone on the body ; another figure zone on the shoulder, and stripes on the neck and rim. Vertical zigzag on the handle between two perpendicular lines. Intact.
This vase is of special interest, since it shows the transi¬ tion between the Mycenaean and Argive styles. Clay and technique are unmistakably Mycenaean, but the general scheme of decoration savors more of the Argive style, since we have an animal zone and a very primitive example of a ray pattern around the base.
On the shoulder are represented three animals, but so rudely drawn that it is impossible to identify them. They have large open mouths, three projections above, which may represent ears and horns, and a tail almost like an extra let division. Three animals precisely similar are represented on the main zone, inverted. This inversion gives an extremely curious effect, as the animals thus resemble boats with their sailors, the ray pattern serving as waves ; but it is plain that such an effect is acci¬ dental. This inversion of the figures is paralleled by two skyphoi from the Heraeum (v. p. 151), and does not, as far as I know, occur on any Mycenaean vase.
This vase has been assigned to the Mycenaean class purely on technical grounds, for it shows so perfectly the characteristics of both the Mycenaean and Argive styles that it is difficult to decide to which class it really belongs. It must be admitted that no animal on any Mycenaean vase resembles these figures in any way ; but, for that matter, no similar animal can be found on any Argive vase.
Two tombs were discovered on the 20th and 23d of April, 1891. Both have been described in the previous volume of this publication, and consequently there is no need of devoting any time to the consideration of their architectural features. The contents of these tombs was as follows : —
Glass beads.
The few vase fragments from the second tomb were mostly undecorated, and per¬ mitted no reconstruction. A few fragments of bones were also found ; but in the main the contents of the tomb are not worth a detailed consideration.
In the first tomb the results were more gratifying. Three layers were found, the upper containing bones and four vases (mostly cups), at a depth of 2.79 m. ; the second, which contained a skull, some calcined bones, and the majority of the vases and frag¬ ments, at a depth of 3.28 m. Ten cm. below the second came the last layer, which, besides a few fragments of bones and a cup (No. 18), contained a small separate grave near the entrance of the dromos (length, 1.26 m. ; width, 0.45 m. ; depth, 0.66 m.). Through some accident during the transportation to Athens, several of the labels were lost, and it is now impossible, in the case of some of the vases or fragments, to decide from which layer they came.
The classes represented were II. 2 and III. 2. No specimens which showed the advanced technique of III. 1 were found, nor were there any rough pieces which could belong to II. 1. At the same time there appears to have been no distinction in the matter of layers, since vases of both classes were scattered about in each layer. Certain it is, however, that all these vases are products of the same period.
1. Height, 0.207 in. Form, Mgh. Vas. xliv. 63. Coarse reddish clay, without any decoration. Base of handle pierced by a hole. Intact ; first layer.
the second layer, of precisely simi¬ lar form and technique. Both had a small hole at the base of the handle.
2. Height, 0.155 m. Similar
shape to 1, but with handle a lit¬ tle more flaring. Reddish clay, with a highly polished yellow slip, without any decoration.
was also found.
4. (Fig. 29.) Height, 0.078 rn. Handle missing. Form similar to 1, but rather more rounded and squat in appearance. Reddish clay, with black decoration laid on very thickly and cracked in places. Bands and continuous spiral chain on the shoulder, with dots in the field.
Another similar jug with leaf pattern on shoulder was found.
5. (Fig. 23 a and 6.) Height, 0.074 m. ; diameter of cover, 0.075 m. One-handled vase with cover. Form similar to Myk. Vas. xliv. 115, except that here the foot is lacking. Coarse red clay, with dark core pierced by two rows of holes, with a single row in the cover. The use of this peculiar ves¬ sel has never been satisfactorily ex¬ plained ; similar examples have been found at Troy in the fourth city (Schliemann, llios, p. 557, fig. 11,
96), and at Ialysos. ( Myk . Vas. n. 15.) According to Furtwangler and Loeschcke these ves¬ sels were used to burn incense or some sweet-smelling powder for sanitary reasons, and this expla¬ nation seems very plausible, especially as we find the cover also pierced with holes.
Amphoras.
Form, Myk. Vas. xliv. 44, except for a slight variation in the foot. Coarse brick red clay without decoration. The exterior has been entirely covered with a white wash, almost entirely worn away.
The principal feature of this amphora lies in the white wash. This, as is shown by many of our fragments, was a very common feature, and half a dozen baskets are filled with fragments showing it. Generally it seems to be employed on vases of coarse clay, large pithoi or small wheel-made saucers. AYhile this technique is employed very often on Mycenaean terra-cotta figurines and later vases (e. g. the white lekytlioi), it is ex¬ tremely rare on archaic vases (two in Berlin, 1309, 1629), and I know of no other instance in the Mycenaean style. From its frequency in our fragments, it may perhaps be considered as a local fashion.
This vase differs from the ordinary Mycenaean am¬ phora in that the handles have no connection with the mouth of the vase. The absence of all decoration and the presence of the glaze proves that a large part of the glazed fragments which the Heraeum furnished must be placed in the Mycenaean period.
heavy and fine. Second layer.
The form of this vase does not quite correspond to Myk. T as. xliv. 25, as the mouth is a little wider and the foot less pronounced ; it lies between forms 25 and 27. When found it was completely full of ashes, which are probably human.
tern similar to Plate Eli. 6, with dotted rosettes in field, with a wave pattern and series of radiating lines on base. The decoration varies from black to red brown.
11. ( Fig. 28.) Height, 0.05 m. ; diameter, 0.185 m. ; diam¬ eter of opening, 0.085 m. On shoulder three fishes. Usual decoration of bands in dark brown. First layer.
Four more vases of this type were found varying in height from 38 to 84 cm. The decoration was the same in all, a wave pattern on the shoulder similar to Myk. Vas. vm. 45.
Interlaced lines on shoulder.
13. (Fig. 29.) Height, 0.065 m. ; diameter, 0.10 m. ; diameter of opening, 0.07 m. Brilliant black decoration. On shoulder double line loop pattern, bands on body in red and on base spirals in light brown.
Kylixes.
Four of these were found, of red or yellow clay, without any decoration. Two were of the same form as Myh. Vas. xliv. 83 ; one, the same as Myh. Vas. xliv. 82 ; while the fourth probably corresponded to form 85, but as one side was completely broken away, it cannot be told whether the vase possessed one or two handles. They were all from 10 to 12 cm. in height and from 11 to 15 cm. in diameter. One (form 82) was elliptical in shape, having a diameter across the handles of 13 cm. ; at right angles to the handles, 14^ cm.
clay, red glaze on interior, outside plain.
Three other cups of similar shape but with the rim less emphasized, were found, two undecorated, one ornamented with stripes. It is probable that 18 and 19 are direct p,
stippling.
This cup is a good instance of the technique men¬ tioned on p. 89. Three more cups were found, all of the same shape, one showing the same technique, one with a row of ornaments on the side similar to those on No. 8, and the third plain.
Of the vases found intact, or partially so, mentioned in the Introduction, by far the greater part consisted of small, hastily made vases, with or without decoration, the exact date of which is extremely doubtful. The quality of the clay is distinctly inferior to that of the Mycenaean vases, and in many respects corresponds to that used in vases of the Geometric style, so that the majority of them may Avell belong to that period.
A comparison of the vases without decoration with the decorated vases is the onlv means for establishing a date for the former, and in the case of the latter the following data are available: (1) The most primitive examples (the saucers) show a use of “ dull ” color, which, together with their rather hasty technique, may perhaps assign them to the earlier periods of the Mycenaean style. (2) One small three-handled jug, which, from its polished surface, belongs more properly to the class discussed on p. 99, had a linear band of ‘‘dull” color. (3) Practically all the jugs, amphorae, and bowls were made of a coarse clay, more resembling that used in the Geometric vases, and if they are to be included in the Mycenaean style at all, would seem to belong to the very latest period. These, I shall endeavor to show later, constitute the real link between the Mycenaean and Argive styles. At the same time, I do not regard tlieir sequence from primitive times as existing without a break, and for that reason I do not consider them as examples of the “Argive Linear” style which Professor Waldstein would consider them to be. It cannot, however, be assumed that their influence on any particular style was marked ; they are simply the examples of the low level to which the potter’s trade could sink, and from their large number it is reasonable to suppose they were the cheapest vases which the devotee at the shrine could buy. Being rough and small, they were not so easily broken, and were thus in far better preservation than larger vases of better technique. To assign an exact date to them is impossible, nor can they be arranged in any exact chronological order, except where the development of the shape can be readily seen.
Diameter, 0.05 m.
1. The most primitive examples seem to be a series of small hand-made saucers, of grayish or reddish clay, pierced by a hole near the rim, and varying from 5 to 7 cm. in diameter, and 2 to 3 cm. in height. Several hundred were found intact or in fragments. The ornamentation is of the simplest character, consisting of two lines crossing each other at right angles. Whether they belong to the dull or lustrous Mycenaean vases is difficult to decide, as the decoration is extremely poor, hut they are more probably examples of the “ dull ” technique. Variety is obtained by increasing the number of cross-lines,
which vary from two to eight. As a rule the ornamentation is confined to the interior, but cases occur with the same design on the exterior as well. The earliest of the series is a saucer of red clay 5 cm. in diameter, with ribbed edges and two incised cross-lines on the interior. This probably falls in the primitive period.
Similar saucers were found in large numbers at Hissarlik, Mycenae, and Tiryns. In some respects they resemble saucers from Bos-ojiik (Koerte, Athen. Mitt. 1899, pi. iii. 7) and Syra (’E^/x. ’A py;. 1899, pi. ix. 25).
2. As a development of these we have a series of wheel-made saucers, of reddish clay (e. g. Fig. 32 b), from 4 to 7 cm. in diameter, of which about fifty were found. The inner edge of the rim is either sharply defined or rounded, and none have any
the addition of the boss.
2. The wheel-made type (Fig. 32 c) corresponds in character of clay (wheel-made) and lack of decoration to a, 2. The principal variations lie in the height of the boss, which in some cases rises above the edge of the saucer. As in a, 2, the edges of the saucer are either rounded or sharp. A few examples were found with a series of parallel dashes of paint (dull) 011 the rim.
Two varieties may be noted with one handle, and one with two handles.
The simplest form of the one-handled saucer is hand-made, the edges rolled over so as to form a curve down to the bottom of the vase, and the handle, of the simplest form, parallel with the sides. (Fig. 32 d.) This type was extremely common. A varia¬ tion is introduced occasionally, where a plas¬ tic dab of clay is placed on each side of the handle along the rim, similar to those on the shoulders of our terra-cotta figurines (Fig. 32 e) ; this saucer was entirely covered with a brown glaze, worn away in places. A few specimens were noted with one handle, and three plastic dabs of clay, arranged so as to form a symmetrical scheme on the four sides of the vessel. While the majority of these saucers are un decorated, some few are
handle. The earliest example is hand-made, of precisely similar clay and technique to those first mentioned under a, with four cross-lines on the interior. The wheel-made types show a decided advance in execution. They are almost flat (a trifle over a centi¬ metre in height, and from six to seven centimetres in diameter), the edges well defined, and they are made of a dark red clay without decoration. About a dozen specimens were found. As the quality of the clay resembles more closely the Geometric clay, and as they are exactly paralleled in shape by several of our bronze saucers, it is certain that they must fall in a rather later period, perhaps about the eighth century.
Bowls.
The earliest examples of bowls seem to be contemporary with the most primitive saucers mentioned above ; they are hand-made, of very rude technique, the sides raised a trifle. In some cases a small dab of clay is added to the rim to represent a handle. None have any decoration.
The total number of bowls found was between one and two hundred ; of these a few are hand-made, but the greater part are wheel-made. Slight variations in the forms may be detected, but hardly enough to warrant a regular classification.
The hand-made bowls are either plain or decorated, rounded at the base or else provided with a flat base. None have handles. The decoration invariably consists of one, two, or three narrow bands encircling the bowl just below the shoulder. A dozen examples were found where the vase had been covered with a white paint (as in No. 6 of the Bee-Hive tomb : Fig. 24). On one example a straight or a wavy band had been painted in red ; this was added after the final firing as in the case of terra-cottas, and is easily friable. None of these bowls exceeded 3 cm. in height or 5 cm. in diameter.
Something over a hundred wheel-made bowls were found, the majority of a coarse reddish clay, similar to that of the wheel-made saucers. Only a few examples bore any decoration. The form is generally the same with the following variations. The rim is either flat, slightly curved, or sharply emphasized as in the saucers ; the profile sometimes flares sharply outward and downward so that the diameter is greater at the base than at the opening. As a rule the profile curves inward towards the base, which is flat. The usual form of decoration consists of one or two broad or fine wavy bands on the shoulder. The following is the best example : —
This is probably one of the latest of the series, as the clay is more like that of the Geometric vases in texture and the technique more advanced. It is probably one of the earliest instances of the Geometric snake. The use of yellow dots seems to be a peculiarity of the Argolid and will be discussed later.
Further another class may be mentioned of a technique slightly more advanced, where the bowl is provided with a foot and two large handles rising above the rim, similar in form to Myk. Vas. xliv. 16, Fig. 34. but without any decoration.
These numbered over five hundred and formed the majority of all the Heraeum vases intact or partially so. The greater part of them are wheel-made. As usual two classes of these were observed, those with decoration and those without. The greater part of the undecorated vases were exactly similar in size, form, and technique to the decorated vases, but a special class of hand-made undecorated vases existed which demands a more careful discussion.
These vases all show the same peculiarities. The clay is of a dark red or yellow, the outside of which has undergone a very brilliant polish, and in some cases through the action of the fire has become bright red in places. Two shapes are represented. Onehandled jugs or oinochoai and three-handled jugs. All are small, the largest not more than 12 cm. in heiMit.
We are able to date with a fair degree of certainty the period in which these vases fall. First, one specimen of the handled jugs had on the shoulder a wavy band which is decidedly dull, not lustrous in character ; secondly, other specimens have been found in a grave at Syracuse along with vases of the Argive style (second period).1 Thus we obtain two termini , which show that these vases were manufactured as early as the Mycenaean dull period (fifteenth century) and as late as the Middle Argive period (eighth century).
Most of the shapes are similar to those used in the Argive style, only slightly more primitive in character, and naturally so, seeing that they are hand-made. A very few, which show the most developed form, are wheel-made and are probably the latest. At the same time the example from the Syracusan grave is certainly hand-made, showing that the use of the wheel was not universal even in that period of advanced archaism.
Two distinct forms may be noted, those with a circular and those with a trefoil rim (oinochoe). The latter show a technique more advanced, which fact, together with the form, assigns them to a later date than the first essays. At the same time it is certain that the oinochoe with trefoil lip is a form known to the Mycenaean epoch.'2 Further we find that the body is either round with a handle rising above the rim, or cylindrical with the top of the handle level with the rim.
the body and the handle dropped lower than the rim. Cf. Itios, Fig. 1140.
1 Tomb 305. Tomb G5 from Megara Hyblaea also by Wide at Aphidna (A then. Mitt. p. 385 ft’, pi. xiv.) contained a similar vase. The same polish was observed seem to show a similar technique, but are not so adon a lekythos from the Heraeum (height, 0.05 m.),of dark vanced in form. It would seem fairly safe to assign both gray clay, the shape rather advanced, being that of the our vase and that from Syracuse to the period succeeding lekythos on p. 127. fig. 54. At Syi’acuse (tomb 428), a the Mycenaean style.
Fig. 36. Height, 0.112 in. Found east of the North¬ west Building. The base is thicker in proportion to the opening than in most of our vases of this type.
Fig. 37. Height, 0.044 m. This would seem to be a prototype of the oinochoe form which is so common during the Argive period (p. 128).
It is the commonest type of these small vases, and at least forty other specimens were found. I have noted several other examples, two in Syracuse (Syracuse, tomb 305, and Megara Ilyblaea, tomb 65) and three in the Louvre (Room A, case N, 496, 497, 498) from Attica. Those from Syracuse and Megara Hyblaea were found with
vases of the second Argive period.
Fig. 38. Height, 0.74 m. Oinochoe. Burnt in parts to a brilliant red. The base is slightly flatter than most of the oinoelioai of this type, but otherwise shows no important variation.
About a dozen oinoelioai were found. One example, wheelmade, was remarkable for the handle rising above the rim and having two small breast-like protuberances on the shoulder, a somewhat unusual feature on vases of the Mycenaean epoch.
Twenty or thirty of these were found, but save for the addition of a small handle on each side of the body they differed in no way from the one-handled jugs already de¬ scribed. The trefoil lip does not occur. They are all smaller than the one-handled jug, the highest not measuring more than 6-7 cm.
the opening being circular and the neck broad or narrow. The trefoil lip was seen only
in a few examples. The decoration on all is practically the same, lines around the body with a zigzag or wavy band on the neck in some cases.
Fig. 39. Height, 0.105 in. ; diameter of opening, 0.069 m. (form, Myk. Vas. xliv. 65) ; grayish clay with a greenish tinge, black decoration. On neck zigzag band, with parallel stripes on neck, body, foot, and inside rim. On shoulder oppo¬ site the handle dotted rosette.
This is by far the best specimen of the type and the most advanced. The clay is not cpiite so characteristically Mycenaean as in some other cases, but it cannot very well be included in the Geometric or Argive classes.
TIIE GEOMETRIC STYLE
seem to be Mycenaean, while the quality of the clay is decidedly inferior. But as this principle of decoration is practically the same as that already considered, these vases are properly to be discussed here. The shapes are fairly uniform, though slight variations may be detected in the height of the neck, size of the handles, fullness of the body, separation of the foot from the body, etc.
The decoration follows a consistent scheme, in that the body is reserved for parallel stripes or bands and the shoulder for other motives, as rays, vertical lines, wavy bands, zigzags, rosettes, etc. The neck is occasionally ornamented in similar fashion.
Fig. 41. Height, 0.05 m. Yellowish clay, with dull brown decoration. Two handles (restored), with a hole running through the sides; no open¬ ing in the top.
I have been unable to find any example similar to this vase. It must be regarded as a mere freak Fig. 40. of the potters’ art, with no definite raison d'etre. Fig. 41.
It would seem at first sight as if vases of the Geometric style were the most nu¬ merous at the Heraeum, since their fragments filled about twice as many baskets as either those of the Mycenaean or Argive styles. But as Geometric fragments are generally fairly large in size, since they belong to large vases, and the Argive fragments extremely small, it was found that the actual number of vases represented by Argive fragments was considerably larger than those represented by the Geometric.
For many reasons an intelligent presentation of the Geometric fragments has proved extremely difficult. Owing to the larger size of the vases, hardly a single one was found intact, and in no case could more than a third of any vase be reconstructed, though some vases were represented by several hundred fragments apiece. Although the num¬ ber of shapes represented is extremely large, many are so closely allied to each other — the chief variations being in the number of handles, the shape of the neck, etc. — that, without the whole, or at least the greater part of a vase, a systematic classification based upon shapes becomes difficult, if not impossible. Then, too, almost the entire surface of the vase is covered with a decoration combining many different motives, and in such a case it was difficult to decide which fragments should be presented and which not, since there was danger, in a classification based on ornamentation alone, of treating sep¬ arately motives which belonged to the same vase. Finally, hardly a single new type of this style was found at the Heraeum ; the decoration on almost every fragment repre¬ sented may be paralleled by dozens of vases scattered through the museums of Europe.
style, and seems less susceptible to progressive ideas. The Heraeum fragments, which probably cover a period of two centuries, are marked by their monotony and consistent adherence to a general scheme. Types are to be distinguished, of course, but such a classification as proved practicable with the Mycenaean and Argive styles becomes impos¬ sible here.1
The fragments here presented illustrate the development of the various motives so extensively employed. At the same time this classification has been adopted solely as a working hypothesis, since the nature of the material forbids even an approach to finality; that can only be secured by a classification based upon material larger, more comprehen¬ sive, and in better condition than that furnished by the Heraeum.
As the character of the decoration on our fragments is practically identical with that of Dipylon ware, the question immediately arises whether our fragments were made in the Argolid or imported from Attica, since no other districts can well claim their manufacture. Though certainty on this point is impossible, the evidence seems to point to the former hypothesis. Fragments of this style have been found at both Mycenae and Tiryns in large quantities, showing that the style was a common one in the Argolid. As the amount of Mycenaean ware found there is so large as to point to a very flourishing vase industry, there seems no valid reason why Geometric ware should not have been manufactured there also. Lastly, the clay of the Heraeum fragments is heavy, carelessly cleaned, and of a yellowish or greenish tinge, while that of the Dipylon vases is lighter, cleaner, and of a reddish shade ; the decoration also of the Heraeum fragments is in general of a duller lustre and less decided in its character than the Attic*.
One of the radical points of difference between the Mycenaean and Geometric styles lies in the clay, and the difference is especially apparent to the touch. The quality of the grain in the Geometric is far coarser than in the Mycenaean vases, and never, even in the best examples, does it attain to the lightness and smoothness of the latter. Whether this difference results from the employment of claj from a different bed or from different technical methods in its preparation, I am unable to say. But as the differ¬ ence between the clay of Mycenaean vases found in Attica and the Dipylon vases is just as great as in the case of our fragments,2 it does not necessarily argue that none of our Geometric vases were manufactured in the Argolid ; it would rather be a cause for wonder if they were not made there.
It can hardly be said that the Geometric fragments from the Heraeum throw much light on the vexed question of the origin of the Geometric style in Greece. Up to the present moment three widely different views have been proposed: (1) the old view, which has now, I think, been generally abandoned, that it was the result of some Eastern influence (Egyptian, Carian, or Ionian); (2) the view expressed by Furtwangler and Loeschcke, that the style was the result of the Dorian invasion; (3) the last and most radical view, advocated by Wide and Wolters, that the Geometric style is an autoch¬ thonous growth, a u Bauernstil,” as opposed to the “ Herrenstil ” of the Mycenaean civilization, and the direct result of the primitive forms of decoration, but subject to some external influence which may have been supplied by some such movement as the Dorian invasion.
1 Since the above was written, Dr. Wide’s analysis of same time an effort will be made to mention all the types the Geometric style has appeared in the Jahrbuch for cited by Wide which could be identified among the He1 HDD ([>]). 2fi ft'., 78 If., and 188 ft'.) and 1900 (p. 49 ff.). raeum fragments.
It may he readily seen that such an arrangement as that 2 See p. G5, note, on the results of Dr. Washington’s adopted by Wide is out of the question with the material investigations touching this point, from the Ileraeum, for the reasons given above. At the
From Wide’s investigations at Aphidna, his contention that the primitive elements for the Geometric style are to he found in Greece seems to lie satisfactorily established; also, from his analysis of the survival of Mycenaean motives in the Geometric style (. Athen . Mitt. XXII. (1897), p. 233 ft'.), it may he easily seen how close is the connec¬ tion between the two styles. But neither theory is sufficient to account for the true Geometric style, which, as he admits himself, does not show the transitional stages of development which were to have been expected if the style were derived directly from the Mycenaean.
For the Heraeum fragments it must be said that only a few scattered specimens (e. g. Plate L. 15, 16, and 17) show the existence of Wide’s pre-Dorian elements; such speci¬ mens, however, are more in line with Professor Waldstein’s linear theory, and are not good examples of the “ Bauernstil.” That a small number of fragments, which, though Geometric as far as clay and technique were concerned, also show distinctly the sur¬ vival of Mycenaean motives, points to a close connection between the two styles. At the same time, the difference between such fragments and those of the pure Geometric style is so great that it is difficult to believe that the Geometric style could possibly have originated as the natural sequence of such prototypes.
The need for some decided infusion of fresh ideas is the chief obstacle against the entire acceptance of Wide’s theory. As we can hardly assume that the finished Geo¬ metric style is the natural outcome of previous conditions, subject to no outside influence, we must seek some reason for such a phenomenon, and of all the solutions offered, the theory of the Dorian invasion seems to my mind the most satisfactory.
While the actual occurrence of such a migration has never been conclusively estab¬ lished, it is generally agreed that some great upheaval took place in Greece during the eleventh century n. c. Certainly all the phases of the civilization which succeeded the Mycenaean period show a radical change of style, which can hardly be accounted for by a purely natural and unaided development. It is too much to assume that the people who brought about such a change were necessarily identical with the people of the “ Hallstatt ” period, though the similarity between objects of that period and the Geo¬ metric style is extremely striking. As the Geometric style is found at the Heraeum practically full-grown (as is also the case in Attica), it remains to be seen whether some external movement can account for its growth.
Now, granting for the moment that the Geometric style could have developed in Attica along the lines laid down by Wide, the same can hardly be true at Argos; were such the case we should certainly expect to find a steady and continuous development from primitive or Mycenaean times. The linear theory for the origin of the Argive style can hardly apply here. Since an autochthonous growth can scarcely account for the style at the Heraeum, some external influence is absolutely necessary. It would seem that at a time when the Mycenaean civilization in the Argolid was on its decline there appeared a new influence, which effectually finished the Mycenaean civilization, and brought in with it no new elements (since almost all of them had been in use before), but a new and radical combination of those elements. Seeing that these ele¬ ments are linear, and thus characteristic of at I peoples during the primitive stages of their civilization, it matters little who these people were, though they may well have been the Dorians; the main point is that they brought with them a new style, or new arrange¬ ment of motives already in use. It is hard to see how any other explanation can account for the rise of the Geometric style in the Argolid ; with Attica the case is not so evident.
We have already pointed out that, except for a few slight technical differences, the Geometric style in the Argolid is practically identical with that of Attica. If we assume that Wide’s theory of an autochthonous development for the style in Attica is true, and that some external influence created the style in the Argolid, we are confronted by a most surprising contradiction of facts, — that two different influences at work in two different places should produce substantially the same results. Theoretically such a case might be possible, but not practically ; one influence must be responsible for both styles.
Therefore it does not seem difficult to assume that this external influence (if Dorian it be) was felt in Attica as well as Argos. Such a theory would supply the lacuna, which Wide admits, in the complete development of the style, and does not preclude the existence of an earlier, primitive Geometric style in Attica. Although the Attic historians always claimed that Attica had never been overrun by the Dorians, the legend of Codrus shows that she was not untouched by their movement, and there seems no reason why the legend of the movement of some tribe against the Attic frontier should not be symbolical of a steady movement from the Peloponnesus along the shores of the Saronic gulf to the very confines of Attica.
To assign a chronology to these events is impossible. They cannot have taken place at once, but were probably spread out over half a century. But while by this reasoning the Dipylon style is shown to be slightly younger than the Argive Geometric, it is not implied that the former is the result of the latter, but that it is the result of the same principle as the latter which first made itself felt in Argos, and finding the conditions in Attica practically the same, naturally accomplished there the same results.
TRANSITIONAL STAGE.
Fragments of this class were not very numerous, and, as no vases were preserved entire, they do not lend themselves to a satisfactory arrangement. Two variations of this class were noted, — fragments of distinctly Geometric clay with Mycenaean ornamentation, and fragments of Mycenaean clay with Geometric ornamentation. At the same time the scheme of decoration is treated rather from a Mycenaean than a Geometrical standpoint, and it cannot be assumed that these fragments are the result of the new influence; it is most probable that they mark the low ebb to which the Mycenaean style was sinking, as the fourth class lustrous finish declined. The difference in the clay would seem to show, either that at the end of the Mycenaean period some change had been made in the pre¬ paration of the clay, or that for some reason it was taken from different beds. How¬ ever, in view of the similarity in clay of all Geometric vases, wherever found, it seems more likely that the difference between it and Mycenaean clay lies solely in the manner of preparation.
GEOMETRIC STYLE: EARLIEST EXAMPLES
Wide has endeavored in his article on the survival of Mycenaean motives in the Geo¬ metric style (Aiken. Mitt. XXII. [1897], p. 233) to trace the development of the vari¬ ous motives which had their origin in the Mycenaean style during the later period. I cannot, however, agree with his assertion that the centre of the Mycenaean activity lay in the islands. Wide bases this claim on the supposition that the vases which show this connecting link between the Mycenaean and Geometric styles have been found only on the islands. Such a supposition cannot now he entertained, since not only are many of these types to he seen on our fragments, but also on vases recently found in Attica. Of the motives mentioned in Wide’s article, the following occur at the Heraeum on various fragments mentioned below. (The page references are from Wide’s article.)
tions were found. Also several handles with a plastic snake.
Amphora (p. 238, fig. 6). Fragments of similar amphoras were extremely numerous at the Heraeum. Dozens of fragments belonging to rims showed a lozenge chain, with or without a cen¬ tral dot. Equally numerous were the lozenge chains formed by interlacing lines, the rhomboids (single) and “ Running Dog ” patterns.
( P. 238, fig. 7.) Several fragments from the shoulder of a vase showing similar decoration were found. The form is uncertain, but as the base of a spout was apparent, it is probably a jug similar to the Mycenaean ones with one handle. The clay is coarse and of a dark red color. The decora¬ tion on both shoulder and belly consists of a net pattern (not a meander, as in the Munich vase), the spaces filled by rosettes or dotted lozenges. Under the base of the spout is a leaf pattern.
bination of a wave pattern and dotted circles.
The preceding enumeration of the various types is valuable as showing the occurrence of Wide’s types at the Heraeum. The following fragments are here introduced to show the use of Mycenaean motives on a Geometric clay. It must be remembered, however, that the difference in clay is hardly perceptible in the plate ; in all these fragments it is generally greenish or yellowish in tone (sometimes reddish), coarse in quality, and not very carefully cleaned, never possessing, except in a few cases, the smooth surface so characteristic of Mycenaean clay.
from dark to light brown. Checkerboard and circles.
The quality of the decoration resembles the Mycenaean more closely than does that of any other fragment. We have here the circles (as in Wide, loc. cit. p. 244, fig. 14 a ) with the Geometric checkerboard. Both are treated in a slightly freer fashion than we shall find usual. Several other similar fragments were found.
Rosette and zigzags.
Fragments similar to 8 and 10 were very numerous (certainly a basket full) and seem to con¬ stitute the earliest essays in the Geometric style proper. While the clay is coarse, it has been covered with a whitish slip (as in Mycenaean vases) and the decoration applied rather thinly without any lustre. Some of the fragments had a dark brown glaze on the interior, which, together with their size, seems to show that they belong to anaphoras or bowls. Outside of the Heraeum this ware is not common ; the nearest approach seems to be a variety found at Syracuse. On none of these fragments was any decoration found which included the human or animal figure, the established scheme being straight lines and zigzags. In fact, on Argive Geometric vases the use of the zigzag seems to be carried to a far greater extent than in Attic work.
of howls.
Further, we may mention a number of fragments (chiefly handles and necks) which seemed to belong to amphoras similar to those in Jahrbuch, XV. (1900), p. 51, fig. 107, the only decoration being a wavy band on the neck and stripes on the body and handles. These fragments evidently belong to Class I.
PURELY GEOMETRICAL TYPES.
Fragments with purely Geometrical ornamentation formed the bulk of this style at the Heraeum. The vases are almost entirely covered with a brown glaze (in the case of bowls the glaze is also used on the interior), with a series of parallel bands running round the body, which in many cases formed the sole decoration. The principal mo¬ tives are placed on the shoulder, neck, or rim, and consist generally of a meander pattern arranged singly or in series. These meanders are formed by single lines, or by double lines with a series of short parallel cross-lines, straight or diagonal, between them, which give the effect of shading. In some cases the cross-lines are omitted. Other motives
Checkerboards. These are treated in a variety of ways. The simplest form is a series of squares, alternately black and plain (i. e. the natural color of the clay). Variety is secured by the insertion of a lozenge into the plain squares, or else shading the black squares by a network of lines.
times connected, sometimes not.
liosettes or stars. Generally treated in series, either as an independent band or else as a border to the wave pattern. Cases occur, especially in plates, where the rim is surrounded by a border of leaf or flower petals, with a shading of lines.
Dotted lines. Used as a variation of the plain circular band.
Since none of these motives are new in the Geometric style, and as no peculiar combi¬ nations of them occur on our fragments, none are given in our plates. All these motives may he found on vases where “ animal ” motives are introduced ; at the same time a large number of fragments show clearly that this animal decoration does not occur on a great part of the vases.
THE INTRODUCTION OF HUMAN AND ANIMAL MOTIVES.
The third class of the Geometric style is by far the largest, not only at the Heraeum, but in almost all the other places in Greece where the style is found. The introduction of the human or animal figure must have taken place at an early period, though hardly at the very beginning of the style. It is true that we find these figures in the fourth class of the Mycenaean style, hut their treatment differs materially from that usual in the Geometric period. Moreover, the Geometric types which are certainly the oldest, such as the transitional types found on the islands (cf. Wide, loc. cit.) and those more recently discovered in Attica and Corinth, exhibit pure Geometric decoration, with no traces of a human or animal motive. At the same time, no great chronological distinc¬ tion can be demanded between Classes II. and III. of the Heraeum fragments, since the scheme of ornamentation, except for the introduction of human or animal figures, is practically the same in both.
tion of the fundamental principles of art, without the ability to attain the end desired. Exceptions may be found, since some fragments show a decided lack of ornaments in the field combined with a technique extremely advanced, but such fragments are not so com¬ mon as to warrant the reversal of our order. We must either assume that they are exceptions to the rule or else that they are merely advanced specimens of the first division, contemporaneous with the second, but still, through conventionality of taste, adhering to the earlier principles.
The choice of subjects in both divisions is the same. While the greater part of the vase is occupied by purely Geometrical decoration, the key-note of the ornamentation con¬ sists of one of the following types : —
A. Birds.
The bird as a motive of decoration is not only the most common one in the Geometric style, but there is good reason for assuming it to be the earliest of the motives included in Class 111. It is found on many fragments which through their primitive technique appear to belong to the earlier period of the style, where the other animal motives are wanting. We find it as a common feature on Mycenaean vases of Class IV., though treated in a different fashion, showing that the motive is not original in the Geometric style. But as the similarity between the earliest type of the water bird frieze in the Geo¬ metric style and the band of vertical zigzags common on the rims of Mycenaean bowls is so marked, there is reason for supposing that while the bird itself was borrowed directly from the Mycenaean fourth class, its arrangement in a frieze was suggested by the use of the zigzag band.
Fragments having this water bird motive were extremely numerous, belonging to the rims of small bowls around which ran a frieze of birds.1 The earliest examples are mere zigzag lines, the later more elaborate, the figure of the bird being shaded by cross-lines, and the head and beak more sharply defined. Ornaments in field are then introduced, principally dots, rosettes, and zigzags. Soon after the introduction of the frieze the bird itself becomes the real subject of decoration, but rapidly passes to the position of an ornament in field itself.
The birds are shaded as in 12, the tails sharply defined. It is noteworthy that the birds are alternately large and small,1 a feature I have not observed elsewhere. The use of the star as an ornament in field is by no means usual.
In Group b the water bird becomes the chief feature and is generally treated in a simple fashion, the bird standing alone in the centre of a panel formed by vertical and horizontal lines. A transitional type from a was observed in the case of several frag¬ ments from the neck of a large vase (probably an amphora) where a row of birds was represented, each one separated from the other by two patterns, one consisting of two upright lines with horizontal lines between and the other a vertical guilloche treated as a silhouette. The technique was poor and the birds drawn as silhouettes without any shading. Other cases were observed where the panel was hounded by rows of horizontal zigzags one above the other.
Several other fragments found.
The bowl seems to have been divided into four panels, the intervening spaces being filled by a meander pattern (not visible on 16). The birds are treated as silhouettes. The ornament in field is a common one in this style.
17. From a large vase. Brick red clay, with decoration varying from black to brown. The birds are more elaborately treated with stars as ornaments in field (cf. No. 14). From several other fragments belonging to the same vase it seems probable that the birds were the principal theme, the rest of the vase being ornamented with purely Geometrical motives.
B. Horses.
One of the most characteristic features of the Geometric style is the fondness for representing horses, either singly, in pairs (“Heraldic” scheme), or attached to a wagon. The horse in Greek art was a well known feature before this period ; one recalls the grave stelae, and the sword blade from Mycenae. Also on Mycenaean vases of the fourth class the horse may be found, although not so often as to assume that the animal
was a great favorite with the Mycenaean potters. To account for its popularity during the Geometric period is difficult. From the Homeric poems we know what a part was played by it in the Mycenaean civilization, so that we cannot assume a sudden increase of popularity for it during the later period. The chief point of difference lies in the fact that during the Mycenaean period the horse is always used as a yoke-animal, never as a beast of burden. In the Geometric period we find frequent representations of the horse as a mount as well as a beast of burden. A very superficial study of the Mycenaean vases shows that the drawing of animals was more or less tentative, with rather unsatisfactory results. Of course the Vapliio cups show that it was possible for the Mycenaean artists to reproduce animals with wonderful accuracy, but then the toreutic art of the Mycenaean period is far in advance of that of the vase painter. Hence we can only assume that an increase of skill in drawing on the part of the vase painters was responsible for so many representations of horses on Geometric vases. Being a common factor in the life of the period, it could not be ignored. But it is certain that the horse did not become popular until the Geometric style was firmly established, since it is not found on the earliest vases of the style.
18. From rim of large bowl. Dark red clay, with brown glaze on interior. Head and rear part of two horses. On the inside, below the rim, a band of vertical and horizontal lines crossing each other at right angles. No ornaments in field.
19. Part of the foot of a large bowl. Red clay, with darker core, lustrous black and brown decoration. Frieze of horses, with rays, stars, swastikas , etc., as ornaments in field. Below, two zigzag bands (shaded). Separated by a moulding appears what may be another similar frieze.
with a taller foot.
The majority of the fragments with a frieze of horses had a wealth of ornaments in the field. The type of horse was generally the same in all, the only difference lying in the quality of the execution. One fragment (without ornaments in the field) showed a frieze of horses grazing.
The treatment of the horse by itself in a panel is not as common as in the case of the birds. Only a few other similar fragments were found. The bird is here used as an ornament in the field. Whether the zigzag which falls from the bird’s beak is intended to represent a worm is uncertain. It is of frequent occurrence, not only on the Heraeiun fragments hut on Geometrical vases found elsewhere.
The representation of two horses facing each other in the so-called “ Heraldic ” 1 scheme is of common occurrence on vases of this style. The symmetrical arrangement of motives in this same scheme was a characteristic of the Mycenaean fourth class. The usual arrangement called for the figure of a man between the two horses ; hmvever, it is
THE GEOMETRIC STYLE: HORSES AND MEN
certain from other fragments belonging to the same vases as 21 and 22 that the space between the horses was occupied by ornaments in the field, and fragments from other vases show this same peculiarity.
As the treatment of the horse is that peculiar to the style, no further comment is neces¬ sary. Only a very few fragments showed a lack of ornaments in the field ; the greater part have a very elaborate series of ornaments, with many variations. In each panel (the group is almost invariably in panel form) five spaces may be found, two above and two below the bodies of the horses, and one between them. The filling of the latter space by a human figure will be discussed later. The most usual ornament in the spaces above the bodies is a simple meander or zigzag, sometimes combined. Besides these we find rosettes, lozenges, squares, crosses, circles, etc., in fact, all the common Geometric themes. Water birds are occasionally introduced, singly or in a row.
The space beneath each body is usually occupied by a fish or a water bird ; the other Geometric motives are often used, but by no means with the same frequency. In case the space to be filled is a very large one, half meanders, crosses, rosettes, etc., are em¬ ployed as filling around the body of the fish or bird.
a shaded half circle with lozenge chain. Several other fragments of this vase were found.
22. Coarse greenish clay, with greenish brown glaze on interior, and brown decoration. Row of water birds above on a dotted meander. Between the hind legs a water bird, between the fore legs a vertical “ Running Dog ” pattern. Beneath the belly a square containing a rosette. Sev¬ eral other fragments of this vase were found.
C. Me n,
Although the human figure is introduced into Mycenaean vase-painting, its use there is not very common. As the earliest examples of Geometric vases do not employ it, there is good reason to believe that not until the later period of the style was its use at all universal. Once introduced, however, its development was rapid, and in the latest examples of Geometric ware we find the human figure as the chief motive of decoration.
Among the Heraeum fragments this motive plays a large part. At the time of its introduction the use of ornaments in the field seems to be firmly established, and frag¬ ments with human figures, but without ornaments in the field, are rather scarce. Such cases as do occur are marked by an advanced technique, which forbids their belonging to the earlier period of the style.
Whether the introduction of the human figure in the “ Heraldic ” scheme between two horses is earlier than in the frieze cannot be told. The former is by far the more com¬ mon, and on the Heraeum fragments is the most usual motive. The general type is always the same : a nude male figure, in profile, holding a horse with each hand,1 either by a halter, or else grasping the horse’s nose. Such variations as occur lie in the dif¬ ferent ornaments in the field and in the treatment of the man and horse — either less or more advanced.
ornaments in field.
4. From a very large vase, perhaps an amphora. Reddish clay, with dark red decoration. At least a dozen other fragments belonging to this vase were found, showing that the horse and man were treated in panels, and the rest of the vase ornamented in the usual Geometric fashion. The head of the man has a very curious headdress, and the neck ridiculously lengthened. Such exag¬ geration is not common. Fish as ornament in field.
It sometimes occurs that a man and one horse are represented in a panel, the man leading the animal. As such cases generally have a corresponding group on the other side of the lines bounding the panel, it cannot well be called a genre scene, although the “ Heraldic ” idea does not appear so prominently.
Rim sharply separated from the shoulder. Wave pattern on rim.
In spite of the extremely archaic appearance of this fragment we cannot but assign it to the later period. The eye of the figure is clearly defined, and an attempt is also made to show the fingers. It is uncertain whether the object in the figure’s left hand is a whip or a halter.
That the object in question is really a kithara 1 would seem certain. That held by the terra¬ cotta figurines from Keros ( Athen . Mitt. IX. p. 156, pi. vi.), which is thought by Koehler to be the sambuJca , is probably the earliest instance of a lyre in Greek art. This fragment, however, would seem to show one of the earliest instances of a lyre in vase painting.
and were found on numerous other fragments.
Another type, though found on but a few fragments, in bad preservation, is a frieze of warriors, the shield 2 covering the entire body, and the two spears projecting diagonally upwards from the shield on each side of the head.
p. 1918. fig. 2078.
2 One or two of our fragments showed round shields, as on a vase in Athens ( Jahrbuch , XIV. [1899], p. 197, fig. 01). Several had only the upper part of the shield
pi. v. 1), it seems most probable that the shield was of the Boeotian type, which is fairly common on Geometric vases. Cf. Jahrb. XIV. (1899), p. 85, fig. 44.
type. The most probable explanation is that two figures, one behind the other, were represented, and that the artist, having no knowledge of perspective, got decidedly mixed in his drawing. The double axe is quite a common ornament in field, but whether there is any connection between this ornament and the Labyrinth in Cnossus (the house of the Double-axe, according to Evans) is decidedly problematical.
Fragments representing genre scenes at the Heraeum were comparatively scarce. As a rule the technique of such fragments is slightly better than the average. That such should be the case is not surprising, since in a style like the Geometric the introduction of genre scenes would come only after the treatment of the ordinary motives had been thoroughly developed and some new treatment was demanded.
tion a brilliant brown.
A battle scene is evidently represented. The central warrior is preparing to shoot an arrow, and it may be presumed that the other two figures are about to do the same. At the right of the fragment is the foot of a fourth warrior. On the left an arrow as an ornament in field.
The treatment of the bow is precisely identical with that on the fragment of the silver vase from Grave IV. at Mycenae (Tsountas, ’E^p.. ’A px- 1891, p. 19, pi. ii. 2), and the Mycenaean sword blade from the same grave ( B . G. H. 1886, pi. ii. 3, 4). This would show that during the Geometric period the same bows were employed as in the Mycenaean epoch. A comparison of the figures on the large Dipylon vase in Athens ( Mon . delV Inst. IX. pis. 39, 40) shows that the arrow which seems to pierce the figure with the bow is supposed to be girded to the side 1 in lieu of a quiver.
11. Reddish clay, with lustrous red brown glaze on interior. Lustrous black decoration.
That a boxing match over a tripod as the prize of the contest is represented is the most prob¬ able explanation. At first sight it would appear that the left-hand figure is holding out some object to the other, but a closer examination shows that the object in question is really the figure’s arm (since the fingers are denoted) very badly drawn. Similar contests are rare on Geometric vases. Cf. the bowl in Copenhagen (Arc/t. Zeit. 1885, pi. 8, 2), where a similar contest without the tripod is represented. (This fragment has already been published by Laurent, B. C. II. 1901, p. 150, fig. 3.)
12. Reddish clay with red brown decoration. Man in chariot driving. As three tails are vis¬ ible, it seems probable that a quadriga was represented. Two other fragments showed the same scene, but not enough of the chariot to draw any conclusion as to its form.
the prow of a boat, with the back of one of the rowers. Fishes as ornaments in field near the boat.
This fragment, as far as technique is concerned, belongs to a class which will be considered later. It is the only fragment found at tlie Heraeum on which a ship2 was represented. The treatment of the boat, however, differs materially from the usual boats found on vases of this period. Only a portion of the bow is presexwed, but it is plain that the stem of the vessel did not end in a sharp point, as in the modern ram, but was shorter and blunter. Also, the line of the bulwark curves backward instead of directly towards the bow. (Cf. Rayet et Coll. Ilist. p. 29, fig. 20 ; Baumeister’s Denkm. p. 1597, fig. 1G58.)
were found.
1 Whether this is a sword is extremely doubtful. Cf. Athen. Mitt. XVII. (1892), p. 219, fig. 7. On a skyphos from Eleusis ('E<prnn. ’A px- 1898, pi. v. 1 a) the warrior seems to be armed with both sword and quiver.
2 For discussion of this motive, cf. Pernice, Athen. Mitt.
XVII. (1892), p. 285 ft’. The prow of the galley on one fragment seems to be somewhat similar to that of the galley on a skyphos from Eleusis (’Ecpij/n. ’Apx 1898, pi. v. 1).
D. Women.
The female figure is treated in but one way on the Heraeum fragments — as part of a row of similar figures in a frieze. Though numerous fragments were found containing each a single figure, it is probable that such figures are only part of the regular row. All the figures followed the same type, and varied only in a few minor details. They are draped (no instance of an undraped figure, as on the Dipylon vase in Athens, already referred to, was found), and held a branch in their hands. From the waist to the feet outside of the garment are drawn one, two, or three parallel lines. No satisfactory explanation of these lines is forthcoming ; they are not always used on Attic work, but on the Heraeum fragments no female figure is represented without them.
has been dented in a rather curious way, perhaps intentionally.
It is uncertain whether the two figures here are inclosed in separate panels, or whether the ver¬ tical lines separate two friezes ; the latter is more probable. This is one of the earliest fragments on which the female figure occurs.
which a pattern of squares or lozenges is marked on the skirt of the dress.
17. From a large bowl about 31 cm. in diameter. Dark red clay, with lustrous black decora¬ tion, burnt dark red in places. Inside the rim, series of four narrow and two broad parallel bands, the upper bands separated at intervals by vertical lines.
On rim, in centre a male figure jumping, behind him a water bird and lower part of a male and female figure ; to right, five female figures carrying branches, and traces of a sixth. Below, meander pattern. Lozenges, swastikas, and rays as ornaments in field.
That a dance is represented here seems probable. It is certain that two rows of women were represented, that on the left led by a man. The ancient form of dancing is paralleled by the dances in modern Greece, where a row of women join hands with a man at the head. The jumping figure (cf. similar figure on the Copenhagen vase) and the water bird are probably used as ornaments in field to divide the two groups. The women have the usual series of tails, with a lozenge pattern on the skirt. The row ends at the side in a symmetrical fashion, as the left-hand figure of the row holds in her right hand an inverted branch ; and on the extreme left of the fragment the lower part of a similar branch may be detected. It is probable that the man leading the left-hand group also held a branch in his hand, as in 19. The treatment of the water bird is curious, a circular space in the body being filled by a swastika.
18. Dark gray clay, with brown decoration. Double lozenge pattern on the skirt.. The eyes of the figure are denoted. The right-hand figure is probably the end of the group, as she does not hold a branch in her left hand.
19. Dark gray clay, with black decoration. Inside, lustrous black band. Checkerboard pat¬ tern on skirt. As in 17 the row of women is led by a man who, together with the woman, holds the usual upright branch, with the addition of the inverted branch in the woman’s hand.
20. Dark gray clay, showing traces of fire. Black decoration and black glaze on intei'ior. Dotted square pattern on skirt. It is doubtful if any tail is indicated. The object to the right seems to be the fore legs of a horse.
Besides the animals already mentioned, we find others (generally deer) which are in¬ variably treated in two ways — either as ornaments in the field, or else as a subordinate frieze. In many of the friezes, horses, birds, deer, etc., are combined.
pattern.
As horses in the Geometric style invariably have long tails, it is certain that these are not horses. To represent the animals looking over their shoulder is the usual type. Variations occur where the four legs of the animals are bent sharply under the belly. (Cf. Copenhagen vase.)
OTHER MISCELLANEOUS TYPES.
The common origin of all the fragments previously considered seems fairly certain. A small number of fragments were found which seem to form a class by themselves, and are much more closely related to pure Dipylon ware, being of a finer, cleaner clay, and with a decoration more lustrous and careful than the preceding fragments. It is pos¬ sible that they may be simply examples of the best Geometric technique at the Heraeum rather than Attic importations. But beyond emphasizing the difference which exists between them and the other Geometric ware at the Heraeum, I do not venture actually to attribute to them an Attic origin.
All these fragments show a use of purely Geometric motives, the human or animal figure occurring but seldom. What period to assign them to is hard to say ; on techni¬ cal grounds they seem of later manufacture, but from their style and a comparison of ware recently found in Attica they seem to belong to the earlier period. To this class belongs the fragment with the boat, Plate LVII. 13.
double axe.
This fragment seems rather more Boeotian in treatment, though the clay lacks the white stones characteristic of Boeotian ware.1 The horse varies from the usual type, as the mane is composed of wavy streaks which are drawn down to meet the neck and occasionally do not touch the neck at all. As several other fragments exactly similar in technique were found, it is clear that 7 formed the support of some vessel, probably divided into legs, as on several of the fragments the edge of the leg was sharply defined. Two other fragments which may belong to the same support were legs, with two broad diagonal lines drawn from each corner crossing each other in the centre.
8 a and b. Two fragments of a cover; diameter, 0.376 m. ; height, 0.038 m. Dark gray clay, with black decoration. In the centre a large wheel with a deer ; in the vacant spaces, the whole bounded by lines, lozenge chain and zigzags. On the side an adaptation of the “ Running Dog ” pattern, the ends connected together, and triangles as ornaments in field. As no decoration or glaze exists on the interior, it seems certain that it was a cover. Covers as large as this in the Geometric style are unknown to me.
9. Tray. Length, 0.18 m. ; width, 0.11 m. Brownish clay, with the inside entirely covered with a reddish brown glaze. The decoration is placed on the outside, and consists of zigzags on the sides and water bird friezes on the bottom, separated by zigzag sand lozenge chains. Missing portions restored in plaster.
9-11 are the most important examples of about twenty fragments which belonged to trays or plates of precisely the same form and design. They are slightly narrower at one end (the restoration of 9 is not quite exact) and are provided with a handle at each end. Several fragments showed a meander pattern at the base.
Their principal interest lies in the fact that very similar trays have been found at Aegina and nowhere else.'2 At Aegina, however, all the trays found were rectangular, and did not show a different diameter at either end. As the microscopical analysis of these trays (cf. p. 65, note) made by Dr. Washington shows the presence of augite, which was found in the trays from Aegina, and is a characteristic feature of the island, it would seem fairly certain that these particular trays were imported from Aegina. If this be true, in these trays we have the only authentic instance of an importation from Aegina into Argos, since, according to Dr. Washington, all the Geometric fragments from Aegina which were examined by him are identical with those from the Heraeum, and show none of the distinctive features of the island. Moreover, they would seem to be the only instance of a local fabric in Aegina, which until now has not been demon¬ strated. (Cf. Loeschcke, Atlten. Mitt. XXII. [1897], pp. 259-264.) They furnish, at any rate, a conclusive proof as to the relation between the two states, which we have already assumed to exist (cf. p. 64). I do not, however, agree with Stais in assigning them to the end of the seventh or the beginning of the sixth century ; from a comparison with the other fragments of the Argive and Geometric styles found at the Heraeum, they seem to my mind at least a century earlier.
The design, as far as it can be restored, consists of two female figures bounded by four elliptical bands, and the usual Geometric ornaments in field ; outside of the ellipse a row of water birds. The dimensions of the pinax cannot be estimated.
toothed like a saw.
(As 12 and 13 were taken from a photo¬ graphic plate with a slightly different scale, they are slightly smaller than they appear.
There still remain to be considered a few vases which are either intact or else in such condition as to make their form cer¬ tain.
Fig. 42. Amphora. Height, 0.495 m. ; di¬ ameter of opening, 0.235 m. Part of neck, one handle, and various parts of the body supplied in plaster.
On edge of rim, zigzag band ; on neck, verti¬ cal and horizontal series of zigzags bounding a panel of interlacing lozenges with a black cen¬ tre. Below, narrow band of vertical zigzags and double crosses. Handles in fine plastic bands.
Below each handle a lozenge.
A. Horse and rider to right. The rider (bearded, with three strokes to denote his hair) clad in a short chiton, which seems to be tucked up around his waist, holds in his left hand the leading rein and in his right hand a whip ; chiton ornamented with vertical lines.
On base, single meander pattern.
This amphora was the only large Geometric vase the Heraeiun yielded which could be restored almost entire. That it is one of the latest examples of the style seems proba¬ ble, since the body is not entirely covered with decoration and the horse is represented as a beast of burden, not as in the earlier types attached to a chariot or in the usual “ Her¬ aldic ” scheme.
decoration. Lozenge band at top, usual Geometric motives on body and water bird frieze on base. Several other fragments found, one of which showed that the sides were arranged in panels con¬ taining two horses and man in the “ Heraldic ” scheme. Handle in centre, mouldings with dots half way between handles and edges.
To assign this vase to its proper place is not easy. It is almost identical in shape with Ann. del! Inst. 1881, tav. d’ agg. R. 1 and 2, except for the lack of handles. These are said to have been found on a similar vase from Chiusi (v. Bull, dell ’ Inst. 1884, p. 178, 179). But no trace whatsoever of a partition dividing the vase inside into two cups can be found, so that it is impossible that it should have been used in the same fashion as the Italian vases. (For discussion of their use, see Helbig, Das Homerische Epos1, p. 361.) Nor is there any reason to suppose that would be needed on any support handles of a vase.
About two hundred or more fragments belonging to one vase were found. This was evidently an amphora similar in shape to the large Dipylon vases in Athens,1 of a light reddish clay, burnt in places, and must have measured nearly one and a half meter in height. No reconstruction of the vase was possible, and the foot could not be found. The vase was entirely covered with ornamentation, that on the body consisting of a series of large wheels,2 arranged vertically and horizontally, separated by panels containing the usual “ Heraldic ” motives. Panels again were arranged on the shoulder, and the neck covered for the most part with zigzag and meander patterns. All fragments showed the usual Geometric types.
In conclusion it remains to enumerate briefly some of the forms of vases not mentioned before, which from the evidence of various fragments must have existed at the Heraeum. The forms are taken from Wide’s articles in the Jahrbuch for 1899 and 1900.
least a dozen fragments.
Ibid. p. 205, figs. 71, 72, and the following pages. Large numbers of fragments be¬ longing to similar jugs, and handles with a cross-piece were found. At the same time it is impossible to state whether all the combinations illustrated in Wide’s article were found.
The Argive (so-called Proto-Corinthian) style is not only the most characteristic vase fabric at the Heraeum, but the one best represented by entire vases as well as frag¬ ments, and seems to have been the’ most popular style in the Argolid from this end of the Mycenaean epoch down to the beginning of the Corinthian style, a period of perhaps from three to four centuries.
The term “ Proto-Corinthian,” 1 as is well known, was invented by Furtwangler and applied by him to certain vases, of which the small lekythoi with human and animal figures as the chief scheme of decoration are the best examples. Furtwangler never intended this name as an exact designation, but used it to show that this class bore a close relation to the Corinthian style which it preceded.
Since the invention of this term twenty years have elapsed, and in that time the num¬ ber of these vases has increased. Originally not more than half a dozen examples from Thebes, Tanagra, or Corinth were known, but we now have numerous examples from Attica, Aegina, Eleusis, Tiryns, Argos, Syracuse, Megara Hyblaea, Southern and North¬ ern Italy. To the class identified by Furtwangler has been added a series of vases the decoration of which consists entirely of fine parallel lines encircling the body of the vase and Geometric motives. At the same time the term “ Proto-Corinthian,” though univer¬ sally adopted, has never been considered thoroughly satisfactory, and numerous attempts have been made to discover the real provenience of the style ; none of the sites proposed as the original home of the style (Chalcis,2 Corinth, Sicily, etc.) has yet been univer¬ sally accepted. It has been generally believed that the style was the outcome of the Geometric ware 3 and originated about the middle of the eighth century.
It appears to me that the Argolid is the original home of this style, and I venture to adopt a new system of classification and chronology, which differs materially from that heretofore offered.4 The conclusions about to be stated have been forced upon me after a careful study of the Heraeum fragments, and while I am far from claiming them to be the only possible ones, they form the basis for the whole of this chapter. Briefly, the so-called Proto-Corinthian style is Argive in its origin, and a direct offshoot of the Myce¬ naean style, being contemporaneous with the Geometric.
From the very beginning of the excavations, when it was seen how large a proportion of the vase fragments was formed by this ware, in 1892 Professor Waldstein asserted that it was really Argive. Since then Professors Furtwangler5 and Loeschcke G have also come to the same conclusion. The arguments in favor of its Argive origin are : —
nished by the three most important excavations in the Argolid, the Heraeum, Mycenae, and Tiryns, more than equals that of the rest of the Greek world, including the Sicilian excavations. With such a vast amount found in the Argolid alone, it is extremely improbable that any other state should have been the inventor, or that the importation of the style should have taken place into a state which during the Mycenaean period had a flourishing vase industry of its own. F urthermore, as we have already pointed out, so few types were found at the Heraeum which were clearly made outside of the Argolid, that we must hesitate before calling any doubtful style a foreign importation. And as the largest part of the ware found in the Argolid is furnished by the Heraeum, it is there rather than at Mycenae that the origin of the style must be sought. In Aegina the style shows the same development as at the Heraeum, but as no attempt has ever been made to show that Aegina had a vase industry of her own,1 and as we know that histori¬ cal evidence points to a close connection between Argos and Aegina during the eighth and seventh centuries, the vases of this style found at Aegina may well have been imported from Argos.
(6) As far back as 1887, Dummler 2 had pointed out the fact that fragments of this style had been found at Aegina in the lowest levels along with Mycenaean fragments, and the same is true at the Heraeum, though, as we have seen, the presence of definite chronological levels was not observed. This would show clearly that some vases of the style are as old as the Mycenaean period. Many fragments of this ware are found at Aegina as well as at the Heraeum, which bear the strongest resemblance to the Myce¬ naean style. Moreover, the steady development of the style from its beginning can be better traced in the Argolid than in any other site, where the earliest examples are not to be found. Therefore, as Aegina cannot really claim the origin of the style,3 the enor¬ mous quantity of it found at the Heraeum, as well as the steady and complete develop¬ ment, would make it reasonably probable that the style originated in the Argolid.
As stated in the Introduction, the all-pervading characteristic of the Argive style is, as Professor Waldstein maintains, “ Linear,” pure and simple. We have already seen that the Primitive and Mycenaean styles were Linear in their origin, and that the latter, after passing through the pictorial stage when naturalism prevailed, returned in Class IV. to the Linear principle again, which, as we know from the presence of the broad and fine bands on the bodies of Mycenaean vases, was never entirely lost.
Practically, therefore, the earliest specimens of the Argive style are small vases, akin in clay and technique to the Mycenaean style. The question here arises, whether such vases form a step beyond the Mycenaean style, or whether they are only the best illus¬ trations of a continuous principle which originated in primitive times, and arrived at its perfection at the end of the Mycenaean period. Professor Waldstein maintains 4 “ that the Proto-Corinthian development of the Argive-Linear is but the natural development out of the linear decoration as found in Argive vases at the Heraeum from the earliest Primitive vases through the dull-colored vases and the Mycenaean periods. In the two first periods (Primitive and Dull-colored) this linear decoration is in free-hand drawing, sometimes with rudest implements and in awkward and grotesque uncertainty of touch. This uncertainty corresponds to the ruder hand-made technique of the ceramist. The
THE ARGIVE STYLE: ORIGIN
greater accuracy and skill in this linear decoration naturally comes in when the ceramist himself makes skillful use of the wheel, and produces such line specimens of the potter’s craft as are to be found with the rise of the Mycenaean lustrous vases. The parallel lines ornamenting the lower portions of these are thus firm and accurate. At the same time the feeling for ‘ free-hand ’ drawing has not died out, and in its turn advances with the progress of ceramic art during the Mycenaean period, so that when the feeling and desire for naturalism grows, the decoration above the lines reaches a stage of per¬ fection comparatively as high in technique in these lustrous vases as is the linear decora¬ tion and the ceramic art in the shape and manufacture of the vase itself. In the larger vases of the Mycenaean period the linear decoration is thus never entirely superseded ; while in the smaller vases it still maintains its predominance through this and all early periods. At the Heraeum, and we may say in the Argolid, the Linear principle of decoration, which finds its highest and purest expression in the later Argive (ProtoCorinthian) vases, had therefore never died out.”
This theory of Professor Waldstein’s I accept in part, and I agree with him that the Linear principle was never quite discarded even in the best period of the Mycenaean style. If it could be proved, as Professor Waldstein thinks, that from the Primitive times to the close of the Mycenaean civilization a distinct class of vases exists, which, though show¬ ing elements of Mycenaean decoration, have as their chief characteristic this same Linear principle, I should see no objection to accepting his theory entirely. This class I have not succeeded in finding, and I do not regard the various examples already quoted by Professor Waldstein as establishing the existence of such a class beyond question. It is true that there exists a large class of vases at the Heraeum, the date of which is not absolutely fixed, which show only the Linear principle ; but whatever their date may be, I do not consider them as earlier than the end of the Mycenaean period, nor do the few scattered fragments with incised linear ornamentation, which may possibly belong to the acme of that period (though that point is extremely doubtful), constitute to my mind a distinct and unmistakable link between the Primitive times and the rise of the Arrive style. It is possible to regard these same small vases as the beginnings of the Argive style, but only as the poorest examples of it. They show at least that they are the result of a principle which filtered through the Mycenaean civilization, just as a river flows through a lake, but which I, for my part, do not regard as a separate entity from Primi¬ tive times. Hence the earliest class of the Argive ware is probably an offshoot of the Mycenaean style. This class I shall call “ Early Argive.”
We have seen that some great movement (perhaps the Dorian invasion) in Greece caused a revival of the various Geometric or primitive motives at a time when the My¬ cenaean civilization was dead or dying, but when the Argive style had begun. Under the new influence the Argive style is quick to respond. Accordingly we find that as the Geometric style flourishes, the Argive style borrows freely the Geometric motives, but keeps them subordinate to its characteristic Linear principle of parallel bands as the main decoration. This is the class “ Linear Argive,” which forms the bulk of the style at the Heraeum and is widely represented in Sicily and Italy. The ordinary Geometric motives, zigzags, meanders, squares, lozenges, etc., are the ones most commonly used, and as the vases are generally of a small size, these motives are confined to the rims or shoulders, seldom if ever used on the body of the vase.
abruptly, while the Argive style becomes, as it were, emancipated. The reason is simply that as tills style was confined to smaller vases on which the Geometric motives played a subordinate part, the introduction of orientalized animals and human figures, together with the fuller development of ornaments in the field, did not necessarily interfere with its Linear principle of encircling bands. Again, as it was the distinctive style of the Argolid, and more popular than the Geometric, it was more easily influenced by the new ideas from the east. On the other hand, it would seem as if no attempt was made by the Argive potters to adapt the Geometric style to the new conditions, and hence it died out. In Attica, however, as the Geometric style affords the chief and only ware, some attempt had to be made to remodel the style to suit the new influence, or else to evolve a completely different fabric ; accordingly we find the Dipylon style developing into the Early Attic. It would seem probable that the Phaleron jugs which illustrate this devel¬ opment were influenced in some way by the Argive style ; such a theory, however, lacks actual confirmation.
We therefore find a third class of the Argive ware (Oriental Argive). It is to this class that the lekythoi in Berlin, London, and the other museums belong, which caused the invention of the term, u Proto-Corinthian.” The period of its production probably lies in the early part of the seventh century, and it cannot have lasted beyond the end of that century, since the rise of the Corinthian and Early Attic styles probably supplanted it ; also, no fragments of the style have been found at Naucratis. Cf. Cecil Smith, •/. II. S. 1890, p. 176.
A difficult question is presented by the relation of Class III. to the Corinthian style. That the latter is directly developed from Class III. I see no reason to doubt. Couve 1 lias recently denied such a connection absolutely, but as his arguments do not take the Heraeum fragments into consideration, they carry less weight.
Previous to the excavations at the Heraeum and at Aegina, Class III. was mainly represented by the small lekythoi already mentioned, but with the material from Aegina and the Heraeum the class is seen to include numerous larger vases of various shapes, the lekythoi being in the minority, so that any argument which bases the relation of the Argive style to the Corinthian on the lekythoi alone possesses little value. It is true that the lekythoi belonging to Class III., which show the most advanced technique, are not found in the Argolid, but in Thebes and Corinth. The shape, however, is fairly well represented at the Heraeum.
Now all these lekythoi found outside of the Argolid seem to be a finished product ; they are similar to the Corinthian vases, but vases which show the transitional stages between Class III. and the Corinthian are wanting. Such connecting links, as far as I know, are found only at Argos and Aegina, but the quantity of true Corinthian ware found at both those sites is small compared to that found at Corinth or in other parts of Greece. As Corinth is universally admitted to be the originator of the Corinthian style, that point may be regarded as settled.
A survey of comparative history will help us here. We have seen that during the Myce naean epoch the Argolid was the great source for the bulk of Mycenaean pottery found in Greece, just as Athens became the great producer of the Black and Red-Figure styles in after years. At the time we are considering (the seventh century), Argos had behind her centuries of skill in ceramic arts, with (presumably) a correspondingly large Athens did not begin her commercial activity until the eighth century,
and Corinth, although beginning at this time to figure as a commercial factor, had not the previous years of industrial activity. If, then, the question arises as to which soil the spread of Oriental influence in Greece found most receptive, antecedent probabilities would certainly point to Argos. It would be most extraordinary to find such a finished product as Class III. originating in Corinth ; as a matter of fact, the real difference between Class III. and the Corinthian style is simply this — a new influence at work upon skilled, as opposed to unskilled labor.
Argos, then, originates Class III. Its wide range does not militate against such an assumption ; while not all the vases of this class so common outside of Argos are probably of Argive manufacture, still the bulk of them were most probably exported from Argos. That they do not exist in very large quantities at Argos itself is no proof to the contrary ; it may perfectly well have been the case that local taste preferred the larger, finer vases, while the bulk of the smaller was exported. We know that during the sixth and fifth centuries the bulk of Attic work was exported to Italy, and were it not for the cemeteries of Chiusi, Ruvo, Nola, etc., etc., our knowledge of Atticpottery would be small indeed. At the same time it would have been perfectly pos¬ sible for potters in Corinth, Thebes, Syracuse, and elsewhere to make copies of originals imported from Argos.
Hence it is probable that the importation into Corinth of Argive vases gave the inspiration to the Corinthian style. The ware evolved by Corinth was really a poor imi¬ tation of the Argive, and, owing to a lack of technical experience, the former started on a much lower plane than the latter. It is worthy of remark that as Class III. develops at Argos it becomes more like the Corinthian, only much finer in technique. This is not surprising, seeing that the external influence in both places was the same. The actual points of similarity between fragments of Class III. and the Corinthian style will be dis¬ cussed later.
The question of clay is important, but difficult to define in default of microscopic investigation. In Class I. the clay is almost Mycenaean ; practically the only difference is that the clay of Argive vases is lighter. The general treatment of glaze and decora¬ tion varies somewhat from the Mycenaean, in that the surface is seldom polished, and the paint less lustrous and applied less thickly. This is especially apparent in Class II. Here, however, the general scheme of decoration has advanced beyond all similarity with the Mycenaean. But though in the earlier classes the clay seems to be similar to that of the Mycenaean vases, the greatest difference exists between it and that of the Geome¬ tric vases, the Argive being of a different color (generally reddish), finer, cleaner, and lighter. In fact, during the later period of the Argive style, the art of making light vessels reaches its highest point ; in some cases the clay is almost as thin as a sheet of very fine cardboard.
Owing to the smaller size of the vases the material is in much better preservation, and in almost every case the exact form of the vase could be determined. Hence it has been possible to evolve a classification based on the various forms. All through the style three shapes are most prominent — lekythos (oinochoe), skyphos, and pyxis ; each exhibits many variations, which will be discussed later.
The use of some color, red, white, yellow, etc., applied to the vase after the first firing, is especially characteristic of the Argive style. As it is found in the Mycenaean and Geometric styles as well, its use will be discussed more thoroughly at the end of this chapter.
EARLY ARGIVE.
We may include in this class many of the small jugs mentioned on pp. 99-101. Their only decoration is encircling bands with the occasional introduction of a Mycenaean motive, and as they belong to the end of the Mycenaean period they represent virtually the first stages of the Argive style. The forms used in this class are not very numerous; besides the jugs already mentioned we have examples of lekythoi, kalathoi, and small saucers, all three akin to various Mycenaean forms. That so few shapes are to be found is not surprising ; the new style being still an experiment, potters would he likely to begin with familiar shapes.
Lekytlioi.
Only one form of the lekythos was noticed ; it is a one-handled jug of about the same form as Myk. Vas. xliv. 63. It is, however, all through the Argive style one of the most popular shapes, and one which was clearly taken from a Mycenaean prototype.
Fig. 44. Height, 0.07 m. Southeast of Second Temple. Intact.
This lekythos is the most perfect specimen of Class I. found at the Heraeum. The clay is of a yellow tinge, and the decoration a lustrous black. In point of technique it possesses the greatest affinity with Mycenaean vases. The quality of the clay is of a slightly lighter and thinner texture, and the scheme of decoration distinctly linear. At any rate, its connection with the Mycenaean style is so strong as to show that it is certainly contemporaneous with the later period of that style.
Half a dozen similar vases were found in good condition, and as many more in frag¬ ments. The scheme of decoration was the same in all, some, however, having a series of fine lines beween the broad bands. Several other vases, in shape more like the jugs on p. 100, were found, on which the linear decoration was apparent, but of extremely careless execution.
Kalathoi.
These small vessels form a distinct series in the Argive style. Those which show the most advanced technique undoubtedly fall into Class II. To avoid confusion, they have been placed together. They seem to have been a common shape, since about fifty were found, most of them intact.
The earliest examples are hand-made, very small (not more than 35 mm. in height or 55 mm. in diameter), with one or two broad bands very carelessly applied. Next, a series of wheel-made specimens, some without any decoration, more commonly with several broad stripes. Finally a number of kalathoi, carefully made with a decoration of stripes in series of two or three. These last probably belong to Class II. In some cases the rim is
change from brown to red in the decoration is evidently intentional.
Fig. 48. Height, 0.045 in.; diameter, 0.078 m. Red, clay witli yellow slip burnt red at base. Upper bands black, lower red, evi¬ dently intentional. Dots on rim, and five bands inside. A dozen other vases of this type were found.
Saucers.
Just at this point we place a series of small saucers, of which quite a number were found. They vary from 3 to 5 cm. in diameter and 10 to 15 mm. in height, and would seem to be developed from the Mycenaean saucers (p. 96) with the addition of Argive
Two types may be detected.
a. Flat base, straight or sloping sides, with a A small boss is occasionally found on the interior, and small projections are often added to the rim as if for handles.
Fig. 49. Height, 0.01 m. ; diameter V 0.051 m. Light red clay, with black bands \ alternating with applied red bands on inte¬ rior. No decoration on exterior.
red. Boss in centre.
Numerous other similar saucers were found and fragments of others of larger size. One, of which about half was preserved, measured 12 cm. in diameter and 5 in height. Clay and decoration were identical.
We now come to the class which includes almost all the Argive style, from its begin¬ ning in the Mycenaean times down to the rise of the Oriental influence, a period of perhaps nearly two centuries. Three periods may be noted, though as the transitional stages between them are so gradual, they will not be used as a basis for classification.
2. Pure linear treatment.
3. The introduction of the animal figure and the development of the Oriental influ¬ ence. We also find three distinct technical methods, a. The ordinary technique, similar to that already discussed. t>. The application of extra color, c. The contrast obtained by the action of fire, when half the vase is burnt bright red and half left in its natural decoration in black or brown.
Two varieties of the lekythos may be found, one rather globular in shape (cf. Not. d. Scam, 1895, p. 138, fig. 15) and the other (Bert. Cat. pi. v. 102) slightly more devel¬ oped. The latter shape is a modification of the former, and becomes very common during the later period of the Argive style.
below a broken wave pattern.
The shape of this lekythos is somewhat similar to the Mycenaean form (v. Myk. Vas. xliv. 63). In the wave pattern we still see a survival of Myce¬ naean motives. A similar lekythos is at Syracuse (v. Not. d. Scavi , 1893, p. 473). From the form and ornamentation this lekythos may be considered as one of the earliest of Class II. Fragments of several other similar lekythoi were found.
Fig. 52. Height, 0.085 m. Part of rim broken away. Bands on neck, handle, and body, Geometric snake on shoulder. Decoration in dark and light Fig. 51. brown. Cf. Not. d. Scavi , 1895, p. 138, fig. 15 ; Brit.
a scroll between them. Incised lines.
Identically the same form as the preceding. As in the Geometric style, the birds are the first living subjects in¬ troduced on a vase. The heraldic scheme of the birds suggests the fourth class of the Mycenaean style. Cf.
liest instances of the incised line.
The chief variation in these lekythoi lies in the ornamentation on the shoulder. The following- types were noted in the fragments : —
This is an example of the simplest form of this second type, of which about twenty-five more were found. The majority had a ray pattern around the base, and the place of one of the broad bands taken by a checkerboard band. Pot-hooks were occasionally found on the shoulder instead of rays.
Fig. 55. Height, 0.062 m. Yellowish clay, burnt red on one side. Circle of dots on rim. Sign like the letter II on handle, vertical zigzags on rim. On body, frieze of three animals. Below, rays. Above and below animal frieze, two lines of dark red paint applied. The vase is intact.
This lekytlios represents the most advanced stage of the second type, and can equally well be considered as the first stage of Class III., or the last of Class II. I11 fact, it forms a link between the two, since the animal figure is now introduced, through the Oriental influence. A dozen more of this type were found intact, and at least a basket¬ ful of fragments belonging to similar vases.
The application of the extra dark red lines now becomes quite a feature in the style, and few vases belonging to Class III. are without it. Several lekythoi of this shape, without any animal decoration, showed this same feature. One was adorned with two broad bands of brown, on which six alternating thin stripes of purple and yellow had been applied. A similar instance is at Syracuse {Case VII. No. 2893).
Also several lekythoi were found with checkerboards on the body (with applied bands of dark red between), and a leaf rosette on the neck, similar to those in the Louvre, v. Pottier, Vases de Louvre, pi. xxxix. E, 309; cf. also Mon. Ant. I. p. 824 (from Megara Hyblaea). Several examples are in Rome (Museo Papa-Giulio) and Florence. The type seems to be very common.
tical zigzags on shoulder.
This was the only example of the type which was preserved entire. As few other fragments of similar vases were found, the form does not appear very common at the Heraeum.
1 a and b (Plate LIX.). Two fragments from a large oinochoe, whose height cannot be determined. Reddish clay, with dark brown decoration. On the neck, an elaborate flower pattern between vertical “Running Dogs.” On shoulder, alter¬ nating rays of interlaced lines whose tops end in two hooks with a border of fine vertical lines ; below, dotted lozenge chain. Several other fragments from the same vase were found.
The pattern on the neck is similar to that on an oinochoe in Athens ( Jahrb . II. (1887), p. 52, fig. 14) as well as the Analytos jug (Jahrb. II. (1887), pi. iii. ), and seems to be drawn from unable to find any similar treatment of the ray pattern on the
shoulder.
The form of this vase is a slight modification of Fig. 56, as the diameter of the body is not so large in proportion to the neck. Only one other vase of exactly this form was found with a decoration on the body of rays, bands, and checkerboard. The form, however, is quite common at Syracuse. Cf. Not. d. Scav. 1893, p. 468 ; 1895, p. 153, fig. 38. In the Corinthian period it becomes a favorite shape.
The few fragments of oinochoai of this form (Fig. 56 and Plate LIX. 1) did not show any great variety in their scheme of ornamentation. Zigzags, checkerboards, and rays (especially on the base) were the usual motives.
Type 2.
This type seems to be the most favorite form of oinochoe at the Heraeum, judging by the number of the vases. Thirty or so were preserved more or less complete, varying between 10 and 15 cm. in height. An equal number had the necks and handles broken away, but the bodies intact, while the number of fragments belonging to vases of this form filled several baskets. Something like a hundred necks were found, but in only a few instances did they fit any of the bodies. The total number of vases represented must have numbered several hundred.
Fig. 57. Height, 0.165 m. ; diameter, 0.135 m. Handle restored. On neck, two bands, the upper containing a zigzag figure like an N, and the lower a lozenge chain. Both bands are broken by a figure resembling two triangles with contiguous points. On shoulder, Geometric snake with swastikas, dots, and zigzags as ornaments in field.
THE ARGXVE STYLE: OINOCIIOAI, CLASS II
Fig. 58. Height, 0.17 m. ; diameter, 0.12 m. Riin and handle restored. On neck, four bands of lozenge chains, separated by a broad band of horizontal zigzags. On shoulder, rays (interlaced lines), with swastikas as ornaments in field. Below, checkered hand ; on base, rays. Decoration in bright red and black.
This is the best specimen of the type that was found. The form is seen here in its complete development, the body coneshaped, and the neck very long (about once and a half times the height of the body).
The technique of all these vases and fragments is very similar, the clay red¬ dish or greenish in tone, with a yellow slip, and the decoration (often very lustrous) in black or brown, changing to red, in many cases intentionally so. As no two vases have exactly the same ornamentation, it will be well to consider that more in detail.
Neck and rim. The rim as a rule is never ornamented, but is entirely covered on the outside with a dark glaze. A few fragments were found which showed that the orna¬ mentation (lozenge chain) had been carried on to the rim itself. The neck, however, offers the greatest variety of ornamentation. From over a hundred necks, forty-five dis¬ tinct systems of designs were counted, which fall into several classes. The design never completely encircles the vase, but leaves a vacant space from rim to shoulder, just back of the handle.
In a few cases the neck is covered with parallel horizontal lines the whole length. This, however, is not common, and was observed on only a few fragments. The usual type is a series of broad friezes containing the various motives, separated by the parallel line system. These figures are either arranged in series of equal width, or else broad and narrow friezes together. The ornaments in them are always zigzags (vertical or horizontal), lozenge chains, meanders, rays, or water birds. A few examples showed a water bird in a panel.
2. Length, 0.107 m. Reddish yellow clay, with yellow slip. Brilliant red decoration. Meander frieze bounded above and below by friezes of lozenge chain (interlaced lines). Below, part of a frieze of N ornament similar to fig. 57.
in light and dark red. Guilloche.
Reckoning the diameter of the neck as one fourth of the length, we obtain an oinoclioe of about 25 cm. in length (the neck being about once and a half times the height of the body). Several fragments of necks of an even larger size were found, which, together with the size of some of the fragments from the bodies, shows that oinoclioai of a very large size (25 to 35 cm. in height) existed at the Heraeum. Oinoclioai of such a large size are rather rare ; the largest existing specimen with which I am familiar was formerly at Callaly Castle,1 in Northumberland (Forman collection), and measures 22} cm. in height, and 21 cm. in width at the base.
Shoulder. Less variety was exhibited in the decoration of the shoulder. The usual motives are, rays (in silhouette, or formed by interlaced lines), radiating outwards from the neck. A few fragments showed rays pointing inwards ; zigzags, vertical and horizontal, singly or in series ; checkerboard. The shoulder has occasionally a double frieze, as in Figs. 57 and 58.
Fig. 59. Fragment of oinoclioe. Height, 0.057 m. Brick red clay, with bright red decoration.
On shoulder, frieze of birds (lozenges and pot-hooks as ornaments in field), and a narrow border of vertical zigzags. Usual arrangement of bands on body. Incised lines freely used.
This fragment represents the latest stage of the oinochoai belong¬ ing to Class II., and corresponds to the lekythos on p. 159, fig. 55. As in the Geometric style, birds seem to be the earliest animate motives used.
Handle. Out of over fifty handles, twenty-three distinct designs were counted. The decoration is almost invariably on the outside of the handle, the inside being left plain. One fragment showed glaze on the inside. The usual types are, —
exists on the handle of an oinoclioe at Syracuse, tomb 344. Cf. Not. d. Scavi , 1895, p. 152, fig. 38.
5. Length, 0.095 m. Light red clay, with yellow slip. Dark red glaze on inside. Guilloche alternately in outline and silhouette. The same peculiarity may be found on a Mycenaean frag¬ ment (Myk. Vas. xxxiv. 339). Another instance occurs on the rim of an amphora found at Cynosarges by the British School at Athens (J. II. S. XXII. [1902], pi. ii.).
arrangement of a half rosette at the base of the handle is extremely curious.
Base. The decoration on the base is usually confined to a ray pattern. Little variety is introduced, except in the height of the rays which on the larger fragments measure as much as three centimetres. A frieze is occasionally added above the rays of zigzags or some other design. One fragment showed a Mycenaean spiral chain. In some cases the line system is continued clear to the base, or a frieze of zigzags may be introduced in place of the rays.
Bottom. The decoration of the fiat surface on the bottom with a design is a curious feature among Argive vases of this type, and may be also seen on an oinochoe from Aegina ( Athen . Mitt. XXII. [1897], p. 294, fig. 19). The Aegina oinochoe follows the usual scheme, which is a series of parallel lines crossing each other at right angles. The other scheme is simply a series of parallel lines across the diameter of the base. Other fragments showed the fore feet of a horse, scroll and lozenge patterns. On the
THE ARGIVE STYLE: CLASS II., OINOCHOAI
bottom of one fragment of the base, the upper part of a human face, similar in character to the face on Plate LVI. 7, appeared. A similar face occurs on a Ionic hydria in the Louvre (Pottier, Vas. Ant. de Louvre, pi. lii, E 696).
To this type of oinochoe belong a number of vases, which through their decoration seem to form a class by themselves. About a dozen were found more or less intact, and perhaps fifty more represented by fragments. These vases were not more than 10 cm. in height, and are entirely covered with a black glaze, except on the base, where a natu¬ ral band of the clay is left on which is a ray pattern. Around the body of these vases run thin lines of red or yellow, applied after firing, and on the shoulder an incised tongue pattern, the divisions of which are alternately red and yellow.
The clay of all these vases is of a light yellowish tone, and the glaze varies between black and brown. The only variety lies in the arrangement of the applied red and yellow lines, which are arranged in many different ways. The three fragments on col¬ ored Plate LXIV. 6 to 8, illustrate clearly the characteristics of this type.
with a lustrous black glaze, on which are added three rosettes in yellow.
No other fragments of this vase were found, but it seems certain that it belonged to a large oinochoe, entirely glazed, with the usual ‘ tongue ’ pattern on the shoulder. The presence of an orna¬ ment on the neck of oinochoai of this type seems unique ; I know of no similar instance.
In Greece itself vases of this type do not seem common. A few similar fragments were found at Aegina ( Atlnen . Mitt. XXII. [1897], p. 126). Outside of Greece, especially in Italy, the type appears frequently (cf. Not. d. Scav. 1895, p. 139, fig. 18). Similar examples may be found in the British Museum and the Louvre.
This type differs principally from the preceding, in that the shoulder is set more squarely to the body, the line between being furnished, in some cases, with a slight moulding. The shape is not common ; one may be found at Syracuse (from Megara Hyblaea, tomb 898), and another in Naples (Heydemann, Cat. pi. iii. 130). Few vases of this type were found at the Heraeum ; not more than five intact or partly so, and as many more in fragments. The scheme of decoration did not differ materially from what we have already discussed ; two of the vases were entirely covered with a dark brown glaze on which were applied lines of dark red and white.
Fig. 60. Height, 0.086 m. Rim and handle restored (rim falsely so, as it should have had a trefoil opening). Light red clay, with red deco¬ ration. Leaf pattern on shoulder and body, and applied dark red bands on neck, shoulder, and body. The oinochoe in Naples, mentioned above, has similar ornamentation.
Under this head may be mentioned a few oinochoai which show some slight variations from the types already discussed. One small jug of greenish clay was found. 5 cm. in height, which though in shape similar to lekythoi of Type 1, had a trefoil lip ; except
for two bands on the body, the jug bore no decoration. The body of another was also found which belonged to Type 2 of the oinochoai, but which had a moulding around the bottom, so that the base was slightly raised. On the bottom was a wheel with four spokes, having a square of interlaced lines between each spoke. Another, which belongs to the same type, is given below.
Fig. 61. Height, 0.055 m. ; diameter, 0.062 m. Rim and handle miss¬ ing. Reddish clay, with brown decoration. This vase is more squat and rounded than those included in Type 2, and is paralleled by a Geometric jug from Eleusis, ’E<£r;/i. ’Apy. 1898, pi. ii. 10.
Further w7e may mention several small jugs, with a globular shaped body, neck and handles missing. One in particular (height, 0.65 m.) had a Geometric snake on the body, and similar shoulder decoration to a jug from Eleusis (ibid. 1898, p. 102, pi. ii. 5).
Skyphoi.
The bulk of all the Argive fragments found at the Heraeum belonged to skyphoi, which were presumably the favorite shape. As these skyphoi are usually small and made of fine clay, they are generally broken, and few were preserved intact. The varia¬ tions, however, are few, and the general scheme of decoration is the same in all.
63 are from the Old Temple Terrace.
Skyphoi of Type 1 were not very common at the Heraeum, nor, in fact, is it one of the usual shapes. It is evidently derived from a Mycenaean shape (cf. Myk. Thong. x. 49), as there we see the same sharp definition of rim and body. As a rule the
Type 2 is the usual form of skyphos found not only at the Heraeurn, but all over Greece- Sicily, and Italy. The form is that in Berlin Cat. pi. v. 98. Some thirty or so from the Heraeurn (mostly very small) were preserved intact, while the number of frag¬ ments filled several baskets. They vary largely in size, some being as high as 20 to 30 cm., and some measuring less than 5 cm. in height. The only variation in the form lies in the fact that some are much taller in proportion to their diameter than others. The scheme of decoration falls into two classes.
A large number of fragments belonging to skyphoi exactly similar to those published by Pallat, Athen. Mitt. XXII. (1897), p. 276, fig. 8, were found. The prevailing style of decoration seemed to be rays on the base, bands around the centre, and vertical lines and zigzags on the rim. Rays are almost invariably used on the base, and in only a few cases are the bands continued down to the base. The chief variations occur on the rim ; we have rays, zigzags, water birds (Pallat, loc. cit. p. 278, figs. 10 and 11), or a meander pattern. All these motives are generally included in a panel bounded by vertical lines. In some cases a smaller panel with a double triangle (as in Pallat, p. 279, fig. 12) is added at each side of the main panel. The space covered by the handles is usually left undecorated. Several fragments also showed that in lieu of handles the vase had a small boss on each side.
The greatest variations occur in the technique. The clay runs through all shades of red, with a slip that is generally red but in some cases a vivid yellow. The most inter¬ esting technical feature is the contrast obtained by subjecting a part of the vase to a stronger fire, in such a way that half of the vase is black and the other half red. As the line of separation is very strongly marked in many fragments, we can only suppose that the result was obtained by covering over witli moist clay that part of the vase on which the decoration was to remain black, leaving the other part exposed to the full action of the fire. The interior, of course, was treated in similar fashion, as the glaze shows the same contrasts of red and black.
This same peculiarity may be seen on Mycenaean vases, but on them the contrast obtained is not quite so decided or regular. Outside of the Heraeum this peculiarity occurs but seldom. A pyxis cover from Aegina (Pallat, loc. cit. p. 306, fig. 24) shows this same technique, and similar instances occur on a few fragments from the Acropolis and on a skyphos at Syracuse, Case VIII. No. 2132, the upper part of which is grayish green, and the lower yellowish red, the line of separation being strongly marked. It is not clear from Orsi’s words (Not. cl. Scav. 1891, p. 415, “ due skyphoi neri ” etc.), whether similar fragments have been found there. On the whole, as this technique is met with but seldom outside of the Argolid, it is possible that Ave may detect here a distinct Argive peculiarity.
was found at the Heraeum.
Quite a number of fragments, mostly of skyphoi, of which Plate LXIV. No. 5, is an example, showed a peculiarity which is probably accidental. These were all of reddish clay, with a bright yellow slip, but with their glaze and decoration worn off in streaks. The decoration had assumed a brilliant pink color. Whether this is the result of the nature of the soil in which these fragments lay, or some peculiarity in the glaze, I cannot say. A skyphos of precisely the same appearance is at Syracuse {Not. cl. Scav. 1895, p. 183).
Lastly a small number of fragments, which probably came from the burnt layer of the Old Temple, though the places where they were found are not specified in any note of the excavation. These fragments had been burnt almost black, and in such a way that their decoration, which was originally black, now appears dark red. This is clearly the result of some action of fire after the vase was completed, and was not intentional.
The combination of Classes a and b is shown by Plate LXIV. No. 3. Many vases of Class b, espe¬ cially the very small ones, have a broad band of dark red applied to the glaze beneath the rim, or a series of narrow purple bands.
Skyphoi belonging to Type 3 are not very numerous, only half a dozen being found intact, and very few represented by fragments. These are very low in proportion to their diameter, with large handles. The rim is sharply defined, and there is no indica¬ tion of a foot. The decoration follows the usual Linear scheme.
Fig. 65. Height, 0.047 m. ; diameter, 0.095 m. Red¬ dish yellow clay, with black decoration changing to dark red. Border of zigzags and vertical lines.
Several others were found with their exteriors com¬ pletely glazed except for a narrow border along the rim as in Type 2, Class b. Similar skyphoi are at Syracuse (Case VII.) and at Naples ( Rcic . Cum. left-hand case, No. 85184).
shoulder, Geometric snake.
This skyphos does not seem to agree with any of the types already mentioned. Although no other similar fragment was found at the Heraeum, several may be found in Syracuse ( Not . d. Scav. 1893, p. 477 ; 1895, p. 176). Such cases are clearly older than the Corinthian style and form a preliminary step to the ‘amphora a colonnette.’ Cf. Jahrb. I. (1886), p. 135, fig. 2941; Wilisch, AltJcorinthische Thonindustrie , p. 27.
of a water bird is visible.
As no other fragments of this vase were found, a conjectural restoration based on the similar vase from Aegina (Pallat, loc. cit. p. 272, fig. 7) is here offered.
This skyphos belongs to a series of vases of which several are already known.1 Our fragment resembles the vase from Aegina so closely that it might be considered as belonging to the same vase. The general char¬ acter of the fragment is much more in keeping with the Argive style than the Geometric, and hence I feel no hesitation in classing it with the former style. In spite of vases of this description having been found at Rhodes, there is certainly no reason for calling them Rhodian, since they have nothing in common with the style of that name.
Plate LXV. 1 a and b. Five fragments of a large skyphos, height and diameter uncertain. Fine reddish yellow clay, with brilliant yellow slip, slightly greenish in places, with decoration varying between dark brown and red. Brownish yellow paint has been applied in some places after the first firing. No glaze on the interior. From the large size of the vase, together with the absence of glaze on the interior, the form would seem to be a deinos rather than a skyphos.
An elaborate system of palmettes is here seen, separated from a ray pattern below by the usual Linear system. The central leaves of each alternate palmette are in brownish yellow. The centres of each palmette are formed by three lines, the intervening spaces being cut out, and no slip being left ; and the same is true of the spaces which divide the central petals.
A fragment, almost exactly similar, was found at Aegina (Pallat, loc. cit. p. 279, fig. 12, p. 280, fig. 12 a), for whose restoration our fragment formed the basis. From the presence of a meander border above the palmettes on the Aegina fragment, it may be
1 These are : Syracuse, Ann. dell’ Inst. 1877, tav. d’ agg. fragments from Daphne and Naukratis, Boston, Museum C D 5; Rome, Villa Papa Giulio, Thera (Pallat, loc. cit. of Fine Arts, which also has a vase almost precisely p. 272); Louvre (2), Pottier, Vases, pi. xi. A, 290 (both similar from Cyprus (deviations in red), from Rhodes) ; British Museum, from Rhodes; also similar
inferred that the same motive figured on our vase. The restoration of our fragment differs materially from that of the Aegina fragment, in that the lower portions of each palmette are closed by the line border. It must, however, be said that the restoration of the tops of each palmette is conjectural, at least in the case of the four-leaved palmettes. Symmetry demands that the central lobe of the three-leaved palmettes should be the same at the top as at the bottom, and for the same reason the two central lobes of the four¬ leaved palmette should correspond at the top to the broad base.
on body. Intact.
This was the only example, whole or in fragments, among the Argive vases, of the sugar-bowl vase, which is such a characteristic shape of the Corinthian style. The cover was not found, or could not be identified.
Pyxides.
The fragments of pyxides and their covers filled some¬ thing over two baskets. Few of these could be restored entire. The number of covers found was far in excess of the vases represented by the fragments, — in fact, three or four times as many covers were found. No explanation for this fact is forthcoming, unless the covers were intended for skyjdioi and other vessels with a wide opening.
b. Moulding on base, into which the cover rim fits.
The pyxis seems to be a commoner type in Class II. than in Class III. of the Argive period. The decoration does not vary to any extent. As a rule the body is covered with parallel bands, leaving a border at the bottom for a ray pattern, and one, sometimes two, borders below the rim, which are filled with the usual Geometrical designs. The interior is invariably covered with a dark glaze, which is never found on the under side of the cover.
Few vases are represented by the fragments of this type. The only one preserved whole was 5 cm. in height and 9 in diameter, and was made of a coarse reddish-yellow clay, without any decoration. The other fragments show a ray pattern at the base and an incised tongue pattern as a rim border, with the alternate spaces colored very much yellow or red, faded.
To this type belong the bulk of the pyxis fragments. About dozen vases were re¬ stored almost entire. As a rule the vases are rather small, varying from 4 to 5 cm. in height and 8 to 10 cm. in diameter. The decoration shows generally the following characteristics : —
Fig. 68 a and b. Pyxis and cover. Height, 0.182 m. Missing portions restored in plaster. Greenish yellow clay, with black glaze on interior almost obliterated. Black decoration faded in parts.
Pyxis. On rim border with Geometric snake. Ver¬ tical and horizontal zigzags as ornaments in field. In¬ cised dots on snake’s body. “ Running Dog ” pattern on
three concentric bands.
Cover. In centre five-pointed star. Border of cover precisely similar to upper border on the pyxis. On button four pot-hooks. A similar snake may be found on a Geometric amphora cover ; v. B. C. II. XIX. (1895), p. 276, fig. 2.
A few fragments of another pyxis (9 cm. in height) of pre¬ cisely similar clay and decoration were found. The glaze, how¬ ever, was in better condition, and the concentric bands on the bottom more finely drawn and more numerous.
Fig. 69 a-f. Pyxis and cover, found on Old Temple Terrace. Height, 0.13 m. ; diameter, 0.28 m. Missing portions restored in plaster. Light red clay, with black decoration burnt red in parts. Glaze on interior varying from black to deep red.
Pyxis. On edge of rim short parallel stripes. On rim border of three meanders in separate panels, with an eight-pointed star separating them from the handles.
Single meander on the handles. Separated from the upper border by a checkerboard and band of “ Running’ Dogs ” is the main frieze, with an elaborate floral pattern, the vacant spaces being filled by lozenges in series of fours and flower scrolls. On base rays. On bottom (Fig. 69 b ) lotos pattern with incised lines.
This pyxis would seem to fall in the latter period of the Linear Argive class, at a time when
the eastern influence was beginning to make itself felt, since the elabo¬ rate flower and lotos motives on the body and cover are certainly derived from some foreign source. At the same time the presence of the purely Geometrical motives is sufficient warrant for including the pyxis in Class II.
The restoration of the design is simple in the case of the body, but difficult for the cover and bottom. A peculiarity may be noted that on the reverse of the body (not shown in the cut) three flower scrolls are placed together in the vacant spaces between the roots of the large flowers, with no lozenge pattern in the alternate spaces. Moreover, a close examination shows that all the Fig 69 b scrolls are not precisely alike, some
ending in a bud. Details of three of the scrolls are shown in the cut. The ornamentation on both cover and bottom seems to have followed a similar scheme, and though it cannot be restored with absolute certainty, it is probably treated in similar fashion to the flower scrolls on the side. A skyplios in the British Museum (. Athen . Mitt. XXII. [1897], p. 286, pi. vii. 3) shows precisely the same form of lotos or palmette under the handle. With that exception, I have failed to find a similar instance, nor do I know of any case where the bottom of a pyxis contains such an elaborate ornamentation as here.
Fragments of this type were ex¬ tremely scarce, and generally belong to the bases of these vases. Such fragments had pure linear deco¬ ration.1 The following fragments alone are worth noticing.
fragments of pyxis, a base, b cover.
Greenish clay, black decoration, with black glaze on interior of pyxis and cover as well. Around base band of vertical zigzags ; above oblique parallel lines. Decoration on cover precisely the same.
0.112 m.* 1 2 Dark yellow clay, with brown black decoration. Ribbed moulding on corner and plain moulding on base. Vertical zigzags, bounding a panel in which the rear part of an animal (bull, probably) is seen. Leaf rosette pIG
Covers.
The covers which belong to pyxides of Type 1 were so numerous as to demand a separate discussion. A large number were recovered almost intact (the knob being gen¬ erally broken away) and the fragments filled about a basket.
As all the covers follow a stereotyped system of linear orna¬ mentation, none have been included in our plates. Such as are noteworthy are shown in outline.
No covers of this type were found intact. The decoration consists invariably of broad or fine parallel lines, in black and red. On many the two are seen together with a sharp line of demarcation. The clay is much thinner than in covers of Type 2, which may account for all being in a fragmentary condition.
Fragments of plates were quite numerous at the Heraeum, about two basketsful being found. While many belong to the Geometric style, the majority of them belong to the second class of the Argive style. No fragments belonging to the first class were found, and only a few which belonged to the third.
Of Type 2, three variations appeared.
a. Form similar to 1 save that a small flange runs around the edge of the base. The angle of the base and sides varies largely, being in some cases a right angle, in others an obtuse angle. The sides are usually straight, but occasionally curve slightly inward.
centre. Fig. 76 gives the profile.
The other fragments belonging to this type (no plate being preserved entire) repeated the same scheme of decoration, with dots, vertical lines, or squares in place of the zigzags ; the diameter of these plates varied between 12 and
Grayish clay, with black decoration.
Exterior (a and b). Base entirely covered with a black glaze on which the ornamentation is incised. Series of diamonds radiating from the centre, each inclosing an eight-pointed star which in turn incloses a diamond. Alternating with the points of the large diamonds are smaller ones. On sides bands and “ Running Dog ” border.
Interior (c and d). The bottom is left the natural color of the clay with radiating series of diamonds, similar to exterior, in black ; with¬ out incised lines. Side pattern same as exterior. On rim, splashes.
Two technical methods are seen on this plate, painted decoration on interior, and incised on exterior. This, in a way, is paralleled in later times by the combination of b. f. and r. f. work on the same vase.
Fragments of this type showed no new features in their decoration. Figs. 80 and 81
show the principal variations of the form. The plates were usually of a large size, 25 cm. in diameter. Fig. 80 had bands for its sole decoration, purple being applied Fig. 80. freely.
Fig. 82 (profile). Diameter, 0.191 m. Entire, save for a small piece. On rim vertical lines and just below rim on exterior Geometric snake (incised lines).1 Outside and inside ornamented with concentric bands in series.
This was the only plate which was recovered en¬ tire. Fragments of similar plates were numerous, but all showed the same decoration of concentric Fig. 82. bands.
This form of vase is shown by a few dozen fragments, none of which permitted any restoration. Furtwangler, in his catalogue (1100—1107), assigns all the vases in Berlin to the Corinthian style. The bulk of the Heraeum fragments, however, belong to the Argive style. One fragment was distinctly Mycenaean in character and another Geo¬ metric. Several of the handles showed traces of decoration which would warrant their belonging to the Corinthian style.
No fragments have been reproduced in our plates, since their decoration differed in no way from the usual Argive scheme. Bands encircling the rim, leaving the body of the vase plain, were the usual type, though lozenge and zigzags on the body were also found.
Fig. 83. Height, 0.126 m. ; diameter, 0.10 rn. Dark red clay, side restored.1 Around neck and base, rays. On front side inter¬ laced lozenge pattern, with small circles at corners. On one side double guilloche ; on other (almost entirely gone) a frieze, prob¬ ably of animals. About a dozen fragments from similar vases were found.
The form differs somewhat from Bevl. Cat. V. 110.
Several of the smaller vases which clearly belong to the Linear Argive class show a marked connection with the Geometric style. The clay in these vases is distinctly that used in Geometric, not Argive vases. The presence of sim¬ ilar vases in other parts of Greece has induced Diimmler 2 and Pallat3 to regard them as imitations of Argive ware.
It seems hardly likely that these small and unimportant vases should be avowed imitations of the Argive style made by potters who manufactured Geometric vases ; more probably they are really Argive vases, the clay for some reason or other being that usually employed in the Geometric style.
Fig. 84. One-handled jug. Height, 0.065 m. Lip (probably trefoil) broken away. Coarse dark red clay, with reddish brown slip, decoration varying from brilliant black to dark brown. Stripes and triangles (interlacing lines) on shoulder ; stripes on neck and handle. On either side of base of the handle a breast-like protuberance.
Similar examples have been found in Boeotia4 and Tiryns.5 The protuberances seem to denote a survival of prehistoric characteristics.
Openwork Vases.
The following fragments form a separate type by themselves, though not found in very large quantities. They belong to vases of the kalathos form, whose sides are pierced at intervals by openings, giving the effect of a basket. We have already seen this openwork principle applied to the supports of Geometric vases ; Argive vases of the openwork type, however, were probably never used as supports, being far too small and fragile. Moreover, having a distinct kalathos shape, it is probable that we have here a separate variety of that form. It seems certain that these were a direct imitation of metal work, but an imitation which did not arise until after the Mycenaean epoch, seeing that metal vases of this description are not found in Mycenaean times. In view of their technique, it is probable that they belong to the early period of Class II.
Two separate forms of openings may be distinguished: (a) either the vase is divided into a series of legs with a long narrow opening sloping slightly from rim to base (in some cases these legs are joined halfway, thus giving a double series of openings), or (b) the vase is divided into two or three sets of triangular openings. Both methods may be employed on the same vase.
The scheme of decoration is simple, the available space being extremely small. Either the entire vase is covered with a dull black or brown glaze with parallel stripes of applied purple, or else to the natural clay parallel stripes are applied, leaving the rim free for a border of some pattern, zigzag, etc., etc.
Of form b only a few bases and fragments of sides, in very bad condition, were found.
Instances of such vases outside of the Argolid are not very common. There are three in Athens (No. 232 from Corinth, No. 10969 from Eleusis,1 and a third) which have the series of triangular openings ; one in Syracuse (Megara Hyblaea, torn!) 640), one in the British Museum (A 1601), and one from Falisco [Mon. Ant. IV. pi. vii. 17). Somewhat allied is the kalathos in Jahrb. III. (1888), p. 241, fig. 23. Cf. also Jahrb. VI. (1891), p. 116, No. 9.
It is a difficult problem to decide how much outside influence caused the development of the Argive style from Class IT. to Class III., and whence such an influence originally came. That the third class developed unassisted by such outside influence is impossible ; at the same time the elements which are vital to the style, the parallel bands, incised lines," ornaments in field and application of color have been seen either in Class II. or else
in Geometric ware. Although the animal frieze comes into the Argive style during the end of Class II., it is very common during the middle Geometric period. Clearly it is some other characteristic which distinguishes Class III. from its predecessors.
This can only be the development of purely decorative patterns, such as the lotos, palmette, etc. Boehlau (op. cit. p. 108) has pointed out that the wreath pattern and dotted rosette are foreign to the early Attic style while thoroughly characteristic of the Argive (still termed by him Proto-Corinthian). It is this innovation combined with a wealth of decoration, incised lines, and recognition of the animal frieze as a principal scheme of decoration that constitute the elements of Class III. The presence of the curved palmette on the pyxis (cf. Fig. 69), combined with the Geometric motives, marks the transi¬ tion stage between Classes II. and III., and also stands as one of the earliest examples of the palmette with curved stem. Boehlau’s analysis of its development (loc. cit.) seems to be confirmed by our pyxis.
I do not, however, feel that he is right in contending that the Corinthian style cannot have developed from the Argive, as that would have been a “ Ruckschritt zur Zeit der Bliithe korinthischen Handels und Industrie” (p. 114). To my mind this objection can¬ not hold, since we know that Corinth possessed no previous ceramic art of her own, and, as was said before, the chief difference between the Corinthian style and Class III. of the Argive is that between skilled and unskilled labor, the foreign influence being the same in both. Why should we seek the direct prototypes of the Corinthian style in Asia Minor, when the Argive style, with which it has so much in common, lies so close to our hand?
The lekythoi follow one form (Bert. Cat. V. 102) with little variation, and were rather small, not more than 6 cm. in height. About twenty were preserved more or less in¬ tact, while at least fifty more were represented by fragments. The scheme of decoration is the same on all, parallel bands inclosing an animal frieze, or else the body of the vase is adorned with a plant pattern or some other similar decoration.
Although the use of incised lines to emphasize details does not originate in this period, it is one of its chief characteristics. Whether those vases which belong to Class III. but do not show this feature are necessarily older than the incised vases cannot be asserted with any accuracy. It is probable that for a time the use of both incised and unincised vases was common, and that the former technique supplanted the latter as the style became advanced. Certain it is that all vases which belong to the most advanced stage show the use of the incised line.
Fig. 86. (Drawing on Plate LX4V. II.) Height, 0.043 m. Light greenish clay, with brilliant black decoration. Part of rim broken away, but traces of a ray pattern are still to be seen. Dots on neck, guilloche on handle, pot-hooks and rosettes on shoulder. Main frieze : three series of two concentric circles (with central dot) 1 separated by a palmette, ivy branch, and guilloelie
tion worn away in places.
The form of this vase is slightly plumper than the usual type, which, combined with the absence of any animal frieze or incised lines, may point to this lekytlios being one of the earliest in¬ stances of Class III. In spite of a certain reminiscence of My¬ cenaean motives, the palmette and ivy branch are distinctly characteristic of the later period of the Argive style. More remarkable is the treatment of the palmette as a separate motive without any connecting stems. We usually find the palmette combined with others in a chain and confined to the shoulder as a purely subordinate motive.
Fig. 87. Fragment of lekytlios. Height, 0.033 m. Slate-colored clay, extremely fine, being almost as thin as fine cardboard. On shoulder, dots, rays, and a row of simple zigzags. Main frieze : four-spoked wheel and part of a circle with a leaf border inside. In field, bull’s head full front, rosette, dotted circle, and a human head (probably female) in profile to right. Incised lines on the two heads.
The form of this lekytlios is the usual type. It is some¬ what allied to the preceding lekytlios, in that the main frieze does not contain a series of animals, but circular motives.
The wheel and the circle are common themes on Geometric vases. The use of the human head also is similar to that on the bottom of the oinochoe (v. p. 131). 1 I know of no other similar instance on an Argive vase. For the bull’s head see Fig. 88.
Fig. 88 1-4. Height, 0.057 m. Found southeast of Second Temple. Greenish clay, with faded black decoration. On rim, rays with dots in the vacant spaces ; series of alternating diagonal lines (suggestive of a herring-bone pattern) on handle. On neck ornaments shaped like an I. Palmette scroll on shoulder, with a hare on the right and some other animal on the left. Main frieze : in centre a bull's head, full front, with a bird below ; to left two lions ; to right lion and bull. Incised lines used on all the figures. Intact.
The style of the drawing is so distinctly primitive in its character, that its position as one of the earliest lekythoi of Class III. seems certain. That the drawing is not careless is proved by the extremely careful execution of the vase. Stylistically it is closely allied to the lekythoi in Dres¬ den,2 the British Museum,3 Boston,4 and the collection of Herr von Radowitz.5
Several features may be noticed. The bull is distinguished from the other animals by the shape of the hoofs and the membrum. The lion at the left (below the handle) has his body adorned with dotted circles and turns his face to the front as in the Corinthian style. This is probably one of the earliest instances of this peculiarity, for all the earlier lekythoi show animals in profile. The bull’s head in the centre is probably a mere ornament in field, though apart from the previous fragment I know of no similar instance on an Argive vase. We find it used twice on the shields of the Macmillan lekytlios6 as a device. The other two lions bear a general resemblance to those on the Radowitz lekytlios.
hand animal is a hare is certain, but the identity of the other is doubtful. The assertion is frequently made, but without positive proof, that in vases of the Corinthian type, especially of aryballoi, where two panthers are seen with heads full front together and bodies in profile, that one
panther only is meant, and that by some curious conventionality of ideas both sides of the animal were to be seen at the same time. In the case of our animals, two legs only are given to each, and as the left side of the shoulder of the vase has suffered abrasion, it is pos¬ sible the animal there had an ear ; in that case one hare was probably intended, but split in half, and each side arranged symmetrically at each end of the palmette scroll.
Fig. 89. (Drawing on Plate LXIV. 12.) Height, 0.044 m. Neck and handle missing. Yellow clay, with dark brown and reddish brown deco¬ ration, very brilliant. On base of handle, traces of a zigzag with small lozenges as ornaments in field. On shoulder, leaf rosette ; on body, two friezes. Main frieze : panther, owl, panther and boar. Dotted rosettes, halved lozenges, and what may be a scorpion or a lizard,1 as ornaments in field. Lower frieze : three dogs to right, with a single dotted rosette separating two of them. On base, rays. Incised lines used on all the figures. Fig. 89.
Plate LXIV. 9 a and b. Upper part of jug in form of a plastic male head, with the open¬ ing at the back. Height, 0.036 m. Dark reddish clay, with a pale yellow slip, red color applied. Hair, eyes, and beard expressed by incised lines. Through the head is a hole for suspension.
The type of face resembles slightly that on the figures of the Mycenaean ‘ warrior ’ vase. At the same time the applied color, use of incised lines, etc., show plainly that the vase belongs to the later Argive period. What the form of the vase was is uncertain ; 1 it may have been similar to a jug from Cyprus (. Berl . Cat. 72 ; Baumeister, DenJc. p. 1951, fig. 2081). At all events, it is prob¬ ably considerably earlier than the following vase.
Plate LXIV. 10 a and b. Height, 0.024 m. ; diameter, 0.026 m. Top of lekythos. Greenish clay. Neck in form of three plastic female heads, with long hair, colored black, red, and blue respectively. On rim (badly broken), three borders of rays, pot-hooks, and wave pattern.
This fragment is the most perfect of any fragments of this period, and it is fair to assume that the remainder of the vase would vie with the best specimens of the style in point of execution. That this fragment belongs to an Argive lekythos seems probable, in view of the ornamentation of the rim.
The making of vases in 1 Anthropomorphic ’ form is no new feature in Greek art, but the in¬ stances of it in the Argive style are rare. Somewhat allied to it is the Macmillan lekythos, though the top of that vase takes the form of a lion’s head. The use of a human head (generally a female) on the rims of skyphoi or tops of pyxides of the Corinthian style is well known ; this feature in the Argive style must mark the last stage of Class III.
This fragment is curious in design and differs from the usual treatment. The silver situla 2 in Florence, a Phoenician or Etruscan work of the latter part of the seventh century, presents a sim¬ ilarity, which is so strongly marked as to afford grounds for deriving both from some common influence, though what that influence was cannot be determined with certainty. The warrior on our fragment wears a helmet, shield, and sword cpiite in the manner of his fellow on the situla. The arrangement of the bridle is curious, and I have been unable to find any analogous instance. The shield device is paralleled by some of our Geometric gems, and may point to our fragment as belonging to the elder period of Class I IT.
The vases just considered are the best examples of the lekythoi belonging to Class III. that the Heraeum yielded. The other vases and fragments did not differ materially from the types already discussed. Several of the lekythoi partially whole showed a double frieze of animals on the body, though a few fragments showed the animal frieze on the shoulder as well. One fragment had a broad border on the body left in the natural color of the clay, with a pomegranate chain on the shoulder somewhat after the Cyrenaic style. Several fragments showed the heads of sphinxes, a creature not as usual in the Argive style as in the Corinthian. As a whole these lekythoi are not superior to the types found in other parts of Greece.
Type 1 consisted mainly of small vases, which were fairly well preserved, several vases being more or less intact ; of Type 2 nothing but scattered fragments were found, and in no case could any vase be reconstructed. The shape of such fragments was the only guide in determining their form.
Fragments of this type were not very common. The simplest form corresponds in decoration to the lekythos on p. 127 (Fig. 55), having a frieze of animals (usually dogs) of the plainest description, without incised lines and with no ornaments in field except occasionally a dotted rosette. Some fragments showed two friezes on the body. Where the single frieze occurred, the lower part of the body was encircled by the usual parallel bands, or with a ray pattern on the base separated from the animal frieze by a checkered border or row of zigzags.
As a transitional type between a and b, a small oinochoe may be mentioned. This was 63 mm. in height, of greenish clay, and had around the base a frieze of birds with nu¬ merous ornaments in field (slightly more advanced than the Geometric type), the upper part of the body and neck covered with zigzags and parallel lines, all the decoration being very much faded. Two similar instances are at Syracuse (Cases IV. and VII.; provenience not stated), both with faded decoration ; that in Case IV. showed traces of applied dark red color.
22. Frag ment of body of oinochoe. Reddish clay. On shoulder, leaf rosette, purple applied to the alternate petals. Main frieze : panther (head full front, body in profile) and sphinx to right (and part of another panther). In field, rosettes, crosses, etc. On base, rays. Dark red color is applied freely to the figures and incised lines used. Several other fragments very similar to this were found, most of them belonging to the base and exhibiting the ray pattern, with here and there a part of the frieze showing the foot of some animal.
23. Fragment of body of oinochoe. Greenish clay. On shoulder, leaf rosette, with alternate petals in applied purple. Main frieze : panther and sphinx to right facing another sphinx whose fore paws only are still visible. Rosettes, rhomboids, circles, etc., as ornaments in field. Around base, row of dots. Dark red color and incised lines used freely on all the figures.
It is to be regretted that this class, which contains some of the finest specimens of the Argive style, should be represented only by scattered fragments. It may easily be seen that such fragments as are here presented stand in a close relation to the Corinthian style, but are vastly better in technique.
Only a few of the fragments are here presented, the others showing merely parts of legs, arms, ornaments in field, etc. A few fragments seemed to belong to an older type in that the body of the vase was taken up by two, sometimes three friezes, without incised lines. These were distinctly inferior in technique and included figures of sirens as well as sphinxes and panthers. Dark red color was applied but sparingly. Ornaments in field were not very numerous, though one fragment showed the entire background covered with small dots.
The size of the vases to which these fragments belong1 cannot be estimated.
24 a and b. Two fragments of an oinockoe. Yellowish clay with a reddish tinge, lustrous black decoration. On base rays, and above an animal frieze. On a rear part of horse and goat back to back ; on b a goat to right. Technique excellent, with free use of incised lines ; no ornaments in field.
25 a-e. Five fragments of an oinochoe. Yellow clay, with lustrous black decoration. Ray pat¬ tern on base, with a narrow rosette border above, separating it from two friezes of animals and men, with rosettes in field. Incised lines freely used and dark red (now turned brown) applied to the figures. Technique excellent.
How the friezes were represented is difficult to say ; a and b show a warrior to right holding a sword in his right hand, a spear in his left hand, and c the head of some animal (perhaps a deer) below and the legs of another above. Perhaps a hunt of some sort may have been represented. Whether the bird on e formed part of another frieze or is merely an ornament in field is difficult to say, the latter supposition seems more probable. That a and b belong to the same figure seems probable, though certainty is impossible, there being no point of contact between the two frag¬ ments.
and dark red color applied freely.
a. Lower part of fragment is covered with a black glaze, on which are five parallel lines, two of yellow inclosing three of red. Above, on a whitish yellow ground (left white in the plate), the body and legs of a panther to left and the muzzle and fore leg of a deer, the figures being drawn in black.
The true arrangement of these fragments is doubtful ; it seems probable that the base of the oinochoe (represented by a) was covei’ed entirely with a black glaze, with two friezes above, the lower white, the upper black, and that the rest of the surface was entirely covered by a black glaze. The legs of the panther on c are in the same color as the white ground of the vase.
These fragments, which are extremely fine in their execution, differ materially from other vases of the Argive or Corinthian style in the employment of two distinct backgrounds on the same vase, and suggests in a way the employment of two separate technical methods, such as we might expect to find in Asia Minor, and do find on sarcophagi from Clazomenae. In spite of the resemblance of an Aeolian oinochoe2 to our vase, distinct technical differences exist. The white panther on the black ground is not drawn in incised lines (which are used to express details only), but the white paint has been applied over the black glaze, probably after the first firing. In that case the whole surface of the vase received its black glaze and black figures first, with the later addition of white figures painted on the black. It recalls in a measure that class of vases which combine both the black and red figure technique, where one figure is drawn in an incised outline and another painted in white with incised lines used to express details. But any actual connection between such vases and our fragments is not to be thought of. Also in spite of the very unusual
can be aroused against their position in Class III.
As these were the only fragments found which show this peculiar double technique, speculation as to the influence which produced them seems futile. I should feel inclined to follow Boehlau’s lead in supposing that the Aeolian ware was responsible, seeing that the relation between that and the Argive Class III. is very close. Whether any Rho¬ dian influence (cf. J. II. S. VI. [1885], p. 184) was here at work is extremely doubtful.
Fragments and vases of this form were the most numerous in Class III. The majority of the fragments belong to large vases and show a style fairly advanced. Being more fragile than lekythoi, very few specimens were recovered unbroken. The form of the skyphos is the same throughout, the only variation being in the size of the vase. As in the case of the shapes just discussed, many fragments show an entire lack of incised lines and probably belong to an older class. The greater number, however, have incised lines, with purple, yellow, and red color freely applied. As a rule the bases are orna¬ mented with a ray pattern, or parallel bands, the rest of the body being occupied by the main frieze of animals.
This fragment is chiefly remarkable for the fact that it is the only fragment found at the Heraeum on which a cow is represented ; this, in view of the close mythological connection between the animal and the goddess Ilera, is rather surprising.
yellow clay, with flaky black glaze on interior, decoration in dark brown. Frieze around base of panther and three other animals (perhaps deer) upside down. Poor execution.
cussion of the inverted frieze, v. Fig. 91.
The fragments just discussed probably belong to the earlier period. Fig. 90 is certainly very much akin to the lekythoi on p. 127, and may mark the transition stage between skyphoi of Classes II. and III. The other fragments, which were quite numerous, do not dif¬ fer materially from the usual types. The drawing of the animals was distinctly poor ; dogs and panthers were chiefly represented.
Fig. 91. Height, 0.057 m. ; diameter, 0.061 m. From Old Temple Terrace. Yellowish clay, with dull black glaze on in¬ terior, decoration in black and red. Main frieze (upside down) on base ; three figures, man shooting an arrow at a deer to left, behind the man a lion with open mouth. Separated by a broad band is a narrow border on the rim with two vertical dashes on each side. Figures in dark red, incised lines used.
Fig. 91 forms a companion piece to Fig. 90 save for the use of incised lines. Through its primi¬ tive execution it probably belongs to the early period of Class III. But the chief peculiarity of the two vases lies in the subject being drawn upside down.
This peculiarity is extremely rare in vase painting. We have already seen it in the case of the Mycenaean jug, Fig. 20, making three from the Heraeum. I have been able to find but one similar instance anywhere else, a small skyphos at Syracuse {Ann. dell ’ Inst. 1877, tav. d agg. C D 4, p. 47, No. 13), on which is a frieze of water birds, the subject being inverted in the same manner. What the object was in doing this is decidedly obscure ; it can hardly have been accidental.
Several vases of the type found at Syracuse {Not. d. Scav. 1893, p. 457, right-hand figure) were represented either whole or in fragments, their execution being decidedly hasty. Several fragments were found where two friezes were represented, separated by a checkered band, while a large number belonged to very small skyphoi with a single frieze and a border of zigzags along the rim.
This fragment, though inferior in technique, bears a close relation to the skyphos from Aegina (Pallat, loc. cit. pi. vii.). The drawing of the panther, however, is firm and decided, if conventional. The field is divided by an arrangement of vertical lines, curved and straight, similar to that found on the neck of an oinochoe from Aegina (Pallat, loc. cit. p. 271, fig. 6).
29. Fragment of a large skyphos, of which several other fragments were found. Reddish clay, with black glaze burnt red in parts, on interior. Main frieze : head of panther and hind quarter of horse to right. Double lozenge in field. Above, smaller frieze as a rim border, dog to left ; field divided by a Geometric triangle scheme.
Although no fragments of the base were found, it seems probable that the base had the usual decoration of rays, with the main frieze directly above them. Several dozen fragments belonging to equally large skyphoi were found.
30 a and b. Two fragments from a large skyphos. Dark yellow clay, with brilliant black glaze on interior ; also on interior, just below rim, three stripes in applied color, the upper two white, the lower red. Exterior : on rim, border of water birds with sigmas in field. Main frieze : a, wings, head, and hind quarters of a gryphon ; b, rear part of a bird or a siren, with the back of a crouching sphinx. Below, upper part of an animal belonging to a second frieze. Red is applied freely on all the figures. Rosettes, sigmas, etc., as ornaments in field. Several other smaller frag¬ ments were found.
That three friezes were represented on this skyphos is evident, though their arrangement cannot be discovered. One fragment showed the back of a boar and another a helmet with a flying bird over it. Whether a boar hunt was represented is doubtful ; probably both the main friezes were occupied by the usual series of animals, sphinxes, gryphons, etc., a male figure (with a helmet) being introduced among them.1
of goat and tail of a bird or siren. Free use of incised lines.
Several other fragments of this particular skyphos were found, showing that one frieze only was represented. The style of this fragment is most distinctly transitional from the Argive to the Corinthian, and is similar to a fragment found at Aegina (Pallat, loc. cit. p. 319, fig. 37). This pro-Corinthian type was common at the Ileraeum, fragments of this kind filling half a basket. Most of the fragments belonged to bases, and were of a grayisli or greenish clay, with a pattern of fine rays on the base and a frieze above ; the technique was extremely poor.
red lines.
This fragment for fineness and delicacy of execution is equaled only by the best Attic red-figure work. The lines of the figures stand out from the surface of the clay as in Attic work, but the style and the use of the red line are most distinctly un- Attic ; in fact, we have here a fragment of the Argive style in its most advanced stage and far superior to any Corinthian work. No other fragment belonging to this vase was found, and its shape is only established by the presence of a glaze on the back. Although this would argue also for a pyxis, the slight upward curve of the fragment makes a skyphos more probable.
Except for the covers, practically none of these vases were found. One fragment of a pyxis showed two goats facing each other, but the lack of ornaments in field as well as the style would seem to assign it to the later period of Class II. The large pyxis on p. 137 may well he a transitional type from Class II. to Class III.
The same proportion between the pyxides and their covers, which we have already mentioned, held good in the case of Class III., as the covers were quite numerous, while hardly any pyxides themselves were found. The subject on all was the same, a frieze of animals on the outside, with or without ornaments in field, and rays radiating from the centre. The two best examples are given below.
lines freely used.
This is one of the best specimens of drawing. It is worth noting, as a curious fact, that the left-hand part of the fragment was picked up at the Heraeum by Dr. Olcott of the American School at Rome, in the spring of 1898, three years after the completion of the excavation, and on being brought to Athens was found to fit with a fragment excavated four years before.
Whether the following fragments are to be included under this head is doubtful, but as it does not seem possible to class them as lekythoi or oinochoai, the jug seems the only possible form. It is probable that the form of Plate LXYI. 3 corresponds more closely to jugs of the Phaleron type, and if a trefoil lip be assumed, it should by rights
point must remain doubtful.
Plate LXVI. 3. Two fragments from one-handled jug, similar in form, perhaps, to one from Megara Hyblaea ( Mon . Ant. I. p. 811). Dark brownish yellow clay, with fine polished sur¬ face. Decoration from black to reddish brown. On base, rays. Main frieze : two sphinxes (back of head and fore legs of right-hand figure, lower legs of left-hand figure missing) facing each other, with an elaborate scroll pattern between them. On the left, tail of an animal (probably a goat) ; and on the right, body and legs of another goat. Crosses and rosettes as ornaments in field. On shoulder, rays (of interlacing lines) alternating with pot-hooks. Incised lines freely used, and the wings of the sphinxes are treated alternately in black and natural clay divisions, the latter ornamented with dots ; the leaves of the palmette scroll are treated in similar fashion. The glaze on the body of the right-hand animal and on the right hind leg of the right-hand sphinx is badly worn.
A certain similarity may be found on a fragment from Athens,1 which is certainly not Early Attic and is declared by Pernice to be Boeotian. There two friezes of figures are represented, sphinxes above and deer below. The figures show a very elementary use of the incised line and are distinctly more primitive in treatment than the figures on our fragment.
In spite of an apparent similarity, the styles of the two fragments differ considerably. That our fragments are distinctly Argive I see no reason to doubt. The drawing is precisely the same as that already seen on our best fragments, and the use of the incised lines shows a very advanced technical skill. The ornaments in the field are treated elaborately, but are relegated to a very minor position (except the palmette scroll).
The treatment of the wings on the sphinxes is extremely curious, and I have been unable to find any similar case ; 2 it differs materially from the Athens fragment. A vase in the British Museum (A 1323) shows the same arrangement of hair,3 which is gathered in a heavy mass behind, with incised divisions (as in the case of the Tenean Apollo) and little locks over the fore¬ head. The right-hand animal shows no new peculiarity.
So little of the palmette scroll is left that its reconstruction is doubtful. It is certain that four spirals and three palmettes were represented,4 but whether it ended at the bottom in a palmette similar to that on the top cannot be said. Judging by the palmette scroll on the amphora from Melos (Rayet and Coll. Hist. pi. ii.), it seems more probable that the scroll here was represented in similar fashion, with four spirals arranged in cross fashion and a palmette on four sides between each spiral.
It is doubtful what the form of the whole vase was. The heads are drawn in too large a scale for a lekythos, and as no trace of a glaze can be found on the interior it cannot have belonged to a skyphos. The curve of the fragment seems best suited to a small jug, similar in shape to Fig. 86. The bridle of the horses seems to be the same as that on Plate LIX. 21.
half a dozen being found.
36 a and b. Two fragments of a plate, diameter uncertain. Reddish yellow clay, with black decoration on one side, burnt red on the other. The subject on both sides is the same, — a frieze of panthers, one crouching. The technique of the obverse is better than that of the I'everse, the drawing being more careful.
Alabastra.
That the alabastron had its origin during this period and not during the Corinthian seems fairly evident. What caused its growth is a matter of doubt. It is possible that it may have developed from the lekythos, since the alabastron resembles strongly a lekythos minus a neck and handle, turned upside down. The fragments of this shape were very numerous, especially those with a scale pattern, but few were preserved whole.
body. Red lines applied freely. Cf. Pottier, Vases, pi. xxxix. E 32.
b. Same decoration except for addition of one animal frieze, sometimes more, around the base.1 Incised lines are not used on the animals at all. The fragments were numerous, and one vase (height, 0.074 m.) was preserved almost complete.
c. Body of vase almost entirely covered with a scale pattern, large or small, as in Pottier, Vases, pi. xxxix. E 309, 319. A red dot is applied to alternate scales. This is the commonest type, half a dozen vases being found intact and numerous fragments.
Aryballoi.
Although the aryballos is a thoroughly characteristic shape of the Corinthian style, a number of them were found at the Heraeum which differed entirely from the Corinthian aryballi in point of technique and had a decoration purely linear in character. This would seem to warrant their belonging to the Argive period, towards the beginning of Class III. All show the use of applied color in an advanced stage, and this, together with the form, is more in favor of their connection with the later period of the Argive style than the earlier.
The earliest instance seems to be an aryballos of coarse red clay, with black glaze on the shoulder. The rest of the vase is entirely covered with a white wash, almost entirely worn away, with no traces of other decoration. No case of this peculiarity can be found in Corinthian vases ; we have already seen it on Mycenaean vases. Cf. p. 93.
Fig. 92. Height, 0.07 m. Neck and handle restored. Black glaze over all, burnt red in places. On body broad band of dark red color applied, bounded above and below by two narrow bands inclosing row of dots applied in white.
This type seems fairly common. There are similar examples in the British Museum (A 1028, from Kameiros), Naples (Rac. Cum.), and three at Syracuse from Megara Hyblaea (Tombs 784, 941, 980).
Other vases showed either a single broad band of applied red, or a red band with a smaller white band on each side. One fragment was found of an aryballos which was divided by incised lines with gore- ^ go
ARGIVE STYLES.
During the last three chapters, repeated instances of vases having various colors applied to their surfaces have been mentioned, and as this feature is such a prominent one on the Heraeum vases and so common during the succeeding vase classes, Corinthian, Rhodian, etc., it seems proper at this point to discuss it briefly.
For this technique no satisfactory term exists. Cecil Smith (J. H. S. VI. [1885], p. 184) uses the term “ Dorian ” and distinguishes between an “ Oriental ” style, i. e. the use of incised lines and applied purple or red color, and the “ Dorian ” style, or silhouette drawing with details in white, a feature common on much of the late seventh century polychrome work in Rhodes and Asia Minor. It is, however, perfectly certain that ap¬ plied color was used by potters of the Mycenaean age, and even earlier, since the preMycenaean ware found by Flinders Petrie in Egypt (J. II. S. X. [1890], pi. xiv. p. 271) shows the same polychrome decoration, so common on Egyptian wall-paintings, applied to the vases themselves. Crete {Mon. Ant. VI. pis. ix. and x.) has also produced a large amount of similar ware which belongs to the early part of the Mycenaean period. Dur¬ ing the Mycenaean period in the Argolid its use would seem to have been fairly common, since at the Heraeum we find it on fragments of both the dull and lustrous styles, and Furtwangler and Loeschcke’s Class I. (lustrous finish) also shows that it was extensively employed. During the Geometric and Argive styles at the Heraeum we find it very frequently, though it does not seem to have been in general use until the rise of the Oriental influence in Greece. All these facts would seem to show that this technique did not owe its origin to the bright-colored fabrics of Asia Minor (especially Samos), though they were, very probably, instrumental in promoting its growth on Greek soil, and also that the term “ Dorian ” is hardly accurate or comprehensive enough, since the origin of the technique must he looked for long before the Dorian invasion, or, if that event be denied, before the end of the Mycenaean period.
As a regular sequence of this technique has not been found (so far as I know) outside of the Argolid, it may perhaps have been a peculiar feature of the pottery made in that locality ; since, however, it is a purely accessory feature it can hardly stand by itself as a separate entity, and the fragments which show its use are not to be separated from the regular vase-classes to which they belong.
During the Mycenaean period at the Heraeum, only a few fragments of the dull finish, and of Class III. lustrous finish, show this technique. It is fairly common on fragments of the Geometric and Argive (Class II.) styles, while with Class III. of the Argive through the Corinthian style it seems to be an integral part of the decoration.
GEOMETRIC.
The number of Geometric fragments that show this use of applied color was cpiite large, filling nearly a basket. All such fragments invariably belong to the earlier period of the style rather than the later ; i. e. their decoration (apart from their poly¬ chrome feature) is purely Geometric or linear, and in no case of a later Geometric fragment representing animals or genre scenes did this technique occur. Outside of the Argolid this technique is seldom found ; as far as I can discover, only a few scattered Dipylon vases in Athens show it at all.
4. Fragment of an amphora probably. Yellow clay, with a broad glazed band of dark red covering the rim on the interior, over which two thin white stripes are applied. On exterior, dark brown glaze. Design applied in white ; on rim, zigzag ; on body, series of zigzags in a panel bounded by vertical and horizontal lines. On base, rays.
5. Dark red clay, burnt gray on exterior. Dark red glaze on inside, dull black outside, with design in white, dotted rosette above, and zigzag between horizontal stripes. Several other frag¬ ments of this vase were found, also fragments representing half a dozen other vases of similar technique.
8. Fragment of foot of large vase, shape uncertain. Red clay, with red glaze on exterior. Moulding on base. Broad meander pattern applied in yellow, bounded by broad stripes of yellow and narrower ones of red. Careful technique.
Plate LXVI. 1. Dark gray clay, with dark brown glaze on exterior. Meander pattern applied in red, with yellow border. Above, broad stripe of red. Several other fragments of this vase were found. Another fragment had a similar meander in yellow, bordered by red and white stripes.
2. Fragment of a vase with wide opening. Yellow clay, with black glaze on exterior. Broad band of yellow, with red border lines. On the yellow band a simple meander in red, with splashes of yellow in the interstices. Fragments of the rim were found which showed identically the same decoration on the lip.
The bulk of the fragments belonged to the rims of large bowls, having a flat surface on the top, and covered with a black or dark brown glaze on which broad bands of red, yellow, or white were applied. On these in turn was a pattern, usually a meander in red or yellow.
Taking the Geometric fragments of the Heraeum as a whole, the use of applied color seems to have been occasional rather than usual, and in only a few cases (most of them have been given above) does it form an important part of the decoration.
the rest.
No fragments belonging to Class I. showed this technique. In Class II. the frag¬ ments were much more numerous ; in Class III. the use of applied color is so universal as an accessory ornament that few attempts were made to employ it as the only deco¬ ration.
9. Fragment of skyphos. Reddish clay, with a brilliant brown glaze, burnt red on interior, on both sides. Yellow stripe on interior just below rim. Design in yellowish white ; double panel inclosing double circles. Technique very good.
10. Fragment of skyphos. Dirty yellow clay, with dull black glaze on both sides. Double triangles in yellowish white laid on thinly, above a horizontal stripe. This motive is identical with that already seen on the necks of the oinoclioai.
inclosing zigzag in whitish yellow.
Three more fragments of this vase Avere found and about a dozen other fragments from similar vases, with identical decoration. Fragments of necks Avere more common, one almost entire, but showing the same motive of zigzags. Cf. neck of oinochoe on Plate LIX. 8, which belongs here.
palmette in whitish yellow, Avith incised lines. Below, four stripes, the outer Avhite, the inner red.
14. Fragment of bowl. Yellow clay, Avith red brown decoration. On exterior, rays (red applied) and a horizontal guilloche. On interior, meander pattern Avith fragmentary applications of yellow, and a wave pattern around the centre.
Besides the fragments already mentioned, several dozen Avere found which belong to rather large skyphoi, 10-15 cm. in height, of a dark red or yelloAv clay, the exterior only being covered with a dull dark red glaze. On the shoulder and rim is the only decora¬ tion, consisting invariably of tAvo or three parallel stripes of applied red, bordered above and beloAv by a Avhite or yelloAv stripe.
POLYCHROME VASES, OR DECORATION ON A WHITE GROUND.
Before leaving the subject of the use of applied color, a feAv fragments merit atten¬ tion. These showed the so-called ‘polychrome’ technique, having a Avhitish yelloAv background on which the design is applied. These fragments Avere not very numerous, not more than a dozen being found.
Plate LXV. 4. Saucer, one side broken. Diameter, 0.058 m. ; height, 0.017 m. Dark reddish clay, exterior covered with a Avhite wash, mostly worn off. Same on interior, with a red band on rim and a lead-colored band below ; around central boss a rosette in red, with lead-colored lines in the loops. •
15. Fragment of plate. Yellow clay, with a black glaze on exterior, over which are parallel stripes of white inclosing a row of dots. On interior, over a whitish yellow wash, a palmette, alter¬ nate leaves black, with white dots. Incised lines. This fragment belongs to Class III., and is similar in point of decoration to 16. 15 shows some similarity to Naukratis ware, but there is nothing to justify its being considered as belonging to that style.
16. Fragment of plate. Dark red clay, covered with a whitish yellow slip. On exterior frieze of animals, with tongue pattern on rim. On interior, frieze of geese in black, red (faded) ap¬ plied to bodies, with zigzag band below. On rim, tongue pattern, red applied to each tongue.
Before proceeding1 to the discussion of the Corinthian style proper, it seems best to introduce a chapter on certain vases and fragments, which, though allied to the two great vase-classes just discussed, yet stand apart by themselves on account of certain peculiar features both of clay and design.
It is difficult to decide on a proper term for these vases. That they were imported into Argos is possible but improbable, seeing that foreign-made vases are extremely scarce at the Heraeum. Moreover, it is more difficult to find analogies for them outside of Argos than at the Heraeum itself, though even there such analogies are extremely rare. The most probable explanation is, that all of them are experiments in the mak¬ ing of certain types, which were not continued ; this alone will account for the wide difference that exists between them and the other Heraeum vases, not to speak of for¬ eign vase-classes.
The vases and fragments represented here fall, roughly speaking, in the eighth cen¬ tury, though a few may be dated a few years later than b. c. 700. Some are equally related to both the Argive and Geometric styles ; others again resemble more nearly purely foreign styles like the ‘ Island ’ types, Melian, Rhodian, etc.
decoration.
On rim four parallel stripes ; on neck “ Running Dog ” pattern, and below a frieze, four pairs of lions and snakes to right. On shoulder Geo¬ metric snake, with round balls and dotted rosettes in field. On body, two borders. “ Running Dog ” above, zig¬ zag (continuous) below, with a dotted row above and below, and separated by usual parallel stripes. On base, rays, points downward. On all the decoration (except the parallel stripes, dotted rows, and rays) small round
This oinochoe is by far the most peculiar vase that the Heraeum yielded, and is remarkable for its technical features as well as its decoration. The form seems to be a cross between the two Argive oinochoai already discussed (Figs. 56 and 57).
Technique. The clay resembles more closely that used in vases of the Geometric style than in the Argive. The addition of the white dots in such numbers is peculiar but not unique, as it was found on several other Heraeum fragments, and a few vases outside of the Argolid.1 It is certain, however, from Mycenaean fragments, that it was a common feature in the Argolid from the earli¬ est times.
on the neck, while the body is covered with the ordinary Geometrical motives.
In spite of the Geometrical motives on the body of the vase, it may be safely asserted that our oinochoe does not belong to the Geometric style, since the peculiar white dots never occur, so far as I know, on purely Geometric vases, nor has the style of the lions any connection with the lions on Geometric vases.2 A closer connection seems afforded by the Phaleron jugs, since there we find the same employment of white dots, as well as the use of the neck for the main frieze. But the presence of the Geometric snake on the shoulder is against any such connection, since, as far as I know, that motive never occurs on any jug of the Phaleron type, nor has the style of our oinochoe anything in common with them. The Gamedes oinochoe is clearly of a later date than ours, and cannot therefore serve as a criterion for any doubtful point.
That our vase is of native workmanship seems to me extremely probable. The presence of the white dots on a few foreign-made vases is offset by the presence of fragments from as many vases at the Heraeum, and the use of the neck in the Phaleron jugs for the principal frieze is not a com¬ mon peculiarity. Moreover, the style of our vase is earlier, if anything, than that of the Phaleron jugs, and would seem rather to point to an Argive influence on that class of vases (as was already suggested) than vice-versa. We have seen already how common the use of applied color was in all vases manufactured in the Argolid from the Mycenaean times downwards, so that this feature cannot be considered as lacking parallels in that place.
The date of our oinochoe must fall during the period of Argive Class II. The snakes and the other Geometric motives make this probable. Moreover, there seems to be no reason for seeing any trace of Oriental influence here ; the lions have nothing in common with the type of lion in Class III., and the lack of incised lines is in favor of an early date, probably about the middle of the eighth century.
The combination of the lion and snake in pairs is extremely curious ; I have been unable to find any similar instance. That a lion was intended is evident, though the prancing monster is more like the creation of a nightmare than the noble monarch of the desert. The presence of the lions is interesting, as they are not represented fighting, but as a purely ornamental feature. This would seem to be one of the earliest instances of the animal frieze, and would show that if not commonly employed, it was at least known to the vase-painter before the spread of Oriental influ¬ ence in Greece, and need not be considered as a purely Eastern innovation.
17 a and b. Two fragments from a large amphora. Coarse brick red clay, with a reddish yellow slip. Decoration varying from black to red. Around interior of rim, band of black glaze. White dots applied to all the decoration.
1 The following examples are known to me : Warrior Vase (Myk. Vas. p. <>8, pis. xlii. and xliii. , and Schliemann, Tiryns, pis. xiv., xv., xvii. b, xxi. a, b, xvii. e) ; Aristonophos Vase (Mon. dell’ Inst. IX. pi. iv.) ; Gamedes oinochoe (Rayet and Collignon, Hist. p. 81, fig. 42); two Phaleron jogs (Boehlan, Jahrb. II. [1887], p. 45, figs. 3, 4 e, 4 /); plate in British Museum (A 1539; Campanari Col.). The body of the stag on this plate is filled in with white dots;
oinochoe in Zurich (Mon. dell’ Inst. IX. pi. v. 2) (frieze of warriors, dots on shields); two vases from Falisco (Mon. Ant. IV. p. 267, fig. 127; p. 291, fig. 147). The list might doubtless be materially increased.
b. Scroll ending at each end in a trefoil. Base of handle preserved.
Fig. 94 shows the restoration of the design. The form is not absolutely certain, nor can the height be determined, though, judging from the size of the fragments, the vase must have measured about 30 cm. in height. It seems fairly certain, however, that no other decoration existed on the vase, unless we suppose a similar design on the reverse and that the restoration here given is correct.
The technique is precisely similar to Fig. 93, and as the resemblance between the lions is so strong we may almost assume that both vases were painted by the same artist. The scrolls which bound the panels are interesting, and so far a similar case does not occur to me. There is a certain resemblance between the trefoils and the ivy leaf on Myce¬ naean vases (cf. Myh. Vas. xxi. 152; also J. II. S. XI. [1890], pi. xiv. 1), but whether the trefoils represent a development of the latter ^ ^
a dull dark brown glaze. Broad band of white with, a row of small dots on each side.
This fragment, though differing considerably from the two vases just considered, has been included here on account of the presence of the white dots. It presents this peculiarity that the broad band of white is not painted over the glaze, since no trace of glaze can be found under it. The clay is coarse and more akin in texture to vases of the Geometric style, but it cannot belong to that class, since it seems certain that the entire vase was covered with a glaze, a peculiarity entirely foreign to Geometric vases. We have already seen this peculiarity in the case of other Argive vases, and it is probable that we have here a fragment of a vase which belongs to the same class as those discussed on p. 158.
Seven fragments from the base of a bowl with tall base. From Old Temple Terrace (proba¬ bly). Height cannot be determined. The fragments have been joined together to form the base (8). Height, 0.425 m. ; diameter at base, 0.29 m. ; diameter at top, 0.16 in. The original vase probably measured about 80 cm. in height.
paint added freely. Incised lines used on the figures of the animals around the base.
The form of the vase was probably a large deep bowl resting on a tall base, similar to a vase in Athens from Menidi ( Jahrb . XIV. [1899], p. 108, fig. 10, or p. 126, fig. 29). Of the bowl only a small part is preserved in fragment 8 ; all the other fragments belong to the base.
Around the base are three friezes, and a narrow frieze at the bottom of the bowl.
Base. Lower frieze (4, 6, 7). Border, a guiiloche of black and white strands (as in Plate LIX. 5). Separated from this by three stripes, a frieze of animals. What these animals are can¬ not be determined. On 4 and 6 we have an animal crouching, with traces of what may have been a horn on its head, and the tail of another, which projects into the frieze above. The first animal is clearly crouching, and the body is covered with scales similar to Athen. Mitt. 1897, p. 309, fig. 31. Incised lines on the foot, and on tail.
centre.
In the centre of the frieze (4), a dying warrior to right stretching his arm behind him. His leg is drawn in outline, and as no filling in with black or application of yellow is seen, it seems probable that carelessness on the artist’s part was responsible for this deficiency. On his shield is a rosette, with yellow applied to five of the lobes ; yellow is also applied to the headpiece of the helmet. On the left are two warriors advancing to right, both armed with helmet, shield, greaves, spears, and sword.1 Yellow is applied to the headpieces of the helmets and to the greaves. The
first warrior has a checkered border on his helmet, and a whirl pattern with a lozenge border on his shield ; the warrior behind has a four-pointed star inclosed by a checkered border for his shield device. Facing them to left, parts of two warriors ; nose, tip of helmet, shield, and one leg of the first warrior preserved, shield and one leg of the second. Yellow applied to greaves. The first warrior is armed with a spear or sword exactly like his opponent ; on his shield, four-pointed star with checkered border. His companion has as a shield device a rosette elaborately drawn in black and white with a border of rays. Between the warriors, over the fallen man, a bird flying.
On fragment 2 we see the back of one warrior’s helmet in black with the point of a spear, and the helmet (in outline) and eye of another warrior, likewise the point of a spear. From a com¬ parison of 5 it seems probable that the spear to the left belongs to the right-hand warrior and the spear at the right to another not preserved. On the right of 1 again we see the trace of another helmet (checkered border) projecting into the pattern above.
On 5 we have three warriors ; the one at the left resembles the foremost warrior on the left of 2, except that the border of his shield is a ray pattern, and the helmet has no border : he is armed with a spear. The warrior in the centre differs from the others in having a very tall helmet, with a single checkered border, which projects into the upper pattern as in 1 ;. a faint line marks the outline of the head, evidently done in the preliminary drawing. This feature may be observed on almost all the figures. His shield seems to have had a four-leaf rosette for its device, the leaves being left plain and the entire shield covered with yellow ; a fainter line encircles the shield inside the rim. He is armed with a spear (since the lower curved line behind him is clearly the continu¬ ation of his spear) and a sword. Between his legs a bird similar to the one on 4. Of the righthand warrior only the head and part of a leg are preserved.
It may be noted that in no two cases is the device of the shields the same. Faint black lines are seen on several of the figures, which in most cases marks the preliminary drawing. On 4 the lines of the legs of four figures cross each other, due, of course, to careless drawing.
At the left of 1 are the body, hind leg and fore legs of a horse : to right, a broad band around the chest, with the reins along the back. Behind the horse the figure of a man from the waist down¬ wards carrying a shield (in outline ; device a rosette) and two spears. Around his waist is a belt with a row of dots. Yellow is used on his body and legs as well as on the body and legs of the horse, with the addition of faint black lines. Before the horse to left a woman, from the waist downward (in outline), holding a staff in her hand and clad in a chiton reaching almost to the ankles, stippled above in black, with three borders, a zigzag, meander, and dots. Behind her the leg and foot of another man, drawn in outline, but evidently wearing a boot. Between the horse’s fore legs a water bird and above the reins a flying bird, as in the lower frieze. Incised lines are used to denote the reins. At the back of the horse is a projection to which the reins are fastened, from which goes a diagonal line to the top of the frieze representing a goad or whip.
The arrangement of 3 is somewhat problematical.1 At the left is the upper part of a female figure (with long hair in ribbed locks) clad in a sort of bodice and a long skirt, stippled with black dots; she is stretching out her right arm. Behind her the figure of a bearded centaur, with a belt around his waist, looking to left, but his body turned to right ; the line of the nates and the calf is visible at the lower part of the fragment. He is formed in the Archaic tyjie, the entire figure of a man joined to the body and hind legs of a horse. The horse’s body is seen to left and the woman seems to have her left arm around it. The waist of the centaur is pierced by an arrow, and the blood is marked by dark streaks. The attitude of his right hand is uncertain. The eyes of both figures are drawn as dotted circles. In field, flying bird.
Above is the last frieze which forms the base of the vessel proper. Some animal is represented to left, as three legs, body, and neck (ornamented with a scale pattern) are visible, but what the animal is cannot be told. Under its fore leg a row of dots and beneath the body a swastika.
NESSOS AND DEIANEIRA
The chief interest of the vase lies in the two main friezes, but owing to the fragmentary condi¬ tion of the vase their arrangement is extremely doubtful. It is perfectly plain that the subject of the lower frieze was the combat over some fallen warrior, and if we place 5 below 1, and transfer 2 to a position directly over 4, we shall obtain six warriors on the left and four (or perhaps only two, if 2 forms the head of the two warriors to the right of 4) on the right. How many warriors were represented, or whether the two sides of the base represented different scenes, we cannot say.
Less clear is the arrangement of the upper frieze. We have the figures of a horse, man, two women, and a centaur, and as it is certain that the subject of 3 had no connection with 1, both fragments were probably on opposite sides of the base. That the horse on 1 was harnessed to a chariot seems certain. Although we have only one horse, we know the single teams were com¬ mon during the Archaic period.1 As three reins are certainly represented, it is possible that a pair of horses was intended (which would be more appropriate to the period of the vase). If a wagon be supplied, then the object to which the reins are fastened must be the top of the pole. Although it is placed just over the flank, we find it set as far back on the shoulder of a black figure hydria (Gerhard, Aus. Vas. pi. 253). It cannot possibly be the uvtv ( of a chariot, as it is far too close to the body of the horse. That the diagonal line which begins at the end of the pole is a goad held in the driver’s hand, a comparison of Aus. Vas. pi. 251 shows clearly. Not enough of the scene is preserved to warrant an identification.
With 3 the subject is plain. Deianeira and the centaur Nessos are represented. The round object at the back of the woman’s head is probably the sword of Herakles ; at least it is precisely similar to the sword on the lower frieze, and on a Chalcidian vase in the Louvre we find Herakles attacking the centaur with a sword ( Aus . Vas. 117-118, 1). The attitude of the centaur is par¬ alleled by another centaur on the Argive lekythos in Berlin (Arch. Zeit. 1883, pi. x.), who, pierced by an arrow, is flying to right while looking back over his shoulder. Deianeira is repre¬ sented in a rather singular fashion ; she seems to be clinging to the centaur’s body with one hand while stretching out her right hand as if to call for assistance. Such a treatment of the scene is, as far as I know, unique.
Several points in the matter of detail must be noticed. The type of helmet is peculiar ; for the simple helmet, that worn by the warrior on the Melian vase (Conze, Melische Vasen , pi. iii.), offers the nearest resemblance, but the tall helmet differs from any I have yet seen. The female figure on 3 wears her hair in a ribbed band behind, an extremely common form during the late Argive and Corinthian periods. The treatment of the eye varies in the two principal friezes ; in the lower we have a pear-shaped space for the nose in white with the eye as a small dot; in the upper we have the usual type on Melian or Rhodian vases,2 the dotted circle. The shields are the round form which is found in the Geometric style, but the addition of a device is characteristic of a later period.
In spite of its many peculiarities, I see no reason to doubt that the vase is of Argive fabrication and belongs to the early stage of Class III. of the Argive. Of purely Geometrical motives we find no trace, except the water bird on 1, but all the various motives, the swastika , guilloche, birds, etc., can be traced to earlier examples. The arrangement of the figures savors of a Mycenaean prototype, but the animal frieze shows a certain amount of Oriental influence. The application of color is probably, as we have seen, an Argive peculiarity. At the same time the general execution is primitive in its character, in spite of the advanced tendency of the composition, and shows little trace of the technical skill so characteristic of the later Argive vases.
It is of course possible that this may be a foreign product, imported into Argos, and if such were the case we should expect to find analogous vases in other places, which, with one exception, the Aristonothos vase,3 are not forthcoming. Melian, Rhodian, and Ionian vases which belong to the same period as our vase (perhaps a trifle later) seem to offer some slight resemblance, but it may be easily seen, if their styles be analyzed, that there is no connection between them.
shows any similarity of style, and has therefore been assigned by Furtwangler to an Argive fabric.1 It may be bold to use that vase as a criterion, but the view of a scholar like Furtwangler calls for careful attention, and if at Argos we find a vase similar to the Aristonothos vase, which, though exhibiting several new features, shows clearly the elements of the Argive style, there would seem to be good reason for assigning both to an Argive fabric.
We find that on the Aristonothos vase the type of figures, profiles, etc., is identical. The round shields are used with similar devices. Also on many of the figures small white dots are added such as we have seen on the vases just discussed, a strong point in favor of the Argive origin of that vase. We find a rosette precisely similar to that on the shield of our fallen warrior with black and white leaves. Except for the white dots, there is no application of extra color on the Aris¬ tonothos vase.
A pyxis seems the most probable shape, though the addition of a moulding to the rim is unusual.
On a we have a bearded man in a chariot to right drawn by a single horse, holding the reins in his left hand and a goad or spear in his right hand. Pie is clad in a single long garment with a zigzag pattern down the front. The body of the chariot is ornamented with a zigzag border, incised, and the eye of the man is denoted by a dotted circle. The chariot has a single wheel. Behind the man three vertical lines bordering the panel.
On b we have a large cauldron and a tripod with double legs, ending at the sides in a wheel on which a horse is perched. Over the tripod is a helmet. Between the cauldron and the tripod some object, perhaps a cleaver, c shows portions of two deer (eyes incised) to right, and d and e show the head and horns of a stag-.
It seems certain from the presence of the vertical lines on a that two scenes were represented, each in a panel ; a and b belong to one side, c, d, and e to the other, f is probably the bottom of b (showing the continuation of the cauldron), while g and h belong to the other side, g being the lower part of c.
It is difficult to say what the principal scene represents . perhaps the most probable explanation is that a chariot race is represented (there is room for two more teams on the vase), and that the cauldron, tripod, and helmet are the prizes. If this is correct, we obtain the year 776 B. c. as a terminus ante quern , since before that date the representation of a contest for prizes never occurs on any Greek vase. Only one horse is attached to the chariot, which is similar to that found on Geometric vases with a curved uvtv£ (cf. Helbig, Epos2, p. 138, fig. 32); but as three reins are represented in the driver’s hand, and the head and feet of the horse are missing, the usual num¬ ber of two was probably represented. The cauldron is similar in shape to the large Dipylon vases, but differs from them as to the handles. The tripod has double legs (contrary to the ones found at Olympia,3 which have single legs), and seems to belong to a different type, as the legs run clear to the rim of the bowl. The peculiar form of the latter is due entirely to the desire to make room for a helmet (Corinthian type). The tripod has a characteristic quite common in the tripods from Olympia,4 as well as in other early bronze work, in having rings or, as here, wheels at the sides on
Ausgrabungen am Ilcraeon von Argos sowohl Scherben jener von mir der Fabrik der ‘ Aristonothos- Vase ’ zu gerechneten Art als auch Protokorinthische zu Tage gebraclit.” Our fragments are the ‘ Scherben ’ referred to.
which a horse is perched. What the object to the right of the cauldron represents is difficult to say ; 1 from f it seems certain that a similar object was placed on the other side, but the size of the vase precludes our considering them as supports.
The animal frieze presents no peculiarity of any kind. The general style of the vase is decidedly that of the early period of the Oriental Argive class, a at first sight seems to show the same style of drawing in the case of the male figure as is generally found on Geometric vases ; but the style of the horse as well as the presence of the incised lines show that by no possibility can the style be Geometric. It is possible that the artist may have drawn the male figure after some Geometric prototypes. All things considered, there seems no good reason why we should not have here a vase of distinctly Argive fabric.
lines. Form of vase uncertain.
That two friezes of animals were represented is certain. Traces of a lower frieze appear on a. On a and b we have some animal to right, on b the wing and body of a seated sphinx, and on c the fore part of another animal similar to a.
Of all the fragments yielded by the Heraeum these are the most unique and extraordinary. With the exception of an animal on an Early Attic vase (Couve, B. C. II. 1893, p. 25, pis. ii. and iii.), which bears an extremely superficial resemblance, I have been unable to find any vase or fragments which offer any analogy whatsoever. The fact that an animal frieze is represented as well as the presence of the sphinx shows that the fragments cannot be earlier than the third class of the Argive style, though, stylistically considered, these animals show none of the particular Argive features.
Certain technical points deserve notice ; the drawing is extremely curious, especially at the juncture of the body and fore leg, where a crescent-shaped cut is incised to show the modeling of the leg. An oval space is left for the eye, which is denoted by a dot, and resembles that of a toad ; the ears stand upright. We can only guess at the identity of the animals, but that they represent boars seems most probable. It would appear at first sight as if the feet of the animal on a were the paws of a car¬ nivorous animal, but since the details of the body are so carefully incised, and as the paws of carnivora during this period are always denoted by incised lines, we must conclude that they are hoofs. The absence of horns shows clearly that they are not cattle, sheep, or goats, so that a boar is the only other animal possible.
Whether we can recognize here a foreign interpretation is impossible to say, but until some analogous example is found elsewhere, it seems most natural to regard it as an Argive product, perhaps a caricature ; not a representative of any type, but merely an isolated case of some potter’s fancy ; in short, a ‘ freak.’ Taking the technique, clay, and style into consideration, we may assign the fragments to the early part of the seventh century.
The relations of the Argive and Corinthian styles to each other were discussed at length in the Introduction and in Chapter IV. In the present chapter only those vases and fragments which belong to the Corinthian style proper will he considered.
place. It was fairly well represented at the Heraeum ; whole vases were scarce, hut the fragments filled nearly half a dozen baskets. Such fragments as are preserved show nothing new ; the forms of the vases differ in no way from the usual Corinthian types, and the scheme of decoration is identically the same.
Whether all the Corinthian fragments found at the Heraeum were manufactured at Argos is impossible to say. It has not been proved that the various vases of the style scattered over the Greek world were all made in Corinth,1 and it is undoubtly true that after the style became thoroughly known its manufacture was carried on in other places than Corinth, just as a great deal of the Mycenaean ware found in Greece must have been manufactured outside of the Argolid. As Corinth lies so near Argos (only thirty miles away), the importation of the style into the latter place would be per¬ fectly possible. At all events, the internal evidence of the Corinthian fragments found at the Heraeum throws no light on the question.
Wilisch has divided the Corinthian style into two classes, the elder and the younger. With the exception of three fragments the elder class only is found at the Heraeum. This may serve to show that the Corinthian vases were manufactured in the Argolid and not imported, since after the Corinthian style very few fragments of any class of vases are found at the Heraeum, while if the reverse were the case, it would be an extremely curious fact to find the importation of a style suddenly ceasing, without any definite reason. There is no literary evidence to show that Argos ever enacted an embargo against the products of Corinth as she did in the case of Athens.
Wilisch’s statement {op. cit. p. 21) that the skyphos is the only form peculiar to both the Argive and Corinthian styles is certainly incorrect, since several fragments belonging to oinochoai of the type on p. 127 were found with Corinthian decoration,2 and as we have seen, the Argive style included all the forms in the above list with the exception of the kylix and the tripod bowl. The decoration on all the fragments was distinctly poor, few showing really good technique. Most of them were found on the Second Temple Terrace in the pocket towards the southeast and under the retaining wall of the West Building (southwest corner). The number of bottoms (of skyphoi and oinochoai) far ex¬ ceeded the fragments which belonged to the upper part of such vases. Though as a rule the clay of the Corinthian vases is rather more grayish in tone than in the Argive, it was impossible in most cases to decide whether such fragments belonged to Argive or Corinthian vases, the decoration in both styles (ray pattern) being identical. Some of these vases, however, showed just enough of the main zone to established their identity as Corinthian.
1 It is perfectly certain, through the presence of in¬ scriptions, that vases of this style were manufactured in Sikyon (Kretschmer, Griechische Vaseninschriften, p. 50 ; cf. also p. 185, No. 1). Hence Argos may well have made some herself.
2 The British Museum possesses such an oinoehoe
(A 1035) with three zones of figures. I noted in the Naples Museum an oinoehoe of the Argive style, which had Corinthian decoration over the parallel bands. I was unable to examine the vase, but feel sure that the Corin¬ thian decoration is modern. Cf. H. S. XI. (1890), p. 175.
OLD CORINTHIAN STYLE
In but a few cases could a vase be reconstructed from the fragments, and as the num¬ ber of whole vases was so small no such classification as was followed in Chapter IY. could be used, nor does the class represented admit of any chronological subdivisions.
This form, being the commonest, will be treated first. Two types may be detected, those having a glaze on the interior and those without. The latter type is represented only by fragments in a very poor condition, and seems to have been confined to small vases. The clay is greenish or gray in tone, the foot projecting in a slight moulding, and the base ornamented with a ray pattern, the rays being very fine and close together. Above the rays, separated by a broad stripe on which narrow stripes of red or white color are applied, is the principal zone. As the type is so common, no examples are given here.
Fragments belonging to the former type, though not so numerous, were in better pre¬ servation as far as the figure decoration is concerned. They are generally of a red or yellow clay, the glaze black, though in some cases it has been burnt to a brilliant red, and in others is almost entirely obliterated, owing doubtless to the nature of the soil. The form of the vase is always that of Fig. 64, and the only variation is found in the proportion between the height and the diameter. The motives of decoration are the usual ones, zones of animals (lions, panthers, bulls, goats, deer, etc.), birds, fabulous mon¬ sters (sirens and sphinxes), and flower patterns (generally lotos). Red color is univer¬ sally applied to the figures themselves and the bands which border the zone ; red stripes are often applied to the interior, just below the rim. Incised lines are almost invariably used, but extremely carelessly, as no attempt has been made in many cases to prevent such lines running into the background of the zone. The bases are usually ornamented with rays, and the rim with a border of zigzags, water birds, or flowers, placed over the main zone ; in some cases the border is omitted and the main zone extends clear to the rim. Ornaments in field are almost invariably used.
1 a and b. Two fragments of a skyphos, of reddish clay, dark red glaze on interior. On main zone sphinx and siren to right (a) and sphinx to left (b). Two broad stripes of applied red separate the rim border (vertical zigzags). Red applied to the wings of the figures, and to two stripes below the rim on the interior.
This fragment belonged to a large skyphos, probably 15 cm. in height.
4. From a large skyphos, about 20 cm. in height. Grayish clay, glaze and decoration very much faded. Above main zone (two panthers back to back) border of palmettedotos chain, only visible through the incised lines, as the decoration has almost entirely faded.
6. Yellow clay, with faded black glaze. On main zone haunch of a goat and tail of another animal. Above palmettedotos chain. Applied red band below rim on interior; red on the centres of the palmette and on goat’s body. Cf. Wilisch, op. cit. pi. iii. 36.
9 a and b. Two fragments from rim of skyphos. Yellow clay, with dark brown glaze. On principal zone head of sphinx. Above, separated by a checkered border, zone of water birds to right broken by a panel containing a star. Red applied to wings of the bird.
Argive, without any ornaments in field. The lower zone is in the typical Corinthian style.
10. Yellow clay, with brilliant dark brown glaze and bright red decoration. Main zone occu¬ pied by a very elaborate palmette-lotos chain in squares, with red color frequently applied. Below, zone of wafer birds. It is probable that a similar zone formed the upper border. For palmette, cf. Wilisch, op. cit. pi. iii. 35.
2. Corinthian type. Wilisch, op. cit. pi. ii. 18.
The first type was represented only by a few fragments in bad preservation. These were entirely covered with a black glaze, except for the animal zone on the body, and had on the shoulder an incised tongue pattern, red and yellow being applied to the alternate divisions. Of Type 2 fragments of only one vase were found which permitted a fairly satisfactory reconstruction, and several fragments of others. Curiously enough, no neck belonging to these oinochoai was found, nor is it certain whether some fragments 1 did not belong to another variety of oinochoe (Wilisch, op. cit. pi. ii. 16).
11 a-c. Three fragments of an oinochoe. Reddish clay. On base, rays, with three bands (middle band black, the others applied in red, dividing lines in white) separating them from the main zone. Panther to right (head full front) and goat to left. On b an owl, to right head full front ; on c, deer feeding to left and feet of a sphinx. Above, two applied red bands inclosing toothed border. On shoulder, another zone, with lower part of a bird to right. Red is freely applied to all the figures.
Very few fragments belonging to this form were found, but the covers were much more numerous, showing the same discrepancy of proportion already mentioned in the case of the Argive fragments (p. 136).
The few fragments belonging to Type 1 followed the same scheme of decoration, ray pattern on the base and a sort of tongue pattern incised on the body, red and yellow color being applied to the alternate divisions. The interior was not glazed in every case.
13. Reddish yellow clay, with bright red glaze on interior. On main zone, procession of women to right. Two other fragments were found, one showing the women facing to left so that two pro¬ cessions were represented. This fragment differs slightly from the usual form in that the base does not rest flat on the ground, but the sides are continued down lower than the base, so that the vase rests on a low foot.
In only a few cases was the knob preserved, and in those it was conical or flat in shape. The commonest type (at least thirty covers were represented) had a ray pattern or leaf rosette in the centre, and a zone of animals of the usual type as a border on the rim. Almost equally common was the tongue pattern with red lobes. A few fragments showed a procession of warriors armed with round shields and spears.
14. Diameter, 0.106 m. Greenish clay. In centre leaf rosette, outside animal zone, four lions, two boars, stag, and duck. Decoration vei'y much faded, with frequent traces of applied red color. This was the only cover preserved almost intact. Its wealth of decoration suggests the “Dodwell” vase.
15. Fra gment of cover. Original diameter, 0.155 m. Very fine bright yellow clay, with black decoration, red color freely applied. In centre, ray pattern. Main zone bounded by two bands applied in red. Bird, male figure, sphinx, and two lions in an heraldic scheme.
The bearded figure on the left is dressed in a long chiton with a border down the front, and a long himation which falls in a fold at the right. The arms are not visible, but may perhaps be denoted by the incised lines starting from the shoulders. The figure presents this peculiarity, that while the himation is filled in with red, the skirt of the chiton is drawn in outline. This peculiarity, as far as I know, does not occur on vases of the Old Corinthian style.1
shows no new features.
The group of the two lions is the most interesting. Though the heraldic scheme was no new feature in Greek art during the earlier periods (e. g. the Lion Gate at Mycenae, Geometric vases, etc.), it is not until the use of the Corinthian style that the scheme is generally used. The attitude of our lions is paralleled by two bronze reliefs, one from the Acropolis (Bather, J. II. /S. XIII. [1892-93 j, p. 256, fig. 25) and the other in Athens (Furtwangler, Ann. dell Inst. 1880, p. 135, tav. d’ agg. H), and by a terra-cotta relief from the Heraeum. In the latter the lions are standing, not sitting. Analogous is the relief in Curtius ( Wappengebrauch unci Wappenstil im Altertlium, pi. i. 11). Except for Chalcidian vases (v. Ann. 1880, p. 135, note 2) I have been able to discover this motive on but one other example of Archaic vases (A. C. II. XIX. [1895], p. 76, fig. 4).
From the various analogies mentioned, it is certain that our fragment cannot be older than the bronze reliefs, i. e. the end of the seventh century. The fineness of the clay, style of drawing, and lack of ornaments in field is consistent with this view, and shows that the fragment, if not belong¬ ing to the New Corinthian style, belongs at least to the transitional period between the Old and the New Corinthian styles.
16 a and b. Two fragments from same bowl ; original height about 12 cm. Greenish yellow clay, decoration very much faded. On base, rays ; above, main zone, bounded on each side by two dotted rows. Procession of women to left ; the right-hand figure holds a pomegranate in her hand. Dots as ornaments in field. Rim ends in a moulding.
Though this form can hardly he called a very characteristic one of the Corinthian style, it is by' no means rare. Wilisch ignores it entirely. The number of fragments of this type found at the Heraeum was not very numerous ; of these the majority were legs, with fragments of the bowl itself still attached. Whether these bowls possessed covers originally is impossible to say; a bowl in Berlin (No. 1153) has none, nor were any covers which clearly belonged to these bowls found at the Heraeum.
legs, no separation into classes is possible, and all the fragments follow one type.
21. Fragment of bowl. Height, 0.05 m. ; original diameter, 0.127 m. Yellow clay. The rim is ribbed on its outer and upper sides. Interior covered with a dark brown glaze, extending over the rim, with two concentric circles uncolored, with a narrow stripe of red applied between them.
Another fragment of a leg was found.
The other fragments of the type all followed the same scheme of decoration, a zone of animals on the body and single figures (panthers, lions, sphinxes, birds, etc.) on the legs. One leg showed a palmette-lotos pattern in place of a figure.
Only a few scattered fragments of this type were found. The moulding is placed directly in the centre of the base, with a leaf rosette radiating from it, and the body of the vase ornamented with one or two zones of animals, in the usual style.
vases were preserved whole and no vase could he reconstructed from the fragments.
Fig. 95. Height, 0.072 m. Intact save for small fragment of rim. On rim, leaf rosette, with dots at the side. On neck, leaf rosette, alternate leaves applied in red. On body, three gryphons. On base, leaf rosette. Red color freely applied on their bodies. Rosettes as ornaments in field.
None of the other vases were in as good condition. They show the usual figures, lions, panthers, geese, etc., One fragment showed three gorgoneia around the base, while another had the lower part of a female figure.
Only one type of aryballos could he detected. Curiously enough, in spite of the shape of the aryballos, which is well calculated to withstand the pressure of the earth in which it is buried, not a single specimen was recovered intact. Frag¬ ments were numerous, especially rims, hut none of them showed any interesting features.1 They were usually of a gray or greenish clay, though some fragments of red or yellow clay were found. The decoration is the usual type, a leaf rosette on the base with some figure or other on the body and a leaf rosette or tongue pattern on the rim. Half a dozen fragments showed a wheel pattern with curving spokes on the base. The technique in almost all cases was extremely indifferent.
Of this type, one vase was found represented by two fragments. The clay was yellow, the interior covered with a dark brown glaze, to which three stripes of red were applied. On the exterior a zone of figures was represented, of which only an owl could be recog¬ nized. The rim Hared sharply outwards, in a fashion slightly more marked than the type given by Wilisch.
Fragments of plates were not very numerous. The general type is that of p. 142 with a flat base, sides curving outwards and a moulding on the base. The profile of each plate was different, no two being found alike. Most of the fragments belonged to the sides, hardly more than half a dozen fragments from the centres of these plates being found. The principal decoration is confined to the interior, the exterior being usually orna¬ mented with the system of parallel bands as in the Argive style-
decoration. In rim, two holes.
Exterior. On side, rays. The entire centre seems to have been occupied by a single figure, a sphinx and siren, of which only the tip of the wing is visible.
Interior. On side, zone of animals, sphinxes, and a siren or bird with very long tail. In centre, two sphinxes facing each other. Red applied freely to the bodies and wings of the figures.
This was the only fragment which showed animal decoration on both sides.
23. Fragment of plate. Original diameter, 32 cm. Light red clay, with sharp profile. On interior, palmette-lotos chain, red frequently applied. On exterior, bands. Two other fragments of the rim were found, one pierced by two holes. No trace of the central decoration was found, or could not be identified on any fragment. A bronze plate with similar ornamentation on the rim was also found.
23 a and b. T wo fragments from the same vase ( amphora a colon¬ nette or stamnos). Brownish clay, covered with a light brown slip, polished. Above, main zone, tongue pattern, with alternate red and yellow divisions applied.
On a warrior to right armed with helmet, greaves, shield, and two spears. Below the shield A ( Behind him head of a horse. Red (faded to a paler tint) applied on the horse’s neck and on the warrior's helmet, shield, and greaves.
the lower zone.
The shape of the vase cannot be determined with any certainty, as not enough of the handle is preserved. The curve of the fragments would suit a stamnos as well as an amphora. It seems probable that the main zone represented a warrior’s departure or combat on the obverse and an athletic scene on the reverse, with a zone of animals below. Sphinxes or sirens were perhaps placed below the handles as ornaments to separate the two scenes. The letters of the inscription 1 Exactly similar to that on the Timonidas jug, Arch. Zeit. 18G3, pi. clxxv. o.
latest and most advanced type of the Corinthian style.
The figure is paralleled by a Corinthian skyphos representing the combat between A jax and Aeneas ( Ann . dell. Inst. 1862, tav. d’ agg. B), except that the warrior on our fragment is not fighting and that only one horse is represented. The warrior’s squire was evidently mounted on the horse as in the skyphos.
A few fragments were found which bear a close similarity to the Early Attic style ; in fact, they show more of the elements of the Early Attic technique than of the Argive. Whether they were actually imported from Attica cannot be said.
CYRENEAN.
Not more than fifty fragments or so of this ware were found, nor is it certain that they were imported from Cyrene. In the opinion of Professor Ernest Gardner, who exam¬ ined them carefully, the quality of execution was almost too poor for genuine Cyrenean work. On this account he was disposed to regard them as an Argive imitation. That these fragments are distinctly Cyrenean in style is evident, hut it is equally true that they are greatly inferior to the vases which represent the style elsewhere.
That Mr. Gardner’s view of them is correct seems to me most probable. We have found all along that foreign importations were extremely scarce at the Heraeum,1 and that the great mass of vases was made on the spot. There is nothing to forbid the presence at Argos of Cyrenean ware, which is the only ware in Greece during the latter part of the sixth century that seems to have contested the field with Athens. At the same time we know that all Attic vases were excluded from Argos during the latter part of the sixth century, and not enough of this Cyrenean ware is found to make up for the lack of black and red figure vases.
It was not possible in every case to identify the form from which the fragment came.
The clay corresponds in every respect with other Cyrenean vases, and the decoration follows the same scheme. The interior has a design in a circle, on an exergue. Red is frequently applied to various details. The exterior as a rule is given up to the usual sequence of Cyrenean motives, rays, tongue pattern, and pomegranate chain ; a few fragments showred traces of a figure zone on the exterior.
The execution is certainly inferior to the ordinary vases of the style. Not enough figures are preserved to judge accurately on this point, but in the ornamental motives there appears a certain lack of firmness and crispness in the drawing.
snake in its beak. Decoration faded.
5 a and b. Two fragments of kylix, white slip on both sides. On exterior, pomegranate border; on interior, warrior to left with helmet and spear mounted on horseback, the neck of the horse showing to left. On b, part of hind leg of horse.
the left, part of a scroll.
The other fragments possessed little interest. A few showed portions of the central pictures, a bird, horn of a goat, legs of some animal, palmette, etc. The larger part of the fragments possessed only the usual Cyrenean motives on the exterior.
Fragments of the Black- and Red-figure styles were represented at the Heraeum in extremely small quantities — not more than a basketful of the former and hardly more than fifty of the latter. Considering the extreme popularity of this ware during the latter part of the sixth century throughout the whole of the Greek world, the explanation of its absence presents one of the most interesting problems afforded by the Heraeum. That the fragments of these two styles found at the Heraeum are of Attic manufacture there can be no question. W e have seen already that vases of foreign workmanship were extremely scarce at the Heraeum, but no certain explanation of this deficiency was to be found ; in the case of the Attic vases, however, the explanation of their absence at Argos is perfectly satisfactory and agrees with the historical evidence at our command.
When, after the reforms of Kleisthenes, the rise in power of the Athenians had driven back her envious neighbors, Thebes and Chalkis, the former turned to the Aeginetans for assistance, who gladly gave it on account of an ancient feud with the Athenians.1 The origin of this feud was as follows : —
Once, in early times, the land of Epidauros suffered through a failure of the crops;2 to bring relief, the Delphic oracle ordered the Epidaurians to erect statues of Damia and Auxesia,3 not in bronze or stone, but of cultivated olivewood. For this material they applied to Athens, ostensibly because there existed no olive-trees in Greece outside of Attica, and the request was granted by the Athenians on condition that an annual tribute to Athena Polias and Erechtheus should be paid. This condition was scrupulously car¬ ried out so long as the Epidaurians retained possession of the holy statues. But Aegina, a colony of Epidauros, grown overbearing through her rapidly increasing sea-power, asserted her independence, and during the course of an incursion into Epidauros carried away the statues and set them up at Oia, twenty stadia from the capital, where a cult to the two goddesses was inaugurated. The Epidaurians then refused to pay their annual tribute
THE ARGIVE EXCLUSION OF ATTIC POTTERY
to Athens, and the latter endeavored to obtain the statues from Aegina, but, failing to persuade the Aeginetans to give them up, sent an expedition consisting of one trireme (according to the Athenian tradition) or (according to the Aeginetan tradition, which is more probable) of a whole fleet. While the Athenians were unsuccessfully endeavoring to remove the statues, they were attacked and completely destroyed, with the exception of one man, by the Argives, whom the Aeginetans had called to their aid. This survivor, on his return to Athens, was attacked by the wives of his slain comrades and stabbed to death by their brooches. The use of the brooch was then forbidden in Athens, and hence the introduction of the Ionic chiton came about. The Argives and the Aeginetans made it a custom that women should dedicate brooches in preference to other offerings in the temples of their goddesses and also passed a law “ ' Attik'ov Se /xifre ti a Wo npocrepepeiv irpos to Ipov pujre k4 papov, dkX’ Ik ^vt piho)v iiri^opiecDV vopov to \olttov avTodi elvaL ttlvel v”1 (“that nothing of Attic manufacture should be dedicated in the temples, not even vases, but that they [the Argives and the Aeginetans] should in future drink from vessels made from the clay of the country ”).
In spite of the legendary character of this tale, there seems no valid reason for reject¬ ing it. Herodotus does not mention the date, but Studniczka 2 has shown that the expe¬ dition referred to must have taken place between 570 and 550 b. c., since Athens could hardly have undertaken such an expedition before the increase of her naval power under Solon and Peisistratos ; nor would the expedition be likely during Peisistratos’s third period of power ( circa 540 b. c.), as his wife then was an Argive. Also the history of Argos shows that she was at war with Sparta from 585 to 570 b. c., and with Sikyon from 549 onwards.3
Now a survey of Attic vase painting shows that the black-figure style did not come to its full development earlier than 550 b. c., and the period before that date is represented by such potters as Nikosthenes and the ‘ Lesser Masters ’ group. The red-figure style was not introduced until some twenty years later, and its finest work falls in the period between the end of the sixth century and the Persian wars. An examination of the black- and red-figuire fragments at the Heraeum reveals the following facts : that of the scanty number of black-figure fragments barely a dozen belong to the better period (i. e. after 550 b. c.), while of the red-figure fragments, which are earlier than the Persian wars, hardly more than half a dozen were found.4 Here at Argos, then, we have a period of seventy years, represented by hardly twenty fragments of the most popular styles throughout the Greek world. That the cause of this is the embargo passed by the Argives against Athenian products in the sixth century becomes a fact too plain to be doubted, and shows that the date assigned is the true one.
Thus Argos puts herself on record with perhaps the first recorded case of an absolutely prohibitory tariff or embargo. That the act was a case of pure spite and not due to any desire to protect ‘ home industries ’ is plain, since no increased activity on the part of the Argive potters is the result. The presence of the few fragments mentioned does not affect the truth of the statement, for if we consider the enormous amount of vases of these two styles exported from Athens, it may be seen that no tariff measure could be so completely effective as to prevent a single Attic vase from entering the Argolid, and as the absence of this ware at Argos must have some explanation, it would be difficult to find a neater one than the passage just quoted from Herodotus.
If, then, we have for seventy years an absolute lack of Attic ware at the Heraeum, the question arises, “ What took its place?” since it is hardly conceivable that no vases should have been manufactured at the Heraeum. Three suggestions are possible : —
it cannot be affirmed with certainty that this type has been found.
A large number of fragments of a certain type of vases (four basketsful) was found, which type, as far as I know, is peculiar to the Heraeum. These were of red or yellow clay, covered on both sides with a black glaze, the only decoration consisting of two par¬ allel stripes of applied red on the exterior, just below the rim (most of the fragments belonged to skyphoi), varying in thickness, but never more than 2 mm. broad. So common was this type, and its characteristics so unvarying, that we soon came to the conclusion that a special Argive type was represented. Any chronological classification is impossible, but the following points of difference were observed. Half the number were of coarse clay, with a very dull glaze, while the other half consisted of fragments of a fine red clay, carefully cleaned, with a glaze of extreme brilliancy. At first sight it would appear that the latter were Attic, but a close inspection shows that the clay is not as fine or light as in Attic vases, nor the glaze as even, distinct irregularities being pre¬ sent in the surface of the clay, under the glaze, both to the sight and touch. In Attic vases of the best black- or red-figure periods, the clay is always carefully smoothed before applying the glaze, and such irregularities are not usual.
These seem to be the only fragments which answer the requirements of our third sug¬ gestion. The Attic influence is plain, through the fineness of the glaze, and it is prob¬ able that the Argive potters borrowed this feature from their Athenian contemporaries. At the same time the application of red stripes is distinctly an Argive feature, and fol¬ lows a fashion instituted several centuries before.
Fragments of the following vases were found: kylix, skyphos, amphora, lekythos, and plate. No vase was recovered intact, nor could any be restored from the fragments, as in hardly any case were more than four or five fragments from the same vase preserved.
Few of the bases were preserved, but it may be seen from the fragments of the rims that Type 1 was the more common. None of the bases found showed any central pic¬ ture on the interior of the kylix.
horse to left, white dots on legs.
Other fragments showed figures of men or women in procession, animals, etc. White is always used to mark the flesh color for the female figure and red very frequently for the men. The glazed band is generally separated from the main zone by a slight projection.
careless.
15. Eye with iris in white, and white circle ; in field, ivy vine. To the right of the eye what appears to be a satyr stooping with one hand on the ground. Streak of white marking perhaps a wine skin which the satyr is carrying.
Fragments of this description were extremely numerous. Quite a number of frag¬ ments were found which showed only a palmette system around the exterior, ornamented at intervals by white or yellow dots.
the Nemean lion.
If the interpretation of the scene is correct this fragment is clearly later than 550 B. c., since the type of Herakles strangling the lion without the aid of any weapon is not introduced in vasepainting till after this date (Roscher’s Lex. I. p. 2197). The form of this vase differs slightly from that of the Berlin type, as the rim is not so sharply defined.
Tripod Bowl.
18. Le g with rim of bowl similar to Plate LXI. 21. Slight moulding on rim, glazed. Two male heads facing each other and a third head on the left. This was the only fragment of a blackfigure bowl of this description.
Fragments of amphoras were extremely scarce. Some half a dozen belonged to the
rims of large amphoras and showed the usual lotos chain on the flat surface of the rim. One fragment of the side showed the lower part of three seated figures. Several bases and a few fragments of amphora covers were found, the latter showing a ray pattern in the centre and an animal zone around it.
whether they were provided with a foot. No other fragments were found.
We also found a fragment of a phiale precisely similar to one in Syracuse {Not. d. Scav. 1893, p. 479) and a fragment of a patera. The latter had no decoration except a tongue pattern (red and black lobes) on the flat surface of the rim.
Two other very small fragments were also found. These had a white ground on which was the haunch of some animal with red dots on the leg. One fragment showed a human hand over the animal’s body. Judging by the style, the last two fragments belong to the early part of the black-figure period.
The following fragments are selected from a dozen similar ones. Their identification is difficult, hut it seems most probable, owing to the presence of the applied stripe in red, that they belong to the class just mentioned p. 176), which may possibly have taken the place of Attic products at the Heraeum. The technique in all is the same ; light red clay, covered on both sides with a black glaze, to which the decoration is applied in white and red. A few fragments from Naukratis in the British Museum show a similar use of white, but the motives are different, nor are the red stripes employed.
exception, of little importance. As far as can be told from the various bases and handles preserved, three shapes were represented, — kylix, amphora, and skyphos. Exactly six fragments of the first period of the severe style were found, of which five are here repre¬ sented. Of a rhyton, representing the head of a satyr probably, the eye, one ear, and part of the beard were also found, but no reconstruction was possible.
clad in chiton and himation.
The other fragments showed the upper part of a youth wrapped in a mantle, very poorly drawn ; two hoofs of a horse clear of the ground, probably represented as galloping ; parts of garments of several figures, and various bits of palmettes, tongue patterns, etc.
POLYCHROME WARE.
Plate LXYIII. Two fragments1 of a kylix (form, Berl. Cat. vi. 224). Exterior entirely covered with a black glaze, fairly brilliant. The original form seems to have been the squat-footed type with a thick base, characteristic of the smaller kylikes with no decoration on the exterior.
The entire interior is covered with a whitish yellow slip slightly reddish in places. The central picture, bounded by a plain circle, represents a group on an exergue, a nude satyr (upper part of head missing) leaning on some object, probably a rock. He has a horse's tail and long shaggy beard ; his chest and abdomen down to the pubes are thickly covered with hair. Faint red lines are used for the muscles of the stomach and the knee cap. On b a foot projecting from a garment to right upon an exergue. In the field of a, inside the circle, E A (ey [pa</>o-er] ? ).
The subject of the composition is not quite clear. We have a group of two figures, a satyr and another figure, which may be male or female ; the circle is too small for a third figure. Three interpretations are possible, — Satyr and Dionysos, Marsyas and Athena (Roscher's Lex. II. p. 2446), Satyr and Maenad. The first is possible, but unlikely, as Dionysos is generally repre¬ sented with an attendant satyr on each side. The second is extremely doubtful, for the object in the centre rather speaks against it, at least if we imagine such a scene conceived in the spirit of the Berlin lekythos (Baum. Denk. p. 1001, fig. 1209). The last interpretation is the most likely, though how the group was represented is impossible to say.
The loss of the larger part of the subject is irritating enough, but the mutilated inscription is still more perplexing. That ‘i-ypafyaev was written, and that the artist’s name followed the verb seems most probable, but what the name was cannot be conjectured on such slight indications.
merates twenty-five, and there are two in the Louvre;1 the number is increased to twenty-eight by our vase. The attitude of the satyr on a polychrome kylix from Ruvo2 with ’AA./«/3id<5?7s «aA.<k is very similar to that of the satyr here, but our vase cannot be restored so as to resemble the former, since no room exists on our fragment for the satyr to hold anything in his hand, much less a kantharos. The style of the Ruvo kylix is certainly later than ours, which resembles more the Naukratis fragments in the British Museum.3 4 I cannot go so far as to assign these fragments to Euphronios, as they hardly seem to me good enough, but I think on the whole that they show his style more than that of any other artist and are certainly contemporaneous with his later period. We may conclude that the vase is painted in the Euphronian style (perhaps by one of his pupils), probably about 485-480 B. c.
Practically the history of the vase fragments found at the Heraeum ends here, for the number of vases of any kind of a later date than the Persian wars found on the site are so scarce as to have little value. A few scattered fragments of Megarean ware, Roman lamps and a Byzantine cup, are all that represent a period of six centuries.
It seems probable, then, that the embargo instituted by Argos against Attic vases was either never removed, or else that the Argive potters abandoned vase-making entirely. We know that for at least a century almost no vases of any kind were made in Greece outside of Athens ; the Attic ware was undoubtedly cheaper and more popular than that made by local potters. At Argos fragments of a later date are so few that there seems no reason for supposing the embargo was removed, and it is hardly possible to suppose that the manufacture of the black glazed fragments mentioned above continued steadily on. For a time, perhaps, that ware may have been a satisfactory substitute, but it is hardly credible that the Argives should always have been contented with it. We must suppose, therefore, that somewhere about the beginning of the fifth century the activity of Argos as an industrial centre for vase-making ceased entirely, and there being no for¬ eign importations to serve as a substitute, the custom of dedicating vases at the Heraeum fell into abeyance. It is also possible to suppose that this custom had declined in the rest of Greece, for with the exception of the Kabirion at Thebes, vases of a later date than the fifth century are not found on any temple sites. From that time onwards vases are only found in graves.
VASES IN RELIEF AND LATER VASES.
Although the vases in relief represent two widely different periods, it has seemed best to include them under one chapter. Two different styles are represented, — the Red- ware vases and the so-called Megarean vases. The latter are practically the only vase frag¬ ments of any kind found at the Heraeum which are undoubtedly later than the fifth century.
3 Hartwig, op. cit. pi. li.
4 The date, provenience, and use of this ware has always been a vexed problem, and only two facts may he re¬ garded as certain — that it is Greek, not Etruscan, in
its origin, and is directly influenced by metal work (Loeschcke, Arch. Zeit. 1881, p. 44). As there is little general resemblance of style in the case of all the frag¬ ments from various places, it is probable that each town had its local style, and that no one town was the manufac¬ turer of all. None of the fragments of this ware found at the Heraeum or elsewhere can be older than the seventh century.
the Heraeum very little ware of this nature was found at Mycenae 1 or Tiryns.2
Pottier has analyzed all the existing material up to 1886 ( B. C. II. 1888, p. 491). Since that date the most important additions have been published by Di'immler ( Athen . Mitt. 1896, p. 229, pi. vi.) and De Kidder (. B . C. II. XXII. [1898], pp. 439 ff., pp. 497 ff., pis. iv.-vi. bis.
1. Fragment of base of a large pithos. Coarse reddish clay, measuring between 2 and 3 cm. in thickness. On the base, a zone of figures bounded above and below by a moulding on which a herring-bone pattern is incised.
On main zone, Herakles and the centaurs. In the centre, Herakles to right naked and bearded, holding a bow in his left hand, from which he is about to shoot an arrow at a centaur advancing towards him, whose hands, fore legs, and hind leg only are visible. Behind Herakles, another centaur to left armed with a tree branch, head and front of body wanting. A cutting extends along the top of the zone, making the lower part of the relief much slighter.
3. Fragment of pithos similar in clay and subject to 1. At the right of the fragment the figure of Herakles is repeated. The attitude of the centaur is slightly different from 1, as his left hand holds the branch of the tree instead of being extended towards Herakles.
If this fragment belongs to the same vase as 1, which seems probable, it must have formed part of the belly of the vase at its lowest point where it joins the base. Thus it would seem that the original vase possessed certainly two zones of figures, on the base and belty, with perhaps a third on the rim, leaving the body undecorated.
Some interesting technical features present themselves. It may be seen from 3 that the sub¬ ject was repeated, and consists in its simple form of a man and a centaur. As the figures were stamped from a mould, it seems most probable that the original mould was circular in form and contained only one group ; the mould was revolved over the soft clay, encircling the whole circum¬ ference, and thus the design was repeated at regular intervals. The fact that no trace of any dividing line between the groups can be seen makes this explanation the only natural one. At the same time the potter might have retouched the groups after stamping and thus secured a little variety in his figures.3
That the three fragments are contemporaneous is evident. Both style and execution are more advanced, than in the fragment from Kameiros (Milchhoefer, Anfange der Hunst, fig. 48), but there is absolutely no trace of any Oriental influence on our fragments. Also the centaurs are still treated in the older style — the entire figure of a man combined with the body and hind legs of a horse.4 Although it cannot be said exactly when the change to the later type took place, it is probable (the Assos reliefs notwithstanding) that the change occurred about the beginning of the sixth century. But it seems probable that Herakles is here represented, though the club and quiver are wanting ; this would seem to show an early treatment of the myth.5 We have already seen archers on the Mycenaean silver vase, but the bow on that vessel does not curve up at the ends as here. The branch held by the centaurs is, as far as I know, unique in its form. We shall not be very far wrong if we assign these fragments to the first half of the seventh century.
was used for both figures. De Ridder, I think, is wrong
in laying so much stress on these differences (p. 458), and denying that the same model was used for both. What differences exist are clearly due to retouching after stamping.
On rim, a round moulding decorated with a series of wavy vertical lines, incised. Below, two raised bands. Directly below the moulding the wavy lines end in a series of dull holes. Orna¬ mentation of base precisely similar. On the figure zone itself, above and below, appear traces of a faint band, which were probably originally like those below the rim moulding. The figures of the zone are much worn, in some places almost obliterated. The subject, as far as it can be ascer¬ tained, represents a lion hunt by men on horseback and on foot.
a. Fragment of rim. At the left, horse and rider galloping to left. Rider holds reins in one hand and brandishes a spear behind him in the other. Below the horse, some animal, probably a dog. Behind the horse, a bearded man crouching to left, stretching his right hand towards the rider while grasping with his left the mane of a lion who is evidently sitting on his haunches. Be¬ low the lion’s head is the head of another lion very faintly outlined. At the right of the fragment, a lion walking to right, whose head is grasped by the right hand of another bearded man, crouching on one knee, who holds a spear in his left with which he spears the lion. At the extreme right of the fragment, the outstretched hand of another figure.
d. Fragment of base. Feet of one lion and fore foot of a second to right.
These fragments are by far the finest of the vases in relief we found. As far as can be told from the fragments, we have one scene — two horsemen, crouching man, two lions, and two crouch¬ ing men, repeated twice. Whether another figure was added is uncertain. At all events, if we assume that these seven figures formed the whole scene, there is room enough on the vase for three separate repetitions of them. This was undoubtedly done by the use of the circular mould (v. No. 3).
The repetition of the lion’s head on a is curious. Either the artist endeavored to represent two lions (delineating the fainter one with a knife), or else, more probably, he failed to secure a good impression of the mould on the first trial and therefore repeated it.
The style of the fragment is distinctly Argive and the Oriental influence more marked than in the preceding. At the same time, judging by the lack of ornaments in field, the fragments would fall in the early part of the Oriental Argive style, about the middle of the seventh century. The execution of the figure is better than in 1-3, but it cannot be said witli any certainty what the chronological difference is between them.
Between two borders (tongue pattern), zone of animals. On the left, the head of a sphinx and a panther or lion ; both to right. In the centre of the fragment, a palmette. At the right, another panther (head full-front) and rear part of another sphinx (wing showing) both to right.
The whole scene is merely a grouping of those animals which the Oriental influence had made popular and which is especially characteristic of the Corinthian style. All the special features, head of panther full-front, sphinx, palmette as ornament in field, etc., are distinctly characteristic of that style. This fragment is the only one of this ware which shows a distinct foreign influence, and may not be due to a local school ; we may assign it to the earlier part of the Corinthian period, i. e. towards the end of the seventh century.
MEGAREAN WARE. LAMPS
between the first half of the fifth century and the Roman times. We have already stated that the embargo against Athenian vases probably killed the vase industry at Argos, but why this particular ware, which is quite common in Greece, should be the sole representative of all the other styles peculiar to this period, South Russian, Lower Italian, Arretine, etc., is a question which finds no satisfactory solution.
This particular style is generally attributed to Megara,1 and belongs to the third and second centuries. The only historical connection between Megara and Argos known to us is that the former joined the Achaean League in 243 b. c.,j and the latter some fifteen years later. This date suits our fragments well, and thus it would seem that as the two states were brought together in the end of the third century, importations of Megarean industries took place in Argos. Why Argos should suddenly have imported this ware is hard to say ; at any rate, it was the only ware manufactured at this time by a city of Greece proper.
The amount of this ware filled about half a basket. No whole vases were found, and none could be reconstructed. All the fragments show the usual technique — a reddish clay, covered on both sides with a brown or red glaze (sometimes steely black) and adorned with figures in low relief, the execution on the whole being rather poor. The shallow cup without handles is the only form represented and the decoration follows the usual scheme. On the bottom a pattern of leaves,3 above a zone of figures and below the rim a border composed of a double wave pattern. Ornaments in field, rosettes, etc., are added freely to the figure zone. Some of the fragments showed no figure zone, but were entirely covered with a leaf pattern. What the subjects of the figure zones were cannot be told. Very few of the fragments possessed any interest.
of the leaves.
36. Original diameter, 0.128 m. ; height, about 0.065 m. Steely black glaze. On base, three concentric circles. Figures very much worn, one group repeated twice. Warrior to right with shield and helmet, stretching his right hand behind him, and a female figure (Victory). In field, a rosette and a tripod (?).
With these fragments the sequence of vases at the Heraeum practically closes, and it is difficult to say whether any pottery of a later date can be detected. I have noted before that a large mass of the rough undecorated pottery might as well be Roman as early work, but the evidence does not seem to be conclusive either way.
About twenty small bottles, usually known as ‘ Tear Jugs,’ without decoration, were found. These were uniformly of a red or grayish clay and differ in no way from the well-known type. Judging from evidence of those found elsewhere, they seem to belong to the second century b. c.
standing clear of the vase as in a kylix. The Roman lamps are rather squat and heavy, with a small opening and an upright projection for a handle. Several of the lamps through the presence of a cross clearly belonged to the Christian period.
This relief is interesting, since it supports the view already propounded by Furtwangler, that
the Dorypliorus of Polycleitus was accompanied by a horse, on ac¬ count of a relief found at Argos ( Athen . Mitt. III. [1878], p. 287, pi. xiii.). Our lamp presents a striking similarity to the Argos relief, but is probably of a later date, as it cannot be earlier than the Roman period.
GLASS.
Fragments of glass vases were scarce, and only one vase could be restored. The fragments seem as a rule to represent low bottles of the ordinary type. All fragments were very much corroded, the silvery surface flaking off readily if touched. A few of the fragments showed a ribbed surface.
Fig. 99. Height, 0.145 m. Bottle of usual type. On neck, series of raised bands. At the back of the neck a small projection, which probably did not represent the base of a handle, as a handle does not belong to this type of bottle.
None of the fragments were worth reproducing ; the majority of them were bases with a low boss in the centre after the fashion of a modern wine bottle.
BYZANTINE.
Fig. 100. Height, 0.05 m. ; diameter, 0.09 m. One-handled cup of dark red clay. The entire surface of both exterior and interior has been covered with a shiny iridescent yellow glaze. Under the glaze the surface of the clay is speckled with yellow dots : the handle is divided into two parts.
that remains of the inscription, also in a light brown.
The drawing gives no adequate idea of the condition of the surface, and tends to make certain traces of letters appear clearer than they really are, while discolorations of the surface, which confuse the reading, are not indicated. All that is sure are phi, and, to the right of phi, a Sikyonian e-sign. What followed is as uncertain as what preceded, for the paint has largely disappeared, and, in places, the slip as well. Traces of at least three letters are visible, but they are too indistinct to justify any conjectures as to the original reading.
It is to be regretted that the inscription is not complete, for it is older than that on the Berlin amphora a colonnette, 1147, and Sikyonian inscrip¬ tions on vases are of interest if only for their rarity. Cf.
INSCRIPTIONS ON VASES
from several fragments. One horizontal and one vertical handle. Diameter of top, 0.096 m. Black glaze inside and out. The inscription, which is complete, encircles the top of the vase, and is divided into two parts by the handles.
Though every character is perfectly clear, no satisfactory interpretation of the inscrip¬ tion is here offered. A close parallel in letter-forms is afforded by an incised inscription on a fragment of black glazed ware from Mycenae (/. G. A. 29). In both this and in the inscription from the Heraeum hepoos corresponds exactly, letter for letter, even to the small o-signs and the narrow four-barred sigma. Yet to change rpv- of the Heraeum inscription to to is entirely too violent, and no other explanation suggested has more in its favor.
The Bronzes which are described in the following Catalogue 1 were found, for the most part, in the deposits and strata that yielded the larger portion of primitive and archaic objects in other materials, and their study is accordingly subject to the conditions of pro¬ venience which have already been set forth in the General Introduction (Vol. I. pp. 38 If.). In other words, while many pieces were found on the uppermost terrace, and still more beneath and in front of the Cyclopean supporting wall of the same terrace, especially back of the Northeast Stoa (III), by far the greatest number lay on the west and south slopes of the main terrace, particularly near the southwest angle of the retaining wall described in Vol. I. pp. 118 if., and so formed part of the rubbish employed in preparing the site for the Second Temple. Bronzes were also found in and about the West and Northwest buildings (VII, VIII), and, to a less extent, in other parts.
Distinctions in strata and periods of deposit, such as are mentioned in the General Introduction, Vol. I. p. 41, cannot be maintained so far as concerned the bronzes, because in their case no strata and very few depths were recorded. It may be said, however, that the general terminus ante quem , which is indicated for the majority of the finds by the date of the burning of the Old Temple (423 b. c.), holds with few or no exceptions for the entire mass of bronze material discovered in so far as dependence can be placed on considerations of style or comparison with the results of other excavations. Any fur¬ ther chronological distinctions which may be made rest entirely on such evidence.
Conclusions as to the purpose or use of buildings at the Heraeum cannot safely be drawn from the bronzes found in them, because the proveniences specially recorded, though including most of the more important objects, are in slight proportion to the total number found — - 604 : 5738 approximately. To this principle the noticeable number of straight pins, fibulae, and rings attributed to the West Building (VII) can hardly be regarded as an exception, because it seems probable — at least to the present writer • —
1 Acknowledgments for assistance are given under the respective numbers in the catalogue, but I desire to ex¬ press here my sense of particular obligation to Profes¬ sors Richard Norton and J. C. Hoppin for aid of every kind, and to many other friends for encouragement and suggestions. Professor Norton’s relation to the work requires furthermore a special statement. Daring my absence in Greece in the spring of 1903, he with the utmost kindness undertook and performed the tedious task of revising, condensing, and copying the manuscript of the Introduction and of numbers 1-1849 of the Cata¬ logue. To Miss M. Louise Nichols is due grateful acknow¬ ledgment for the final revision of the entire manuscript for the printers. I am also under obligation to the editor-
in-chief, Professor Waldstein, for permission to undertake the work and for various suggestions, and to the Archae¬ ological Institute and the Committee in charge of the Heraeum publication for their patience and liberality. Especial thanks are also due to the Ephors in charge of the National Museum at Athens for their unfailing cour¬ tesy, as well as to the late Dr. A. S. Murray for permission to publish the silver pin (see Plate CXXXVII.) and for the privilege of using the reading-room of his department in the British Museum. Finally, I am indebted to Mr. C. R. Morey for service as amanuensis generously rendered to Professor Norton and myself, and to Johannes Papadakes, Texvirr/s in the Museum at Athens, for much assistance in cleaning the bronzes and for many practical bints.
mentioned.1
The bronzes when discovered were for the most part heavily oxidized. In very few cases had the oxidation taken the form of a patina. The majority of the roughly oxi¬ dized pieces (some 3938 specimens) were cleaned by the slow and somewhat tedious process employed by the Greek government for the removal of oxides.2 The patinated pieces were left untouched, together with others in which the oxides had already destroyed the bronze in whole or in part, and a considerable number of pieces which did not seem of sufficient interest to repay the trouble.
A brief account of the method of classification which has been followed in the case of these bronzes has been given in Yol. I. pp. 62 f. That in it the first division has been made according to genera rather than styles is due to the following considerations : (1) Throughout the study of these bronzes their rights and requirements as museum material have been kept in view. The first duty that is owed to the products of an excavation, after means have been taken to secure their preservation, is a convenient and systematic arrangement in a museum. Unless the strata or pockets in which the objects have been found are very sharply defined or clearly distinguished, the arrangement by kinds or subjects is the more convenient. (2) The same principle holds true for the first publication of the finds, because the primary object of this is, of course, to make the finds available to the public as material with which to work. In other words, the first publi¬ cation of an excavation should be a portable museum, so to speak, of the objects found. (3) Our knowledge of the history and interrelations of the styles of early Greek art is, in the opinion of the writer at least, too slight and unstable to make it safe or desirable to found thereon a classification which, whether for museum or first publication, should in its main lines, at least, be, so far as possible, permanent.
In the second division an attempt has been made to group and order the objects accord¬ ing to style and chronology, but the method followed lias been, where possible, inductive ; that is, the selection and arrangement of catalogue numbers has been made with a view toward securing a continuous development from one subdivision of a type to another, and, where it seemed practicable, from type to type. It is for this purpose that many objects have been entered and described which would not of themselves be of any especial value or interest.
of the principal types and objects which would be attributable to them has been given in
1 The West Building came to light before the construc¬ tions east and southeast of it, and objects found were labeled accordingly until the outline and relations of the successively appearing walls became clear.
2 Described Deltion, 1888, p. 228, and J. II. S. X. p. 275. Cf. Bather, II. S. XI II. p. 124. A brief description of the process may be of service to those who do not have access to the Deltion. In a glazed earthenw.are bowl is spread a layer of scraps of zinc. On this are laid the bronzes to be cleaned. They are then covered with water into which about ten per cent, or less of hydro¬ chloric acid is poured. At intervals which should not exceed two days, at least in the earlier part of the pro¬ cess, the bronzes and zinc (if any remains) must be taken out and brushed with a stiff brush, the bowl rinsed, and a fresh bath prepared in the same manner as the first. The
proportions of zinc and acid vary with circumstances, and must be learned by practice. This part of the process may require to be protracted from a week to a year or more, but, if all has gone well, its result is to leave the surface of the bronze entirely free from verdigris and covered with a dark brown deposit which in no way in¬ terferes with the clearness of the finest details. The remainder of the process is brief. On removal from the bath just described the bronzes are put into a solution of potash (avOpaiciKbv KaAiov') consisting of about one part of potash to nine of water. After twenty-four hours they are removed and placed for the same period in distilled water. They are then dried and covered with a thin coat¬ ing of melted white wax. A vigorous polishing with a brush completes the process.
the abstract cited above. As the material for comparison derived from deposits of dat¬ able periods is not very extensive, this list can be considered only as an approximation. Until more material is at hand, the “ Primitive ” period must be regarded as but scantily represented, the suspension vase (No. 2019) being almost the only object which could not well be put in one of the later periods, and even the earlier Mycenaean period offers nothing which could not equally well be assigned to later Mycenaean times.
Under “Geometric” have been included various things which should perhaps be kept apart, i. e. small animals cast in imitation of hammered technique, and engraved, punched, and repousse linear designs, but as the occurrence of figures of similar tech¬ nique in connection with engraved or linear ornamentation imitated in cast work is well known in the case of the large tripods, and the distinction between punched and repousse work is often difficult to maintain, especially in the case of thin metal strips, it seems jus¬ tifiable to group objects of similar style together without prejudice to the question as to the origin of their respective techniques. Where this is done, however, it is necessary to guard against the danger of drawing conclusions as to development and chronology from what may very likely be a fortuitous association. Because a certain type of figurine is found in certain cases in connection with engraved linear ornament, it by no means fol¬ lows that we have the right to put all the bronzes which have linear ornament along with them and thus build up a great class. So at the Heraeum the tripod legs, the animals of style similar to the figures which occur on tripods, and the fibulae with the same style of figures engraved on the blade very probably belong together, but there is no adequate reason for placing the other objects, such as pins, sheathings, etc., which have linear designs, in the same category historically. Many of them are probably much earlier.
The small number of bronzes of the so-called Dipylon style thus left indicates plainly enough the slight and transitory character of the influence of this style on Argive metal work. Such specimens as Nos. 23 and 49, which have linear ornaments, are under the influence of the geometric style only in the wider sense referred to above. We can scarcely speak of a Geometric or Dipylon period so far as concerns Argive bronzes.
As has been pointed out in the above-mentioned abstract, the same is true at Argos of the so-called Oriental style. Modification of design, as in the case of the griffin, under the influence of the Orient, there may be, but that here Argos herself bore a consider¬ able share in the construction of the new type may be inferred from the Argive crater mentioned by Herodotus (IV. 152). The essential qualities of style and technique remain what they were before, that is, Mycenaean.
The space required for the catalogue renders it inexpedient to enter here into a more general discussion of the relations of Argive metal work to that of the other centres of similar industry in Greece and Ionia. While this is reserved for another occasion, there are two points to which attention should be called : (1) The uniform technical excellence exhibited by the Heraeum bronzes, even the earliest of them ; the inscription No. 1826 will serve as an approximately datable example of masterly handicraft. (2) Inasmuch as the bronzes from the Heraeum exhibit the same qualities of design, style, and technique as very many others which have been found at Olympia, Athens, Dodona, and elsewhere, it seems reasonable to consider the claims of Argos to a large share in the manufacture of such pieces as paramount, resting as they do upon a contin¬ uous tradition from Mycenaean times down and upon the actual finds.
I.1 Lock of hair. Provenience unknown. Broken at top. Damaged by oxidation. Straight except end, which curls out and slightly to right. Length, 0.154 m. Width at top, 0.009 m. Thickness at top, circ. 0.0025 m. ; at bottom, circ. 0.0015 m. Height of curl, 0.008 in. Width of curl, i. e. diameter of semi¬ circle formed by it, 0.018 m. Engraved in par¬ allel lines to show single hairs. Eight grooves at top, four at bottom of curl, where they stop just past the middle. Uncertain whether en¬ graving was not carried to end of curl, as sur¬
with two grooves each.
2. Lock of hair. Provenience unknown. Broken at both ends. Length, 0.10 m. Width at top, 0.008 m. ; at bottom, 0.0065 m. Thick¬ ness at top, 0.0045 m. : at bottom, 0.0025 m. En¬ graved to represent three strands of hair ; single hairs indicated within each strand by finer lines. In first strand on left, four grooves at top and three below ; in second, three at top and two at bottom ; three in third. Along middle of each side, a single groove.2 3
3. Horseman. From south slope, southwest corner, 1895. Surface thickly oxidized and damaged. Legs broken below knees. Hands
broken, the left at wrist, the right above. Somewhat overcleaned. Original surface shows around navel and fairly well beneath nipples, on upper back, on forehead, and on inner right thigh. Height 0.1275 m. Cast solid. Figure was rider as shown by position of legs, hands (hole for reins), and hole in bottom for attachment to horse. Depth of hole, 0.11 m. ; direction along axis of body so attitude of figure depended on whether dowel leaned back or was
1 Objects the catalogue numbers of which are printed in heavy-faced type are illustrated on the Plate cited above them ; light-faced types in these numbers indicate that the objects are not illustrated.
amphora from Caere, Wiener Vorlegeblatter, 1889, pi. x.,
two amphorae of Nicosthenes, ibid. 1890-91, pi. iii., cylix of Pamphaeus, Harrison and Maccoll, pi. viii ., and one of Onesimus, Ilartwig, M eistersclialen, pi. liii. An exception on pithos in Vienna, Masner, Samml. antileer Vasen, p. 19,
No. 210. Upright rider with head forward on slow horse
upright. Latter unlikely, as it would have made figure sit too upright.8 Arms hang stiffly ; upper arms about in axis of body ; forearms at nearly right angles to upper arm.4 * Right forearm bent unnaturally. Right forearm from inner angle of elbow to knuckles, 0.031 m. ; left forearm, 0.024 m. Otherwise arms naturally modeled, though no details are given. Hands perforated for round (wire ?) reins. Thighs disproportion¬ ately large, especially towards hips. Knee-caps carefully indicated. Shoulders broad and square compared with waist. Upper part of chest with nipples very full compared to parts beneath.6 * No certain indications of muscles, only faint lines
No. 2.
4 Bronze rider found between Sparta and Megalopolis, now in Nat. Mus., Athens (No. 7549 = De Ridder, Bronzes de la Soc. Arch. No. 860, pi. ii. ), has about same angle at elbow, but greater angle at shoulder : hence hands meet lower down.
6 Cf. Holleaux, B. C. H. XI. p. 363, and examples of extra Peloponnesian provenience, the marble statue in the Brit. Mus. ( Catalogue , Vol. I. p. 84, No. 205; cf. Furtwiingler, A. Z. 1882, pp. 51 ff. pi. iv.), and the marble horseman in the Acropolis museum, No. 590 (Winter, Jahrbuch, VIII. p. 138, No. 7 ; Sophoules, ’A px- 1887,
STATUETTES
running horizontally across chest, distant from pubes 0.031 m., 0.0165 m., 0.0145 m. These probably accidental and due to oxidation. Note that two planes meet at the nipples. Slight swelling of abdomen. Navel slightly indicated. Distance from pubes to plane of nipples, 0.037 m. ; to base of neck, 0.0565 m. Distance between nipples, circ. 0.019 m. Back has no details except slight depression along spinal column. Angle of baek to rump too sharp, thus making hips too prominent. Head high and shallow. Height from chin to top, 0.026 m. Depth from forehead to back, circ. 0.021 m. Width above ears, circ. 0.019 m.1 Face high and well proportioned. Contour vertical. Distance from tip of chin to approximate end of nose, from end of nose to beginning, from begin¬ ning to top of forehead, each circ. 0.006 m. Flat cheeks have high bones. Chin broad and flat. Mouth small, curving slightly upward. Nose was straight. Eyes large, rounded, set in large sockets. Upper lid and eyebrow of left eye may be traced. Measurements by Kalkmann’s system (in metres) : —
Ears about normal, but superficially treated. Project nearly at right angles. Upper edge of lobe on line with outer corner of eye. Top on line with eyebrows. Slight attempt at detail. Hair much injured on top.2 Original treatment uncertain. Bound by taenia, which is visible at back and up to ears, but uncertain whether it
3 End of tip folded under in Nike of Archerinus type, Acropolis Museum, No. 690, as is shown by lines of en¬ graving. For doubtful cases, cf. Francois vase, olvox&v of Cholchos in Berlin ( Wiener Vorlegebl. 1889, pi. i. 2 b), hydria of Timagoras in the Louvre (ibid. pi. v. 4 c), and b.-f. amphora (Gerhard, IV. pi. cclxiv. 1).
passed over top of head or over forehead, and was covered at sides by overhanging locks. Former seems more probable. At back, hair falls to shoulders in heavy rounded mass, ending in flat tip. Originally engraved with fine lines running toward tip. Of this only slight indica¬ tions remain. Tip at end shows tying of ends of hair. No folding either under or over.3 No trace of cord, but trace of depression where it passed. Height of tip, 0.007 m. ; width, 0.008 m. Falls circ. 0.009 m. below top of shoulder. Front of hair formed by three carefully engraved curls starting behind ears and falling backward in a curve towards tip.4 Neck large and thick. Height, 0.004 m. Period to be determined from head, which is more advanced than body. Later than the “ Apollo ” figures of the first group (Thera, Orchemenos, Melos, etc.), but earlier than the Apollo of Canachus at Didyma or its replicas (Payne-Knight, Piombino, Naxos, etc.). Probably a little later, to judge from hair and arms, than the statue at Delphi by Polymedes (Homolle, B. C. H. XXIV. [1900], pp. 445 ft.). The bronze reliefs, Olympia , Nos. 707 (pi. xxxix.), 707 a, are not closely similar in style. Plate LXX.
4. Bearded standing male figure. Proveni¬ ence unknown. Height, 0.0605 m. Cast solid. Surface suffered from oxidation. Arms hangstiff, with hands open and flat, with extended fingers attached to thighs. Arms small, with no modeling. Left thumb seems to show a nail. Length of arms, including fingers, right, 0.0235 m. i, left, 0.024 m. Arms separated from body by relatively large opening which is cut higher on right side. Legs and feet fastened together, even to tips of toes. Toes partially indicated on left foot. Contour of legs fairly good. Length of feet, left, 0.008 m. ; right, 0.007 m. Broad square shoulders. Body and waist not exces¬ sively thin. No indication of belly, navel, or nipples, but chest slightly fuller than abdomen. Circumference at shoulders, 0.047 m. ; at waist,
nos, Thera, Melos, etc.) on the one hand, and on the other from types represented by statuettes from Naxos (Frankel, A. Z. 1879, p. 84, pi. 7) and from Ptoon (Holleaux, B. C. H. X. p. 190, pi. 9). An intermediate or combination type also from Ptoon (Kabbadias, KardA 070s tu>v TXvktuv, No. 16, Holleaux, B. C. H. X. pp. 73 ff., pi. 7), with one curl over breast and two over shoulder behind. See in general, Conze, Nuove Mem. dell ’ Inst. pp. 408 ff., Waldstein, J . H. S. I. pp. 168 ff., Sehreiber, Ath. Mitth. VIII. pp. 246 ff., IX. pp. 232 ff., Studniczka, Jahrbuch, XI. (1896), pp. 289 ff.
0.03 m. Back sliort. Rump high and promi¬ nent, parted by groove, which continues straight down to bottom of feet. Head high and wide, but shallow. Height, 0.0145 m. Width above ears, 0.0125 m. Depth from bridge of nose to back, 0.011 m. Face retreats sharply from tip of nose to top of forehead. Top of forehead seems to form ridge running nearly from ear to ear. It may be a diadem, but probably not. Nose short and prominent. Eyes large, in large sockets. Left more rounded than right. Mouth short (0.0035 m.) and wide. Under lip flattened, with groove near the top, thus making mouth seem wide open. Chin long. Beard mainly de¬ stroyed, showing chiefly in sharpness of angle along line of jaws. Ears large and prominent, set high. Slight attempt at modeling interior of ear, noticeable especially in right. Top of forehead to bridge of nose, 0.0075 m. Tip of nose to mouth, 0.002 m. ; to chin, 0.0065 m. Bridge of nose to ears, 0.008 m. No indication of particular dressing of hair.
5. Upper part of female figure. From south slope. Height, 0.094 m. Cast solid. Figure broken at navel. Arms also broken. Front of hair damaged on the right side, between centre and right rosettes, and the right rosette (not ear¬ ring) is destroyed. Headdress broken, so that original form is uncertain. On right side, lower right volute was apparently attached to the lotusblossom above by transverse piece, of which only stub remains. On lotus-blossom just above lower right corner is seen place where something was attached. Centre of this place, 0.00125 m. from upper right side of flower. On left side, left volute gone. On left side of lotus, 0.012 m. from top of left side is similar attachment place to that on right side. Top of headdress slightly irregular but does not appear to be broken, as lines of engraving of the back piece continue over top. Surface of bronze well preserved ex¬ cept for abrasions. Figure was probably stand¬ ing. Left hand probably held object. Action of right arm uncertain, but probably held some¬
thing1 stretched out from elbow. Action of lower part of figure uncertain but seems probable that it was a free-standing statuette, though it may have stood on a base. Figure entirely nude,2 as shown by indication of navel.3 Style of fig¬ ure archaic of advanced type, marked by ease and sureness of technique. Breasts, slight and angular, ending in blunt and rounded points. No indication of nipples. Body modeled in two planes ; the upper from neck to nipples, lower continuing thence straight downward. Between breasts and navel two broad shallow furrows, connected by similar perpendicular furrow.4 Back without details. In general, body of this figure shows artist’s effort to escape from uni¬ formity and sexlessness of the nude type. Con¬ siderable skill, relatively, is shown in modeling of arms. Position of right arm together with muscle shows that it did not hang loosely, but was probably extended at elbow. Neck full and rather long. Length, 0.007 m. Sharply dif¬ ferentiated from the body. On chest just be¬ low neck is necklace in zigzag pattern.5 Head high and somewhat shallow. Height from chin to top of headdress in front, 0.021 m. Depth from bridge of nose to back, circ. 0.0175 m. Forehead appears low because of headdress, but quite full over eyes. Eyes large, set in plainly defined sockets. Ball of eye full. Upper and lower lids shown. No prolongation of upper lid over lower at outer corner. Indication of eye¬ brows uncertain. Nose straight and regular. Mouth short (0.0035 in.). Lips prominent, rather thick.6 Chin pointed and prominent. Cheek¬ bones high. Cheeks well modeled. Kalkmann’s measurements : —
Bronzes de la Soc. Arch. No. 860, pi. ii.
6 Cf. Perrot and Chipiez, Histoire de I’Art, I. (Egypte), p. 762, fig. 511; III. ( Cypre ), p. 531, fig. 358. Design occurs also on several terra-cottas from the Heraeum.
6 Cf. archaic female terra-cotta head in Acropolis Museum (A Idovcra. E 15w\lcov, case 7? ) , bronze statuette in National Museum at Athens (No. 6576), and terra-cotta mask from Tanagra in same museum (No. 4143).
ANIMALS: HORSES
Ears slightly indicated under headdress. Ro¬ settes projecting from headdress opposite angle of jaw, undoubtedly earrings. If lobe of ear is considered as coming as far down as these rosettes, the ears would be placed remarkably correctly for an archaic work. Head on top and behind covered with sort of wig of nearly uni¬ form thickness. This wig lies low on forehead. From temples it slopes off to the ears, beneath which it swells forward to about middle of side of neck. Hair falls down at back to a blunt point. No indication of tying at tip or of folding under. From top of shoulders, two flat curls, hangingdownward on either side of the breast. Head¬ dress ornamented with rosettes 1 above the tem¬ ples and the centre of forehead. They consist of slightly concave disks, with tiny knob in centre. From this centre engraved lines radiate to outer edge. Hair and curls ornamented with short, oblong punch-marks, except on left side of head. For front hair (forehead, neck, and curls) a smaller punch seems to have been used. Above headdress is ornament of lotus flower and bud, rising from volutes.2 Height, 0.0305 m.
Of these volutes, three remain, of which the two larger are placed back to back. The other at the right curls under end of bar which con¬ nects the former. Whether there was another volute is uncertain. These volutes ornamented with irregular engraving. The larger volutes were meant to be connected by oblong ornament across their face. This ornament consists of a zigzag inclosed by a rectangle, and seems to have been stamped with a concave punch. The
lotus ornament rises above central volutes and consists of bud, sides of flower and palmetteshaped back of same. Bud ornamented by fine line running near edge, all around from top of stalk, and by slight punch-marks struck between the lines. Back of ornament is entirely plain, and rests against nail-like support 3 growing out of top of head, with which it is cast in one piece. Lotus and volute seem cast separately and welded on to head.4
Probably to be understood as Aphrodite with Orientalizing headdress. Cf. De Bidder, Bronzes de V Acropole, Nos. 806, 820, 799 ff., and Petersen, Athen. Mitth. XI. p. 375. For indirect analogies, cf. Astartewith Hathor crown, Roscher, Lexilcon d. Mythologie , I. coll. 652 f. (E. Meyer), the Syrian, Cypriot, and GraecoRoman combination Aphrodite-Isis, ibid. II. coll. 495 (Drexler), and the Hellenistic identification of Isis with Io, ibid. coll. 439 f. Not to be iden¬ tified with Isis, because earlier than introduction of her cult into Greece.
Didyma.
6. Fragment of leg. Provenience not known. Badly preserved. Length, 0.0325 m. Cast solid. Probably of male figure. Modelingsuperficial. Knee-cap appears to have been especially indicated. From appearance of back on the left seems to be right leg.
7. Fragment of leg. Length, 0.022 m. Pro¬ venience unknown. Solid. Left side slightly flatter than right. So probably piece of left leg. No details. Bent slightly at knee.
Solid. Base broken off in cleaning1. Tail gone
1 Cf. Cesnola, Descriptive Atlas of the Cesnola Collection, II. pi. xlviii., Perrot and Cliipiez, op. cit. III. ( Cypre ), p. 545, fig. 371, and head from Cyprus in Nat. Mus. at Athens (No. GO).
zag near edge. Represents mouth of lecythus. Cf.
except where attached to base. Hind legs, front left leg, and nose close to neck broken. Other¬ wise fairly well preserved. Original height, 0.068 m. Present height with base, 0.064 m. Body cylindrical and rather long. Attempt to indicate shoulders. Legs flat, especially near body, where they are slightly hollowed on inside.
Heuzey, Figurines de terre cuite du Louvre, pi. xiii. Nos. 4 and 6 (Rhodes), Korte, Arch. Zeit. XXXV. pp. 116 f., pi. ii. (Orvieto), Winter, Jahrhuch, XIV. pp. 73 ff.
4 Ornament appears to be translation of Osiris crown into terms of lotus. Thus the crown of upper Egypt is represented by bud, plumes by sides of flower, ram’s horns by extended volutes at base, and asp heads perhaps by last upper portions of volute.
Hocks and knees indicated by knobs or pro¬ tuberances. Neck wide and flat, with curve where inane should be. Bent slightly to right. Nose rectangular, upper head flattened. Fore¬ lock indicated. Eyes and ears not clearly dis¬ tinguishable. Base 1 ornamented on under side with line running entire length. On left side of line, tooth-ornament. On right side a heavy zigzag, outside of which along edge a narrow tooth-ornament pointed inward. Near front right corner, small indentation. Front left corner broken off. This animal is of the severe or angular geometric style, marked by long body with angular jointing of neck and legs, crupper rising very little above back. Extreme flatness of neck also a feature of this phase of the style.
9. Hind part of horse. Stallion. Provenience unknown. Fragment. Heavily oxidized. Height, 0.032 m. Solid. Body slightly almondshaped, being narrower at top. Legs flat, joined to body angularly. Parts between legs and under tail deeply undercut.
10. Horse with base. Provenience unknown. Neck and tail broken. Solid. Height, 0.004 m. Length of base, 0.0355 m. Width in front, 0.0135 m. Body short, slightly almond-shaped, as No. 9. Crupper high. Legs long and flat. Hips and shoulders not sharply set off, nor is joining to body angular. Attempt to show dif¬ ference between fore and hind quarters at juncture with body. Knees and hocks shown by sudden decrease in thickness on outside, the inside lines being straight. Body undercut be¬ tween legs, especially at back. No indication of sex. Feet not distinguished. Neck flat. Base plain on top. Below deeply undercut so as to show zigzag in relief, running lengthwise, with field at either side inclosed on front and sides by rim or frame, which is omitted at back. Short¬ ness of body, lack of angularity of joining of legs, and treatment of back mark this as milder geometric style. Antiquity shown by treatment of knees, hocks, and plainness of neck.
11. Horse with base. Found southeast of temple, near wall, 1893. Right hind leg broken. Solid. Height, 0.0445 m. Length, 0.046 m. Length of base, 0.04 in. Width, 0.016 m. Body small, nearly cylindrical ; rather long. Crupper high, joining back with natural curve. Neck joins body more angularly, but softened
2 Cf. Olympia, No. 217 a.
with attempt to imitate nature. Legs small ; shoulders scarcely marked, and hind quarters very small. Knees indicated only by outward bend. Left hock fairly truthful. Tail hangs straight down and is attached to base. No indication of sex. Neck flat, slightly curved along the mane. Ears indicated. Between them ridge for forelock. No certain indication of eyes, but an engraved line from right ear to top of nose, continued on other side to mouth. Joined on right side (of animal) by similar line. A semicircle engraved close to end of nose. Top of base plain, but bottom ornamented with zigzag pattern, consisting of double row of teeth running lengthwise, one in one direction, one in the other.2 Each pair has centre line in com¬ mon. Style similar to No. 10, but more ad¬ vanced, as shown by treatment of neck, where it joins body, and by joints of legs.3 Type c.
12. Horse with base. Found east of North¬ west Building, 1895. Legs broken. Solid. Height, 0.0765 m. Length, 0.069 m. Length of base, 0.048 m. Width (front), 0.0165 m. Width (back), 0.0185 m. Body rather short, slightly almond-shaped. Crupper fairly high, Legs long. Shoulders and hind quarters care¬ fully distinguished from body. Hocks indicated by slight projections with notch above. Tail curves outward and is attached to base. Legs undercut at body, more behind than in front. No mark of sex. Mane not indicated, but there is high forelock and crest, which with part be¬ neath was probably conceived to be covered with hair. Crest undercut above nose, which is nearly round. No mouth or eyes visible. Lumps at side of head are ears. Base plain on to]) ; bottom divided into two rectangular fields of about equal size, each surrounded by a rim. In left field, under hind legs, lion in relief to right with tail over back. Above neck, indistinct ob¬ ject, possibly upper part of a man. In right field a horse to left, moving. No details given, but head and body long, neck short, tail hangs straight. Above horse, a lizard (probably), to light. In upper right corner a serpent (per¬ haps) rampant. In this base and in that of the others, except No. 15, technique is that of carved design (probably in wood) impressed on clay model. This horse is a further development of type of Nos. 8 and 9.
13. Horse with base. Provenience unknown. Tail broken. Solid. Height, 0.066 rn. Length of base, 0.0485 m. Width (front), 0.024 m. Width (back), 0.026 m. Body short. Slightly almondshaped. High crupper. Neck attached angularly, but not as sharply as in No. 12. Shoulders not sharply differentiated from body. (Cf. No. 11.) Left hind quarter distinguished a little more carefully than right. Knees shown by sudden narrowing in front, as though part of leg were cut out. Hocks given in same way. No feet. Undercut between fore legs up to line of body, square across. Partially undercut at back, especially between legs, which are wide apart, and under tail. Tail attached to end of base. On right side of neck a little back of centre, two concen¬ tric circles. Between this and head, traces of double line of dots across side of neck. Close to head similar line running across neck. Be¬ low circles a line of dots which does not at either end come to edge of neck. Beneath it, three other parallel rows. In front, the ends connected by irregular convex line of dots. At the back, first and second lines are connected square across. Connection between other lines doubtful. At right of rings there seems to be a broad zigzag connecting the lines at top and lower part of neck. On left side of neck, double row of dots just below ears. At bottom of neck an¬ other double row. Above second row, a wavy row. Across middle of neck, an indistinct pat¬ tern, perhaps a zigzag, in middle of which and of neck, a punch-mark, around which a small ring. Between right side of this zigzag and lines at top of neck apparently a similar irregu¬ lar zigzag. No indication of inane.1 Nose long and cylindrical. Mouth indicated. Right eye shown by dot and circle. No certain trace of left eye. Right ear has engraved line down centre. Left ear has two such lines. Crest between ears. Base appears to have line of dots down both sides on top, near edge. Between front and back legs, cross of a double line of dots. At back, between tail and left side, double row of dots about 0.0015 m. apart. Bottom of base divided by raised line into two rectangular fields, surrounded on front and sides by a double
raised frame. At back, single frame, from tail to bottom ; none above. In left field under hind feet, horse standing to right with neck, head, and ears fairly natural. Above horse, in field, indistinct animal, showing head, four legs, and short tail. In right field, a lion to left walking, with tail curled over back ; mouth open. Eye re¬ presented by knob in relief. End of tail bushy. This horse unites severe and milder types (a and b) before described. More advanced in technique, but in spite of certain softnesses, clings tenaciously to style as against nature. Type e. Early naturalistic and transi¬ tional.
14. lloi \se. Found under Cyclopean wall above the east end of Stoa, 1893. Condition very poor. Base broken off in cleaning. Legs and tail gone. Solid. Height with base, 0.041 m. Length of base, 0.044 m. Width of base, 0.02 m. Body long ; nearly cylindrical, though slightly narrower in upper part. Crupper fairly high. Hock shown in left hind leg, marked by bend, and clearly defined exterior angle. Left knee indicated by bend and slight swelling. Body roughly undercut between legs. No indi¬ cation of sex ; probably female. Neck attached to body at obtuse angle with easy curve ; about cylindrical. No mane. No trace of eyes, mouth, or ears, due probably to bad preservation. Base plain on top. Bottom ornamented with parallel rows of arrowheads in relief running towai'd back, the whole inclosed by raised frame which forms outer edge of base. This animal is of geometric style, as base and undercutting between legs show. Body, shoulders, hips, and legs are of Type b. The neck is devoid of style and con¬ vention and more naturalistic. The head ex¬ cessively rude and clumsy. The piece is prob¬ ably as early as Nos. 8 and 9, and earlier than Nos. 10 or 11. In view of the radical stylistic characteristics of even the earliest and rudest geometric work, it is better to regard it not as preparatory to the geometric period but as the outgrowth of coexistent naturalistic tendencies.2
15. Horse with base.3 Provenience unknown. Preservation fair. Solid. Height, 0.028 m. Length, 0.042 m. Length of base, 0.0305 m. Width of base, 0.015 m. Body somewhat ovoid in profile : rather long. Slopes from neck to tail.
No crupper. Legs short and thick. No shoul¬ ders, hips, knees, or hocks. Tail descends in curve to base. Body not undercut. No sign of sex. Neck a flat ellipse, thinner at back than in front, joined to body at obtuse angle, with easy curve. Head rather flat. Mouth indicated, but not eyes. Ears rudimentary. No mane. Base of flatiron shape, plain on top. Bottom has one lengthwise line a little to right of centre, also some irregular lines at front and back and irregular diamond pattern at centre. Head, back, and body of free geometric style. Neck shows naturalistic influences. Base probably geometric, although the rude engraving might belong to any time.1
16. Horse with base. From Northwest Build¬ ing, 1894. Bits of legs and tail broken off. Solid. Height, 0.03 m. Length, 0.055 m. Length of base, 0.032 in. Width, 0.016 m. Body short and cylindrical, swelling quickly into shoulders and hips. Crupper high and round. Shoulders and hips attached as in Nos. 10 and 11, but more freely. Hips light as compared with shoulders. Knees shown by bend ; hocks indicated plas¬ tically. Body not undercut in front, but cut out broadly between hind legs. Sex not shown. The animal is shown as looking forward and down. Neck nearly cylindrical. Ears project forward and up. Eyes formed by two holes close together. Mouth open, and on left side are notches, probably to imitate teeth. Notches not so plain on right. Upper side of base plain. Bottom ornamented with transverse zigzags arranged to make double line of arrowheads.
17. Horse with base detached. Found below east end of Cyclopean wall, 1893. Legs and tail broken, stubs remaining on base. Badly pre¬ served. Solid. Height, with base, 0.068 m. Length of base, 0.0515 m. Body cylindrical, but short. Crupper fairly high. Neck attached angularly. Fore quarters heavy, showing con¬ siderable attempt to imitate nature. Hind quarters lighter. Hocks carefully modeled. Body not undercut in front, and but slightly
2 Style not paralleled at Olympia, but cf. with Olympia,
between hind legs. Sex not indicated. Neck flat, but not thin ; only slightly curved. Mane not indicated. Head short. Eyes shown by two holes3 bored from sides. Beneath ej^es and running back are the ears. Upper side of base has row of dots at back near edge, and apparently a double row on right side. Bottom divided by line made by cutting either side of it into lengthwise fields, each of which is en¬ graved with two parallel zigzag lines. These lines produce effects of zigzag in relief, with line of tooth-ornament also in relief at either side. In this figure the freer and more natural shape of body and shoulders, lack of undercutting, and greater thickness of neck are marks of emancipation from the geometric style, which, however, is still shown in the base, and in the flatness of neck.
18. Horse (uncertain whether originally with base). Provenience unknown. Ears, legs, and tail broken. Solid. Height, 0.057 m. Length, 0.08 m. Body full, tends to cylindrical form. Back terminates in ridge from tip to tail. Body long, crupper slight. Shoulders slight, but full in front. Hips carefully marked. Hock indi¬ cated. Cut roughly between hind legs, but not undercut. No mark of sex. On middle of back two short cuts, and three at base of neck, which is short and thick. Neck thicker behind than in geometric types, and has sort of dewlap in front. Head short and thick. Eye indi¬ cated by circle. Forehead between eyes high, and marked by arrowhead over nose. This animal shows no true geometric influence, but imitates nature in manner of early archaic period, scarcely any detail being correct.
19. Deer with antlers, on base. From north¬ west corner of West Building, 1894. Fair pre¬ servation. Solid. Height, 0.0525 m. Length, 0.037 m. Length of base, 0.021 m. Width of base, 0.0135 in. Body short and rather flat.
DEER, SHEEP, CATTLE
Slight rise over hips. Legs flat, and slightly wider at top to indicate shoulders and hips. Knees and hocks unindicated. Legs under¬ cut, but not deeply. No mark of sex. Ears and mouth not shown. Uncertain whether eyes were represented. Horns rise in upright branches, each having short projecting prong near top and longer prong at bottom. Rec¬ tangular base, worked to represent frame, in¬ closing zigzag shaped like a three-stroke sigma. Body, neck, and legs indicate geometric style of severer type.
Type b. Less rigid.
20. Deer with base. From northwest side of Upper Terrace, 1891. Fair preservation. Solid. Height, 0.041 m. Length, 0.045 m. Length of base, 0.029 m. Width of base (front), 0.0165 m. Width of base (back), 0.018 m. Body nearly cylindrical at shoulder. Slopes toward crupper like a cone. Crupper high and pointed. Upper front legs heavy. Hips not shown. No under¬ cutting, but legs well separated. No mark of sex. Neck (almost cylindrical) rises nearly straight, but increases slightly toward head and body. Head broad and flat. No ears or mouth. Uncertain whether eyes were indicated. Right horn projects up and back. Left horn broken. Top of base has zigzag across ends and diagonal cross from leg to leg. Bottom has rudely cut intaglio figure of uncertain significance, around which is a zigzag. Neck, body, and hind legs mark less rigid type.
21. Deer (uncertain whether with base). Found 1891. Condition poor. Solid. Height, 0.096 in. Length, 0.1185 in. Body long and nearly cylindrical, swelling and rising slightly towards crupper, which is long and high. Hind legs are naturally attached. Hock shown by swelling and bend of leg. Front legs drawn up for a spring. Manner of drawing up and attachment of front legs stiff and awkward. Back of front legs are deep holes. Neck round¬ ish. Head roughly triangular. Ear projects straight out, and slightly downward and for¬
1 In Brit. Mus., First Vase-room, Case E, is a bronze statuette of goat from Camirus, similar to above speci¬ men, but with geometric elements slightly more marked.
shows similar eyes and rosette, but simpler. Bursian and
ward. Eyes set slanting, nearly in line with axis of head, and somewhat protuberant. Mouth probably indicated. This animal falls not far from end of geometric period, of which holes between legs and distance between hind legs are a reminder. Eyes probably also in that style. Remainder of figure naturalistic, but there is a slight stiffness throughout, marking the re¬ cent emancipation from geometric forms.1
EARLY NATURALISTIC STYLE.
22. Ram (probably) with base. From North¬ west Building, 1894. Preservation fair. Solid. Height, 0.014 m. Length, 0.0235 m. Length of base, 0.0145 m. Width of base, 0.0075 m. Body short and rounded, but higher than wide, rather flat on bottom. Legs short, thick, and without joints. No shoulders, but clumsy trace of hips. Crupper fairly high. No certain indica¬ tion of mouth or eyes. Not undercut between legs. Hind legs not completely separated. Base plain on top. Below, divided by two engraved lines running lengthwise. Contemporary with geometric work, which is shown by rudeness of base, but rather naturalistic in style.2
23. Head of cow.3 Attached figure. From northwest of West Building, 1894. Condition good (except for loss of left ear). Head solid; neck hollow. Length of top from rim to fore¬ head, 0.0435 m. Length of bottom from rim to nose, 0.0435 m. Attached to slightly convex surface by thin rim at base. Neck of natural shape, lower side representing folds of dewlap. Above, neck distinguished from head by line drawn back of horns, which line forms base of triangle, apex being 0.005 m. from rim. Within triangle are eight lines drawn from base toward apex. Cheeks ornamented with engraved line,4
Rangabe found “ una piccola testa di bue veduta dalla parte d’ innanzi che sembra esser stata affissa a qualche parete a guisa d’anatema.” Bull. d. Inst. 1854, p. xvi.
close to edge around curve, and by seven lines drawn from it diagonally downward. Ear simi¬ lar to No. 21, but hollowed out more on under side. Horns 0.064 m. between tips. Engraved lines on front of forehead continued over top to line behind ears. Eyes set almost vertically. Consist of nearly round ball with oblong lids meeting in acute angles. Between eyes rosette and half -diamond.1 From lower corners of eyes three parallel lines run toward end of nose. Mouth shown by engraved line. Nostrils shown by curved lines at outer corners of upper jaw and by slight swelling. End of nose covered with irregular punch-marks. On sides of nose one row of marks to show nasal swelling and lower jaw. Length of face, 0.05 m. Geometric influence seen in angular lines of head, eyes, and ornamentation. Modeling and style natu¬ ralistic.
Type b. Geometric and Oriental influence.
24. Bull. From Northwest Building, 1894. Legs broken. Solid. Height, 0.033 m. Length, 0.0685 m. Body modeled with skill and fidelity to nature. Knees and hocks indicated. Shoul¬ ders indicated by bands running toward middle of back. Hips more successful, though too prominent. Left fore leg ends in swelling, which was probably attached to base. Hind legs per¬ forated lengthwise, just back of and above hock. In left leg the pin remains by which leg was fastened to base or other object. Tail bent un¬ der. Dewlap carefully modeled. Head distin¬ guished from neck on top by ridge of horns. Horns 0.021 m. between tips. Between them, in front, engraved 2 lines. Eyes vertical, made by punched ring. No ears. Nose and mouth care¬ fully modeled. Above end of nose, two engraved lines cross face. Nostrils shown by swelling and on end of nose by slight oblong holes. The eyes and engraving are geometric. Term Oriental is here used for a certain softness of modeling found in figures of animals, especially lions (cf. Nos. 29, 720, 946), which belong to species which began to be employed after Oriental de¬ signs had been introduced. Neither technique nor subject is due to that influence.3
servation fair. Solid. From behind seems to be cast in two pieces, but welding so skillful that this does not show in front. Length, 0.052 m. Width, 0.088 m. Height, 0.0525 m. Horns between tips, 0.043 m. Attached to convex sur¬ face by triangular plate. Holes for fastening at corners. Around the edges is lead. Short neck, nearly round, but broader in upper part. No dewlap. Head not distinguished from neck, except by bonis and nose. From top of fore¬ head, between horns, hangs sort of forelock : height, 0.014 m. ; width, 0.0175 m. Horns curl forward and slightly upward. Eyes very con¬ ventional, indicated merely by slightly oblong swellings. No mouth or nostrils. No trace of geometric influence. Naturalistic style, but con¬ ventionalized for decorative purposes.
Type d. Naturalistic.
26. Cow, uncertain whether originally with base. Found 1892. Preservation poor. Solid. Height, 0.074 m. Length, 0.113 m. The animal was shown as walking. Body, legs, hips, and shoulders rendered with skill and fidelity to na¬ ture. Knees shown by carefully modeled swell¬ ing. Hocks by modeling. Neck slightly convex on top, full and deep, with carefully modeled dewlap. Horns short, curved out and up. Ridge between horns engraved in front and on top with fine wavy lines. Eyes made with simple punched circle. Over the eyes are swellings of frontal bone, each with two engraved lines in plane of face. Between these, rosette of fine lines radiat¬ ing irregularly. Nostrils indicated by two slits. Mouth closed. This cow shows entire freedom from conventionality or stylistic influence and is based simply upon study of nature. It is some¬ what plainer than No. 27, especially in treatment of neck, and does not show quite the same sure¬ ness of technique.
27. Cow, without base. From south slope, 1895. Condition poor. Legs, tail, ears, and horns broken. Solid. Height, 0.111 m. Length, 0.217 m. Body somewhat long, but modeled after nature with care and skill, as seen in treat¬ ment of shoulder-blades, hips, and flanks. Knees indicated by swelling; hock by careful model¬ ing. The tail broader at top than bottom. Upper part perhaps engraved. Bag large. Neck high and narrow. Dewlap carefully rendered, with clearly marked folds, reaching on right to
LIONS, RODENT, FROG
line between ear and mouth. On back of neck, irregular marks and indentations, possibly of an inscription. Between horns in front and on top of head, engraving to represent hair. Transi¬ tion from ridge of horns to face better than in No. 26. The ears were correctly placed. Eyes consist of two curves, the upper larger, its arc passing that of the lower at lower corner of eye. Ball of eye rounded. Length of eye, 0.000 m. Width, 0.005 m. In front of eyes, prominent folds of skin, marked also by two engraved lines. Between eyes, rosette of convex-concave lines radiating from centre. Nostrils and upper lip indicated and with great care. Mouth closed and indicated by line on back side of face as in No. 26. Distinction between head and neck along angle of jaw modeled without any harshness. Mistakes shown in this part of No. 26 avoided. Animal was represented moving, probably walk¬ ing. Of early part of classical period.
28. Foot of ox or cow. From south slope. Badly oxidized. Solid. Length, 0.047 m. Hoof broad and flat. Probably cloven, though slightly. Above hoof, concave band, running all round. Above this, raised ring around three sides, ter¬ minating in low protuberances, higher up on one side of leg than on the other. Probably left leg. Lower part at very low angle, suggesting rearing animal or animal crushed. Work of good pe¬ riod.
29. Lion on base, to which is attached long iron bar. Provenience unknown. Condition fair. Cast hollow and bar inserted. Height, 0.186 m. Length of bar, 0.134 m. Length of figure, 0.035 m. Width of bar at top, 0.0165 m. Thick¬ ness, 0.0075 m. Lion seated upright, tail over back. Body simple but correct. Hips prominent. Paws heavy and toes marked. Tail indicated by ridge along back. Breast and neck marked off by heavy modeling of neck along line drawn from front legs over shoulders to tip of tail. No mane. From ears to lower edge of lower jaw is a raised ring ; this is flattened below ears and heaviest back of mouth. Ears slightly indicated. Nose and eyes marked off from top of head by raised modeling of latter between ears. Eyes set at upper back side of large sockets, which are wide
1 For another example of this type, cf. fibula, No. 946.
and deep in front of eyeball. Nose short and thick ; no nostrils. Mouth open, showing four teeth at corners. Front and hind legs connected by flat base that hides the insertion of bar. Up¬ per part of base projects over lower, forming sort of cornice. The iron bar much corroded, and shape thereby altered. It seems to have been inserted into some wooden object, such as staff or sceptre. Style in general true to nature but somewhat conventionalized for decorative pur¬ poses. Modeling soft ; all sharp outlines avoided.1 Type b. Purely naturalistic conventional¬ ized for decorative purposes.
30. Mouse on human right forearm attached to iron rod. From West Building. Condition fair. Arm cast hollow for insertion of rod. Entire length, 0.114 m. Length of mouse, 0.034 m. Height of mouse, 0.021 m. Mouse crouches on upper side of arm, tail extended toward hand. Body full and rounded. Hind¬ quarters shown with low modeling. Shoulders scarcely indicated, toes not at all. Head sepa¬ rated from body by low groove. Cheeks full. Ears drawn back over groove in neck shown in low relief, slightly undercut. Eyes round, slightly raised. Mouth indicated. Arm and hand less carefully done ; wrist poor. At junc¬ tion with rod a raised ring circ. 0.004 m. broad, rudely done. Hand closed. Fingers poor, and no nails. Through hand passes round hole in which was once some object held by the hand. Shape of iron rod uncertain, but probabty rec¬ tangular.
31. Provenience unknown. Condition poor. Feet broken and surface abraded. Solid. Length, 0.046 m. Length of tail, 0.009 m. Fig¬ ure worked only on back and sides, flat below. Body tapers slightly to waist, between which and lower hind legs two wrinkles on each side. These form the hips. No details except en¬ graved2 lines diagonally over ends of legs, per¬ haps to indicate toes. Head flattened from back to front. No mouth. Eyes oblong and raised. Round hole pierced through tail. — Much eon-
32. Head attached to bronze tube. Proveni¬ ence unknown. Condition fair. Hollow. Length, 0.052 in. Diameter of tube inside, 0.0095 m. Head shaped like truncated cone, but top slightly convex. Corners on lower side beveled. Bot¬ tom and sides plain- Mouth given by straight line. Eyes of two concentric circles, above which raised lid inclosed by two lines. Top of head engraved with double crescent at back and down centre oblong ornament of two elliptical lines. Space between the parallel lines en¬ graved with oblicpie strokes, giving rope effect. Midway between eyes and end two crescents open outward, one on each side. They are formed of two lines running to edge of top. Mouth round. Head and tube hollow for passage of water, forming small spout.
33. Serpent, attached. From back of South Building. Preservation good. Length, 0.1215 m. Width, 0.045 m. Body and lower neck plain. Nine lines on upper neck. Head tapers to a rounded point and flattens from back to front. Sides and bottom of head plain. On top, four half-circles, turned outward, two on each side. Each consists of two lines. No indication of mouth. Probably not much of original figure lost, as serpent seems to have been intended to project from behind aegis or part of clothing of statue, e. g. Athena. Technique (hammering) and engraving are geometric, but figure is prob¬ ably not of geometric period, but of archaic art.
Type a. Decorative.
34. Head of serpent. Formerly attached. Pro¬ venience unknown. Preservation poor. Length, 0.0265 m. Sides and bottom plain. Ridge along top. Traces of two circles near mouth, one on eacli side. Probably not meant for eyes. Mouth large and open. Line round inside of lower jaw, probably only fissure in bronze. Hollow. Served as spout.
2 For use, cf. Olympia, No. 810 a, De Ridder, Bronzes de VAcropole, No. 558. Projecting protome, probably from ring of support of kettle. Cf. also Brit. Mus., Bronze
35. Serpent. Provenience unknown. Body broken close to neck. Preservation poor. Solid. Length, 0.04 m. Neck and body plain. Head broad and flat and at back stands out prominently from neck. Eyes prominent, set at forward corners of rectangle of head. Probably formed by single ring, over which rises the puffy eyelid. Mouth open. Line round inner edge of upper jaw. Probably work of archaic or classical period.2
36. F rom West Building, 1893. Condition fair. Solid. Height, 0.0525 m. Length, 0.036 m. Body flat, plain underneath. On top slightly rounded. Legs bend slightly forward, are plain, and of uniform size. Neck rises from lower edge of body. At base of neck, hole, for suspension, 0.003 m. in diameter. Head about at right angles with neck. No eyes or mouth. Probably had base, to judge from roughness at end of left foot.3
37. Bird on standard. Probably originally on base. From below Cyclopean wall and above Stoa. Preservation poor. Legs and standard broken. Head and tail damaged. Solid. Height, 0.036 m. Length, 0.034 m. Adjoining legs, but separate, a round standard. It is placed between legs, slightly forward, and comes through to upper side of back, where it is raised slightly above surface. Legs straight and round. Neck somewhat elliptical. Probably had no eyes.
38. Bird on standard. Probably ornamental stud or nail, but possibly attached to base. Un¬ cleaned. Preservation bad, and badly oxidized. Solid. Height, 0.036 m. Length, 0.027 m. Height of standard, 0.0195 m. Round body, like nail-head, with narrow extension at back, which may be either body or tail. Eyes marked by two pointed projections. From eyes, head sharpens to point, in three planes on upper side and one convex plane below. No decorations. Shape of neck and addition of eyes mark this as more ad¬ vanced than preceding number.
Room, Centre Cases C. : circular bronze dish ; on handles male and female figures reclining ; four serpents attached beneath rim, with heads projecting over rim toward inside. Castellani (1562).
39. Complex of two birds, attached to base. Found in bank, east of chambers (III), just above poros wall, 1894. Preservation fair. Base rough at back as though broken. Solid. Height, 0.036 m. Length, 0.041 m. Length of base, 0.028 m. Width of base, 0.0055 m. So constructed that right legs, which are very large, serve as standards, keeping the poise of whole figure, and left legs and bodies so combined that bodies seem to be a continuous bar attached to short left legs ; portions of bar belonging to each, marked by obtuse angle close to right leg of rear bird. In front figure, bar projects nearly to front of right leg. Heads have small projec¬ tions for eyes. Beaks rounded, slightly thicker than wide. Base rectangular. Has round hole, 0.0123 m. from front end, 0.0019 m. in diameter. Seems like hole for suspension, but slant of figure toward left makes possible to drive nail through from right side.
40. Bird with base. Provenience unknown. Preservation good. Solid. Height, 0.035 m. Length, 0.0325 m. Height from centre of base to centre of body, circ. 0.025 m. Base, 0.013 m. square. Body has hole diagonally through from base of neck to front just above standard. Di¬ ameter, 0.0018-0.003 m. Back of body shows two bands of two lines each, on top and sides. Base of head, similar band of two lines. Tail fan-shaped ; nicked along back edge. Head flat but slightly rounded. No eyes or other details. Standard ornamented with three raised rings just beneath body. Below these, rounded swelling. Line of top of base projects slightly, forming ridge, and on bottom is indented square, circ. 0.007 m. on a side. Outside this, another square. Space inside smaller square sunk more deeply than space between squares. First ex¬ ample so far with ornamentation, though form is very primitive or conventionalized.1
41. Bird on standard, probably originally with base, similar to No. 40. Provenience unknown. Badly preserved. Solid. Height, 0.032 m. Length, 0.024 m. Body shows no details, but seems to have had three lines at top of neck. Similar ornament perhaps, at base of tail. Hole in neck, similar to preceding. Standard has nar¬ row swelling immediately beneath body, followed by a wide, full band. Probably belongs with preceding, though shape of head may have been different.
42. Bird with base, which is circular and perforated. Provenience unknown. Preservation fair. Solid. Height above base, 0.04 m. Di¬ ameter of base, 0.028 m. Hole in neck of bird. Diameter, 0.0045 in. Body has prominent breast, but short back. Eyes prominent. Bill long and clearly marked. Standard nearly round. Base flat on top, but slightly hollowed below, leaving uneven rim around the edge. Neck, eyes, head, and bill the most advanced so far. In these points and in short body resembles No. 38, in which, however, body has different shape.2
43. Bird with standard, resting on perforated circular base. Provenience unknown. Preser¬ vation fair. Base less well preserved. Solid. Height, 0.04 m. Length, 0.042 m. Length from neck to end of tail, 0.0265 m. Diameter of base, 0.035 m. Diameter of hole in body, circ. 0.004 m. Prominent breastbone. Body tapers above and below toward tail. Standard circular, swelling where it joins base, which is plain on top, and below, the rim taking form of a roll.
44. Duck. From cutting at east end of Upper Temple, toward the tents. Preservation fair. Cast hollow. Height, 0.019 m. Length, 0.045 m. Body rounded, of natural shape. Wings indi¬ cated by line down back, from upper end of which, 0.05 m. from base of neck, are drawn lines to show curve of wings. Curve of neck slightly stiff and too small. Eyes almond-shaped, slightly con¬ vex, surrounded by engraved line. Bill rather flat. Inside, partially filled with some dark sub¬ stance, uncertain whether core or dirt. Behind hole in breast are shown the flippers. No cer¬ tain mark of attachment below, though less care¬ fully finished. Work of considerable skill. While more naturalistic than geometric, belongs to a period before naturalism became a style.
Type a. Purely geometric.
45. B ody of bird. Solid. Provenience un¬ known. Badly preserved. Head, neck, legs, and tail broken. Solid. Height, 0.014 m. Length, 0.0425 m. Tail spade-shaped. Resem¬ bles more a peacock with folded tail. More primitive than No. 46, as shown by rectangular lines of body and neck.
tion poor. Solid. Had no legs, but possibly standard, through vertical hole in body. Height, 0.023 m. Length, 0.039 m. Diameter of hole, on top, 0.003 m. Neck deeper than wide. On both sides of comb, circle inclosing dot. At base of comb, two parallel lines. Eyes uncertain, but probably given. Each side of tail has two circles surrounding dots.1 At base of tail, four lines of engraving on each side. Neck better than No. 47, but body less good. Probably had no standard, but was a pendant.
47. Cock. Provenience unknown. Preser¬ vation poor. Ring or contrivance on back broken. Large irregular hole in left side of body, showing inside to be hollow. Height, 0.055 m. Length, 0.0995 m. Height of body and knot on back, 0.026 m. On top of body, vertical hole, 0.002 m. in diameter, through to interior. In middle of back, piece of uncertain purpose, perhaps part of suspension ring. Legs about 0.008 m. long. Bottom slightly concave. Body rises at either end in two spouts toward neck and tail. Not certain whether hollow en¬ tire length. On inside, reed or tongue-like strip of metal, 0.0035 m. wide, and 0.0004 m. thick, projects from about centre of right side horizon¬ tally across body. At base of tail, two raised rings. Length of tail, 0.032 m. Ornamented on each side with five sets of concentric circles, three of which are larger, and consist of small round hole, surrounded by two circles, tlie outer fainter than the inner. Above these, a dot sur¬ rounded by circles. Upper circles are fainter than lower. At upper end of neck, two raised rings. Eyes raised. Beak round and tapers to point. Convex above, concave below. On each side of comb, dot inclosed by two circles, as on tail. Between these and top of comb, on each side, five dots each in circle.
48. Cock. Provenience unknown. Condi¬ tion rather poor. Probably hollow, as it seems too light for solid mass. Height, 0.0445 m. Length, 0.0472 m. Body rounded, broad across bottom, pot-shaped. On back, sort of dowel, which seems to have terminated in an eye, now broken. It seems to have been let into the body, not cast with it. On right side of body two dots, each surrounded by circle. Same on left, where between circles is pierced hole. On lower part of breast, to right and left of
Greek and other arts, it would form here, as well as in
legs, two similar dots and circles. At rear end of body, in centre, a similar dot and circle. Straight legs attached to outer corners of body. Bottom of feet slightly concave. Lines on outer side of legs. Two lines on back end of body on right side, run from circle toward base of tail. Similar on left side. Round base of tail on body, four lines, discernible on right ; faint traces on left. Tail semicircular. Each side has three dots inclosed by circles. Lines from base of neck run diagonally, three from one side and two from the other, joining on cen¬ tre of breast. Beneath these another line on each side. Top of neck on right side has traces of three lines. Eyes round projections. Not certain whether originally had comb. Body and legs show advance over No. 47 in naturalism. Neck, bead, and tail as good. Ornamentation rather more elaborate.
49. Tail of bird. Provenience unknown. Preservation fair. Solid. Extreme length, 0.053 m. Width, 0.052-0.089 m. Thickness, 0.004-0.0065 m. Upper side slightly convex in both directions. At end, nine scallops. Per¬ forated near centre, toward base. Upper side engraved with two lines of feathers, ending in before-mentioned scallops. Engraver worked from left to right, as shown by miscalculation for commencement of dividing line between feathers of back row. Each feather divided by quill ; sides engraved with slanting lines. Geo¬ metric influence in stiff angularity in form and decoration.
50. Head and neck, probably of swan. Pro¬ venience unknown. Preservation fair. Solid, except for depth of 0.022 m. from lower end. Height, 0.098 m. Length, 0.092 m. Circum¬ ference of neck at base, 0.096 m. Neck without ornamentation. Head differentiated plastically from neck. Sides of bead concave in region of eyes. Eyebrow projects sharply. Top of bead somewhat concave, especially between eyes, and narrows rapidly from back to front. Eyes, in clearly marked sockets, consist of elliptical ring rising from bed of socket. Inside ring, promi¬ nent eyeball. Projecting corners of head above
PINS: STRAIGHT
eyes distinguished as eyebrows plastically and by engraving. Fleshy parts of head separated from bill, on under side, by depression of plane for the bill and slight change in direction. Feathers on head indicated by engraving. Toward back they are fainter than in front. They are not perfectly regular in shape, size, or arrangement. Bill is modeled with care. Upper and lower mandibles separated by sharply marked groove. Nostrils suggested by bulge. On lower half of
upper surface of bill, on each side, are two or three very shallow, slightly diagonal grooves. Work of severe style, of much skill and care; probably late archaic or transitional, possibly of early classical period.
51. Feather of bird. From West Building. Preservation fair. Solid. Length, 0.074 m. Back and sides plain. Divided into three divi¬ sions, which taper to tip, two outer divisions sloping slightly inward. Three divisions cov¬ ered by cross-lines. Belongs probably to ar¬ chaic period.
52. Provenience unknown. Preservation fair. Length, 0.0838 m. Head oblate. Sides roughly rounded. Head separated from body by shallow groove. Point dull.2
Class a. Undecorated body.
53. Well preserved. Length (as bent), 0.08 m. Round part begins 0.005 m. from point, which is dull. Neck slightly pinched in.
54. Point broken. Length, 0.111 m. Round part begins 0.09 m. from head. Head flat on top, perhaps broken. Neck sharply pinched in.
0.142, 0.141, 0.18, 0.232 m.
1 The simple-headed pins from Troy, No. 4339, Athens Mus., Schmidt, Schliemann’s Sammlung Trojan. Altertiimer, Nos. 6262 if., are not exact parallels to this type, but are, for the most part, ruder and more primitive.
all four sides.
63-66. Similar to No. 62. Lengths, 0.116 m. ; 0.222 m. ; 0.06 m. ; 0.0915 m. No. 63 from back of South Building, No. 66 from West Building.
67. Point gone. Oxidized. Length, 0.22 m. Rounds circ. 0.037 m. from head. Transition plain and abrupt. On all four sides decorated with zigzag.
68. Point gone. Oxidized. Length, 0.083 m. Rounds gradually circ. 0.043 m.from head. Col¬ lar at top of body. Broad zigzag on all four sides.
Collar as in No. 68.
70. Point gone. Oxidized. Length, 0.104 m. Rounds abruptly. Zigzag on all four sides. Collar as in No. 68, color medium.
71. Point gone. Much oxidized. Length, 0.068 m. Rounds abruptly at 0.029 m. from head. Zigzag on all four sides. Small collar.
body decorated.
72. Point dull. Condition fair. Length, 0.168 m. Rounds at 0.117 m. from head. Traces of zigzag on upper part on all four sides ; round part engraved to represent broadly threaded surface ; the threads break irregularly.
3 With this form compare an Italic type with round shaft ornamented with two rings near head; Montelius, Civ. Prim. It. pi. 42, 7 (col. 229), from Monencco near Como. For heads, cf. Schmidt, op. cit. Nos. 6321 ft’., and note 1 above.
CERTAIN.
87. End broken. Oxidized. Length, 0.104 m. Rounds abruptly at 0.03 m. from neck. Zigzag on rectangular part. At transition to round part, three fine lines. Collar at neck. From head rises short point like end of wire ; if due to corrosion, probably not a pin.
88. Broken and oxidized. Length, circ. 0.023 m. Rectangular body with collar. Un¬ certain whether ornamented. Above head, ta¬ pering blunt stub, as in No. 87.
89. Broken near head. Oxidized. Length, circ. 0.038 m. Body round, with collai\ Not decorated. Head oblong spheroid. Small stub of uncertain character above.
CONICAL.
92. End gone. Much corroded. Length, 0.0455 m. Top of head uneven. Sides con¬ cave. Body has four corrugations of different sizes in upper part.
Form 6. Wide, flat head.
94. F iom south slope. Somewhat oxidized. Length, 0.09 m. Head slightly concave. On inside line of engraving from bottom up¬ ward.
Type b. Flat head, corrugated or beaded
body. Head small and rather thick. Usu¬ ally appreciably larger than body. Some¬ times not. Some possibly headless.'2
Form 1. Two beads.
95. Head probably gone. Otherwise condi¬ tion fair. Length, 0.1095 m. Below beads, rectangular block surmounted by low collar. Point sharp. Filed ; color medium.
97. From back of South Building. Length, 0.10. Commencement of body rectangular. Point sharp. Filed ; color medium.
98. End gone. Much corroded. Length, 0.0475 m. Top uneven. Sharply defined rec¬ tangular block with heavy collar. Filed : color slightly reddish.
Class ft. With heads.
103. Head mostly destroyed. Length, 0.113 m. First corrugation slight, with long neck above. Clearly marked rectangular block with collar.
All in National Mus. at Athens.
8 Cf. somewhat similar pin, Montelius, Civ. Prim. It. col. 177, pi. 32, fig. 5. The Italian specimen has no block, but appears to have slight ornamentation of shaft ; Bronze Age.
136. Fragment. From south slope. Length, 0.04 m. Doubtful whether collar should be classed as one or two separate beads.
151. Broken. Oxidized. Length, 0.044 m. Diameter of head, 0.012 m. Beneath corruga¬ tion, rectangular block, on which five engraved lines, and sixth separating block from round part of body.
152. Point gone. Corroded. Length, 0.147 m. Diameter of head, 0.012 m. Above rectangular block, grooved collar. On one side of block, en¬ graved cross. Head grooved.
0.009 m.
Separable body. Head, beads and rec¬ tangular block beneath. Round part inserted into hole in bottom of block.
Diameter of head, 0.007. Collar above block.
162. Pin gone. Corroded. Length, 0.03 in. Diameter of head, 0.0125. Rectangular block with diagonal cross engraved on each side. Above and below block, heavy collar.
Solid body.
163. From West Building. End gone. Oxi¬ dized. Length, 0.076 m. Rectangular block with diagonal cross on each side.
Separable body.
164. From West Building. Pin mainly gone. Length, 0.054 m. Cross on top. Rectangular block. Each side ornamented with three circles, having dot in centre. Pin of iron.
side to side.
167. Fragment. Oxidized. Length, 0.057 m. Diameter of head, 0.009 m. Beginning of body rectangular. Head grooved. Top ornamented with dots in circles, probably five, though only four show.
round hole. Above block, grooved collar.
169. From West Building. Similar to No. 168. Length, 0.034 m. Diameter of head, 0.012 m. Head grooved. Cross on head. Rec¬ tangular block, above which grooved collar.
had ornament like No. 167.
172. Pin broken. Oxidized. Length, 0.065 m. Diameter of head, 0.007 m. Beginning of pin rectangular. Sides with engraved lines. On top of head, two dotted circles.
173. Fragment. Length, 0.0445 m. Rec¬ tangular block with double collar. In bottom hole, 0.002 m. in diameter. Pin probably of iron. Traces of engraving on block.
174. Pin gone. Corroded. Length, 0.062 m. Diameter of head, 0.0115 m. Lai’ge cross on top of head. Pin was riveted into slit in block. In slit traces of ii’on pin remain. On two sides of block, cross.
175. Pin gone. Oxidized. Length, 0.077 m. Diameter of head, 0.014 m. Rectangular block with collar, sharply distinguished from pin. In centre of head, dot in circle. On each side of block, three dots in circles, one above the other.
Length, 0.0575 m.
177. Pin gone. Oxidized. Length, 0.06 m. Diameter of head, 0.011 m. Slit block with riveted pin. In slit traces of bronze pin.
178. From West Building. Pin broken at block. Length, 0.067 m. Diameter of head, 0.0105 m. On each side of block, dot in circle.
183. Fragment. Pin gone. Corroded. Length, 0.083 m. Rectangular block with double grooved collar. In bottom hole, 0.0032 m. in diameter. On sides, cross. On three sides, dot in circle between upper limbs of cross. Traces of dot in circle between lower limbs of cross on one side.
184 a. From West Building. Corroded. Length, 0.127 m. Head consists of truncated cone, with round lower edges, surmounted by low inverted truncated cone. Top has ten-barred cross. Block slit entire length, with rivet holes in lower part. Pin of iron, as remaining portion shows. Cross carved on two sides of block.
Addenda. The following probably accident¬ ally headless pins could not be arranged under the above forms, because of danger of fallacious conclusions respecting introduction of ornament.
of block dots inclosed in double circles.
190. Oxidized. Length, 0.19 m. Rectangu¬ lar block with double grooved collar. On sides of block, cross in circle. On pin next to block, six grooves.
197. From West Building. Point gone. Head damaged. Length, 0.052 m. Diameter of head, 0.018 m. Beginning of body rectangular.
198. Length, 0.116 m. Diameter of head, 0.013 m. Corrugations slight. Underneath, about seven fine grooves very close together.
204. Fragment. Length, 0.0565 m.
205. Fragment. From above east end of Stoa, under Cyclopean wall, 1893. Length, circ. 0.09 m. Diameter of head, 0.0125 m. Block¬ like beginning of body.
Rectangular block.
224. 225. Fragments. From south slope. Diameter of heads, 0.015, 0.012 m. Rectangu¬ lar blocks, that of No. 225 with collar.
Rectangular block with heavy collar.
227. Fragment. From back of South Build¬ ing. Length, 0.128 m. Diameter of head, 0.016 m. Rectangular block with collar. In centre of top of head slight depression, corresponding to place of attachment. First case in this type where this is plain.
229. Fragment. From south slope. Length, 0.108 m. Diameter of head, 0.009 m. Sharply cut corrugations on slender stem. Short rec¬ tangular block with collar marked off by groove.
block.
237-240. Injured and fragmentary. No. 239 from West Building. Diameter of heads, 0.01-0.013 m. Rectangular blocks.
247-250. Fragments. Diameter of heads, 0.011-0.012 m. Rectangular blocks, which in Nos. 249, 250 have overhanging collar.
0.013, 0.011 in. Blocks as in No. 256.
260. Fragment. From back of South Build¬ ing. Diameter of head, 0.0145 m. Block tapers toward top. Heavy projecting collar.
262. Fragment. From south slope. Length, 0.065 m. Diameter of head, 0.013 m. Block as in No. 255. Cross on all four sides. Proba¬ bly also on head.
collar separated by groove.
267. Fragment. End gone. Oxidized. Length, 0.0715 m. Diameter of head, 0.01 m. Rectan¬ gular block with projecting grooved collar.
270. Head and point broken. Length, 0.088 m. Diameter of head, 0.02 m. Three lower corrugations small and separated by shallow rings.
rugations not strung.
275. Condition poor. Point gone. Length, 0.0615 m. Diameter of head, 0.0125 m. Rec¬ tangular block. Corrugations sharply defined.
raised collar.
280. From back of South Building. Frag¬ ment. Diameter of head, 0.011 m. Rectangular block separated from pin by groove. Raised collar.
collar.
288. Fragment from back of South Building. Diameter of head, 0.01 m. Short rectangular block with grooved raised collar.
with shallow grooves between.
291. Length, 0.127 m. Diameter of head, 0.012 m. Rectangular block, separated from pin by slight groove with raised grooved collar. Possibly traces of cross on sides.
Class a. Five corrugations.
292. Head broken. Length, 0.027 m. Diam¬ eter of head, 0.014 in. Rectangular block broken at lower end. Has slit instead of hole.
remains of iron pin. Block.
295. Fragment. Length, 0.0263 m. Diam¬ eter of head, 0.0215 m. Rectangular block with small raised grooved collar. In bottom, hole, 0.003 m. across.
296. F rom south slope. Head mostly gone. Length, 0.03 m. Stem shows above head. Rectangular block with raised grooved collar. Traces of iron pin.
291 . Fragment. From south slope. Length, 0.03 m. Rectangular block with slight groove near top. Pin probably of iron.
298. From south slope. Length, 0.031 m. Diameter of head, 0.019 m. Slight trace of stem on top. Rectangular block with slightly grooved collar. Pin of iron.
299. From south slope. Length, 0.029 m. Diameter of head, 0.023 m. Top of head has row of dots inclosed by circles close to edge.
300. Condition poor. Length, 0.032 m. Diameter of head, 0.0195 m. Trace of stem on top. Dots in circles same as in No. 299. Pin probably of iron.
301. Length, 0.029 m. Diameter of head, 0.022 m. No trace of stem. Pin of iron. Dots in circles as above, and one where stem should appear.
302. F rom back of South Building. Length, 0.0365 m. Diameter of head, 0.017 m. No trace of stem on top. Pin probably of iron. Dots in circles on head round edsre.
303. From south slope. Length, 0.036 m. Diameter of head, 0.018 m. Rectangular block with slight grooved collar. Pin probably of iron.
306. Fragment. Length, 0.041 m. Rectan¬ gular block with raised collar. Iron pin. Bronze when filed showed reddish.
Fine groove on block.
309. Length, 0.0465 m. Diameter head, 0.0215 m. No trace of stem on top. Rectan¬ gular block with raised collar. Pin probably of iron.
310. From south slope. Length, 0.039 m. Diameter of head, 0.0125 m. Rectangular block with slightly raised grooved collar. Pin prob¬ ably of iron.
311. Head mostly gone. Length, 0.054 m. Dots in circles on head. Slight rise at centre of head above stem. Rectangular block with grooved collar, probably ornamented on all sides with dots in circles.
312. Poor condition. Length, 0.0435 m. Di¬ ameter of head, 0.0135 m. No certain trace of stem on top. Rectangular block ornamented on all sides with cross ; raised grooved collar. Pin probably iron.
313. Condition poor. Length, 0.04 m. No certain trace of stem on top of head. Dots in circles on edge of head. Rectangular block with raised grooved collar. Pin of iron. Bronze when filed showed medium color.
Type d. Pins usually with conical head and solid body, of which upper part is ornamented with threading and bead¬ like corrugations, or with a disk substi¬ tuted for a corrugation.
321. F rom south slope. Broken. Length, 0.096 in. Coarse screw-threading between head and first corrugation. Rectangular beginning of pin.
ginning of pin rectangular.
323. Head and point gone. Length, 0.128 m. Plain, coarse threading between top and first corrugation. Rectangular beginning of pin.
Rectangular beginning of pin.
325. From West Building. Point broken. Length, 0.073 m. Threading above first corru¬ gation. Beginning of body rectangular.
threading between head and first corrugation.
330. Point broken. Length, 0.198 m. Top of head rounded. Irregular screw-tlireading be¬ tween head and lower corrugation.
332 Length, 0.208 m. Medium screw-tlireading beneath head and between corrugations. Above upper and beneath lower corrugations, grooves, forming in each case a small corrugation.
333. Point broken. Length, 0.1865 in. Threading fine from head to lower corrugation. Secondary corrugations as in No. 332. Begin¬ ning of pin rectangular.
Under side of upper corrugation flat.
334. Length, 0.12 m. Head to first corruga¬ tion, 0.0155 in. Medium coarse screw-tlireading between head and first corrugation. Second cor¬ rugation smaller than first. Above it small cor¬ rugation, as in No. 332.
335. Both ends broken. Length, 0.104 m. Above first corrugation, coarse plain threading. Second corrugation smaller than first. Begin¬ ning of pin rectangular.
Group ii. More elaborate.
337. Both ends gone. Length, 0.187 m. F rom top to second corrugation (reckoning from the top), probably coarse threading. Second and third and third and fourth seem divided by two grooves. Below fourth ring, perhaps origi¬ nally disk. Between ring and fifth corrugation, a very low corrugation, which probably has groove in middle. Above and below, coarse threading. Below fifth corrugation, clearly marked rectangu¬ lar block, tapering to pin.2
338. Both ends gone. Length, 0.116 m. Un¬ certain whether upper part threaded. Disk larger than corrugation. Beginning of pin rectangular.
339. Fragment. Top and most of body gone. Above disk, four small corrugations. Lower one grooved. Beginning of pin rectangular.
341. Top and most of body gone. Length, 0.045 m. Above disk, irregular screw and plain threading. Below disk, a narrow, then a longer lower corrugation, followed by two rings. Be¬ ginning of pin rectangular.
The following have two or more plain raised surfaces above disk, which in some cases ap¬ proach character of subordinate corrugations.
342. End gone. Length, 0.07 m. Between head and disk, two low corrugations separated by threading, which continues to head. Below disk, plain space, then low corrugation, then ring. Prominent rectangular beginning of pin.
343. Fragment. Length, 0.062 m. Above disk, stem tapers, and is ornamented with convex plain surfaces and four groups of three rings. Between disk and corrugation, similar surface with rings.
344. End gone. Length, 0.089 m. Raised surface close to collar of disk. Space above di¬ vided into three parts, separated by two raised surfaces. Fine threading. Ring above corruga¬ tion. Beginning of body rectangular.
Plate CXXXVII.
345. Ends gone. Length, 0.13 m. Above disk, stem tapers in four raised surfaces, divided by rings. Below disk, plain convex surface be¬ tween group of three rings. Rectangular begin¬ ning of pin, with groove at top.
surfaces and rings.
347. Head and most of body gone. Length, 0.042 m. Beneath corrugation, rectangular piece. Above disk, screw-threading. Rings between disk and first corrugation, and between corruga¬ tions.
348. Perhaps belongs to Class y. Most of body gone. Length, 0.074 m. Between head and disk, coarse screw-threading. Between cor¬ rugations, single low ring.1
said by Furtwangler to be completely preserved.
2 Type found at Tiryns (No. 1587), and at Heraeum tomb (No. 3325); Athens Museum. Possible also that Olympia, No. 431 b, belongs here (though not stated that head has hole for shaft), rather than to pendants, as Furtwangler takes it. With this type may be compared,
to disk threaded downward from right to left. Beneath corrugations, small ring, then rectangu¬ lar block, beneath which round body of pin. Space between disk and lowest corrugation plain.
Color medium.
351. F rom West Building. Lower end broken. Length, 0.054 m. Entire length from head to last corrugation with fine threading.
Six unclassified discards.
Type e. Pins with body similar to preced¬ ing (Type d, Form 1), and oblong rivet¬ shaped head, usually with conical top.
352. Head damaged. Length, 0.0988 m. Length of head, 0.013 m. Pin top shows on upper side of head, which has four grooves on each side. Next head, two small threads. Then convex surface, beneath which screw-thread to corrugation. Beneath corrugation, beginning of body rectangular. Here two threads.
353. Possibly belongs under ii. Broken at base of corrugation. Length, 0.019 m. Length of head, 0.0205 m. Top of pin shows. Ends of head convex and rounded. Shaft finely threaded to ends on both sides. Head to corrugation also.
gations.
354. Ends of head and of pin gone. Length, 0.059 m. Length of head, 0.028 m. Coarse screw-threading on both sides of head. From head to lower corrugation rather fine irregular screw-threading. Beginning of pin-shaft rec¬ tangular.
355. From northeast part of excavation, near Cyclopean wall, 1893. End of pin and head gone. Length, 0.075 m. Length of head,
in general, a silver pin with eyelet above bar, but other¬ wise similar in shape to simpler Greek forms, from Remedello, prov. of Brescia. (Montelius, Civ. Prim. It. p. 196, fig. 13, pi. 36.) Italian specimen one piece.
3 Though degree of preservation is not a proper basis for classification, it is adopted here because corresponding in the main to the material employed, i. e. bronze or iron.
0.0215 m. Pin shows on top of stem of head. Threading of head, similar to that of No. 354. Finer between corrugations. Beginning of pin rectangular.
356. Broken at base of second, corrugation. Head ends injured. Length, 0.037 m. Length of head, 0.0275 m. Stem shows on top. Ends of head hollow, thin, and originally quite large. Space circ. 0.005 m. each side of centre has screw-threading; from right to left. Between head and second corrugation, slightly finer threading from right to left.
Length, 0.019 m. Ends rounded.
Diameter of pinhole, 0.0015 m. Nos. 357 a, b, c, fragments; latter two from south slope. Form series leading to conical ends in No. 358.
358. Both ends injured. Length, 0.025 m. More damaged end seems to show the construc¬ tion, the conical end of stem being covered with thin conical cap. Medium fine threading.
of pin, probably of iron.
360. From cutting above Upper Temple to¬ ward tents. Ends injured. Length, 0.025 m. Medium screw-threading. Fragment of probable iron pin.
uncertain character.
367. From cutting above Upper Temple to¬ ward tents. Much corroded. Length, 0.039 m. Coarse screw-threading. Remains of iron pin.
371. From northeast corner below Cyclopean wall, 1893. Condition poor. Length, 0.026 in. Line engraved on each end. Medium threading from right to left. Remains of pin, probably iron.
374. Poor condition. Length, 0.0465 m. Three grooves on ends. At either side of pin¬ hole, fine screw-threading. Remains of iron pin.
375. Poor condition. Length, 0.042 m. Four grooves on one end, and three now visible on other ; probably had four. Remains of bronze pin. Medium fine threading.
377. Poor condition. Length, 0.051 m. Traces of grooves on end. Fine threading of uncertain character on shaft. Pin probably bronze.
378. Poor condition. Length, 0.055 m. Three grooves on ends. Medium threading of uncer¬ tain character on shaft. Pin probably iron.
Body tends to rectangular form.
379. Much corroded. Length, 0.024 m. Di¬ ameter of ends, 0.012 m. Stem seems inset into ends. Pin iron. This pin is between type of Nos. 357 and 380, but closer to No. 357.
ing not certain.
381. From West Building. Much corroded. Length, 0.032 m. Diameter of ends, 0.013 m. Stem rectangular, with rounded sides. Traces of threading.
382. From south slope. Length, 0.031 m. Diameter of ends, 0.019 m. Stem rectangular, with one side broader than the other. Metal dark reddish brown, probably copper.
Type f. Pins often with separable heads. Heads flat, and upper part of body com¬ pound, consisting of one main corrugation, flanked on each side, but especially be¬ low, by narrow bands and rings, which develop into one or more subordinate corrugations.1
at sides of corrugation. Body solid.
384. F rom south slope. One fourth head and end of point gone. Oxidized. Length, 0.095 m. No ornament. Diameter of head, 0.0085 m.
tion, groove.
386. Slightly corroded and oxidized. Length, 0.091 m. Diameter of head, 0.006 m. Above corrugation, three small rings. Beginning of pin below corrugation rectangular.
387. Head nicked. Corroded and oxidized. Length, 0.083 m. Diameter of head, 0.008 m. Above corrugation, five small rings separated by irregular grooves only apparently resemblingscrew.
388. End gone. Somewhat corroded. Oxi¬ dized. Length, 0.048 m. Diameter of head, 0.0065 m. Above and below corrugation, low ring or minor corrugation.
Class (3. At either side of corrugation , or at least on under side , is rise to sort of ring, falling o f abruptly on outside , be¬ ing beginning of subordinate corrugation. Group i. No ornamentation at ends or centre.
389. F rom south slope. End gone. Oxidized. Length, 0.034 m. Diameter of head, 0.0135 m. Stem projects through head circ. 0.001 m. Di¬ ameter of stem, 0.0019 m. Round edge a row
1 Cf. bronze pins from Mycenae (outside shaft-graves) with flat head and single hall or swelling (Athens Mus., No. 2558). A more advanced type, of ivory, with two balls and double rings between convex spaces, ibid. No. 2608. Bronze pin with flat head with small corrugation, at either side of which grooved or double ring, and simple jacket-efFect beneath, from above the palace at Mycenae (Tsountas, ’E <prip- ’A px- 1887, col. 169, No. 19, peASvr ; xa^Kv
evpndeitra ets r a a v d t e p a a r pet par a ruv eirl rou Meyapov fpeiirlwv, pi. 13). Cf. No. 400. Simple and jacket forms from Tiryns, Athens Mus., No. 1586. The pins from the Dictaean cave published by Hogarth, Annual of British School at Athens, VI. p. 112 resemble those of this type chiefly in the cap. Cf. Nos. 507, 510. Pins somewhat
of inclosed dots. Beneath corrugations, sort of jacket, 0.003 m. in length, rising toward lower end. Corrugations, jacket, and pin probably one piece.
390. From south slope. Pin mostly gone. Present point not original. Length, 0.031 m. Diameter of head, 0.0125 m. Beneath cor rugations, raised grooved ring. Pin stem projects through head, diameter, 0.0019 m.
391. End gone. Slightly oxidized. Length, 0.03 m. Diameter of head, 0.0085 m. Diameter of projecting stem, circ. 0.0008 m. Probably two parts, head and stem.
392. Corroded. Length, 0.052 m. Diameter of head, 0.007 m. Jacket consists of central corrugation, and ring at either side. Probably one piece with pin. Head thin, perhaps sep¬ arable.
Central knob plain.
393. Point blunted. Length, 0.977 m. Diam¬ eter of head, 0.0115 m. Beneath knob, grooved ring. Between knob and ring, pin thins to less diameter than it has farther down. Thin head.
395. Length, 0.065 m. Diameter of head, 0.012 m. Round edge, row of inclosed dots. No jacket. Below knob, grooved ring. Head thin. Two parts, probably.
396. Length, 0.084 m. Diameter of head, 0.009 m. Round edge row of inclosed dots. Edge of head grooved. Above knob, ring ; below, grooved ring. Probably two parts.
397. Poor condition. Length, 0.027 m. Di¬ ameter of head, 0.0115 m. On top, undercut knob intended to represent projecting stem. Be¬ neath knob, grooved ring. Above corrugation, upward increase in diameter of jacket to head.
Neuchatel and Bienne, in Brit. Mus.
2 To this form belongs a silver pin in tlie British Mu¬ seum, said to have come from Argolis. Jahrb. 1897, p. 196. Inscription C. I. G. P. I. No. 508. Added here by kind permission of Dr. A. S. Murray.
Plate CXXXVII. Condition good. Length, 0.116 m. Similar in shape to pins of Class y, Group vi., but the ring development resembles rather that of Group ix. Bead striated vertically as in Form 2, Class -t), No. 511, or Class 6, No. 512. Three rings under head, the topmost being largest. Single notched ring at either side of principal bead. Two rings, or rather single ring with accentuated approach at either side of smaller bead. On top of head, and on under side, rosettes. Cf. No. 667.
398. From south slope. Corroded. Length, 0.049 in. Diameter of head, 0.0135 m. Pro¬ jecting stem. Head and both rings grooved. Inclosed dots round edge of head.
Group iii. Central corrugation has an or¬ nament (plain or grooved ring) at either side. Otherwise similar to Groups i. and ii.
399. Poor condition. Length, 0.06 m. Di¬ ameter of head, 0.014 m. Stem projects. Head grooved. Grooved ring below corrugations. On upper side of corrugations, single ring. On lower side, two. Head seems one piece with stem.
400. Condition poor. Length, 0.035 m. Di¬ ameter of head, 0.0125 m. Stem projects. Low double ring on both sides of corrugations. Thence on upper side gradual rise to join head. On lower side, rise to grooved ring. On top of head, rosette. Groove on edge of head. Filed ; color medium.
401. F rom south slope. Bad condition. Length, 0.031 m. Diameter of head, 0.02 m. Undercut knob on top representing stem. Head grooved. Corrugation large, with grooved rings at either side. Below, effect of jacket inclosing stem, but probably all of one piece.
402. Bad condition. Length, 0.034 m. Di¬ ameter of head, 0.012 m. Two grooves in edge of head. Ring on either side of coiTugation. Uncertain whether corrugation and rings are one piece with stem. Head possibly separate, in which case projecting knob goes with it.
403. Bad condition. Length, circ. 0.083 m. Diameter of head, 0.008 m. Stem projects. Edtre of head orooved. Ring on either side of corrugation. Stem on both sides of corrugation smaller than beginning of pin. Beneath corru¬ gation, double-grooved ring. Head perhaps sep¬ arate. Rest of one piece.
404. Length, 0.088 m. Diameter of head, 0.0095 m. Small knob on top of head. Edge of head grooved. On either side of corrugation, grooved ring, of one piece with corrugation. Grooved ring beneath head. Below corrugation, two rings. Lower slightly larger and grooved. Head perhaps separate. Rest perhaps one piece. Waist in stem above and below corru¬ gation.
2 Cf. pin from Megara Ilyblaea, published by Orsi,
of head, 0.0125 m. Grooved. Knob small. Grooved ring on either side of corrugation and joined to it. Beneath head, small swelling. Below corrugation, two rings, upper larger and grooved. Head perhaps separate. Rest of one piece.
406. From south slope. Head broken. Length, 0.0975 m. At top, a disk. Beneath, grooved ring, divided by low ridge around centre.1
Class y. Central corrugation ornamented at side. Under head, one or more rings, sometimes thick enough for a subordinate corrugation. Beneath main corrugation, subordinate one, of varying size, flanked by a ring, which may or may not be grooved at either side.
Group i. Much elongated. Two rings under head. Lower corrugation nar¬ row, resembling more prominent ring ; flanked at either side by single ring.
407. Condition poor. Length, 0.099 m. Diameter of head, 0.012 m. Edge grooved. Knob on top undercut. Under head, grooved ring. Single ring either side of corrugation. Parts are head with knob, stem, and jacket.
408. Poor condition. Length, 0.0915 m. Di¬ ameter of head, 0.0165 m. Thin. Knob under¬ cut. Jacket probably separable. Lower of rings beneath head and ring just above corrugation are ends of same piece of bronze. So also the ring at under side of corrugation and that above lower corrugation ring. Knob goes with head. Remainder looks as though strung separately on stem, but probably one piece, except perhaps head and knob.2
409. Poor condition. Length, 0.104 m. Di¬ ameter of head, 0.015 m. No knob. Seems to have same parts as No. 408, but more crowded and probably all of one piece (i. e. all parts of jacket). Lowest ring plain. Filing on broken head showed no lines of separation. Parts probably head, jacket, stem, pin.
Group ii. Elongated jacket ; like pre¬ ceding, but more elaborate, and with more rings under head or about lower corrugation.
410. From south slope. Pin gone. Corroded. Length, 0.028 m. Diameter of head, 0.0135 m. Knob low and undercut. Resembles No. 409,
but second ring from top and rings on either side of head grooved. Broad secondary corrugation with raised ring in centre and grooved ring on either side. Filing showed color medium. Prob¬ ably all one piece except perhaps head and knob.
piece.
412. Poor condition. Length, 0.083 m. Di¬ ameter of head, 0.0127 m. Knob small and undercut. Head thin. Similar to Nos. 408-411, but more elaborate and finished. Jacket divided into six parts. Pin probably one piece.
413. Condition poor. Length, 0.043 m. Di¬ ameter of head, 0.023 m. Knob low. Similar to No. 412. At top of stem, however, three rings. Bead and lower connecting block one piece. Probable that grooved ring at lower end of upper connecting block belongs with it. Cer¬ tainly belongs with bead. Filing showed core yellow, with redder metal outside. This per¬ haps due to oxidation. Jacket, except lowest ring, probably one piece, and no separate stem running through. Head thin ; knob probably end of stem. Rosette on top of head.
414. Condition poor. Length, 0.067 m. Di¬ ameter of head, 0.015 m. Knob undercut. Sim¬ ilar to No. 412. Divided by slightly deeper grooves into upper connecting block with both rings, bead, lower connecting block with both rings, lower corrugation, grooved ring, plain ring. Pin probably one piece, except perhaps head and knob.
and jacket of one piece.
416. Length, 0.074 m. Diameter of head, 0.0125 m. Undercut, low knob. Head grooved on edge. Ring beneath head and at either side of bead vertically notched. A slightly larger similar ring forms lower corrugation. Beneath this, grooved ring, then smaller notched ring. Pin probably solid, except perhaps head and knob. Parts mentioned separated by clearly marked grooves. Lowest ring goes with pin.
Group iii. Central corrugation plain, with ring on each side. Just under head, a single ring. Corrugations plain. Rings small. Lower corrugation usually nar¬ row and with ring on each side.
knob.1
418. Condition poor. Length, 0.039 m. Di¬ ameter of head, 0.023 m. Small knob. Pin of one piece and head as in No. 417. Possibly, but improbably, from same factory as No. 417.
419. Length, circ. 0.135 m. Diameter of head, 0.019 m. Knob not undercut, and very possibly genuine stem. Lower corrugation only a heavy ring. Pin and head as No. 417.
420. Condition poor. Length, 0.037 m. Di¬ ameter of head, 0.02 m. Low, undercut knob. Undercut effect perhaps due to hammering. Pin and head as in No. 417. Very possibly from same factory as No. 419.
421. From back of South Building. Pin broken. Length, 0.028 m. Diameter of head, 0.0205 m. Knob small and undercut. Similar to No. 420, except ring above corrugation is grooved. Edge of head grooved. Pin and head as No. 417.
423. Bad condition. Length, 0.024 m. Di¬ ameter of head, 0.019 m. Similar to No. 421. Filing showed medium light color.
Similar to No. 421.
425. From south slope. Condition bad. Length, 0.0375 m. Diameter of head, 0.0195 m. Similar to No. 424, and possibly from same fac¬ tory.
ter of head, 0.0205 m. Similar to No. 425.
427. Pin gone. Length, 0.041 m. Diameter of head, 0.018 m. Upper four rings belong structurally to connecting blocks. Upper ring of each pair the larger. Pin and head as before.
especially at top.
429. Pin gone. Condition bad. Length. 0.025 m. Diameter of head, 0.017 m. Edge of head grooved. Head probably separate and knob part of stem.
slightly undercut. Row of dotted circles round top of head. Edge grooved. Lowest two rings rope-threaded. Pin and head as in No. 417.
431. End gone. Length, 0.0535 in. Diame¬ ter of head, 0.018 m. Rim on top of head slightly raised. Edge has two grooves. Pin and head as in No. 417.
0.051 m. Diameter of head, 0.0155 m.
434. Pin mostly gone. Length, 0.029 m. Diameter of head, 0.015 m. Edge of head has three grooves. Lowest ring forms top of pin.
435. Condition poor. Length, 0.0355 m. Di¬ ameter of head, 0.0175 m. Edge of head grooved. Looks as though the parts were, (1) head, (2) knob, (3) stem and pin with grooved ring, and (4) rings with corrugation, but possibly whole pin of one piece.
436. P in gone. Length, 0.025 m. Diameter of head, 0.022 m. Edge of head has raised band in centre. Looks separable like No. 435, but probably as in No. 417. Possibly from same factory as No. 435.
437. Condition poor. Length, 0.0285 m. Diameter of head, 0.0125 m. (corroded). Edges of upper four rings had vertical lines. Whole pin probably one piece.
438. Most of head and pin gone. Length, 0.032 m. Diameter of head, 0.003 m. Filing showed color medium. Pin as in No. 437.
439. End gone. Length, 0.058 m. Diame¬ ter of head, 0.019 m. Edge of head has two grooves. Pin looks separable, into (1) head, (2) upper pair of rings, (3) lower pair, (4) cor¬ rugations, (5) lowest ring, (6) stem, knob, and pin, but probably all one piece.
440. 1 >in gone. Length, 0.03 m. Diameter of head, 0.0245 m. Edge of head has two bands. Only one ring above upper corrugation. Filing showed iron pin. Color of bronze medium. Head, knob, and jacket probably one piece.
441. I length, 0.113 m. Diameter of head, 0.018 in. Head thin, outer rim slightly raised on to]). Five rings. Top one separated from head by shallow groove. Pin probably one piece.
1 Very similar to pin from Lusi, Jahreshefle,
442. End gone. Length, 0.0855 m. Di¬ ameter of head, 0.021 m. Edge of head grooved. Rings at either side of main corrugation grooved. Pin and head as in No. 417.
443. Most of pin gone. Length, 0.037 m. Diameter of head, 0.0235 m. Row of dots near edge on top of head. Edge of head grooved. Corrugations larger than in No. 442, but arrange¬ ment similar. Both probably from one factory.
but with two rings just under head.
444. From south slope. End gone. Length, 0.075 m. Diameter of head, 0.015 m. Raised rim round upper edge of head. Grooved ring beneath head. Below main corrugation, shaft smaller than at beginning of pin. Pin and head as in No. 417.1
445. Pin gone. Length, 0.024 m. Diameter of head, 0.0185 m. Edge of head grooved. Beneath, two rings, the upper one being the larger. Filing showed color medium light. Pin and head as in No. 417.
446. End gone. Length, 0.045 m. Diameter of head, 0.016 m. Slight rim round top of head. Edge of head grooved. Rings beneath head as in No. 445. Pin and head as in No. 417.
447. End gone. Condition poor. Length, 0.045 m. Diameter of head, 0.016 m. Slight rim on top of head. Two grooves round edge of head. Ring nearest head largest. Pin proba¬ bly one piece.
448. Point gone. Condition poor. Length, 0.095 m. Diameter of head, 0.014 m. Top ring largest. Lowest ring goes with pin. Head and pin as in No. 417.
449. Condition poor. End gone and most of head. Length, 0.045 m. Rings beneath head as in No. 446. Filing showed color me¬ dium light. Whole pin probably one piece.
450. Condition poor. Length, 0.0315 m. Diameter of head, 0.0165 m. Rim round top side of head. Raised band round centre of edge of head. Head and pin as in No. 417. Perhaps from same factory as No. 449.
451. End gone. Length, 0.05 m. Diameter of head, 0.0195 m. Edge grooved. Conical knob. Rim (raised) round edge top side of head. En¬ tire pin probably one piece.
452. End gone. Condition poor. Length, 0.05 m. Diameter of head, 0.0195 m. Traces of groove on edge of head. Pin and head as in No. 417.
453. From south slope. End gone. Condi¬ tion poor. Length, 0.042 m. Diameter of head, 0.0175 m. Knob high and undercut. Edge of head grooved. Pin and head as in No. 417.
Group vii. Similar to Group vi., hut with apparently compound jacket, caused by deeper grooves between the parts ; perhaps all from one factory.
454. Most of pin and head gone. Length, 0.029 m. Diameter of head, 0.019 m. Edge of head grooved. Top ring closely attached to head. This pin differs from preceding class only in greater depth of groove. Pin and head as in No. 417.
455. End gone. Length, 0.049 m. Diameter of head, 0.022 m. Raised rim round top side of head. Raised band round edge of head. Rings similar to No. 454. First and third from top about equal and larger than others. Lowest three rings smaller than second. Pin and head as in No. 417.
456. Fragment. Length, 0.02 m. Diameter of head, 0.023 m. Slight raised rim around top of head. Edge of head grooved. Seems separa¬ ble into (1) head, (2) three rings with connect¬ ing parts., (3) corrugation, (4) ring, (5) stem and knob, but probably as in No. 417.
Group viii. Similar to Group v., but with grooved rings just under head, the upper one being largest. Probably from same factory as Group v.
457. End gone. Length, 0.0685 m. Diame¬ ter of head, 0.017 in. All parts separated by slight grooves. Entire pin probably one piece.
The following have two rings under main corrugation and two at each side of lower cor¬ rugation, and are very probably from same factory.
459. End gone. Condition poor. Length, 0.0505 m. Diameter of head, 0.0235 m. Edge of head grooved. Raised rim on upper side. Rings next to corrugation grooved. Pin and head as in No. 417.
460. End gone. Length, 0.062 in. Diameter of head, 0.021 m. Considerable raised rim on top of head. Edge of head has two grooves.
461. F rom back of South Building. End gone. Length, 0.0635 m. Diameter of head, 0.0228 m. Raised rim round top of head. Edge of head probably grooved. Head trifle thinner
than in No. 460.
Group ix. Two or more narrow sharply cut rings just under head, and two sim¬ ilar rings on one or both sides of either or both corrugations.
462. Length, 0.138 m. Diameter of head, 0.015 m. Slight raised rim round head. Edge of head grooved. Above each corrugation, grooved ring. Beneath, plain ring. Pin and head as in No. 417.
463. End gone. Condition poor. Length, 0.076 m. Diameter of head, 0.02 m. Edge of head grooved. Grooved ring just beneath head. Smaller grooved rings, one at either side of each corrugation. Parts crowded together. Pin and head as in No. 417.
464. Most of pin gone. Length, 0.027 m. Diameter of head, 0.016 m. Slight raised rim round top of head. Beneath head, four rings, or one ring with three grooves. Grooved ring either side of main corrugation. Plain ring either side of lower corrugation. Whole pin probably one piece.
465. Condition poor. End and most of head gone. Length, 0.0555 m. Grooved ring either side of main corrugation and on upper side lower corrugation. Ring on lower side lower corruga¬ tion probably simple. Filing showed color me¬ dium light. Whole pin one piece.
centre of main corrugation.
466. Pin mainly gone and about one fourth of head. Length, 0.034 m. Diameter of head, 0.0235 m. Head thin. Pin and head as in No. 417.
467. F 'rom south slope. Most of pin and lower corrugation gone. Length, 0.044 m. Diameter of head, 0.0219 m. Slight raised rim on head. Edge of head, two grooves. Similar to No. 466. Possibly from same factory, though heads of dif¬ ferent style.
468. Point gone. Length, 0.098 m. Diame¬ ter of head, 0.017 m. Slight raised rim round head. Head rather thin. Whole pin probably one piece.
469. From back of South Building. Point gone. Corroded. Length, 0.148 m. Diameter of head, 0.021 m. Small ring above corruga-
tions. All grooves shallow, except that next to head, which is of moderate depth. Slight raised rim around head. Edge of head has two grooves. Traces of groove round centre of lower corruga¬ tion. Pin probably one piece.
470. From West Building. Most of pin gone. Condition poor. Length, 0.0405 m. Di¬ ameter of head, 0.021 m. Slight raised rim. Traces of two grooves round edge of head. Up¬ per corrugation has three grooves. Separating grooves all rather shallow. Pin and head as in No. 417.
471. Most of pin gone. Condition poor. Length, 0.0415 m. Diameter of head, 0.023 m. Possible traces of groove on edge of head. Also of raised rim. Main corrugation has raised grooved band. Lower corrugation plain. Pin and head as in No. 417.
472. From back of South Building. End gone. Condition poor. Length, 0.0465 m. Di¬ ameter of head, 0.025 m. Slight raised rim. Edge grooved. Upper corrugation has raised grooved band. Lower corrugation plain. Head and pin as in No. 417.
473. End gone. Length, 0.0525 in. Diame¬ ter of head, 0.025 m. Raised rim round head. Two grooves in edge of head. Upper corruga¬ tion has raised band with two grooves. Lower corrugation has raised band with one groove. All rings have fine rope-threading. Pin and head as in No. 417.
474. End gone. Condition poor. Length, 0.0965 m. Diameter of head, 0.0205 m. Raised rim around head, which has two grooves round edge. Upper corrugation with raised grooved band. Lower corrugation plain. Ring beneath head has fine oblique threading. Grooved ring at either side of secondary corrugation. Pin and head as in No. 417.
475. End and part of head gone. Length, 0.057 m. Diameter of head, 0.023 m. Rather high knob. Grooves shallow. Raised grooved band around main corrugation. Lower corruga¬ tion plain. Pin and head as in No. 417.
Group xii. Similar to Groups vi. and x.
476. From south slope. Most of pin gone. Length, 0.027 m. Diameter of head, 0.0175 m. Groove round edge of head. About centre of corrugation narrow raised band. All grooves shallow. Head and pin as in No. 417.
477. End gone. Length, 0.048 m. Diameter of head, 0.019 in. Rounded knob. Edge of head grooved. Three rings between head and cor¬
Grooves shallow. Pin and head as in No. 417.
478. End gone. Length, 0.06 m. Diameter of head, 0.022 m. Flat undercut knob. Top of head slightly concave. Edge grooved. Corru¬ gation has narrow raised band. Lower corruga¬ tion plain. Grooves plain but not deep. Pin and head as in No. 417.
vii., and xi.
479. End gone. Head abraded. Length, 0.0365 m. Diameter of head, 0.0155 m. Low rounded knob, slightly undercut. Main corru¬ gation with prominent raised grooved band. All grooves shallow. Pin and head as in No. 417.
480. End gone. Condition poor. Length, 0.058 m. Diameter of head, 0.0185 m. Low rounded knob. Edge of head grooved. Both corrugations have raised grooved band. All grooves shallow. Head and pin as in No. 417.
Group xiv. Two rings just beneath head. One or two rings at each side of the corrugations. Raised grooved band which may also ornament the lower corrugation.
481. Pin gone. Condition poor. Length, 0.0315 m. Diameter of head, 0.0175 m. Low knob. Top of head slightly concave. Edge of head grooved. Lower corrugation with band, with trace of groove. Grooves all shallow. Pin and head as in No. 417.
482. From back of South Building. Condi¬ tion poor. Length, 0.032 m. Diameter of head, 0.0165 m. Rim of head raised. Grooved ring beneath head and at either side of each corruga¬ tion. Pin and head as in No. 417.
483. Condition poor. Length, 0.0435 m. Diameter of head, 0.0165 m. Low knob. Lower corrugation plain. Grooved ring at either side of both corrugations. Pin and head as in No. 417.
484. From south slope. End gone. Length, 0.065 m. Diameter of head, 0.0225 m. Knob flat. Top of head slightly concave. Edge of head has two grooves. Between head and cor¬ rugation three rings. Each corrugation has two raised rings. Pin and head as in No. 417.
485. Point damaged. Head half gone. Length, 0.0915m. Diameter of head, 0.0185 m. Rounded undercut knob. Each corrugation has raised grooved band. Filing showed color medium light.
Group xv. Three rings of unequal size beneath head. Single ring at each side of corrugations. Grooved band on main corrugation and sometimes on lower one.
486. Most of pin gone. Condition poor. Length, 0.036 m. Diameter of head, 0.0205 in. Low undercut knob. Edge of head grooved. First two rings beneath head larger than third. Lower corrugation plain. Pin and head as in No. 417.
487. End gone. Length, 0.108 m. Diame¬ ter of head, 0.0219 m. Low undercut knob. Rim of head raised. Edge of head grooved. Lower corrugation plain. Pin and head as in No. 417.]
488. From West Building. Length, 0.175 m. Diameter of head, 0.0295 m. Slight raised rim. Rather high round knob. Raised grooved bands on both corrugations. Whole pin probably one piece.
489. Point and part of neck gone. Length, 0.023 m. Diameter of head, 0.022 m. Low undercut knob. Rim of head raised. Edge of head grooved. Single ring beneath head and at either side of main corrugation. Head and pin as in No. 417.
490. End gone. Length, 0.075 m. Diameter of head, 0.021 m. Round undercut knob. Rim of head raised. Edge of head has raised band, with fine threading. Main corrugation has raised, double-grooved band. Lower corruga¬ tion has raised grooved band. Beneath head thick, broad ring with vertical threading. Single ring, with threading on each side of each corru¬ gation. Grooves shallow. Pin and head as in No. 417. Cf. Group viii.
AND USUALLY THICK.
Class a. Two plain corrugations with single ring at either side of each. Two grooves wider head. Represented only by No. 491.
491. Head gone. Length, 0.151 m. Rec¬ tangular knob at top for insertion into head. Groove near ring. Whole fragment probably one piece, though possibly pin inserted.
2 Cf. archaic Greek pin with three plain knobs, of
Class ft- Two large rather thin corruga¬ tions , with clearly defined, ring at either side tending to he completely separated, from corrugations. Mingle similar ring under head.
492. From West Building. End gone. Length, 0.065 m. Diameter of head, 0.018 m. Low slightly undercut knob. Edge of head lias two grooves. Rim of head raised. Rings and corrugations plain. Pin and head as in No. 417.
493. F rom West Building. End gone. Length, 0.0725 m. Diameter of head, 0.0275 in. Knob rather high and undercut. Edge of head has two grooves; rim raised. Two rings be¬ neath lower corrugation. Lowest ring and ring above each corrugation and band between grooves on edge of head have fine oblique thread¬ ing. Pin seems to be inserted in jacket, which seems of one piece with head, but this not cer¬ tain. Possibly from same factory as No. 492.
494. Pin gone. Length, 0.0385 in. Diameter of head, 0.031 in. Rather high undercut knob. Edge of head has two grooves ; rim raised. Top of head decorated with two bands of curved meander pattern, separated by band of circles. Rings and band between grooves on edge of head obliquely threaded. Head and jacket seem one piece. Pin probably of iron.
tion and head.
495. Fragment of top. Length, 0.024 m. Diameter of head, 0.034 m. High undercut knob with three grooves. Edge of head has raised band ; rim raised. Filing showed stem to be of separate piece from jacket.
Group ii. Single small ring beneath head.
496. Pin gone. Length, 0.048 m. Diameter of head, 0.044 m. Rim of head raised : edge grooved. Two rings between corrugations. Pin of bronze, probably inserted. Head and knob with first ring probably separate piece from jacket.3
Class y, Group viii.
498. From cutting above Old Temple toward tents. End gone. Length, 0.0285 m. Diam¬ eter of head, 0.027 m. High undercut knob. Rim of head raised ; edge has two grooves. The two rings above corrugations have fine threading. Probably lower corrugation and its rings were strung on stem.
499. End gone. Length, 0.135 m. Diameter of head, 0.037 m. Knob undercut. Rim of head raised and beveled inside. Edge has three grooves. All small rings have vertical threading. Pin is inserted. Jacket thin. Head and jacket probably all one piece, though perhaps jacket separates from head beneath large top ring.1
Class 8. Two plain corrugations with ring above top of one and between them. Next to head , plain neck. Beneath corruga¬ tions , sloping surface , tipper end of which rises abruptly. Below this slope , one or more rings.
500. Pin gone, bottom of jacket injured. Length, 0.026 m. Diameter of head, 0.0165 m. Grooves on edge cut unevenly, so one does not go all round. Lower corrugation slopes off on lower side. Pin was of iron. Head and jacket probably one piece.
501. Pin gone. Length, 0.028 m. Diameter of head, 0.021 m. In edge of head, two grooves. Raised rim. Long neck. Sloping surface short, followed by ring. Pin of iron. Head and jacket probably one piece.
502. 1 ’in gone. Length, 0.037 m. Diameter of head, 0.0215 m. In edge of head, two grooves. Raised rim. Ring below sloping surface followed by straight surface, with ring in middle and lielow. Pin of iron. Head and jacket one piece.
503. 1 >in gone. Length, 0.039 in. Diameter of head, 0.0215 m. In edge of head, two grooves. Raised rim. At base of sloping surface, ring, followed by low convex surface, ending in small ring. Pin of iron. Head and jacket probably one piece.
haps be placed here.
504. F rom cutting above Upper Temple to¬ ward tents. Pin gone. Length, 0.0205 m. Diameter of head, 0.0155 m. One corrugation
with three rings above, the middle one beinglargest, and three below, the lowest being largest. Top of head slightly concave. Three grooves on edge. Band between two upper grooves has vertical thread. Same on all rings except bot¬ tom one. Pin of iron. Probably head and jacket one piece.
and rings.
505. Pin gone. Length, 0.034 m. Diameter of head, 0.02 m. Knob conical, undercut. Edge of head with three grooves. Band between two upper has fine horizontal and oblique nicking. Raised rim. Neck straight. Round centre of main corrugation raised nicked band. Rings be¬ tween corrugations nicked. Sloping surface con¬ vex. At bottom, two rings. Head and jacket probably one piece. Pin of iron.
506. Head and pin gone. Length, 0.036 m. Two large corrugations, each with raised nicked band. Between and above corrugations single nicked ring. Sloping surface has nicked ring at bottom, and nicking at upper edge. Jacket probably one piece. Pin of iron. Filing showed medium color.
507. Pin gone. Length, 0.049 m. Diam¬ eter of head, 0.0255 m. Conical undercut knob. Edge of head has three grooves. Upper band nicked. Raised rim. Band in corrugations and rings above same nicked. Sloping surface has nicked upper edge and nicked ring, below which two other rings. Head and jacket probably one piece. Probable traces of iron pin.
Class C Similar to Class 8, but with cor¬ rugations ornamented. Upper one by heavy oblique grooves , arranged in groups of three. Lower one by antithetic semi¬ circles.
508. Pin gone. Length, 0.048 m. Diameter of thread, 0.029 m. Knob conical, undercut. Surface of top convex. Raised rim. Band round edge nicked. Iron pin. Head and jacket probably one piece.
Class r]. Similar to Class £, but with deep perpendicular lines in corrugations , and with one or more rings under head. Group i. One ring under and probably attached to head.
Edge has three rings. Raised rim. Within each of grooves on corrugations are three finer grooves, sometimes four. Pin probably of iron. Group ii. Two rings under head, of which upper is larger. Probably not attached.
510. End gone. Length, 0.073 m. Diam¬ eter of head, 0.037 m. Knob made of two su¬ perposed cones with cylindrical cap. Upper cone has grooves radiating from cap. Each groove surrounded by line. Lower part of knob has fine lines. Top of head slightly concave. Raised rim on lower side of head also. Edge has band round centre, from which run toward each rim grooved ornament. Below second ring, short neck, followed by line of cleavage, showing jacket separable at this point. Corru¬ gations as in No. 509. Sloping surface slightly concave. Ornamented with pattern similar to knob. Pin of iron.
Class 0. Two corrugations with vertical lines. Above, between head and corru¬ gations, two small rings. Between cor¬ rugations, two similar rings. Beneath, one or two rings. Rim as before. Head grooved.
512. From south slope. Length, circ. 0.155 m. Diameter of head, 0.023 in. Knob deeply un¬ dercut. Raised rim. On main corrugation, grooves in groups of three. On lower, in groups of two.
513. From south slope. End gone. Length, 0.067 m. Diameter of head, 0.023 m. Grooves on both corrugations in groups of two.
Grooving coarse.
516. From south slope. End gone. Length, 0.0965 m. Diameter of head, 0.0217 m. Lines on corrugations oblique from right to left. Lowest ring part of same piece with pin. Cor¬ rugations appear as though strung.
517. From south slope. Pin and lower part of head gone. Length, 0.02 m. Diameter of head, 0.0215 m. Grooving oblique from right to left.
of composite structure.
518. F rorn south slope. End gone. Length, circ. 0.145 m. Diameter of head, 0.0155 m. Slight groove below lowest ring, as though pin were inserted there.
522. From West Building. End gone. Length, 0.1015 in. Diameter of head, 0.023 m. Grooves slightly oblique. Ring below lower corrugation faintly grooved.
524. End gone. Length, 0.088 in. Diam¬ eter of head, 0.0205 m. Grooves on corrugations in groups of three, one group of four on lower corrugation.
ring seems to belong to pin.
526. Pin gone. Length, 0.026 m. Diam¬ eter of head, 0.021 m. Grooves in groups of three, one group of two on upper corrugation. Pin seems to have been of copper.
eter of head, 0.29. Rings have fine vertical cuts.
531. Cf. No. 499, note. End gone. Length, 0.147 m. Diameter of head, 0.04 m. Pin has slight groove at joining with lowest ring and seems separate.1
with pin.
538. End gone. Length, 0.11 m. Diameter of head, 0.016 m. Lowest ring seems to go with pin. Grooves on lower corrugations closer than on upper.
of head, 0.021 m.
547. From back of South Building. Pin gone. Knob injured. Length, 0.028 m. Diameter of head, 0.019 m. Pin probably was of iron.
548. From West Building. End gone. Length, 0.15 m. Diameter of head, 0.021 m. Lowest ring probably goes with pin.
549. From back of South Building. End gone. Length, 0.0825 m. Diameter of head, 0.0205 m. Corrugations rather thick.
551. F roin back of South Building. End and lower part of jacket gone, also part of head. Length, 0.0255 m. Diameter of head, 0.0185 m.
553. Pin corroded. Length, 0.173 m. Di¬ ameter of head, 0.0205 m. Rim has convex beveling. Lowest ring probably goes with pin, and possibly pin inserted into lowest corruga¬ tion.
554. End gone. Length, 0.0815 m. Diameter of head, 0.02 m. Knob undercut and resting on a raised base. Lowest ring seems to go with pin.
555. From West Building. Present point not original. Length, 0.118 m. Diameter of head, 0.0175 m. Only one ring between corru¬ gations.
Only one uncertain example.
556. From south slope. Pin and about half of head gone. Length, 0.03 m. Diameter of head, 0.022 m. Filing showed color medium light, and no trace of composite structure.
Class a. Two plain corrugations ; upper with ring on lower sides ; lower has ring on each side. Below , foot with slight concavity in middle.
568. Pin gone. Length, 0.0205 m. Diameter of head, 0.02 m. Low flat rim, groove near edge on top. Edge of head grooved. Upper corrugation the largest. Traces of iron pin.
Class /3. Two plain, broad, slightly rounded corrugations. Between head and upper corrugation, three rings (or a flat corrugation with two grooves'). Be¬ tween corrugations, two rings of similar construction , and two similar rings be¬ neath lower corrugation. In highest group of rings , grooves less deep than in two lower groups.
569. F rom West Building. Pin gone. Length, 0.038 m. Diameter of head, 0.0325 m. Edge of head has two grooves. Remains of iron pin. Jacket probably all one piece.
Class y. Two corrugations with flat raised ring about centre and ring ( attached ) at either end. Edge of head recedes down¬ ward in two steps.
570. Length, 0.144 m. Diameter of head, 0.0225 m. Rim raised very little. First step (next head) on lower side head higher than second. Both are notched obliquely on edge. Neck between head and first corrugation thicker than neck between the corrugations. Upper cor¬ rugation continued beyond its lower ring. Edges of rings and bands on corrugations notched. Head and upper corrugation seem one piece. Possible that pin passes through lower corru¬ gation into upper one ; also possible that jacket is of one piece.
tions. Knob conical.
Group i. Upper corrugation has raised ring at centre. Ring between head and corrugation. Beneath corrugation, two rings. Below, small plain corrugation, followed by ring.
571. Pin gone. Length, 0.024 m. Diameter of head, 0.025 m. Raised rim. Lower edge of head notched. Upper three rings and band on corrugations notched. Remains of iron pin.
Group ii. Upper corrugation has raised grooved ring and ring at either side. Lower corrugation has raised ring and ring at either side. Beneath, a broad and a narrow ring. Probably all from the same factory.
572. Pin gone. Length, 0.038 m. Diameter of head, 0.036 m. Raised rim. Lower edge of head notched. Lower corrugation much smaller than upper. Bands on corrugations and all rings except top one notched. Pin probably was of iron. Head and jacket probably one piece.
573. Pin gone. Length, 0.033 m. Diameter
of head, 0.031 m. Raised rim. Lower edge of head notched. Jacket similar to that of No. 572, but lower corrugation larger. Pin probably of iron.
574. Pin gone. Length, 0.035 m. Diameter of head, 0.0335 m. Inside beveled rim of head, a notched band. Top of head slightly convex. Edge of head has two grooves. Jacket similar to that of No. 573. Remains of iron pin.
575. From cutting upon hill toward tents above Old Temple. Length, 0.034 m. Diam¬ eter of head, 0.036 m. Rim and band on head similar to No. 574. Edge has two grooves with band between notched. Jacket similar to that of No. 574. All rings notched. Pin probably of iron.
rings beneath. ,
576. Point gone. Length, 0.0525 m. Di¬ ameter of head, 0.009 m. Knob on head looks like projecting stem, but under side of head looks like one piece with neck. Corrugations and pin probably one piece.
577. Point gone. Length, 0.0765 m. Di¬ ameter of head, 0.011 m. Round edge on top row of dot in circles. Edge grooved. Ring grooved. Head seems of one piece with pin. Whole pin probably one piece.
Two small rings between corrugation.
Group ii. One corrugation. Beneath, two or more rings. Head usually only slightly larger than corrugation and rings.
580. From south slope. Length, 0.067 m. Diameter of head, 0.0065 m. Edge of head has two grooves. Filing showed medium color. Whole pin probably one piece.
581. From south slope. End gone. Length, 0.031 m. Diameter of head, 0.0085 in. Traces of four grooves on edge of head.
584. End gone. Length, 0.062 m. Diameter of head, 0.0095 m, Rim slightly raised. On top marks that look like letters, but probably not. Edge of head has two grooves. Whole pin probably one piece.
585. Length, 0.0987 m. Diameter of head, 0.011 m. Low raised rim beveled inside. Edge of head lias one groove. Corrugation ring has two grooves.
586. Point gone. Length, 0.127 in. Diam¬ eter of head, 0.012 m. Edge of head has five grooves. Corrugation ring has three grooves. Head and jacket taper downward. Possibly head and beads are strung.
Group iii. One plain corrugation, be¬ neath which one or more rings. Head broader, proportionally, than in Group ii.
588. Tip gone. Length, 0.062 m. Diameter of head, 0.0094 m. Slightly raised rim. Edge of head has two grooves. Beneath corruga¬ tion, three rings, the lowest being raised end of pin.
589. Bent. Length, 0.097 m. Diameter of head, 0.0085 m. Head has four grooves. Below corrugation, grooved ring and two plain rings. Whole pin probably solid.
plain.
590. Length, 0.085 m. Diameter of head, 0.007 m. Edge of head has two grooves. Space between head and upper corrugation nar¬ row. Lower corrugation smaller than upper. Perhaps belongs to Group iii.
591. Condition poor. Length, 0.0225 m. Diameter of head, 0.012 in. Edge of head has two grooves. Corrugations look separable.
592. Present end not original. Length, 0.044 m. Diameter of head, 0.0115 m. Edge of head lias two grooves. Stem of jacket larger than pin at top.
593. End gone. Length, 0.02 m. Diameter of head, 0.0075 m. Edge of head has one groove (perhaps two). Ring about half as large as lower corrugation. Stem of jacket larger than pin.1
595. End gone. Length, 0.022 m. Diame¬ ter of head, 0.009 m. Edge of head has at least two grooves. Lower corrugation smaller than upper. Stem of jacket larger than pin.
596. End gone. Length, 0.058 m. Diam¬ eter of head, 0.014 m. Edge of head has three (perhaps four) grooves. Lower corrugation has two grooves and band between of rectangles. Jacket and stem taper downward from head.
597. End gone. Length, 0.059 m. Diameter of head, 0.011 m. Grooving on edge of head doubtful. Beneath lower corrugation grooved ring, of which lower part forms end of pin. Jacket tapers downward and has stem larger than top of pin. Whole pin probably one piece.
grooves.
599. From West Building. End gone. Length, 0.045 m. Diameter of head, 0.0123 m. Edge has two grooves. Stem of jacket larger than head of pin and tapers.
600. Head of pin. Length, 0.0135 m. Di¬ ameter of head, 0.013 m. Two grooves in edge. Under side of head convex. Traces of iron pin.
601. Most of pin gone. Length, 0.018 m. Diameter of head, 0.0145 m. Two grooves in edge. Pin of bronze. Stem of jacket larger than pin.
602. Point gone. Length, 0.071 m. Diam¬ eter of head, 0.0145 m. Top of head slightly concave ; rim raised. Edge of head tapers downward, and has two grooves. Stem of jacket larger than pin. Head and jacket taper concavely.
603. Pin gone. Length, 0.0205 m. Diameter of head, 0.02 m. Top of head concave. Knob on low base and outside it band of small circles. Edge of head tapers, and has two grooves. Jacket tapers (slightly concave). Pin of iron.
of head, 0.019 m. Around knob, band of spiral maeander. Top of head concave. Edge of head tapers concavely and has two grooves. Lower edge finely notched. Lowest ring notched on upper edge. Remains of iron pin.
605. From back of South Building. Pin gone. Length, 0.0185 m. Diameter of head, 0.016 m. Around bottom of knob, band of circles. Top of head concave, with slight rise in centre. Edge of head tapers downward, and has two grooves. Head and jacket taper concavely. Remains of iron pin. Probably from same factory as No. 606.
606. Pin gone. Length, 0.0215 m. Diameter of head, 0.0188 m. Knob rests on base, on which band of circles. Edge of head tapers down¬ ward, and has two grooves. Head and jacket taper concavely. Remains of iron pin.
607. Pin gone. Length, 0.022 m. Diameter of head, 0.0185 m. Top of head concave, with rise in centre. Edge of head stepped. Remains of iron pin.
608. Pin gone. Length, 0.024 in. Diameter of head, 0.022 in. Top of head concave. In edge, two grooves. Band between them notched. Corrugations have oblique grooves. Head and jacket probably one piece.
tion and the grooved ring have changed places.
609. Pin gone. Length, 0.0155 m. Diameter of head, 0.012 m. Top of head slightly concave. In edge, two grooves. Jacket tapers irregularly. Remains of bronze pin. Color medium.
610. Pin gone. Length, 0.016 m. Diameter of head, 0.0105 m. Knob nearly cylindrical with groove across top. Top of head concave ; edge has three grooves and perhaps four. Head and jacket taper. Stem of jacket tapers. Color medium.
611. Most of pin gone. Length, 0.0335 m. Diameter of head, 0.0122 m. Rim of head raised. In edge, two grooves. Band between them nicked. Lower ring nicked.
612. F rombackof South Building. End gone. Length, 0.064 m. Diameter of head, 0.0125 m. Edge of head one groove. Taper downward from middle corrugation.
of head, 0.0205 m. Top of head concave, with slight rise in centre. Edge of head stepped, as in No. 607. Corrugations decrease in size down¬ ward. Remains of iron pin. Probably from same factory as No. 607.
Addenda.
614. Pin gone. Length, 0.0165 m. Diameter of head, 0.016 m. Top of head concave, with raised rim. Edge of head has one groove. Middle corrugation thickest. Edges of all cor¬ rugations notched. Remains of iron pin.
615. From back of South Building;. Pin gone. Length, 0.016 m. Diameter of head, 0.019 m. Top slightly concave. Edge of head tapers down¬ ward, and has two grooves. Pin of iron.
Group i. Simple. One broad plain cor¬ rugation, with one or two rings (or grooved ring-corrugation) at either side. Some of the heads thin.
616. Point gone. Length, 0.0555 m. Di¬ ameter of head (corroded), 0.055 m. One ring above corrugation, grooved ring below. Groove at top of pin where it joins grooved ring.
617. From back of South Building. Pin bent. Length, 0.0885 m. Diameter of head, 0.007 m. No knob. Edge of head grooved.
618. Most of pin gone. Length, 0.0165 m. Diameter of head, 0.013 m. Band of dotted circles on top of head at edge.
621. End gone. Length, 0.053 m. Diame¬ ter of head, 0.0105 m. Edge of head grooved. Jacket tapers downward from upper ring.
Group ii. Kindred miscellaneous forms.
622. Point blunted. Length, 0.09 m. Di¬ ameter of head, 0.01 m. Rim of head raised: edge grooved and lower edge notched. Two plain corrugations, of which the upper is the larger. It has notched ring on either side. Small ring beneath lower corrugation.
623. Point gone. Length, 0.0785 m. Diame¬ ter of head, 0.0145 m. Edge of head has two grooves. One large spherical corrugation, above which heavy ring. Below, two groups of rings, the upper of three, the lower of two. Stem of
624. End gone. Length, 0.045 m. Diameter of head, 0.018 m. Edge of head has one groove. Under side of head has flat, slightly elevated surface. Two corrugations ; upper, the larger, with raised grooved ring. King on either side of each corrugation.
Group iii. Two corrugations, of which one or both is thick. Usually ornamented with raised bands, which may be grooved. Rings above, below, and between.
(a1.) Both corrugations ornamented with raised band. Above upper and beneath lower corrugation, and also between corrugations, a single ring.
625. From south slope. Pin gone. Length, 0.0255 m. Diameter of head, 0.0175 m. Knob conical. Top of head deeply concave, with centre raised above rim. Edge of head grooved. Lower edge notched, as also bands on corrugations and lowest ring. Remains of iron pin. Head and jacket seem one piece.
626. Pin gone. Length, 0.0275 in. Diame¬ ter of head, 0.0215 m. Knob cylindrical. Edge of head has two grooves, with band between notched vertically. All bands and rings notched. Remains of bronze pin. Head looks welded to jacket.
gle ring above and below each.
627. Point gone. Length, 0.0865 m. Di¬ ameter of head, 0.009 in. Top of head con¬ cave. Edge of head has two grooves, with band
band. Otherwise same as above.
628. End gone. Length, 0.046 m. Diame¬ ter of head, 0.0127 m. Top of head slightly concave. Edge of head has one groove and tapers downward.
629. Point gone. Length, 0.094 m. Diame¬ ter of head, 0.013 m. Rim of head slightly raised and edge lias two grooves. Lowest ring forms top of pin.
630. From West Building. End gone. Head damaged. Length, 0.059 m. Diameter of head 0.011 m. Upper corrugation about twice the size of lower and has low raised band.
1 Very similar,
of head, 0.014 m. Edge of head has one groove and tapers downward ; rim beveled. Lower rim of head notched, as also band on corrugation, and rings.
633. Pin gone. Head damaged. Length, 0.0225 m. Diameter of head, 0.0175 m. Top of head depressed. Knob on base. Head, cor¬ rugations, and rings probably same as in No. 631. Remains of iron pin.
634. End gone. Condition poor. Length, 0.069 m. Diameter of head, 0.0145 m. Edge of head has two grooves. Band between has fine notching. Stem much larger than jacket.1
raised grooved band.
635. Pin gone. Head much corroded. Length, 0.03 m. Diameter of head, 0.0215 m. Rim of head raised and top concave. Edge of head has two grooves. Uncertain whether pin of bronze or iron.
636. Pin gone. Length, 0.042 m. Diameter of head, 0.0255 m. Top of head has two con¬ cave circular surfaces. Edge of head has two grooves. Beneath lower ring of lower corruga¬ tion, another ring and small corrugation. Re¬ mains of iron pin.
637. Pin and lower part of jacket gone. Length, 0.021 m. Diameter of head, 0.025 m. Edge of head has three grooves ; lower band notched. Ring on either side of corrugation. Bands on corrugation notched.
638. From West Building. Pin and lower part of jacket gone. Length, 0.002 m. Diam¬ eter of head, 0.0265 m. Edge of top tapers and has two grooves with notched band. Band on corrugation notched. Filing showed color medium.
643. F rom south slope. End gone. Length, 0.0635 m. Diameter of head, 0.0215 m. Rim raised. Edge of head has two grooves with notched band. All rings and bands notched. Pin was inserted.
644. End gone. Length, 0.082 m. Diameter of head, 0.0155 m. Edge of head has two grooves with band perhaps notched.
645. Pin and lower part of jacket gone. Length, 0.025 m. Diameter of head, 0.026 m. Rim raised ; edge of head has two grooves with notched band. Filing showed color medium.
tion has raised single groove.
646. End gone. Length, 0.088 m. Diameter of head, 0.0215 m. Knob on notched base. Edge of head has two grooves and notched band.
Class y. One rather large corrugation. Above , a single ring or ring -corrugation, which may be grooved. Beneath, two or more rings or ring -corrugations.
of head. Edge grooved.
( V. ) Corrugation with raised notched band. Beneath, small plain corruga¬ tion with heavy ring at each side.
649. From back of South Building. Pin gone.
Length, 0.028 m. Diameter of head, 0.021 m. Top of head concave, and lower rim probably notched. Under side of head stepped. Upper and lowest ring have notches on both edges. Remains of iron pin.
650. From back of South Building. Length, 0.158 m. Diameter of head, 0.015 m. Top of head concave. Edge of head tapers downward concavely and has four grooves. Rest of jacket tapers convexly. Traces of notching on the three single rings.
between corrugation and head.
The following, Nos. 651, 652, have only one ring beneath corrugation, but the general ap¬ pearance and style resemble the others. Corru¬ gation plain.
Filing showed color medium.
652. End gone. Length, 0.032 m. Diameter of head, 0.0095 m. Edge of head grooved. Stem about same size as pin. Probably all one piece.
gation a grooved ring above rectangular block.
653. From south slope. End and part of head. Length, 0.052 m. Diameter of head, 0.0095 m. Stem about same size as pin. Rec¬ tangular block has grooved collar.
654. End gone. Point not original. Length, 0.049 m. Diameter of head, 0.0095 m. Edge of head grooved. Stem of jacket about same size as pin. Whole pin probably one piece.
657. End gone. Length, 0.0705 m. Diame¬ ter of head, 0.0108 m. Edge of head grooved, and on top ring of dotted circles.
with single ring added underneath.
658. End gone. Length, 0.061 m. Diame¬ ter of head, 0.014 m. Edge of head has two grooves. Jacket tapers downward. Stem of jacket larger than pin.
660. End gone. Point not original. Length, 0.059 m, Diameter of head, 0.0155 m. Edge of head has two grooves. Jacket tapers down¬ ward convexly. Stem of jacket larger than pin. Pin probably one piece.
(d1.) Beneath corrugation, smaller one with plain ring on either side. (Cf. No. 649.) Uppermost ring grooved as before.
661. End gone. Length, 0.059 m. Diame¬ ter of head, 0.0165 m. Top of head slightly con¬ cave. Edge of head has two grooves. First three members of jacket have nearly same di¬ ameter ; last two taper. On lower side of top ring, and on first ring beneath main corrugation, and on bottom ring, traces of notching. Pin seems inserted into lowest ring. Probably from same factory as No. 662.
662. Pin gone. Length, 0.024 m. Diame¬ ter of head, 0.0165 m. Edge of head has two grooves, with notched band between. Jacket similar to that of No. 661.
Class S. Head assimilated to jacket, which ( including head') co?isists of tzvo or three members placed close together , and tapers downward slightly.
665. F rom south slope. Most of pin gone.
1 For more elaborate rosette, cf. Orsi, ‘ Necropolis del Fusco,’ Not,, degli Scavi, 1895, p. 169. Orsi sees (note 2) reminiscence of Mycenaean style. Tomb early archaic. Cf. rosettes on bone objects from the Dictaean cave, British School Annual, VI. p. 113, fig. 49 (Hogarth), and
on top.
666. From West Building. End gone. Length, 0.114 m. Diameter of head, 0.009 m. Height of eyelet, 0.0025 m. Head has four grooves. Lowest member two. Pin probably separate from jacket.
Unclassified addenda to Type f.
667. From south slope. Head and corruga¬ tions preserved. Length, 0.0215 m. Diameter of head, 0.022 m. In centre of top of head, rec¬ tangular opening as though punched through from below. Stem projects. On top surface of head, rosette. Rim raised. Close to rim, very fine zigzag. Stem and corrugation are of iron.1
668. From south slope. End and head gone. Length, 0.118 m. Cf. Nos. 460 and 485. In top, hole, looking as if upper part of jacket had been fitted to it.
669. Most of pin gone, and perhaps a head also. Length, 0.0295 m. Stem projects through top. Lowest ring has traces of notching. Jacket seems to be of one piece.
of South Building, and one from south slope.
Type g. Headless. Jacket of two corruga¬ tions, one or both of which are orna¬ mented, and have on either side a ring.2
2 With this type may be compared Olympia, No. 488, which is different in style (has vertical grooves and coni¬ cal apex), and is said by Furtwangler to be of later date.
675. End gone. Eyelet broken. Length, 0.076 in. Diameter of upper corrugation, 0.012 m. Stem of jacket larger than pin, which is pos¬ sibly inserted.
676. End gone. Length, 0.0625 m. Di¬ ameter of upper corrugation, 0.0105 m. Stem of jacket larger than pin, which is possibly in¬ serted.
Group i. Lower corrugation plain.
678. End gone. Length, 0.037 m. Diame¬ ter of upper corrugation, 0.012 m. Stem between corrugations smaller than top of pin.
almost every case.
680. End gone. Length, 0.0675 m. Diame¬ ter of upper corrugation, 0.0125 m. Stem same size as pin, which looks inserted.
681. End gone. Length, 0.0395 m. Diame¬ ter of upper corrugation, 0.0123 m. Stem same size as pin, which is perhaps inserted.
683. Point probably not original. Length, 0.095 m. Diameter of upper corrugation, 0.012 m. Stem larger than pin. Top of head has grooves from centre to rim.
686. From south slope. End gone. Length, 0.098 m. Diameter of upper corrugation, 0.0125 m. Head as in No. 683. Pin perhaps inserted.
688. From south slope. End gone. Length, 0.057 m. Diameter of upper corrugation, 0.0165 m. Stem larger than pin. Upper part of pin round. Below, rudely diamond-shaped.
689. End gone. Length, 0.072 m. Diame¬ ter of upper corrugation, 0.016 in. Head as in No. 683. Stem lai-ger than pin.
No. 683. Stem larger than pin.
691. From south slope. Pin gone. Length, 0.022 m. Diameter of top corrugation, 0.015 m. Top as in No. 683. Stem larger than pin.
692. Length, 0.023 m. Diameter of toji corru¬ gation, 0.0155 m. Head similar to that of No. 683, but grooves fewer. On under side of lower corrugation, low flat ring.
upper corrugation.
693. End gone. Length, 0.099 m. Diame¬ ter of top corrugation, 0.0115. Lower corruga¬ tion somewhat larger. Head as in No. 683. Stem larger than pin.
695. End gone. Length, 0.0645 m. Diame¬ ter of upper corrugation, 0.012 m. On upper and lower halves of corrugation leaf ornament. Pin perhaps inserted.
696. From back of South Building. End gone. Length, 0.0815 m. Diameter of upper corrugation, 0.0115 m. Head as in No. 683. Stem larger than pin.
697. Present point probably not original. Length, 0.092 m. Diameter of upper corruga¬ tion, 0.012 m. On both halves of upper corruga¬ tion, leaf ornament as in No. 695. All rings notched.
rugation, 0.014 m. Both corrugations have light double vertical grooves, and on upper side of top corrugation circles between grooves.
Addenda to Type g. In the following the eye¬ lets, if such existed, have been lost. This fact, and their peculiar form, renders their classifica¬ tion uncertain, although they probably belong to this type.
699. From back of South Building. End gone. Length, 0.056 m. Diameter of upper corrugation, 0.011 m. Rings small. Upper cor¬ rugation plain.1
classification.
701. From south slope. Pin gone. Length, 0.0135 m. Diameter, 0.014 m. Pierced by rec¬ tangular hole, in which are remains of iron pin or rod.
703. Length, 0.0125 m. Diameter of head, 0.01 m. Length of neck, 0.004 m. Top of head broken as though ornament had been lost. Neck lias two grooves. Remains of iron pin.
704. F rom south slope. Ornament on head injured. Length, 0.019 m. Diameter of head, 0.0125 m. Ornament consists of four petals about a low stem.2 Remains of iron pin.
Group i. Hexagonal.
706. From back of South Building. Orna¬ ment injured. Length, 0.019 m. Diameter of head, 0.015 m. Lower neck lias three rings, of
708. From south slope. Length, 0.022 m. Diameter of head, 0.016 m. Ornament of five petals about a stem. Lower neck has four rings, of which second from top is notched. Sides of polygon separated by segments of original cir¬ cumference.
has three rings.
711. Length, 0.022 m. Flower of four petals. Heavy ring with notching beneath. Neck has three rings. Traces of iron pin.
modified.
713. Ornament not divided (the present fis¬ sures due to corrosion). Length, 0.0205 in. Neck has three rings. Traces of iron pin.
Group i. With fluted sides.
715. Length, 0.02 m. Diameter, 0.0155 m. Originally probably had ornament. Sides di¬ vided by five grooves. Neck has three rings. Pin probably of iron.
716. Originally probably had ornament. Sides divided by seven grooves. Neck has large corru¬ gation, with ring on either side. Corrugation has eight grooves. Traces of iron pin.
sharply marked from head.
717. Top injured. Length, 0.014 m. Diame¬ ter, 0.011 m. In top round hole, in which ap¬ pears short stub as of stem. Head divided into five main segments. Of these two in the lower
718. Length, 0.0155 m. Diameter, 0.0085 m. Head divided into three parts by zigzags from top to bottom. Neck has three rings, of which the upper two are notched, and below these two others, of which the upper one is notched.
719. Length, 0.0245 m. Diameter, 0.012 m. Head divided into four segments. On these, on lower half, run dotted lines meeting at acute angle just above middle. Dotted circle at base of each segment. Neck has three rings ; centre one notched. Filing showed medium color.
720. From West Building. Pin gone. Length, 0.0425 m. Below lion’s head are corrugations separated from it by deep grooves, in the bottom of which low ring. Forehead of lion full, with heavy furrow down centre. Eye sockets round, with prominent brows. Nostrils marked. Muzzle marked with grooves.1 Lower part of pin head has five corrugations, tapering concavely, and below these a rectangular block.
Type j. Ring headed.
721. From south slope. Length, 0.11G5 m. Outer diameter of ring, 0.015 m. Bar of ring diamond-shaped in section. Pin broad and flat at junction with ring.2
Type k. Head consists of disk, with or without prolongation above, and, at some distance beneath it, one or two balls, or beads.3
Group i. Upper part of shaft round.
722. Length, 0.299 m. Diameter of head, 0.0195 in. Length of neck, 0.044 m. Much copper in pin, shown by color and flexibility.
2 Similar (but for swelling of shaft), Montelius, Civ. Prim. It. pi. 15, No. 12, from Terramare of Campeggine of Reggio nell’ Emilia. Age of Bronze. Cf. also Olympia, No. 492, which differs in having end of ring bound about shaft.
8 Pins of this type numerous at Tegea. Cf. Milchhofer, Athen. Mitth. V. p. G7. Milchhofer regards them as “ Heftnadeln oder Werkzeuge fur Handarbeit.” He seems to consider these and the spits (according to him spindles)
0.034 m. Ball oblong.
724. End gone. Length, 0.185 m. Length of neck, 0.036 m. Head concave in centre. Ring at either end of ball nearly rectangular.
725. End broken. Length, 0.078 m. Ex¬ tension, 0.005 m. Neck, 0.015 m. Extension rather thick. Neck smaller than body. Ball nearly round, with ring at either side.
726. Present point probably not original. Length, 0.112 m. Extension, 0.007 m. Neck, 0.016 m. Extension rather flat. Neck smaller than shaft. Ball elongated.
727. Condition poor. Shaft and extension both broken. Length, 0.0525 in. Neck, 0.015 m. Neck slightly thicker than shaft. Ball nearly round, with ring at either side.
low base.
728. Condition poor. Shaft mostly gone. Length, 0.054 m. Extension, 0.0075 m. Neck, 0.019 m. Ball oblate, with ring at either side.5
(b1.) Extension which rests on base, with flat cap on top which overhangs the tapered upper portion of the ex¬ tension. Rectangular part of shaft usually ornamented with engraved zigzag and separated from round part by one or more grooves.
729. End gone. Condition poor. Length,
as essentially the same class of object. — A pin of this type is in the museum at Eleusis and a bundle of them in Nat. Mus., Athens, No. 10081. Example of Forms 1 and 2 are in the museum at Sparta.
circ. 0.205 m. Extension, 0.008 m. Neck, 0.019 m. Ball oblate, with ring at each side. Shaft beneath, rectangle, then two shallow grooves, then rounded. Traces of zigzag on rectangular part of shaft.
730. End gone. Condition poor. Length, 0.108 m. Extension, 0.007 m. Neck, 0.024 m. Ball round, with rings. Details as in No. 729.
Zigzag on rectangular part.
Group iii. Transition at neck, which is generally rectangular in form, but with rounded corners. Extension like Group ii., (5').
732. Length, 0.227 m. Extension, 0.0065 m. Neck, 0.019 m. Traces of zigzag on rectangle. Ball slightly elongated. Material largely cop¬ per.
733. Condition poor. Length, 0.237 m. Extension, 0.007 m. Neck, 0.019 m. Possible traces of zigzag on rectangle. Material mainly copper.
734. Point gone. Condition poor. Length, 0.209 m. Extension, 0.008 m. Neck, 0.0235 m. Sides of rectangle have zigzag.
735. Length, 0.0233 m. Extension, 0.0065 m. Neck, 0.0235 m. Neck octagonal. Ball round. Probably traces of zigzag on rectangle.
737. Condition poor. Pin gone. Disk dam¬ aged. Length, 0.085 m. Extension, 0.0075 m. Neck, 0.022 m. Ball with ring at either end.
tation on both neck and rectangle.
738. Length, 0.139 m. Extension, 0.0045 m. Neck, 0.023 in. Two sides of neck have zigzag. Traces of zigzag on rectangle. Good deal of copper in pin.
739. Point injured. Length, 0.228 m. Ex¬ tension, 0.006 m. Neck, 0.033 m. Zigzag on two sides, and also on three sides of rectangle. Pin mainly of copper.
tension, 0.0078 m. Neck, 0.023 m. ; has on two sides traces of zigzag. On all sides of rectangle traces of zigzag. Pin mainly of copper.
741. Most of pin and disk gone. Condition poor. Length, 0.092 m. Extension, 0.008 m. Neck, 0.034 m. Has on all sides zigzag, as also rectangle. Pin mainly of copper.
part of body ornamented.
742. End gone. Length, 0.0234 m. Exten¬ sion, 0.008 m. Neck, 0.0245 m. Traces of zig¬ zag on rectangle. Pin of copper.
743. End and most of disk gone. Condition poor. Length, 0.186 m. Extension, 0.002 m. Neck, 0.0165 m. Traces of zigzag on rectangle.
rectangle.
745. From south slope. End gone. Length, 0.144 m. Extension, 0.006 m. On rectangle, traces of lines close to edges, with zigzag between. Probably largely of copper.
746. Bent into coil. Extension, 0.008 m. Neck, 0.014 m. Rectangle has two grooves at end and on one side three. Sides have frame of two lines, one close to each edge, with zigzag between.
747. End gone. Length, 0.138 m. Exten¬ sion, 0.0085 m. Neck, 0.0275 m. Rectangle has two grooves at end and traces on two sides of zigzag.
748. End and most of disk gone. Condition poor. Length, 0.125 m. Extension, 0.0055 m. Neck, 0.024 m. Has on two sides traces of zigzag. Rectangle terminates with two grooves ; on sides traces of zigzag.
749. End gone. Condition poor. Length, 0.1825 m. Extension, 0.0075 m. Neck, 0.022 m., witli traces of zigzag on all sides. Rectangle with grooves at end and traces of zigzag.
but has a double link.
750. End gone. Condition poor. Length, 0.099 m. Extension, 0.009 m. Neck, 0.02 m. Rectangle has probably two grooves at end. Traces of zigzag on two sides of neck and rec¬ tangle.
750 a. From south slope. Condition poor. Length, 0.045 m. Extension, 0.0085 m. Neck, 0.019 m. Sides taper slightly toward top. Traces of zigzag on three sides of neck, also on three sides of rectangle.
and cap.
751. End gone. Condition poor. Length, 0.133 m. Extension, 0.006 m. Neck, 0.0235 m., with sides tapering toward top. Probably double groove at end of rectangle, sides of which taper downward. Traces of zigzag on neck and rec¬ tangle. Pin mostly of copper.
752. End gone. Condition poor. Length, 0.187 m. Extension, 0.008 m. Neck, 0.022 m., with sides increasing toward either end, and zig¬ zag on all four. Rectangle has two grooves at end, and zigzag on sides.
753. Most of shaft gone. Condition poor. Length, 0.083 m. Extension, 0.008 m. Neck, 0.032 m., with zigzag on sides and line along edge ; and on one side part way down centre. Sides of rectangle taper downward. Traces of zigzag.
754. End gone. Condition poor. Length, 0.169 m. Extension, 0.0075 in. Neck, 0.028 m., with traces of zigzag on three sides. Rec¬ tangle has two grooves at end, and lines around edges of sides, inclosing zigzag.
755. From above last part of Stoa, under Cyclopean wall, 1893. Point injured. Length, 0.26 m. Extension, 0.01 m. Neck, 0.0265 m., with sides tapering toward top. Probably traces of zigzag on one side. Rectangle has groove at end, and zigzag on all sides. Material mainly copper.
756. End gone. Length, 0.209 m. Exten¬ sion, 0.008 m. Neck, 0.003 in., tapering slightly upward, with zigzag on sides, and traces of fram¬ ing line along edges. Rectangle has three grooves at end and zigzags, with framing line as on neck. Material mainly copper.
757. Point dull. Length, 0.2635 m. Ex¬ tension, 0.0085 m. Neck, 0.0275 m., with zigzag on sides, and traces of framing line. At end of rectangle, two grooves. Sides of rectangle taper downward and have zigzag and traces of fram¬ ing line. Material largely copper.
758. From West Building. End gone. Length, 0.142 m. Extension, 0.028 m. Neck, 0.017 m., with sides tapering toward top, and traces of zigzag. Rectangle with sides tapering downward, and traces of zigzag.
759. End gone. Length, 0.157 m. Exten¬ sion, 0.0075 m. Neck, 0.022 m. ; tapers slightly upward ; traces of zigzag. Rectangle tapers downward ; traces of zigzag.
760. Point injured. Length, 0.192 m. Ex¬ tension, 0.009 m. Neck, 0.0195 m. ; tapers slightly toward top. Traces of zigzag. Rec¬ tangle tapers downward ; has traces of zigzag. Material largely copper.
761. Point injured. Length, 0.212 m. Ex¬ tension, 0.0065 in. Neck, 0.0315 m., with traces of zigzag. Rectangle tapers downward, with traces of zigzag. Material largely copper.
762. End gone. Condition poor. Length, 0.233 m. Extension, 0.01 m. Neck, 0.031 m., tajiering toward centre from both ends, and with traces of zigzag. Rectangle has groove at end, and zigzags.
763. Condition poor. Length, 0.235 m. Extension, 0.008 m. Neck, 0.022 m., tapering from top for short distance. Zigzag on all sides. Rectangle has two grooves at end and zigzag on all sides.
764. From south slope. Most of shaft gone. Condition poor. Length, 0.067 m. Extension, 0.0085 m. Neck, 0.0215 m. Tapers upward. Zigzag on sides, also on sides of rectangle.
765. Length, 0.319 m. Extension, 0.0105 m. Neck, 0.035 m., tapering from ends toward centre, with zigzag on sides. Same ornament on sides of rectangle. Material largely cop¬ per.
766. Point injured. Condition poor. Length, 0.262 m. Extension, 0.01 m. Neck, 0.026 m., tapers from ends to centre, with zigzag on sides. Rectangle has two grooves at end and zigzag on sides. Material largely copper.
767. End gone. Length, 0.2 m. Extension, 0.0095 m. Neck, 0.0315 m., tapering from bottom up, and with zigzag on sides. Rectangle has two grooves at end, and zigzag on sides. Material largely copper.
768. End gone. Length, 0.169 m. Exten¬ sion, 0.0095 m. Neck, 0.033 m., tapers upward from base. Traces of zigzag on two sides. Rec¬ tangle has zigzag. Material largely copper.
769. End coiled, but pin complete. Exten¬ sion, 0.01 m. Neck, 0.0365 m., tapering from ends to centre. Traces of zigzag on sides, also on rectangle. Material as above.
771. Pin mainly gone. Condition poor. Length, 0.098 m. Extension, 0.011 m. Neck, 0.035 in., tapers from ends to centre, with traces of zigzag. Rectangle tapers downward, traces of zigzag.
772. End gone. Condition poor. Length, 0.265 m. Extension, 0.0125 m. Neck, 0.039 m., tapers from top toward centre, with traces of zigzag. Rectangle tapers downward, with traces of zigzag. Material largely copper.
773. End gone. Length, 0.205 m. Exten¬ sion, 0.01 m. Neck, 0.033 m., tapers from ends toward centre. Rectangle tapers downward. Both neck and rectangle with zigzags. Material largely copper.
774. End coiled, like No. 746. Extension, 0.012 m. Neck, 0.03 m., with zigzags, as also rectangle, which tapers downward. Material largely copper.
each side of ball.
775. End gone. Condition poor. Length, 0.302 m. Extension, 0.0065 in. Neck, 0.027 m. The rings farthest from ball, on each side, form ends of neck and rectangle, which tapers down¬ ward. Zigzags on neck and rectangle. Two grooves at end of rectangle.
776. Most of shaft gone. Condition poor. Length, 0.054 m. Extension, 0.007 m. Neck, 0.0305 in., tapers from ends to centre. On neck and rectangle, traces of zigzags. Material mostly copper.
777. Most of pin gone. Condition poor. Length, 0.085 m. Extension, 0.0085 m. Neck, 0.033 in., tapers from ends toward centre. Traces of zigzag, as also on rectangle, which tapers downward. Material mostly copper.
778. End gone. Condition poor. Length, 0.12 in. Extension has base, two links, and cap. Length of extension, 0.011 m. Neck, 0.029 m., tapers toward top. Rectangle tapers down¬ ward .
779. End gone. Condition poor. Length, 0.137 in. Extension, 0.0182 m., has base, three links, and cap. Neck, 0.025 m. Rectangle tapers downward.
780. Point gone. Condition poor. Length, 0.177 in. Extension, 0.016 in., consists of base, two or three links, and cap. Neck, 0.038 m., with centre smaller than ends.
781. Point gone. Condition poor. Length, 0.217 m. Extension, 0.008 m. Neck, 0.0235 in. Cap double or grooved. Rectangle has traces of zigzag.
782. Length, 0.133 m. Extension, 0.0075 m. Neck, 0.023 m., tapers from bottom upward. Rectangle tapers downward, with groove at lower end. Neck and rectangle have zigzags. Material largely copper.
783. End gone. Condition poor. Length, 0.159 m. Extension, 0.0095 m. Neck, 0.029 m. Rectangle tapers downward, has two grooves at lower end. Neck and rectangle have zigzag within frame. Material largely copper.
784. From south slope. Most of shaft gone. Condition poor. Length, 0.052 m. Extension, 0.0075 m. Neck, 0.024 m. Zigzag (traces) on neck and rectangle (broken).
Traces of zigzag.
786. From West Building. Broken at lower end of hall. Condition poor. Length, 0.061 m. Extension, 0.013 ro. Neck, 0.035 m. Exten¬ sion has double ring between base and link. Two rings above the ball, of which upper is end of neck. Traces of zigzags.
787. Point gone. Condition poor. Exten¬ sion, 0.0175 m., consists of base, four small cor¬ rugations, and cap. Neck, 0.035 m. Rectangle tapers down.
788. Undeaned. Broken. Condition had. Length, 0.09 m. Extension, 0.0088 m. Neck, 0.021 m. Double ring on each side of ball.
Extension with base, link, and cap.
789. Point probably not original. Length, 0.289 m. Extension, 0.008 ni. Upper neck round, with length, 0.023 m. Lower neck has six unequal sides, 0.011 m. Ring at either side of each hall. Grooved at lower end of rec-
790. End gone. Length, 0.22 m. Exten¬ sion, 0.0075 m. Upper neck, length, 0.0235 m. Tapers for short distance from bottom. Lower neck, 0.0145 m. Ring on each side of balls. Rectangle below lower ball tapers. Traces of zigzag on one side of upper neck, and of frame and zigzag on lower neck. Material chiefly copper.
791. Pin mainly gone. Conditionpoor. Length, 0.11 m. Extension has link also above ring ; length, 0.012 m. Upper neck, length, 0.034 m. Lower neck, 0.012 m. Rectangle tapers down¬ ward. No trace of ornament left on necks ; trace of zigzag on rectangle.
792. From south slope. Extension, disk, and neck. Length, 0.04 m. Length of extension, 0.0065 m. No certain traces of ornament.
793. Broken at bottom of ball. Length, 0.045 m. Length of extension, 0.0065 m. Length of neck, 0.023 m. Traces of zigzag on neck.
extension, 0.0105 m.
(&'.) One ball with piece at each side. — While a doubt is possible whether these pieces belong here rather than under spits , they are, mainly, quite certainly pins, because of the relative smallness of the necks as compared with the rectangle.
796. Fragment of neck, ball, and rectangle. Length, 0.086 m. Elongated ball. Rectangle has groove at lower end, and zigzag on sides. Material largely copper.
797. Fragment as No. 796. Length, 0.074 m. Oblong ball with ring at each side. Rectangle tapers down, and has traces of zigzag on all sides.
798. From south slope. Fragment as No. 796. Length, 0.088 m. Ball elongated. Rectangle tapers down, and has traces of zigzag. Material largely copper.
799. Fragment as No. 796. Length, 0.104 m. Ball has ring at each side. Rectangle tapers for short distance down. Zigzag on rectangle; probably also on neck.
800. From first chamber at east end of ter¬ race below Cyclopean wall, 1893. Fragment as No. 796. Condition bad. Length, 0.043 m. Ball has ring at either side. Rectangle has three grooves at end. No trace of ornament remains.
801. From back of South Building. Frag¬ ment as No. 796. Condition poor. Length, 0.061 m. Ring above ball. Probable traces of zigzag on neck.
802. From south slope. Fragment as No. 796. Length, 0.054 m. Ball elongated with ring at either end. Two grooves at lower end of rectangle. Traces of zigzag within frame on neck and rectangle.
803. Fragment as No. 796. Condition poor. Length, circ. 0.185 m. Slightly oblate ball with ring at either side. Rectangle ended by groove and tapers slightly downward. No cei'tain traces of ornamentation on neck. Traces of frame on l'ectangle. Material largely copper.
belong under Form 2, Class a, Group iv.
804. Extension, disk, and piece of neck. Condition poox\ Length, 0.035 m. Extension has three grooves near bottom, with coarse screw¬ threading above. Length of neck, 0.016 m. Owing to small size, pi-obably had one ball.
805. Extension, disk, and piece of neck. Con¬ dition poor. Extension has horizontal threading at bottom, and coarse screw-threading above. Length, 0.017 m. Length of neck, 0.016 m. Sides of neck taper for a little way from top, and then enlarge. Owing to small size, prob¬ ably had one ball.
806. Extension, disk, and part of neck. Con¬ dition poor. Length, 0.0435 m. Neck, 0.028 m. ; probably had one ball. Extension consists of base, 31 corrugations (lowest runs only half¬ way round), and cap. Length, 0.0175 m.
807. End gone. Disk injured. Condition poor. Length, 0.168 m. Extension consists of base, three links, and cap. Between links a single ring (two rings in all). Length, 0.017 m. Length of neck, 0.0285 m. Ball with ring at either side. Rectangle tapers slightly down¬ ward.
Discards of Type k : cleaned pieces and fragments, fifteen, of which three from south slope; uncleaned pieces and fragments, one hundred and sixty-two.
808. Uncleaned. Foot and end of pin gone. Condition poor. Length, 0.078 m. Height, 0.062 in. Consists of single piece of heavy bronze wire. Pin tapers gradually. Twists in wire accidental. Originally probably end of spit, but use as safety-pin indicated by shape. Somewhat doubtful owing to shortness of pin.
809. Uncleaned. Pin broken. Condition poor. Wire slightly thicker at head and foot than else¬ where. Never had coil. Distance between legs (outside), 0.035 m.
Somewhat doubtful.
810. End of pin gone. Condition poor. Most of hook gone. Length, 0.057 in. Height, 0.0189 in. Pin projects beyond foot. Of single piece of wire. Probable use as fibula shown by shape of bow.
number belongs here.
812. Uncleaned. End of bow and part of coil gone. Length, 0.0605 m. Bow rectangular near coil. Wire of coil smaller than bar.
ment. Length, 0.052 in. Height, 0.0101 m.
1 An analogy to this form of head may be seen in cer¬ tain bronze fibulae from Bologna (Benacci II.) of liorned snake type, in which bead is represented only by a swell¬ ing or knob. These, however, stand at the end of a de¬ velopment, not at the beginning. Montelius, Civ. Prim. It. pi. 79, figs. Id, 15, 1G. Similar with disk instead of ring, ibid. pi. 83, figs. 20, 21 (Arnoaldi). A closer parallel is offered by a pin of fibula bent to form safety-pin from Sikel village near Matera in Apulia, published by Patroni, Mon. Ant. Line. VIII. col. 497, 507, fig. 107. Other fibulae without coil, partly of secondary use, Brit. Mus. Cat. of Bronzes, Nos. 1944 f., 1935.
Form 2. With disk at foot.
814. Coil broken. Disk injured. Length, 0.0695. Rivets as in No. 813. Disk seems to have been leaf-shaped and convex.
818. From cutting above Upper Temple, to¬ ward tents, 1893. Part of pin now gone. Length, 0.1245 m. Entire pin made of single piece of wire, which is diamond-shaped except hook and bar. These latter are round. Mate¬ rial largely copper.6
different. Flat bow, Olympia, pi. xxi. No. 343.
4 Very like fibula from Lusi, Jahresh. IV. p. 52, No. 76 (Reichel and Wilhelm). Cf. fibula from Suessula, ibid. VI. p. 113, fig. 58 (Hadaczek).
Olympia, Nos. 313 and 315 ff.
6 Cf. Montelius, Civ. Prim. It. pi. 21, No. 283, from southern Italy. Exactly similar in shape, but to judge from drawing, made of rounded wire. Cf. also Olympia, No. 359, and Boehlau, Jahrb. III. p. 363 b, from Boeotia. Double-coiled spiral fibula, Nat. Mus., Athens, No. 8196.
STRAIGHT BOW.
826. F rom south slope. Foot and point gone. Length, 0.04G m. Entire pin of one bit of round wire of nearly uniform size.
Class a. Bow of uniform size.
828. Fragment. Condition poor. Length, 0.0615 m. Height, 0.0365 m. Of one bit of metal. Bow of wire slightly oval in section. Foot forms triangular blade.
829. From West Building. Fragment. Length, 0.375 m. Height, 0.0215 m. One bit of metal. Wire of uniform size.
830. Still flexible. Length, 0.038 m. Height, 0.017 m. Bow uniform in size and of wire slightly oval in section. Wire of pin larger than in spiral. Hook low and open.1
being as yet only partially developed.
832. Uncleaned. Most of foot and pin gone. Condition poor. Length, 0.0625 m. Height, 0.025 m. Form of foot uncertain.
2 Left as one holds fibula with head toward one.
3 Cf. Montelius, Civ. Prim. It. pi. 5, No. 41, from Chiusi, and pi. 50, No. 2, from Este (period I.). The latter has ring passing through head.
0.0315 m. Single piece of metal. Hook on left side. Bar oval in section, the broad sur¬ faces being on sides near foot, but on top and bottom near head.4
Form 2. Rectangular wire.
834. Found west of Second Temple. Length, 0.0665 m. Height, 0.0215 m. Foot a long thin blade with left side bent up to form hook. Color medium dark.5
shallow.7
845. Most of pin and foot gone. Length, 0.047 m. Bow has four screw-threadings. Wire flattens where it passes into coil. Head on right side. Bow of uniform size.
7 Cf. twisted bronze wire used in straight fibula from Mycenae (outside shaft-graves), No. 2563. 'Etp-q/x. ’A px1888, pi. 9, No. 1 (Tsountas). Similar pins from Lusi, Jahresh. IV. p. 52, Nos. 78, 79 (Reicliel and Wilhelm), and from Kavousi, from tomb of first part of the iron age, Am. Jour, of Arch. Second Series, Y. p. 136 (Harriet A. Boyd).
0.071 m. Height, 0.0275 m. Bow of uniform size, with four threadings. Head on right side. Type k. High bow with one or more loops.
847. Uncleaned. Pin complete. Length, 0.058 m. Height, 0.032 m. Of single piece of round wire, which flattens at foot and tapers at point. Hook low.
or head, or both.
848. Uncleaned. Head and foot gone. Con¬ dition poor. Length, 0.0585 m. Height, 0.0325 m. Loop in bar near head ; between loop and foot, liar swells.
849. Uncleaned. Head gone, foot injured. Condition poor. Length, 0.0595 m. Height, 0.043 m. Bar round, with loop slightly for¬ ward of centre, swelling near head. Another swelling between loop and hook.
850. Uncleaned. Fragment. Condition poor. Length, 0.0475 m. Height, 0.031 m. Bar with four threads. On shorter side of loop, bar rec¬ tangular. Not certain this is fibula, but proba¬ ble from shape.
851. Uncleaned. Fragment. Condition poor. Length, 0.031 m. Height, 0.061 m. Nearly uniform rounded wire, becoming rectangular at 0.017 m. from top. Head large and rudely coiled ; owing to bend of wire at rectangular part, uncertain that pin belongs in this type. Possibly it compares with the others as the head in Division I. with that of the other Divisions.
Form 2. Double loop.
852. Uncleaned. Fragment. Condition jioor. Length, 0.0665 in. Rounded wire with slight swelling just back of loops, perhaps due to ox¬ idation. Upper loop largest.
bend from angle of bow. Bar has three
1 With this form in general, cf. the essentially different Italian style. Montelius, Civ. Prim. It. pi. 16, No. 219; also ibid. pi. 72, No. 17, from Bologna (S. Francesco). 'I’lie example Olympia, No. .353, is more like the Italian.
similar, Olympia, No. 35C, with two pairs of horns.
reinforcements on each side, opposite each other, one pair at each of the outer curves and one at the inner angle.
853. Foot, pin, and part of head gone. Length, 0.06 m. Bar consists of two arches, the angle of connection being nearly right angle. Ori¬ ginally probably two full rings in coil. Coil and bar probably one piece. After forward rein¬ forcement, the broader side of bow becomes the narrower, and vice versa , indicating commence¬ ment of foot.
854. Fragment. Length, 0.0435 m. Two arches connected by heavy inverted arch. At top of left arch dumb-bell. Bar between here and coil, oval in section. The right or foot end seems to have a groove on top. Resembles ser¬ pent's head, but probably accidental.1 2
Form 1. Solid.
855. From back of South Building. Head, pin, and part of foot gone. Length, 0.0245 m. The metal oval-sliaped, broad side being up. Sides have cleft between, which leads one to suspect that pin may not be solid. Top of pin engraved with fine and rather faint diagonal lines arranged in three fields, centre and ends.
856. Head and foot gone. Length, 0.025 m. Opening in under side roughly triangular. Top engraved with diagonal lines running from cen¬ tre rib, starting on each side of middle of bow, which is left plain.3
857. Head and foot gone. Condition poor. Length, 0.0335 m. Commencement of tail lead¬ ing to coil is preserved. Engraved with lines running from centi’al rib to sides.
Type o. Sail or saucer pattern.4
858. From east of Temple, 1894. Fragment. Length, 0.077 m. Bow of three nearly round, shallow connected saucers, having their longer axis in line with axis of bow. Very slightly raised narrow band runs along the longer axis. Commencement of blade of foot.
3 Cf. Olympia, pi. xxi. No. 350.
4 Large engraved example of this type, Olympia, No. 364. Another in Berlin from Boeotia, Jabrb. III. p. 362 (Boehlau), with engraved plate. Another, ibid. p. 363 (c), without pinching of bow, i. e. navicella.
The following numbers are fragments of pins of this type, and of types more or less similar as regards the general shape of the bow.
ward. Part of coil preserved.
860. Uncleaned. Fragment. Length, 0.047 in. Bar diamond-shaped in section. At upper end, knob attached to stem by short thick neck.
shaped in section, tapering downward.
864. Fragment. Upright, with beginning of head and bow. Length, 0.094 m. Diamond¬ shaped in section, and tapers downward. Outer side of upright engraved in geometric style, with zigzags and diamond-patterns in fields. Neck between upright and bow. Commencement of bow engraved with straight and zigzag lines running lengthwise.
865. From West Building. Fragment, as No. 864. Length, 0.122 m. Diamond-shaped up¬ right, tapering downward. Between upright and bow, neck, similar to but smaller than that of No. 864. Bow engraved similarly to that of No. 864, as is also outer side of upright.
866. F ragment. Piece of upright and bow (probably). Length, 0.043 m. Upright round. Upper portion of bar rectangular. Bow flat and flaring.
867. Fragment. Part of bow and foot. Length, 0.055 m. Bow engraved on upper side. Neck similar to that of Nos. 864 and 865. Blade en¬ graved on both sides with geometric patterns, inclosed in fields.
868. End of bow and most of foot preserved. Length, 0.069 m. Middle portion of upper side of bow ornamented with straight lines. Edge seems to have had similar engraving. Neck with usual form. Blade of foot attached nearly at right angles. Both sides engraved with geo¬ metric designs inclosing a principal field, in which, on one side, head and neck of horse, on the other, probable traces of head.1
1 Cf. Olympia, Nos. 302, 302 a, with engraved geome¬ tric designs. Jahrb. III. p. 250 (Furtwangler), and pp. 301 ff. (Boeblau), 'E<prin. ’A px- 1892, pi. xi. No. 1 a (Wolters).
Class a. Upright round throughout.
869. Pin and hook gone. Length, 0.052 m. Height, 0.033 m. Ball slightly oblong. Upright joined to ball by ring and groove. Upright has four grooves in middle and others next head. Wire flat in coil. Possible that this pin belongs under the following Type q.
870. This probably belongs here, though not certain, as end of upright is gone. Length, 0.042 m. No neck between ball and upright, which has fine grooving. Foot attached to ball directly, and at end has three grooves.
or jointed.
871. Pin, part of foot and coil gone. Condition poor. Length, 0.055 m. Small ring on either side of ball. Coil and upright of one piece. A rivet-headed iron nail passes through coil, but is broken on each side.
872. F ragment. End of foot and of upright gone. Length, 0.0715 m. Upright tapers down¬ ward, and has four slight grooves 0.003 m. from ball. On shoulder four more, and four more at end of foot.
873. Fragment. Pin, coil, and part of foot gone. Length, 0.086 m. Height, 0.051 m. On right side of ball a round opening, with central part sunk much more deeply than outer part ; also edge of central hole narrower than diameter of hole itself. Depth of hole, 0.0075 m. Proba¬ bly served for insertion of ornament. Upright plain, except for raised narrow ring near shoul¬ der. Similar ring on other side of ball.3
Group ii. Round part of bow corrugated.
874. Fragment. Pin, coil, and most of foot gone. Length, 0.0365 m. Oblong rounded swelling, with sides meeting in obtuse angle. On bow, at each side of swelling, eight small corrugations.
875. From back of South Building. Frag¬ ment as No. 874. Length, 0.0685 m. On head side of bow twelve corrugations, that nearest ball being high and narrow and serving as collar : the rest diminish irregularly downward. Small col-
lar at beginning of rectangle, while at lower end the rectangular portion curves and flattens to form coil. On foot side of bow, four corrugations, of which outer two are thinner and serve as collar next to ball and flat part of foot.
Form 2. Three balls.
877. From West Building. Fragment of bow. Condition poor. Length, 0.0565 in. Oblate ball with much smaller ball on either side. Two small rings between balls. On head side of bar four rings, above which the upright has diamond¬ shaped section, and tapers down. The upper (outer) surface is worked flat. Near coil is a rivet. Probably coil was separate piece. Foot is connected with balls by neck and rings. — It is quite possible that this pin belongs under the following Type q.1
878. Fragment of bow. Condition poor. Length, 0.046 m. Balls oblate, with ring between them. Upright has small ring next to ball and eight corrugations beyond, — whether there were more originally is uncertain. Corrugations taper down in diameter, but thickness remains constant except of lowest, which is thinner. Flat part of foot begins at ball. — Possible that this pin be¬ longs under the following Type q.
879. F rom cutting above Upper Temple toward tents, 1893. Nearly perfect, though corroded. Length, 0.087 m. Height, 0.052 m. Hook on left side. Ball oblate. Upper side of bar above ball lias five ridges and is of oval form. Coil of two twists, and on bar, at beginning of coil, five faint gropves. Between ball and blade, eight ridges on upper side of bar. Hook formed by roll of lower edge of blade. Height of blade on inner edge, 0.043 in., outer edge, 0.0495 m. Width, 0.04 m.2 Type r. Three-sided solid body with hook.
Body solid, with upper sides convex and lower side concave. From middle of top projects small broken knob. Raised ring at each end of body, that on head side having oblique threading. Body projects beyond head-ring and has end worked down to form beginning of coil. Foot consists of round block and thin, flat commence¬ ment of hook. — Fact that coil seems to begin so close to body renders it unlikely that the hook had developed into the large blade of the follow¬ ing type.
881. Coil, pin, and hook gone. Body probably solid, with lines of top and bottom nearly straight. From centre body tapers toward either end. Tapper surface of sides concave, lower surface slightly convex. On plain oval standard on centre of top stands a conventionalized bird.3 The upright, rectangular in section, with outer sides concave and inner sides convex. Three grooves on outer sides at top. Below, three simi¬ lar grooves, below which the metal is worked thin, and in the thin part small hole with trace of a second. Uncertain how long this thin part was, but to it the head and pin were riveted. The rec¬ tangular blade joins body directly, the join being marked by a ring ; height, 0.048 m., width, 0.028 m. At outer top corner, an elliptical standard of two rings and a bead on which stands a bird. Type t. High bow, corrugated, tapering to¬ ward head and feet.
882. Head, pin, and most of foot gone. Length, 0.057 m. Height, 0.039 m. Corruga¬ tions about same size except at centre, which has one wider with two narrower on each side. In head end of bow, hole for insertion of wire coil.4 Type u. High bow ornamented with corru¬ gation bands and rings. Inserted heads.
end of hoio.
Group i. Wide top of foot. At head and centre, groups of two corrugations and three rings, at foot three corruga¬ tions with ring above.
883. From east of Temple, 1894. Length,
4 Differs somewhat from fibulae of sanguisuga type, e. g. Montelius, Civ. Prim. It. pi. 75, Nos. 1, 2. (Bologna, Benacci I.) Cf. Mycenae, outside tombs, No. 1349, with ribbed high bow.
0.07 m. Height, 0.049 in. Wire of head flat¬ tened slightly in coil. Groove along each shoulder of bow, and two lower rings at head grooved. In back of hook, two vertical grooves. Right side of pin less carefully finished than left.
Group ii. Masses at centre and head have two corrugations with ring at either side ; at foot, one corrugation with ring at each side. Foot broad.
884. Head and pin gone. Length, 0.0575 m. Height, 0.032 m. All corrugations have oblique threading, and all rings grooved. Traces of iron rust in hole in head. Lower edge of foot uninjured in central part. Outer edges broken about rivet-holes, between which is a rivet, prob¬ ably for the attachment of hook.
Foot about same width as bar.
885. Half of pin gone. Length, 0.043 in. Height, 0.037 m. The raised bands divided into broader central one, with two outer narrower ones ; at foot, three outer ones below. Back of foot ornamented with line on each side conver¬ ging toward bottom. Hook on right. For band between grooves, cf. No. 569.
Group iv. Each ornament consists of raised corrugation-band with grooved ring at either side. Top of foot wide.
886. Head and pin gone. Length, 0.034 m. Height, 0.0265 m. Projecting top of foot turns down at ends. Grooves in rings of head and foot heavier than in centre. Two vertical grooves on back of foot. Ornament at centre of bow and at head not carefully finished ; on left side some of engraved lines not carried through.
887. From below Upper Temple, east of Cham¬ bers, 1894. Pin gone. Rings at sides of cen¬ tre corrugation have three grooves ; those at foot and head only two. The left side of all not carefully finished. Foot has wide top, and two vertical lines on back near edge. Hook was on left. (For band and rings cf. Nos. 569 and 666.)
888. Length, 0.0511 m. Height, 0.0415 m. Completely preserved but corroded. Central band at top has fine cross-grooving, and rings at side two grooves each. Similar at head and foot. Pin inserted into hole in head, but hole is too big, so pin is wedged in ; or else end of pin is bent back so as to form wedge. Coil has two twists. Hook, which is on right, has exten¬ sion at top and two vertical grooves at back. Pin seems less carefully finished on right.
Group v. Ornaments consist of central band, with heavy ring at either side. Rings higher than band. Bow be¬ tween ornaments has fine threading.
cates that hook was on right.
Class ft- Main ornaments as in Class a, but with one or more rinejs or subsidiary corrugations , or both. , between central and end ornaments.
Group i. Secondary ornaments consist of single ring at each side of central ornament, which consists of two or more ring-corrugations side by side witli ring outside of each. End orna¬ ments have also ring between the cor¬ rugations.
890. F rom south slope, 1894. Length, 0.043 m. Height, 0.0355 m. Ornamentation less careful on right side, where is also hook, which has usual grooving.
that of Class a, Group iv.
891. Most of foot and end of pin gone. Length, 0.036 in. Height, 0.0285 m. Central ornament consists of broad ring-corrugation, with double grooved ring at each side. Ornaments at head and foot similar. Right side less carefully finished than left. Foot had extension at top, and two grooves at back.
Group iii. Principal ornament similar to that in Group ii. Secondary orna¬ ment consists of two rings side by side, on either shoulder of bow.
892. Coil and pin gone. Corroded. Length, 0.046 m. Height, 0.0305 m. Hook on right side, which was not carefully finished. Foot probably had extension, but at present it pro¬ jects only very slightly. Back of foot has usual grooves.
Group iv. Secondary ornament consists of narrow rounded corrugation with rings attached at either side. Main ornaments consist of bunches of rings (single or grooved).
893. Coil, pin. and part of foot gone. Length, 0.0435 m. Height, 0.0325 m. Central orna¬ ment is of single ring, with grooved ring on each side. (Cf. No. 657.) Ornament at head is of three grooved rings ; at foot similar, but lower ring single. Unfinished oil left side. Head and
Group v. Between central ornament and bottom ornaments on each side, a group of three rings, between which and principal ornament at either side is a single ring. Principal ornaments of type of Class a, Group iv.
894. Coil and pin gone. Length, 0.048 m. Height, 0.0355 in. Central ornament of corru¬ gation with grooved ring on each side. At head and foot, similar ornament. Secondary ornament similar, but rings not grooved. Left side not carefully finished. Pin was probably iron. Foot has wide, thin extension, and grooves at back.
895. Coil, pin, and most of foot gone. Length, 0.0605 m. Height, 0.05 m. Eings at head and foot grooved. Trace of bronze pin in head. Two small holes on right side of block at head, of un¬ certain purpose. Foot has slight extension and usual grooves. Hook was on right.
896. Coil and pin gone. Length, 0.062 m. Height, 0.055 m. At centre, two corrugations between three rings. At head, rectangular block, above which two rings, corrugation and ring of decreasing diameter ; below block, two rings, corrugation and rounded surface with engraved
radial lines. On right side, hole connecting with the hole for insertion of pin. Cf. No. 895. Sim¬ ilar ornament at foot, which is of usual shape. Hook on right, and this side less carefully fin¬ ished than left.3
Class a. Blocks round.
897. Coil, pin, and part of foot gone. From West Building. Length, 0.07 m. Height, 0.0375 m. Blocks at centre and ends all en¬ graved with central band, with ring at each side and at ends. Space between the rings filled by
899. Coil and pin gone. Length, 0.055 m. Height, 0.038 m. Hook on right. The blocks have on left side three dotted bands, separated by two broad bands, and at outer edges two nar¬ row bands, which alone are carried round other side of block. At foot, which is wider below than above, the lower outer ring coincides with extension piece. Stub of wire of pin visible at head.
Class y. Blocks of similar shape to those of Class (3, but bow , which sags at cen¬ tre, perhaps had more than three.
900. Fragment of foot and bow. Length, 0.0335 in. Height, 0.043 m. Hook on left. Bow bends down at centre, and it seems as though there had been a second block there. Left side and both narrow sides of blocks have fine irregular criss-cross. Eight side of top block has three perpendicular and two horizontal lines ; on lower block, five horizontal lines. No extension on foot, which is wider below than above.
901. Head injured, pin gone. From first chamber at east end below Cyclopean wall, 1893. Length, 0.065 ni. Height, 0.058 m. Hook on right. Edges of bow rounded. At foot and head bow is wider and thicker, thus imitating the ornaments of preceding types. These wider parts are divided into two parts by a ring, repre¬ sented on the left by deep notches at the ends and by grooves along the left side, while on the right the upper and lower parts each have groove down centre. Each of these grooves has three holes ; in one (upper inside of head end) re¬ mains of bronze rivet. At head is projection. At foot, narrow extension on inside. Two grooves on back of hook, and hole near top.
902. Fragment of bow. Length, 0.047 m. Thin bronze plates attached by rivets to one side of foot. Bow perforated with holes about 0.01 m. apart ; mostly filled up. On lower part of foot, extension with hole at either end. Perhaps this and No. 901 had bar attached at base and head by rivets, and running across. Of. No. 905.
DIVISION III. PIVOT HEAD.
Type w. High bow with three corrugation ornaments. Pin plays on rivet, pass¬ ing through head from side to side. Across bottom, transverse bar.
905. F rom West Building. Length, 0.043 m. Height, 0.039 m. Hook on right. At top, head, and foot, corrugation, with ring each side ; rings at head and foot grooved. (For lower ornaments cf. No. 658.) Cross-bar looks as if of same piece with head and foot. Pin was attached to right side.1 11
906. Pin and hook gone. Length, 0.043 in. Height, 0.024 m. (For combination of corru¬ gations cf. Nos. 634 and 682. The corrugations are also themselves of similar form.)
907. From back of South Building. Pin and hook gone. Length, 0.0325 m. Height, 0.0205 m. Hook probably on left at head, socket for pin is an eyelet attached to end of bow. Pin gone, head injured. Length, 0.0455
1 Similar cross-bar, Olympia, No. 376. In No. 377 bar is connected with centre of bow by perpendicular bar. Front of Olympia specimens ornamented with knobs. For a closer parallel cf. fibula from Ind, Athen. Mitth. XII. p.
m. Height, 0.0205 m. Hook on right. At foot is added shaft (of same piece with bow), consisting of heavy and light ring, into which is insei'ted the hook. On front of hook, three slight, straight, perpendicular grooves. On both sides of grooved band on corrugations, row of dotted circles. For corrugations cf. Nos. 635 ff. For somewhat similar ornamentation of corrugation, No. 695.
have fine oblique notching.
909. Pin and part of head and foot gone. Poor condition. Length, 0.0365 m. Height, 0.0225 m. Bronze rivet remains. At foot, a broad and narrow ring, the latter grooved.
910. Length, 0.063 m. Height, 0.035 m. Hook on right. Between middle corrugations low raised convex band, with ring at either side. Band has cross-grooves in groups of two. Foot flat and long, perhaps inserted, but probably not. Rivet bronze.
911. Pin and hook gone. Condition poor. Length, 0.034 m. Height, 0.017 m. At head, second narrow ring, slightly smaller in diameter, beneath lower side ring ; and beneath this, round shaft, to which is attached small piece of iron pin.
ing on some or all rings.
912. Pin and hook gone. Condition poor. Length, 0.037 m. Height, 0.024 m. Hook was on right. Head same as that of No. 911. Pin was of iron.2
914. Pin and most of foot gone. Condition
2 Olympia, No. 372, has bow of same shape and orna¬ ment, and appears to agree with this form in manner of attachment of pin. Regarding this method of attach¬ ment, Furtwangler makes no statement.
poor. Length, 0.037 m. Height, 0.021 m. Traces of notching on upper band of foot cor¬ rugation. Remains of iron pin. Foot was inserted.
915. From back of South Building. Pin and part of foot gone. Length, 0.041 m. Height, 0.0235 m. Remains of oblique notching on all rings and bands. Knob for pin attached directly beneath lower side ring.
916. Pin and part of foot gone. Condition poor. Length, 0.042 m. Traces of notching on lower ring of foot corrugation. Possible traces on bands of all corrugations. At foot, rectangular hook-sliaft inserted directly into bottom of ornament.
917. Fragment. Condition poor. Length, 0.045 m. Traces of oblique notching on lower side ring and band of head corrugation. Beneath lower ring of head corrugation, round exten¬ sion followed by knob for pin.
918. Pin gone. Length, 0.048 m. Height, 0.025 m. Hook on right. Traces of oblique notching on all bands and rings. Hook-shaft inserted directly into lower ring of corrugation. Type y. Ring safety-pins. Head and foot
Height, 0.023 m.
920. Pin gone. Length, 0.026 m. Height, 0.0255 m. Hook probably on left side. Rivets1 of head and foot show on upper side.
922. From West Building. Pin and hook gone. Length, 0.032 m. Height, 0.031 m. Head and foot rivets inserted, but do not show on top. Above hook, rectangular shaft. Hook was on left.
probably on left.
924. From south slope. Pin and head and foot gone. Length, 0.034 m. Height, same. In one rivet-hole, remains of iron shaft.
925. From beneath Cyclopean wall above Stoa, 1893. Pin and most of head gone. Length, 0.035 m. Height, same. Pin was of bronze.
1 To be understood here, and in the following
gone. Length, 0.0385 m. Height, same. Rivets show on top. Head formed of rectangle with knob. Upper part of foot rectangular, hollowed to form hook. On outside of hook, three grooves. Hook on left.
928. F rom West Building. Pin and head gone. Length, 0.046 m. Height, 0.045 m. Foot rivet shows on top. Hole for head rivet pierced through. Under side of foot rectangular. Hook on left.
lar combinations of surf aces.
934. Complete and in working condition. Length, 0.031 m. Height, same. Outer side of ring convex, terminating in rounded obtuse angle at centre. Two grooves along rim. In¬ ner side consists of two convex surfaces meeting at obtuse angle slightly below centre. Rivets show on top. Rectangle of head has three grooves. Rectangle of foot has two grooves. Hook on left side.
Class a. Bar th in. Edges plain.
935. Pin gone. Length, 0.026 m. Height, same. Top of ring has engraved circles. Rivets appear on top. Fragment of foot (?) left.
row of dotted circles near each edge of top. Rivet of foot shows on top. Hook on left. Upper part of foot round, and hook formed by cutting away on left side.
937. From east end of Stoa (III). Pin, head, and foot gone. Length, 0.031 in. Height, 0.035 m. On top, three concentric circles of dots.
938. Pin and foot gone. Length, 0.031 m. Height 0.032 m. Ornamented with two bands of circles. Ilead-sliaft has slightly rounded top.
939. From back of South Building. Pin and part of hook gone. Length, 0.032 m. Height, 0.0315 m. Top covered with irregular punchmarks. Rivets show on top. Hook on left side.
940. Pin and head gone. Length, 0.0435 m. Height, same. Top has row of circles. Rivet of foot shows on top. Upper part of foot below is rectangular.
grooved outer edge.
941. From south slope. Most of pin and part of hook gone. Length, 0.029 m. Height, 0.0285 m. Uncertain traces of ornament on top. Heavy groove on rim. Length of head, 0.0044 m. Piece of pin adheres to stub. Upper part of foot rectangular. Hook on left side.
942. Pin and head gone. Length, 0.0285 m. Height, 0.028 m. Rivets show on top. Foot formed of rectangle. Top of ring covered with punch-marks in three irregular circles.
943. Pin, head, and foot gone. Length, 0.0295 m. Height, 0.029 m. On top, three irregular circles of punch-marks. Rivets show on top.
944. From south slope. Pin, head, and foot gone. Length, 0.0464 m. Height, 0.0469 m. Upper side has horseshoe ornament. Rim has three grooves. Rivet-lioles pierced through ; in one, fragment of bronze. In other, fragment of iron.
945. From south slope. Foot and fragment of ring. Length, 0.017 m. Outer edge covered with fine irregular grooves. On inside same, probably due to corrosion. Hook on right side.
946. From behind South Building, 1894. Pin
1 For style cf. Olympia, No. 9G6. According to Furtwiitigler, the two ends have apotropaic sense. The Olym¬ pia specimen has two rolls under fore feet, but hook under
and hook gone. Length, 0.068 m. Mouth open. Line of back rises from withers to hips. No engraving used to indicate muscles of body, but modeling broad and careful. Four claws on each fore foot; three on hind feet. Hips spread far from body. Muscles of the hind fore legs indicated by two grooves. Tail pro¬ jects well out from body turning over back, to which it is joined, in S shape, and ending in bearded snake’s head. Groove along top of snake’s head. Eyes indicated by ridge. Beard of snake broken ; originally bent forward, fol¬ lowing curve of tail. Mane represented broadly, the metal rising sharply from behind eyes in oval round face. Faint engraved line round edge of ears. Forehead full over eyes. Nos¬ trils slight, with raised line between reaching to mouth. From this raised line branch others to sides. Eyes oblong, with upper lids plainly marked. Teeth represented by ridge. Tongue marked. Bottom of animal in two planes, run¬ ning from fore feet and tail toward centre of body. Body is hollow, but head, limbs, and tail solid. Head of fibula consists of two roll-like blocks beneath front paws ; they are connected by round shaft passing from end to end. Each roll has five slight grooves. Centre of shaft sur¬ rounded by remains of iron pin. Foot of fibula just, forward of root of tail.1 For style, see under III. 5, a (p. 203, above).
Addenda to Fibulae. The following were dis¬ carded : Type x, Group i., Class a, three of un¬ certain form. Of Group ii., one from south slope. Form 1, Class a, one. Form 2, Class a. Group i., one. Probably of Class (3, one. Type y, Form 4, Class a, one. All the above were mere fragments. Also four broken pieces of the pins (including one from south slope), and six unclassified fragments.
Probably to be regarded as decorative straight pins with ring heads. Cf. Nos. 2081 ff. Not classed as buckles, because for such use No. 947 is ineffective, and No. 948 difficult.
947. Pin very loose on ring. Diameter of ring, 0.029 m. Length of pin, 0.031 m. Ring made of piece of elliptical wire, of which ends
overlap and each after a single twist turns twice around the other. Rough threading on wire put on before the ends were twisted.1
948. From West Building. Diameter of ring, 0.02 m. Length of pin, 0.037 m. Head flat, encircling ring once. Ring of elliptical wire. Pin plays over whole circumference of ring.2
2. NEEDLE.
949. Not cleaned because patinated. From northeast coimer near Cyclopean wall, 1893. Length, 0.1565 m. Flattens at top for eyelet, but elsewhere nearly round.
2 Cf. Ridgeway, Early Age of Greece, I. p. 591, fig. 150.
3 Plain closed gold ring from Mycenae, fourth grave, No. ‘299. Heavy bronze rings with convex outside, in¬ side uncertain, still with hones in them from Salamis
PARALLEL HORIZONTAL GROOVES.
960. From West Building. Diameter, 0.02 m. Height, 0.006 m. One edge thinner than other. Band has three shallow grooves.
961. Condition poor. Open. Diameter, 0.0205 m. x 0.018 m. Height, 0.0072 m. Five grooves on outside. Ridges formed by grooves have zigzag.
962. F rom West Building. Fragment. Length, 0.0185 m. Height, 0.0025 m. Single groove round each edge. Outside of bar has two fine grooves, with band between plain, but outer bands have slight oblique notching.
ENGRAVED ORNAMENT.
964. Ring broken. Oxidized and considera¬ bly corroded. Bent. Diameter, 0.0205 m. x 0.0184 m. Height, 0.0035-0.0038 m. Thick¬ ness, 0.0006-0.0009 m. Ornament : small arc of circle ending with little circle at each end. Between ornament and beginning of inscription at right, space of 0.003 m., much corroded. At left, between ornament and last trace of letter, space of 0.002 m.
965. F rom Northwest Building. Ring cracked apart, opposite seal. Diameter, 0.0235 x 0.023 m. Length of seal, 0.012 m. Bar oval, with inner side narrow and sides partially flattened. Seal seems to be plain. Crack in ring may be inten¬ tional as surfaces are smooth.
966. From below Cyclopean wall above Stoa (III). Diameter, 0.0222 m. x 0.022 in. Bar oval, with inner side the broader. Seal thinner in centre. Length of seal, 0.0215 m. Width of seal, 0.0108 m. On seal is figure of lion seated
(Mycenaean period), Athens Mus. Nos. 3585, 3586, 3591. Small plain bronze rings from Lion tomb at Cliaeronea, Athens Mus., No. 9793. Cf. Zannoni, Scavi della Certosa, p. 67, pi. xv. No. 30 (silver), still inclosing bone.
RINGS, BRACELETS
to left. Beneath lion, a groove slanting upward to right. Tail curled hack and up. Mane in¬ dicated by vertical wavy grooves. Ear indicated. Eye uncertain. Jaw clearly marked. Figure shows Oriental influence. Above head three slight indentations, perhaps merely meant to bound field, perhaps the petals of a flower.1
967. Diameter, 0.022 m. x 0.02 in. Bar oval ; inside the narrower. Length of seal, 0.012 m. Width, 0.009 m. Groove and line of dots about edge. Design : shallow cup with projecting rim. Over this three trilobate figures.
lio ORNAMENT.
968. F rom West Building. Diameter, 0.02 m. x 0.025 m. Bar of ring decreases in size down¬ ward ; is slightly oval, with broad inside. Orna¬ mented with groups of three grooves. Seal a low truncated cone. Slight distance above bot¬ tom, a groove which seems to have contained band of whitish metal, probably electrum. De¬ sign uncertain ; perhaps rosette or beetle.
Form 1. Seal of ivory.
969. From southeast slope, 1894. When found, fragment of ivory seal was attached. Bar round, with wire coil at each side of seal. Diam¬ eter, 0.031 m. Bar oval in section, with narrow side to finger.
970. F rom back of South Building near re¬ taining wall, 1894. Diameter, 0.025 m. x 0.027 in. Bar slightly elliptical, with narrow edge inside. Ends near seal have fine wire coil, of nine or ten turns. Seal a short cylinder. Diameter, 0.0122 m. Under side plain and slightly convex. Edge di¬ vided by two heavy grooves. Each band outside of these has fine groove. Design : groove next to edge, within which a fly in intaglio ; work careful. Both pairs of wings have fine oblique grooving from top down and outward. Traces of antennae. Legs shown.
1 Cf. lion with flower in mouth on gold breastplate, from Regulini-Galassi tomb at Cervetri. Museo Gregoriano, A I pi. 28 (= Grifi, Monumenti di Cere Antica, pi. 1).
Type b. Ornamented coil.
972. One end injured. Much corroded. Di¬ ameter, 0.08 m. Bar has fine, close, uneven screw¬ threading. On uninjured end is roll, followed by five small corrugations or rings. Probably other end was treated in same way.
972 a. F rom back of South Building;. Diameter, 0.042 m. Ends have slight ridge at tip ex¬ cept on inside. Bar becomes slightly smaller as it approaches ends. Bar somewhat like that in C, Type a, Form 2 (pp. 253 ff.). On outer edges of each end two dents probably for eyes of ser¬ pent’s head. Perhaps bracelet of statuette. Plate CXXXVII.
972 b. Diameter, 0.036 m. Bar grows smaller toward ends, which terminate in thin flat disks at nearly right angles with ring. Ends 0.0125 m. apart.2
spherical beads.
973. Diameter, 0.065 m. Plain wire, tapering at ends to form hook. On wire, strung through small holes, two beads. Although of same size, no sign that they were ever joined. The beads made of strip of metal, having ends joined to¬ gether.
974. Diameter, 0.0075 m. Wire plain, taper¬ ing at hooks. Beads similar to those of No. 973. Their arrangement has been disturbed. Weld¬ ing of edges of bead almost imperceptible.
tical in section.3
977, 979 ; 994 of silver ; 978, of gold, has inside flattened. For examples of decorative use cf. British Museum, Ex¬ cavations in Cyprus, p. 102, No. 30, pi. xiv., fibula with rings on bow from Amathus. So frequently in Iron Age graves in Italy. Open rings, sometimes linked together, e.g. in Brit. Mus., Gold Room, Case T, from tomb in one of the Greek islands, — five open plain gold rings linked
Bar as that of No. 980.
together ; ends of rings smaller than centre. Similar group of rings from Encomi. Cf. Excavations in Cyprus, pi. ix. Nos. 288-295. Possibility that some of the open rings with har tapering toward ends may he earrings ; cfMyres and Ohnefalsch-lliehter, Cyprus Museum Cat. p.
1021. Diameter, 0.0354 in. Width, 0.004 m.
123 ; Orsi, Mon. Ant. Line. I. col. 863, sepoltura clxvi. from Megara Hyblaea, and IX. coll. 74, 75, fig. 27, from Pantalica. Open ring with crossed ends from Sikel vil¬ lage near Matera, Apulia, published by Patroni, Mon. Ant. Line. VIII. coll. 497, 507, fig. 108, as finger-ring.
FACES NOT DISTINCTLY INDICATED.
Group i. Outside diameter less than 0.02 m. Unless otherwise stated, all the following to No. 1099 have nearly round bar.
1049. Diameter, 0.0222 m. Width, 0.0023 rn.-0.0035 m. Poor condition renders classi¬ fication uncertain; perhaps this specimen belongs under Form 4.
1067. Diameter, 0.025 m. Width, 0.0028 in.-0.0038 m. About one half of ring larger than the other. Perhaps finger-ring.
0.041 in. Width, 0.008 in.1
Addenda, to Form 2. The openings in the following are partially due to accident, whether they were originally intended to be open or not.
Form 5. Transitional, similar to Form 4,
BUT INSIDE AND OUTSIDE ARE FORMED EACH OF THREE FLAT PLANE SURFACES, THAT IS, A CENTRAL BAND WITH A SLOPING BEVEL AT EITHER SIDE.
slope. Class 0 : one complete.
Form 4, Class a. Group ii.: eleven fragments, of which one from West Building, one from south slope, one from east end of Second Temple. Group iii.: one complete and one fragment. Class 0, Group i.: three complete and thirteen fragments, of which one from West Building, one from south slope, and two from behind South Build¬ ing. Group ii.: four fragments.
Form 2.
1358. From behind South Building. Diame¬ ter of larger ring, 0.0435 m. Width, 0.0047 m. Opening diagonal and probably original. Diam¬ eter of smaller ring, 0.032 m. Width of the same, 0.0042 m.
Form 2. Inner surfaces carried past
JUNCTION-POINT WITH OUTSIDE SURFACES, THUS MAKING INSIDE APPARENTLY THICKER THAN OUTSIDE AND OF ABOUT EQUAL AND SOMETIMES GREATER WIDTH.1
The following numbers are ornamented.
1412. Diameter, 0.0227. Width, 0.003 in. On one side of outer convexity, at inner and outer edge, row of short oblique lines close to¬ gether. Traces of similar lines on other side.
1413. Diameter, 0.0234. Width, 0.0033 m. Ornament similar to that of No. 1412. Many of the lines have arrowhead form.
hooked lines. Cf. No. 1413.
1438. Diameter, 0.0251 m. Width, 0.0039 in. On one side, inner hand of short parallel oblique lines. On other side, traces of same on both edges.
1439. From south slope. Diameter, 0.0265 m. Width, 0.004 m. One side has outer row of lines and inner row of dots ; on other side, outer lines visible, but dots uncertain.
oblique.
1443. Diameter, 0.0253 m. Width, 0.0044 m. On one side, groove at outer edge and row of ob¬ lique lines at inner edge with zigzag connecting the two.
Ornament similar to that of No. 1442.
1445. Diameter, 0.0265 m. Width, 0.00245 in. Ornament probably similar to that of No. 1442, but one row on one side doubtful.
No. 1436, I nit lines shorter.
1449. From south slope. Diameter, 0.027 m. Width, 0.0057 m. On both sides, row of short oblique lines at inner angle, and of dots just out¬ side centre.
1450. From West Building. Diameter, 0.026 m. Width, 0.005 m. Edges of opening close. Traces of ornament like preceding num¬ bers.
Addendum to Form 3.
1457. Diameter, 0.0245 m. Width, 0.0047 m. Type doubtful. Ends overlap. Both surfaces of outer convexity have band of arrowheads. Near ends are grooves encircling bar, two on one end, three and a half on other.
Form 1, Group i.: two.
Form 2, Group i.: one complete and twelve broken, of which one from behind South Building and two from south slope. Group ii.: three complete and nine broken, of which two from behind South Building.
Combin ations of Types a and c.
1458. Ring of Type a, Form 4, Class /3, Group ii., («') oxidized together with one of Type C, Form 2, Group ii., («'). First: diam¬ eter, 0.025 in. Width, 0.0023 ill. Second : diameter, 0.025 m. Width, 0.0045 m., with traces on each side of line of dots. Oxidation prevents certainty as to original condition.
1459. Ring of Type a, Form 4, Class a, Group ii., (a') joined by wire to one of Type c, Form 2, Group i., (a'). First : diameter, 0.022 m. Width, 0.0024 in. Second : diameter, 0.0233 ni. Width, 0.0034 m. Connecting wire round and of shape like No. 810.
Type h. Band rings (plain) of nearly uni¬ form thickness; inside flat or very slightly convex ; outside slightly convex.
Discard s : Form 1, one fragment.
Type j Similar to preceding, but edges are broader and protrude over inside, which thus becomes concave. One example ornamented.2
1482 From behind South Building. Diame¬ ter, 0.028 m. Height, 0.0155 m. Ornamented with engraved line around centre and irregular
zigzag at each side.3
Type k Similar to type i. Exterior con¬ vex, though portions between either edge and line of greatest convexity are con¬ cave.
1485. Diameter (inside), 0.02 m. Height, 0.0155 m. On inside, a Hat spiral band going nearly twice around middle. Width, 0.0035 m. Probably not attached.
0.0108 in. Opening straight, with beveled edges. Fine engraved line close to outer edges, and close to centre on each side. Between each two lines, zigzag. Zigzag made of minute arrowheads.
nate in rim. Closed.
1498. Fi ■oni West Building. Diameter (in¬ side), 0.021 m. Height, 0.0425 m. Each end has zigzag between centre and rim. Line of zigzag is itself a fine zigzag.
Type n. Rings of sheet bronze, sometimes rather thick, with form of plain, straight bands, with or without engraved or punched ornamentation.
1505. Bent flat. Diameter, as bent, 0.0198 m. Height, 0.012 m. About centre, zigzag, from which diverge similar zigzags, running to edges at angle.1
Height, 0.027 m. Ornamented with rows of round punch-marks struck from inside. Ringcoiled about one and a half times.
1508. Preservation poor. Bent flat. Diam¬ eter, as bent, 0.026 m. Height, 0.0363 m. Ring coiled. Ornamented with three rows of elliptical marks punched from inside. Part hid¬ den by coiling not decorated.
Width, 0.0009 m. Height, 0.0072 m.2
Type p. Rings of sheet bronze, with sides straight or nearly so, but with a raised band about centre, as though in imitation of the heavy rings of types k and 1, from which types they are, however, distin¬ guished by showing the concavity on the inside. Open.
zigzag made of a zigzag line.
1514. Diameter (inside), 0.018 m. Height, 0.0255 m. Made of two separate pieces of bronze, one inside the other, each forming com¬ plete ring. Inner ring thicker than outer. On both ends of outer ring, traces of zigzag. Sim¬ ilar to that of No. 1513.
STRUCTURAL RINGS
1519 a. From below Cyclopean wall, 1893. Fragment. Diameter (inside), 0.0175 m. Height, 0.0185 in. Zigzag as above. Possibly the two above pieces are of one ring.
0.0145 m. Usual zigzag.
1521. From south slope. Part gone. Bent open. Height of half of original, 0.0095 m. Close to edge, three fine engraved lines. Be¬ tween them and centre, usual zigzag.
1522. Condition poor. Diameter (inside), 0.02 m. Height, 0.0195 m. Two engraved lines close to each end, and zigzag between them and centre.
1523. Bent. Diameter (inside), 0.0185 m. Height, 0.023 m. Close to edge, two lines, be¬ tween which and centre, usual zigzag.
1524. Part gone. Diameter (inside), 0.0218 m. Height of half of original, 0.013 m. On one side of central raised zone, one engraved line ; on other side, two. Close to outer edge, four fine lines, between which and centre, zigzag of usual sort. Attached to inside is band, about 0.008 m. in width.
1525. Broken. Diameter (outside), 0.055 m. Width, 0.0049 m. Height, 0.0055 m. Bar plain. On one side drilled hole. On opposite side ex¬ crescence. Can hardly be any sort of fibula.
1526. Diameter, 0.049 m. and 0.052 m. Width of bar, 0.009 m. Height, 0.008 m. Outer edge forms narrow rim. Top side slopes in some¬ what. Bottom flat.
1527. From West Building. Diameter of top, 0.037 m. Diameter of bottom, 0.047 m. Top, bottom, and inside about flat. Outside slightly concave. Above bottom, engraved line.
1529. F rom West Building. Diameter,
1 Cf. flat disk rings of diameter 0.02 m. to 0.1 m., with holes slightly larger than one third diameter. Mus. Kircheriano, Prov. di Cosenza, Commune di Spezzano Albanese,
0.0423 m. Inside diameter, 0.0225 m. Height, 0.005 m. Outer side beveled toward top and bottom. Upper bevel concave. Under side flat, but inner edge (leveled.
1529 a. Diameter, 0.0868 m. Diameter (in¬ side), 0.05 m. Height, 0.0105 m. Upper outer surface slopes down and out, with slight convex¬ ity. Upper inner surface slopes in with concav¬ ity. Under surface flat. Upper outer surface has two heavy grooves near top, and two lighter ones near bottom.
1530. Nearly half gone. Diameter, 0.0465 m. Height, 0.006 m. Same general shape as No. 1529, but outer edge corrugated with angular teeth.
flat. Outer edge corrugated.
1532. Fi •om behind South Building. Diame¬ ter, 0.04 m. Diameter (inside), 0.009 m. Out¬ side slants up and lias uneven, broad, low corru¬ gations. Top slants inward, at first sharply, then gradually. Bottom flat. Near edge a groove, on either side of which are semicircles adjoining one another.
1534. Diameter, 0.0475 m. Diameter (in¬ side), 0.022 m. (Height inside), 0.006 m. (out¬ side), 0.001 m. No distinction of upper and under sides. Both slightly convex.
1535. Half gone. Diameter, 0.028 m. Di¬ ameter (inside), 0.018 m. Height, 0.002 m. Top slopes to outer edge, which has blunt pointed teeth.
1536. Diameter, 0.057 m. Diameter (inside). 0.035 m. Height, 0.0065 m. Upper side of two surfaces ; both concave, and sloping downward. Under side convex.
around hole.
1538. Diameter, 0.042 m. Diameter (inside), 0.0115 in. Height, 0.008 m. Around hole, neck. Upper surface slopes down and out convexly. Under side slopes up and into neck.
1539. Diameter, 0.0645 m. Diameter (in¬ side), 0.028 m. Height, 0.01 m. Neck tapers down. Top of neck flat. Upper surface convex. Inner surface slants upward and inward convexly. Type k.
1540. Ed ges look broken. Diameter, 0.042 m. Outside of top and sides smooth ; inside rough. Looks like cap for end of bar.
Type b. Bar irregularly rectangular.
1546. Diameter, 0.088 m. Diameter (inside), 0.067 m. Width, of bar, circ. 0.004 m. Bar mostly rectangular, but projecting end twisted and flattened. Object uncertain, but the elabo¬ rate knot can hardly be unintentional.
1552. Length, 0.017 m. Diameter, 0.0225 m. Hole rectangular. One end slightly smaller than other and across it a groove. Convex from centre to ends.4
1553. Uncertain whether complete. Plain rounded wire coiled once with ends hanging down straight. Length, 0.022 m. Diameter of coil. 0.016 m. One end (and probably other) swells into small knob.
1554. E lorn east of Second Temple. Ilorseshoe-shaped wire, with ends bent outward and on each a disk. Height, 0.0265 m.
1555. From south slope. Three rings at¬ tached in triangular form. Diameters, 0.017 m. ; 0.0185 m. ; 0.0185 in. On one side engraved line between rings.5
and three above middle.
1557 Height, 0.0385 m. Base square, 0.017 m. Lower part sides concave, pyramidal. At top, eyelet, and between this and base, a disk. Bottom has incuse cross. Might serve as seal.11
1558. Height, 0.0365 m. Round base with bar rising from centre. Bar consists of two con¬ cave surfaces meeting in projecting angle. At top of upper surface a grooved ring, above which an eyelet. Rounded gable top with two grooves. Height of disk, 0.0077 in. It is hollow with bars across, dividing it into six compartments. Possibly a seal.
Type a. Entirely plain. Thin.
1560. Length, 0.042 m. (handle, 0.018 in.). Diameter of disk, 0.0265 m. Probably not a real mirror, but an imitation for votive purposes.
6 Cf. Olympia, No. 462. Also Mus. Kirclieriano, 56988 (Provincia di Mantova), Commune di Casalromano, Necrop. di Fontanella. It is somewhat larger.
1561. From behind South Building. Condi¬ tion poor. Length, 0.14 m. (handle, 0.065 m.). Diameter of disk, 0.075 m. Made of two very thin sheets, of which outer surfaces are exactly alike, stuck together.
1565. Edge of disk bent over. Piece of han¬ dle end gone. Length, 0.235 m. (handle, 0.105 m.). Rosette engraved about suspension hole, and at upper end of handle, a form of palmette. Disk slightly convex on ornamented side.
1566. Much corroded surface. Length, 0.23m. (handle, 0.0985 m.). Thickness of disk, 0.0008 in.-0.0017 m. Disk slightly convex. Rosette engraved round suspension hole, and above this, forming base to main design, three lines with oblique lines from centre line to outer ones. At top of handle the projections have irregular spiral. Between these run two lines with ir¬ regular criss-cross between them. Between this band and the lower one, bearded ithyphalic satyr to right (head to left) with cylix held over head in raised left hand. Feet have form of horse’s hoof.1
Type c. Thin and plain except for border of dots in repousse about disk and handle. Most are small and not for actual use. Rim bent back slightly, outside dots giving appearance of convexity.2
1571. F rom cutting above Old Temple toward tents. Edges and handle broken. Length, 0.04 m. (handle, 0.013 m.). Diameter of disk, 0.0262 m.
1581. Broken in two pieces. Surface much cor¬ roded. Length, 0.134 m. Thickness, 0.0003 m.0.0008 m. At top of central field, band with engraved braid of four coils. Within coils, a dotted circle, and dots between the two circles, others outside. At top of upper field, between ears zigzag between lines. Lower end of handle has rosette round three sides of suspension hole and zigzag beneath it, with dots opposite the openings. Above rosette, a zigzag between lines, and over the latter, row of dots surmounted by straight line. In main field of handle, a bearded draped figure to left.8 Wears talaric chiton and himation, the latter covered with scale pattern. Lower part of tunic has four rows of pleats. Left arm raised. Diadem on head. On either side of figure inscription : see Appendix , p. 332.
1587. Lower end gone. Upper end damaged. Remaining portion broken into seven pieces. Length, 0.19 m. Made of sheet of bronze rolled over at edges. Repousse band down centre. Along edges and centre band runs a simple twist pattern made of double lines. Foot of handle has criss-cross of fine lines at top and traces of other decoration below. Rivet in centre and at left side.
1588. Di ameter, 0.1305 m. About edge of front, raised beaded rim. Surface rises gradu¬ ally to centre. Inside rim, horseshoe or leaf pattern, with double lines. Within this, en¬ graved line, followed by double braid pattern, the basis of which is formed by a zigzag of curved line, with a dotted circle at every angle. Within this two engraved lines. In centre of each side, a minute depression, probably due to compasses of draughtsman. Back concave and has six engraved double concentric circles. Edge of back plain.
Length, 0.066 m. Hole punched in lower part.
1589 a. Both ends gone. Length, 0.026 m. Object uncertain. Disk on slightly lower level than handle on side from which dots are struck, the depression coming between the rows of dots.
of smaller end.
1591. F rom behind South Building. One end gone. Length (about), 0.027 m. Dots at ir¬ regular intervals along edge and near centre.
parallel to edge.
1593. Fragment, perhaps from centre of dia¬ dem, or girdle. Length, 0.059 m. Single curved row of dots along centre. Possibly not of diadem, but of sheet metal for covering.
1594. From behind South Building. Frag¬ ment of hook end of diadem-like ornament. Length, 0.0135 m. Dots along each side coming together at hook. One side convex. Hook made by bending over of end of sheet of metal, and perhaps accidental.
1596. Ends gone. Length, 0.062 m. Three rows of dots, of which two are continued round broad end and two dots on ridge in centre. Plate XCIX.
1597. Fragment ; one end gone. Length, 0.137 m. Corrugations only go about two thirds round end. Along edges of flat part (or blade), on one side seems to be zigzag; other side plain.
1598. Similar to No. 1597. Length, 0.1455 in. Under side of end flat as in No. 1597. Front of blade has double zigzag along edges.
Rings and corrugations of end run all the way round. On one side a double zigzag on blade ; double groove along edges and perpendicular zigzag lines running across blade from opposite angles of main zigzags. Other side plain.1
Discards : seven complete, six (two from South Build¬ ing) nearly complete, and ten fragments (one fragment behind South Building, and one from south slope).
0.0037 m. x 0.0035 m.
Olympia, No. 717. For possible use for disks with edge, see necklaces on archaic terra-cotta figurines from Terraveccliia, Mon. Ant. Line. VII. coll. 239-241 (Orsi).
1 For use, note sarcophagus of Crepereia Tryphaena (Mus. Cap., Rome; found, 1889), containing plain bronze disk about four inches in diameter. Bulletl. Commiss. Com. 1889, pp. 175, 496.
1717. Diameter, 0.075 m. In centre, boss. Near edge, hole, 0.002 m. in diameter. Concav¬ ity probably not original. Next to boss, rays followed by ring of dots. Outside ring of dots, a ring of arrow points.
1718 a. Fragment.
1718 b. Fi •agment. Bent. Radius about 0.07 m. Rosette of punched dots at centre, outside of which broad zigzag, the line of which is itself a narrow zigzag. Beyond, two rows of dots, and a narrower zigzag. On edge, single row of dots.
One edge beveled.
1745. Both ends gone. Length, 0.09 in. Width, 0.0085 m. One edge beveled, and nar¬ row raised band along other edge on one side.
1746. One end complete, other perhaps so. Length, 0.0562 m. Width, 0.0117 m. Thick¬ ness, 0.0015 ni.-0.0028 in. All edges slightly beveled. At one end a B. See Appendix. Type d. Large plain.
1747. Seems complete. Bent in middle. Length, 0.47 m. Width, 0.0575 m. Six holes punched through, in one of which (at end of band) are remains of iron rivet.
1748. Part of one end preserved. Length, 0.0683 m. Width, 0.018 m. On one side, dots in double circle connected by tangents. Groove along edges.
1749. Uncleaned because patinated. Found north of West Building near surface. Ends gone. Length, 0.04 m. Width, 0.008 m. Di¬ vided into three fields by two engraved lines. The larger middle field has circles connected by tangents, the two outer fields have semicircles opening outward.
1750. Ends broken. Length, 0.121 m. Width (centre), 0.0154 m. Ends slightly wider. One side has rounded band along centre, with zigzags of double line on each side.
Dots and semicircles.
Discarded of Type a: thirty-seven fragments, of which five were from behind South Building, one from south slope, and four from West Building.
Type b. Rectangular. In centre on long axis, a raised convex band. All except two have zigzags ; of these one (No. 1783) may have had; the other is No. 1792, in which the zigzag is apparent rather than real.
Form 1. Incuse.
1794 (on Plate CIIL). From south slope. Size, 0.044 in. x 0.0445 m. Made of two sheets of bronze folded at edges. Ornament : round depression in centre ; this and corners have hollows and rings arranged geometrically.
1795. Length, 0.0475 m. Width, 0.0325 m. Along edges, dots. In centre, depression with irregular knob in centre, on which knob are repousse dots. At each end, similar figure. Holes in corners with bronze nail in one.
Form 2. Repousse.
1796. Length, 0.0465 m. Width, 0.024 m. Nail holes at corners. Dots on edges. Down centre a long heavy oval, each end forked. Large raised dots on each side of oval.
1816. Fragment. Length, 0.065 m. Width, 0.037 m. The resemblance of this as well as of No. 1817 and No. 1818 to primitive idols (cf. 'Efoifi. ’A px- 1898, pi. ii. No. 2) is probably quite accidental.
Plates CVI., CVII.
1824. Fragment. From West Building. Height, 0.0266 m. Width (top), 0.022 m. Thick¬ ness too slight for accurate measurement. Two rows of punched letters. Irregular in size. Space between lines, 0.0015 m.— 0.003 in., but between lower line and bottom edge, 0.0065 m.0.008 m. ; hence it is possible these are the last two lines of the inscription. See below, No. 1825, and Appendix, p. 332.
1825. Left edge seems to be original. Possi¬ ble that upper edge is also. Corroded. Height, 0.0225 m. Width, 0.0175 m. Resembles No. 1824. F rom style of letters (especially the sigma), reading from left to right would be ex¬ pected, though they can be read from right to left. It would be possible to place this fragment loosely to right of No. 1824, thus making it lower
in which case one must assume the lower edge to recede from the letters so as to be 0.0045 m. from $ and 0.008 m. from A. The alignment also is awkward. Use of § in retrograde period is against such reading, though the general char¬ acter of the letters, etc., is the same.
1826.2 Edges at top and bottom smooth, and for the most part slightly beveled. Considerable portions gone from ends. Something depends on interpretation of ■ T in first line. If it represents a paragraph, one must assume that the inscrip¬ tion was written on several sheets, one above the other, and that one piece is one of these sections. Condition of bronze poor. Corrosion continued after being cleaned. Besides the main piece («)
four feet below the surface, April, 1895. Rogers, Am.
there are several fragments, i. e. (b) at the left of the fourth and fifth lines, (e, d, e ) at the right of the sixth line. Letters punched rather deep considering thinness of plate.
ara/x0ap|§| Letter on right probably a </>, as tail is shorter (0.0025 m.)than that of the p’s (0.0038 in. -0.005 m.). At left end of line slight trace of bevel.
Lille 3 (right to left) .... pta7reSaT i: (Taieypa(t<it :: cray Beyond the y a trace of an oblique stroke, probably of M. To the left of the p. traces of letter, probably A.
Line 4 (left to right). ( ... Ka ... ) ava tov :: lie aAAo ti Ka<?or :: h The Ka are on Fragment b. Edge at left of first a of main piece is slightly concave, but preserves no trace of oevel owing to corrosion.
Line 5 (riglltto left), ol •• etelcrtqic . ei: ortorye . . 7 r . . . To left of the -n- traces of letter or let¬ ters. Of the possible combinations M (oTLoi'xlcnr) t
seem the most likely. To left of second e are traces of upper and side stroke of 1 ; it cannot be B owing to e preceding.3 Last straight stroke on left is of a T, Y, or ?, more probably the last. To left of this on Fragment b is part of o, the remainder of the outline being on left edge of the main fragment. Fragments a and b join at this lower edge of the o. At the left, right bevel of an upright hasta.
Line 6 (left to right). os :: 7 rpo po os :: efrrp Between the first two p’s, probable traces of a tt ; and between the following two o’s no certain traces of a letter. Fragments c, d , e join the right end of line. Letters are uncertain. Word may be c^pINAI or e^7rp MAI, according to which end of Fragment c is considered to come at top. Frag¬ ment e is a small bit giving the upper end of right hasta of the a.
paSep. Between the o and y no certain traces of letter. At the left end of line, bevel of left hasta is continued only about halfway down, but as the bevel is perpendicular, and the line of
1828. Broken at larger end and perhaps at smaller. Length, 0.051 m. Width (in centre), 0.0295 m. Trace of hole in edge of broader end.
Small hole in centre.
1830. From south slope, 1894. Six-pointed star witli loop between points. In alternate points rivets which formerly held bronze plate. Diameter, 0.048 m.
1831. Three strips of bronze ; one attached at right angles to ends of others. Length of cross-bar, 0.084 m. Length of other strips, 0.10 111. and 0.086 m. (broken). Cross-bar plain, other bits have dots on edges. Small hole in centre of cross-bar.
1832. Fragment, doubtful whether of this class. Two small bits fastened together. Length, 0.03 in. Width of longer strip, 0.01 111.
a. Cut.1
1833. From behind South Building. Length, 0.065 m. Condition poor. Length, 0.05 111. Along bit of original edge, row of dots. Head and neck of a bird.
1835. Bit of original edge on two sides. Length, 0.038 111. Probably bit of bird’s wing or of snake. With this and No. 1836, cf. Olym¬ pia, , Nos. 720, 721.
Perhaps bit of bird.
1837. From behind South Building. Two fragments that fit together. Combined length, 0.094 m. Decoration of punched double circles, rectangles, and drops. Probably represents a dolphin.
1838. From south slope. Three fragments of a left eyebrow, eyeball, lower lid, and low horn (height, 0.007 in.), which was between the eyes. Length, 0.036 m. Possibly from head of griffin. (Cf. Olympia , Nos. 714, 715, 715 a, and 691.)
J. UNCERTAIN OBJECTS.
1839. Shorter straight edge broken. Length, 0.028 m. Width, 0.042 m. Rivet at one corner fastening small piece to larger. Decorated with punched dots.
Seems complete.
1843. From behind South Building. Condi¬ tion poor. Two plates with toothed edges fas¬ tened together by rivets along edges. Lower plate, 0.1025 m. x 0.064 m. Upper plate, 0.106 m. x 0.063 m.
1844. Convex piece. Diameter, 0.028 m. With three engraved lines about edge. In centre, small knob of iron pierced by hole.
8. LEAVES.
1847. Ends broken. Length, 0.0715 m. Width, 0.044 m. Axis of leaf concave-convex. Decorated on both sides with lines and zigzag. Perhaps was cast and then hammered.
9. LEATHER GEAR.
1849. E rom behind South Building. Three links each made by twisting bronze wire. Total length, 0.373 rn. Largest link, length, 0.145 m. Wire of first link round except at one end. In second link wire less regular, about half being
rectangular, and having near centre two swell¬ ings, and toward one end engraved diagonal lines. Third link of two strands, one being rec¬ tangular. Color indicates much copper. Made by hammering probably. Object is imitation of bit of leather gear, probably of harness. (Cf. somewhat similar piece, Olympia, pi. v. No. 37.)
a. One handle.
1850. From above Upper Temple toward tents. Handle gone. Diameter, 0.059 m. Thickness, 0.0005 m. Edge with two rows of small dots close together.
1851. F rom south slope. Handles broken. Returning ends (ears) preserved. Diameter, 0.0595 m. In centre, boss surrounded by circle of small dots. Outside these, star pattern punched likewise from bottom. Around outer edge, two rows of dots, of which inner concave. Two rows of dots also around handles, of which the inner is concave. At left of upper handle, part of row of concave dots between inner circle and star.
2. Depressed. Handles small. Rim wide. Similar to preceding Form (with this Form in general cf. Olympia , No. 884 b. The type seems to be rare at Olympia. Cf. also small bronze patera from Tiryns, Tiryns, p. 170).
handle arranged horizontally.
1852. From south slope. Handles gone. Rim injured. Diameter, 0.118 m. Width of rim, 0.01 m. Near one handle, four convex dots in two groups.
on either side of handle.
1853. Handles gone. Rim injured. Diame¬ ter, 0.0567 m. Width of rim, 0.007 m. Handles had pointed ears. In centre of plate, convex dot. Plate CIX.
1854. Condition poor. Part of one handle
left. Diameter, 0.06 m. Width of rim, 0.0075 m. Ears of handles roughly pointed. Dots on rim as in No. 1853. Single row of dots on handle. Dot in centre of plate.
dots on outer edge of rim.
1857. From back of South Building. Frag¬ ment of rim and handle. Length, 0.039 rii. Opposite base of handle, inner row of dots.
dition poor, about half gone. Diameter, 0.098 m.
1859. Fragment of rim and handle. Diame¬ ter, circ. 0.085 m. Row of dots on handle and ear, and five dots opposite handle and ear in groups of three and two.
1860. F rom south slope. One handle gone. Diameter, 0.088 m. Width of rim, 0.007 m. In centre, rather large dot. Lines around edge ap¬ proximately parallel.
dle and rim.
1861. Condition poor. Diameter, 0.052 m. Width of rim, 0.0085 m. Dots rather oblong and so close as to have effect of row of lines.
tre, large dot.
Group iii. Similar to Group i., but with triangle of three dots opposite each end of handle and inside dot-ring of rim. Double ring of dots around rim.
1862. From south slope. Handles broken. Diameter, 0.0725 m. Width of rim, 0.0085 m. Across ends of handle, double row. Dots of tri¬ angle are larger and probably struck after the other rows of dots, as is shown by the smaller dots appearing on the surface of the larger ones. In centre, slight depression, perhaps acci¬ dental.
1863. Condition poor. Diameter, 0.068 m. Triangles of dots same as in No. 1862. In centre, large dot. Lines about bottom irregu¬ lar.
£. Around outer edge of bottom , row of dots , inside of which zigzag of straight lines , both dots and zigzag being struck from upper side.
Group i. Row of convex dots about han¬ dle and on ears. Triangle of three convex dots opposite ends of han¬ dles.
1866. Illustration shows under side. Condi¬ tion poor. Diameter, 0.055 m. Width of rim, 0.007 m. Dots on handle, ears, and rim slightly larger than those round edge of base. Still larger convex dot in centre.
1867. From above Upper Temple toward tents. One handle mostly gone. Diameter, 0.055 m. Width of rim, 0.0055 m. Dots ab¬ sent from one ear. Convex dot in centre.
south slope. One handle gone. Diameter, 0.093 m. Width of rim, 0.01 m. Dots only on one ear. In centre, low boss, in centre of which dot. This dot struck from upper side.
Group iii. Similar to Group i., but rim has on inner edge ring of crescents (open side outward), struck from un¬ der side.
1869. From south slope. One handle, one ear of other handle, and parts of rim and bot¬ tom gone. Diameter, 0.04 m. Width of rim, 0.005 m. In centre of bottom, convex dot.
?/. Around outer edge of bottom , ring of truncated ellipses opening outward. These ellipses struck from upper side. Dots on liaudle, ears, and around rim. On rim opposite handles and inside ring of dots, three dots in triangle as before ( Class £, Group i.). All these dots struck from under side.
1870. From south slope. Rim and bottom damaged. Diameter, 0.074 in. Width of rim, 0.0085 m. In centre of bottom, small convex dot. Punch employed for striking ellipses had broad edge (width, 0.0009 m.) with sharp cor¬ ners.
6. Around outer edge of bottom , ring of dots , inside of which, ring of semicircles or truncated ellipses opening outward. These dots and semicircles (or ellipses ) struck from upper side.
Group i. Semicircles. On handle and portion of rim opposite, dots together with triangles of three dots. All these dots struck from under side.
1871. One handle gone. Rim damaged. Diameter, 0.046 m. Width of rim, 0.0045 m. In handle, hole punched from above. In bottom, convex dot.
1872. One handle gone. Rim and bottom damaged. Diameter, 0.063 m. Width of rim, 0.0085 m. In centre, hole (diameter, 0.003 m.) punched from beneath. Dots in triangles larger than those on handle and bottom.
Group ii. Truncated ellipses.1
(ah) Dots on handle and ears. Tri¬ angle of dots on rim opposite ends of handles. All these dots struck from under side.
VASES AND CAULDRONS
(/V.) Dots on handles and part of rim that is opposite. Besides, triangles of three dots opposite ends of han¬ dles. All these dots struck from beneath.
1874. One handle, one ear, and part of bot¬ tom gone. Diameter, 0.057 m. Width of rim, 0.004 m. In centre of bottom, dot.
(V.) Row of small dots on handles and outer edge of rim. Inside this row, opposite ends of handles, triangles of three dots. Dots on ears. All these dots struck from under side.
1875. One ear and part of one handle gone. Diameter of disk, 0.112 m. Extreme diameter, 0.142 m. Width of rim, 0.0105 m. In centre of bottom, row of six oblong dots. At side of interspace between the two central dots, two small dots close together. All these dots struck from beneath. Punch did not carry outer line of ellipses as far toward open ends as it did the inner line, thus making figures look from upper side as though struck with two separate instru¬ ments.
3. Depressed. Narrow rim. No handle.
1876. Plate shows under side. From south slope. Condition poor. Diameter, 0.067 m. Width of rim, 0.003 m. On rim, ring of small dots struck from under side. Also hole in rim (diameter, 0.002 m.), punched from beneath.
1877. (Photograph and copy of inscription.) Rim abraded. Much corroded and oxidized. Diameter, 0.109 m. Width of rim, 0.01 in. Thickness of bottom, perhaps about 0.001 m. Rim thinner. On under side of rim, stroke made with hollow punch (diameter, 0.002 m.), which shows on upper side as dot (lower right side of photograph). In opposite side of rim, hole (now broken out) struck with hollow punch from un¬ der side (diameter, 0.0024 m.).
1878. F rom south slope. Edge considerably damaged. Corroded and much oxidized. Di¬ ameter of top, 0.0685 m. ; of bottom, 0.06 m. Height, 0.007 m. Thickness, 0.0018 m. On outside, near bottom, narrow band with grooves
at either side. Also groove 0.001 in. from top for part of circumference. Space between upper and first lower grooves occupied by in¬ scription. (See Appendix.) On bottom of plate near centre, mark or scratch (y). Bottom slightly convex on upper side and concave be¬ neath. Forms sharply defined angle with sides, b. Platters (Fragments of outer edge only).
1879. Condition poor. Length, 0.11 m. Width, 0.08 m. Thickness, 0.0006 in. and less. Near outer edge, broad low roll. Similar but wider rise near inner edge. Inside this, possible trace of end of petal of rosette.
1880. Convex edge seems to be original. Con¬ dition poor. Length, 0.135 m. Width, 0.042 m. Fragment does not seem to have had other dots than those which appear in photograph. Origi¬ nal design not clear. Color reddish. Flexible.
1881. From back of South Building. No original edge preserved. Length, 0.026 m. Width, 0.02 m. Ornamented with large and small dots struck from upper side.
1882. Two fragments, a and b. Fragment a from back of South Building. Outer edge pre¬ served. Condition poor. Length of a. 0.017 m. ; width, 0.0315 m. Length of 5, 0.067 m. ; width, 0.031 m. Thickness of both, 0.0002 m. Flat. Photographed and drawn from concave side of dots. On same side, series of light strokes of hollow punch (see drawing), perhaps anterior to dots. They seem to be merely ornamental, but the design is not clear. For reading of dots, see Appendix.
1883. Fra gments a, b , c. Fragment b omitted from drawings because reversed. Junction of b and c in photograph not certain. Fragment b broken from a after cleaning. Outer edge only preserved. Condition poor. Length of «, 0.081 m.; width, 0.047 m. Length of b. 0.018 m.; width, 0.005 m. Length of c, 0.138 m. : width, 0.041 m. Flat except for low convex ridge at
centre and border of platter.
Inscription in dotted letters punched from above, the base of the letters being toward the outside of the plate. Besides the dots of the inscription, which are heavily punched, there are fainter dots and circles (i. e. light strokes of hollow punch) with which they seem to have no relation. For these dots, see drawing on Plate ; and for inscription, see Appendix. Flexible. Color reddish.
1884. Outer edge preserved. Condition poor. Length, 0.171 m. Width, 0.0595 m. Original diameter, about 0.435 m. Height of rim, 0.006 m. Two connected semicircles of dots. At left, three large and six small dots in irregular oblique line. Color reddish. Flexible.
1885. F l'om back of South Building. Frag¬ ment of edge with a piece of centre. Condition poor. Length, 0.11 m. Width, 0.107 m. Height of rim, 0.005 in. In edge, letter T. Height, 0.215 m. Between edge and centre, low roll, beginning at top of letter. Width, 0.012 m. Color reddish. Flexible.
1886. Fragment of edge broken off at begin¬ ning of roll which separated edge from centre. Condition poor. Length, 0.135 m. Width, 0.047 m. Height of rim, 0.0025 in. Original diameter, about 0.45 m. Inscription in rather large dots, many of which are roughly triangular. See Appendix. Color reddish. Flexible.
1887. Broken on all sides. Condition poor. Length, 0.047 m. Width, 0.0353 m. At one end, letter of heart-shaped dots punched from above. See Appendix.
1888. Two fragments, a and b , which seem to belong together. Condition poor. — Frag¬ ment a. Broken on all sides. Length, 0.017 in. Width, 0.032 in. Five large dots forming arc of a circle perhaps from an 0 or a A. — Frag¬
ment 5. Broken on all sides. Size, 0.0365 m. x 0.018 in. Two lines, one of two, the other of three dots, converging toward each other. Per¬ haps a K or an A. The order of these frag¬ ments is arbitrary.
1889. Two fragments (a and 6) which from style of letters and texture of bronze seem to come from same object. Arrangement arbitrary, being based on possibility that right end of a joins lower left corner of 5, and that they thus form the projecting corner of a piece of coating. In this case the bottoms of the letters were toward the top of the object. Lower edge of Fragment a seems to be original, that of b may be. Condition poor. Length of Fragment a , 0.06 m.; width, 0.041 in. Length of Fragment b, 0.079 m.; width, 0.038 m. — Inscription in dots punched from above. See Appendix. On same side circles or rings struck with hollow punch independent of inscriptions, and perhaps earlier, c. Saucers.
SIMILAR FORM OF DISK. PLAIN.
1890. Two cracks in edge due to flattening. Diameter, 0.028 m. Near centre, hole struck with solid punch from under side. Diameter, 0.002 m. Bottom rises very slightly, perhaps accidentally.
1891. Diameter, 0.0325 m. Near centre, hole (diameter, 0.0015 m.) probably struck from under side with hollow punch. About it bottom l'ises very slightly in irregular circle about 0.012 m. in diameter, perhaps owing to blow from punch.
Cf. shallow bronze saucer from Mycenae, out¬ side shaft-graves, Mus. No. 2343, and Schliemann, Tiryns , pi. xxvii. b (terra-cotta). For use cf. sarcophagus of Crepereia Trypliaena, found, 1889, in Rome (Prati di Gastello), now in Mus. dei Conservatori, containing small saucer of sim¬ ilar form. Bullett. Commiss. Com., 1889, pp. 175, 496.
Group i. Outline, continuous flat curve. Sides, scarcely distinguishable in smaller specimens, gradually increase in prominence. No rim.
punch.
1894. (Shows top.) Condition poor. Diame¬ ter, 0.049 m. Height, 0.01 in. Near top, hole (diameter, 0.0017 m.) cut with hollow punch.
bottom, as centre is not preserved.
1899. (Shows top.) Diameter, 0.027 m. Height, 0.005 m. Near top, hole (diameter, 0.0025 m.) struck from inside with hollow punch.
1901. (Shows top.) From back of South Build¬ ing. Less than half preserved. Diameter, 0.0975 m. Height, 0.023 m. Bottom very thin, but sides thicken to 0.0018 m. On outside near top, three fine encircling lines close together. Between low¬ est and middle lines a fourth line runs part way round. [On Plate wrongly numbered 1981.]
1903. Shows top. From back of South Build¬ ing. About one third gone. Diameter, 0.0386 m. Height, 0.014 m. Near centre, hole punched roughly from above with solid rectangular punch. Size, 0.003 m. x 0.005 m.
Group iv. Nearly flat bottom, from which sides are plainly differentiated, but by rounded angle. Rims not empha¬ sized.
Group vi. Similar to Group v., but heavier, without emphasis of rim, and with a more rounded curve between side and bottom.
Group i. Small round hole near edge.
1908. (Shows top.) Diameter, 0.023 m. x 0.0257 m. Height, 0.0038 m. Near edge, hole (diameter, 0.0017 m.) cut with hollow punch. Diameter of boss, 0.006 m.
1909. From south slope. Diameter, 0.0314 m. Height, 0.003 m. Near top, hole (diameter, 0.002 m. x 0.0028 m.) struck with hollow punch from inside. Diameter of boss, 0.007 m.
1910. Diameter, 0.032 m. Height, 0.002 m. Near edge of top, hole (diameter, 0.002 m.) as in No. 1909. Diameter of boss, 0.0075 m.
1911. From back of South Building. Con¬ dition poor. Diameter, 0.0355 m. Near edge, hole (diameter, 0.0015 m.). Diameter of boss, 0.008 m.
1912. From south slope. Condition poor. Diameter, 0.039 m. Height, 0.0038 m. Near edge, hole (diameter, 0.0013 m.) as in No. 1909. Diameter of boss, 0.008 m.
1913. Condition poor. Diameter, 0.04 m. Height, 0.0043 m. Near edge, hole (diameter, 0.0018 m.) as in No. 1909. Diameter of boss, 0.0047 m.
1914. (Shows top.) Condition poor. Diam¬ eter, 0.041 m. Near edge, hole (diameter, 0.0019 m.) as in No. 1909. Diameter of boss, 0.01 m.
1915. One fifth gone. Diameter. 0.0455 in. Height, 0.0045 m. Near edge, hole (diameter, 0.002 in.) as in No. 1909. Diameter of boss, 0.0065 m.
of boss, 0.009 m.
1917. Condition poor. Diameter, 0.064 m. Height, 0.0175 m. Near top, hole (diameter, 0.002 m.) as in No. 1909. Diameter of boss, 0.0105 m.
1918. Condition poor. Diameter, 0.65 in. x 0.07 m. Near edge, hole (diameter, 0.0018 m.) as in No. 1909. Diameter of boss, 0.013 m.
1919. Condition poor. Diameter, 0.085 m. Height, 0.015 m. Near edge, hole (diameter, 0.002 m.) uncertain whether cut or corroded. Diameter of boss, 0.015 m.
1921. (Top.) Half gone. Diameter, 0.123 m. Near edge, hole (diameter, 0.002 m.) as in No. 1909. Diameter of boss, 0.037 m.
lines and dots in various patterns.
All the completed rims have small round per¬ foration. Incomplete specimens without perfo¬ ration are arranged with them. In the same way are included a few fragments which do not contain portions of centre, inasmuch as all the complete examples with similar ornamentation have boss.
Group i. Bow of dots about boss.
1924 a. (Shows top.) About one fourth gone. Much oxidized. Diameter, 0.0285 in. Height, 0.003 in. Diameter of boss, 0.005 m. Near edge, dot.
1925. (Shows top.) Diameter, 0.035 m. Height, 0.0034 m. Diameter of boss, 0.0085 m. Near edge, nearly rectangular hole (0.0015 m. square) struck from inside.
0.0165 in.
Group iii. Similar to Group ii., (5'), but with row of small dots about edge struck from inside, and similar row about outer edge of top of boss struck from beneath.
1929. (Shows top.) Diameter, 0.029 m. Height, 0.0035 m. Diameter of boss, 0.0065 m. Near edge, hole (diameter 0.0017 m.) struck from inside with hollow punch.
1930. Diameter, 0.0345 in. Height, 0.0048 m. Diameter of boss, 0.008 m. Near edge, hole (diameter, 0.0013) struck from inside.
1931. (Shows top.) Diameter, 0.035 m. Height, 0.0045 m. Diameter of boss, 0.0073 m. Near edge, hole (diameter, 0.0013) as in No. 1929.
Group v. Similar to Group iv., but with one or more rings of dots punched from above encircling the rays.
1932. Nearly half gone. Diameter, 0.0283 m. Height, 0.003 m. Diameter of boss, 0.007 m. Near edge, hole (diameter, 0.0018 m.) as in No. 1929.
1933. (Shows top.) From south slope. Condi¬ tion poor. Diameter, 0.039 in. Height, 0.0035 m. Diameter of boss, 0.0075 m. Near edge, hole (diameter, 0.002 m.) as in No. 1929.
1935. (Shows bottom.) From south slope. Condition poor. Diameter, 0.051 m. Diameter of boss, 0.0115 m. Near edge, hole (diameter, 0.0018 m.) as in No. 1929.
double ring just inside edge.
1936. (Shows top.) Diameter, 0.081 m. Diameter of boss, 0.0205 m. Near edge, hole (diameter, 0.0014 m.) as in No. 1929.
Group vi. From boss extend fine parallel curved lines close together, struck from above. Beyond lines but close to them, ring of dots struck from beneath. Out¬ side this ring and close to it, straight rays struck from above. Beyond rays, ring of small dots struck from above.
1937. (Shows top.) Nearly half gone. Di¬ ameter, 0.0G45 m. Height, 0.0085 m. Diame¬ ter of boss, 0.0135 m. Near edge, hole (diameter, 0.0023 m.) struck from inside.
Group vii. Near boss, one or two rings of small dots, followed by star pattern consisting of zigzag of straight lines, (a'.) Ornaments struck from above.
1938. (Shows top.) Diameter, 0.024 m. Height, 0.003 m. Diameter of boss, 0.007 in. Near edge, hole (diameter, 0.0019 m.) as in No. 1929. Single ring of dots.
1939. (Shows bottom.) Edge damaged. Di¬ ameter, 0.0523 m. Height, 0.00G m. Diameter of boss, 0.009 m. Outside first ring of dots, a second of small faint dots.
1940. Fragment. Diameter of boss, 0.125 m. About boss, ring of dots so placed that usu¬ ally the inner angle of zigzag starts from a dot.
Group viii. Rays about boss, followed by one or two rings of dots. Beyond dots, zigzag or star pattern. Dots and zig¬ zag may be repeated. All dots and lines struck from upper side.
row of dots.
1941. (Shows top.) Condition poor. Diame¬ ter, 0.069 m. Height, 0.0065 m. Diameter of boss, 0.0135 m. Near edge, hole (diameter, 0.0013 m.) as in No. 1929.
1942. From south slope. Condition poor. Diameter of boss, 0.012 m. Near edge, hole (diameter, 0.0015 in.) as in No. 1929.
1945. (Shows top.) From south slope. Di¬ ameter, 0.091 ni. x 0.106 m. Diameter of boss, 0.019 m. Near edge, hole (diameter, 0.0025 m.) as in 1929.
Group ix. Next to boss, circle of short rays. Remainder of space between these and edge occupied by two rings of large dots inclosing zigzag. All dots and lines struck from above. 1947 From back of South Building. Condi¬ tion poor. Diameter, 0.064 m. Height, 0.006 m. Diameter of boss, 0.007 m. Though somewhat flattened, probably better placed here than among the disks.
1948. (Shows top.) From back of South Building. Condition poor. Diameter, 0.033 m. Height, 0.0034 m. Diameter of boss, 0.0057 m. Near edge, hole (diameter, 0.0018 m.) as in No.
1949. About one fifth gone. Diameter, 0.039 in. Height, 0.0027 m. Near edge, hole (diameter, 0.002 in.) cut with hollow punch.
forming rosette.
1950. (Shows top.) From back of South Building. Condition poor. Diameter, 0.075 in. Height, 0.0077 m. Diameter of boss, 0.017 m. Near edge, hole (diameter, 0.0015 m.) as in
1951. (Shows top.) About one third gone. Diameter, 0.0433 m. Height, 0.0051 m. Dia¬ meter of boss, 0.0075 in. Near, edge, hole (di¬ ameter, 0.001 m.) struck from upper side.
(5b) Corresponds to Group x. (a'), with addition of ring of connected crescents opening outward, between rosette and edge.
1953. (Shows bottom.) From back of South Building. Condition poor. Diameter, 0.08 m. Diameter of boss, 0.0175 m. Many rays slightly curved. Near edge, hole (diameter, 0.001 m.) as in No. 1929. This piece has been so flattened that it could be taken for a disk.
pattern of double lines.
1954. (Shows top.) Condition poor. Diam¬ eter, 0.043 m. Diameter of boss, 0.0084 m. Leaves not connected with each other, but stamped or engraved separately. Near edge, hole (diameter, 0.0015 m.) as in No. 1929.
(c'.) Outer part has zigzag, single row of dots, and leaf pattern with dot in end of leaves, all reckoned from in¬ side toward edge. Ends of leaves double, i. e. plain and dotted lines. Uncertain whether there were rays.
1955. (Shows top.) Fragments a and b. Fragment a , length, 0.088 m. ; width, 0.027 m. ; height, 0.0063 m. Fragment b, length, 0.04 m. ; width, 0.021 m. Dots and leaf pattern only preserved. Both fragments probably from same object.
struck from above.
1956. (Shows top.) About one fourth gone. Diameter, 0.103 m. Height, 0.014 m. Diameter of boss, 0.024 m. Near edge, hole (diameter, 0.004 m.) as in No. 1929.
Group xiv. Similar to Group xiii., but with row of dots and a zigzag added outside. Dots on boss. All decora¬ tions from above.
1957. (Shows top.) Condition poor. Diam¬ eter, 0.067 m. Height, 0.0107 m. Diameter of boss, 0.0166 m. Near edge, hole (diameter, 0.002 in.) as in No. 1929.
Group xv. Triple ring of zigzag form¬ ing diamond pattern followed by leaf pattern. Decoration struck from above.
1958. (Shows top.) About half gone, and much flattened. Diameter, 0.091 in. Near edge, hole (diameter, 0.001 m.) as in No. 1929.
Group xvi. Leaf pattern, straight lines and dots in successive zones reckoned from boss. Followed by row of petals with open end outward. Between
under side.
1959. Segment from boss to edge. Leaf pat¬ tern has closed end outward. Double lines used in common on sides. Probably ends were double. Related to following Form 4.
1960. Small fragment containing portion of side and bottom, but no original edge. Row of curved parallel lines close together, followed by double row of dots.
above.
1961. (Shows top.) Condition poor. Diame¬ ter, 0.039 in. Height, 0.0085 m. Diameter of boss, 0.008 m. Near edge, hole (diameter, 0.002 m.) as in No. 1929.
1962. From above Upper Temple toward tents. Nearly half gone. Diameter, 0.037 m. Height, 0.0115 m. Diameter of boss, 0.009 m.
1965. (Shows top.) From back of South Building. Broken in two pieces and defective. Diameter, 0.05 m. Diameter of boss, 0.0085 in. Near edge (of smaller fragment), hole (diameter, 0.0015 m.) as in No. 1929.
Group iii. Similar to Group ii., but with outer part of bottom divided into seg¬ ments by straight lines. All lines and dots struck from above.
1966. (Shows top.) From back of South Building. Diameter, 0.034 in. Height, 0.004 m. Diameter of boss, 0.0068 m. Near edge, hole (diameter, 0.001 m.) as in No. 1929.
Group iv. Similar to Group iii., but with ring of zigzag outside ring of dots and lines from points of zigzag to edge of bottom. All lines and dots struck from above.
of zigzag only.
1968. (Shows top.) About one fourth gone. Condition poor. Diameter, 0.06 m. Diameter of boss, 0.007 m. Outer angles of zigzag accen¬ tuated by dots. Lines to edge of bottom from each angle of zigzag. These lines do not stand in relation to crimps of edge.
Group v. Similar to Group ii. (a')’ but with second ring of rays, the outer ends of which connect with the angles of a zigzag, thus forming a sort of angular leaf pattern.1 All ornamentation struck from top.
1969. (Shows bottom.) About one fifth gone. Flattened. Diameter, 0.068 m. Diameter of boss, 0.0135 m. Angles of zigzag independent of crimps, though sometimes coincident with them.
Group vi. About midway between boss and edge of bottom, ring of crescents opening outward, struck from above.
1970. (Shows top.) From back of South Building. Condition poor. Diameter, 0.054 m. Height, 0.0115 m. Diameter of boss, 0.0105 m.
Group vii. After leaf pattern or rosette with rounded petals, ring of adjoiningcrescents, opening outward. From ends of crescents straight lines to edge of bottom, generally coinciding with inner convexity of crimps. Decoration of centre not preserved, but probably ro¬ sette came directly after boss.
Group viii. Boss followed successively by one ring each of small dots, short lines, and connected crescents opening out¬ ward. From joinings of crescents, straight lines extending nearly to edge and corresponding to inner convexity of crimps. The entire surface thus appears to be divided into segments, although only the crimps are plasti¬ cally indicated. All lines and dots struck from above.
1972. (Shows top.) Condition poor. Diam¬ eter, 0.075 m. Height, 0.0195 m. Diameter of boss, 0.013 m. Lines struck before crimping of edge. Near edge, hole (diameter, 0.0025 m.) as in No. 1929.
Group ix. Crimping and section lines as in Group viii. Inside lines, small zig¬ zag followed by a plain line and a ring of small dots. Succeeding decoration not preserved.
ORATION APPLIED FROM OUTSIDE.
1975. (Photograph shows bottom, drawing shows segment of side and bottom as a single surface.) Incomplete. Condition poor. Diam¬ eter, 0.132 m. Height, 0.027 m. Decoration. Two rings about boss, then ring of double cres¬ cents forming base of long loops, which are the main ornament. Beneath rim, two fields sepa¬ rated by heavy lines. Lower field filled with hatched diamond pattern, the upper with raised dots or beads. Just beneath lower field, a simi¬ lar line of beads (omitted in drawing). Traces of boundary line beneath. Sides ornamented with system of v’s with returning ends, each v having another interlacing with it on each side. Crescents form bottom of loops, but sometimes upper line connects with one side and the lower with the other, sometimes both serve as bottom for both sides, and sometimes lower line seems to be real bottom of loop. At top between an¬ gles, heavy arrowheads are inserted, thus making continuous zigzag.
1976. (Photograph shows bottom ; segment as in No. 1975.) Incomplete. Condition poor. Di¬ ameter, 0.16 m. Height, 0.0355 m. Diameter of boss, 0.034 m. Decoration like that of No. 1975, but clearer and better preserved. Zigzag at top of loops struck separately and quite freely. Top of zigzag often open (drawing inaccurate). The lower of the two fields near top filled with circles. Slight traces of circles in upper field (omitted in
1977. (Shows top.) From above Upper Temple toward tents. Fragment. Condition poor. Decoration similar to that of Nos. 1975 f.
Similar to preceding.
1978. About two thirds of rim preserved. Broken into two parts. Diameter, about 0.172 m. Tin •ee fields at top. Upper and lower fields have circles, the middle field diamond hatching.
Discards of Type c : thirty-two fragments, of which twelve are from back of South Building, two from south slope, one from West Building, and one from “ near wall southeast of house.”
Addendum. The following object, which has an edge like a plate, the depth of a saucer, and a convex bottom like a low boss, may be put here.
1979. (Shows top.) From south slope. Frag¬ ment. Condition poor. Radius, about 0.034 m. Width of rim, O.OOG m.-0.0075 m. Bottom ornamented with short straight lines extending from outer edge toward centre and struck from under side.
Under this class are included all vases, and fragments of rims, which do not have traces of handles on them, the evidence of the complete examples being, in a majority of the cases, against the assumption that there were handles on the missing portions.
1980. Defective. Diameter, 0.105 m. Height, 0.031 in. Rests on slight base ring (diameter, 0.055 m. ; height, 0.0016 m. ; thickness, 0.001 in.). Bottom slightly convex on inside. No boss. Outer edge of bottom indicated by fine circle on inside. Around outside near top, a single line. Could be regarded as a saucer owing to slight depth.
1981. About two thirds of rim preserved, with a scrap of side and possibly of bottom. Condi¬ tion poor. Present diameter, 0.018 rn.
1982. F rom south slope. Rim with portion of side put together from seven fragments. Rim lacks 0.025 m. of completeness. Diameter, 0.151 m. x 0.145 m. Near top, hole (diameter,
1985. (Fragments «, 5.) Two other frag¬ ments, c, d , which do not fit the others, but from appearance belong to same rim. Length of o, b, 0.108 m.; of c + d , 0.044 m. On outside of fragment a is engraved an B. For copy see Appendix.
1988. Fragments a , b. Chord, 0.137 m.
Discarded : eighteen fragments of rims, of which four from back of South Building, three from south slope, and one from West Building. Possible that some of them are from saucers.
as most likely coming from a large bowl.
1989. Fra gnient of rim. Condition poor. Length, 0.045 m. Bold outside bevel. Possi¬ ble traces of one or two lines just below bevel.
possibly be from saucers.
1990. (Drawing of left end.) Found below wall at southeast of Second Temple, April 25, 1893. Rim of which less than half is preserved. Condition poor. Chord, 0.153 m. Cf. No. 1975. Top too heavily shaded in drawing.
1992. (Drawing of portion.) From back of South Building. Fragments a and b. Fragment «, length, 0.094 m. ; fragment 5, length, 0.06 m.
1993. Fragment of rim. Condition poor. Length, 0.067 m. Top heavy, with bevel on inside and two rolls on outside.
1994. (Drawing of portion.) Rim of which less than half is preserved. Chord, 0.183 m. On lip, at right end, inscription with bottoms of letters toward inside. See Appendix , p. 337.
1996. From south slope. Fragment of rim. Length, 0.057 m. Decoration uncertain owing to bad preservation. Perhaps only one field and that filled with circles or hatching or both.
1997. Fragments a—f. Fragment /‘from south slope. Original diameter, about 0.142 m. Traces of ornament on sides like that of pre¬ ceding numbers, but no certain traces of bands at top.
1998. Fragment of rim. Length, 0.054 m. No bevel (that which looks so in drawing is oxidation.) On outside, at 0.0017 m. from top, possible traces of single engraved line.
1999. (Drawing of middle part.) From back of South Building. Fragment of rim. Diame¬ ter (nearly complete), 0.0123 m. Top has bevel, slight on inside and prominent on out¬ side.
2000. Fragment of rim. Original diameter, about 0.215 m. Top has on outside moulded bevel followed by heavy grooves. Beneath, leaf pattern, below which possible trace of scale pat¬ tern. Farther down, single line.
tainly from bowls.
2001. Original diameter, about 0.102 m. At top, bevel inside and outside. Three bands at top, with no certain trace of ornament on them.
which bands.
2004. Length, 0.0565 m. Top has heavy bevel on outside. At 0.0015 m., 0.0062 m., 0.0082 m., and 0.0092 m. from bevel, single plain grooves.
Discarded : one similar to No. 2004.
2005. Length, 0.189 m. Original diameter, probably about 0.55 m. Width of rim, 0.016 m. ornament as in Plate. Leaves of palmette and central leaves of lotus terminate in a series of adjoining double circles usually open on sides toward centre of field. At base of lotus leaves, two of these double circles put together with open sides facing in opposite directions. In the small portion left beneath lowest band, semi¬ circles (uncertain how nearly complete ori¬ ginally), between which arrowhead termination of ornament.
For ornament cf. Holwerda, Jahrb. V. p. 240. Cf. also Jahrb. VI. Anz. p. 125, No. 12 e. Addendum. Fragment of side of inlaid bowl.
2006. No original edge preserved. Inside pentagonal space (only three sides preserved) depressed to about half the thickness of the bowl, probably for inlaying.
2007. Found back of South Building in 1894. Handles and bottom gone. Diameter, 0.088 m. On one side, near top, two holes 0.0325 in. apart for rivets of handle. On ojiposite side rivets are preserved. One of them holds small fragment of handle.
2008. Fragment of rim of large bowl. Length, 0.105 m. Projecting top with bevel beneath. Near top, holes for handle (diameter, 0.008 m., distance apart, 0.0365 m.).
Group ii. Ornamented.
2009. Fra gment of rim. Length, 0.03 m. At one end near top, small hole (broken out). Decorated with three narrow double bands.
OF NECK.
2017. F rom back of South Building. Length. 0.055 m. Side crimped from 0.0175 m. from top. Just above crimps, ring of connected cres¬ cents.
2018. (Fragments a, b, and h.) Frag¬ ments a-i. Length of a and b, 0.075 m. Seems to have bulged sharply outward at beginning of crimps, and then to have passed to bottom by a fairly straight slope.
e. Suspension vase.
2019. Found at east end of steps, south slope, April 24, 1893. In side not photographed, hole corroded through (0.025 m. x 0.016 m.). Con¬ dition poor. Diameter, 0.0395 m. Height, 0.0525 m. Thickness, 0.0008 m. and less. Rests on standard 0.0154 m. in height. Lower part of standard rounded. Vase cast as one piece.
2020. Top broken out around edges. Small hole in bottom. Condition poor. Diameter, 0.043 m. Height, 0.0295 m. Diameter of present opening at top, 0.026 m. Bottom dis¬ tinguished from sides (height, 0.0012 m. ; di¬ ameter, 0.025 m.).
2021. Top and bottom gone. Condition bad. Diameter, 0.059 m. Height as preserved, 0.03 m. Side showing in Plate, probably the top.
a. Pitcher.
2022. Bottom broken off, and centre of it missing. Diameter, 0.041 m. Height, 0.061. Diameterof top, 0.0235 m.; of opening, 0.0115 m.; of bottom, 0.0214 m. Surface of top slants slightly toward opening. Handle riveted at bot¬ tom and probably at top. Upper part has form of serpent’s head with jaw resting on rim. Eyes seem to have been indicated.
slightly outward, but has no rim.
2024. From back of South Building. Frag¬ ments of top broken in two pieces (r/, 5). Length, 0.09 m. Diameter was about 0.138 m. at top. Slight flare, but no rim. At right end of fragment 5, near top, small hole now broken out.
flares at top.
2026. Fragment of neck. Length, 0.045 m. Rim formed by outward roll of top (width, 0.009 m.). Height of neck, 0.009 m.
2027. F rom south slope. Fragment of top with beginning of shoulder. Length, 0.10 m. Original diameter at top, about 0.157 m. Rim formed as in No. 2026. Width, 0.003 m.
2028. Fra gments a, c, and f are from back of South Building. Several fragments of top ( a-f ). Diameter, 0.15 m. Rim flat (width, 0.005 m.). Fragments c and d preserve beginning of shoul¬ der.
2029. Fragments of top (a, 5) with beginning of shoulder. Diameter (nearly complete), 0.09 m. Rim flat. Width, 0.006 m.
2030. Fragment of neck. Length, 0.043 m. Top flares. Near top four fine parallel encir¬ cling lines. Placed here because of similarity in style to following number.
2031. Fragments of neck («-c, not certain that b and c join) with beginning of shoulder. Diameter, 0.089 m. Flares at top and bottom. Width of rim, 0.004 m. Beneath rim, four lines as in No. 2030.
2032. (In centre beneath plaster, piece in¬ serted as support while photographing.) Frag¬ ments of neck, a-d. Flares at top (width of rim, 0.004 m.). Beneath, three lines as in No.
2033. Fi ■om south slope. Two fragments of rim with handles attached and beginning of shoulder. Diameter, 0.083 m. Height of neck, 0.0215 in. Rim flat on top (width, 0.0045 m.). Passes to neck by slight bevel, at base of which four lines as in No. 2030. Handles flat and plain on inside. On outside, raised edges and centre, which are cut down near rim. From point of junction with rim ends flatten and curve about neck. Width at end, 0.039 m. This end fas¬ tened with rivets, of which heads on inside are
larger than those on outside, probably for orna¬ ment. Lower end of handles joined vase, but there is no trace of any fastening.
2034. One handle gone. Surface injured by corrosion. Diameter, 0.055 m. Height, 0.079 m. Rim flat on top (width, 0.0033 m.). Passes to neck by plain bevel, beneath which two lines as in No. 2030. Bottom concave on under side. At top of leaf pattern (left side in Plate) about body, hole (diameter, 0.0015 m.). Handle fas¬ tened at upper end by two rivets, one on each side. Shafts of corresponding rivets preserved in opposite side of neck. Rivet-heads not orna¬ mental, but slightly larger and more prominent on inside. Lower end of handle not riveted. Ends in palmette. On top of handle, resting on very low basis, sphinx, looking toward inside. Cast solid with handle. Height, 0.021 m. Lower part of legs solid and unornamented. No tail. Wings double and alike in decoration. Short, thick neck. Hair represented as a mass distinguished plas¬ tically from forehead and cheeks, but no details are given except a single line near front. On left side of neck three short cross lines, which may indicate that hair came down side of neck ; on the right side it is carried down in the modeling.1
Form 2. Upper part of neck flares to¬ ward TOP AND ABOUT CORRESPONDS IN LENGTH TO NECKS OF PRECEDING FORM.
2035. Found on south slope stairs, middle, April 24, 1895. Diameter of top, 0.086 m. ; of bottom of preserved part, 0.066 m. Heavy, solid handles, inside plain. On outside, raised edges and centre which are separated from con¬ cave fields by single grooves. On sides of han¬ dles, similar groove running down centre. Upper side cut away near rim as in No. 2033. End of handle grips rim of vase, and then spreads about neck beneath ledge. Fastened by rivets at up¬ per end. Head of rivets larger on inside. Un¬ certain how lower end was fastened. No signs of attachment. Shape of remainder of neck uncertain, but it seems to have widened rapidly.
1 For general design cf. Olympia, No. 671, ascribed by Furtwangler to sixtli century. Its form is simpler and less developed than that of Heraeuin specimen. Cf. also for
ment is perhaps top of neck of rimless jar.
2037. F rom south slope. Condition poor. Bent. Diameter, 0.082 m. x 0.055 m. About top, narrow leaf pattern. Leaves indented. Groove above, below, and across lower end.
2038. Fragments a-f. Uncleaned. Fragment a. About two thirds of circle of bottom and side. Condition poor. Bent. Diameter at present about 0.30 m. About side and edge of bottom, inserted lead strip. Thickness, 0.01 m. to 0.04 m. Lead covered inside and out with sheet bronze, but changed in shape through being melted. No indication that sides rose higher than at present. On under side, two pieces belonging to bottom attached by rivets. Frag¬ ments b-f are of lead except for small pieces of bronze attached to 5, c, and d. Fragments c and d join. Contour of edge of bottom pre¬ served by c and e (Plate shows under side of e). It was depressed and surrounded by deep groove.
2039. From West Building. Besides fragments a-h, which show in Plate, twelve small bits of bronze. All except a and b may belong either to this number or to No. 2038. Fragment a. Part of side and bottom. Length, 0.36 m. All bronze except for piece of backing about edge of bottom. Bottom attached to side by rivets. Was possibly, though not probably, double. Side piece was joined to its continua¬ tion at one end by rivets. Fragment b. About half of rim with piece of side. Diameter of rim, 0.222 m. Height of rim, 0.021 m. Rim double, witli upper edge bent outward. Not certain where pieces join, but probably in shoulder. Fragment c. Two pieces of bronze riveted to¬ gether. Fragments d-h have rectangular holes made with solid punch. Large round holes in fragment g cut with hollow punch from opposite side to that from which rectangular hole was struck.
2044. Diameter of boss, 0.022 m.
2045. From back of Soutli Building. Frag¬ ment with part of boss. Dimensions, 0.057 m. x 0.049 m. Beginning of boss indicated by groove on under side. Outside, ring of small dots. Inside (1) ring of short straight lines pointing toward centre, (2) ring of small dots.
ameter, filled witli iron.
Discards : ten bosses, of which one from back of South Building and three from south slope. Unclassified frag¬ ments of vases, 252, of which 115 from back of South Building, one from south slope, and one from West Build¬ ing.
Class a. Riveted.
2048. From south slope. Width, 0.047 m. Projected, 0.03 m. One foot has part of bronze rivet, the other has rivet and small piece from side of vase adhering.
2050. Width, 0.0397 m. Projected, 0.0265 m. In centre of bar, bead with grooved ring at either side. At each end of bar transition to foot by ring.
zontal planes. Feet stuck.
2054. Part of one leg left. Projected, 0.046 ni. Transition ring between leg and foot. Foot somewhat concave. Small round hole near cen¬ tre, probably a flaw.
2056. One foot gone. Width, 0.103 m. Pro¬ jected, 0.036 m. Foot concave in long axis as though attached to rim. Leaf pattern. Small circles at joinings of tops of leaves.
South Building. Width, 0.06 m.
Form 3. Rounded bar, in part ellipti¬ cal. Broader side in horizontal plane. Attached to surfaces with sharp
Type f. Bar broad and flat.
2069. Small fragment. Length, 0.036 m. Thickness, 0.0018 m. Back flat, bevels only on one side. Regarded as fragment of handle (rather than of a wheel) after analogy of follow¬ ing number.
Holes for nostrils.
Cf. De Ridder, Bronzes de V Acropole, No. 212. Addenda. The following fragments seem to be from handles of shape somewhat similar to
2071 a. Condition poor. Length, 0.038 m. Two small holes for rivets. Object could be attached decorative serpent’s head.
2071 b. Length, 0.125 m. Rivet for attach¬ ment, 0.004 m. in diameter. Head on inside of vessel, diameter, 0.007 m. Returning end or¬ namented with narrow convex surface in cut at 0.0185 m. from tip.
Form 2. Foot turns inward.
2073. One foot uncoiled, twisted, and broken off. Condition poor. Width, 0.0535 m. Through left foot passes rivet with small piece
2074. From above last part of Stoa under Cyclopean wall. Bar broken at both ends. In each case, broken out hole through which rivet passed which held it to side of vase. Length of bar, 0.054 m. Width on flat side, 0.007 m. Right eyelet (in Plate) formed by meeting of two semicircular prongs.
Cf. Olympia , No. 664, with shorter returning ends. Similar piece with different purpose from Argos specimen from temple of Athena Cranaea near Elateia ( B . C. II. XII. p. 55 [P. Paris]).
Knob at end.
2077. Bar for attachment. Cf. No. 2074. Length, 0.051 m. Thickness, 0.006 m. Inner diameter of eyelets, 0.004 m. and 0.0045 m. Right rivet projects at back 0.001 m., the other less.
Class a. Eyelet passes through object and is bent back on inside. (Perhaps only ornamental attached rings, but formally best put here.)
has upper edge original. Diameter of ring, 0.0165 m. Ends of eyelet bent back flat on in¬ side and in opposite directions.
Bar somewhat flat.
2086. Seems to be complete, although only one end of strap passed through object. Ring rather flat (section would be pear-shaped). Dia¬ meter, 0.0198 m.
riveted to object.
2087. Diameter of ring, 0.046 m. Thickness of plate, 0.0015 m.-0.003 m. Eyelet cast sepa¬ rately. Diameter, 0.0165 m. Above, two rivets. Type c. Feet turn in and pivot in ends of
Not all cases which fall formally under this type are true pivots. The feet often meet in the socket-piece, thus agreeing essentially with Type b. It seems best to put them all together, partly because of the formal connection and partly because it is difficult in many cases to ascertain whether there is a true pivot or not.
2118. Both ends probably broken. Bent. Width, 0.0563 m. Not certainly a handle, but shape of bow hardly accidental.
Besides the above, there are a number of open rings which have on the side where the ends meet a flattened or pulled-out appearance, sug¬ gesting a possible use as handles.
2131. Socket-piece partly broken out, but did not meet originally. Width, 0.0205 m. Height, 0.0243 m. Length of socket-piece, 0.0067 in.
2132. From back of South Building. De¬ fective and in poor condition. Width, 0.022 m. Height, 0.026 m. Socket-piece open. Length, 0.0075 m.
2133. From West Building. Width, 0.032 m. Height, 0.0275 m. Socket-piece open. Length, 0.012 m. Interior filled with lead.
2135. From south slope. Width, 0.0407 m. Height, 0.033 m. Socket-piece open. Length, 0.016 m. Interior filled with lead. Socketpiece turns still.
2136. From West Building. Socket-piece damaged at one end. Width, 0.0188 in. Height, 0.018 m. Socket-piece open and sides overlap. Length, 0.009 m.
2137. Part of ring gone. Condition poor. Width, 0.021 m. Height, 0.0167 m. Length of socket-piece, 0.01 m. One side slightly flat¬ tened. Ornamented with about five grooves
2142. From West Building. Width, 0.06 m. Height, 0.046 m. Socket-piece flattened on at¬ tached side to surface of 0.007 m. in width. Length, 0.035 in.
Cf. Olympia , No. 843, and for use, ibid. No. 845 (sketch). Also Burlington Fine Arts Club , Exhibition of Ancient Greek A rt (1904), A 8 (pi. xlv.).
one example and that doubtful.
2143. Defective and in poor condition. Width, 0.0388 m. Height, 0.0275 m. At centre of bow, bead with ring at either side (all one piece with bow). Section of bar would be octagonal.
Addendum. The following object has shape of handle of this group, but is perhaps better regarded as end of bladed spit.
Discards of (a') : twenty-one cleaned, mostly fragments, one being from south slope, one from West Building, and two from back of same building ; also four uncleaned fragments.
2164. From West Building. Width, 0.0385 m. Height, 0.028 m. Shallow holes in socket-piece in which ends of ring play freely.
2170. Width, 0.094 m. Height, 0.054 m. Bar octagonal in section, with four broader sides connected by four that are narrower. Socketpiece has groove on top extending nearly to centre. Bottom and side of groove of bronze.
2172. Found probably northeast corner near east end of Stoa and near or under Cyclopean wall. Width, 0.048 in. Next to pivots, bead with narrow ring at either side.
Type d. Similar to Type c, but the socketpiece is attached to the body of the ring, forming a sort of eyelet. It is not, how¬ ever, a true eyelet any more than it is a true socket-piece, and hence is best put apart from Types b and c.
2178. Socket-piece much damaged. Height of ring, 0.026 m. Original length of socketpiece, about 0.011 m. Probably plain.
Addenda to Types c and d. Socket-pieces and applied ornaments of same form. (For another use, viz. on tripod standards, cf. Olympia , p. 128, No. 814.)
Diameter, 0.0068 m. x 0.005 m. Interior lead.
2182. From West Building. Condition poor. Length, 0.0164 m. Diameter, 0.007 m. x 0.006 m. Interior filled with lead, in each end of which small hole.
with zigzag of bent lines.
2192. Upper part damaged. Height, 0.038 m. Ornament of arrowhead hatching in centre, and of hatched transverse lines on adjoining rolls.
2193. Upper end gone. Height, 0.045 m. Width, 0.025 m. On side ridges, oblique hatch¬ ing, at edges of fields, dots. Central ridge has two lines at top, but elsewhere nothing certain.
0.016 m. Ornament of vertical grooves.
2197. From back of South Building. Dam¬ aged at upper end, lower end gone. Height, 0.071 m. Width, 0.016 m. Grooves.
2199. From south slope. Ends damaged, un¬ certain just how much. Condition poor. Height, 0.038 m. Width, 0.0127 m. Near top, rivet.
2200. Ends damaged. Condition poor. Height, 0.086. Width, 0.012 in. Both ends worked off from upper side for attachment. No certain trace of ornament.
namented with figure in relief.
2201. Upper part damaged at place of attach¬ ment. Condition poor. Height, 0.051 m. Lower end indented on outside, doubtful whether origi¬ nally. Inside of lower end concave. No marks of attachment. Upper end has deep groove for attachment to rim. Beneath groove, two rivetholes (one now broken out). Above broken-out hole, a rivet. Above attachment, lion’s head in low relief facing toward vase. Treatment sketchy and decorative. Nose low and broad, with nostrils indicated. Almond-shaped eyes in hollow sockets. Mouth indicated by two paral¬ lel grooves close together. Small ears. No cer¬ tain indication of mane. Contour of handle but slightly altered.
top of vase.
2202. Height, 0.104 m. Width, 0.0235 in. In centre of top, hole cut from above (diameter, 0.01 in.). Ornament of arrowheads, in some places close enough together to be called a zig¬ zag. At beginning of top, three large dots, punched from beneath, at right angles to axis of handle.
here owing to similarity of form.
2203. Upper end broken. Condition poor. Length, 0.0575 m. Has tail and beginning of head. The sort of gill showing on lower side of head in Plate does not appear on the other side. Tail has no surface for attachment. Ob¬ ject seems to be a handle in form of serjient (or fish), but roughly executed.
pieces for hoop or string handles.
2204. Width, 0.08 m. Lion’s head rounded on top. From it rises ring, cast solid with re¬ mainder of object, with hole 0.006 m. in diame¬ ter. Treatment of head decorative. Small ears (only right preserved). Eyes given by small, round, rather deep (about 0.005 m.) holes, in
long, shallow, almond-shaped sockets. Nostrils indicated. Mouth rendered by groove. For style, see III. 5, b (above, p. 203).
789 f.
2205. One ear gone. Condition poor. Width, 0.82 m. Griffin’s head. Sides probably repre¬ sent wings. Vessel to which object was at¬ tached was large and slightly narrowed at top. Details of head sketchy. Ear a rounded blade with dull point. Horn about 0.003 in. in height. Beak curved and thin. Between ears, indenta¬ tion which seems too slight for place of eyelet. No other place of attachment for handle. Per¬ haps merely ornamental.
under side for attachment to rounded surface.
2207. Length, 0.0615 m. Same on both sides, except that one side is more concave, and hence was probably the under side. In end of pro¬ jection, deep lengthwise groove, 0.004 m. in width. Nails pass clear through and have heads at back.
2208. Condition poor. Height, 0.044 m. Top lias thin oxidized piece of metal on both sides. In foot, hole (diameter, 0.001 m.).
2212. From West Building. Shaft broken. End of foot gone. Condition poor. Height, 0.0425 m. Width of shaft, 0.008 m. Large rivet in foot. Attached piece was thin.
F. ORNAMENTS OF VASES.
2215. Bar broken. Condition poor. Length, 0.142 m. Shaft was not extended on other side of vertical bar. Near top of latter, a single en¬ graved line. Attached to top of large vase. Projected slightly above rim.
British Museum, and Olympia , No. 852.
2216. F i'om wall east of house of guard. Shaft broken at both ends. Rivet-hole near centre of vertical bar. In use and attachment similar to No. 2215.
2217 ( = 383). From West Building. Ends of the four projecting arms broken. Length, 0.34 m. Vertical bar attached by a rivet to back piece. Back piece slightly wider than bar. From back piece project horizontal arms which do not seem to be of one piece with it. Bead ornament on arm.
2218. Lower end. Length, 0.181 m. Width, 0.035 m.-0.046 m. Thickness, 0.029 m.0.0375 m. Consists of thick three-sided shell, the inside of which is nearly filled with bronze. At back, filling projects slightly and has hole in it. Bottom a separate piece of irregular height (back, 0.0025 m.-0.015 m. ; front, 0.018 m.0.029 m.). Made of same material but more rudely. Welded to upper part. Ornamental grooves continued roughly on front, but not on sides.
For style cf. Olympia , No. 565 (Furtwiingler’s first class). Ibid. No. 622, is, however, more akin to Heraeum piece than No. 565. Plate CXXIII.
2219. Top of leg of small tripod with shal¬ low bowl. Length, 0.08 m. Width, 0.03 m.0.048 m. Cast in one piece. Concave surface on back for attachment of bowl, which was held by three bronze nails in top of leg (piece of one still in hole). Width of sides of leg, 0.0085 m. and 0.01 m. Decoration like that on front. From back, at edge of break, pin projects upward at angle of about 40° to support surface for bowl. Length, 0.027 m. Diameter, 0.0075 m.
TRIPODS AND STANDARDS
This surface has vertical hole (diameter, 0.0175 m.) which continues the open space between the side bars of leg. Depth of part of bowl clasped by leg, 0.058 rn. Greatest di¬ ameter of bowl was at about 0.023 m. from top of leg.
Style and fabric similar to Olympia , No. 622. Cf. also fragment from Zeus cave on Mt. Ida, Athen. Mitth. X. p. 59, Beilarje , No. 5 (Fabricius) = Halbherr and Orsi, Antichita delV antro di Zeus Ideo , col. 54.
2220. Top of leg of large tripod. Small strip of upper edge seems to preserve original surface. Height, 0.077 m. Width, 0.057 m.0.1025 m. Thickness, 0.007 m. At centre of top, broken nail-hole ; in upper right corner, another ; in left corner, possible traces of two others. On outside of each edge of front, four parallel vertical ribs. Sides smoothly beveled.
2221. Broken at both ends. Length, 0.33 m. Width, 0.61 m. Width of sides, 0.037 m. Space between sides half filled with melted bronze, apparently for strengthening. This fill¬ ing holds in place at upper end the central part of a bronze supporting pin, both ends of which are broken off short. The upper stub projects upward at a sharp angle, the lower is curved only slightly upward. Diameter of pin, 0.01 m. On middle of pin two pieces of bronze which may be remains of further fastenings, or (more likely) mere drops of metal. At both ends, between sides, remains of fine drab-colored earth, perhaps from casting. Ornament of front, dou¬ ble arrowhead pattern in centre with zigzag border at sides. At top, cross inside zigzag ring, above and below which, zigzag frame. Ornament of sides similar, so far as preserved, except that the vertical zigzag along edges is lacking.
2222. Fragment of large handle. Length, 0.101 m. Width, 0.037 m. Thickness, inner edge, 0.013 m., outer edge, 0.0065 m. Ribbed on both sides.
ment of outer rim of large handle. Length, 0.111 m. Width, 0.0285 m. Thickness of outer rim, 0.007 m., of teeth, 0.005 m. Outer edge preserves original surface, the inner is broken. A bar similar to the outer edge of No. 2224 came next. Probable that No. 2224 was the piece. One side slightly convex, the other concave. If this is original, the piece can hardly have been a tripod-handle. Ornament substan¬ tially alike on both sides.
2224. (Shows concave side.) Fragment similar to No. 2223, but broken on all sides. Length, 0.113 m. Width, 0.027 m. Bent in same manner as preceding number, although not quite the same curve throughout. If they belong together, they were bent while together and again after the separation.
With Nos. 2223 f. cf. Olympia, Nos. 636 and 639. Convexity possibly due to imitation of curve of earlier handles such as Olympia , No. 569.
Type a. Block feet.
2225. From south slope. Ring cracked through. Diameter (outside), 0.08 m. x 0.076 m. Width, 0.007 m. Thickness, 0.006 m. Upper surface roughly grooved as though for attach¬ ment of some object or objects. Roughness probably due to portions of bronze soldering still adhering. Feet project outward. Length of feet, 0.013 m. Have form of cylindrical blocks except on inside. Height of standard with feet, 0.012 m.
Among uncleaned scraps from Acropolis (Na¬ tional Museum, Athens), numerous ring stand¬ ards with cylindrical and spool feet.
2226. From Old Temple. Length, 0.022 m. Diameter of ends, 0.0225 m. and 0.024 m. Sin¬ gle foot. On one side, smooth edges where foot was applied, but no trace of fastening. May possibly have been part of handle.
plate, also Carapanos, Dodone , pi. xlvii. No. 2.
In the Carapanos collection (from Dodona), half of ring with two spools attached as feet, welded or cast together ; also similar spool as part of handle. Mosaic in Capitoline Mus. (Rome) with bowl which rests on spool feet. Ilelbig, Fairer, I. No. 450.
2228. Leg and piece of ring. Height, 0.048 m. Length (straight), 0.118 m. Width, 0.021 m. Foot has six toes, the outer toe on each side being in flat relief. Rests on thin base, which may be a separate piece. Roughly cast.
2229. Leg. Upper edge broken. Height, 0.032 m. Width, 0.02 m. Rounded projec¬ tions or ears on each side at top, forming tran¬ sition to ring. Between ears and leg, double line. Four toes. Bottom of foot solid and flat.
2230. Found east of Northwest Building, 1895. Leg and part of ring. Height, 0.076 m. Length (straight), 0.138 m. Width of ring, 0.019 m. Thickness, 0.0015 in. -0.006 in., in¬ creasing toward front. Height of front, 0.025 m. On front, leaf pattern, the lower part of which is formed by semicircular punch-marks. Leg set slightly back of outer edge of ring. Convex at back. Molding at top with simple volute at either side. Five toes, one of which is very faintly indicated. The others are sharply and carefully modeled, showing joints and claws. Under side of foot hollowed out.
ported.
2231. Condition poor. Height, 0.064 m. Length, 0.135 m. Upper surface, 0.042 m. x 0.0225 m. In top, two holes (diameter, 0.006 m.) passing entirely through. Filled with iron — the remains of rods or rivets. Feet rest on bases which are not of same piece with upper part. Thickness, 0.004 m. and 0.005 in. Feet do not stand flatly, the object being bent so that only inner edges touch the ground. Four toes, the lines of which continue upward, forming par¬ allel ridges. On each side continuous line of engraving down leg to sole. By means of it an additional toe is indicated on each side.
2232. Bases gone. Condition poor. Height, 0.056 m. Length, 0.108 in. Two holes through top. In centre of each foot, a bronze rivet which held base. Four toes. Claws indicated. Rested squarely on feet. Limits of feet indicated by
tire decoration being cast.
2233. Soles gone. Condition poor. Height, 0.061 m. Length, 0.1165 m. Two holes through top, now filled with iron rust. Sides of top convex and undercut, suggesting imitation of a buffer or washer. Rivet in bottom of each foot. Feet have each six toes and double heel. Above instep, ridge indicating termination of foot. Probably stood about squarely on feet.
2234. Attached soles gone. Condition poor. Height, 0.054 m. Length, 0.1085 m. Two holes through top, of which one partially filled with iron rust. Sides of top as in drawing, ex¬ cept that lower band has rope finish. Beneath feet, bronze soles cast in same piece with remain¬ der of object. From bottom of each projects a rivet indicating presence of a second pair of soles, which (as in Nos. 2232 and 2233) were probably of iron. Six toes and a double heel. Decoration cast. Seems to have stood squarely on feet.
The tops of all the above standards seem to have had resting directly on them some object which was fastened by iron rivets. Probable that this object was itself of iron. For soles on feet, cf. low ring standards from Acropolis, with lion’s feet resting on round sole or square plinth, or sole and plinth (De Ridder, Cata¬ logue , etc., Nos. 80 and 66).
A. CONTAINERS.
2235. Fragment a only. Oblong shallow ladle. Broken in two pieces (a, 5), which are in such poor condition that they do not fit. Combined length, 0.146 m. Length of frag¬ ment «, 0.106 m. Width, 0.041 m. Thickness, less than 0.001 m. Depth, about 0.005 m. End of handle forms curl just under bottom. Fragment 5, width, 0.035 m. Pointed end. Length of point, about 0.01 m. Width, 0.005 ni.-0.001 m. (tapering toward end).
2236. End of small ladle. Condition poor. Length, 0.025 m. Width, 0.02 m. Differs from fragment h of No. 2235 in that end is brought over to form a sort of toe. In upper surface near edge, hole punched from under side (hence before toe was formed).
2237. Ladle of which handle is lost. Width, 0.0565 in. Depth, about 0.007 m. Thickness, 0.0005 m. and less. Short stub of handle of
VESSELS OF MISCELLANEOUS FORM
same piece with cup. In centre of broken edge, hole (diameter, 0.0022 m.) now broken out. At 0.012 m. from commencement of handle, thin piece (size, 0.01 m. x 0.018 m.) riveted to inside of cup. Served as guy to keep handle from flattening.
tion, but seems similar to preceding number.
2238. From back of South Building. Small fragment of cup, part of some object, perhaps a ladle. Length, 0.029 m. Thickness, 0.0003 m. and less. At one side, ear (width, 0.01 m.0.005 m. ; present length, 0.0035 m.). Probably longer originally. Bottom of cup distinguished from sides. Depth, 0.002 m. Ornamented with cross in circles struck from above with punch in which cross was intaglio. Cross does not show sharply enough in drawing.
Condition poor. Length, 0.22 m. Width of round part, 0.111 m. Depth, about 0.007 m. End of handle turns under and to one side. Represents head and beak of bird. No details. Back of handle inscribed. See Appendix.
2240. From south slope. Bottom gone and handle — if one existed. Height, 0.067 m. Diameter at top, 0.0515 m., at bottom, 0.053 m. Thickness at top, 0.0025 m. to 0.0035 m. (in¬ cluding molding) . Lower part formed by separate jacket, which fitted to outside of drum. Height, 0.0154 m. Width of legs, 0.0255 m. and 0.0265 m. (third leg mostly broken away). Bottom was applied to cylinder and held in place by jacket. Pieces of bronze solder still remain. On one side, eyelet (height, 0.0052 m.), the ends of which pass through cylinder and are bent back on in¬ side. Diameter of eyelet, 0.0016 m. (inside). Piece of bronze in top of eyelet, perhaps wire. No other eyelet or attachment. Ornament (from top), molding, row of fine beads, leaf pattern, and two grooves. Two grooves at top of jacket and one about legs. All this ornament looks as though cast.
2241. Fragment of rim. Condition poor.
Length, 0.053 m. Height, 0.0145 m. Thick¬ ness at top, 0.007 m. ; below, 0.001 m. Narrow band beneath rim, followed by zigzag in relief.
2242. Broken on all sides. Condition poor. Length, 0.047 m. Height, 0.0285 m. Thick¬ ness, 0.0035 m.-0.0045 m. Broad molding with concave centre. Beneath molding, side of vessel seems to have projected slightly outward.
2243. Fragment of rim. Condition poor. Length, 0.048 m. Height, 0.0153 m. Width of rim, 0.0034 m. Edge of under side bent back to about same width. In intervening space, plate attached to outside. One rivet remains in place. Seems to have been a rectangular vessel with shoulder.
2244. From south slope. Neck and mouth of flask. Mouth damaged. Sides pressed flat to¬ gether. Height, 0.061 m. Width of neck, 0.038 m., across rim, 0.041 m. Width of rim, about 0.012 m. Outer edge of lip turned under about 0.001 m.
2245. Small fragment. About three fourths of width preserved. Length, 0.024 m. Width of half, 0.013 m. Heavy rib in centre, light rib or band at each side.
2248. (Shows under side.) Perhaps fragment of end of handle. Original edge at sides, probably nowhere else. Length, 0.03 m. Width, 0.028 m.0.045 m. End appears to be turned under as a finish.
2249. Perhaps about half preserved. Length, 0.078 m. Width of shaft, 0.018 m. Thickness, 0.007 m. Diameter of foot, 0.028 m. x 0.034 m. Grip seems to be a separate piece. Foot con¬ cave.
2250. Shaft cut about one third through as with chisel and then broken off. Condition poor. Length, 0.042 m. Width of shaft, 0.0225 m. Thickness, 0.009 m. Diameter of foot, 0.037 m. x
ished.
2251. Perhaps side piece of composite handle. Length, 0.058 m. At top, cleft extending more than half width. The portion above is concavely rounded at back but perpendicular in front. It lacks 0.0025 m. of being in line with edge be¬ neath. Cleft 0.0015 in.-0.008 m. wide, 0.007 m. deep on under side, and 0.0045 m. on upper. Height of blade, about 0.0165 m. In upper part
two rivets. Form of object which was attached uncertain, but, owing to slight projection of rivetheads, only a piece of sheet bronze can have been fastened to blade. This piece will then have been bent at right angles in case object was a handle, and may have served as coating for bar that would have extended at right angles from notch to assumed corresponding notch in another end piece opposite. Bottom slightly concave. Smoothly finished. Diameter, 0.025 m.
A. FRAGMENT OF ANTYX.
2252. Broken at both ends. Length, 0.294 m. Diameter, 0.026 m. x 0.017 m. at one end, and 0.023 m. x 0.0175 m. at the other. Cast solid. On one flat side, beginning about 0.024 m. from small end, an inscription. See Appendix.
B. SMALL WHEELS.
2253. From south slope. Over half of felloe gone. Bent. Diameter, 0.1435 m. x 0.142 m. (originally about 0.1525 m. x 0.143 m.). Cast solid and in one piece. Imitates wooden wheel the parts of which are held together by metal plates. Central shaft braced in felloe by two cross-pieces. Diameter of shaft at centre, 0.011 m. Hole for axle, 0.0145 m. x 0.007 m. At one end, bronze block (probably of same piece with rest) projects into hole distance of 0.005 m., representing wedge. Axle and wheels turned together. Ornamented with par¬ allel grooves in groups of three, one group at either side cross-pieces. Outside of grooves, shaft hexagonal. Flattened surfaces at joining with felloe. This joining strengthened by an oblong plate on each side, fastened by four rivets, two in felloe and two in axle. Plates and nails re¬ presented by engraved lines. Size of better-pre¬ served plate, 0.008 m. x 0.0049 m. Cross-pieces, width, 0.008 m. ; thickness, 0.0017 m. At join¬ ing with felloe, plate on both sides held by three rivets, which probably pass clear through, i. e. there are three in all. Size of plate, 0.012 in. x 0.0029 in. Cross-piece inserted into felloe, and plate (like all the others) sunk into prepared socket and consequently represented as even with surface. Felloe, width, 0.0085 m. ; thickness, 0.0025 in. inside and 0.0018 in. outside. Orna¬ mented with engraved line on each side close to
outer edge. At 0.017 in. from shaft on one side, and 0.0195 m. : 0.0175 m. on the other, sets of two plates, one on each side of felloe and about opposite to each other. First set, 0.007 m. x 0.0029 m.; second, 0.0075 m.x 0.003 m. and 0.006 m. x 0.0035 m. Each plate has two rivetlieads, each set being held together by two rivets. The plates are intended to hold together sec¬ tions of the felloe.
Similar, but much ruder, Olympia, No. 510. Wooden wheel with similar arrangement of spokes, but with round hub, from peat-bog of Mercurago, province of Novara, Italy. Montelius, Civ. Prim. It. I. pi. 1, No. 13. On sarcophagus from Vulci (Mon. Ant. VIII. pi. xix. c = Martha, L' Art Etrusque , p. 357) sim¬ ilar wheel, but with curved cross-bars. Add H. L. Lorimer, J. II. S. XXIII. pp. 132 £f.
2254. F rom above east end of Stoa under Cyclopean wall. Three spokes gone and over half of felloe. Cast solid. Diameter, 0.171 m. (originally, 0.187 m.). Diameter of hub, 0.019 m. Width, 0.019 m. Spokes do not ap¬ pear on inside, but there are perforations where two have been broken out. Spokes roughly oval in section near hub, passing gradually to nearly round at rim. Size at hub, 0.01 m. x 0.007 m. ; at rim, 0.0045 m.-0.0053 m. x 0.0045 m. Width of felloe, 0.019 m. Thickness of inner edge, 0.0035 m. ; of outer edge, 0.005 m. Rim or tire projects slightly more on side not shown in Plate.
2255. Perhaps outer spoke of ornamental wheel. Hollow ‘ bell,’ smaller end of which joins inner ring. Outer end of ‘ bell ’ broken off. Of ring only stubs remain. Length, 0.077 m. ‘ Bell ’ a rounded rectangle placed cornerwise. Circum¬ ference at large end, 0.12 m. ; at small end,
VARIOUS IMPLEMENTS AND UTENSILS
0.088 m. Thickness at large end, 0.001 m.0.0038 m. Inner circle solid. Diameter, about 0.01 m. Through small end of ‘ bell ’ and inner circle passes hole (diameter, 0.006 m.). Through it may have passed rod (probably of iron) con¬ necting' centre of wheel with outer felloe. Uncertain whether large end of ‘ bell ’ joined felloe or an intermediate outer circle.
For shape cf. Olympia , Nos. 471 (lead) and 472 ; also wheel from a tomba a cerchio at Vetulonia (delle Pelliccie), now in museum at Florence. Cf. Scavi, 1887, p. 472. Falchi, Vetulonia , p. 168, is different.
2256. Both ends broken. Length, 0.079 m. Width of upper part, 0.0165 m.-0.0235 m. ; of lower part, 0.0145 m. Thickness, 0.0015 m. Inset at beginning of elbow, about 0.001 m. on each side. Upper end beveled at beginning of blade.
3. BELL.
2257. Broken at bottom. Clapper gone. Height, 0.062 m. Thickness of metal at lower edge, 0.001 m.-0.002 m. Shape that of rounded rectangle. At top, ring, of one piece with bell. Diameter of hole, 0.015 m. Clapper was at¬ tached to bronze staple which was infixed in under side of top. About staple, remains of bronze solder. Diameter of staple, about 0.005 m.
2258. Handle gone. Edges cracked. Diam¬ eter, 0.07 m. Thickness at edges, 0.0005 m.0.0017 m. Diameter of boss, about 0.042 m. At about centre of boss, hole cut from above. Diameter, 0.0035 m. Flange slightly bent up, especially at edge.
2259. Handle gone. Condition poor. Diam¬ eter, 0.078 m. Diameter of boss, 0.0435 m. In centre, hole. Diameter, 0.0035 m. Flange bends back slightly, and at edge is turned up (depth of roll, 0.001 m. and less).
2260. Handle gone. Condition poor. Diam¬ eter, 0.0945 m. Diameter of boss, 0.055 m. Flange convex on under side. At edge, rim, of which width, 0.004 m.-0.005 m. It projects
2261. Handle gone. Condition poor. Diam¬ eter, 0.0915 m. Diameter of boss, 0.045 m. In centre, hole (diameter, 0.005 m.). Thickness of metal, about 0.0006 m., except at edge, which is about 0.001 ni.-0.0017 m., thus forming slight backward turn. Flange slightly convex on under side. Outer and inner edges on upper side have leaf pattern. Leaves of horseshoe shape. Round ends toward interior of flange. As leaves are not exactly alike they are either engraved or else punched with more than one punch.
2262. From West Building. Length, 0.065 m. Ring flat on inside and convex on outside. Di¬ ameter (inside), 0.0175 m. In barrel, hole. Di¬ ameter, 0.005 m. Depth, 0.01 m. Diameter of barrel, 0.0045 m.-0.0075 m. Thickness of flange, 0.003 m.-0.0065 m. ; of centre piece, 0.0035 ni.-0.0048 in. Except for groove on bar¬ rel above flange, ornamented on one side only (shows in Plate). Teeth on outer edge of flange have on top, each an x . On back of this edge a single diagonal line from each lower corner of depression between teeth, giving effect of zigzag.
2263. Point injured and edge nicked. Length, 0.189 m. Blade fairly sharp where edge is pre¬ served. Width, 0.03 m. and less. Thickness at back, 0.004 m. and less. Blade passes to but for insertion into handle. Length of but, 0.03 in. ; width, 0.028 m. ; thickness, 0.002 m.-0.0045 m. Near end, hole for rivet. Diameter, 0.0057 m. Hole drilled from side that shows in Plate. Cf. Tsountas, ’E ’A py. 1899, cl. 124, pi. 10, No. 43, from Syra (XaiWS/Hcmrj) ; Schmidt, Schliemann's Sammlung, etc., No. 6454, from Troy VI. ; Rolfe , A. J. A. VI. p. 106, No. XII. from Anthedon.
0.00025 m.-O.OOl m. Both sides ornamented with fine curved zigzags. Pattern consists of diagonals running from edge to centre of blade. In upper part they are roughly parallel to each and cross blade. From about middle of length downward they do not go clear across. In some cases they meet each other, forming arrow¬ heads. Toward bottom parallelism is dropped and lines curve slightly outward fanwise. Han¬ dle tapers from width of 0.007 m. and thickness of 0.0026 m. to point. Edges angular. On both sides of handle, zigzag, the band of which is itself a zigzag of curved lines. Handle rather than tang, owing to decoration.
2265. Length, 0.1025 m. Width, 0.01 m.0.0317 m. Thickness at top, 0.0018 m.-0.0027 m. ; increases to 0. 0043 m. at beginning of blade, whence decreases on both sides to edge. Edge still fairly sharp. Groove lengthwise of top. Hence not intended to be used as chisel or wedge.
Cf. Dorpfeld (Gotze), Troja u. Ilion , I. p. 346 ; Excavations at EhylaJcopi in Melos (Bosanquet and Welch), p. 190, pi. xxxviii. No. 3. Two specimens from Mycenae (outside shaftgraves), in Nat. Mus., Athens, No. 1347. Both flare more at blade than Heraeum celt. In Brit¬ ish Mus., Third Egyptian Room, Case F, simi¬ lar knives attached by means of cloth and wire to wooden blocks provided with handles, thus becoming planes.
2266. Top rough and somewhat battered. Edge dull and blunted. Length, 0.078 m. Width, 0.0224 m.-0.0345 m. Thickness at top, 0.005 m., battered to 0.006 m. Uncertain whether present surface of top is original.
2267. Length, 0.133 m. Width of blade, 0.01 in. Edge dull. Top battered. Just be¬ neath, raised band roughly executed, but in¬ tended to represent a heavy ring to which a lighter rin<r is attached on under side. Cf. Schliemann, Tiryns, p. 167, No. 99.
2268. Uncertain, perhaps end of spit. Top gone. Blade damaged. Length, 0.052 m. Diameter of shaft, 0.002 in. Width of blade, 0.0032 m.
broken. Length, 0.0635 m. Flattened toward top. At break, 0.007 m. x 0.0035 m. Flat side of top lies diagonally with reference to axis of blade. Width of blade, 0.006 m.
2270. Top broken off. Condition poor. Length, 0.072 m. Shaft, 0.0055 m. at top. Width of blade, 0.009 m. Edge blunted.
2271. From West Building. Top gone (partly cut and partly broken). Length, 0.0775 m. Bar, 0.0059 m. x 0.0062 m. at top. Blade in axis of broader side. Width, 0.008 m. Edge broken concavely. Plate shows narrow side of blade.
2272. Uncertain. Seems to be complete. Blade bent over at end. Length, 0.091 m. Width, 0.004 ni.-0.009 m. Thickness of shaft, 0.002 m.-0.003 m. Top somewhat battered. Blade blunt.
7. SPITS.
A more methodical classification than that here adopted would be by (1) style of shaft, (2) point or blade at end, (3) style of knob, (4) num¬ ber of knobs. The fact, however, that so large a proportion of shafts and ends are defective imposes classification by preserved parts, i. e. (1) number of knobs, (2) style of knobs, (3) style of shaft, (4) point or blade.
Thickness, 0.0025 m.
Addenda, (a'd) Of the following ends some may belong to pins and pieces of wire, but the majority are probably from spits.
2286. Length, 0.434 in. Thickness, 0.005 m.
2287. Uncleaned. Bent so that small end passes through loop. Length, 0.682 m. Thick¬ ness, 0.003 m. Length makes classification as spit doubtful.
uncleaned. Sizes represented by above selection.
(6'.) The following bladed ends, though proba¬ bly belonging to spits with one or more knobs, are, for reasons given above, put here.
2301. From first chamber at east end on lower terrace, April 28, 1893. Bent. Length, 0.093 m. Thickness, 0.0028 m. Possibly a part of a handle.
0.004 m. Smaller end as in No. 2311.
Discards of (c'). Cleaned : forty-six of length and thickness included in above catalogued specimens. Two of them from south slope and one from hack of South Building. Uncleaned : six hundred and sixty-four of length and thickness included as above except length, 0.018 m. ; thickness, 0.0075 m. -0.011 m.
and less.
2320. Uncleaned. Length, 0.127 m. Thick¬ ness, 0.0023 m. x 0.001 m. and less. Toward large end flattens to 0.0007 m.
2325. Bent. Length, 0.283 m. Thickness, 0.005 m. and less. Width of blade, 0.0065 m. Rectangle has three engraved lines at transition to round. Into rectangle is inserted flat piece (length, 0.026 m. ; width, 0.005 m. x 0.0015 m.) which is held by a rivet. Uncertain how this piece ended.
ately preceded by groove.
2326. Uncleaned. Length, 0.304 m. Thick¬ ness, 0.003 m. and less. Rectangle terminates 0.069 m. from blunt end and 0.075 m. from point. Transition to round more abrupt toward blunt end. Shaft pinched in just before tip, which is imperfectly developed.
2328. Uncleaned. Bent. Length, 0.228 m. Thickness, 0.004 m. Diameter of tip, 0.003 m. Transition plain but not abrupt.
2329. Uncleaned. Length, 0.154 m. Thick¬ ness, 0.004 m. and less. Rectangle swells at transition. Diameter of tip, 0.0013 m.
2336. Bent like a hook. Length, 0.213 m. Thickness, 0.0039 m. and less. Near lower part of rectangle five lines close together.
in. and less. Transition gradual.
2338. From south slope. Length, 0.077 in. Thickness, 0.004 m. and less. Transition sharp. Probable traces of three lines of engraving on rectangle just before.
Discards similar to above : cleaned, fourteen, of which one has three lines of engraving at transition and one comes from West Building ; uncleaned, two hundred and twenty-eight. Length and thickness of discards included in catalogued specimens.
2346. Length, 0.18 m. Thickness, 0.006 m. and less. Gradual transition emphasized by three lines of engraving on rectangle. Into rectangular end is inserted piece, of which length, 0.029 m., thickness, 0.001 m.-0.0025 m. Uncertain whether riveted.
2347. Length, 0.19 m. Thickness, 0.0065 m. and less. In rectangular end, slot for insertion of separate piece of bronze or iron. Length of slot, 0.01 m. Width, 0.0013 m.
2348. Length, 0.24 m. Thickness, 0.0065 m. and less. Rectangle has three lines of en¬ graving at transition. In end of rectangle is inserted bronze piece, of which length, 0.029 m., width, 0.006, thickness, 0.001 m.-0.003 m., increasing toward end of shaft. Fastened by two rivets.
ness, 0.0045 in. and less.
Discards : uncleaned, seven, the dimensions of which are included among those of the above catalogued speci¬ mens, excepting one which is 0.292 m. in length.
Discards : uncleaned, two.
Class 8. Rectangular shaft. (No complete pieces preserved, but some of the ends are probably complete in essential features of shaft.)
2367. From back of South Building. Length, 0.088 m. Thickness, 0.003 m. x 0.0022 m. Sec¬ tion near centre would be diamond-shaped. Square toward blade. Width of blade, 0.003 m. Decrease in thickness toward broken end, which is 0.002 m. x 0.0018 m., may indicate that object was a medical instrument.
blade, 0.0032 m.
2369. Condition poor. Length, 0.145 m. Thickness, 0.0033 m. x 0.0029 m. near centre ; decreases toward ends. Width of blade, 0.0045 m. (at beginning, 0.0033 in. ; at end, 0.0037 m.).
Both ends pointed.
2392. Length, 0.15 in. Thickness of shaft, 0.001 m. and less. Centre of knob to nearest end, 0.03 m. Thickness of knob, 0.002 m.
2393. Bent. Length, 0.208 m. Thickness of shaft, 0.0013 m. and less. Centre of knob to nearest end, 0.029 m. Thickness of knob, 0.0024 m.
2394. Uncleaned. Length, 0.193 m. Size of shaft, 0.0018 m. x 0.0015 m. and less. Centre of knob to point, 0.136 m. Thickness of knob, 0.003 m.
2395. Uncleaned. Bent. Length, 0.196 m. Shaft, 0.0017 m. x 0.0019 m. and less. Centre of knob to point, 0.0875 in. Thickness of knob, 0.003 m.
Discards of (b') : cleaned, one; uncleaned, twelve. Greatest dimensions : length, 0.41 m.; width of shaft 0.003 m.; thickness of knob, 0.00G m. (all these measure¬ ments from different objects).
Class ft. Similar to Class a, but with tran¬ sition from rectangular to round part of shaft emphasized. Cf. Nos. 2327 ff.
velopment of transition.
2399. Length, 0.177 m. Shaft, 0.0015 m. square at transition, elsewhere less. Centre of knob to short end, 0.0425 m. Thickness of knob, 0.0027 m. Transition plain, but not sharp.
2400. Uncleaned. Length, 0.406 m. Shaft, 0.0014 m. x 0.0015 m. and less. Centre of knob to nearest point, 0.062 m. Between this point and knob, slight but sharp transition. Transition between the other point and knob gradual. Thickness of knob, 0.0028 m.
sition.
2401. Uncleaned. Length, 0.307 m. Shaft generally 0.0013 m. x 0.0015 m. Centre of knob to nearest point, 0.098 m. Principal tran¬ sition, which is plain, but not abrupt, on this end. On long end shaft thickens to 0.0018 m. at about 0.02 m. from knob and again to about same size just before transition. Transition gradual on this end. Thickness of knob, 0.0035 m.
nally. More developed than preceding number.
2402. From back of South Building. Length, 0.10 m. Shaft, 0.003 m. x 0.0018 m. and less. Centre of knob to end, 0.071 m. Thickness of knob, 0.0042 m. Transition abrupt and accom¬ panied by thickening of shaft.
2403. Length, 0.102 m. Shaft, 0.002 m. x 0.0019 m. and less. Centre of knob to tip, 0.082 m. Thickness of knob, 0.005 m. Tran¬ sition fully developed and accompanied by in¬ crease of shaft to 0.0025 m. square.
Points.
2404. Uncleaned. Bent. Length, 0.40 m. Thickness of knob, 0.004 m. Shaft, 0.0017 m. x 0.0013 m. Centre of knob from point, 0.1525 in. Principal transition on this end prepared by
increase in shaft to 0.002 m. x 0.0019 m. On other side of knob transition more gradual. Rec¬ tangular part of shaft twisted before principal transition and in middle of other side. Prob¬ ably nearly complete.
Class 8. Shaft partly round and partly rectangular , the portions next to knob being round. (No complete specimens.)
Blade end.
2405. Uncertain how much gone from broken end, but there were probably no more knobs. Bent. Length, 0.338 m. Thickness of knob, 0.0075 m. Thickness of shaft, about 0.003 m. Centre of knob to end of blade, 0.177 m. Abrupt transition on this end, before which thickness of shaft increases to 0.0038 m. x 0.004 m. On same end near knob, five encircling lines of engraving. They serve to emphasize the transition from round to rectangle.
2407. Uncleaned. Length, 0.256 m. Thick¬ ness of knob, 0.0032 m. Shaft, 0.0013 m. square and less. Centre of knob to point, 0.16 m.
elliptical. Both ends gone.
2413. Length, 0.095 m. Thickness of knob, 0.0035 m. Shaft, 0.0016 m. square near knob, afterwards 0.0023 m. x 0.008 m.~0.0033 m. x 0.0023 m. Reddish.
ARE ANGULAR.
Class a. Shaft partly round and partly rectangular , the portions next to knob being rectangular. (No complete pieces.) (a'f Points.
2414. Uncleaned. Length, 0.202 m. Knob, 0.003 m. square. Shaft, 0.0013 m. and less. Centre of knob, 0.14 m. from point.
2415. Uncleaned. Length, 0.185 m. Knob, 0.0025 m. square. Shaft, 0.002 m. and less. Centre of knob to point, 0.135 m.
2416. Uncleaned. Length, 0.454 m. Knob, 0.0027 m. square. Shaft, 0.0018 m. and less. Centre of knob to point, 0.3985 m.
2417. Uncleaned. Length, 0.255 m. Knob, 0.003 m. square. Shaft, 0.C02 m. square and less. Centre to point, 0.108 m. Cf. No. 2680.
Class ff Similar to Class a, but with more developed transition from rectangular part of shaft to round. (No complete specimens.)
2421. Uncleaned. Length, 0.271 m. Knob, 0.0027 m. square. Shaft, 0.0022 m. x 0.002 m. and less. Centre of knob, 0.114 m. from point. Principal transition on this end. Plain but not abrupt. No swelling. On the other side of knob, gradual transition.
2422. Uncleaned. Length, 0.333 m. Knob, 0.0027 m.x 0.0029 m. Shaft, 0.002 m.x 0.0017 m. and less. Shaft on one side of knob rectangular to end (0.06 m. from centre of knob). On the other side, plain transition to round at 0.14 m. from centre of knob.
0.0038 m. square. Shaft, 0.0028 m. x 0.003 m. and less. Short portion at one end entirely rec¬ tangular. On the other side, plain but easy transition at 0.06 m. from centre of knob.
2425. Uncleaned. Condition poor. Length, 0.222 m. Knob, 0.0022 m. x 0.002 m. Shaft, 0.0016 m. and less. Centre of knob, 0.15 m. from point. Gradual transition. Shaft mostly twisted on both sides of knob.
Only pointed ends.
2426. Probably about complete. Length, 0.089 m. Knob, 0.0025 m. x 0.0007 m. Shaft, 0.002 m. x 0.0007 m. and less. Centre of knob to one end, 0.065 m. Both ends dull. Color reddish.
2427. Uncleaned. Length, 0.155 m. Knob, 0.0025 m. square. Shaft, 0.0017 m. square. Centre of knob to one end, 0.0735 m.
2428. Length, 0.455 m. Knob, 0.002 m. square. Shaft, 0.0013 m. square and less. Centre of knob to point, 0.40 m.
2429. Nearly complete. Length, 0.112 m. Knob, 0.002 m. x 0.0017 m. Shaft, 0.0016 m. x 0.0015 m. and less. Centre of knob to point, 0.082 m.
MEET WITH OR WITHOUT FORMING AN
angle. Shaft cut down at either end OF KNOB, AND AT THESE POINTS USUALLY EMPHASIZED, SUCH EMPHASIS IN THE MORE DEVELOPED SPECIMENS TAKING THE FORM OF ONE OR MORE RINGS.
Owing to the lack of sharp distinctions be¬ tween the specimens of greater and less degree of development, it seems best to group all the examples together according to the degree of development of the knob and its appurtenances. Class a. Shaft partly rectangular and partly round , the part next to knob being rectangular.
2437. Uncleaned. Length, 0.0325 m. Knob, 0.003 m. Shaft, 0.0014 m. x 0.0018 m. at knob, elsewhere less. Centre of knob to one point, 0.195 m. Transitions gradual, that on short end being the more marked.
2438. Bent. Length, 0.127 m. Knob, 0.0025 in. Shaft, 0.0018 m. x 0.0023 m. Centre of knob from one point, 0.0835 m. Transition gradual. Short end rectangular to point.
2439. Uncleaned. Length, 0.467 m. Knob, 0.0034 m. Shaft, 0.002 m.x 0.0018 in. Centre of knob to nearest end, 0.12 m. Transitions gradual.
2440. From back of South Building. Ends blunted. Length, 0.401 m. Knob, 0.0057 m. Shaft, 0.0022 m. x 0.0023 m. Centre of knob to one end, 0.227 m. Transition on this side plainly marked. The other side is rectangular to within 0.031 m. of end.
2440 a. Uncleaned. Length, 0.133 m. Knob, 0.0055 m. Shaft, 0.0027 m. x 0.003 m. and less. Centre of knob to nearest end, 0.051 m. This end rectangular.
Slightly developed, oblong knobs.
2441. Roughly coiled. Length, 0.438 m. Knob, 0.0035 m. Shaft, 0.0015 m. and less. Centre of knob to point, 0.088 m. Transitions gradual.
2442. Uncleaned. Light green patina. Length, 0.422 m. Knob, 0.0045 m. Shaft, 0.0025 x 0.0023 m. Centre of knob to point, 0.14 m. Transitions gradual, that on long end being the more plainly marked.
2443. From south slope. Bent. Length, 0.254 m. Knob, 0.0045 m. Shaft, 0.0028 in. x 0.0024 m. at knob, elsewhere less. Centre of knob to point, 0.167 m.
2444. Uncleaned. Length, 0.39 m. Knob, 0.006 m. Shaft, 0.0035 m. square near knob, elsewhere less. Transition gradual, but prepared for by slight increase in thickness of shaft.
2444 a. Uncleaned. Length, 0.375 m. Knob, 0.004 m. Shaft, 0.0019 m. square and less. Centre of knob to point, 0.131 m. Transitions gradual, but that on short end accompanied by slight swelling of shaft.
with a tendency to diminish their length.
2445. From West Building. Length, 0.435 m. Knob, 0.0028 m. Shaft, 0.0015 m. (at knob, 0.0018 m.). Centre of knob to point, 0.12 m. Transitions gradual, that on short end being pre¬ ceded by slight swelling of shaft.
2246. Length, 0.222 m. Knob, 0.0035 m. Shaft, 0.002 m. square (at principal transition), elsewhere less. Centre of knob to point, 0.118 m. Transition gradual, but preceded by above swell¬ ing. The other transition is gradual.
2447. Length, 0.208 m. Knob, 0.004 m. Shaft, 0.0025 m. square and less. Short end of shaft rectangular, long end has gradual transi¬ tion. Centre of knob to point, 0.176 m.
2448. Uncleaned. Length, 0.305 m. Knob, 0.0075 m. Shaft, 0.0025 m. square and less. Centre of knob to point, 0.112 m. Transition plain, but not abrupt. From transition to point, engraved screw-threading. On other side of knob, shaft has gradual transition.
2450. Uncleaned. Length, 0.225 m. Knob, 0.005 m. Shaft, 0.0025 m. square and less. Advanced transition with preliminary swelling, connecting ring and round, blunt, ornamented terminal piece, engraved with spread screw¬ threading. This end is distant 0.0865 m. from centre of knob. On the other side of knob, gradual transitions.
less. Gradual transitions.
2453. Length, 0.207 m. Knob, 0.005 m. Shaft, 0.0028 m. x 0.003 m. and less. Short end rectangular, the other has gradual transition. Zigzag on shaft at both sides of knob.
2454. Length, 0.153 m. Knob, 0.0045 m. Shaft, 0.002 m. x 0.0025 m. and less. Plain but not abrupt transition, with slight increase in thickness of shaft.
Developed knobs.
2456. Uncleaned. Length, 0.3275 m. Knob, 0.0055 in. Shaft, 0.0027 m. x 0.0029 m. at knob and main transition, elsewhere less. Ends plain, but one is preceded by a groove. Diame¬ ter, 0.0017 m. Distance from centre of knob, 0.181 m. Transition plain but not abrupt. The other transition is gradual.
transition plain but gradual.
2457 a. Length, 0.3855 m. Knob, 0.01 m. At either side, ring. Shaft, 0.0038 m. square and less. Centre of knob to end, 0.231 m. Groove at end. Gradual transitions.
2457 b. Condition poor. One rivet lost. Length, 0.114 m. Knob, 0.0095 m. Shaft, 0.0075 m. x 0.008 m. at knob, elsewhere less. Centre of knob to end, 0.0895 m. Transition plain but not abrupt. Marked with two (or per¬ haps three) grooves. Groove at end, forming sort of cap. This end of shaft spliced with blade 0.036 m. in length and 0.0035 m.-O.OOl m. in thickness, which is inserted and held by two
vanced transition.
2458. Nearly complete. Length, 0.265 m. Knob, 0.006 m. Shaft, 0.004 m. x 0.0035 m. and less. Centre of knob to short end, 0.069 m. Transition accompanied by increase in thickness and by disk-ring. Terminal piece ornamented with screw-threading and a convex surface. On the other side of knob, gradual transition. Might be taken as a straight pin of Type k. Seems better to regard it as a mixed or transitional form midway between pin and spit, the solid disk corresponding to the separable disk still pre¬ served on certain spits, e. g. in the Carapanos collection (from Dodona.)
(</'.) Ornamented blunt end with ad¬ vanced transition. (Original length and number of knobs uncertain.)
2459o Uncleaned. Length, 0.0815 m. Knob, 0.007 m. Shaft, 0.003 m. square and less. Centre of knob to preserved end, 0.06 m. Transition followed by terminal piece with screw¬ threading.
2460. Uncleaned. Length, 0.0915 m. Knob, 0.008 m. Shaft, 0.004 m. x 0.035 m. at transi¬ tion, elsewhere less. Centre of knob to end, 0.0705 m. Ring at transition. Just before end, convex surface.
2461. Uncleaned. Length, 0.067 m. Knob, 0.0075 m. Shaft, 0.0035 m. and less. Centre of knob to end, 0.0455 m. Short terminal end ornamented with convex surfaces and screwthreading.
2462. Uncleaned. Length, 0.1535 m. Knob, 0.008 in. Shaft, 0.005 m. square and less. Centre of knob to end, 0.1435 m. Ring at transition. Round part of end covered with fine threading.
2463. Length, 0.097 in. Knob, 0.0105 in. Slight ring at either side. Shaft, 0.005 m. square at transition, elsewhere less. Centre of knoli to end, 0.079 m. Ring after transition.
(i'f) Similar to (A'), but with highly developed mass of rings taking the place of transition. (Original num¬ ber of knobs uncertain.)
2464. Length, 0.071 m. Knob, 0.012 m. At either side, two rings. Shaft, 0.0055 m. and less. Centre of knob to end, 0.0675 m. Sides of rec¬ tangular part of shaft ornamented with zigzag framed in five lines.
2465. Uncleaned. Patinated light green. Length, 0.211 m. Knob, 0.0024 m. Shaft, 0.0017 m. square. Gradual transition.
2467. Uncleaned. Length, 0.295 m. Knob, 0.0075 m. Shaft, 0.003 m. square and less. Transition gradual. Size of knob and shaft dis¬ proportionate.
2468. Length, 0.252 in. Knob, 0.009 m. Shaft, 0.007 m. square next to knob, elsewhere less. On one side of knob, rectangular stub ; on the other, nearly complete long end with gradual transition. Next to knob on short end, five or six faint grooves, beyond which a few circles. On long end, a single groove, after which faint circles, of which some are dotted, others crossed, and the remainder plain.
or slightly rounded angle.
2471. Uncleaned. Length, 0.12 m. Knob, 0.0038 m. Shaft, 0.002 m. square at knob, elsewhere less. Gradual transition.
lating zigzag.
2475. From back of South Building. Length, 0.301 m. Knob, 0.008 m. Shaft, 0.0038 m. square at knob, elsewhere less. Transition, grooves, and zigzag as in No. 2474.
ceding, but shorter.
2478. Length, 0.105 m. Knob, 0.0034 m. Shaft, 0.0018 m. square at knob, elsewhere less. Gradual transition. Original number of knobs uncertain.
2479. Bent, probably purposely, into leaf¬ shaped design. Length, 0.395 m. Length as bent, 0.085 m. Width, 0.045 m. Knob, 0.005 m. Shaft, 0.0025 m. x 0.0023 m. at knob, elsewhere less. Transitions gradual, that on shorter end being plainer.
2480. Uncleaned. Length, 0.395 m. Knob, 0.006 m. Shaft, 0.0024 m. square at knob, elsewhere less. Gradual transition.
pins of Type k. Cf. No. 2458.
2483. Length, 0.077 m. Knob, 0.0125 m. Shaft, 0.0035 m. x 0.0039 m. and less. Plain, slightly abrupt transition preceded by three en¬ graved lines. On same side (that of which the more is preserved), zigzag in frame. Traces of zigzag also on other side. Uncertain how many knobs originally.
2484. Length, 0.219 m. Knob, 0.01 m. Shaft,
0.003 m. x 0.0035 m. and less. Short end termi¬ nates in convex surface and cap. On longer side, gradual transition. Probably had only one knob.
2485. Length, 0.117 m. Knob, 0.0095 in. Shaft, 0.0035 m. square and less. On one side of knob, ornamented terminal end, on the other, rather abrupt transition. Traces of fine zigzag on shaft at either side of knob. Probably sub¬ stantially complete.
Discards similar to No. 2483: cleaned, one; uncleaned, thirteen. Similar to No. 2485: uncleaned, one. Number of knobs in no case certain. Majority probably bad but one knob.
Angular knobs, short or slightly elongated, with a single ring at either side. (Original number of knobs uncertain.)
2488. From West Building. Length, 0.38 m. Knob, 0.0085 m. Shaft, 0.0045 m. x 0.005 m. at knob, elsewhere less. Transition plain, but gradual.
gradual.
2490. From south slope. Length, 0.1355 m. Knob, 0.01 m. Shaft, 0.0049 m. square and less. On longer preserved side, easy transition emphasized by three rings engraved at beginning of round part.
169. From West Building. Similar to No. 168. Length, 0.034 m. Diameter of head, 0.012 m. Head grooved. Cross on head. Rec¬ tangular block, above which grooved collar.
172. Pin broken. Oxidized. Length, 0.065 m. Diameter of head, 0.007 m. Beginning of pin rectangular. Sides with engraved lines. On top of head, two dotted circles.
173. Fragment. Length, 0.0445 m. Rec¬ tangular block with double collar. In bottom hole, 0.002 m. in diameter. Pin probably of iron. Traces of engraving on block.
174. Pin gone. Corroded. Length, 0.062 m. Diameter of head, 0.0115 m. Large cross on top of head. Pin was riveted into slit in block. In slit traces of iron pin remain. On two sides of block, cross.
175. Pin gone. Oxidized. Length, 0.077 m. Diameter of head, 0.014 m. Rectangular block with collar, sharply distinguished from pin. In centre of head, dot in circle. On each side of block, three dots in circles, one above the other.
177. Pin gone. Oxidized. Length, 0.06 m. Diameter of head, 0.011 m. Slit block with riveted pin. In slit traces of bronze pin.
178. F rom West Building. Pin broken at block. Length, 0.067 m. Diameter of head, 0.0105 m. On each side of block, dot in circle.
183. Fragment. Pin gone. Corroded. Length, 0.083 m. Rectangular block with double grooved collar. In bottom hole, 0.0032 m. in diameter. On sides, cross. On three sides, dot in circle between upper limbs of cross. Traces of dot in circle between lower limbs of cross on one side.
184 a. From West Building. Corroded. Length, 0.127 in. Head consists of truncated cone, with round lower edges, surmounted by low inverted truncated cone. Top has ten-barred cross. Block slit entire length, with rivet holes in lower part. Pin of iron, as remaining portion shows. Cross carved on two sides of block.
Addenda. The following probably accident¬ ally headless pins could not be arranged under the above forms, because of danger of fallacious conclusions respecting introduction of oniament.
190. Oxidized. Length, 0.19 m. Rectangu¬ lar block with double grooved collar. On sides of block, cross in circle. On pin next to block, six grooves.
197. F Tom West Building. Point gone. Head damaged. Length, 0.052 m. Diameter of head, 0.018 m. Beginning of body rectangular.
198. Length, 0.116 m. Diameter of head, 0.013 m. Corrugations slight. Underneath, about seven fine grooves very close together.
205. F Tagment. From above east end of Stoa, under Cyclopean wall, 1893. Length, circ. 0.09 m. Diameter of head, 0.0125 m. Block¬ like beginning of body.
224. 225. Fragments. From south slope. Diameter of heads, 0.015, 0.012 m. Rectangu¬ lar blocks, that of No. 225 with collar.
227. Fragment. From back of South Build¬ ing. Length, 0.128 m. Diameter of head, 0.016 m. Rectangular block with collar. In centre of top of head slight depression, corresponding to place of attachment. First case in this type where this is plain.
229. Fragment. From south slope. Length, 0.108 m. Diameter of head, 0.009 m. Sharply cut corrugations on slender stem. Short rec¬ tangular block with collar marked off by groove.
237-240. Injured and fragmentary. No. 239 from West Building. Diameter of heads, 0.01-0.013 m. Rectangular blocks.
surface.
2534. Length, 0.43 m. Knob, 0.008 m. x 0.007 m. Shaft, 0.0065 m. at knob, elsewhere less. Centre of knob to edge of blade, 0.286 m. Width of blade, 0.004 m.
Form 4. Similar to Form 3, but swell¬ ing OF SIDES IS RECTANGULAR. FORM 4 IS to Form 2 as Form 3 is to Form 1. (No ends preserved.)
but without rings.
2535. Length, 0.1815 m. Knob, 0.0027 m. x 0.0025 m. Shaft, 0.0023 m. and less. Original number of knobs uncertain. Color reddish.
2536. Uncleaned. Length, 0.1515 m. Knob, 0.0038 m. x 0.003 m. At either end, single ring. Shaft, 0.0034 m. x 0.003 ill. next to ring, else¬ where less. Longer stub has gradual transition.
The following piece is more advanced, and is transitional to a rectangular form (not repre¬ sented at Argos), that would correspond to Form 5 more closely than does Form 6.
2537. Length, 0.132 m. Knob, 0.005 m. square. Shaft, 0.0035 m. x 0.003 in. and less. Raised rectangular rings, one at one end of knob and two at the other. Possible trace of zigzag of bent lines on shaft. Original number of knobs uncertain.
2538. Uncleaned. Length, 0.144 m. Knob, 0.0028 m. x 0.003 m. Shaft, 0.0022 m. square and less. This piece probably had no more knobs.
2539. Uncleaned. Length, 0.119 m. Knob, 0.005 m. square. Shaft, 0.0025 m. square and 0.003 in. square next to knob. Long stub in¬ erases to 0.0035 m. x 0.004 m., part of which is oxidation.
Form 5. Similar to Form 3 as regards
SHAPE OF KNOB, BUT THE RING ON SHAFT AT ENDS OF KNOB HAS NOW BECOME AN APPENDAGE TO THE KNOB. (There are no complete pieces and in no case is the original num¬ ber of knobs known.)
Ends gone.
2540. Length, 0.339 m. Knob, 0.02 ni. It is short, with convex sides. It forms one piece with rings, and is jacketed over the shaft. Shaft, 0.006 m. and less. Gradual transition. Not certain that this piece is a spit.
2541. Length, 0.108 m. Knob, 0.016 m. With rings forms one piece which is jacketed on over shaft. Shaft, 0.004x 0.0043 m. and less.
2542. Length, 0.0525 m. Knob, 0.016 m. With its rings forms a separate piece which is jacketed on. Shaft, 0.007 m. x 0.0075 in. At short end traces of round stub, 0.0065 m. in diameter.
2544. Uncleaned. Length, 0.13 m. Knob, 0.0041 m. square. Shaft, 0.0028 m. x 0.003 m. Original number of knobs uncertain.
2545. From West Building. Length, 0.139 m. Knob, 0.006 m. square. Three fine lines across each end inclosing cross, on all four sides. Line of cross double in two places. On one side, fine lines along long edges, one on each edge. Shaft, 0.004 m. square and less. Probably but one knob.
2546. Length, 0.537 m. Length of knob, 0.0095 m. + 0.0085 m. Sides, about 0.0055 m. square. Shaft, 0.004 m. x 0.0045 m. and less. Gradual transitions.
Sides of knob round.
Shaft rectangular and round, the parts next to and between knobs being rectangular. Only one specimen, and that with both ends gone.
2547. Uncleaned. Length, 0.257 m. Knobs, 0.007 m. Centre to centre, 0.05 m. Shaft, 0.003 m. x 0.0035 m. and less. Gradual transi¬ tion with slight thickening of shaft on mixed end.
2548. Uncleaned. Length, 0.314 m. Knobs, 0.0035 m. square. Centres, 0.018 m. apart. Shaft, 0.0024 m. square and less. One stub rectangular, the other has gradual transition with swelling.
2549. Uncleaned. Length, 0.193 m. Knobs, about 0.005 m. square. Centres, 0.034 m. apart. Shaft, 0.0028 m. square. Longer stub is slightly twisted and has trace of zigzag.
Class y. Shaft between and adjoining knobs nearly elliptical (i. e. rectangular with rounded angles ), but toward point becomes somewhat more rounded.
2550. Uncleaned. Length, 0.16 m. Knobs, 0.003 m. x 0.0027 m. Centres, 0.016 in. apart. Shaft, 0.0025 m.x 0.002 m. and less. Centre of nearest knob to point, 0.13 m.
Form 3. Sides of shaft incut at ends
OF KNOBS, WHICH ARE CONVEX, WITH ROUNDED SIDES. ENDS OF SHAFT ADJOIN¬ ING KNOBS TEND TO INCREASE IN EMPHASIS.
Corresponds to Type b, Form 3.
Class a. Shaft rectangular and round, the parts near to and between knobs being rectangular 4 (No complete pieces.) (ah) Point.
2551. Length, 0.611 m. Knobs, 0.009 m. Distance apart, 0.026 m. Shaft, 0.0046 m.x 0.005 m. Centre of nearest knob to point, 0.086 m. At either end of each knob, raised flat rectangular ring. Transitions gradual.
2552. Length, 0.405 m. Knobs, 0.006 m.0.009 m. Distance apart, 0.0185 m. Shaft, 0.004 m. square and less except at transition, which is 0.005 m. x 0.004 m. Gradual transition.
number uncertain.
2553. Length, 0.423 m. Knobs, 0.014 m. Shaft, 0.0065 m. square and less except at tran¬ sition, which is 0.008 m. square. Nearest knob to end, 0.299 in. Traces of zigzag on rectangular part of shaft.
but with cap.
Low rounded knobs with a single ring at either side of each. (Origi¬ nal number of knobs uncertain.)
2554. Length, 0.415 m. Knobs, 0.008 m. Distance apart, 0.064 m. Shaft, 0.005 m. near knobs, elsewhere less. Centre of knob to end, 0.303 m. Gradual transition.
2555. Length, 0.417 m. Knobs, 0.014 m. Distance apart (between rings), 0.071 m. Shaft, 0.006 m. square near knobs, elsewhere less. Gradual transition.
2556. Length, 0.293 m. Knobs, 0.0145 m. Interspace, 0.024 m. Shaft, 0.0055 m. square at knobs, elsewhere less. Shorter stub has four rings next to knob and four at break. Longer stub has four next to knob and five at transition. Between knobs, three and five. Transition plain, but not abrupt. Nearest knob to end, 0.203 m.
at either side.
2557. Length, 0.29 m. Knobs, 0.012 m. Interspace, 0.073 m. Shaft, 0.005 m. x 0.006 m. and less. Transition rapid, but not abrupt. Length of terminal, 0.075 m.
2558. Length, 0.383 m. Knobs, 0.0125 m. Interspace, 0.07 m. Shaft, 0.006 m. square near knobs, elsewhere less. Gradual transition.
Oblong angular knobs. No rings.
2559. Length, 0.22 m. Knobs, 0.01 m. In¬ terspace, 0.035 m. Shaft, 0.005 m. square and less. Transition plain but gradual.
2560. Length, 0.226 m. Knobs, about 0.01 m. Transition followed by terminal, the beginning of which is rectangular, the remainder round. Probably no more knobs originally.
2561. Length, 0.321 m. Knobs, 0.012 m. Interspace, 0.037 m. Shaft, 0.007 m. square and less. Probably no more knobs originally.
2562. Length, 0.365 m. Knobs, 0.009 m. Interval, 0.02 in. Shaft, 0.0045 m. square and less. Gradual transition. Probably no more knobs originally.
2563. Length, 0.171 m. Knobs, 0.012 m.x 0.015 in. Interval, 0.042 m. Shaft, 0.006 in. x 0.0065 m. and less. Short terminal.
Addenda to Class a. Fragments with knobs of unequal si/e. Probable that nearly all had originally three knobs, but the case of No. 2552 makes it preferable to put them here. Arrange¬ ment from rounded to angular knobs.
2564. Length, 0.157 m. Knobs, 0.013 m. and 0.008 in. Interspace, 0.021 m. Advanced transition (on side of smaller knob) followed by round ornamented terminal (length, 0.039 m.), beginning with disk.
2565. Length, 0.115 m. Knobs, 0.011 m., 0.007 m., the smaller being toward transition. Interspace, 0.014 m. Advanced transition fol¬ lowed by ornamented terminal piece beginning with disk as in No. 2564. Length, 0.054 m. Traces of zigzag on rectangular part of shaft, on all four sides.
2566. Uncleaned. Length, 0.157 m. Knobs, 0.014 m. and 0.0095 m., the smaller being to¬ ward transition. Interspace, 0.017 m. Advanced transition followed by round part, after which secondary transition and round terminal, of which length, 0.057 m.
The fact that the smaller knob is, in the above addenda, nearer the transition is without signif¬ icance in those cases in which it was balanced by a similar smaller knob on the other side of larger knob.
Class ft. Rectangular shaft. As no ends are preserved \ the majority were probably of Class a. (Original number of knobs in no case certain.)
knobs, elsewhere less.
2568. Length, 0.063 m. Knobs, 0.016 m. Interspace, 0.0275 m. ; at each end, on all four sides, two grooves (distance apart, 0.004 m.) con¬ nected by diagonal cross lines.
2569. Length, 0.138 m. Knobs, 0.01 m. and 0.011 m. Interspace, 0.045 m. Shaft, near knobs, 0.047 m. square, elsewhere less.
2570. Length, 0.128 m. Knobs, 0.015 m. Interspace, 0.037 m. Shaft, 0.005 m. and less. Faint traces of ornament near knobs, perhaps lines connected by diagonals as in No. 2568, and circles.
2572. Length, 0.152 m. Knobs, 0.01 m. and 0.011 m. Interspace, 0.034 m. Shaft, 0.006 m. and less. Traces of zigzag between knobs.
2574 a. Uncleaned. Length, 0.0365 m. Knobs, 0.01 m., 0.005 m. Interval, 0.022 m. Shaft, 0.0045 m. square. All four sides occu¬ pied with ornament. Space divided by vertical lines into three sections, in each of which, a di¬ agonal cross. Lines and crosses struck with chisel.
square. Single plain rings.
2576. From West Building. Length, 0.089 m. Knobs, 0.007 m. and 0.008 m., larger knob being toward transition. IntersjDace, 0.0115 m. Shaft near knobs, 0.0042 m., 0.0045 m. Advanced transition which was followed by disk and ter¬ minal end.
2578. Length, 0.096 m. Knobs, 0.0115 m. and 0.005 m. Interval, 0.011 m. Shaft, 0.003 m. square. Three rings outside large knob, else¬ where two. Between large knob and transition, framed zigzag. Portion between small knob and break divided by two lines into two sections, of which the first has framed zigzag ; the second is plain.
2579. Uncleaned. Length, 0.04 m. Knobs, 0.0125 m., 0.0095 m. Interspace, 0.02 m. Shaft, 0.0055 m. square. Single rings. Stub of shaft on side of smaller knob has broken out hole. Di¬ ameter, 0.0015 m.
2580. Length, 0.322 m. Knobs, 0.0078 m. Interspace, 0.0115 m. Ornamented with fine parallel threading. Shaft, 0.003 m. square at knobs, elsewhere less. Shorter end has plain but not abrupt transition to round. Longer end has gradual transition. Near knobs, zigzag of bent lines on all four sides.
also be regarded as straight pins of Type f.
2580 a. Both ends incomplete. Length, 0.142 m. Knobs, 0.008 m., 0.0125 m. King at either side of each. Interval between rings, 0.023 m. Shaft, 0.0035 m. square. Between knobs, rounded rectangular bar and outside larger knob, round shaft.
2581. Length, 0.827 m. Knobs, 0.0075 m. x 0.0065 m. and 0.007 m. square. Interspace, 0.251 m. Shaft, 0.0065 m. x 0.006 m. near knobs, elsewhere less. Smaller knob acts as transition to following end, which is round. Next to knobs, swelling of shaft but no rings.
2582. Length, 0.307 m. Knobs, 0.007 m. square. Interval, 0.0575 m. Shaft, 0.0045 m. square and less. Direct but not abrupt transi¬ tion acompanied by slight thickening of shaft.
2583. Length, 0.536 m. Knobs, 0.0035 m. x 0.003 m. Slightly developed. Interspace, 0.01 m. Shaft, 0.0027 m. x 0.0025 m. and less. Plain but gentle transition to round. Probable that this piece is practically complete.
2584. Uncleaned. Length, 0.25 m. Knobs, 0.0035 m. and 0.0033 m. Interspace, 0.0225 m. King adjoining each knob on side toward ends. Shaft, 0.0023 m. square. From middle of sec¬ ondary swelling to preserved end, screw-thread¬ ing.
2585. Length, 0.247 m. Knobs, 0.014 m. and 0.0135 m. Interspace, 0.062 m. Shaft, 0.005 m. square and less. Advanced transition. Knobs probably of same piece with shaft.
and less. Knobs appear to be jacketed on.
2587. Length, 0.384 m. Knobs, 0.0275 m. Interval, 0.057 m. Shaft, 0.0083 m. square and less. Gradual transition on longer stub. Knobs perhaps of separate pieces from shaft.
2588. From south slope. Length, 0.234 m. Knobs, 0.023 m. and 0.0225 m. Interspace, 0.041 m. Shaft, 0.006 m. square. Rectangular inset near end of longer stub probably to pre¬ pare for transition. Between rings of each knob, longitudinal striations. Knobs of separate pieces from shaft.
Type d. Three knobs.1
Form 1. Knob a simple swelling of shaft. Sides of knob rectangular. Knobs of this form belonging to Type d are more advanced than those of the corresponding forms of Types
plete pieces.
2589. Shorter end may be complete. Length, 0.368 m. Knobs, 0.007 m. square. Interspaces (reckoned from centres of knobs), 0.027 m. Shaft, 0.0053 m. square and less. Centre of nearest knob to end, 0.027 m. On long stub, gradual transition. On all four sides along knobs, slightly wavy band of zigzag of bent lines finely engraved.
2590. Both ends gone. Length, 0.331 m. Knobs, 0.007 m. square. Centres, 0.032 m. and 0.029 m. apart. Shaft, 0.005 m. square and less. One end round, with broad screwthreading, which is not engraved but struck with chisel in connecting sections of about 0.002 m. in length. This end preceded by rapid tran¬ sition. Between knobs, on all four sides, broad zigzag of bent lines.
Form 2. Sides of shaft incut at ends of knobs, which are convex, with ROUNDED SIDES. PORTIONS OF SHAFT AD¬ JOINING KNOBS TEND TO INCREASE IN EM¬ PHASIS. Cf. Form 3 of Types b and c. Clans a. Shaft rectangular and round.
1 On four spits of this type in the Carapanos collection (from Dodona), all of which arc straight, is passed a disk of analogous size. Disk on ornamented end, and rests
0.0135 m., 0.009 m. (from ornamented end). Interspaces, 0.017 m., 0.016 m. respectively. Shaft, 0.007 m. square at principal transition, elsewhere less. One transition advanced and followed by ornamented terminal, the other easy but marked with three lines of engraving. Zig¬ zag of bent lines on four sides of this part of rectangle.
2592. Length, 0.515 m. Knobs, 0.01 m. and 0.0075 m. Interspace, 0.022 m. Shaft, 0.0035 m. and less. Nearest knob to end, 0.40 m. Grad¬ ual transition. Broken end had advanced tran¬ sition and ornamented round terminal. On rectangular part of this end, fine zigzag of bent lines.
2593. Length, 0.298 m. Knobs, 0.0085 m., 0.011 m., 0.0095 in. (from direction of advanced transition). Interspaces, 0.033 m. and 0.032 in. respectively. Shaft, 0.0055 m. square and less. One transition advanced (0.075 m. from nearest knob), the other gradual (0.104 m. from nearest knob). On rectangular part, narrow zigzag of bent lines.
2594. Length, 0.293 m. Knobs, 0.009 m., 0.011 m., 0.0085 m. (from advanced transition). Interspaces, 0.024 m. Shaft, 0.0055 m. square and less. One transition advanced (0.098 m. from nearest knob), the other gradual (0.07 m. from nearest knob). On rectangular part, traces of zigzag of bent lines.
ring at either end of each knob.
2595. Length, 0.153 m. Knobs, 0.0135 m. and 0.0095 m. Intervals, 0.02 m. and 0.0175 m. Shaft, 0.004 m. square and less. Gradual tran¬ sitions, one at 0.023 m. from nearest knob marked by three engraved lines, the other at 0.028 m. from the other small knob with four lines. The latter led to round terminal. On all sides of rectangular part, narrow zigzag of bent lines.
Ordinary knobs. Arrangement from rounded pear-shaped sides to short sides with sharp angles. Single ring at end of each knob.
ancl 0.012 m. Intervals, 0.01 m. and 0.009 m. Shaft, 0.005 m. x 0.0055 m. at principal transi¬ tion, elsewhere less. At 0.045 m. from nearest knob advanced transition, probably followed by round terminal. At 0.082 m. from the other small knob, gradual transition with two engraved lines. Entire rectangular part covered with fine zigzag of bent lines.
2597. Length, 0.18 m. Knobs, 0.006 m., 0.012 m., 0.0075 m. (reckoned from principal transition). Interspaces, 0.015 m. and 0.018 m. respectively. Shaft, 0.0086 m. square and less, except at transition, where it is more. At 0.0395 m. from nearest knob, advanced transition with disk into which round terminal was in¬ serted. At 0.032 m. from the other small knob, gradual transition with two and three lines. Traces of zigzag of bent lines on rectangular part.
2598. Length, 0.108 m. Knobs, 0.006 m., 0.012 m., 0.0065 m. Interspaces, 0.014 m., 0.0125 m. Shaft, 0.0035 m. square and less. At 0.02 m. Lorn knob, abrupt transition with ring, groove, and disk. At 0.013 m. from other small knob, plainly marked transition to round.
2599. Length, 0.124 m. Knobs, 0.006 m., 0.011 m., 0.0075 m. (counting from shorter stub). Interspaces (between rings), 0.0085 in. Shaft, 0.0037 m. x 0.004 m. At 0.0165 m. from smallest knob, break, which was followed by round part. At 0.015 m. from other small knob, easy transition with three lines.
2600. Length, 0.2055 m. Knobs, 0.008 m., 0.0135 m. Interspaces, 0.01 m., 0.0125 m. Shaft, 0.004 m. x 0.0037 m. and less. Plainly marked transition. Traces of zigzag of bent lines on rectangular part.
2601. From West Building. Length, 0.1665 m. Knobs, 0.007 m., 0.01 in. Interspaces, 0.013 m., 0.017 m. Shaft, 0.003 m. square and less, ex¬ cept at transition (0.0035 m. x 0.004 m.). Transitions equidistant (0.018 m.) from knobs, the one advanced to terminal, the other plainly marked to round.
2602. Length, 0.182 m. Knobs, 0.01 m., 0.0175 m. Interspaces, 0.022 in., 0.021 m. Shaft, 0.0057 m. square and less (at transition, 0.006 m. square). At 0.0675 m. from knob, advanced transition with disk and round orna¬ mented terminal. At the other end, stub (length, 0.004 m. ; width, 0.006 m. ; thickness, 0.0024 m.), in end of which hole (broken out) 0.0025 m. in diameter. Shaft was therefore composite. Faint traces of zigzag of bent lines.
2603. Length, 0.133 m. Knobs, 0.0075 m., 0.01 m., 0.008 m. Interspaces, 0.018 m., 0.02 m. Shaft, 0.004 m. x 0.0045 m. and less. Advanced transition with disk, followed by ornamented round terminal.
2604. Length, 0.225 m. Knobs, 0.009 m., 0.012 m. Interspaces, 0.03 m., 0.031 m. Shaft, 0.0034 m. x 0.0038 m. and less, but increasing to 0.0055 m. square at transition. Advanced transition with disk at 0.055 m., gradual transi¬ tion at 0.045 m. from respective nearest knobs. Traces of zigzag of short bent lines.
uncleaned, one.
Group ii. All three knobs equal or nearly equal in size. (No ends preserved ex¬ cept possibly terminal of No. 2610.)
ends of knobs.
2605. Length, 0.357 m. Knobs, 0.009 m. Interspaces, 0.021 m. ,0.015m. Shaft, 0.0045m. x 0.0043 ni. and less. One stub rectangular, the other has gradual transition to round.
2606. Uncleaned. Length, 0.438 m. Knobs, 0.006 m. Interspaces, 0.021 m., 0.0215 m. Shaft, 0.0026 m. x 0.0028 m. Transitions at 0.05 m. and 0.053 m. from knobs, the one plain to rectangle with rounded corners (traces of beginning of screw-threading), the other gradual.
2607. Length, 0.393 m. Knobs, 0.008 m. Interspaces, 0.012 m. Shaft, 0.0038 m. square and less. On one side rectangular to break, on the other, gradual transition to round.
form two low rings.
2608. Length, 0.328 m. Knobs, 0.0085 m. Interspaces, 0.0135 m., 0.012 m. Shaft, 0.0045 m. square and less. On one stub, plain but not ab¬ rupt transition ; the other stub is rectangular to break. In interspaces, a single line of engraving along each edge.
each knob. Knobs angular but
rather flat. Knob and ring form transition to form in which knob and ring are one piece in construc¬ tion.
2609. Length, 0.463 m. Knobs, 0.012 m. Interspaces, 0.009 m., 0.015 m. Shaft, 0.007 m. square and less. On one stub, gradual transi-
2610. Terminal perhaps about complete. Length, 0.258 m. Knobs, 0.012 m. Inter¬ spaces, 0.018 m., 0.014 m. Shaft, 0.0065 m. x 0.006 m. and less, but increases to 0.01 m. square at transition. Transition advanced. After it, rectangular piece forming secondary transition, and round plain terminal. The other stub is rectangular to break. From a distance of 0.003 m. from break, incut 0.001 m. on two adjacent sides ; purpose not clear.
Group i. Central knob largest.
Ordinary knobs with a single ring at either side of each. Arrange¬ ment from less to greater angu¬ larity.
2611. Length, 0.135 m. Knobs, 0.008 in., 0.01 m., 0.0085 m. Interspaces, 0.0335 m., 0.0315 m. Shaft, 0.0035 m. x 0.0033 m. and less.
2612. Length, 0.14 m. Knobs, 0.0095 m., 0.0165 m., 0.009 m. Interspaces, 0.0125 m. Shaft, 0.0045 m. x 0.0053 m. and less, but in¬ creases to 0.005 m. x 0.006 m. at transition. Ad¬ vanced transition. Zigzag of bent lines through¬ out.
2613. Length, 0.186 m. Knobs, 0.009 m., 0.0175 m., 0.0095 m. Interspaces, 0.026 m., 0.029 m. Shaft, 0.0055 m. square at transition, elsewhere less. Advanced transition followed by short stub in which hole (diameter, 0.0028 m., depth, 0.01 m.) into which terminal (probably of iron) was inserted. Zigzag of bent lines throughout.
is perhaps best put here.
2613 a. Uncleaned. Length, 0.083 m. Knobs, 0.007 in., 0.0125 m. Interspaces, 0.017 m. Shaft, 0.0035 m. x 0.0032 m. At either side of large knob and at inner end of one of the others, three raised rings. At either side of the other small knob, double ring. Original number of knobs uncertain.
2614. Length, 0.105 m. Knobs, 0.008 rn. In¬ tervals, 0.017 m., 0.0185 m. Shaft, 0.005 m. square and less. Width of blade, 0.0065 ni. Thickness, 0.003 m. Blade probably slightly longer originally.
2615. Length, 0.177 m. Knobs, 0.01 m. In¬ terspaces, 0.003 m., 0.0028 in. Shaft, 0.0065 m. and less. Advanced transition with hole (diam¬ eter, 0.003 m. x 0.002 m.) in end containing stub of inserted bronze terminal.
adjoining portions of shaft.
2616. Length, 0.146 m. Knobs, 0.0095 m., 0.01 m. Interspaces, 0.013 m., 0.0145 m. Shaft, 0.0052 m. square and less, but increases to 0.0063 in. square at transition. Advanced tran¬ sition with disk, after which round terminal. Zigzag of bent lines throughout. Possibly more knobs originally.
Rings separated from knobs and ad¬ joining portions of shaft by deep groove. Ordinary angular knobs.
2617. Length, 0.1825 m. Knobs, 0.0115 m., 0.012 m. Interspaces, 0.0335 m., 0.03 m. Shaft, 0.0065 ni. square and less. Advanced transition with disk followed by stub of terminal. The other end has broken round surface at 0.031 ni. from nearest knob.
slightly angular.
2618. Uncleaned. Length, 0.0715 m. Knobs, 0.015 m. Interspaces, 0.02 m. Shaft, 0.001 m. x 0.009 m. May have been part of rod or staff, but formally belongs here.
KNOBS ARE RECTANGULAR. FORM 3 : FORM 2 = Form 1 : plain round knob with¬ out GROOVE AT ENDS (NOT REPRESENTED AT HERAEUM).
2619. Length, 0.42 m. Knobs, 0.007 m. square, and 0.0075 ni. x 0.008 m. (5is). Inter¬ spaces, 0.0385 m. and 0.04 m. Shaft, 0.0053 m. x 0.0057 m. and less. Nearest knob to end, 0.194 m.
BUT COMBINED WITH RINGS TO FORM AN ORGANIC WHOLE. OUTER ENDS ON RINGS ABRUPT, INSIDE SLOPES INWARD TOWARD BASE OF KNOB. GROOVE DEEPER THAN LINE OF SHAFT.
2620. Both ends gone. Length, 0.292 m. Knobs, 0.008 m., 0.0078 in., 0.0085 m. Inter¬ spaces, 0.0235 m., 0.026 m. Shaft, 0.0037 m. x 0.003 m. and less. Gradual transition to round. Corners of shaft beveled off in interspaces.
2621. Length, 0.151 m. Interspaces, 0.02 in., 0.021 m. Shaft, 0.0053 m. square and less. Abrupt but not advanced transition. Knobs with their rings probably separate pieces from shaft.
2622. Length, 0.503 m. Knobs, 0.018 m. Interspaces, 0.029 in., 0.023 m. Shaft, 0.005 m. square. Plain but gradual transition, marked by three engraved lines. Two or three lines also at each end of knobs (outside rings). Knobs and rings probably separate pieces from shaft.
Form 6. Advanced rounded knobs rising
ABRUPTLY FROM SHAFT AND DIVIDED BY GROOVE IN CENTRE SO THAT EACH HAS THE FORM OF TWO BROAD RINGS. (Knobs and shaft of one piece.)
Shaft rectangular and round.
2623. Both ends gone. Length, 0.409 m. Knobs, 0.008 m., 0.0085 m., 0.008 m. Inter¬ spaces, 0.086 m., 0.085 m. Shaft, 0.0052 m. square and less. Gradual transitions.
2624. Length, 0.468 m. Knobs, about 0.008 m. square. Shaft, 0.0055 m. square and less. Grad¬ ual transition. On each side of each knob, diagonal cross running from corner to corner. Engraved or struck with chisel.
Ordinary developed knobs with rounded angles. Shaft grooved at either end of each knob. Adjoining portions of shaft emphasized
so as to form rings. Similar to three-knob type, with central knob largest, except that between central knob and one of the smaller ones (that nearest small end) a still smaller knob is inserted.
2625. Both ends gone. Length, 0.197 m. Knobs, 0.009 m., 0.013 m., 0.005 m., 0.009 m. (reckoned from principal transition). Intervals, 0.0165 m., 0.01 m., 0.0065 m. Shaft, 0.004 m. square. Advanced transition at 0.045 m. from nearest knob, gradual at 0.025 m.
probably had five knobs originally.
2626. End. Length, 0.243 m. Knobs, 0.0045 m. -0.0065 m. Shaft, 0.0037 m. square, increasing at transition to 0.005 m. x 0.0052 m. Advanced transition, ornamented with two grooves. After it, terminal ornamented with screw-tlireading.
Group i. Knobs of three sizes, the largest being in centre and the two smallest at either side of central knob.
and but slightly larger than shaft.
2627. Length, 0.158 m. Knobs, 0.01 m., 0.005 m., 0.008 m. Interspaces, 0.005 m.— 0.008 m. Small ring at either side of central knob. Elsewhere, emphasis. Transitions (about equidistant from knobs), the one gradual, the other advanced. The latter is followed by orna¬ mented round terminal. Narrow zigzag of bent lines throughout rectangular part.
2628. Length, 0.139 m. Knobs, 0.011 m., 0.0063 m., 0.0065 m., 0.0085 m. Intervals, 0.009 m. Shaft, 0.004 m. square and less. Ad¬ vanced transition followed by round terminal. Zigzag of bent lines throughout rectangular part.
2629. Length, 0.1485 m. Knobs, 0.01 in., 0.0047 m., 0.0075 m. Interspaces, interior, 0.0085 m. ; exterior, 0.0075 m. Transitions ad¬ vanced, with disk followed by ornamented termi¬ nal, and gradual. Throughout rectangular part zigzag of bent lines.
0.0047 m., 0.0075 m. Interspaces, interior, 0.075 m., 0.06 m. ; exterior, 0.0055 m. Sliaft, 0.004 m. and less. Gradual transition preserved, tlie other was probably advanced. Traces of zigzag of bent lines.
2631. Length, 0.368 m. Knobs, 0.0165 m., 0.012 m., 0.0115 m., 0.0125 m., 0.0115 m. In¬ tervals, interior, 0.017 in., 0.0185 m. ; exterior, 0.0215 m., 0.0225 m. Shaft, 0.0067 m. x 0.0065 m. at transition. Advanced transition followed by ring and round stub. On all sides zigzag of bent lines.
2632. Length, 0.219 m. Knobs, 0.0175 m. ; 0.011 m., 0.0115 m. ; 0.01 m. Interspaces, 0.0235 m. (interior), 0.018 m., 0.017 m. (ex¬ terior). Shaft, 0.0065 m. square and less, in¬ creasing to 0.0068 m. square at transition. Advanced transition.
2634. Length, 0.232 m. Knobs, 0.021 m. ; 0.011 m. -0.012 m. Interspaces, 0.034 in., 0.0325 m. (interior), 0.022 m., 0.024 m. (ex¬ terior). Shaft, 0.006 m. square and less. Ad¬ vanced transition.
Addenda to Type f. The following fragments with three and four knobs may be put here owing to their similarity to the better preserved specimens of the type.
(c'.) The following fragment probably had seven or more knobs originally. Shaft rectangular. Angular knobs with a single ring at either end of each.
2644. Four knobs. Length, 0.2345 m. Knobs, 0.0225 m., 0.015 m., 0.0135 m. (bis). Interspaces, 0.031 m., 0.0325 m., 0.0425 m. Shaft, 0.0075 m. square and less. On all sides,
Plain, pointed.
2645. Uncleaned. Length, 0.275 m. Ring followed by rectangular part (length, 0.029 m.), after which round. Gradual transition.
and four rings. Sections long.
2661. From West Building. Length, 0.131 m. Six sections. First two sections separated by four rings, last two by two, the others by three.
five, and six rings.
2664. From back of South Building. Length, 0.1163 m. Eight sections. First four groups of rings have six each, the next two five each, and the last four.
five, six, seven, and nine rings.
2665. Length, 0.133 m. First group of rings numbers seven, the second nine, third, fourth, and sixth six each, the seventh four, the eighth six or seven, and the fifth five.
as a pin.
Terminal piece, the latter part of which has two convex surfaces separated by plain space. At either side of surfaces, rings.
2666. Incomplete. Length, 0.0905 m. First convex section preceded by three rings and fol¬ lowed by one, the second is preceded by two and followed by two plus cap.
2670. Length, 0.074 m. Easy hut plain transition followed by piece of round end which is ornamented with coarse screw-threading.
ring witli rounded sides.
2672. Uncleaned. Length, 0.105 m., of which 0.092 m. belongs to terminal. Terminal rectangular so far as preserved.
Discards (uncleaned) : fragments with single knob, forty-five ; fragment with two knobs, one ; fragments with single knob, which are perhaps better regarded as straight pins (Type k), twenty-six ; uncertain, one.
Knotted or braided. No knobs.
2678. Uncleaned. Preserved end pointed. Bent into shape of ellipse the sides of which are formed by a double coil with its strands twisted about each other. Length, about 0.35 m. Shaft, 0.001 m. x 0.0013 m. Rectangular and round.
2679. Uncleaned. Preserved end blunt. Complex knob near centre with single loop at each end, one loop being larger than the other. Length as bent, 0.099 m. Rectangular and round (size, 0.0016 m. x 0.0018 m.).
One knob.
2680. Spit of Type b, Form 2, Class a , (a'). Length, 0.185 m. Knob, 0.019 m. x 0.017 m. Shaft, 0.0012 m. x 0.001 m. and less. Grad¬ ual transitions. Twisted purposely, perhaps to fasten.
2681. Both ends gone. Length, 0.092 m. Shaft round. Thickness, 0.0018 m. x 0.0016 m. and less. Small loop with returning end.
2682. Uncleaned. Length as bent, 0.025 m. Shaft rounded. Thickness, 0.0017m. x 0.0015m. Two narrow loops with returning ends.
2683. Uncleaned. Length as bent, 0.10 m. Shaft partly rectangular, partly rounded. Thick¬ ness, 0.0024 in. x 0.0023 m. At one end, double loop with returning end.
of flat part and round from the other.
2684. Uncleaned. Ends gone. Length, 0.132 m. Shaft, 0.004 m. x 0.0045 m. (flat¬ tened to 0.0075 m. x 0.0018 in.). About half of shaft round.
Type h. Head at one end. Single knob.
Elongated knob with rounded sides. Shaft rectangular, with corners slightly rounded. Slightly grooved on side of knob toward point.
2687. Uncleaned. Length, 0.12 m. Knob, 0.003 m. Shaft, 0.002 m. x 0.0015 m. Head, 0.0025 m. x 0.002 m. Somewhat similar to simplest form of pins.
inserted.
2688. From south slope. Other end gone. Length, 0.16 m. Head, 0.011 m. Jacket, 0.0085 m. x 0.007 m. Split for 0.0555 m. where round is inserted. At lower end, four engraved lines. Much more oxidized than round part.
Form 1. Shaft not solid but formed by
FOLDING TOGETHER A NARROW THIN STRIP. Class a. Folded so as to form a small tube. Edges do not form straight line. Sometimes they overlap.
Class (3. Edges folded in and brought close together , the hollow betioeen the two rolls taking the place of tube.
2696. From south slope. Possibly not com¬ plete. Length, 0.087 m. Thickness, 0.0025 m. x 0.0015 m. Width of blade, 0.0027 m.
2697. Uncleaned. Possibly not complete. Length, 0.483 m. Thickness, 0.0025 m. and less. Width of blade, 0.0035 m.
same plane.
2699. Uncleaned. Length, 0.424 m. Thick¬ ness, 0.002 m. Length of blade, 0.011 m. + 0.0115 m. Width, 0.003 m. and less.
2700. Uncleaned. Length, 0.07 m. Thick¬ ness, 0.003 m. and less. Length of blade, 0.011 m. + 0.011 m. Width, 0.0049 m. and less. End has sides rounded to point.
2701. Uncleaned. Length, 0.063 m. Thick¬ ness, 0.003 m. Length of blade, 0.01 m. + 0.009 m. Width, 0.0075 m. and less. Near cen¬ tre of first part, round hole (diameter, 0.001 m.).
Type k. Solid rounded shaft (without knob), one end of which terminates in blade which is not set in same plane with shaft.
0.0017 m. Use uncertain.
Type 1. Similar but straight. Slight knob or convex surface near beginning of blade. Shaft round except near blade.
2704. Found in first chamber at east end on lower terrace, April 28, 1893. Probably in¬ complete at other end. Bent. Length, 0.115 m. Knob, 0.0032 m. Shaft, 0.0023 m. to 0.0017 m. Length of blade, 0.008 m. -I- 0.018 m. Width, 0.0052 m. and less. Rectangular part orna¬ mented with grooves and fine lines. Use uncer¬ tain. Perhaps a medical instrument.
Type m. Plain shafts without knob, termi¬ nating at one end in hook or loop. The other end in the only case preserved is a flat point.
accidental.
2711. From back of South Building. Length, 0.05 m. Shaft, 0.0017 m. x 0.0013 m. Loop, 0.0055 m. x 0.003 m. Differs from the others in having loop closed with end protracted.
2711 b. Uncleaned. End of shaft gone. Length, 0.14 m. Knob, 0.0075 m. Length of terminal, 0.0455 m. Ends in round knob (diameter, 0.003 m.).
ceding number.
2711 d. Fragment of terminal. Length, 0.055 m. Size at break, 0.0018 m. x 0.002 m. Base, 0.0075 m. x 0.007 m. Interior rectangle set (perhaps inserted) diagonally to outer. The triangular corners thus left project slightly.
Bronze shell (thickness, 0.001 m. -0.002 m.). with iron filling to depth of 0.04 m. Remain¬ der of filling probably bronze. Near molding at lower end, incised line (probably cast).
9. PESTLE OR PLEKTRON.
2713. Uncleaned. Length, 0.115 m. Round shaft terminating at one end in molding, at the other in swelling. Thickness, 0.0034 m., in¬ creasing toward end to 0.0054 m. Decoration of head : convex surface with double ring be¬ neath and single ring and cap above. Length of head, 0.017 m.
2715. I rom upper terrace. Length, 0.283 m. Eyelet formed by flattening and bending back handle. Width of shaft, 0.0076 m. and less. Thickness, 0.0045 m., decreasing toward point, where it is 0.001 m.
2716. Condition poor, but probably about complete. Bent. Length, 0.155 m. Handle (length, 0.052 m.), shaft, and hook. Entire object could be regarded as a handle.
2717. Long end may be incomplete. Length, 0.146 m. Shaft partly rectangular, but mostly round. Thickness, 0.0045 m. and less.
2720. Uncleaned. Length, 0.16 m. Length of handle, 0.049 m. Shaft round. Diameter, 0.0045 in. and less. End pointed.
2721. Uncleaned. Both ends broken. Length, 0.085 in. Handle, 0.0035 m. square at begin¬ ning. Passes gradually to round and tapers toward end.
Type b. Shaft straight. No hook.
2722. End of handle as though hacked off with chisel. Length, 0.54 m. Length of han¬ dle, 0.129 m. Width, 0.026 m. -0.015 m. Thickness, 0.004 m. and less. Width of blade, 0.014 m. -0.01 m. Thickness, 0.007 m. -0.003 m. Decoration at beginning of handle and on one side only. Zigzag bounded on outer side by two straight lines. Between lines, faint diagonal line. Outside lines to break, short parallel lines along each edge.
2723. Uncleaned. Length, 0.084 m. Shaft, 0.0032 in. x 0.0035 m. Length of hook, 0.018 m. Gradual transition to round at elbow.
2724. Uncleaned. Hook damaged. Length, 0.105 m. Shaft, 0.001 m. x 0.005 m. and less. Near elbow, passes to round. Length of hook, 0.015 m. Forms obtuse angle with shaft. Pos¬ sibly not a hook.
Length of hook, 0.012 m.
2726. Length, 0.153 m. Shaft, 0.006 m. square near elbow, from whence decreases to¬ ward blunt point. Length of hook, 0.016 m. Size, 0.006 m. x 0.0065 m. at top, decreasing toward elbow.
2727. Both ends damaged. Length, 0.112 m. Shaft, 0.0045 m. x 0.005 m., tapering toward point. Length of hook, 0.02 in. Flat surfaces lie in diagonal planes, giving effect of section of a diamond.
lowing is a hook or not.
2728. Both ends damaged. Length, 0.177 m. Shaft, 0.007 m., decreasing to 0.0038 m. at end. Length of hook, 0.03 m. Decreases in size from 0.0065 m. (elbow) to 0.0015 m. (point).
Of. two plain round nails from Mycenae (shaft-grave v, No. 842), with plain, small, flat heads and shaft that tapers to blunt point. (0.) End gone (hence pieces may be rivets).
2733. End gone. Length, 0.077 m. Diam¬ eter of head, 0.02 m. Thickness, 0.0025 m. Shaft, 0.006 m. square near head, elsewhere less. Uncertain whether head and shaft are of one piece.
Shaft round.
2734. End gone. Length, 0.048 m. Diam¬ eter of head, 0.018 m. Thickness, 0.004 m. Diameter of shaft, 0.0055 m. and less.
2735. End gone. Length, 0.045 m. Diam¬ eter of head, 0.0195 m. Thickness, 0.0055 m. Diameter of shaft, 0.0048 m. near head, else¬ where less. Head of two parts, the inner rec¬ tangular, the outer round. Inner part of same piece with shaft. Size, 0.006 m. square on un¬ der side, 0.0067 m. x 0.007 m. on upper.
Shaft round and rectangular.
2736. End gone. Length, 0.04 m. Diam¬ eter of head, 0.021 m. Thickness, 0.003 m. Shaft round in upper part. Abrupt transition. Size of rectangular part, 0.003 m. x 0.004 m. Flattens toward break.
2737. Length, 0.038 m. Diameter of head, 0.015 m. Thickness, 0.003 m. Shaft round. Diameter, 0.0037 m. and less. Flattens in lower part. W as probably inserted and fastened by rivet which passed through hole at end. Shaft terminates in rectangle (0.006 m. x 0.0065 m.), which projects slightly on under side of head. Remainder of head perhaps a separate piece.
2738. End injured. Length, 0.133 m. Di¬ ameter of head, 0.02 m. Thickness, 0.002 m.0.005 m. Slightly concave on under side. Shaft, 0.005 m. and less.
2739. Broken near head. Diameter of head, 0.0215 m. Thickness, 0.0065 m. at centre, de¬ creasing to edge. Under side flat. Groove near outer edge of top side.
2740. End gone. Length, 0.101 m. Diame¬ ter of head, 0.015 m. Top a smooth rectangular surface. Shaft, 0.0064 m. x 0.007 m. and less.
2741. Uncleaned. End incomplete. Con¬ dition poor. Length, 0.08 m. Head, 0.0085 m. square. Thickness, 0.007 m. Shaft, 0.006 m. and less.
2742. Uncleaned. End gone. Condition poor. Length, 0.092 m. Head, 0.009 m. square on top and 0.007 m. at bottom. Thick¬ ness, 0.007 m. Shaft, 0.0065 m. x 0.0055 m. and less.
2743. Short stub only of shaft remains. Di¬ ameter of head, 0.0285 m. Shaft, 0.007 m.x 0.0085 m. Inserted into bronze socket which reaches to under side of head.
2744. Short stub only of shaft remaining. Diameter of head, 0.0475 m. Shaft, 0.007 m. x 0.008 m. Inserted into low socket on under side of head.
Cf. gold tacks with rounded head from My¬ cenae (shaft-grave iv, Mus. Nos. 359, 371) and from Ileraeum tomb, No. 3317 ; also bronze nails from Mycenae (not from shaft- graves), No. 2892, and from shaft-grave in, No. 49. The last has conical head and is employed to hold together rosettes. All the above in Nat. Mus., Athens.
2745. Shaft broken close to head. Diame¬ ter of head, 0.0227 m. Thickness of head, 0.008 m. Shaft stub, 0.0065 m. in diameter. What re¬ mains looks more like bottom of a socket the sides of which have been broken down. Re¬ mainder of shaft may therefore have been of iron.
2746. Shaft incomplete. Sides of head crushed flat. Length, 0.0525 m. Diameter of head, 0.012 m. Thickness, 0.012 m. Diameter of shaft, 0.0018 m. and less.
2747. From West Building. Shaft gone. Diameter of head, 0.0175 m. Thickness, 0.009 m. On under side, hole (diameter, 0.0015 m.) for insertion of shaft.
2748. Shaft incomplete. Head in poor con¬ dition. Length, 0.107 m. Diameter of head, 0.034 m. Thickness, 0.036 m. At 0.004 m. and 0.009 m. from top of head narrow raised en¬ circling bands. Near lower edge, shallow groove. Inside about two thirds filled with bronze and another substance (perhaps lead) to hold shaft. Shaft, 0.004 m. x 0.005 m. and less.
2749. Shaft incomplete. Length, 0.10 m. Diameter of head, 0.062 m. Thickness, 0.035 m. Narrow raised bands near top and at bottom of cone and at top and bottom of outer edge. Surface of top slightly concave, of outer edge convex. Inside of cone half filled with bronze and perhaps a little lead (see No. 2748) for in¬ sertion of shaft. Shaft rectangular (0.0055 m. x 0.006 in.) at first, afterwards round.
2750. About one third of flange gone. Shaft incomplete, and bent. Length, 0.148 m. Di¬ ameter of head, 0.063 m. Thickness, 0.062 m. Shape and decoration similar to that of No. 2749. Shaft, 0.006 m. x 0.005 m. and less. Held in place by melted bronze.
duffli Scavi, 1893, p. 456.
A ((dev, da to Types a-h. The following shafts probably had heads originally, but their form is uncertain. Possible that some are ends of spits.
x 0.0087 in., decreasing toward end.
2754. Length, 0.134m. Thickness, 0.008m. x 0.007 m. at top, passing immediately to round and tapering toward end. Top smooth and pos¬ sibly original.
2757. Injured at top and bottom, but practi¬ cally complete. Length, 0.102 m. Diameter of bottom, 0.0685 m. ; of top, 0.007 m. Lower edge preserved to depth of 0.006 m. in places. Flares outward. Under side hollow, but greater part of cone is solid. Ornamented with grooves, rings, and convex surface as in Plate.
Type j. Ornamental composite head.
2758. F rom back of South Building. Height, 0.024 m. Diameter of bottom, 0.0405 m.; of top, 0.018 m. ; of waist of shaft, 0.01 m. Bot¬ tom smooth and slightly concave. Thickness of edge, 0.002 m. In centre, hole, 0.019 m. across and 0.006 m. deep. In top, hole, 0.01 m. x 0.0085 m. across and 0.0035 m. deep, into which another section may have been fastened.
Cf. Nat. Mus., Athens, Nos. 7185, 7190, 7191, 7193, which are similar, and No. 7189, which has flat top (all from Acropolis). Olym¬ pia, , No. 1224, has hole clear through.
2759. End gone. Bent (uncertain whether of original design). Length, 0.095 m. Di¬ ameter of head, 0.013 m. ; of shaft, 0.0065 m.
2761. Shaft incomplete. Length, 0.05 m. Diameter of head, 0.024 m. Flat on top. Shaft (0.006 m. x 0.007 m.) inserted into under side.
hole in end.
2763. Shaft which probably was of iron en¬ tirely gone. Length, 0.0465 m. Diameter at top and bottom rings, 0.013 m. ; at centre, 0.02 m. Above top ring, extension with groove on each narrow side. Diameter of hole, 0.0025 m. In bottom, hole (diameter, 0.0045 m. ; depth, 0.0039 m.). From hole grooves radiate to outer edge. General appearance, especially of hole, favors classification here rather than as pin-head.
Object of somewhat similar appearance from Megara Hyblaea published by Orsi, Mon. Ant. L inc. I. col. 828, as a pendant. Not stated whether object has hole in bottom.
flower.
2764. Uncleaned. Shaft gone. Condition poor. Length, 0.027 m. Consists structurally of three parts (though all are of one piece). Upper part (length, 0.017 m.; sides, 0.009 m. square) has four slightly flaring petals, one at each corner. On outside of each petal, a smaller petal. Between petals, bud-like centre extend¬ ing to top. In top, slight hole. Middle section (length, 0.005 m. ; sides, 0.009 m. xO.Ol m.) has two grooves (or three raised bands). Lower section (diameter, 0.008 m.) has small hole in bottom for insertion of shaft and two grooves about side.
12. BUTTON.
2765. About one third of head gone. Di¬ ameter, 0.0185 m. Length, 0.003 m. Thin rounded head. In centre of under side, heavy eyelet (diameter of hole, 0.001 m.).
Cf . button from uncleaned scraps from Acrop¬ olis now in Nat. Mus., Athens. Similar buttons from Villa Benvenuti near Este found in cistgrave of iron age : Montelius, Civ. Prim. It. Text,
col. 292, fig. e. Likewise from Este : Ghirardini, Mon. Ant. Line. VIII. col. 27, pi. I. No. 31. In Villa Papa Giulio, § xxxv. (Rome), many bronze buttons, very similar, with eyelets underneath.
2766. Band damaged. Length of wire, about 0.255 m. Size, 0.0015 m. x 0.0013 m. and less. Rectangular. Band, 0.027 m. x 0.023 m. Small repousse dots about edge, and two or three rows in interior running lengthwise. At present, band encircles only one end of wire.
2767. F l'om Old Temple. Ends probably incomplete. Length at present, 0.062 m. Wire, 0.0022 m. x 0.0014 m. (diamond-shaped sec¬ tion with obtuse angles softened). Irregular coil, from which proceed two arms on one side and one on the other. Their ends meet and are twisted about each other. Two pieces of wire, of which one forms the single arm and one of the pair.
Place of coil taken by bronze disk.
2768. None of the ends complete. Length, 0.059 m. Wire, 0.0027 m. x 0.0015 m. near disk, decreasing toward ends. Section as in No. 2767. Disk (diameter, 0.0205 m.) has row of small dots about edge convex side uppermost. Rivet holds at back of disk three pieces of wire one on top of the other, passing through flat¬ tened ends of two and middle of the third.
2769. (Shows under side.) From back of South Building. Uncertain how much is lost. Diameter, 0.016 m. Thickness, 0.0015 m. On top, close to edge, groove. In centre, hole (0.0045 m. x 0.002 m.) from which bar (0.0015 m. x 0.0017 m.) projects 0.005 m. At back, bar seems to spread and hold wire in place.
B. CHAIN.
2770. From West Building. Uncertain whether and to what extent incomplete. Length, 0.038 m. Four links of horseshoe shape made of round wire and open at small end.
C. EYELET OR HINGE.
2772. Both ends probably incomplete. Length, 0.0925 m. Two bars terminating in interlocked closed eyelets. Bar of eyelets rec¬ tangular (0.00G5 m. x 0.0025 m.), of shafts rounded rectangular.
14. CLAMPS.
2773. One cleat on under side broken off close to bar. Length, 0.09 m. Width of bar, 0.01 m. -0.0215 in. Thickness, 0.0025 m.0.008 m. On under side at 0.018 m. from one end, and 0.028 m. from the other, small cleat.
2774. Length, 0.102m. Thickness, 0.0045m. 0.00(37 m. On under side near each end (0.012 m., 0.009 m.), cleat. Height of each, 0.0135 m. Width, about 0.014 m. Thick¬ ness, 0.004 m. and 0.007 m.
2776. (Shows under side.) One end prob¬ ably incomplete. Length, 0.06 m. Width, 0.035 m. and less. Thickness, 0.0038 m. and less. Near one end, hole (diameter, 0.0075 m.). Groove on top nearly at right angles to sides.
2777. From back of South Building. De¬ fective. Diameter, 0.077 m. Height, 0.026 m. and less. Upper edge bent slightly outward in parts.
2778. Defective. Condition poor. Sides bent fiat against bottom. Diameter, 0.0717 m. Height of sides, 0.0115 m. and less.
2779. Found in South Stoa, April 24, 1895. Height, 0.06 m. Diameter, 0.077 m. and less. Thickness of sides, 0.007 m. and less. Near top, bronze rivet from side to side. On outside near to]), shallow groove.
tion probably had similar use.
2781. From back of South Building. De¬ fective. Diameter, 0.048 m. Toothed edge. In centre, convexity with hole (diameter, 0.005 m.). On same side, leaf pattern, at base of teeth and about centre.
2782. Perhaps from northeast corner of Old Temple. About complete. Height, 0.021 m. Diameter, 0.024 m. (top), 0.045 m. (bottom). Neck (length, 0.006 m.), beneath which, convex lower part. Perhaps coating of end of staff.
16. CENTREPIECE.
2783. Found back of South Building, 1894. Defective. Condition poor. Size, 0.053 m. Ends, 0.0115 m. square and less. Thickness of metal, 0.0015 m. Inside hollow. About ends on all sides except back, grooves, two about each end.
17. BINDING.
2784. From back of South Building. Ends broken. Length, 0.135 m. Width, 0.048 m. and less. Consists of two parts : upper ribbed flange, inner line of which is broken. The second part (same piece with top) ; length, 0.068 m. ; width, 0.0275 m. ; thickness, 0.005 m. at junction with upper part, from which decreases toward rounded edge. Under side flat ; forms acute angle with upper part. Doubtful whether object can have been part of binding of shield rim, one objection being that original diameter was only 0.23 m.
2786. Large end broken. Length, 0.049 m. Claw, length, 0.0065 m. rounded. Diameter, 0.005 m. at base, decreases toward end. Shaft rectangular, with beveled corners (0.0077 m. and less).
DECORATIVE BRACES AND STRIPS
Length, 0.221 m. Width of centre, 0.0235 m. and less. Thickness, 0.012 m. and less. At 0.009 m. from end, nail. Blade, width, 0.125 m. Thickness, 0.0064 m. Near centre, nail. At 0.015 m. beyond nail, on narrow side, round hole in shaft. Depth, 0.006 in. Diam¬ eter, 0.0035 m. Perhaps cross brace of grating or, more likely, leg of small chair or bed. Cf. lower part of leg of bed in archaic relief from Tegea (Ibrahim Effendi, Atli. Mitth. IV. p. 136, pi. vii. Milchhofer).
2788. One end broken. Length, 0.221 m. Width, 0.051 m. and less. Thickness, 0.027 m. Ribs raised above surface, 0.0045 m. Near whole end, nail (diameter, 0.006 m.). On under side, hole filled with iron rust. Hence only head is of bronze. At 0.085 m. from first nail, sec¬ ond nail of bronze. Object cast solid, but with many flaws which show on under side. Diame¬ ter of protracted circle (inside), about 0.955 m. This and similar objects probably applied to edge of large kettles or caldrons, like the small pieces Nos. 2188, etc. See, however, Olymjoia, Nos. 1229 f., which are very similar in shape but smaller. Several similar pieces, both larger and smaller in Nat. Mus., Athens, among scraps from Acropolis (uncleaned). In Museum of Flor¬ ence similar small ornaments, but not flat on one side (Tomba a circolo di Poggio alia Guardia, 1895).
applied.
2789. One end broken. Length, 0.168 m. Sides, 0.0075 m., 0.0042 m., 0.004 in. End undercut on wide side, probably for purpose of fastening.
2790. One end gone, the other defective. Length, 0.146 m. Sides, 0.0078 m., 0.0043 m., 0.0052 m. Single engraved line near outer edge of each of short sides.
2791. Both ends broken. Length (arc), 0.0585 m. On each of narrow sides, line close to each edge ; in interior, broad, rounded, obtuseangled zigzag of bent lines. Both ends turn slightly outward, hence best put here.
angles being applied.
2792. Uncleaned. Both ends gone. Length, 0.173 m. Thickness, 0.0035 m. x 0.0024 m. One end flattens from near break. At break, hole (diameter, 0.002 m.). Shows manner of application and fastening.
2798. Uncleaned. One end broken. Length, 0.084 m. Width, 0.0035 m. and less. Near wide end crossed at right angles by heavy grooves.
2799. Uncleaned. Ends gone. Length, 0.067 m. Width, 0.0055 m. Thickness, 0.0015 m. Near one end, four small fragments of sheet gold, three of which rest on bronze incrusta¬ tion. This incrustation, and consequently the gold fragments, belongs to some other piece of bronze.
Manner of application uncertain.
2801. Lai •ge end broken. Length, 0.053 m. Diameter, 0.003 m. and less. Use uncertain. Placed here because of similarity to following number.
Type a. Plain.
2809. Cracked nearly through. Diameter, 0.069 m. Thickness, 0.0043 m. and less. On both sides, slight depressions which look like marks of hammer.
2810. Split by corrosion into several laminae. Diameter, 0.062 m. Thickness, 0.006 m. On outside, rosette, the centre of which is slightly concave; reverse plain.
Addenda. Composite disks.
2812. From back of South Building. De¬ fective. Lead kernel nearly intact. Bronze covering mostly preserved. Diameter of leaden part, 0.051 m. Thickness, 0.0053 m. Bronze follows conformation of outer surface.
2812 a. Uncleaned. Lead kernel nearly complete. Bronze only partially preserved. Similar to preceding. Diameter, 0.0525 in.
2813. O nc end gone, the other defective. Length, 0.085 m. Width, 0.0105 m. and less. Sides slightly convex. Manner of attachment uncertain.
ameter, 0.055 m. Five layers of bronze, de¬ creasing toward top. Diameter of uppermost layer, 0.015 m. Bronze part forms thick coni¬ cal shell, into which is inserted from bottom solid cone of lead. This cone projects 0.006 m. below bottom, and partially overlaps inner edges of bronze. On top, mass of iron oxide, prob¬ ably remains of rod which held object as pend¬ ant.
2816. Both ends broken. Length, 0.042 m. Stem with short blade. Width of stem, 0.0097 m. ; of blade, 0.0145 m. Blade curved.
21. SUPPORTS.
2817. Found at east end of south slope, April 24, 1893. Height, about 0.125 m. Length of foot, 0.017 m. Width, 0.016 m. Upper part of shaft rectangular. Lower part round.
2818. Uncleaned. Top damaged. Height, 0.088 m. Length of foot, 0.01 m. Width, 0.005 m. Formed by cutting back shaft and bending end. Diameter of shaft, 0.005 m. and less.
2820. From south slope. One end broken. Length, 0.121 m. Diameter, 0.01 m. Com¬ plete end nearly triangular. Elsewhere, rounded. Open cylinder. Edges do not form straight line.
Filled.
2821. Both ends gone. Shell cracked entire length. Length, 0.123 in. Diameter, 0.023 m. Interior filled with iron rust and another sub¬ stance which is probably part of core.
2822. From back of South Building. One end broken. Length, 0.06 m. Width, 0.023 m.0.041 m. Thickness, 0.0033 m. and less.
2825. Condition poor. Length, 0.06 m. Width, 0.025 m. and less, especially toward one end, which terminates in rounded beveled point.
2827. Both ends roughly cut off. Length, 0.084 m. Width, 0.02 m. -0.0215 m. Thick¬ ness, 0.0065 m. -0.0085 m. For inscription see Appendix.
2829. Standard and paw. Height, about 0.154 m. Height of standard, 0.112 m. Diame¬ ter of top of standard, 0.088 m. Attachments cast in one piece with standard: 1. From a point 0.03 m. below top of standard rises diag¬ onally lion’s paw with four toes. Toes have claws. From heel projects round stub (length, 0.018 m. ; diameter, 0.013 m.). This stub per¬ haps marks pipe through which bronze was poured. 2. Near top of standard, oblong rounded attachment in line with paws. Length, 0.026 m. 3. From middle of upper part of standard, on opposite side from preceding at¬ tachment, round stub rising diagonally.
2830. Crimped arc. Length, 0.109 m.
Width, 0.035 m. and less. Thickness, 0.01 m. and less. Top side has ornament of slightly raised rays which do not quite reach outer edge. Inner edge beveled.
2831. Convex-concave arc. Outside diame¬ ter, 0.083 m. Width of ring, 0.031 m. and less. Thickness, 0.005 m. and less.
2832. Perhaps part of mold. Size, 0.057 m. x 0.035 m. x 0.009 m. In edge, outlines of at least three circles, of which only the largest shows trace of bottom.
Discards of C: six, of which one from West Building.
Other discards. Here belong a number of pieces, partly castings, partly pieces of sheet bronze, which have been partly melted and fused together, or mixed with other substances, as lead, rock, sand. Most of them show ac¬ tion of fire. Uncleaned, seventy-eight, of which two from back of South Building, near retaining wall.
964. Plate LXXXIX. (photographs). Two copies below. The second, on reexamination, seemed to represent more accurately the actual condition of the bronze. Letters scarcely legible. Height, about 0.003 in.
©co-(rrtu[s : does not seem to occur, but Hesychius has OviTTij s (quoted by L. and S.)and ©co-racks (quoted by P.-B.). Cf. also ©[ujo-o/Sat, At hen. Mitth. IX. p. 321 (Ceos), 'E7rn-e[u£i.s] ©vcrias, Arch.-Epig. Mitth. aus Oest. XI. p. 181, and ©cow, ’E^>. ’Apy. 1883, col. 215, 1. 125 (the last two also in P.-B.). For -cto-tsee G. Meyer, Griech. Gram? p. 304, Brugmann, Griech. Gram ? § 100, 1 a and § 119, 1. — i"]r)[?] : it seems better to assume a blank space between the words than to supply this word, which is not of the Argive dialect. — 'EAAaSt[ou: see P.-B. s. v. and also C. I. A. III. 1343, C. 1. S. 53, 179. Another pos¬ sibility would be 'EAAai/tb[r or 'EAAaiao[i'os, but the nominative case of the former is an objection, and for the latter there is hardly space. The word occurs B. M. /.III. § 1, p. 65 (Iasos), 'EAAanW Tapcreus.
with lower right corner. Height of letters, 0.002 m.— 0.0047 m. Letters in lines 1 and 2 increase in size with the direction of the writing.
The letters of the first line are very legible, inas¬ much as they are clearly cut and well preserved. Those of the second line, however, have been nearly effaced by the oxidation of the bronze, and were ex¬
tremely difficult to decipher. Nevertheless, the forms of the letters as given in drawing and copy are for the most part fairly sure. The single letter of the third (middle) line is faint hut certain.
Ekethaio.
For ’Aptcrreta, cf. C. I. G. 155 (Attic), quoted by P.-B., and there accented ’Aptcrrcia. The first letter of the second (top) line may be either 0 or <£, but the balance of probability is in favor of 6. Neither ’E «e6aul> nor ’Efcec^aioj seems to occur. For ’E«£kA^s, ’FiKe^iSrjs, ’Eko/dAos, which present the nearest anal¬ ogy, see B. C. H. Index. The reading of the word as a feminine form from an oj- stem instead of a mas¬ culine form from an o- stem is arbitrary. Dedica¬ tion on behalf of another person in an inscription from Athens published by Kiirte, Athen. Mitth. XXI. p. 294, Mi'?70T7rroAep,77 {n rep AiKaLotfidvovs ’Ao-KXrjTruZ ’A/mvvoj dvehr/Ke. That Ekethaio or Ekepliaio is an unknown name of a person is more probable than that it is an unknown epithet of Hera.
The reading makes it probable that the fragments are to be combined, in spite of the difficulty of adjust¬ ment. This part of the inscription probably con¬ tained names only. It is probable that the fathers’ names were added in a second column at the left, but even if they were placed under the names of the sons, the first name on the fragment, as next to the last, would still be in the nominative.
The first name is probably 4>iAAtas, cf. C. I ■ G. 1514 (cited by Pape-Benseler), IltcmKAijs <biAAia; C. I. S. III. i. 446 (Stratos), 1. 4. dnAAtas T?/Aa[iryeos,
APPENDIX: INSCRIPTIONS
or $iAAi'Sas, cf. C. I. S. III. i. Appendix, 1066, 1. 2, <NAA iSa ; B. C. H. Y. p. 413, No. 22, 1. 3, TY>w <f>iAAiSa ’A/x^to'a'rg'Js ; p. 414, No. 23, 11. 14, 15, <J>iAAi8as. It may also have been <f>7AAig. Cf. A. (7. H. Index, 1877—86, and vol. XX. p. 206 (Delphi), 1. 35, <3?iAig ’Apyeiog, <E>tAAis ’Apyeiog. For «3?iAAiSag and 4dAAig in literature, see P.-B. The second name is probably the nominative, possibly the genitive, of 2uj8ap.os. Cf. the indices to the various Corpora , and to B. C. H., and ’E<fa. ’ApX. 1883, col. 29, No. 9 (Epidauros), Ncxdrav ^mSd/xou. An Argive named 5ci)Sdp.as is mentioned by Pans. III. ix. 8 (quoted by P.-B.).
Double writing of consonants is the rule for Argive inscriptions which have four-stroke sigma, so even in A. J. A. XI. p. 43, 1. 5, 'YAAeus. In those which have three-stroke sigma there are no cases in point. Those which use san write but one consonant in cases of gemination. Cf. I. G. A. 30, 1. 5, and Nos. 1826,
I. 9, 'YAeg, and 2252, e 2i/ceA4ag. It follows that for the period to which an Argive retrograde inscription would naturally be assigned the single consonant should be expected. The double writing of the con¬ sonants in this inscription, taken together with the style of the letters, makes it probable that this is an exceptional example of retrograde writing at a later period. Cf. the retrograde writing of names of Ar¬ give kings on the hemicyele on the north side of the sacred way at Delphi, B. C. H. XVIII. p. 186, and Frazer on Pans. X. x. 5.
The interpretation depends to a considerable ex¬ tent on the view which may be taken of the dot after r in the first line. Rogers, who thinks it an attempt to puncture the plate for a nail-hole (l. c. p. 166), and Frankel disregard it in reading, and join r to what follows. The reading thus obtained, rd8’ iv, is easy and plausible, and there are examples of allow¬ ance of space for nail-holes.3 Preparation for the nail
by means of a carefully worked indentation is a some¬ what different matter ; and until examples are found for it, it may be well to look for some other explana¬ tion, especially as in this case the indentation was not actually used for such a purpose. The analogy of the Locrian inscription (I. G. A. 321), where let¬ ters (usually prostrate) with three dots on either side serve as a means of numbering the paragraphs, sug¬ gests that ;; r • in this inscription may have a similar use. In this case the letter would probably introduce the last paragraph in the document, namely, that con¬ taining the sanctions. If so, additions to the main body of the document are not to be expected, but simply measures to secure the fulfillment of the pro¬ visions of the preceding paragraphs.
Line 1. <faa.8p.ara: for the slight preference in favor of <fa as against p, see above s. n. For <faa<rp.ara with substitution of -c/p.a for -8p.a, cf. Brugmann, Gviech. Gram ? p. 186. In the absence of the preceding context, it is uncertain whether the word is complete as it stands, and, if so, in what sense it was meant. Nor is it possible to look forward for a reference, if the above hypothesis regarding the paragraphs be correct. The termination would also fit vcfadapara. A*<fad9p.ara like cfagpy), fail, Sansk. bha-ti, seems not to have existed in Greek. Rogers and Frankel take the initial letter to be p. The former suggests (l. c. p. 165) ypd9p.a:ra = ypdcr/xara — ypdij.jj.aTa, Spddp, ara = 8pdcrp.ara ■ crvvddp. ara, dyopd<rp.ara, and (l. C. p. 174) lapOdp-ara. In understanding ypdapara ( < yp6.8p.ara) as ypdp.p.ara he agrees with Robert (to whom he re¬ fers), who thus interprets ypa<x<xp.dru>v in the inscrip¬ tion from Hermione {Mon. Ant. Line. I. col. 598). Neither indicates the process by which *grabh-ma becomes ypa-8p.a or ypa-oyxa.4 Frankel reads -p or o]d#;uaTa without explanation. To these con¬ jectures may be added pd9p.ara — *pdap.ara = pdp.p.ara ( C . I. G. S. 2421). For the sense of this, as also of vefadap-ara above, cf. the prescriptions for dress in the sacrificial inscription from Andania (Cauer, Delectus ? p. 33, No. 47). However, as in the case of ypa-0p.a above, it is difficult to account for the sub¬ stitution of suffix-initial 8 or cr for the final labial con¬ sonant of the root without a somewhat extensive and perhaps unsafe application of the principle of analogy. — a8ev : if this word begins the paragraph, it can scarcely be anything but dSev (in sense of 8e86\6ai) or aSev 5 (in sense of eSo^er), from dvSdvto. The diffi¬ culty with regard to the breathing is pointed out by Rogers, l. c. pp. 163 f. ; nor do examples of t/dAtocrig like ’l7r(-n-)o/zeSw, I. G. A. 30 (cited by Kiihner-Blass, I. p. 109), and Hpag, iapop.vdp.ove.s, A. J. A. XI.
(1896), p. 43 (cited by Rogers), quite suffice to obviate it. — - ayvo[v(?) : as the amount of text lost at the sides of the plate is uncertain, it is useless to try to fill out the lines. From the position of the word and that of crw^eoi below, it may be that the sense of the begin¬ ning of the sanction was something like dyvov to d'Sos tovto • al 8e tis ravra 7ra.pj3a.Lvoi hr] aw^eoi k.t.A.
500 , tov] vopLov tovtov r/v Tts 6£\r/ [cnryjxtai r) tt po6rjra[i] iprjcfrov ware [/ary ejtvai rov vop.ov tovtov. Slightly different in sense in the inscription of the Labyadae,
B. C. II. XIX. p. 12, 1. 28 (Homolle). — apas: genitive. The apodosis begins here. The form rds dpas ras shows that a definite curse, described in the missing jrart of the line, is meant. For similar formulae see Rogers, l. c. p. 168. Something like evokes ottw may be supplied with Rogers. Cf. Cauer, Delectus 2, No. 430 (Eresos), A 11. 24 f. [*]a[i] ruAAa e[r Joyces [eQoTw ra> vopaa [raj or TW £7 TL TO)] r civ ora Wav dvfXdvTL ; also D 1. 16, evo^ot[s e/x/xeji'cu raj vopuo (dative or genitive). Speci¬ mens of apal (public),/. G. A. 497 (Teos) and (private),
C. I. A. III. ii. 1417-1420 (Herodes Atticus) ; cf. Wuensch, C. I. A. Appendix, p. ii., and Ziebarth’s article there cited, ‘ Der Finch im Griech. Reclit,’ Hermes, XXX. (1895), pp. 57 ff., where other ex¬ amples are given.
Line 3. Besides inclusion in the curse mentioned above, the culprit is to be banished from Argive ter¬ ritory and his property (7rd/u[ara) is to be confiscated. Cf. the tablet from Hermione above mentioned, 1. 5, : rpiro ku'l irapevecrcrOo : iv s | ’A Oavalav : . Rogers quotes appositely, I. G. A. 500 (Halicarnassus), 11. 35-37.
Line Jj.. -«a [0]dvaro v or Ka[i] dvarov, Rogers. /<[a 6j\dvaTov, Frankel. There is sufficient trace of con¬ cavity in the edge at the left of a (see s. n.) to make it likely that 6 is the correct reading. There is room for «a[l 0], but the letters would be somewhat more crowded than they are in other parts of the line. -Ka [^Juraror is therefore epigraphically preferable. So far as concerns the context, it is too scanty to afford a sure basis for choice, but it is at least clear that the verb of which \_Q~\dv arov is the object cannot be directly connected with the verb of which 7rup[ara is the subject, because death is not a penalty which can be inflicted after confiscation of property and banishment. Some new set of circumstances must intervene. On the other hand, consistency with the general view of the inscription taken above requires that the [0] dvarov hi/ dAAo rt ku^ov refer to the same person with the subject of <rvv)(loi. It is probable, then, that the commencement of a new clause or sen¬ tence has been lost, and that if there is a connective before [0]avarov, it joins the verb on which \Jf\dva.TOv depends with the verb of a lost preceding clause of similar purport, i. e. [‘If any one should . . .] and [should contrive] death or any other harm [against
the exile.’ Unless a full clause be supplied before [0] dvarov, some other reading than xa[i] must be found, an adverbial use being unlikely. Rogers suggests 7ro](cd, which would be suitable, and, taking the scantiness of space into account, is to be preferred to Ka[i] . — h- : it is useless to try to complete the word. Rogers suggests h[oriaiv and h[arivi (l. c. p. 169).
Line 5. For the first word Rogers and Frankel have e]7rt[r]e^vajtro, which the former takes directly with Ka?ov. The reading is probably correct, but the combination with Ka 9ov, though it makes good sense, is rendered doubtful by the lack of evidence as to the length of the lines. It seems reasonable to suppose that the verb is in protasis, hut so far as concerns its position it might also be in apodosis, as the expression of a wish or curse : only, in that case, some other reading would have to be found, — something more plausible than c]tt[i Fje'^roiro (cf. Pamphylian Fnylvo), I. G. A. 505, 1. 24; G. Meyer, Griecli. Gram?. sections 198, 240 ; Prellwitz, Etymolog. Worterbuch, s. v. o^os ; Searles, op. cit. s. v. fe'xw), or Kowa],r[rr]T?X,/otro (but the existence of a ip in epichoric Argive is rendered probable by the presence of <f>, and by the occurrence of a if among the builders’ marks on the stereobate of the New Temple ; cf. Brownson, A. J. A. VIII. p. 219), neither of which has been found in Greek. Unfortunately, the fol¬ lowing clause is itself so mutilated and difficult as to afford no assistance. Here Rogers reads ( l . c. p. 174) r/[ro]i pLcrljAr] or e]v <S]i FLcr^elr/, and Fran¬ kel, I oiFio-ljeie, with the remark, “ £[tt (sive l[v, e[£)] oiFla^eie ( sive -o-^etr/) explicent peritiores.” The lacuna after the first letter of the clause preserves the out¬ line of a letter at each side, that at the left being either o or 6, as is evident from shape and size. Be¬ tween it and the opposite edge there is space for one letter of average size, or for two letters, if one were i, and the other a narrow letter like k, y, or A. Of the letter at the right there remains the right bevel of a full-length vertical hasta. It is also beveled at the top, contrary to the custom of the inscription in the case of the ends of strokes, and continued horizon¬ tally to the left for about 0.0005 m., thus making it probable that the vertical hasta was met by a stroke which joined it from the left, and, more likely than not, at right angles. The letters which correspond best to these indications are 1, B, Q, and H It will be seen at once that T (as in r/[ro]<.) is impos¬ sible, nor are the conditions favorable for the letters with slanted tops, as 'I, M, 1, etc. This fact and the doubtful yChvxns seem to render e[v w]t very im¬ probable. Of the indicated letters, 8 and p seem to yield only optatives, e. g. *e[8o]i, c[p(p)o]i, the rela¬ tion of which to the context would be difficult of ex¬ planation ; tt also leads to a series of improbabilities, e. g. (1) r/TroL for y/TTov, which involves difficulty of
form and sense ; (2) *«roi for oVoi, which might be construed with a following optative, but does not occur, and cannot well be invented because the pronominal root o (Brugmann, Grundriss , II. p. 768, Griech. Gram ? p. 243 ; cf. G. Meyer, Griech. Gram ? p. 179), apart from its rarity in Greek, is not used to form relatives; (3) *iiroi for hr A (cf. olkol : olksi), also construable but also non-existent, and in use con¬ trary to the other conjunctive-adverbial forms in -oi. There remains h, with which it might be possible to read e[ha>]i (sc. iv huh), provided the absence of the -v could be explained. As we have no right to assume errors in an inscription so carefully cut, and as assimilation of v before h is out of the question, it seems necessary to assume a parallel form es, derived from iv% (cf. the inscription, Mon. Ant. Line. I. col. 594, 1. 5, of an earlier period than I. G. A. 38, 1. 4, -avs Tilv s), in accordance with the principle stated by Brugmann (Griech. Gram ? p. 75, 3), and like eV used with cases of rest. Proclitic preposition and object forming practically one word, the -5 would become medial between vowels and change to -h ac¬ cording to the principle also exemplified in I. G. A. 38, so that e’B- would represent €’(h)h. — What fol¬ lows is read by Rogers Firrleu] and explained as el8etrj. Context and usage make this interpretation seem very probable. The presence of tr£(£) is, however, diffi¬ cult to account for (FiS-e(o-)-i?/). Elean is, of
course, of no assistance because of £ucaios, etc. (Cf. G. Meyer, Griech. Gram ? p. 269.) The weak form of the root seems to encourage the conjecture that we may possibly have here a trace of the direct applica¬ tion of the optative suffix (irj) to the root (flS), the sibilant thus produced being afterward extended to the sigmatic aorist. Cf. Brugmann, Griech. Gram3. p. 337, and Grundriss, II. p. 1302. Rogers also sug¬ gests and rejects “ f'is (y is • . . . to-^us, Hesychius) £eU (*(,r)/u).” To add another improbability, it might be possible to think of a *fls, nominative of Foi, flv (large inscription from Gortyna, col. II. 40 ; Roeld, Ima¬ gines, p. 45, No. 6 = Roberts, Introduction to Greek Epigraphy, No. 304 a), as a parallel form of l, Sopho¬ cles, Frag. 427 (Nauck), cf. Ktihner-Blass, I. pp. 583, 595 f., G. Meyer, Griech. Gram3 p. 508, n. 1. — At the end of the line Rogers reads, ?o[#a pbs or to^vtov, andFrankel [t(?)]o-. As has been stated before (s. n.), conditions of space and preservation admit t, ?, or u, with slight, if any, preference. Beyond the o the edge has a vertical bevel, 0.0105 m. in length, show¬ ing that the right hasta of the missing letter was a straight upright stroke. This renders both 6 (9o9apos) and v ( rovrov ) impossible. Owing to the position it is unlikely that the indirect object of ej^r^rJe^voitTo (e. g. <£uyaSi, (fivydariv, [t]o[7; ’Apyeiois)
is to be supplied. It is more probable that this is the beginning of the apodosis, which stated the con¬ templated result of the preceding clause, i. e. reward
or people.
Line 6. As Rogers has remarked (l. c. p. 170), the line treats of property (presumably the 7rdp.[ara of 1. 3), which is to be bought. The word ending in -os at the beginning evidently designated the person who was to have the first right of purchase. Rogers infers Sapxopy[bs from the following line, or, with less probability, os e^wv p.eyic rrov veAjos. — For the fol¬ lowing word Rogers reads 7rpo[y]po[<)>]os, Frankel, 7rpd[r]po[7r]os. As the left side of the hole termi¬ nates with an upright bevel with no trace of protrac¬ tion of a top-bar to the left, the latter reading is im¬ possible. The former reading is plausible so far as concerns the sense, but it is rendered doubtful by the fact that the upper edge of the hole, while it can scarcely be said to be beveled, is nevertheless hori¬ zontal, and suggests cleavage along the line of a hori¬ zontal stroke. Furthermore the point of departure of a downward stroke seems to be visible in the upper edge at about 0.0055 m. from the left hasta. As there is no trace of a corresponding stroke on the under side of the lacuna, the letter thus outlined could not well be other than P. If this is correct, it is not easy to see just what the reading was. Setting aside evident impossibilities like 7rpo[V]pd [h]ds and 71-pd [7r]po[u<]ds, one might perhaps think of hefVjpopoe on a bronze basis from Ligourib, from which Kretschmer in Jahresliefte, III. pp. 134 f., evolves Trputpol. (for (f)povpoi ). But that the person designated could be qualified as TrpoVpojpos even in a transferred sense, or the action of the verb as 7rpo7rpo)pcos (i. e. ‘as a precautionary measure’), seems a hazardous supposition. — The condition of the bronze at the end of the line is described s. n. As there is an upright bevel at the right edge of fragment d, it is possible to read i£vpud[o-0iD with Rogers, or e^7rp«a[(.ro or e^7rptid[p,eros. The first is preferable. For -u- see on next line.
Line 7. al 81 p,]e Sap,uo[p]yoZ t is: so Rogers and Frankel, except that at the beginning they bracket only the first letter, inasmuch as the letters 1 8e (qu. and p, ?) were traceable when the plate was found (cf. Rogers, l. c. p. 160). — Sap,uo[p]yot : with the -acf. e^7rpaa- above, Kapreuas (1877), 2i /ceAuas (2252), and the dAuo? yepw inscription I. G. A. 34 ( = Collitz, S. G. D. I. No. 3261 = Olympia, IV. pp. 101 ff., pi. xxxix., V. No. 693). For relations with Cypriot and Pamphylian see Brugmann, Griech. Gram ! p. 18, and ibid3 p. 37. Cf. G. Meyer, Griech. Gram3, p. 220, and Rogers’ note, l. c. p. 171. It is perhaps worth while to notice that, while in Cypriot in every case between i + vowel (and u + vowel) a corresponding semivowel -i- (or -u-) is developed (cf. Hoffmann, Griech. Dialekte, I. pp. 37 ff.), in Pamphy¬ lian this semivowel is written at least, chiefly in the
older inscriptions (Sillyon and coins of Aspendos and Perge). As to the character of the sound there appears to be substantial agreement between Pamphylia and Argos, for there exist in both probable cases of an inherited -ip. suffix, e. g. ra/xitas, emrrjSuws (Pampli.), dAuos (Argive), along with cases like 7 roXiie (Pampli.) and Kapveuos (Argive), where pri¬ mary inheritance is less certain, and again instances where a secondary t appears in the place formerly occupied by an entirely different consonant, e. g. Pamphylian hapoicn (-s-, cf. Sansk. -s-), Fereia (-S-), Argive 8apuio [p]y ot (-F-). Pamphylian and Argive also approach each other and differ from Cypriot in allowing the £ to be developed after other sonants than simple i, e. g. Fereia, Kapvetias. In this in¬ scription, however, ’Apycias is written without i. — The next word is uncertain owing to the difficulty of deciding between sail and /a at the end of the line. From t’ne description previously given (s. n.) there seems to be a slight preference in favor of sail. We may therefore, with due allowance, read ols. Rogers suggests hots (viz. rpb nois ois [ho ro'pos xeXevei Foi and ot p-]ey terra reAea e[ yoi-rt). That here and in the following lines there are, as Rogers has observed ( l . c. p. 171), provisions for the carrying out of the confis¬ cation of the property of the exile, and for the punish¬ ment of the magistrates who fail of their duty in the matter, seems probable, hut there are not sufficient data for any probable completion of the lines. For a variety of ingenious attempts, see Rogers’ article.
Line 8. rds] may he supplied at the beginning. Frankel remarks that the absence of punctuation (cf. 11. 3 and 10) points to the article, yas may have preceded. Banishment of the Sapaopyos, or of the officials upon whom the duty would next devolve, is probably indicated. In the former case kui ot foi, with which Rogers reads e[yyrVara elec, would be ap¬ propriate, in the latter oTfoi (as in Cypriot for epic otoi, also suggested by Rogers), with which we might perhaps supply t[v rdt dpdi kve\oir to (cf. 1. G. A. 110).
Line 9. The first letter might be the end of an optative, e. g. fiuiXoivTo, as Rogers conjectures, or possibly of a pronoun, e. g. tovto, avro. Under cer¬ tain circumstances, specified in the preceding lines, the tribe of the Ilylleis (cf. A. J. A. XI. p. 43, No. xii. 1. 5, and Richardson’s note, pp. 45 f.) are to sell the property (u7roSdp.[eroi), probably, as Rogers sug¬ gests, for the benefit of the sacred treasury. The edge at the end of the line is beveled, indicating
Line JO. yu for ye ; so Rogers and Frankel. The territory of Argos is contrasted with some other dis¬ trict or place specified in the inscription, or with extra- Argive territory in general. — At the end of the line the left bevel of the left hasta of an a is pre¬ served for nearly its entire length. Rogers, who sup¬ plies KaruK^akioi, is probably right in assuming that
the sentence refers to the recall of the banished per¬ son. It is also conceivable that in this and the following line approval in the sight of Hera is invoked for any one who shall slay a fugitive (original offender or derelict official) from Argive territory at least, in which case KaraK^dvoi could be read.
Line 11. The y at the beginning is certain. Ac¬ cording to the view which may be taken of the intent of the preceding line, the word may be completed as di'ajyi'ov or oTuJyrov (both suggested by Rogers), or, if Kara«[drot (or something of similar meaning) be read, as liayroV. — ttoZ for irpos (cf. Prellwitz, Etym. Woerterb. s. v. -ttot'i, Searles, Lexicog. Study, s. v., G. Meyer, Griech. Gram ? p. 389, n. 1). — H[ipas: the right bevel of the upright of the e is preserved.
®ap.6<Jn\o<; : second, third, and fourth letters very faint. The name does not seem to occur. Analogous are ®ap,t«Arjs, C. I. G. 1840 (Corcyra), ®epnvo<TTparos, B. M. I. II. p. 83, No. 298, 1. 26 (Calymna), and perhaps ®up,t>pos, C. I. A. TV. Add. No. 23, 1. 4. See Fick-Bechtel, Griech. Eigennamen, p. 139. — aveOexe : cross-bar of a uncertain, but lowest of the three possibilities indicated in copy is the most probable. — Kapredas : the dotted line in copy of K represents a false stroke in the original. Right side of p un¬ certain owing to oxidation. The lines indicated by dots in copy are fairly clear, but probably do not belong to the letter. Preller-Robert, Griech. Mythologie, I. p. 250, n. 3, assume a festival of Apollo Carneios at Argos on the basis of Schol. to Theocritus, Y. 83, and Hesycli. s. v. ayr/rip, according to whom Apollo Carneios was called ’Ayr/Twp at Argos, and was wor¬ shiped at the festival called aygropia. The use of the singular is noticeable. Elsewhere ra Kdpreia. Here it probably agrees with the genitive singular of eoprrj, a word used by the Scholiast above cited in speaking of the Carneia, and by Herodotus, I. 31, in referring to the Heraea (eovary oprrjs rrj "H prj tokti ’Apyelokti), or possibly with dp.epas (genitive singular), cf. K apveliu yyepai ( J . H. S. IX. p. 328, from Cos). The genitive is slightly freer than in rapyeioi aveOev toj Ain to iv Kopiv6b6ev ( I . G. A. 32), but resembles that in «r]i 'PayordSai IIo#tW pie [/care^/Ke v - - ] Aai'7retSov Sbei'iScu on a bronze fragment from the Acropolis. Bather, J. H. S. XIII. p. 129. For -a-, see on No. 1826, 1. 7.
Translation : Nikasias dedicated me to Hera.
Nucacrtas: right bar of N and following letter hid¬ den by oxidation. Instead of -at-, -vu- may be read, as the upper right hasta of the san is faint and not quite certain. It does not seem to have been joined at the top to the remainder of the letter. For Nt/carta?, which does not seem to occur, cf. Ava-avtas, IIuvo-avias. For -a- see on No. 1826,1.7; Nucacrias, for Nu<r]aLos, is found C. I. G. 1513, 1. 18 (Tegea). — Hepai : middle bar of e uncertain. Cross-bar of a given by upper stroke. Nevertheless, the dotted line prob¬ ably represents a real stroke.
1882. Plate CXI. (photograph and drawing). Both show concave side of dots. Inscription retro¬ grade. Broken at both ends, and abraded at bottom. Preserved height, 0.028 m.
Perhaps a proper name beginning with A vxa-. On the same side, a number of circles (see drawing), per¬ haps decorative, and in any case independent of the inscription.
1883. Plate CXI. (photograph and drawing, both showing concave side of dots). Fragments a, b, and c, of which b is in uninscribed part. Uncertain whether c joined b. Defective at both ends and in interior. Height of best preserved letter, 0.024 m. On the same side with the inscription and intermingled with it are many circles faintly struck, which do not, however, seem to form part of a system.
Fragment a. The only certain letter is Y. At the left along and near broken edge, lightly struck dots and circles, which may form pail; of an H. At the right near edge, complex of dots in which it is difficult to recognize any letter except possibly an un-Argive A, or a P reversed (51), or an A. It is profitless to speculate as to what name beginning 'YA- or 'Yp- or 'Y amay have stood here.
Fragment c. In central part, A I in heavy dots. At left edge, three similar dots which may have formed part of a T. At right edge, G, also in heavy dots. The inscription may be read TAI@, i. e. r]ai He[pai. With the rounded B cf. the rounded G in No. 1886, and the 0 (if for B) on coins of Argos, B. M. C. Peloponnesus , p. lv. For A, cf. I. G. A. 351 f. (Aegina), and alphabet tables in Larfeld (Iw. Muller, II. p. 532), and Roberts, Greek Fpig. The inscrip¬ tion is archaic.
1888. Plate CXI. See s. n.
1889. Plate CXII. (photograph and drawing, both showing concave side of dots). Fragments a and b. They probably do not adjoin. Letters, none of which is complete, in heavy dots. Independent of them, numerous circles without systematic arrange¬ ment.
Initial letter of Tlpas orr,Hpai. Cf. No. 1746.
1994. Plate CXVI. (photograph). Copy be¬ low. Letters poorly preserved. Height that of thickness of rim (0.004 m. -0.005 m.). Tops toward outside.
posit with Hera for the benefit of the people.
The first letter looks like half of an o, but may be only an accident of incrustation. On the latter sup¬ position possibly to be supplied . . —arr/p or ptrjTrjp pre¬ ceded by a personal name in gen. Cf. I. G. A. 495 (Erythrae) .... roSe a\_rf\p.a p.gTrjp itriOyxe 0 avorri <fiavo[Kjpm/ ~at8t ^apAopeVp, though not a close par-
allel either in construction or sense. — 8ap.o<v> : probably -ov (rather than to), as was usage after the introduction of the Ionic alphabet. Absence of article could be taken to indicate the presence of a proper name, i. e. Damos. — even =: r/vau or perhaps better etrai, to be consistent with 8dp.ov. The form seems here to be Arcadian. — In the third space after even there seems to be a % It may have been preceded by es ( = £«). Otherwise possibly similar to J. H. S. XIII. p. 128, No. 53, ’Atbp'ouas M, where Bather suggests M»;8cor. Cf., however, Rouse, Greek Votive Offerings, p. 105, n. 1. — For use of shrines on Acropolis at Athens as places of deposit, see Bather, ibid. p. 129.
2239. Plate CXXV. (photograph and copy). Length, 0.052 m. Letters much damaged by corro¬ sion. Height, 0.0044 m.-0.013 m.
ras Hepas
ras : upper cross-bar slightly heavier and probably to be preferred. — "Hpas: tail of p certain. In case of last letter the fourth stroke seems to have been at the lower edge of the upper excoriation, hut the cor¬ rosion renders the intention of the engraver somewhat doubtful.
For interpretation, cf. lepov rijs ’ A6 grains, J. H. S. XIII. p. 126, No. 10, and ’AOrjrals, ibid. }). 128, No. 52. On an axe from Calabria, raU'Hpas iapos ei/M, I. G. A. 543. Cf. also the inscriptions from the Cabirion near Thebes, Szanto, Athen. Mitth. XV. pp. 388 ff.
2252. Plate CXXVI. (photograph). Copy be¬ low. Length, 0.115 m. Letters not engraved, but struck with chisels. Height, 0.005 m.-0.007 m.
Translation : Eudamas of Sicily dedicated me.
EiSd/xas : the penultimate letter is badly made, but probably was intended for an a. The name oc¬ curs also in C. I. G. II. 2266. I. G. A. Add. 43 a, said to be from Argos, has EYA ... 5. — - e %u<eAll as: £<S> for Ik. Cf. e Nav7ra ktw (I. G. A. 321), e ris XaXfi'Sos, £ rds O lav6l8o<s (ibid. 322), and espe¬ cially es 7toAxos, C. I. P. I. 492, 1. 2. For the single writing, cf. tov crvrapTvovT as in the Tyskiewicz inscrip¬ tion, 1. 2 (Mon. Ant. Line., I. p. 594). The for¬ mula is similar to Na£ioi e£ (2)iKfA.<,as in an inscrip¬ tion of the Upo7WLol at Delos (B. C. IL. VI. p. 34, 11. 51 f.). On the other hand, Tarpop-ei't-rai ot dnb iS,i.KeXlas in an inventory from the same place (B. C. H. X. j). 465, 1. 115). The former is of about 180 b. c., tbe latter of 364 b. c. The island is probably meant. Another Sicily in the Peloponnese is mentioned by
tion. Impressions and photographs thereof, together with
Stephanus, s. v. and Eupolis, Fragm. 280 (Kock, cited by P.-B.). For the see on No. 1826, 1. 7. — With the punctuation contrast ■ f a • ve0eke : in the Euthykartidas inscription (B. C. H. X. p. 464).
SILVER RING1 FROM THE HERAEUM.
Plate CXXXVII. Photograph of ring (actual size) and of impression of seal (enlarged). Copy of inscription. Condition fairly good except at end of inscription where there is a break of 0.0055 m.0.0065 m. Uncertain how much of bar is missing, but there is space for only one or two letters. Diameter, 0.0185 m.x 0.0145 m. Height, 0.004-0.0043 m., increasing to 0.006 m. at seal. Thickness of bar, about 0.0065 m.
Bar ornamented with fine beading near each edge. On the seal, incised figure of uncertain character. On the original as well as on the photograph thereof, one seems to see a crouching figure resembling a monkey, which might perhaps be intended for Bes, a repre¬ sentation of whom in porcelain was found in the first year’s campaign. However, the wax impression and its enlarged photograph show rather a winged figure with cylindrical body, around the bottom of which are two bands. The head seems to be de¬ tached and slightly removed from the axis of the body. There seem to be three slender legs, but only two feet ; the third is perhaps behind the others. This figure would probably be that of some daemon, per¬ haps a form of ”E /x-
Furtwilngler, Die
Antiken Gemmen, vol. I. pis. viii. 25 (cf. vol. I. p. 100), iv. 52, and xviii. 41. Between the head and the inscription, ornamental gold rivet. Cf. Furtwangler, op. cit. vol. III. p. 90.
Inscription. This occupies entire band, between beading, except seal. Scarcely legible toward end of preserved part. Height of letters, 0.002 m.-0.0024 m. koAos : e/xi : KaXws : ivc (?)
The first sigma has three strokes. Lowest stroke of the second sigma faint and doubtful. The last letter looks like a lunate sigma, but apart from the difficulty in the form of the letter, the reading Ivs or Ivcr- is unintelligible. It is of course useless to think of vvs, C. I. A. IV. b, 373, 100 ; I. 398, 4 (cf. Meisterhans, Grammatik d. att. Inschriften, p. 47, n. 413 a, b. G. Meyer, Griech. Gram? § 320). The letter could also be considered as part of a p , in which case, instead of reading : I VC after KaXas, an alternative
reading could be adopted, viz., 3 IF1- i. e. Hep[as. At certain times and in a certain light this seems almost plausible. In any case some word like SaK-rdAxos is probably to be supplied with kcl\6 s, and the inscrip¬ tion will have nothing to do with the /caAds-inscriptions on vases.1
Plate CXXXVII. For description, see after No. 490, p. 223, and for inscription, Insc. Argol. (/. G. IV.), No. 508, and cf. No. 2239 above.
THE STONES AND GEMS
The engraved stones found (though only in limited numbers) at the Heraeum might disappoint one who sought among them things of beauty. It is not that they are secondclass works of their kind, but they belong to the beginnings of Greek art before the craftsmen had attained to the power which later enabled them to turn into shapes of beauty even the commonest article of daily use. But such disappointment is more than counterbalanced by the interest of another kind inherent in them, — a double interest, in fact, connected in part with the Heraeum and in part with the broader question of the early stages of Greek art.
Not one of these stones is much later than the seventh century b. c., and most of them are probably much earlier. This phenomenon of the absence of late work is the same in the other classes of objects found on the site, the very large majority of which belong to prehistoric and archaic times. But beside this fact there is another equally noteworthy, which is that a large proportion of the stones are of a style heretofore but little known. That is to say, they put before us a new local art, and it can be shown, I believe, that the most probable home of this art was the Heraeum,1 by which name must be understood the town in the vicinity (which of the many there were we cannot with certainty say) that supplied the needs of the sanctuary.
while to import such work.
It is worth noting that there is scarcely a trace of the use of the drill, which was con¬ stantly employed by the Mycenaeans. On Nos. 17, 21, 33, and a few others, there seem to be traces of it, but the rule is for the design to be cut. This was perhaps induced by the softness of the stone ; or the fact that, in the main, only soft stone was used may imply that the drill was not generally known.
The drawing of the human figures and of horses, the representation of birds and snakes (also found in great numbers on the vases from the Heraeum), remind one of 4 geo¬ metric ’ vases. A few gems were found that distinctly belong to the ‘ geometric ’ style,
ENGRAVED STONES, GEMS, AND IVORIES
and those of what is I believe a new type may, perhaps, be the forerunner of the £ geo¬ metric.’ It is noticeable that on the true £ geometric ’ stones occur none of the odd or inexplicable forms that we see on the new class.
It might be thought that the use of steatite, a mineral not found in Greece proper, was a proof that the stones were imported from some distant place ; but when one considers that, as noted above, stones of this style have been found in considerable numbers only at the Heme iisn, it seems more likely that it was merely the material and not the finished product that was imported. The carving was then done at the Heraeum. This statement is borne out by the fact that only a very insignificant amount of objects of unquestion¬ able foreign make were found in the excavations, and also by the finding of one or two stones all ready shaped but without any design.
For the detailed study of the stones several methods of classification are possible: according to their material, shape, subject represented, or style. As there are a few stones absolutely different in style from the others while the material is the same, it is manifest that any attempt at classification according to material would be barren of result. Similar reasons make classification according to shape or subject undesirable, so that nothing is left but to classify them, so far as my own judgment goes, according to style. Others may consider that individual stones belong to other classes than those in which I have arranged them, but the separation of the classes in general will, I trust, find acceptance.
Before discussing the stones in detail a word must be said in regard to the use to which such objects were put. They are often spoken of as seals , but it seems improbable that their owners used them as such. Had they done so, it is incredible that no impressions of them should ever have been found. I refer of course only to Greece, and not to the coun¬ tries in the farther east where seals were in common use. Furthermore, what imaginable way is there for their use as seals ? Documents that could be sealed by any such stones as these were unknown in the days when they were made. They are too small and insig¬ nificant to have been used as marks of proprietorship of objects, — were this extravagant hypothesis to be brought forward, — and the fact that there is a very noticeable repeti¬ tion of design disproves any such idea. That most of them are bored shows that they were meant for suspension, but were they seals, it is quite certain they would have been given some stiff and permanent setting. Gold rings like those found at Mycenae, or others of less valuable material, might (so far as usability is concerned) — except for the other reasons I have adduced — be called seals. Such rings, however, form but an infinitesimal division of the whole class of these objects. If they were not seals, what were they ? Probably, in the majority of cases, amulets. The fact that they are bored suits this explanation. They may well have been worn in old times, as they are still to-day by the women in Crete, hung by a string round the neck. The style of subject carved upon them is well suited to amulets. Religious scenes, for instance, or the figures of strange beings are what one would expect on amulets. When we remember the close relation of animals to deities in ancient times, we see how stones which to our ignorant eyes present only the picture of a cow or lion may, in every likelihood, have conveyed a religious and sacred impression to the original owner. Others, too, suggest from their shape, or size, or carving, that they were merely beads, for it is not at all likely that all were used in the same way. Evans1 in his epoch-marking works shows reasons to believe that he has found a form of writing on the earliest of these stones.
This, however, is no reason for thinking them to be other than amulets ; though no one has been able to read the signs found by Evans, and they may possibly be abbreviated prayers or sacred and evil-averting signs.
There is one more question difficult of explanation, and that is how there came to be so many stones of this sort at a place like the Heraeum. I can only suggest the explana¬ tion that if these stones were amulets, it may well be that such powerful and sacred objects were made by the priests, - — that they were issued from the temple somewhat as indul¬ gences are given out by the Catholic Church. Or it is possible that perhaps after the death of the owner, or at some such solemn moment, they were dedicated in the temple. These are, of course, mere hypotheses.
CLASS I. PREHISTORIC OR PRIMITIVE.
Only eight stones of this sort were found (Nos. 1-8). The only carving on them con¬ sists of scratches, and they show no trace of true masterly cutting. Similar scratchings were found by Schliemann on whorls he dug up at Troy, and by other excavators. It is possible that these lines conveyed some meaning to the original owner of the object, but, at present, it is impossible to say what it was. Evans 1 suggests that certain somewhat similar carvings found by him stand for letters. None of the examples from the Heraeum suggest this or anything more than being the haphazard work of an untrained carver. They seem to be merely attempts to decorate the stones with more or less symmetrical patterns.
In shape they show some variety, and it is difficult to explain why the makers of these stones should have been satisfied with such rude carving of designs when they were able to model the forms so comparatively well.
Found on southeast slope near bottom.
5. Spool shape. Ends concave. Cross lines and circle scratched on one end. Dark red steatite. Diameter, 1.7 cm. The form is, perhaps, an imitation of a fish’s vertebra. Found back of South Building, at southwest corner of Second Temple terrace.
6. Flat; circular. Bored through centre. Light green steatite. 1.5 cm. No engraving; accidental scratches. Perhaps a bead. This is one of those which being formed but not decorated implies that the decoration was done at the Heraeum, as do the following. Found back of South Building near No. 5.
Perhaps a fourth class unintelligible ought to be added. The stones are often carved on all their various surfaces, whether curved or flat. Of the hemispherical group six have carving only on the flat surface, and the other five have their rounded back deco¬ rated with zigzag's.
faces are carved.
On first sight one sees that these stones have little or nothing to do with the true Mycenaean stones with which it seems, from the proximity of the Heraeum to Mycenae, they might well have had some connection. The few Mycenaean stones that were found in the excavation are easily differentiated from those of the new class, and that so very few Mycenaean ones were found appears to be another bit of evidence to show how little the Heraeum depended on foreign trade for the satisfaction of its needs. The nature of the carving on the new stones, rude and awkward as it is, is quite unlike that of true Mycenaean work. Nor did the Mycenaean carvers show any special preference for steatite, while the subjects which they were fond of representing, such as lions, cows, fish flying, religious and hunting scenes, do not occur on the Heraeum stones. A few stones of the same character as those under discussion have been found in other parts of the Greek world, and they will be noted in connection with the special specimens to which they bear the closest resemblance. Further excavation will undoubtedly bring others to light, but for the present the Heraeum must be considered if not the original source of this work, at least a place where it was in considerable demand.
One curious point in regard to their discovery which may throw light not only on the stones themselves but also on the history of the Heraeum is that none were found on the Old Temple terrace, but all came from the neighborhood of the Fifth-century Temple and
the majority from the south slope, — a spot that seems to have been used for the laying aside of discarded objects. The enormous number of objects of all sorts found in this one place suggests that it may have been used as a sort of burying-ground for things that had, for some now unknown reason, become too sacred for such further mortal use as they had originally served. That there were such burying-grounds is, of course, proved by the discoveries on the Acropolis of Athens.
of Stoa below Cyclopean wall.
18. Not absolutely hemispherical. Three divided rows of arrowhead pattern on back. Design : circle divided into quarters by crossed lines. Each quarter has three ‘ arrow ’ markings one within the other. Blue steatite. 2 cm. Found during first year’s work.
20. Much broken. Design, Large side: branches of trees3 surrounded by circle of cog-wheel pattern. Small side : snake (?) and lines that are distinct, but scarcely explicable. They do not re¬ semble any of Evans’s pictographic signs, and it is plain from the sureness of the cutting that they are not haphazard. They are also quite unlike the ordinary space-filling patterns. It is possible that they represent a horned animal lying down ; the head to the left. Red steatite. Large side, 3.5 cm. x 3.75 cm. Small side, 2 cm. Found east of chambers on Second Temple terrace.
21. Design, Large side : two figures holding a bough upright between them ; below the bough a crescent-shaped object. Snake surrounding left half of design. Small side : sunk circle with raised cross, the arms of the latter having incision down the middle. Green steatite. Large side, 2.5 cm. Found near the southeast corner of the Second Temple.
22. Design, Large side : two figures holding hands, and in free hand branches ; between their feet a bird upside down , and below this a snake (?). Between the heads of the figures traces of another bird (?). Cog-wheel circle surrounds the group. Small side: scarcely explicable. Per¬ haps animal with branch above and below. Red steatite. Large side, 3.5 cm. Found on south
above east end of Stoa below
24. Double branch pattern. One end with geometric design, thus : of three drill holes directed along the long axis ; stone is broken and ' drilled. Red steatite. Found during first year's work.
Bectangular. All hut No. 31 bored.
26. Stone broken through bore-hole, only half preserved. Design : on one side cattle superposed. (For somewhat similar representation of cattle, cf. Evans, Cretan Pictography, fig. 11 a.) Behind cattle unintelligible curved lines. On other side cattle (? ) facing, and between them snake (?). On the unbroken edge pattern (see cut). Found back of West Building in the large deposit.
27. Flat (brick shape). Both sides engraved; edges smooth. Design, one side: winged horses. Other side : distinct but unintelligible. Red steatite. 4 cm. x 3 cm. Found at southeast corner of Second Temple terrace, outside peribolus wall.
1.1 cm. Found on surface of ground of the Old Temple terrace.
29. Broken along bore-hole, only half found. Both sides and the complete edge engraved. Design : each side divided into two compartments. When the stone was complete there were undoubtedly four such divisions. On one side are squares, one within the other, the smallest having its diagonals drawn. On the other side each division has merely lines drawn parallel to the diagonal, — those in one division from left to right, the other from right to left. On edge ‘ arrowhead ’ pattern. Red steatite. 4 cm. Found in the deposit at southwest corner of Second Temple terrace.
30. Broken ; only part found. Both sides engraved ; edges smooth. Design : on one side deeply cut, but unintelligible (but cf. Evans’s sign for a house, Cretan Pictography, p. 37 [308]). Green steatite. 5 cm. x 1 cm. (thick). Found near East Building. Another stone very similar to this one was shown me by Mr. Evans. He obtained it in Delos. It is now, I believe, in the Ashmolean Museum.
31. Bored, and bit of original bronze fastening still in hole. Both sides engraved. Design : on one side two men ; one holds branch, other holds weapon (?). The former seems to be clad differently from the latter. Other side : four compartments, each filled with patterns of straight lines. Green steatite. 2.7 cm. x 2.3 cm. Found in deposit at southwest corner of Second Temple terrace.
32. Both sides engraved. Design, on one side : man fighting or hunting ; the disk in front of him may be his shield. On other side : animal. Dark blue steatite. 1.7 cm. x 1.4 cm. Found at southeast corner of Second Temple terrace.
36. Broken through bore-hole ; only half found. Both sides engraved. Design, on one side : bull’s-head, full front. On other side : starfish pattern. 1.2 cm. thick. Diameter, circ. 4 cm. Red steatite. Found in deposit back of West Building.
The next class of stones to consider are of a type which, though by no means common, is less strange than that of the preceding stones, and can be dated by external evidence. It is the ‘ geometric ’ type ; a type that is plainly of the same epoch as the i geometric ’ vases. These show a distinct advance over the earlier stones in being made of harder material, and in the carving being much stronger and more certain. They show none of the sketchy and tentative quality of the more primitive work. In shape and material, too, they vary from the earlier and from Mycenaean work. All are of a fine-grain white marble, and all are square. One peculiar shape, that of a low truncated pyramid, occurs. The backs have no figure design. The bore-hole runs from hack to front, hence these could not be used as seals.
Decorative marks. White marble. 3.4 cm. square. (In the Ashmolean Museum is a stone closely resembling this one ; it was found in Melos in 1894.) The design is of two figures, and between them a branch. Found at east end of Second Temple terrace, near East Building.
43. Broken at corners. Bored from front to back. Shape : truncated pyramid. On one sloping side of back are cut circles with dots in their centres. Design : divided into four equal divisions. Only one, a human figure with space-filling markings, decipherable. Lower part of human figure in a second division. White marble. Circ. 4.5 cm. Found in West Building.
44. Fragment. Similar to No. 43. Square, brick shape, not pyramidal. Design in compart¬ ments, but destroyed. Human figure visible on left. White marble. Size originally about same as No. 43. Found at east end of Second Temple terrace, near East Building.
45. Bit of white marble similar to that used for Nos. 41-44. Square, 4.2 cm. Edges and both sides carefully worked. Edges curve very slightly outward, which is not the case in Nos. 41-44. Possibly an unfinished work. Found near No. 44.
46. Bored from back to front. Back smooth, and edges only beveled very slightly. Design undecipherable. It seems to be merely decorative, and perhaps is a connecting link between the preceding and those that follow. Found above Stoa and below Cyclopean wall.
47-51. All bored from back to front. Backs flat and smooth. Design : decorative (?). White marble. Size : (No. 47) 2 cm. ; (No. 48) 2 cm. ; (No. 49) 1.8 cm. ; (No. 50) 2.1 cm. ; (No. 51) 1.8 cm. It is noteworthy that the cutting of these differs from that of the preceding in being less angular, and the hollows are curved instead of being sunk to an edge. The designs of Nos. 47, 48, and 49 are exactly the same. Another stone of this same sort was bought by me in Athens in the spring of 1898. It is 3.3 cm. square and fractured at one corner (see adjacent cut).
The Mycenaean stones do not call for special comment. It is, however, noteworthy that so few stones of this class were found. Considering- the proximity of Mycenae, one might well have expected them to be among the objects often found at the Heraeum.
tite. 2 cm. Found in South Building.
53. Circular-lenticular. Bored. Design : horned animal (bull ?) to right, head turned over back. Branch vertically in front of animal and below the beast decorative marks. Dark blue steatite. 1.7 cm. Found in South Building.
very much rubbed. Found at southeast corner of Second Temple terrace.
55. Fragment of large (probably 3-4 cm. diameter) circular-lenticular stone. Undoubtedly bored. Cornelian. Design : two cattle to left, the further one turn¬ ing head backward. Best Mycenaean work. Place of discovery unknown.
56. Circular, flat. Bored. Design : two fore-quarters of horned animal joined ; branch in front of one of the animals. Found in deposit at southwest corner of Second Temple terrace.
Among the smaller antiquities found at the Heraeum were a considerable number of objects of ivory representing many different purposes, most of which can be easily under¬ stood. Some are more difficult to comprehend, and are particularly interesting because of the similarity they bear to certain of the stones that have been described above.
The use of the following objects is uncertain. They are all of them bored, and this, taken into consideration with their peculiar shape (in section q- ^ ), has led me to wonder whether they might not have been used as covers of bottles or vases. The fact that they are carved on both sides does not preclude the possibility of such a use. One similar bit of worked ivory was found at Olympia ( Olympia , ‘ Bronzen,’ p. 188, 1194).
There are several points that are common to all five examples to be noted. All are bored. All are engraved on both sides. All are the same shape and nearly the same size. All have a more elaborate border on the smaller side, the larger side having merely a line.
1. Design, Large side : Winged griffin seated to left. Right paw raised. Small side : Lioness seated, head turned back, right paw raised. Between front legs star of dots. Greater diameter, 4.6 cm. Broken. Found at southwest corner of Second Temple.
ment projecting from head, seated to left. Right paw raised ; be¬ tween paws flying double-headed bird to left. Small side : Lion in same position as lioness on No. 1, with three stars of dots and lines between front feet. Greater di¬ ameter, 4.5 cm. Found in black No. 4.
layer at west end of Second Temple.
3. Design, Large side : Lion seated to right. Right paw raised. Head turned back. Small side : Eagle flying to right. Greater diameter,
Small side : Lion running to right. Head with crest turned back.
Decorative stars. Greater diameter, 4.4 cm. The lion is less Ori¬ ental in type than those on the preceding ivories. The drawing of the paws suggests the early Attic vases. Found at southwest corner of Second Temple terrace.
hair is rolled, as on the Tenean Apollo. Small side : Eagle flying
to right. Elaborate detail. Six ornamental dots, one above bird, one below, one above and one below head, one above and one below root of tail. Greater diameter, 5.3 cm. Found at southeast corner of Second Temple terrace.
back of ivory rosette. Diameter, 1.5 cm. Found in same place as No. 8.
10. Circular. Flat. Bored. Design : five circles with centres dotted (like a dice), the outer circles connected with the inner one by straight lines. On other side rosette. Diameter, 1.7 cm. Found during first year’s work.
11. Button shape. Bored. Design, Large, side: Bird flying to right within circle. Small side: Four-leafed rosette within ‘cog-wheel’ circle. Greater diameter, 1.8 cm. Found at south¬ east corner of Second Temple terrace, outside peribolus wall.
12. Circular. Flat. Bored, and little hole in centre of each side. Design : eagle with snake in beak flying to left, circumscribed by three circles. On other side rosette. Diameter, 2 cm. Found in burnt layer at west end of Second Temple.
13. Same shape as Nos. 1-5. Bored. Design, Large side : Swan to left ; behind head fourpointed star, circumscribed by two circles. Small side: Flying fish (?) to right, circumscribed by two circles. Greater diameter, 2 cm. Found in same place as No. 12.
other side Diameter, 2.3. Found in West Building.
18. Circular. Flat. Bored, — broken through bore-liole. Design : on one side, butterfly (?). On other side, rosette, so much rubbed that it is impossible to be sure of the design. Diameter, 2.5 cm.
ARTICLES OF APPAREL OR OF HOUSEHOLD USE.
32. Fibula, of which the bronze pin is oxidized away. Design : one thin strip of ivory cut to resemble three disks in a row. Each disk decorated with patterns of circles. Length, 6.6 cm. Found in the deposit at southwest corner.
33. Fragment of fibula similar to last. Bronze pin still attached. Central one of the three disks represented by only a section. The hollowed-out circles in centres of two end disks and on each side of central section probably originally inlaid. Length (of fragment), 4 cm. Found at southwest corner of Second Temple.
38-43. Fragments of worked ivory, the uses of which cannot be made out. Lengths : (No. 38) 4.1 cm. ; (No. 39) 2.7 cm. ; (No. 40) 1.5 cm. ; (No. 41) 1.1 cm. ; (No. 42) 3.4 cm. ; (No. 43) 3.6 cm. Nos. 42 and 43 are bored lengthwise, and in the hole is bronze wire. All found in deposit at south¬ east coi-ner.
of ivory 3 cm. x 1.6 cm. Found in West Building.
88. Plaque, on which in low relief are the lower halves of two figures. On left a man moving to right towards what was probably meant for a xoanon. The latter from the drapery was evi¬ dently of a goddess. The tunic of the man and the chiton of the statue are very carefully orna¬ mented with patterns of squares and diamonds. Style of the end of the sixth century B. C.
94. Disk of terra-cotta. Relief on both sides. Traces of glaze. Not bored. Design : figure driving a biga to right. On other side enthroned woman (?) to left holding an object, now not to be made out, in each hand. Found in the West Building. This figure may well be a representa¬ tion of the statue of Hera at the Heraeum which is shown on coins in almost exactly this form. (Cf. Frazer, Pausanias, vol. III. p. 184, fig. 29.)
cated.
Of the 46 coins of known provenience, 21 come from the West Building, 9 from the South slope, and 2 from the same neighborhood, i. e. from back of the South Building. The remainder are from various parts of the excavation. No relations between the period of the coins and the building in which they were found can he established. It may, however, he noticed that the Byzantine coins are with one exception probably from the Lower Stoa (X).
The small proportion (about yL) of the coins belonging to the period of free Greece is somewhat remarkable, as well as the fact that for the archaic period Corinth alone is represented. However, it scarcely needs to he pointed out that the circumstances do not in this case warrant any conclusions based on negative evidence. For the later period, in particular, it would he quite futile to attempt to explain the absence of any particular pieces, and nearly so to explain their presence. Nevertheless, though the coins tell us nothing about the later history of the Heraeum, or of its condition at the period they were minted, still in the obscurity which enshrouds the latter days of the sanctuary, even these slight records of the occasional presence of human beings on the site are not with¬ out a certain interest.
1. From West Building. Bronze. Size, 0.018 m. Obv. Female head (Larisa), three-quarter face, 1. Loosely floating hair confined by fillet. Lev. Horseman, r., clad in petasus and chiton, and holding lance. Horse prancing. Above, 1. A A. Incrustation beneath horse prevents letters, if any, from showing.
Corinthia. Corinth.
3. From South slope. Silver. Weight, 9 grammes. Size, 0.0245 m. Obv. Pegasos, bri¬ dled with curled wing, walking 1. Beneath, ?. Lev. Incuse square consisting of eight triangu¬ lar compartments alternately raised and indented. Of the indentations one is flat, another repeated. Fabric rather flat.
4. Silver. Weight, 8.50 grammes. Size, 0.0245 m. Obv. Pegasos with curled wing trot¬ ting or flying 1. Uncertain whether with bridle.
resembling swastika. Fabric flat.
5. From South slope. Silver. Weight, 8.50 grammes. Size, 0.0225 m. Obv. Pegasos. At¬ titude uncertain. No trace of ?. Rev. Quad¬ ripartite incuse square resembling swastika. Fabric flat. Hole for suspension, 0.0025 m. in diameter.
7. Bronze. Size, 0.0213 m. Obv. Head of Roman emperor, r. (resembles Augustus). In¬ scription illegible. Rev. Pegasos, flying, r. Un¬ certain whether with rider. At 1., in field, CO I (remainder illegible).
8. Bronze. Size, 0.0215 m. Obv. Head of Tiberius, 1., lain*. At 1., I- ERE. At r., C. Re¬ mainder of inscription effaced. Rev. Front of hexastyle temple. Seems to be Doric with three steps. In upper 1. field, LA. At r. of gable, RE §|. At r. of columns, I IV II. Beneath temple, ^ DR for (COR).
Furius Labeo.
9. Bronze. Size, 0.0205 m. Obv. Female bust (Tyclie, according to B. M. C. Corinth , p. 71, No. 572), r., turreted. At 1., ROMAL. At r., ETIMPER (for Romae et imperio). Rev. Tetrastyle temple on high base, seen from cor¬ ner. In field, LCANAGRIPPAE IIVI. Beneath, COR.
rapidly to r.
51 uch worn. Resembles B. M. C. Corinth , No. 580 (Domitian), but features of head of obv. are not quite the same. Attribution to Cor¬ inth doubtful.
11. Bronze. Size, 0.02 m. Obv. Head of Ro¬ man emperor, r. Resembles Domitian. Rev. Perhaps temple on Acrocorinthus as in B. M. C. Corinth, No. 541 (Claudius).
Patinated. Attribution uncertain.
12. Bi •onze. Size, 0.0245 m. Obv. Draped bust of youthful Marcus Aurelius, laureate, r. In 1. field, VIAVKLAIVS. Rev. Zeus, with lower part of body draped, seated on throne, 1. Holds Nike in r., and rests uplifted 1. on sceptre. In 1. field, CLI, in r. COR.
0.026 m. Obv. Head of Commodus, beardless and laureate, r. In 1. field, COMMIO|§|. In r. field, |f|V|f|AVC. Rev. Aphrodite standing, body in front view, face 1., holding shield. Nude to groin. In 1. field, CLI, in r., COR.
14. From East Building. Bronze. Size, 0.025 m. Obv. Plead of Commodus, laureate, r. In r. field, NVS (Antoninus. Remainder of in¬ scription illegible). Rev. Aphrodite upright, 1., looking into shield which she holds in hands. Possible traces of Eros at her feet. In field at r., COR (remainder of inscription illegible).
15. Bronze. Size, 0.028 m. Obv. Head of Ro¬ man emperor, laureate, r. Features resemble those of Antoninus Pius rather than those of Commodus. At 1., IMPCAESCOM. In r. field, MH|AVCCERM||| (perhaps two illegible letters after CERM). Rev. Wreath of pine within
Sicyonia. Sicyon.
16. From Roman Building, season of 1895. Silver. Weight, 2.50 grammes. Size, 0.015 m. Obv. Chimaera, 1. Letters, if any, invisible owing to incrustation. Rev. Dove flying, 1.
17. From N. W. of West Building. Bronze. Size, 0.024 m. Obv. Head of Commodus, beard¬ less, and laureate, r. At 1., o|§|o (remainder effaced). Rev. Three military standards. The central standard is surmounted by an eagle perched on a thunderbolt. Above, COL (remain¬ der illegible).
18. From West Building. Bronze. Size, 0.0235 m. Obv. Draped bust of L. Verus or M. Aurelius, laureate, r. In 1. field, illegible inscription. Rev. Winged thunderbolt. In 1. field, N " INoMMA|H (the first part perhaps for \Anto]neinos). In r. field, uncertain letters, i. e. LAA.
The attribution to Laconia rests on slight ground, as the winged thunderbolt is common also in Elis ; cf. B. M. C. P eloponnesus, p. 215.
19. Bronze. Size, 0.023 m. Obv. Draped bust of youthful Commodus, r. In r. field, MOAOS. Remainder of inscription illegible.
20. From South slope. Bronze. Size, 0. 0205 m. Obv. Bearded male head, laureate, r. Inscrip¬ tion illegible. Rev. Draped female figure, stand¬ ing, 1. Holds in r. sistrum and in 1. situla. In 1. field A A a. In r. field 1/1 (0 N .
Argolis. Argos.
21. Found March 22, 1894, at west end of Stoa. Bronze. Size, 0.0155 m. Obv. Head of Hera, r., wearing steplianos. Rev. Quiver. At
22. From South slope. Bronze. Size, 0.025 m. Obv. Male bust, r. Seems to be beardless. Per¬ haps Hadrian. In field at 1., |§|AN. Remainder of inscription effaced. Rev. Nude male figure, bearded, standing, 1. In r., long spear. L. rests against side. In 1. field, G (of ’Apye<W). Re¬ mainder of inscription effaced.
23. From West Building. Bronze. Size, 0.0252 m. Obv. Beardless bust, r., uncertain whether laureate. Masculine features resembling those of M. Aurelius or of Commodus. In r. field G I NO (Antoneinos). Remainder of inscrip¬ tion incrusted. Rev. Upright female figure, r., with r. raised, and 1. extended over small figure to r. Group identified with Leto and Chloris, B. M. C. Pelop. p. 151, No. 1G8 (coin of Julia Domna).
24. F rom back of South Building. Bronze. Size, 0.025 m. Obv. Head and bust of Ju¬ lia Domna, r. L. field incrusted. In r. field, HfTAAOMNA. Rev. Similar to that of No. 23. In 1. field, H|PrG, in r., IUJN (’ApyetW).
25. From West Building. Bronze. Size, 0.0235 in. Obv. Beardless male head, 1. Head bare. Features, especially the nose, like those of Caracalla. Rev. Draped female figure stand¬ ing. Holds in either uplifted hand uncertain object, perhaps torch. In 1. field, \PL, in r., GlftN.
ADDENDA TO COINS OF ARGOS.
The following minute pieces, all of which are of bronze, form a collection which was kept to¬ gether among the various objects brought from the Heraeum to Athens, but there is no record of provenience either for the collection as a whole or for the individual pieces. It is therefore un¬ certain whether they were found in the same place, or thrown together later for convenience.
That the objects are coins seems altogether probable, and that they should be attributed to Argos is likely from the fact that they come from the Heraeum, and also from the presence of A on several specimens.
A rather indefinite criterion of date is afforded by the fact that all the alphas have the cross-bar broken. To judge from such material, however, as has been available, the A has a straight cross¬ bar at Argos so long as it stands for the name of the town, that is to 146 b. c., when the coin¬ age ceases, to be resumed later under Hadrian. It may be, then, that, though the broken bar was regular in the monogram of the Achaean League, we have here a hitherto unknown local coinage permitted to Argos after the suppression of the league. That the pieces continued to be issued under the emperors seems likely from the style of some of the heads.
symbols on the reverse precede those bearing letters. Within these classes the arrangement is by the style or form of head, but the minute¬ ness and poor preservation of many of the pieces renders accuracy impossible.
27 [ wrongly given on Plate as 29]. Size, 0.009 m. Obv. Head with upper part of shoul¬ ders, r. Head seems to be radiate and beardless. Rev. N (perhaps flower or tree).
28. Size, 0.0095 m. Obv. Head and shoul¬ ders, r. Top and back covered with bristling di •ess like lion’s skin. Head appears to be male. Rev. Uncertain. FTom one side there seem to be two advancing figures, r., from the other some monogram or symbol similar to that on No. 38.
29. Size, 0.0095 m. Obv. Object resemblinghead with draped bust, r. In r. field, possible traces of letters, among which 6. Rev. Wreath, in which >£c .
30. Size, 0.0074 m. Obv. Struck on one side. Only AL appears, which is probably part of dra¬ pery of shoulder. Rev. Perhaps £ in wreath.
Rev. Perhaps A.
51. Size, 0.0083 m. Obv. Head, wearing dia¬ dem or crown, and upper part of shoulders, r. Head apparently beardless. Rev. Large A. The circle under the bar of the alpha seems nearly certain.
67. Size, 0.0085. Obv. Beardless head and bust, r. Upper lip heavy, as though with mus¬ tache. Two locks of hair down back of neck. On breast of garment, spiral ornament. Rev. Uncertain.
Rev. Effaced.
107. Found at E. end of Stoa, April 4, 1893. Bronze. Size, 0.03 m. Obv. Bearded head. r. Perhaps Antoninus Pius or Hadrian. Much worn. Rev. Draped female figure, standing 1., with r. hand outstretched.
108. From West Building. Bronze. Size, 0.027 m. Obv. Youthful and probably male bust, r. Neck thin. Rev. (ri . In field, slight but probable traces of letters.
Antoninus Pius.
111. Bronze. Size, 0.0195 m. Obv. Head of Antoninus Pius, r. In 1. field, AN1 ON I NVS|f| (remainder incrusted). Pev. Standing draped figure. In 1. field, |||PX. In r. £., COS Nil |§|. Incrusted.
112. From West Building. Bronze. Size, 0.018 m. Obv. Draped female bust, r. Head¬ dress of style which begins about time of Julia Domna (also Titiana and Manila Scantilla). Inscription effaced. Rev. Draped female figure standing, 1., with r. hand extended and with cornucopia in 1. Inscription illegible except for E in r. field.
Pupienus.
113. Bronze. Size, 0.031 m. Obv. Draped bust of Pupienus, laureate, r. In field, I M PCAESPV PI EN M AX! MVSAVC. Rev. Draped female figure seated in chair, 1., holding in out¬ stretched r. olive branch, in 1. transverse sceptre. Inscription beginning in 1. field, PAX PVBLICA. Beneath, SC . Cf. Cohen, Medailles Imp. vol. Y. p. 17, No. 24.
Gallienus.
114. Found on South slope, west end, 1894. Bronze. Size, 0.0205 m. Obv. Head of Gal¬ lienus, r., radiate. Military drapery. Begin¬ ning in 1. field, CAL LI ENVSAVC. Rev. Draped female figure standing 1., holding in r. hand olive branch, in 1. transverse sceptre. In 1. field, PAX. In r. field, a . Unless these characters are for AVC the coin is not included in Cohen, op. cit. The characters are clear.
Aurelian.
115. From South slope. Bronze. Size, 0.0223 m. Obv. Draped bust of Aurelian, r., radiate. Beginning in 1. field, IMPAVRELIANVSAVC Rev. Two upright figures, 1., man in toga, r., r. draped woman, clasp hands. Begin¬ ning in 1. field, CON CORD I AM I LITVM. Be¬ neath, Psfc.
116. From West Building. Bronze. Size, 0.0205 m. Obv. Draped bust of Aurelian, r., ra¬ diate. Beginning in 1. field, I M PC AV RE LI AN VS AVC. Rev. Sol upright, radiate, with mantle falling over 1. shoulder, faces 1., with r. arm
raised, and 1. hand extended and supporting perhaps a globe. In 1. field a star. At his feet on either side, a captive. The 1. captive has his hands bound behind his back. Beneath, S. Be¬ ginning in 1. field, ORIENSAVC.
Probus.
117. Bronze. Size, 0.0235 m. Nearly half gone. Obv. Probus, with helmet, shield, and spear, 1. Helmet radiate. Inscription, |§P PROB VSAUC. Rev. Horseman (Probus) gal¬ loping, 1. R. hand raised, in 1. spear or sceptre. In front under raised leg of horse, possible trace of figure. Beginning in 1. field, ADVEN TVSAV (remainder lost).
118. Bronze. Size, 0.024 m. Obv. Bust of Probus, r., radiate with military drapery. Be¬ ginning in 1. field, IM PCPROBVSPFAVC. Rev. Draped female figure, upright, L, holding in either hand military standard. Beneath, 1 1 1 XXT. Beginning in 1. field, FIDESM I LIT.
Carus.
119. From East Building. Bronze. Size, 0.0224 m. Obv. Bust of Carus, r., radiate. Mili¬ tary drapery. Beginning in 1. field, |f|PCMAVRCARVSPFAVC. Rev. Female figure draped, standing 1., and pointing with staff at object (globe) lying at feet. In her 1. hand, long upright sceptre. Beginning in 1. field, PRO¬ VIDE N TIAAVCC.
Constantius Chlorus.
120. Probably from Lower Stoa. Bronze. Size, 0.0215 in. Obv. Draped bust of Con¬ stantius Chlorus, r., radiate. In field, FL^CONSTANTIVS NOB CAES. Rev. Draped figure, upright, facing r., receiving figure of Victory from figure with mantle over shoulder (other¬ wise nude), facing 1. In field, CONCORDIA Ml LITVM. Beneath, Victory, HA
121. Bronze. Size, 0.021 m. Obv. Draped bust of Galerius, r., radiate. Beginning in 1. field, CALVALMAXlMIANVSNOBCAE(ff. Rev. Draped male figure with cloak hanging over shoulder, r., joins hands with nude figure hold¬ ing long sceptre, 1. Their joined hands support small draped female figure. Beginning in 1. field, CONCORD I AM I LITVM. Beneath, HB.
122. From West Building. Bronze. Size, 0.019 m. Obv. Male head, r., radiate, with features resembling those of Galerius. Inscrip¬ tion partly illegible, |f|XIM]ANV5PLAVC. Rev. Two upright figures clasp hands. Their hands support small figure. In field, CO N CORD IA^^^TVM. Beneath, HS.
L icinius.
123. Bronze. Size, 0.02 m. Obv. Bust of Licinius, r., laureate. Military drapery. Be¬ ginning in 1. field, IMPUCIN|p|FAVC. Rev. Partially draped male figure (genius), upright, L, holding some object in extended r., and in 1. cornucopia. Inscription nearly effaced. In 1. field, H|II II I . In r. field, |f|o. In inner r. field, F. In exergue, uncertain letters.
Constantins II.
124. Bronze. Size, 0.0173 m. Obv. Beard¬ less draped bust of Constantins, r., with diadem. In 1. field, DNCONST AN ; in r. field, TIVS PFAVC. Rev. Two figures fighting, one partly down, the other thrusting spear into him from above. In 1. field, slight traces of inscription (FELTEMP), in r., REPARATIO. Beneath, QC.
125. Bronze. Size, 0.0162 in. Obv. Head of Constantins, r., with diadem. In r. field, TIVSPFA||. Remainder of inscription illegi¬ ble. Rev. Soldier rushing to 1. upon prostrate enemy. In r. field, REPARATIO (remainder of inscription illegible). In exergue, uncertain traces of letters.
126. Found back of South Building in “ grave of April 13, 1894.” Bronze. Size, 0.015 m. Obv. Head, laureate or diademed, similar to that of Constantins. Inscription illegible except for AVC in r. field. Rev. Wreath, within which v o t In exergue, four letters, of which the third xxLx *s ^ Cf. Cohen, op. cit. vol. VII. p. 492,
ning in 1. field, |§|LIVIL||| (remainder incrusted and illegible). Rev. Soldier upright, 1., pier¬ cing with spear fallen enemy (horseman). On ground, a shield. In r. field, PARATIO (re¬ mainder illegible). In exergue, SMKA.
128. Bronze. Size, 0.017 m. Obv. Bust of Gratian, r., wearing diadem. Beginning in 1. field, DNCRATI A|f|PFAVC. Rev. Draped helmeted female figure (Roma) seated front, look¬ ing 1. Holds sceptre in r., and has 1. raised. In 1. field V I RTVSRO ; in r. field, MANORv - . In exergue, TES.
129. From West Building. Bronze. Size, 0.021 m. Obv. Bust of emperor, r., radiate. Uncertain whether with beard. Heavy features ; thick neck. Inscription, HCDH (remainder incrusted). Rev. Two male figures, the 1. draped, the other nude except for cloak over shoulder, clasp hands, above which, figure. Figure at r. holds in 1. long sceptre. In field, CON CORD I AM I LITVM. Beneath hands above exergue, F. In exergue, ALE.
Cf. Nos. 121 f, but the inscription |f|C(aesar) D(omitius)H| would seem to point rather to Aurelian, under whom coins of a similar type (Jupiter presenting globe to emperor) were struck.
Rev. Standing draped figure.
131 From West Building. Much damaged. Bronze. Size, 0.014 m. Obv. Head, r. Illegi¬ ble inscription. Rev. In centre, figure. About edge, letters, all illegible.
132. Much incrusted. Bronze. Size, 0.018 m. Obv. Head, 1. Inscription illegible excepting COS|ffC in r. field. Incrusted.
Arcadius. but with head turned to r., has r. hand raised,
134. From West Building. Bronze. Size, and with 1. drags captive. In 1. field, SA|||RE|§|; 0.0143 m. Obv. Draped bust of Arcadius, r., in r. field, PVBLICAE. In inner 1. field, -F. In wearing diadem. Infield DNARCADIVS PFAVC. exergue, SMKA Rev. Draped male figure upright, moving to 1.,
Bronze. Size, 0.0345 m.
Ohv. + O' i t Rev. Bust of Christ in halo and h A s i ie cross facing, and holding- probab a s i lc bly book of gospel. At side, TC-XC. In 1. field, + EMMA.
Ohv. I S I XS Rev. Bust of Christ with halo I A 5 1 1 L € and diadem facing, and holding li AS | 1 L€ gospel. Struck twice, the sec- — . ond time to 1. of first. To second
139. Probably from Lower Stoa. Perforated. Bronze. Size, 0.025 m. Ohv. Indistinct male figure, perhaps laureate. Rev. t .
D. VENICE.
140. Bronze. Size, 0.016 m. Ohv. Head and mane of lion. About edge, VEN ET I • + • S • Ma1 Rev. + around which partly effaced inscription, ^ ARBATICO • DV+ .
141. Found in West Building, April 25, 1893. Bronze. Size, 0.028 m. Ohv. Head and mane of lion. About edge, 4= S • MARC - VEN- In exergue, 1 1 >(c
By ALBERT MORTON LYTHGOE
The intercourse between Egypt and her neighbors on the north, which we should expect to trace, first to the nearer islands and then on to Greece itself, has been proved by recent evidence to have begun at least as early as the XYItli Egyptian dynasty. This earliest fixed date lies in the finding by Mr. Arthur Evans, in the palace of Cnossos, of the lid of an alabaster vase inscribed with the names of Kliyan, one of a group of kings who have now been proved beyond all doubt to belong to the intermediate period between the Xllth and XVIIIth dynasties, and to be in all probability Hyksos.2
The evidence of an earlier intercourse than this between these two centres of civiliza¬ tion is yet problematical, in the absence of any earlier material to which an absolutely certain dating can be given. Types of pottery and other objects, similar to the earlier Aegean types though not identical with them, have been found by Flinders Petrie in the Xllth dynasty town site of Kahun, and in the royal tombs and old temple of the Is! dynasty at Abydos ; 3 but in these cases the types themselves lack identification as known Aegean types, and the evidence of their occurrence is not sufficiently conclusive to war¬ rant ascribing them to the periods in apparent relation to which they were found. Until known material of this character comes to hand, which can he dated firmly by its occur¬ rence, under undisturbed conditions, with fixed Egyptian types, we can hardly go beyond this earliest date which Crete has now given us.
On the other hand, the evidence of the intercourse between Greece and Egypt from that date on is conclusive. Beginning with the dated objects of Egyptian origin found in the Mycenaean sites of Greece and the islands, which prove that period in Greek civilization to have been contemporary, in part at least, with the XVIIIth dynasty, the connection appears to have been interrupted during the disturbed period of the XXIst to the XXVtli dynasties, and then finally, with the influx of Greeks into Egypt in the XXVItli dynasty, trade and intercourse between the two countries becomes so constant that they both furnish, from that time on, abundant evidence of their common relation. It is of this evidence, of the period known as the Late New Empire, — the XXVItli and succeeding dynasties previous to the conquest by Alexander, — that the Egyptian objects from the Heraeum are a part, and objects of identically the same character have been found also at Eleusis,4 Aegina,5 and Camirus,6 and in Egypt itself at Naukratis.7 In fact, it is this Greek colony of Naukratis, which rose to great importance under the privileges granted it by Amasis (569-526 b. c.), and which, as the capital of the Egyptian Greeks,
was visited by Herodotus nearly a century later, that we now see to have been the original source of all this evidence, and to it the origin of the Egyptian objects, both from the Heraeum and the other sites mentioned, is to be traced.
If we start with the fact that at Naukratis itself examples were found of nearly all the types which have come from the Greek sites named, and that the examples of each type, though coming from places widely separated, are in many cases so closely identical that they might almost have been cast in the same moulds, then we must surely look to Naukratis as their common source. We find, for example, that the series of scarabs from the Heraeum (Plate CXLIII. Nos. 1 to 39) have their counterparts in those from Nau¬ kratis1 and also in those from Aegina (Plate CXLIV. Nos. 1 to 6) ; similarly, the figures of Apollo from the Heraeum (Plate CXLIII. 51 and CXLIV. 53) duplicated at Naukratis2; the figure of Bes (Plate CXLIII. 47) also occurring at Aegina (Plate CXLIV. 10) ; and the two whorls (Plate CXLIV. 58 and 59) reproduced in one from Aegina (Plate CXLIV. 8). With such a repetition in so limited a range of subjects, the source of them all cannot be a matter of doubt. There were found at Naukratis, moreover, not only most of the types which are duplicated in these from the Greek sites, but even the moulds in which certain types of the scarabs, for example, were cast. That the examples from the Greek sites were not locally made is obvious, and it is equally clear not only that they must all have been drawn from a common Egyptian source, but that, from the evidence, that source must be Naukratis, the largest and most important centre of trade between Greece and her colonists in the Delta.
There not only did the Greeks erect temples and statues to Greek divinities and carry on the manufacture of Greek pottery, figurines, and other objects of the same types and in the same manner as in Greece itself, but they became skilled in the arts of Egypt, and learned to reproduce Egyptian types of deities, Egyptian forms of decoration, and Egyptian hieroglyphics. In some cases they copied the hieroglyphics correctly, and in others their errors show clearly they had little knowledge of the language. They learned, moreover, to work in the materials in common use among the Egyptians, and we find in greatest number scarabs, vases, and figurines of glazed porcelain. On the scarabs they not only reproduced Egyptian inscriptions and designs, but they ornamented them with scenes reminiscent of their own Greek art, as the two running stags, and the stag pur¬ sued by a hound (Plate CXLIII. 32 and 33), while in the case of the porcelain figures they both imitated well-known Egyptian subjects — such as the animals sacred to the gods, as the cat (Plate CXLIII. 48) and the rabbit (Plate CXLIV. 54), and the Egyptian divinities themselves, as Bes (Plate CXLIII. 47) — and also introduced their own Apollo (Plates CXLIII. 51 and CXLIV. 53), here represented as playing on the double pipe.3
In date this whole class of objects does not vary, but, without a single exception, is to be assigned to this period of the XXVItli and following dynasties of the Late New Empire, when Naukratis was the centre of Greek influence. None of this material from the Heraeum, or that from any other of the Greek sites mentioned, can be dated more closely to any particular dynasty or reign, from evidence contained in itself. The only objects from the Heraeum inscribed with a royal name are the three scarabs (Plate CXLIII. 17, 18, and 19), the first of which, and possibly the last two also, is inscribed with the name of Thothmes III., of the XVII lib dynasty. (See Catalogue below.) None
of these, however, date from the reign of that king, but rather from this period begin¬ ning with the XXVIth dynasty in which we have already included them. The wellknown custom in this later period of copying and repeating upon scarabs the names and titles of the earlier kings is of such common occurrence that we find them even em¬ ploying the names of the kings of the Old Empire, — a period when the inscribed scarab had not yet come into existence. The name of Thothmes III. seems, however, to occur much more frequently in these later copies than any other royal name, and in Egyptian cemeteries of this XXVIth dynasty as many as ten to twenty per cent, of the scarabs have sometimes been found to bear this cartouche. It is therefore not surprising that scarabs of this type should have been found not only here at the Heraeum, but at Camirus1 and at Eleusis also (Fig. 1).
Apart from these Egyptian, or Graeco-Egyptian, objects from the Heraeum, which are thus to be grouped in a single class of obviously the same date and origin, there are in addition two glass scarabeoids (Plate CXLIII. 40 and 41) which, while seemingly Egyptian in character, need special consideration. They are clearly Egyptian in form and partly in device, but in style and treatment they belong to a class of scarabs and scarabeoids which show Asiatic influence, and which have been identified in general as of Phoenician origin. The extent to which the Phoenicians borrowed Egyptian forms and imitated Egyptian designs both in metal working and in the engrav¬ ing of gems is attested by the considerable number of objects known in which this fact can be easily identified.'2 Scarabs and scarabeoids of this class are generally found to bear a design either purely Egyptian or adopted from the Egyptian, but in rare cases they actually occur with an inscription in Phoenician characters.3
As to the origin of these two scarabeoids from the Heraeum, whether they were made by Phoenician colonists in the Delta or were brought there by Phoenician merchants and then exported to Greece, we have no evidence ; but that they are of the same date and were brought into Greece at the same period as the other objects of Egyptian character is made certain by the occurrence at Eleusis of a similar glass scarabeoid (Fig. 2), found under exactly similar conditions, — with some fifteen scarabs of the same character as these from the Heraeum, one of which is inscribed with the name of Thothmes III. (Fig. 1, referred to above), but is of later date just as is No. 17 from the Heraeum. This double occurrence certainly disposes of all doubt in the matter of dating these scarabe¬ oids, but apart from the fact that they were evidently brought into Greece at the same period as these other objects we are considering, they are clearly not of the same origin and not to be classed with them.
1. Inscribed Amen Ra neb = ‘ Amen Ra, the Lord.’ Here, and also in Nos. 2, 3, and 4, the maker has shown his unfamiliarity with the signs in having mistaken this sign of the ostrichfeather, the symbol of the goddess Ma’at, or Truth (cf. No. 13, where it occurs properly) for the reedleaf, in the name of the god Amen (cf. No. 5). For the feather, see Griffith, Beni Ha¬ san. , part III. pi. v. 72 ; and for the reedleaf, Griffith, Hieroglyphs , pi. vii. 106.
2. Same inscription as No. 1, and same error in the reedleaf sign. In addition, the men sign is very badly formed, and in other cases, as No. 4, has become quite shapeless.
7. Probably to be read Amen Ra neb ma at = ‘ Amen Ra, Lord of Truth.’ The middle signs are badly moulded and are fused together.
Frit, glaze completely gone.
11. Probably to be read as No. 10. The third sign seems to be a misshapen ostrich-feather. Lastly, an unintelligible sign, possibly an at¬ tempt at an ankh sign.
sign which we have read as nefer must be the lute-sign, as in No. 12, but crudely represented. (Cf. Griffith, Hieroglyphs , pi. ix. 164.)
17. I nscribed with the prenomen of Thothmes III., Men kheper Ra = ‘ Established (i. e. enduring) is the being of Ra.’ Outside the car¬ touche are the red crown of Lower Egypt ( dsrt , cf. Griffith, Hieroglyphs , p. 56), and the mallet sign ( hn , cf. Griffith, op. cit. pi. vii. 104), both symbols of royalty.
Of steatite, with traces of a deep yellow glaze. The whole style of the scarab, and especially the cutting of the back, would assign it to the XXVI th dynasty, or the period immediately following.
18. In upper register: stni-biti — ‘ King of Upper and Lower Egypt.’ Below in the car¬ touche : At the top, the sun’s disk, Ra. At the bottom, the beetle sign, kheper ; and between the two an indistinct sign, which seems in all prob¬ ability to be the men, and which would thus give us again the prenomen of Thothmes III., as in No. 17. On either side of the cartouche is an uraeus, the protector of royalty.
style, of same period as No. 17.
19. Too badly worn to be read with any de¬ gree of certainty. At lower right side is a car¬ touche, of which the upper sign is certainly the sun’s disk, and the lower sign possibly the kheper. The intermediate sign cannot be dis¬ tinguished, but it is possible that we may have again the name of Thothmes III.
Scarabeoid, of soft paste or frit, bordered by a moulded band ornamented around the side with a twisted rope pattern. (Cf. Petrie, Deco¬ rative Art, fig. 169.)
22. The figure of a sphinx, recumbent, the in¬ carnation of Ra, the sun-god, as the protector of mankind. (Cf. Wiedemann, Religion , p. 197.) Above, the sun’s disk ; and in front, the feather, symbol of divinity.
24. At the right the crooked sceptre, which as a word-sign has the value hk = ‘ ruler, prince ; ’ then the uraeus, symbol of royalty ; followed by a third sign, the form and significance of which cannot be determined.
25. Human-headed sphinx, standing, crowned with the white crown of Upper Egypt, with uraeus at front, and represented bearded. Same significance as in No. 22, — the incarnation of Ra, the sun-god. Above, the sun’s disk. Before the sphinx, the crooked sceptre as in No. 24. (Cf. Griffith, Hieroglyphs , fig. 39.)
Frit, with traces of a yellow glaze.
27. Standing figure, representing some god or royal personage. In the right hand a uraeus, in the left a sceptre, and evidently crowned with the white crown of Upper Egypt.
Frit, all traces of glazing gone.
28. Representation of some animal of long and slender body, and with long snout, — per¬ haps the jackal. (Cf. Davies, Mastaba of Ptahhetep , part I. fig. 63.)
29. Amen Ra before a seated god or king. Amen Ra is represented as hawk-headed, crowned with the crown of Upper Egypt and the double plume, and in his left hand the yjas sceptre. (Cf. Griffith, Hieroglyphs , p. 59.) The seated figure is represented with the same sceptre, and is bearded.
30. The ankh sign, or sign of life, with two uraei intertwined, — a design which occurs in Egypt as early as the Vlth dynasty. (Cf. Petrie, Methods and Aims in Archaeology , fig. 62.)
33. Ibex pursued by a hound. (For similar representations in Egyptian art, cf. Newberry, Beni Hasan , part I. pi. xxx., and Davies, Mas¬ taba of Ptahhetep, part I. pis. xxii. and xxv.)
34. Duck rising from a marsh or swamp. (For the duck, cf. Griffith, Beni Hasan , part III. pi. ii. figs. 1 and 8.) Behind is a tall-stemmed plant tipped with a clump of leaves, and before the duck is the so-called sedge, a plant identified with the South, or Upper Egypt. (Cf. Borchardt, Pflanzensaule , Abb. 35.) The scarab is broken at this end and another character can¬ not be determined.
fire. Glaze gone.
35. In upper register a recumbent sphinx, with tail raised. Over the animal the sun’s disk. (Cf. No. 22.) Below, a hawk, symbolic of the sun-god, is represented in a papyrus-marsh, with a clump of three papyrus stems behind. (Cf. Griffith, Beni Hasan , part III. pi. iii. fig. 16.)
Frit, traces of greenish blue glaze.
40. Above, the hawk-headed Ra, winged, and crowned with the double crown. Below, a scarabaeus with wings outspread, — an emblem of the sun-god.
Scarabeoid, of blue glass.
Although the subject of this design is EgjTptian, yet it is non-Egyptian in stjde and charac¬ ter, and is certainly of a class of Phoenician scarabs of which a considerable number are
Here, as an amulet, with its suggestion of use as a column, it seems to have borne the idea of solidity, strength, and hence well-being.
44. Like No. 43, but of blue-glazed porcelain, and pierced perpendicularly in the base by a small square hole, as if for use as a knob.
45. Head of a male figure, of blue-glazed porcelain. The modeling of the head, with its thick, massive wig, is characteristically Egyp¬ tian.
47. Figure of the god Bes. Represented in a characteristic attitude, as a bearded dwarf, with long ears, bowed legs, and arms resting on thighs. He is sometimes represented also with protruding tongue, and dressed in the skin of an animal, with tail hanging down at the back. (Cf. Wiedemann, Religion , pp. 159 ff.)
There is nothing to prove the generally ex¬ pressed idea that this god was one of foreign origin brought into Egypt at a later period, per¬
the New Empire.
Amulets in the form of this god are now known as early as the Vth or Vlth dynasty, and his worship certainly began as early as that. In the
period of the Late New Empire (to which our figure belongs) these representations of him be¬ came extremely common, and they have been found at nearly all the Greek sites to which Egyptian influence spread. (Cf. also the one from Aegina, Plate CXLIY. 10.)
The cat figures in Egyptian art as the sacred animal of the goddess Bast, the centre of whose cult was at Bubastis, in the Delta. Innumera¬ ble representations of this animal, in bronze as well as in porcelain, have been found there, and from its proximity to Naukratis it is easy to account for the manner in which these figures have found their way to Greek sites. A similar figure to this was found at Aegina (cf. Plate CXLIV. 9).
49. Figure of Ptah, in the form Ptali-Sekei’Osiris, a composite deity, who figures principally as a god of the dead. As such he is represented as here, as a squatty figure crowned with feathers, and with bowed legs and hands on his hips.
50. Figure of a deity (? ), bearded and with • the heavy wig falling down before the shoulders. Originally crowned with some attribute, now missing.
This motive, of playing on the double pipe, occurs in Egyptian art in mural paintings of the XVIIIth dynasty and onwards, in scenes of feast¬ ing and dancing (cf. Erman, Life in Ancient Egypt, p. 250), but is unknown in the case of faience or bronze figures. Figures of this type are solely the product of Graeco-Egyptian art, and were first identified at Naukratis (see above). Another example was also found here at the Heraeum. (Plate CXLIY. 53.)
52. Figure similar in type to No. 51, which may possibly represent one of the other types of Apollo identified at Naukratis. (Cf. Naukratis,
The figure is represented with the heavy wig, broadening out over the ears and falling behind them on the shoulders. In feature this type has nothing in common with Egyptian art of the period, the long face narrowing down at the chin and the eyes protruding from their sockets being
strongly characteristic, rather, of contemporary Greek art. These same characteristics appear also in Nos. 46 and 51, and they are all un¬ doubtedly due to one and the same influence. Plate CXLIV. ( scale 5 : 6 [left], 1 : 1 [right]).
As a hieroglyphic word-sign, the hare has the value = ‘ to be.’ It is the common desert hare of Egypt, and is generally represented, as here, with greatly exaggerated ears (cf. Griffith, Hieroglyphs , pi. i. 2). This animal was sacred to Osiris Wen-nefer, and votive figures and amulets in this form are very common.
The ornamentation consists of a double band
moulded in relief ; the upper, of perpendicular parallel lines between two horizontal ones, and the lower, of a series of rectangles, each with a circle at the centre, separated by two perpen¬ dicular lines.
Both of these forms are well-known Egyptian ones, and occur regularly as border patterns in wall-decoration and the like. (Cf. Petrie, Deco¬ rative Art , figs. 186 and 194.)
art at all periods, but it
is often so conventionalized that it is difficult to determine its derivation. In this form, with broad, round-ended petals, it has been identified by Petrie (Decorative Art , pp. 56-58) as the daisy, and by Borchardt (PJlanzensaule, p. 4, note 1) as the chrysanthemum coronarium. Among the objects from Aegina, however, is the cover of a kohl pot in blue-glazed porcelain ( Plate CXLIY. 7), which, with its centre in relief, certainly represents the daisy; and it
been taken as a motive.
It also occurs with petals with pointed ends, as, for example, on another whorl from the Heraeuni (Plate CXLIY. 59), but in such cases it is certainly derived from another source.
One of the earliest occurrences of the rosette is the eight-petaled form on the headband of the statue of Nefert, of the IVth dynasty, from Medum, now in the Cairo Museum, and we find it employed afterwards in innumerable ways, — not only as an ornament on sculpture, but, in combination with other patterns, as a borderpattern in wall-painting (cf. Petrie, op. cit. figs. 125, 126), as a motive in ceiling decoration (cf. Wilkinson, Ancient Egyptians , 2d ed. I. pi. viii.), in the glazed -porcelain tile decoration of Tell el-Amarna (cf. Petrie, Tell el-Amarna , pis. xiii. ff.), and the similar decoration of the palace of Raineses III. at Tell el-Yaliudieh (cf. HayterLewis, in Trans. Soc. Bibl. Arch. vol. vii.). It likewise occurs as a pattern in the cloth and leather coverings of royal thrones (cf. Wilkin¬ son, op. cit. I. Frontispiece), in bead-work (cf. Garstang, El Arabah , pi. xxii.), and in decora¬ tive metal-work, as in the silver bowls from Mendes, now in the Cairo Museum (cf. Maspero, Manual Egypt. Arch. figs. 285 and 286).
59. Porcelain whorl, blue -glazed, of same shape as No. 58. Here the decoration consists of a flower with petals sharply pointed, — a form which occurs constantly and has been identified with certainty by Borchardt as derived from the nymphaea caeruleCi (cf. PJlanzensaule, p. 12).
60. Fragment of a group of two figures, in blue-glazed porcelain. The right figure is male, and the left female, with breasts clearly pro¬ nounced. They are represented side by side, a position which occurs so frequently in Egyptian sculpture, both in standing and seated groups of husband and wife. Each has the heavy wig, — which here shows traces of having been originally colored black, — falling down behind the ears upon the shoulders, while on the right breast of the female figure are two black dots, as if a neck¬ lace had been represented.
Represented kneeling on the left knee, with right knee raised and foot squarely on base. It is the position of one about to rise, or to upraise an object, from the ground, and occurs in figures
of the god Shu, who is represented with arms uplifted and supporting the horizon and sun’s disk above his head (cf. Maspero, Dawn of Civ¬ ilization , p. 127). Shu was the “uplifter” of the heavens from the earth. These representa¬
tions of him are very common in the Late New Empire, and are the only ones in which this un¬ usual position occurs, so far as I know. Conse¬ quently we may have here the lower part of such a figure.
Achaia, coin of, 358.
Acropolis (Athens), development in terra-cotta figu¬ rines, compared with that of female figures from, 8, 18 ; poros heads from, 29 ; terra-cottas from, 34 ; statue from, compared with terra-cotta figurine, 35 ; group of bulls attacked by lions from, com¬ pared with terra-cotta group from Heraeum, 40 ; bronze reliefs from, compared with terra-cotta re¬ liefs from Heraeum, 50, 51 ; marble relief of charioteer from, compared with terra-cotta relief from Heraeum, 53 ; vases from, 74, 76, 89, 133; bronze relief from, compared with design on vase, 169 ; bronzes from, compared with bronzes from Heraeum, 194 n. 2, 204 n. 2, 274 n. 1, 288, 289, 295, 296, 324, 326, 327, 329, 336.
Aegina, relief from, compared with terra-cotta relief, 51 ; vases from, 64, 76, 89, 116, 119, 120, 130, 131, 133, 135, 138, 152, 153, 158, 175 n. 4 ; men¬ tion of, 17 4, 175 ; suspension vase from, similar to bronze one from the Heraeum, 286 ; Egyptian objects from, 367, 368, 372.
Amphoras, primitive, 69 ; Mycenaean, 73, 79, 83, 84, 88, 92, 93, 96 ; geometric, 105, 106, 107, 109, 112, 117, 118, 137, 157 ; miscellaneous types, 160 ; Corinthian, 166, 171, 172, 173 ; black-figured style, 176, 178 ; red-figured style, 179.
Androsphinx, on ivory, 352.
Animal figures, on vases, in Mycenaean style, 90, 91, geometric style, 104, 107 ff., Argive style, 127, 139, 143, 145, 149, 153, 155, on miscellaneous types, 160, 161, heads of (calves ?), 98 ; in Corinthian style, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172 ; in black-fig¬ ured style, 177 ; on engraved stones, 343, 346, 347, 350, winged, 349, monkey-like, 349.
Apollo, Tenean, compared with figure on terra-cotta plaque, 48, 49 ; treatment of hair similar to that of, in figure on vase, 154, in gorgon on ivory, 351.
Argive (“ Proto-Corinthian ”) style in vases, Argive origin, 62 f., 64 n. 9, 67, 119 ft. ; linear character¬ istics, 66, 120 ; derived from Mycenaean style, 121 ; contemporaneous with geometric, 121 ft. ; absorption of Oriental influence, 122 ft., 144 ft. ; relation to Corinth, 123, 153.
Athenaeus, quoted, 13 n. 11, 175 n. 1.
Athens, vases from, 142, 154 ; bronze relief in, com¬ pared with design on vase from Heraeum, 169 ; bronzes found at, relation to Heraeum bronzes, 193 ; embargo on pottery from, 175 ; inscription from, 332. See also Acropolis.
Berlin, tripod vase from Tanagra in, 52 ; Corinthian pinakes in, relation to pinakes from Heraeum, 54 ; Argive lekytlios in, 145, 163, 179 ; tripod bowl in, 170 ; vase in, 195 n. 3; armlet in, compared with bronze from Heraeum, 267 n. 1.
14 n. 5, 16 ff.
Birds, terra-cotta, 15 ; terra-cotta figurine holding, 36; on vases, 90, 108, 109, 111, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 127, 129, 130, 133, 135, 139, 144, 146, 149, 150, 152, 153, 162, 163, 167, 168, 169, 171, 172, 174, 183, 185 ; of bronze, aquatic, 204 f., land, 205-207, on safety-pin, 244, head and neck of, wing of, 274, head, beak of, 297 ; 331 ; on en¬ graved stones, 343, 347, flying, 348, 349 ; on ivory, 351, 352 ; shell of egg of, 353.
n. 4, 243 n. 1.
Boeotia, terra-cotta figurines from, 10 n. 1, 14 and n. 5 ; vases from, 109, 116, 143 ; bronze pin from, 235 7i. 4, 240 n. 6, 242 7i. 4 ; armlet from, 267 n. 1.
113, 181.
Bowls, 72, 73, 74, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 96, 98, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 158, 161, 170, 173 ; three-legged, 70, 74 ; bronze, 284—286.
Bridle, on vases, 148, 154, 184.
British Museum, vases in, compared with Heraeum specimens, 131, 132, 135, 138, 143 n. 1, 144, 146, 154, 155, 160 n. 1, 166 n. 2, 180 ; silver pin in, from Argolis, 191 n. 1, 217 n. 2, 339 ; bronzes in, compared with Heraeum bronzes, 204 notes 1, 2, 217 n. 1, 240 n. 1, 244 n. 3, 251 n. 3, 294, 300.
Bronzes from the Heraeum, 191-339 ; introduction, 191-193 ; process of cleaning, 192 and n. 2 ; classi¬ fication, 192 ; various periods in, 193 ; technique of, 193 ; relation to metal work of other centres, 193 ; catalogue, 194-331 ; fragments of statues, 194, statuettes and fragments of statuettes, 194-197, an¬ imals, 197-207, ornament and toilet, 207-275, ves¬ sels, 275-298, implements, utensils, structural pieces and materials, 298-331; appendix, inscriptions on the bronzes, 332-339.
at, 129.
Camirus, poros statuette from, compared with terra¬ cotta figurine, 35 ; gold horvnus from, compared with terra-cotta plaque, 51 ; vases from, 143, 155,
Chisel, bronze, 300.
Chiton, method of fastening as shown by terra-cotta figurines, 11 ; on terra-cotta plaque, 50 ; on vases, 117, 169 ; on bronze, talaric, 265 ; on coin, 357.
Christ, bust of, on coins, 363.
Circles (with or without central dot), on vases, 69, 84, 86, 87, 88, 105, 107, 109, 111, 115, 145, 146, 149, 157, 158, 163, 170, 183 ; on lamp, 184 ; on bronzes, 206, 209, 210, 213, 220, 223, 227, 228, 229, 231, 235, 248, 249, 250, 265, 266, 268, 269, 270, 274, 275, 278, 283, 284, 285, 297, 311, 314, on en¬ graved stone, 349 ; on ivory, 352, 353.
Codrus, legend of, 104.
Coins from the Heraeum, 357-363 ; general discus¬ sion, 357 ; catalogue, 357-363 ; of Greece, 357360 ;• of Rome (Empire), 361 f., (Eastern Empire), 362 f. ; Venice, 363 ; uncertain, 363.
Corfu, Cephalonia, Zante, coin of, 363.
Corinth, vases from, 107, 144 ; its connection with Argos in history of vase painting, 122, 123, 145, 166; archaic bronze relief from, 197 n. 2; coins of, 357 f.
Cross, on vases, 82, 105, 111, 149, 151, 154; on lamps, 184; on bronzes, 209, 210, 213, 264, 295, 297,310, 312, 315; on engraved stone, 350; on coins, 212, 363.
Cups, 72, 92, 95, 107, 180, 184.
Curtins, K., concerning “heraldic” animals, 28, 110 u. 1 ; concerning running figures, 28 ; other refer¬ ences to, 50 n. 2, 52 n. 1, 175 n. 3.
Cymbals, bronze, 299.
Cyprus, influence of, in terra-cotta figurines, 15 ; terra-cotta figurines from, 27 ; vases from, 10 n. 1, 66, 135, 148 ; head from, compared with bronze statuette, 197 n. 1 ; rings from, 251 n. 3.
Cyrenean vases, 62, 65, 148, 173.
Daimons, on reliefs from Olympia, compared with winged figures on terra-cotta plaques from He¬ raeum, 52 ; on silver ring from Heraeum, 338.
Dancing, represented on vase, 114.
DeCou, H. F., Bronzes of the Argive Heraeum, 191331 ; Inscriptions on the Bronzes, 332-339 ; Coins from the Argive Heraeum, 357-363 ; theory as to headdress of terra-cotta figurines, 13 n. 4.
Disks, as earrings of terra-cotta figurines, 12 ; flower¬ like, 15, 43 ; of bronze, 267-269 ; use of, 267 n. 2, 269 n. 1 ; gold disks from Mycenae, 269 n. 2 ; inserted disks, 330 ; terra-cotta disk, 354.
Dodona, bronze plaque from, compared with terra¬ cotta plaque from Heraeum, 50 f. ; bronze reliefs from, compared with terra-cotta reliefs from He¬ raeum. 51 ; bronzes from, compared with bronzes from Heraeum, 193, 295, 297, 308, 316 n. 1.
Eleusis, skyphoi from, 112 n. 2, 113 notes 1, 2 ; vases from, 119, 124 n. 1, 128, 132, 144, 158; pin in museum at, 235 n. 3 ; gold ring in museum at, 261 n. 2 ; bronze plated with gold in museum at, 273 n. 1 ; Egyptian objects from, 367, 369, 372. represented on terra-cotta figurines, 10, 11, 21.
Fasteners, bronze, 327 f.
Female figures, large proportion of, among terra-cotta figurines, 4 n. 4, 13 and n. 5 ; on terra-cotta plaque, 48 ; on vases, 108, 114, 162, 163, 169, 170, 172, 174, 179, 183; of bronze, 196 f. ; on terra-cotta disk, 354 ; on coins, 359, 360, 361, 362.
Fibulae, forms of, on terra-cotta figurines, 10 f. ; bronze, 191, 193, 203 n. 1, 240 n. 1 ; of saiujuis%uja type, 244 n. 4; of ivory, 353 (with bronze pin). See also Safety-pins.
ivory, 352.
Flower, terra-cotta figure holding, 15 n. 4, 34 ; on terra-cotta plaque, 50 ; in mouth of lion on gold breastplate from Cervetri, 251 n. 1 ; on handle of vessel, 288 ; nail-head representing, 327 ; on coin, 359, 360 ; on porcelain whorl, 373.
Furtwangler and Loeschcke, classification of My¬ cenaean vases, 62, 72, 74-77, 82 f. ; theory for origin of geometric style, 66, 102 ; other references to, 85, 86, 93, 119.
Furtwangler, A., interpretation of winged figures on Olympia reliefs, 52 ; concerning the Aristonothos vase, 164 ; on bronze relief in Athens, 169 ; view as to Doryphoros of Polycleitus supported by relief on lamp from Heraeum, 184 ; theory as to
bronze safety-pin, 249 ft. 1 ; dating of vase similar to Heraeum specimen, 287 n. 1, other references to, 10 n. 8, 15 ft. 5, 17, 42, 51 n. 6, 52 n. 7, 53 ft. 1, 54 ft. 5, 64 ft. 2, 99 n. 2, 119, 143, 160 n. 2, 164 ft. 3, 170, 183 ft. 1, 186, 194 n. 5, 200 n. 2, 215 notes 1, 2, 232 ft. 2, 243 n. 1, 246 n. 3, 247 ft. 2, 261 ft. 1, 287 ft 1, 293, 294, 325, 338. See also Olympia.
Geometric, terra-cotta figurines, 5, 6, 9, 14, 23 ; geometric style in vases, 60, 62, 64, 101 ff., result of Dorian Invasion, 66, 102, method of classifica¬ tion, 101, 102, 104, difference from Mycenaean vases, 102, 104, theories as to origin of, 102, de¬ velopment of, 103, 104, connection with Dipylon style, 104, 115, date of, 104, relation to Argive style, 121, 157 ; “ geometric ” period in bronzes, 193, geometric style in bronzes, 197, 200, 204, geometric ornamentation on safety-pins, 242, 243 ; engraved stones, 343, 346, 349 f.
Greece, coins of, 357 ff.
Griffin, terra-cotta, head of, 41 ; on vases, 152, 171 ; on bronzes, 193, 274, 294; on engraved stones, 350; on ivory, 351, 352; on scarab, 371.
Hair, development of, on terra-cotta figurines, 12 ; treatment of, on terra-cotta plaque, 49, on vase, 154 ; bronze, lock of, 194, treatment of, 195 and notes 3, 4, 197, 287.
Handles, bronze, rings used as, 254 n. 1, of mirrors, 264-266, plates with, 275-277, bowls with, 285, of vessels, 288-294, of tripods, 295, miscellaneous, 297 f.
Hemispherical engraved stones, 345, 346, 347.
Hera, seated figures of, 5, 15, represented in terra¬ cotta figurines (?), 13, 22 ; cult of, 68 ; name in inscriptions, on vases, 185 f., on bronze, 332, 336, 337, 338 ; on terra-cotta disk (?), 354 ; head of, on coin, 359.
Heuzey, L., concerning development of “ Bes ” type. 28 ; concerning Rhodian ware, 37 ; other references to, 10 ft. 1, 14 ft. 5, 18, 19, 22, 27, 28, 34, 35, 36, 37, 41, 197 ft. 3.
those from Heraeum, 68, 70, 97. See also Troy.
Hogarth, D. G., statement as to winged human figures of “ Mycenaean ” style discovered by him in Crete, 50 7i. 5 ; excavations in Melos, 66 ; other refer¬ ences to, 202 n. 1, 217 n. 1, 232 n. 1, 299 n. 1.
184. See also Waldstein.
Horse, terra-cotta, 6, 15, 23, 29, 40, 41 ; head of, terra-cotta, 41 ; on terra-cotta plaques, 48, 53, 54 ; on vases, in Mycenaean style, 90, in geometric style, 108, 109 ff., 114, 115, 116, 117, with human figures, 111, 112, 117, 118 ; in Argive style, 130, 148, 150, 152, 154, 162, 163, 164, 165 ; in Corin¬ thian style, 172, 173, 174; in black-figured style, 176, 177, 178 ; in red-figured style, 179 ; on “ red ” ware, 182 ; on Megarean ware, 183 ; on lamp, 184 ; of bronze, 197 -200 ; on bronze, 243, 265, 273 re. 1 ; on engraved stones, 343, 347, with hu¬ man figures, 347, winged, 348 ; on coins, 357, 361.
Horseman, terra-cotta, 8, 29 ; on vases, 177, 178, 182, 183 ; bronze statuette of, 194 f., 196 n. 4, po¬ sition as shown on vases, 194 7 1. 3, and in bronze rider in National Museum, Athens, 194 n. 4, com¬ pared with other examples in marble, 194 n. 5 ; on coins, 357, 358, 361, 362.
Household use, articles for, in ivory, 353.
Human figure, on vases, in Mycenaean style, 90 f., in geometric style, 104, 107 ff., Ill ff., in Orien¬ tal Argive, 150, 151, 152, in miscellaneous types, 162, 163, on Corinthian vases, 169, in black-fig¬ ured style, 177, 178, on “red” ware, 182, 183; on lamp, 184 ; on bronze, bearded, draped, 265 ; on engraved stones, 343, 346, 347, 348, 349 ; in ivory ; 353 ; on coins, 359, 361, 362, 363 ; in porcelain, 373. See also Horse.
Human head, on vases, 106, 131, 146, 148 (plastic), 170 (plastic), 177 ; on coins, 357, 358, 359, 360, 361, 362, 363 ; of porcelain, 372.
Ind, fibula from, 247 n. 1.
Inscribed bronzes, ring, 250, mirror-handle, 265, binding-strip, 270, inscribed plates, 273 f., vessels of bronze, 277, 278, 284, 297, antyx, 298, bar, 331.
Inscriptions, on vases, painted, 185, incised, 185187 ; on bronze, 332—339 ; on silver ring from Heraeum, 338 ; on silver pin in British Museum said to be from near Heraeum, 339. See also In¬ scribed bronzes and Egyptian objects.
Jones, H. Stuart, reference to, 48 7i. 1.
Jugs (Kannen), 73, 84, 92, 93, 96, 99, 105, 107, 114, 118, 131, 132, 143, 145, 153, 154 ; tea-pot shaped, 94, 117, 143 ; with three handles, 71, 96, 100, 101.
Lion, terra-cotta, attacking bull, 15, 39 f., heraldic, on plaque, 7, 28, on plaques, 48, 54 ; on vases, 146, 151, 153, 159, 160, 161, 167, 169, 171, 177, 182 ; bronze, in relief, 198, 199, 293, in the round, 202, 203, 235 (head of), on bow of safety-pin, 249, in¬ taglio on seal ring, 250, on gold breastplate from Cervetri, 251 n. 1, lion’s feet tripod standards, 295 f., paw of, 331 ; on engraved stone, 350 ; on ivory, 351 ; skin of, on coin, 359 ; head of, on coin, 363.
196 f., 285.
Louvre, relief vase in, 49 n. 1 ; other vases in, com¬ pared with Heraeum vases, 84, 100,127,131, 163, 180 ; torso from Aetium in, 194 ; hydria of Timagoras in, 195 n. 3.
Lozenge, on vases, 70, 84, 86, 87, 88, 90, 105, 106, 107, 109, 110, 111.1 14. 116, 117, 118, 121, 127, 128, 129, 130, 134, 135, 137, 143, 147, 148, 152,
Maeander, on vases, 106, 109, 110, 111, 112, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 121, 129, 130, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 157, 158, 162 ; on bronze, 229.
Medical instruments, bronze, 303, 323.
Megara Hyblaea, terra-cottas from, 14 n. 6, 28. 34, 37, 42, 43; vases from, 99 n. 1, 100, 119, 131, 144, 154, 155 ; pin from, 218 n. 2, 223 n. 2 ; rings from, 251 n. 3, 264 notes 1 and 3, 327.
Mikos, name on inscribed vase, 186.
Milchhofer, A., theory as to bronze pins and spits, 235 n. 3 ; other references to, 50 n. 4, 52 n. 5, 181, 235 notes 3 and 5, 313 n. 1, 329.
Montelius, O., references to, 10 notes 8 and 12, 11 and n. 2, 207 n. 3, 208 n, 3, 215 n. 2, 228 n. 1, 235 n. 2, 240 notes 1, 3, 6, 241 notes 3-6, 242 notes 1, 2, 244 n. 4, 298, 327.
n. 6, 372.
Mycenae, terra-cotta figurines from, 10 n. 2, 22 ; whorls from, 44 ; bull’s head from, 23 ; vases from, 71, 78, 97, 102, 108, 113 (silver), 161, 181 ; pins from, compared with bronze pins from Heraeum, 208 n. 2, 209 n. 1 ; bronze tacks from, 214 n. 1 ; pins from, 217 n. 1 ; fibulae from, 240 n. 2, 241 n. 7, 244 n. 4 ; gold ring from, 250 n. 3, 251 n. 3, gold disks from, 269 n. 2 ; bronze saucer from, 278 ; gold cu}> from, 283 n. 1 ; amphora from, 287
nails from, 325.
Mycenaean style in vases, 60, 61, 62, 65, 66, 70, linear development of, 66, 88, origin of, 71, with “dull” decoration, 71-74, 156, with “lustrous” decoration, 74-91, 156, from bee-hive tombs, OI¬ OS, classification of, 74-77, date of, 77, 78, survival of Mycenaean style, 105, 126 ; in bronzes, 193.
Nauplia, vases found at, 78, 84.
Necklace, forms of, on terra-cotta figurines, 11 ; in zigzag pattern, bronze, 196 ; compared with terra¬ cottas from Heraeum, 196 n. 5 ; on terra-cotta figurines from Terravecchia, 267 n. 2.
Norton, R., Engraved Stones, Gems, and Ivories, 343-354 ; theory as to flower ornament on bronze pin-lieads, 234 n. 2 ; suggestion as to cut figure of bronze, 274 n. 2.
Olive branch on coins, 361.
Olympia, figures of animals found at, 6 ; bronze re¬ liefs from, compared with terra-cotta reliefs from Heraeum, 51, 52 ; tripods from, 164 ; bronzes from, compared with Heraeum bronzes, 193, 194 n. 2, 195, 198 notes 1, 2, 3, 199 notes 1, 2, 200 notes 1, 2, 201 n. 2, 202 n. 4, 204 notes 2, 3, 205 notes 1, 2, 215 notes 1, 2, 219 n. 1, 223 n. 1, 225
n. 1, 226 n. 1, 230, 232 n. 2, 235 n. 2, 240 notes 5, 6, 242 notes 1-4, 243 notes 1, 3, 244 n. 1, 246 notes 1, 3, 247 notes 1, 2, 249 n. 1, 250 n. 1, 259 n. 1, 261 notes 1, 4, 262 notes 1, 2, 264 notes 1-6, 265 n. 3, 267 n. 2, 269 n. 3, 270 n. 1, 275, 283, 287 n. 1, 288, 289, 291, 292, 293, 294, 295, 296, 297, 298, 299, 325, 326, 327, 329; ivory from, 351.
statue from, 195 n. 4.
Oriental influence in terra-cotta figurines, 7, 8 n. 3, 9, 13 and n. 4, 28 f .; in terra-cotta plaques, 49, 52, 54 ; in vases, 66, 121, 122, 144, 145, 163, 182 ; in bronzes, 193 ; in lotus headdress of bronze statu¬ ette, 196 f., in cattle, 202, explanation of term Oriental as used in connection with the bronzes, 202, in lion, 203, in ivories, 251.
liormus from Camirus, 51.
Ornament and toilet, bronze articles, 207-275 ; cut ornaments of bronze, 274; ornamented bronze bands, 270 ; ornaments of bronze vessels, 294.
Orsi, P., Sicilian terra-cottas published by, 3 n. 3, 10 n. 1, 14 n. 6 ; on “ Bes ” type, 28 ; on “ Spes ” type, 34 ; other references to, 35, 37, 43, 133, 218 n. 2, 223 n. 2, 232 n. 1, 251 n. 3, 254 n. 1, 264 notes 1, 3, 267 n. 2, 295, 327.
Pindar, quoted, 51 n. 4.
Pins, bronze, 203, straight, 191, 207-239, 309, 311, 321, safety-pins, 240-249, pseudo-safety-pins, 249 f.: pin of iron separable from bronze head, 209, 210, 213, 216, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232 (stem and corrugation of pin of iron), 246, 247, 248, pin of copper, separable from bronze head, 216, 225, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240 ; of ivory, 353.
Plates, pottery, 80, 107, 115, 116, 126, 141, 142, 145, 154, 159, 166, 172, 176; from Aegina, 116, 120 n. 1 ; bronze, 272-274, 275-277.
Rings, of terra-cotta, 16, 44 ; of bronze, 92, 191, 250-264, finger-rings, 250 f., bracelets, 251, decora¬ tive, 251-263, structural, 263 f., wire twisted into form of, 264 n. 1 ; silver ring from Heraeum, 338.
Rooster, on vase, 168.
Rosettes, on earrings of terra-cotta figurines, 12, 21, 27, on brooch of same, 21, 25, on dress of, 26, on headdress of, 13, 27 ; on terra-cotta spools, 44 ; on terra-cotta plaques, 48, 54 ; on vases, 7 0, 80, 84, 86, 87, 94, 100, 101, 105, 106, 107, 108, 110, 111, 127, 130, 131, 139, 141, 142, 145, 146, 147, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 164, 168, 169, 171, 183, 184 ; on bronzes, 196, 197, 201 n. 3, 202, 203, 217 n. 2, 218, 219, 232 and n. 1, 251, 265, 268, 269, 270, 276 n. 1, 277, 281, 283, 325, 330 ; on engraved stone, 350 ; on ivory, 352 ; on coin, 363 ; on porcelain whorl, 373.
Scarabs, 352, 368, 370 f.
Schliemann, H., concerning “ unpainted ” terra-cottas from Tiryns, 6 n. 4 ; concerning “ bands ” on terra-cotta figurines, 11 ; other references to, 9 n. 5, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 22, 24, 26, 30, 41, 42, 44, 78, 85, 86, 88, 89, 90, 91, 143 n. 5, 160 n. 1, 283 n. 1, 345.
Sheet gold, fragments of, 329.
Shield, on terra-cotta figurines, 40; on vases, 112 and n. 2, 148, 161, 162, 163, 164, 169, 170, 172, 177, 179, 183 ; shields from Hictaean Cave, 299 n. 1 ; shield rim, binding of, 328 ; shield shape, engraved stones, 346, 348 ; on coins, 358, 361, 362.
Sicily, terra-cottas from, compared with those from Heraeum, 3 n. 3, 10 n. 1, 14 notes 4 and 6, 52 ; vases from, 64 ; name in inscription on bronze, 338. See also Orsi.
Silenus, head of, in relief on vase, 187.
Silver, pin from Heraeum in British Museum, 191 n. 1, 217 n. 2, 339 ; pin from Remedello, 215 n. 2 ; ring from Heraeum, 338 ; coins of, 357, 358.
Skyphoi, 74, 91, 107, 108 n. 1, 112 n. 2 and 113 n. 1, 2 (from Eleusis), 117, 118, 123, 126, 132-136, 138, 144, 145, 148, 151-153, 158, 166, 167, 168, 173, 176, 177, 179.
Smith, Cecil, concerning stamps in British Museum similar to terra-cotta mould from Heraeum, 48 f. ; excavations in Melos, 66 ; other references to, 64 n. 2, 122, 156.
Snake, on vases, 69 n. 1, 80, 98, 105, 106, 126, 128, 130, 134, 135, 137, 142, 159, 160, 174 ; bronze, head of, 249, 274; on engraved stones, 343, 347, 348, 350, 352. See also Serpent.
Sphinx, terra-cotta, 8, 29 ; on vases, 148, 149, 150, 154, 165, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 177, 182 ; bronze, 197 ft. 2, 287 ; blue-glazed frit figure of, 371.
Standards, bronze, 331. See also Tripods.
Star pattern, on vases, 105, 107, 109, 110, 112, 137, 142, 154, 168 ; on bronze, 275, 281 ; on engraved stone, 345 ; on ivory, 351, 352 ; on coin, 361.
technique.
Tegea, terra-cotta figurines from, 5, 9 and ft. 6, 14 ft. 4, 19, 21 ; type of bronze pins at, 235 notes 3 and 5 ; pendant from, 264 ft. 6 ; spit from, 313 ft. 1 ; bed in archaic relief from, 329.
Temple, on coins, 358.
Terra-cotta figurines, 3-44 ; number of, 3, 9 ; finding places of, 3 ; classification of, 4 ff. ; interpreta¬ tion of, 13 ff. ; catalogue of, 16 ff. ; Primitive, 4, 9, 16 f. ; Tirynthian Argive, 5, 7, 9, 17 ff. ; My¬ cenaean, 5, 9, 14, 22 f. ; geometric, 5, 6, 9, 14, 23 ; Advanced Argive, 5, 7, 8, 9, 24 ff. ; under Ori¬ ental influence, 7, 9, 28 f. ; Early Archaic, 8, 9, 29 ff. ; Advanced Archaic, 9, 38 f. ; Free style, 9, 39 ; animals, 9, 15, 39 ff. ; various objects, 9, 42 ff. ; from bee-hive tomb near Heraeum, 92.
Terra-cotta reliefs, 47-54; finding places of, 47; classification of, 47 ; purpose of, 48 ; detailed de¬ scription of, 49-54 ; reference to, 169.
Timonidas jug, 172 ft. 1.
Tiryns, terra-cotta figurines from, 5, 6 ft. 4, 9, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 22, 24, 41, 42, 44 ; vases from, 68, 71, 78, 90, 97, 102, 119, 143, 181 ; pins from, 208 ft. 2, 215 ft. 2, 217 ft. 1 ; bronze patera from, 275 ; knife from, 300 ; 328.
170, 177.
Tripod-standards, bronze, 292 ; tripods and tripodstandards, bronze, 294-296 ; fragment of large, 294, low standards, 295, feet, block, spool, lion’s, 295 f.
Truth, goddess of, on scarab, 370.
Tsountas, Ch., concerning terra-cotta figures from bee¬ hive tomb near Mycenae, 10 n. 2, references to, 13 n. 11, 28, 29, 40, 50 n. 4, 54 n. 2, 240 n. 2, 241 n. 7, 251 n. 2, 299.
Utensils. See Implements.
Vases and vase fragments from the Heraeum, 57184 ; introduction, 60 ff. ; method of sorting and cleaning, 60, estimated number of fragments, 60, finding places of, 61, indigenous and foreign types, 62, classification of, 63 ff. ; primitive, 68 ff. ; My¬ cenaean style, 71 ff. ; geometric style, 101 ff. ; Argive style, 119 ff. ; miscellaneous types, 159 ff. ; Corinthian style, 165 ff. ; black- and red-figured styles, 174 ff. ; vases in relief and later vases, 180 ff. ; of bronze, 275-294.
Waldstein, C., references to, 39, 64 n. 1, 120, 195. Warrior, terra-cotta, mounted, type of, 13, 40 ; on vases, 112, 113 and n. 1, 148, 150, 161-164, 169,
raeum vase, 148, 160 n. 1, 163.
Washington, H. S., results of analysis of clay of various vase fragments, 64 n. 9, 102 n. 2, 116. Wave pattern, on vases, 69, 94, 105, 106, 107, 112,
porcelain, 368, 373.
Wide, S., on origin of geometric style, 102 ; classifica¬ tion of geometric types of vases, 102 n. 1, 103 ff., 118 ff . ; other references to, 66, 69 n. 2, 135. Wilhelm, A. See Reichel.
Wire, bronze, 264, 327.
Wolters, P., classification of Mycenaean vases, 7476 ; theory as to origin of geometric style in vases, 102 ; other references to, 41, 51 n. 8, 243 n. 1. Wreath, terra-cotta figurine holding, 15 n. 4, 35 ; on vases, 79, 145 ; on coins, 357, 358, 359, 362.
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Ogup2AspAYDLcH1g | Readings in American Political Theory | 4
Alexander Hamilton (1755-1804)
Alexander Hamilton was born on the Caribbean island of Nevis and raised on St. Croix. After his father left and his mother died, he was taken in by a wealthy merchant who trained him in business. At age 15, he travelled to the British North America colonies and eventually enrolled at Columbia. His studies ended when it was closed due to the revolution, and he never finished. He read law on his own and was admitted to the bar in 1782.
Hamilton joined a revolutionary militia while in college and distinguished himself at the battle of Princeton. General Washington promoted him to chief of staff, and he handled much of Washington’s correspondence. Given command of a regiment in 1781, he helped win the battle of Yorktown. After the war, he returned to New York, where he served briefly in Congress before practicing law and founding the Bank of New York. Critical of the Articles of Confederation, he became a leading advocate for change. Hamilton remained close to Washington and served as Secretary of the Treasury between 1789 and 1795. He continued his involvement in politics until 1804, when he died in a duel with Aaron Burr.
John Jay (1745-1824)
John Jay was born to a wealthy family in Rye, New York. He graduated Columbia and became a lawyer in 1768. His opposition to British colonial policies led to his election to the first continental congress six years later, and he presided over the second congress. After the revolution, he became US ambassador to Spain and helped negotiate the treaty with Britain that ended the revolutionary war. He served as Secretary of Foreign Affairs under the Articles of Confederation but did not attend the 1787 Convention.
After the Constitution was ratified, President Washington chose him as the first Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. The Court heard few cases in his five years on the Court, and he resigned in 1795 to become Governor of New York. He was confirmed for a second term as Chief Justice in December 1800, but declined to serve due to ill health. The vacant seat was filled a month later by John Marshall.
James Madison (1751-1836)
James Madison grew up on a tobacco plantation in Virginia and was educated by private tutors. He finished college at Princeton in two years and returned home to study law in 1772. He served as a colonel during the Revolutionary War and participated in Virginia’s constitutional convention, after which he was elected to the state’s new legislature. He served in Congress from 1780-83, then returned to the Virginia legislature.
Madison had a leading role at the Constitutional Convention and also served as its secretary. He was elected to the first House of Representatives and wrote the first draft of the Bill of Rights. While he initially advised President Washington, he eventually joined the new Democratic-Republican party and left Congress in 1797. Madison served for eight years as Jefferson’s Secretary of State and then eight years as the nation’s fourth president.
The Federalist Papers (1787-88)
The Federalist Papers are a collection of essays that were published in New York newspapers while the people were considering whether to ratify the new constitution. Most were published before the delegates to the state constitutional convention were elected. Hamilton wrote 51 of the 85 essays; Madison wrote 26; they jointly wrote three more. John Jay wrote the remaining five.
Jay, Federalist 5
In this early paper, John Jay refuted the proposal that the states would be better off separating into three confederacies that would have more homogenous policies and economies. He drew on the example of the British Union of England, Scotland and Wales as making the whole both economically stronger and deterring foreign aggression. He suggested that rather than negotiate their differences, these American confederacies might turn to European states that could bring war and eventual occupation to the recently-freed states.
Concerning Dangers from Foreign Force and Influence
Queen Anne, in her letter of the 1st July, 1706, to the Scotch Parliament, makes some observations on the importance of the union then forming between England and Scotland, which merit our attention…. “An entire and perfect union will be the solid foundation of lasting peace: It will secure your religion, liberty, and property; remove the animosities amongst yourselves, and the jealousies and differences betwixt our two kingdoms. It must increase your strength, riches, and trade; and by this union the whole island, being joined in affection and free from all apprehensions of different interest, will be enabled to resist all its enemies.” “We most earnestly recommend to you calmness and unanimity in this great and weighty affair, that the union may be brought to a happy conclusion, being the only effectual way to secure our present and future happiness, and disappoint the designs of our and your enemies, who will doubtless, on this occasion, use their utmost endeavors to prevent or delay this union.”
It was remarked in the preceding paper, that weakness and divisions at home would invite dangers from abroad; and that nothing would tend more to secure us from them than union, strength, and good government within ourselves. This subject is copious and cannot easily be exhausted.
The history of Great Britain is the one with which we are in general the best acquainted, and it gives us many useful lessons. We may profit by their experience without paying the price which it cost them. Although it seems obvious to common sense that the people of such an island should be but one nation, yet we find that they were for ages divided into three, and that those three were almost constantly embroiled in quarrels and wars with one another. Notwithstanding their true interest with respect to the continental nations was really the same, yet by the arts and policy and practices of those nations, their mutual jealousies were perpetually kept inflamed, and for a long series of years they were far more inconvenient and troublesome than they were useful and assisting to each other.
Should the people of America divide themselves into three or four nations, would not the same thing happen? Would not similar jealousies arise, and be in like manner cherished? Instead of their being “joined in affection” and free from all apprehension of different “interests,” envy and jealousy would soon extinguish confidence and affection, and the partial interests of each confederacy, instead of the general interests of all America, would be the only objects of their policy and pursuits. Hence, like most other bordering nations, they would always be either involved in disputes and war, or live in the constant apprehension of them.
The most sanguine advocates for three or four confederacies cannot reasonably suppose that they would long remain exactly on an equal footing in point of strength, even if it was possible to form them so at first; but, admitting that to be practicable, yet what human contrivance can secure the continuance of such equality? Independent of those local circumstances which tend to beget and increase power in one part and to impede its progress in another, we must advert to the effects of that superior policy and good management which would probably distinguish the government of one above the rest, and by which their relative equality in strength and consideration would be destroyed. For it cannot be presumed that the same degree of sound policy, prudence, and foresight would uniformly be observed by each of these confederacies for a long succession of years.
Whenever, and from whatever causes, it might happen, and happen it would, that any one of these nations or confederacies should rise on the scale of political importance much above the degree of her neighbors, that moment would those neighbors behold her with envy and with fear. Both those passions would lead them to countenance, if not to promote, whatever might promise to diminish her importance; and would also restrain them from measures calculated to advance or even to secure her prosperity. Much time would not be necessary to enable her to discern these unfriendly dispositions. She would soon begin, not only to lose confidence in her neighbors, but also to feel a disposition equally unfavorable to them. Distrust naturally creates distrust, and by nothing is good-will and kind conduct more speedily changed than by invidious jealousies and uncandid imputations, whether expressed or implied.
The North is generally the region of strength, and many local circumstances render it probable that the most Northern of the proposed confederacies would, at a period not very distant, be unquestionably more formidable than any of the others. No sooner would this become evident than the Northern Hive would excite the same ideas and sensations in the more southern parts of America which it formerly did in the southern parts of Europe. Nor does it appear to be a rash conjecture that its young swarms might often be tempted to gather honey in the more blooming fields and milder air of their luxurious and more delicate neighbors.
They who well consider the history of similar divisions and confederacies will find abundant reason to apprehend that those in contemplation would in no other sense be neighbors than as they would be borderers; that they would neither love nor trust one another, but on the contrary would be a prey to discord, jealousy, and mutual injuries; in short, that they would place us exactly in the situations in which some nations doubtless wish to see us, viz., formidable only to each other.
From these considerations it appears that those gentlemen are greatly mistaken who suppose that alliances offensive and defensive might be formed between these confederacies, and would produce that combination and union of wills of arms and of resources, which would be necessary to put and keep them in a formidable state of defense against foreign enemies.
When did the independent states, into which Britain and Spain were formerly divided, combine in such alliance, or unite their forces against a foreign enemy? The proposed confederacies will be distinct nations. Each of them would have its commerce with foreigners to regulate by distinct treaties; and as their productions and commodities are different and proper for different markets, so would those treaties be essentially different. Different commercial concerns must create different interests, and of course different degrees of political attachment to and connection with different foreign nations. Hence it might and probably would happen that the foreign nation with whom the Southern confederacy might be at war would be the one with whom the Northern confederacy would be the most desirous of preserving peace and friendship. An alliance so contrary to their immediate interest would not therefore be easy to form, nor, if formed, would it be observed and fulfilled with perfect good faith.
Nay, it is far more probable that in America, as in Europe, neighboring nations, acting under the impulse of opposite interests and unfriendly passions, would frequently be found taking different sides. Considering our distance from Europe, it would be more natural for these confederacies to apprehend danger from one another than from distant nations, and therefore that each of them should be more desirous to guard against the others by the aid of foreign alliances, than to guard against foreign dangers by alliances between themselves. And here let us not forget how much more easy it is to receive foreign fleets into our ports, and foreign armies into our country, than it is to persuade or compel them to depart. How many conquests did the Romans and others make in the characters of allies, and what innovations did they under the same character introduce into the governments of those whom they pretended to protect….
Madison, Federalist 10
Federalist 10 is one of the two most famous Federalist Papers. Madison addressed a central problem in democratic theory: what if a faction of citizens gets control of government and uses its powers to advance their interests at the expense of the general public? As Madison pointed out, there is no difficulty in protecting the public interest if this faction is in a minority, but what can stop it if it has majority support? Then the interests and rights of the minority would be imperiled.
Madison’s explanation of the constitutional design makes it clear that the framers did not support direct democracy as the national form of government. He identified two components of the new Constitution that will prevent majority factions from dominating national politics. The first is the representative principle, which will ensure that factional interests are filtered by public-spirited members of Congress The second is the large size of the country, which will prevent one faction from dominating others due to the diversity of the new nation. While a faction may succeed in passing some legislation, it would never dominate the US government due to the many other interests that will predominate in other states. Therefore, size provides a check against any faction forming a permanent majority in Congress.
The Union as a Safeguard Against Domestic Faction and Insurrection
Among the numerous advantages promised by a well-constructed Union, none deserves to be more accurately developed than its tendency to break and control the violence of faction. The friend of popular governments never finds himself so much alarmed for their character and fate, as when he contemplates their propensity to this dangerous vice. He will not fail, therefore, to set a due value on any plan which, without violating the principles to which he is attached, provides a proper cure for it. The instability, injustice, and confusion introduced into the public councils, have, in truth, been the mortal diseases under which popular governments have everywhere perished; as they continue to be the favorite and fruitful topics from which the adversaries to liberty derive their most specious declamations. The valuable improvements made by the American constitutions on the popular models, both ancient and modern, cannot certainly be too much admired; but it would be an unwarrantable partiality to contend that they have as effectually obviated the danger on this side, as was wished and expected. Complaints are everywhere heard from our most considerate and virtuous citizens, equally the friends of public and private faith, and of public and personal liberty, that our governments are too unstable, that the public good is disregarded in the conflicts of rival parties, and that measures are too often decided, not according to the rules of justice and the rights of the minor party, but by the superior force of an interested and overbearing majority. However anxiously we may wish that these complaints had no foundation, the evidence, of known facts will not permit us to deny that they are in some degree true. It will be found, indeed, on a candid review of our situation, that some of the distresses under which we labor have been erroneously charged on the operation of our governments; but it will be found, at the same time, that other causes will not alone account for many of our heaviest misfortunes; and, particularly, for that prevailing and increasing distrust of public engagements, and alarm for private rights, which are echoed from one end of the continent to the other. These must be chiefly, if not wholly, effects of the unsteadiness and injustice with which a factious spirit has tainted our public administrations.
By a faction, I understand a number of citizens, whether amounting to a majority or a minority of the whole, who are united and actuated by some common impulse of passion, or of interest, adverse to the rights of other citizens, or to the permanent and aggregate interests of the community.
There are two methods of curing the mischiefs of faction: the one, by removing its causes; the other, by controlling its effects.
There are again two methods of removing the causes of faction: the one, by destroying the liberty which is essential to its existence; the other, by giving to every citizen the same opinions, the same passions, and the same interests.
It could never be more truly said than of the first remedy that it was worse than the disease. Liberty is to faction what air is to fire, an aliment without which it instantly expires. But it could not be less folly to abolish liberty, which is essential to political life, because it nourishes faction, than it would be to wish the annihilation of air, which is essential to animal life, because it imparts to fire its destructive agency.
The second expedient is as impracticable as the first would be unwise. As long as the reason of man continues fallible, and he is at liberty to exercise it, different opinions will be formed. As long as the connection subsists between his reason and his self-love, his opinions and his passions will have a reciprocal influence on each other; and the former will be objects to which the latter will attach themselves. The diversity in the faculties of men, from which the rights of property originate, is not less an insuperable obstacle to a uniformity of interests. The protection of these faculties is the first object of government. From the protection of different and unequal faculties of acquiring property, the possession of different degrees and kinds of property immediately results; and from the influence of these on the sentiments and views of the respective proprietors, ensues a division of the society into different interests and parties.
The latent causes of faction are thus sown in the nature of man; and we see them everywhere brought into different degrees of activity, according to the different circumstances of civil society. A zeal for different opinions concerning religion, concerning government, and many other points, as well of speculation as of practice; an attachment to different leaders ambitiously contending for pre-eminence and power; or to persons of other descriptions whose fortunes have been interesting to the human passions, have, in turn, divided mankind into parties, inflamed them with mutual animosity, and rendered them much more disposed to vex and oppress each other than to co-operate for their common good. So strong is this propensity of mankind to fall into mutual animosities, that where no substantial occasion presents itself, the most frivolous and fanciful distinctions have been sufficient to kindle their unfriendly passions and excite their most violent conflicts. But the most common and durable source of factions has been the various and unequal distribution of property. Those who hold and those who are without property have ever formed distinct interests in society. Those who are creditors, and those who are debtors, fall under a like discrimination. A landed interest, a manufacturing interest, a mercantile interest, a moneyed interest, with many lesser interests, grow up of necessity in civilized nations, and divide them into different classes, actuated by different sentiments and views. The regulation of these various and interfering interests forms the principal task of modern legislation, and involves the spirit of party and faction in the necessary and ordinary operations of the government.
No man is allowed to be a judge in his own cause, because his interest would certainly bias his judgment, and, not improbably, corrupt his integrity. With equal, nay with greater reason, a body of men are unfit to be both judges and parties at the same time; yet what are many of the most important acts of legislation, but so many judicial determinations, not indeed concerning the rights of single persons, but concerning the rights of large bodies of citizens? And what are the different classes of legislators but advocates and parties to the causes which they determine? Is a law proposed concerning private debts? It is a question to which the creditors are parties on one side and the debtors on the other. Justice ought to hold the balance between them. Yet the parties are, and must be, themselves the judges; and the most numerous party, or, in other words, the most powerful faction must be expected to prevail. Shall domestic manufactures be encouraged, and in what degree, by restrictions on foreign manufactures? are questions which would be differently decided by the landed and the manufacturing classes, and probably by neither with a sole regard to justice and the public good. The apportionment of taxes on the various descriptions of property is an act which seems to require the most exact impartiality; yet there is, perhaps, no legislative act in which greater opportunity and temptation are given to a predominant party to trample on the rules of justice. Every shilling with which they overburden the inferior number, is a shilling saved to their own pockets.
It is in vain to say that enlightened statesmen will be able to adjust these clashing interests, and render them all subservient to the public good. Enlightened statesmen will not always be at the helm. Nor, in many cases, can such an adjustment be made at all without taking into view indirect and remote considerations, which will rarely prevail over the immediate interest which one party may find in disregarding the rights of another or the good of the whole.
The inference to which we are brought is, that the causes of faction cannot be removed, and that relief is only to be sought in the means of controlling its effects.
If a faction consists of less than a majority, relief is supplied by the republican principle, which enables the majority to defeat its sinister views by regular vote. It may clog the administration, it may convulse the society; but it will be unable to execute and mask its violence under the forms of the Constitution. When a majority is included in a faction, the form of popular government, on the other hand, enables it to sacrifice to its ruling passion or interest both the public good and the rights of other citizens. To secure the public good and private rights against the danger of such a faction, and at the same time to preserve the spirit and the form of popular government, is then the great object to which our inquiries are directed. Let me add that it is the great desideratum by which this form of government can be rescued from the opprobrium under which it has so long labored, and be recommended to the esteem and adoption of mankind.
By what means is this object attainable? Evidently by one of two only. Either the existence of the same passion or interest in a majority at the same time must be prevented, or the majority, having such coexistent passion or interest, must be rendered, by their number and local situation, unable to concert and carry into effect schemes of oppression. If the impulse and the opportunity be suffered to coincide, we well know that neither moral nor religious motives can be relied on as an adequate control. They are not found to be such on the injustice and violence of individuals, and lose their efficacy in proportion to the number combined together, that is, in proportion as their efficacy becomes needful.
From this view of the subject it may be concluded that a pure democracy, by which I mean a society consisting of a small number of citizens, who assemble and administer the government in person, can admit of no cure for the mischiefs of faction. A common passion or interest will, in almost every case, be felt by a majority of the whole; a communication and concert result from the form of government itself; and there is nothing to check the inducements to sacrifice the weaker party or an obnoxious individual. Theoretic politicians, who have patronized this species of government, have erroneously supposed that by reducing mankind to a perfect equality in their political rights, they would, at the same time, be perfectly equalized and assimilated in their possessions, their opinions, and their passions.
A republic, by which I mean a government in which the scheme of representation takes place, opens a different prospect, and promises the cure for which we are seeking. Let us examine the points in which it varies from pure democracy, and we shall comprehend both the nature of the cure and the efficacy which it must derive from the Union.
The two great points of difference between a democracy and a republic are: first, the delegation of the government, in the latter, to a small number of citizens elected by the rest; secondly, the greater number of citizens, and greater sphere of country, over which the latter may be extended.
The effect of the first difference is, on the one hand, to refine and enlarge the public views, by passing them through the medium of a chosen body of citizens, whose wisdom may best discern the true interest of their country, and whose patriotism and love of justice will be least likely to sacrifice it to temporary or partial considerations. Under such a regulation, it may well happen that the public voice, pronounced by the representatives of the people, will be more consonant to the public good than if pronounced by the people themselves, convened for the purpose. On the other hand, the effect may be inverted. Men of factious tempers, of local prejudices, or of sinister designs, may, by intrigue, by corruption, or by other means, first obtain the suffrages, and then betray the interests, of the people. The question resulting is, whether small or extensive republics are more favorable to the election of proper guardians of the public weal; and it is clearly decided in favor of the latter by two obvious considerations.
In the first place, it is to be remarked that, however small the republic may be, the representatives must be raised to a certain number, in order to guard against the cabals of a few; and that, however large it may be, they must be limited to a certain number, in order to guard against the confusion of a multitude. Hence, the number of representatives in the two cases not being in proportion to that of the two constituents, and being proportionally greater in the small republic, it follows that, if the proportion of fit characters be not less in the large than in the small republic, the former will present a greater option, and consequently a greater probability of a fit choice.
In the next place, as each representative will be chosen by a greater number of citizens in the large than in the small republic, it will be more difficult for unworthy candidates to practice with success the vicious arts by which elections are too often carried; and the suffrages of the people being more free, will be more likely to center in men who possess the most attractive merit and the most diffusive and established characters.
It must be confessed that in this, as in most other cases, there is a mean, on both sides of which inconveniences will be found to lie. By enlarging too much the number of electors, you render the representatives too little acquainted with all their local circumstances and lesser interests; as by reducing it too much, you render him unduly attached to these, and too little fit to comprehend and pursue great and national objects. The federal Constitution forms a happy combination in this respect; the great and aggregate interests being referred to the national, the local and particular to the State legislatures.
The other point of difference is the greater number of citizens and extent of territory which may be brought within the compass of republican than of democratic government; and it is this circumstance principally which renders factious combinations less to be dreaded in the former than in the latter. The smaller the society, the fewer probably will be the distinct parties and interests composing it; the fewer the distinct parties and interests, the more frequently will a majority be found of the same party; and the smaller the number of individuals composing a majority, and the smaller the compass within which they are placed, the more easily will they concert and execute their plans of oppression. Extend the sphere, and you take in a greater variety of parties and interests; you make it less probable that a majority of the whole will have a common motive to invade the rights of other citizens; or if such a common motive exists, it will be more difficult for all who feel it to discover their own strength, and to act in unison with each other. Besides other impediments, it may be remarked that, where there is a consciousness of unjust or dishonorable purposes, communication is always checked by distrust in proportion to the number whose concurrence is necessary.
Hence, it clearly appears, that the same advantage which a republic has over a democracy, in controlling the effects of faction, is enjoyed by a large over a small republic–is enjoyed by the Union over the States composing it. Does the advantage consist in the substitution of representatives whose enlightened views and virtuous sentiments render them superior to local prejudices and schemes of injustice? It will not be denied that the representation of the Union will be most likely to possess these requisite endowments. Does it consist in the greater security afforded by a greater variety of parties, against the event of any one party being able to outnumber and oppress the rest? In an equal degree does the increased variety of parties comprised within the Union, increase this security. Does it, in fine, consist in the greater obstacles opposed to the concert and accomplishment of the secret wishes of an unjust and interested majority? Here, again, the extent of the Union gives it the most palpable advantage.
The influence of factious leaders may kindle a flame within their particular States, but will be unable to spread a general conflagration through the other States. A religious sect may degenerate into a political faction in a part of the Confederacy; but the variety of sects dispersed over the entire face of it must secure the national councils against any danger from that source. A rage for paper money, for an abolition of debts, for an equal division of property, or for any other improper or wicked project, will be less apt to pervade the whole body of the Union than a particular member of it; in the same proportion as such a malady is more likely to taint a particular county or district than an entire State.
In the extent and proper structure of the Union, therefore, we behold a republican remedy for the diseases most incident to republican government. And according to the degree of pleasure and pride we feel in being republicans.
Hamilton, Federalist 15
Here Hamilton lamented the sad state of the US government under the Article of Confederation, claiming the country is in “the last stage of national humiliation.” The weak national government was unable to sustain an economy or even force foreign soldiers to leave its territory. Hamilton found the solution in giving the national government the power to pass laws that regulate citizens directly, something it lacked the power to do under the Articles. This power would allow the government to collect sufficient taxes to allow it to achieve its objectives, as opposed to relying on requisitions from the states that were sporadic and insufficient. Hamilton rejected the compact federalism of the Articles on the grounds that its centrifugal tendencies drew power from the national government to the states. Instead, he supported the new Constitution’s grant of substantial powers to the national government.
The Insufficiency of the Present Confederation to Preserve the Union
We may indeed with propriety be said to have reached almost the last stage of national humiliation. There is scarcely anything that can wound the pride or degrade the character of an independent nation which we do not experience. Are there engagements to the performance of which we are held by every tie respectable among men? These are the subjects of constant and unblushing violation. Do we owe debts to foreigners and to our own citizens contracted in a time of imminent peril for the preservation of our political existence? These remain without any proper or satisfactory provision for their discharge. Have we valuable territories and important posts in the possession of a foreign power which, by express stipulations, ought long since to have been surrendered? These are still retained, to the prejudice of our interests, not less than of our rights. Are we in a condition to resent or to repel the aggression? We have neither troops, nor treasury, nor government. Are we even in a condition to remonstrate with dignity? The just imputations on our own faith, in respect to the same treaty, ought first to be removed. Are we entitled by nature and compact to a free participation in the navigation of the Mississippi? Spain excludes us from it. Is public credit an indispensable resource in time of public danger? We seem to have abandoned its cause as desperate and irretrievable. Is commerce of importance to national wealth? Ours is at the lowest point of declension. Is respectability in the eyes of foreign powers a safeguard against foreign encroachments? The imbecility of our government even forbids them to treat with us….
The great and radical vice in the construction of the existing Confederation is in the principle of legislation for states or governments, in their corporate or collective capacities, and as contradistinguished from the individuals of which they consist. Though this principle does not run through all the powers delegated to the Union, yet it pervades and governs those on which the efficacy of the rest depends. Except as to the rule of appointment, the United States has an indefinite discretion to make requisitions for men and money; but they have no authority to raise either, by regulations extending to the individual citizens of America. The consequence of this is, that though in theory their resolutions concerning those objects are laws, constitutionally binding on the members of the Union, yet in practice they are mere recommendations which the States observe or disregard at their option….
There is nothing absurd or impracticable in the idea of a league or alliance between independent nations for certain defined purposes precisely stated in a treaty regulating all the details of time, place, circumstance, and quantity, leaving nothing to future discretion, and depending for its execution on the good faith of the parties. Compacts of this kind exist among all civilized nations, subject to the usual vicissitudes of peace and war, of observance and non-observance, as the interests or passions of the contracting powers dictate. In the early part of the present century there was an epidemical rage in Europe for this species of compacts, from which the politicians of the times fondly hoped for benefits which were never realized. With a view to establishing the equilibrium of power and the peace of that part of the world, all the resources of negotiation were exhausted, and triple and quadruple alliances were formed; but they were scarcely formed before they were broken, giving an instructive but afflicting lesson to mankind, how little dependence is to be placed on treaties which have no other sanction than the obligations of good faith, and which oppose general considerations of peace and justice to the impulse of any immediate interest or passion.
If the particular States in this country are disposed to stand in a similar relation to each other, and to drop the project of a general discretionary superintendence, the scheme would indeed be pernicious, and would entail upon us all the mischiefs which have been enumerated under the first head; but it would have the merit of being, at least, consistent and practicable. Abandoning all views towards a confederate government, this would bring us to a simple alliance offensive and defensive; and would place us in a situation to be alternate friends and enemies of each other, as our mutual jealousies and rivalships, nourished by the intrigues of foreign nations, should prescribe to us.
But if we are unwilling to be placed in this perilous situation; if we still will adhere to the design of a national government, or, which is the same thing, of a superintending power, under the direction of a common council, we must resolve to incorporate into our plan those ingredients which may be considered as forming the characteristic difference between a league and a government; we must extend the authority of the Union to the persons of the citizens–the only proper objects of government.
Government implies the power of making laws. It is essential to the idea of a law, that it be attended with a sanction; or, in other words, a penalty or punishment for disobedience. If there be no penalty annexed to disobedience, the resolutions or commands which pretend to be laws will, in fact, amount to nothing more than advice or recommendation. This penalty, whatever it may be, can only be inflicted in two ways: by the agency of the courts and ministers of justice, or by military force; by the coercion of the magistracy, or by the coercion of arms. The first kind can evidently apply only to men; the last kind must of necessity, be employed against bodies politic, or communities, or States. It is evident that there is no process of a court by which the observance of the laws can, in the last resort, be enforced. Sentences may be denounced against them for violations of their duty; but these sentences can only be carried into execution by the sword. In an association where the general authority is confined to the collective bodies of the communities, that compose it, every breach of the laws must involve a state of war; and military execution must become the only instrument of civil obedience. Such a state of things can certainly not deserve the name of government, nor would any prudent man choose to commit his happiness to it.
There was a time when we were told that breaches, by the States, of the regulations of the federal authority were not to be expected; that a sense of common interest would preside over the conduct of the respective members, and would beget a full compliance with all the constitutional requisitions of the Union. This language, at the present day, would appear as wild as a great part of what we now hear from the same quarter will be thought, when we shall have received further lessons from that best oracle of wisdom, experience. It at all times betrayed an ignorance of the true springs by which human conduct is actuated, and belied the original inducements to the establishment of civil power. Why has government been instituted at all? Because the passions of men will not conform to the dictates of reason and justice, without constraint. Has it been found that bodies of men act with more rectitude or greater disinterestedness than individuals? The contrary of this has been inferred by all accurate observers of the conduct of mankind; and the inference is founded upon obvious reasons. Regard to reputation has a less active influence, when the infamy of a bad action is to be divided among a number than when it is to fall singly upon one. A spirit of faction, which is apt to mingle its poison in the deliberations of all bodies of men, will often hurry the persons of whom they are composed into improprieties and excesses, for which they would blush in a private capacity.
In addition to all this, there is, in the nature of sovereign power, an impatience of control, that disposes those who are invested with the exercise of it, to look with an evil eye upon all external attempts to restrain or direct its operations. From this spirit it happens, that in every political association which is formed upon the principle of uniting in a common interest a number of lesser sovereignties, there will be found a kind of eccentric tendency in the subordinate or inferior orbs, by the operation of which there will be a perpetual effort in each to fly off from the common center. This tendency is not difficult to be accounted for. It has its origin in the love of power. Power controlled or abridged is almost always the rival and enemy of that power by which it is controlled or abridged. This simple proposition will teach us how little reason there is to expect that the persons entrusted with the administration of the affairs of the particular members of a confederacy will at all times be ready, with perfect good-humor, and an unbiased regard to the public weal, to execute the resolutions or decrees of the general authority. The reverse of this results from the constitution of human nature.
If, therefore, the measures of the Confederacy cannot be executed without the intervention of the particular administrations, there will be little prospect of their being executed at all. The rulers of the respective members, whether they have a constitutional right to do it or not, will undertake to judge of the propriety of the measures themselves. They will consider the conformity of the thing proposed or required to their immediate interests or aims; the momentary conveniences or inconveniences that would attend its adoption. All this will be done; and in a spirit of interested and suspicious scrutiny, without that knowledge of national circumstances and reasons of state, which is essential to a right judgment, and with that strong predilection in favor of local objects, which can hardly fail to mislead the decision. The same process must be repeated in every member of which the body is constituted; and the execution of the plans, framed by the councils of the whole, will always fluctuate on the discretion of the ill-informed and prejudiced opinion of every part. Those who have been conversant in the proceedings of popular assemblies; who have seen how difficult it often is, where there is no exterior pressure of circumstances, to bring them to harmonious resolutions on important points, will readily conceive how impossible it must be to induce a number of such assemblies, deliberating at a distance from each other, at different times, and under different impressions, long to co-operate in the same views and pursuits.
In our case, the concurrence of thirteen distinct sovereign wills is requisite, under the Confederation, to the complete execution of every important measure that proceeds from the Union. It has happened as was to have been foreseen. The measures of the Union have not been executed; the delinquencies of the States have, step by step, matured themselves to an extreme, which has, at length, arrested all the wheels of the national government, and brought them to an awful stand. Congress at this time scarcely possess the means of keeping up the forms of administration, till the States can have time to agree upon a more substantial substitute for the present shadow of a federal government. Things did not come to this desperate extremity at once. The causes which have been specified produced at first only unequal and disproportionate degrees of compliance with the requisitions of the Union. The greater deficiencies of some States furnished the pretext of example and the temptation of interest to the complying, or to the least delinquent States. Why should we do more in proportion than those who are embarked with us in the same political voyage? Why should we consent to bear more than our proper share of the common burden? These were suggestions which human selfishness could not withstand, and which even speculative men, who looked forward to remote consequences, could not, without hesitation, combat. Each State, yielding to the persuasive voice of immediate interest or convenience, has successively withdrawn its support, till the frail and tottering edifice seems ready to fall upon our heads, and to crush us beneath its ruins.
Hamilton, Federalist 23
In 23, Hamilton stressed the importance of a strong national government, arguing that limiting its powers because of fear that they will be abused will prevent it from having adequate means to preserve the peace and safety of the country. The Articles of Confederation failed to provide sufficient power for the national government, and hence they must be replaced with the proposed new Constitution. Hamilton reiterated the importance of giving the national government power to regulate the behavior of individuals in order to maximize its ability to address both domestic and foreign problems.
The Necessity of a Government as Energetic as the One Proposed to the Preservation of the Union
The necessity of a Constitution, at least equally energetic with the one proposed, to the preservation of the Union, is the point at the examination of which we are now arrived.
This inquiry will naturally divide itself into three branches the objects to be provided for by the federal government, the quantity of power necessary to the accomplishment of those objects, the persons upon whom that power ought to operate. Its distribution and organization will more properly claim our attention under the succeeding head.
The principal purposes to be answered by union are these: the common defense of the members; the preservation of the public peace as well against internal convulsions as external attacks; the regulation of commerce with other nations and between the States; the superintendence of our intercourse, political and commercial, with foreign countries.
The authorities essential to the common defense are these: to raise armies; to build and equip fleets; to prescribe rules for the government of both; to direct their operations; to provide for their support. These powers ought to exist without limitation, because it is impossible to foresee or define the extent and variety of national exigencies, or the correspondent extent and variety of the means which may be necessary to satisfy them. The circumstances that endanger the safety of nations are infinite, and for this reason no constitutional shackles can wisely be imposed on the power to which the care of it is committed. This power ought to be coextensive with all the possible combinations of such circumstances; and ought to be under the direction of the same councils which are appointed to preside over the common defense.
This is one of those truths which, to a correct and unprejudiced mind, carries its own evidence along with it; and may be obscured, but cannot be made plainer by argument or reasoning. It rests upon axioms as simple as they are universal; the means ought to be proportioned to the end; the persons, from whose agency the attainment of any end is expected, ought to possess the means by which it is to be attained.
Whether there ought to be a federal government entrusted with the care of the common defense, is a question in the first instance, open for discussion; but the moment it is decided in the affirmative, it will follow, that that government ought to be clothed with all the powers requisite to complete execution of its trust. And unless it can be shown that the circumstances which may affect the public safety are reducible within certain determinate limits; unless the contrary of this position can be fairly and rationally disputed, it must be admitted, as a necessary consequence, that there can be no limitation of that authority which is to provide for the defense and protection of the community, in any matter essential to its efficacy that is, in any matter essential to the formation, direction, or support of the national forces.
Defective as the present Confederation has been proved to be, this principle appears to have been fully recognized by the framers of it; though they have not made proper or adequate provision for its exercise. Congress have an unlimited discretion to make requisitions of men and money; to govern the army and navy; to direct their operations. As their requisitions are made constitutionally binding upon the States, who are in fact under the most solemn obligations to furnish the supplies required of them, the intention evidently was that the United States should command whatever resources were by them judged requisite to the “common defense and general welfare.” It was presumed that a sense of their true interests, and a regard to the dictates of good faith, would be found sufficient pledges for the punctual performance of the duty of the members to the federal head.
The experiment has, however, demonstrated that this expectation was ill-founded and illusory; and the observations, made under the last head, will, I imagine, have sufficed to convince the impartial and discerning, that there is an absolute necessity for an entire change in the first principles of the system; that if we are in earnest about giving the Union energy and duration, we must abandon the vain project of legislating upon the States in their collective capacities; we must extend the laws of the federal government to the individual citizens of America; we must discard the fallacious scheme of quotas and requisitions, as equally impracticable and unjust. The result from all this is that the Union ought to be invested with full power to levy troops; to build and equip fleets; and to raise the revenues which will be required for the formation and support of an army and navy, in the customary and ordinary modes practiced in other governments.
If the circumstances of our country are such as to demand a compound instead of a simple, a confederate instead of a sole, government, the essential point which will remain to be adjusted will be to discriminate the objects, as far as it can be done, which shall appertain to the different provinces or departments of power; allowing to each the most ample authority for fulfilling the objects committed to its charge. Shall the Union be constituted the guardian of the common safety? Are fleets and armies and revenues necessary to this purpose? The government of the Union must be empowered to pass all laws, and to make all regulations which have relation to them. The same must be the case in respect to commerce, and to every other matter to which its jurisdiction is permitted to extend. Is the administration of justice between the citizens of the same State the proper department of the local governments? These must possess all the authorities which are connected with this object, and with every other that may be allotted to their particular cognizance and direction. Not to confer in each case a degree of power commensurate to the end, would be to violate the most obvious rules of prudence and propriety, and improvidently to trust the great interests of the nation to hands which are disabled from managing them with vigor and success….
Every view we may take of the subject, as candid inquirers after truth, will serve to convince us, that it is both unwise and dangerous to deny the federal government an unconfined authority, as to all those objects which are entrusted to its management. It will indeed deserve the most vigilant and careful attention of the people, to see that it be modeled in such a manner as to admit of its being safely vested with the requisite powers. If any plan which has been, or may be, offered to our consideration, should not, upon a dispassionate inspection, be found to answer this description, it ought to be rejected. A government, the constitution of which renders it unfit to be trusted with all the powers which a free people ought to delegate to any government, would be an unsafe and improper depositary of the national interests. Wherever these can with propriety be confided, the coincident powers may safely accompany them. This is the true result of all just reasoning upon the subject. And the adversaries of the plan promulgated by the convention ought to have confined themselves to showing, that the internal structure of the proposed government was such as to render it unworthy of the confidence of the people….
Madison, Federalist 51
In one of the most famous Federalist Papers, Madison recognized the criticism that the division of powers between branches is insufficient to prevent Congress from encroaching on the other two branches. His response was that the constitution is structured to take into account the personal motivations of those who will serve in the new government. The new constitution relied on the ambition that each branch’s members would have to protect their power to lessen the possibility of encroachments by other officials.
Madison recognized the fundamental tension in representative government: to provide sufficient power to fulfill the government’s responsibilities while concurrently protecting against official abuse or overreach of power. Madison claimed the constitution supplied “by opposite and rival interests, the defect of better motives.” He also identified other factors that constrain the branches to their constitutional powers, which are the division between state and national authority and the diversity of competing interests within a large country, which he believed would limit the extent to which a Congressional majority can cater to factional interests.
The Structure of the Government Must Furnish the Proper Checks and Balances Between the Different Departments
To what expedient, then, shall we finally resort, for maintaining in practice the necessary partition of power among the several departments, as laid down in the Constitution? The only answer that can be given is, that as all these exterior provisions are found to be inadequate, the defect must be supplied, by so contriving the interior structure of the government as that its several constituent parts may, by their mutual relations, be the means of keeping each other in their proper places….
In order to lay a due foundation for that separate and distinct exercise of the different powers of government, which to a certain extent is admitted on all hands to be essential to the preservation of liberty, it is evident that each department should have a will of its own; and consequently should be so constituted that the members of each should have as little agency as possible in the appointment of the members of the others. Were this principle rigorously adhered to, it would require that all the appointments for the supreme executive, legislative, and judiciary magistracies should be drawn from the same fountain of authority, the people, through channels having no communication whatever with one another. Perhaps such a plan of constructing the several departments would be less difficult in practice than it may in contemplation appear. Some difficulties, however, and some additional expense would attend the execution of it. Some deviations, therefore, from the principle must be admitted. In the constitution of the judiciary department in particular, it might be inexpedient to insist rigorously on the principle: first, because peculiar qualifications being essential in the members, the primary consideration ought to be to select that mode of choice which best secures these qualifications; secondly, because the permanent tenure by which the appointments are held in that department, must soon destroy all sense of dependence on the authority conferring them.
It is equally evident, that the members of each department should be as little dependent as possible on those of the others, for the emoluments annexed to their offices. Were the executive magistrate, or the judges, not independent of the legislature in this particular, their independence in every other would be merely nominal.
But the great security against a gradual concentration of the several powers in the same department, consists in giving to those who administer each department the necessary constitutional means and personal motives to resist encroachments of the others. The provision for defense must in this, as in all other cases, be made commensurate to the danger of attack. Ambition must be made to counteract ambition. The interest of the man must be connected with the constitutional rights of the place. It may be a reflection on human nature, that such devices should be necessary to control the abuses of government. But what is government itself, but the greatest of all reflections on human nature? If men were angels, no government would be necessary. If angels were to govern men, neither external nor internal controls on government would be necessary. In framing a government which is to be administered by men over men, the great difficulty lies in this: you must first enable the government to control the governed; and in the next place oblige it to control itself. A dependence on the people is, no doubt, the primary control on the government; but experience has taught mankind the necessity of auxiliary precautions.
This policy of supplying, by opposite and rival interests, the defect of better motives, might be traced through the whole system of human affairs, private as well as public. We see it particularly displayed in all the subordinate distributions of power, where the constant aim is to divide and arrange the several offices in such a manner as that each may be a check on the other that the private interest of every individual may be a sentinel over the public rights. These inventions of prudence cannot be less requisite in the distribution of the supreme powers of the State.
But it is not possible to give to each department an equal power of self-defense. In republican government, the legislative authority necessarily predominates. The remedy for this inconveniency is to divide the legislature into different branches; and to render them, by different modes of election and different principles of action, as little connected with each other as the nature of their common functions and their common dependence on the society will admit. It may even be necessary to guard against dangerous encroachments by still further precautions. As the weight of the legislative authority requires that it should be thus divided, the weakness of the executive may require, on the other hand, that it should be fortified. An absolute negative on the legislature appears, at first view, to be the natural defense with which the executive magistrate should be armed. But perhaps it would be neither altogether safe nor alone sufficient. On ordinary occasions it might not be exerted with the requisite firmness, and on extraordinary occasions it might be perfidiously abused. May not this defect of an absolute negative be supplied by some qualified connection between this weaker department and the weaker branch of the stronger department, by which the latter may be led to support the constitutional rights of the former, without being too much detached from the rights of its own department?…
There are, moreover, two considerations particularly applicable to the federal system of America, which place that system in a very interesting point of view.
First. In a single republic, all the power surrendered by the people is submitted to the administration of a single government; and the usurpations are guarded against by a division of the government into distinct and separate departments. In the compound republic of America, the power surrendered by the people is first divided between two distinct governments, and then the portion allotted to each subdivided among distinct and separate departments. Hence a double security arises to the rights of the people. The different governments will control each other, at the same time that each will be controlled by itself.
Second. It is of great importance in a republic not only to guard the society against the oppression of its rulers, but to guard one part of the society against the injustice of the other part. Different interests necessarily exist in different classes of citizens. If a majority be united by a common interest, the rights of the minority will be insecure. There are but two methods of providing against this evil: the one by creating a will in the community independent of the majority that is, of the society itself; the other, by comprehending in the society so many separate descriptions of citizens as will render an unjust combination of a majority of the whole very improbable, if not impracticable. The first method prevails in all governments possessing an hereditary or self-appointed authority. This, at best, is but a precarious security; because a power independent of the society may as well espouse the unjust views of the major, as the rightful interests of the minor party, and may possibly be turned against both parties. The second method will be exemplified in the federal republic of the United States. Whilst all authority in it will be derived from and dependent on the society, the society itself will be broken into so many parts, interests, and classes of citizens, that the rights of individuals, or of the minority, will be in little danger from interested combinations of the majority. In a free government the security for civil rights must be the same as that for religious rights. It consists in the one case in the multiplicity of interests, and in the other in the multiplicity of sects. The degree of security in both cases will depend on the number of interests and sects; and this may be presumed to depend on the extent of country and number of people comprehended under the same government. This view of the subject must particularly recommend a proper federal system to all the sincere and considerate friends of republican government, since it shows that in exact proportion as the territory of the Union may be formed into more circumscribed Confederacies, or States oppressive combinations of a majority will be facilitated: the best security, under the republican forms, for the rights of every class of citizens, will be diminished: and consequently the stability and independence of some member of the government, the only other security, must be proportionately increased.
Justice is the end of government. It is the end of civil society. It ever has been and ever will be pursued until it be obtained, or until liberty be lost in the pursuit. In a society under the forms of which the stronger faction can readily unite and oppress the weaker, anarchy may as truly be said to reign as in a state of nature, where the weaker individual is not secured against the violence of the stronger; and as, in the latter state, even the stronger individuals are prompted, by the uncertainty of their condition, to submit to a government which may protect the weak as well as themselves; so, in the former state, will the more powerful factions or parties be gradually induced, by a like motive, to wish for a government which will protect all parties, the weaker as well as the more powerful. It can be little doubted that if the State of Rhode Island was separated from the Confederacy and left to itself, the insecurity of rights under the popular form of government within such narrow limits would be displayed by such reiterated oppressions of factious majorities that some power altogether independent of the people would soon be called for by the voice of the very factions whose misrule had proved the necessity of it. In the extended republic of the United States, and among the great variety of interests, parties, and sects which it embraces, a coalition of a majority of the whole society could seldom take place on any other principles than those of justice and the general good; whilst there being thus less danger to a minor from the will of a major party, there must be less pretext, also, to provide for the security of the former, by introducing into the government a will not dependent on the latter, or, in other words, a will independent of the society itself. It is no less certain than it is important, notwithstanding the contrary opinions which have been entertained, that the larger the society, provided it lie within a practical sphere, the more duly capable it will be of self-government. And happily for the republican cause, the practicable sphere may be carried to a very great extent, by a judicious modification and mixture of the federal principle.
Madison, Federalist 57
In 57, Madison examined the composition of the House of Representatives and responded to arguments that it would establish an elite legislative body. As the voters who choose the representatives will be the same people who vote for the largest body in the state legislature, this would reflect the choices made in each state’s constitution. Madison also addressed worries that the Representatives votes would deviate from the public interest. Not only would their desires for distinction motivate them to serve the public, but regular biennial elections would allow for their removal if they deviate from the wishes of the voters.
Madison also raises what he considered an additional check on the Representatives’ actions: they would be bound by the laws to the same extent as everyone else. He recognized that the Constitution does not specifically require this, but claimed that the “genius of the whole system” will produce this outcome. He prophesied that if Americans ever tolerate the passing of laws that exempt the Representatives, “the people will be prepared to tolerate everything but liberty.” Madison concluded his analysis by demonstrating that the population of the legislative districts will be comparable to the districts established in several of the state legislatures.
The Supposed Tendency of the Plan of the Convention to Elevate the Few Above the Many
The third charge against the House of Representatives is, that it will be taken from that class of citizens which will have least sympathy with the mass of the people, and be most likely to aim at an ambitious sacrifice of the many to the aggrandizement of the few.
Of all the objections which have been framed against the federal Constitution, this is perhaps the most extraordinary. Whilst the objection itself is levelled against a pretended oligarchy, the principle of it strikes at the very root of republican government.
The aim of every political constitution is, or ought to be, first to obtain for rulers men who possess most wisdom to discern, and most virtue to pursue, the common good of the society; and in the next place, to take the most effectual precautions for keeping them virtuous whilst they continue to hold their public trust. The elective mode of obtaining rulers is the characteristic policy of republican government. The means relied on in this form of government for preventing their degeneracy are numerous and various. The most effectual one is such a limitation of the term of appointments as will maintain a proper responsibility to the people.
Let me now ask what circumstance there is in the constitution of the House of Representatives that violates the principles of republican government, or favors the elevation of the few on the ruins of the many?…
Who are to be the electors of the federal representatives? Not the rich, more than the poor; not the learned, more than the ignorant; not the haughty heirs of distinguished names, more than the humble sons of obscurity and unpropitious fortune. The electors are to be the great body of the people of the United States. They are to be the same who exercise the right in every State of electing the corresponding branch of the legislature of the State.
Who are to be the objects of popular choice? Every citizen whose merit may recommend him to the esteem and confidence of his country. No qualification of wealth, of birth, of religious faith, or of civil profession is permitted to fetter the judgement or disappoint the inclination of the people.
If we consider the situation of the men on whom the free suffrages of their fellow-citizens may confer the representative trust, we shall find it involving every security which can be devised or desired for their fidelity to their constituents.
In the first place, as they will have been distinguished by the preference of their fellow-citizens, we are to presume that in general they will be somewhat distinguished also by those qualities which entitle them to it, and which promise a sincere and scrupulous regard to the nature of their engagements.
In the second place, they will enter into the public service under circumstances which cannot fail to produce a temporary affection at least to their constituents. There is in every breast a sensibility to marks of honor, of favor, of esteem, and of confidence, which, apart from all considerations of interest, is some pledge for grateful and benevolent returns. Ingratitude is a common topic of declamation against human nature; and it must be confessed that instances of it are but too frequent and flagrant, both in public and in private life. But the universal and extreme indignation which it inspires is itself a proof of the energy and prevalence of the contrary sentiment.
In the third place, those ties which bind the representative to his constituents are strengthened by motives of a more selfish nature. His pride and vanity attach him to a form of government which favors his pretensions and gives him a share in its honors and distinctions. Whatever hopes or projects might be entertained by a few aspiring characters, it must generally happen that a great proportion of the men deriving their advancement from their influence with the people, would have more to hope from a preservation of the favor, than from innovations in the government subversive of the authority of the people.
All these securities, however, would be found very insufficient without the restraint of frequent elections. Hence, in the fourth place, the House of Representatives is so constituted as to support in the members an habitual recollection of their dependence on the people. Before the sentiments impressed on their minds by the mode of their elevation can be effaced by the exercise of power, they will be compelled to anticipate the moment when their power is to cease, when their exercise of it is to be reviewed, and when they must descend to the level from which they were raised; there forever to remain unless a faithful discharge of their trust shall have established their title to a renewal of it.
I will add, as a fifth circumstance in the situation of the House of Representatives, restraining them from oppressive measures, that they can make no law which will not have its full operation on themselves and their friends, as well as on the great mass of the society. This has always been deemed one of the strongest bonds by which human policy can connect the rulers and the people together. It creates between them that communion of interests and sympathy of sentiments, of which few governments have furnished examples; but without which every government degenerates into tyranny. If it be asked, what is to restrain the House of Representatives from making legal discriminations in favor of themselves and a particular class of the society? I answer: the genius of the whole system; the nature of just and constitutional laws; and above all, the vigilant and manly spirit which actuates the people of America—a spirit which nourishes freedom, and in return is nourished by it.
If this spirit shall ever be so far debased as to tolerate a law not obligatory on the legislature, as well as on the people, the people will be prepared to tolerate anything but liberty.
Such will be the relation between the House of Representatives and their constituents. Duty, gratitude, interest, ambition itself, are the chords by which they will be bound to fidelity and sympathy with the great mass of the people. It is possible that these may all be insufficient to control the caprice and wickedness of man. But are they not all that government will admit, and that human prudence can devise? Are they not the genuine and the characteristic means by which republican government provides for the liberty and happiness of the people? Are they not the identical means on which every State government in the Union relies for the attainment of these important ends?…
The only difference discoverable between the two cases is, that each representative of the United States will be elected by five or six thousand citizens; whilst in the individual States, the election of a representative is left to about as many hundreds. Will it be pretended that this difference is sufficient to justify an attachment to the State governments, and an abhorrence to the federal government? If this be the point on which the objection turns, it deserves to be examined.
Is it supported by reason? This cannot be said, without maintaining that five or six thousand citizens are less capable of choosing a fit representative, or more liable to be corrupted by an unfit one, than five or six hundred. Reason, on the contrary, assures us, that as in so great a number a fit representative would be most likely to be found, so the choice would be less likely to be diverted from him by the intrigues of the ambitious or the ambitious or the bribes of the rich.
Is the consequence from this doctrine admissible? If we say that five or six hundred citizens are as many as can jointly exercise their right of suffrage, must we not deprive the people of the immediate choice of their public servants, in every instance where the administration of the government does not require as many of them as will amount to one for that number of citizens?
Is the doctrine warranted by facts?… The districts in New Hampshire in which the senators are chosen immediately by the people, are nearly as large as will be necessary for her representatives in the Congress. Those of Massachusetts are larger than will be necessary for that purpose; and those of New York still more so. In the last State the members of Assembly for the cities and counties of New York and Albany are elected by very nearly as many voters as will be entitled to a representative in the Congress, calculating on the number of sixty-five representatives only. It makes no difference that in these senatorial districts and counties a number of representatives are voted for by each elector at the same time. If the same electors at the same time are capable of choosing four or five representatives, they cannot be incapable of choosing one. Pennsylvania is an additional example….
Madison, Federalist 62
Madison then turned to the Senate, and examined the benefits of having Senators selected by state legislatures. He admitted that the allocation of two Senators per state deviates from democratic principles, and justified this by citing the need for compromise with smaller states in order to achieve a new Constitution that could be ratified by all states. He saw the six-year staggered terms as providing a protection against hasty legislation motivated by popular passions, and concluded that the longer terms of the Senate would likely increase the “order and stability” of the federal government.
The Senate
The qualifications proposed for senators, as distinguished from those of representatives, consist in a more advanced age and a longer period of citizenship. A senator must be thirty years of age at least; as a representative must be twenty-five. And the former must have been a citizen nine years; as seven years are required for the latter. The propriety of these distinctions is explained by the nature of the senatorial trust, which, requiring greater extent of information and stability of character, requires at the same time that the senator should have reached a period of life most likely to supply these advantages; and which, participating immediately in transactions with foreign nations, ought to be exercised by none who are not thoroughly weaned from the prepossessions and habits incident to foreign birth and education. The term of nine years appears to be a prudent mediocrity between a total exclusion of adopted citizens, whose merits and talents may claim a share in the public confidence, and an indiscriminate and hasty admission of them, which might create a channel for foreign influence on the national councils.
It is equally unnecessary to dilate on the appointment of senators by the State legislatures. Among the various modes which might have been devised for constituting this branch of the government, that which has been proposed by the convention is probably the most congenial with the public opinion. It is recommended by the double advantage of favoring a select appointment, and of giving to the State governments such an agency in the formation of the federal government as must secure the authority of the former, and may form a convenient link between the two systems.
The equality of representation in the Senate is another point, which, being evidently the result of compromise between the opposite pretensions of the large and the small States, does not call for much discussion. If indeed it be right, that among a people thoroughly incorporated into one nation, every district ought to have a proportional share in the government, and that among independent and sovereign States, bound together by a simple league, the parties, however unequal in size, ought to have an equal share in the common councils, it does not appear to be without some reason that in a compound republic, partaking both of the national and federal character, the government ought to be founded on a mixture of the principles of proportional and equal representation. But it is superfluous to try, by the standard of theory, a part of the Constitution which is allowed on all hands to be the result, not of theory, but “of a spirit of amity, and that mutual deference and concession which the peculiarity of our political situation rendered indispensable.” A common government, with powers equal to its objects, is called for by the voice, and still more loudly by the political situation, of America. A government founded on principles more consonant to the wishes of the larger States, is not likely to be obtained from the smaller States. The only option, then, for the former, lies between the proposed government and a government still more objectionable. Under this alternative, the advice of prudence must be to embrace the lesser evil; and, instead of indulging a fruitless anticipation of the possible mischiefs which may ensue, to contemplate rather the advantageous consequences which may qualify the sacrifice.
In this spirit it may be remarked, that the equal vote allowed to each State is at once a constitutional recognition of the portion of sovereignty remaining in the individual States, and an instrument for preserving that residuary sovereignty. So far the equality ought to be no less acceptable to the large than to the small States; since they are not less solicitous to guard, by every possible expedient, against an improper consolidation of the States into one simple republic.
Another advantage accruing from this ingredient in the constitution of the Senate is, the additional impediment it must prove against improper acts of legislation. No law or resolution can now be passed without the concurrence, first, of a majority of the people, and then, of a majority of the States. It must be acknowledged that this complicated check on legislation may in some instances be injurious as well as beneficial; and that the peculiar defense which it involves in favor of the smaller States, would be more rational, if any interests common to them, and distinct from those of the other States, would otherwise be exposed to peculiar danger. But as the larger States will always be able, by their power over the supplies, to defeat unreasonable exertions of this prerogative of the lesser States, and as the faculty and excess of law-making seem to be the diseases to which our governments are most liable, it is not impossible that this part of the Constitution may be more convenient in practice than it appears to many in contemplation.
The number of senators, and the duration of their appointment, come next to be considered. In order to form an accurate judgment on both of these points, it will be proper to inquire into the purposes which are to be answered by a senate; and in order to ascertain these, it will be necessary to review the inconveniences which a republic must suffer from the want of such an institution.
First. It is a misfortune incident to republican government, though in a less degree than to other governments, that those who administer it may forget their obligations to their constituents, and prove unfaithful to their important trust. In this point of view, a senate, as a second branch of the legislative assembly, distinct from, and dividing the power with, a first, must be in all cases a salutary check on the government. It doubles the security to the people, by requiring the concurrence of two distinct bodies in schemes of usurpation or perfidy, where the ambition or corruption of one would otherwise be sufficient. This is a precaution founded on such clear principles, and now so well understood in the United States, that it would be more than superfluous to enlarge on it. I will barely remark, that as the improbability of sinister combinations will be in proportion to the dissimilarity in the genius of the two bodies, it must be politic to distinguish them from each other by every circumstance which will consist with a due harmony in all proper measures, and with the genuine principles of republican government.
Second. The necessity of a senate is not less indicated by the propensity of all single and numerous assemblies to yield to the impulse of sudden and violent passions, and to be seduced by factious leaders into intemperate and pernicious resolutions. Examples on this subject might be cited without number; and from proceedings within the United States, as well as from the history of other nations. But a position that will not be contradicted, need not be proved. All that need be remarked is, that a body which is to correct this infirmity ought itself to be free from it, and consequently ought to be less numerous. It ought, moreover, to possess great firmness, and consequently ought to hold its authority by a tenure of considerable duration.
Third. Another defect to be supplied by a senate lies in a want of due acquaintance with the objects and principles of legislation. It is not possible that an assembly of men called for the most part from pursuits of a private nature, continued in appointment for a short time, and led by no permanent motive to devote the intervals of public occupation to a study of the laws, the affairs, and the comprehensive interests of their country, should, if left wholly to themselves, escape a variety of important errors in the exercise of their legislative trust. It may be affirmed, on the best grounds, that no small share of the present embarrassments of America is to be charged on the blunders of our governments; and that these have proceeded from the heads rather than the hearts of most of the authors of them. What indeed are all the repealing, explaining, and amending laws, which fill and disgrace our voluminous codes, but so many monuments of deficient wisdom; so many impeachments exhibited by each succeeding against each preceding session; so many admonitions to the people, of the value of those aids which may be expected from a well-constituted senate?
A good government implies two things: first, fidelity to the object of government, which is the happiness of the people; secondly, a knowledge of the means by which that object can be best attained. Some governments are deficient in both these qualities; most governments are deficient in the first. I scruple not to assert, that in American governments too little attention has been paid to the last. The federal Constitution avoids this error; and what merits particular notice, it provides for the last in a mode which increases the security for the first.
Fourth. The mutability in the public councils arising from a rapid succession of new members, however qualified they may be, points out, in the strongest manner, the necessity of some stable institution in the government. Every new election in the States is found to change one half of the representatives. From this change of men must proceed a change of opinions; and from a change of opinions, a change of measures. But a continual change even of good measures is inconsistent with every rule of prudence and every prospect of success….
[G]reat injury results from an unstable government. The want of confidence in the public councils damps every useful undertaking, the success and profit of which may depend on a continuance of existing arrangements. What prudent merchant will hazard his fortunes in any new branch of commerce when he knows not but that his plans may be rendered unlawful before they can be executed? What farmer or manufacturer will lay himself out for the encouragement given to any particular cultivation or establishment, when he can have no assurance that his preparatory labors and advances will not render him a victim to an inconstant government? In a word, no great improvement or laudable enterprise can go forward which requires the auspices of a steady system of national policy.
But the most deplorable effect of all is that diminution of attachment and reverence which steals into the hearts of the people, towards a political system which betrays so many marks of infirmity, and disappoints so many of their flattering hopes. No government, any more than an individual, will long be respected without being truly respectable; nor be truly respectable, without possessing a certain portion of order and stability.
Hamilton, Federalist 68
Hamilton presented the justification for the electoral college in 68, praising the decision to filter public opinion through electors chosen specifically to vote for President and Vice President. He claimed that this would avoid tumult when elections take place since the choices will be made separately in each state by electors esteemed by citizens. He also praised the exclusion of federal officials from the process as it would avoid potential conflicts of interest. He predicted that the electoral college would prevent men with “talents for low intrigue … and popularity from being elected president.”
The Mode of Electing the President
The mode of appointment of the Chief Magistrate of the United States is almost the only part of the system, of any consequence, which has escaped without severe censure, or which has received the slightest mark of approbation from its opponents…. I venture somewhat further, and hesitate not to affirm, that if the manner of it be not perfect, it is at least excellent. It unites in an eminent degree all the advantages, the union of which was to be wished for.
It was desirable that the sense of the people should operate in the choice of the person to whom so important a trust was to be confided. This end will be answered by committing the right of making it, not to any preestablished body, but to men chosen by the people for the special purpose, and at the particular conjuncture.
It was equally desirable, that the immediate election should be made by men most capable of analyzing the qualities adapted to the station, and acting under circumstances favorable to deliberation, and to a judicious combination of all the reasons and inducements which were proper to govern their choice. A small number of persons, selected by their fellow-citizens from the general mass, will be most likely to possess the information and discernment requisite to such complicated investigations.
It was also peculiarly desirable to afford as little opportunity as possible to tumult and disorder. This evil was not least to be dreaded in the election of a magistrate, who was to have so important an agency in the administration of the government as the President of the United States. But the precautions which have been so happily concerted in the system under consideration, promise an effectual security against this mischief. The choice of several, to form an intermediate body of electors, will be much less apt to convulse the community with any extraordinary or violent movements, than the choice of one who was himself to be the final object of the public wishes. And as the electors, chosen in each State, are to assemble and vote in the State in which they are chosen, this detached and divided situation will expose them much less to heats and ferments, which might be communicated from them to the people, than if they were all to be convened at one time, in one place.
Nothing was more to be desired than that every practicable obstacle should be opposed to cabal, intrigue, and corruption. These most deadly adversaries of republican government might naturally have been expected to make their approaches from more than one quarter, but chiefly from the desire in foreign powers to gain an improper ascendant in our councils. How could they better gratify this, than by raising a creature of their own to the chief magistracy of the Union? But the convention have guarded against all danger of this sort, with the most provident and judicious attention. They have not made the appointment of the President to depend on any preexisting bodies of men, who might be tampered with beforehand to prostitute their votes; but they have referred it in the first instance to an immediate act of the people of America, to be exerted in the choice of persons for the temporary and sole purpose of making the appointment. And they have excluded from eligibility to this trust, all those who from situation might be suspected of too great devotion to the President in office. No senator, representative, or other person holding a place of trust or profit under the United States, can be of the numbers of the electors. Thus without corrupting the body of the people, the immediate agents in the election will at least enter upon the task free from any sinister bias….
Another and no less important desideratum was, that the Executive should be independent for his continuance in office on all but the people themselves. He might otherwise be tempted to sacrifice his duty to his complaisance for those whose favor was necessary to the duration of his official consequence. This advantage will also be secured, by making his re-election to depend on a special body of representatives, deputed by the society for the single purpose of making the important choice.
All these advantages will happily combine in the plan devised by the convention; which is, that the people of each State shall choose a number of persons as electors, equal to the number of senators and representatives of such State in the national government, who shall assemble within the State, and vote for some fit person as President. Their votes, thus given, are to be transmitted to the seat of the national government, and the person who may happen to have a majority of the whole number of votes will be the President. But as a majority of the votes might not always happen to centre in one man, and as it might be unsafe to permit less than a majority to be conclusive, it is provided that, in such a contingency, the House of Representatives shall select out of the candidates who shall have the five highest number of votes, the man who in their opinion may be best qualified for the office.
The process of election affords a moral certainty, that the office of President will never fall to the lot of any man who is not in an eminent degree endowed with the requisite qualifications. Talents for low intrigue, and the little arts of popularity, may alone suffice to elevate a man to the first honors in a single State; but it will require other talents, and a different kind of merit, to establish him in the esteem and confidence of the whole Union, or of so considerable a portion of it as would be necessary to make him a successful candidate for the distinguished office of President of the United States. It will not be too strong to say, that there will be a constant probability of seeing the station filled by characters pre-eminent for ability and virtue. And this will be thought no inconsiderable recommendation of the Constitution, by those who are able to estimate the share which the executive in every government must necessarily have in its good or ill administration. Though we cannot acquiesce in the political heresy of the poet who says: “For forms of government let fools contest/That which is best administered is best,” yet we may safely pronounce, that the true test of a good government is its aptitude and tendency to produce a good administration….
Hamilton, Federalist 70
Hamilton next addressed whether the presidency should be split between multiple men or subjected to oversight by a council. He argued for a unitary president on the grounds that it best promoted accountability, since when multiple people make decisions it is easy for them to escape personal responsibility. He also argued that an energetic executive is essential to good leadership, and that a single president can take action more efficiently than any plural executive. Much of this paper responded to anti-Federalist claims that presidents will have too much power and will not be sufficiently accountable to Congress or the people.
The Executive Department further considered
There is an idea, which is not without its advocates, that a vigorous Executive is inconsistent with the genius of republican government. The enlightened well-wishers to this species of government must at least hope that the supposition is destitute of foundation; since they can never admit its truth, without at the same time admitting the condemnation of their own principles. Energy in the Executive is a leading character in the definition of good government. It is essential to the protection of the community against foreign attacks; it is not less essential to the steady administration of the laws; to the protection of property against those irregular and high-handed combinations which sometimes interrupt the ordinary course of justice; to the security of liberty against the enterprises and assaults of ambition, of faction, and of anarchy. Every man the least conversant in Roman story, knows how often that republic was obliged to take refuge in the absolute power of a single man, under the formidable title of Dictator, as well against the intrigues of ambitious individuals who aspired to the tyranny, and the seditions of whole classes of the community whose conduct threatened the existence of all government, as against the invasions of external enemies who menaced the conquest and destruction of Rome.
There can be no need, however, to multiply arguments or examples on this head. A feeble Executive implies a feeble execution of the government. A feeble execution is but another phrase for a bad execution; and a government ill executed, whatever it may be in theory, must be, in practice, a bad government.
Taking it for granted, therefore, that all men of sense will agree in the necessity of an energetic Executive, it will only remain to inquire, what are the ingredients which constitute this energy? How far can they be combined with those other ingredients which constitute safety in the republican sense? And how far does this combination characterize the plan which has been reported by the convention?
The ingredients which constitute energy in the Executive are, first, unity; secondly, duration; thirdly, an adequate provision for its support; fourthly, competent powers.
The ingredients which constitute safety in the republican sense are, first, a due dependence on the people, secondly, a due responsibility.
Those politicians and statesmen who have been the most celebrated for the soundness of their principles and for the justice of their views, have declared in favor of a single Executive and a numerous legislature. They have with great propriety, considered energy as the most necessary qualification of the former, and have regarded this as most applicable to power in a single hand, while they have, with equal propriety, considered the latter as best adapted to deliberation and wisdom, and best calculated to conciliate the confidence of the people and to secure their privileges and interests.
That unity is conducive to energy will not be disputed. Decision, activity, secrecy, and dispatch will generally characterize the proceedings of one man in a much more eminent degree than the proceedings of any greater number; and in proportion as the number is increased, these qualities will be diminished.
This unity may be destroyed in two ways: either by vesting the power in two or more magistrates of equal dignity and authority; or by vesting it ostensibly in one man, subject, in whole or in part, to the control and co-operation of others, in the capacity of counsellors to him. Of the first, the two Consuls of Rome may serve as an example; of the last, we shall find examples in the constitutions of several of the States. New York and New Jersey, if I recollect right, are the only States which have entrusted the executive authority wholly to single men.1 Both these methods of destroying the unity of the Executive have their partisans; but the votaries of an executive council are the most numerous. They are both liable, if not to equal, to similar objections, and may in most lights be examined in conjunction….
Wherever two or more persons are engaged in any common enterprise or pursuit, there is always danger of difference of opinion. If it be a public trust or office, in which they are clothed with equal dignity and authority, there is peculiar danger of personal emulation and even animosity. From either, and especially from all these causes, the most bitter dissensions are apt to spring. Whenever these happen, they lessen the respectability, weaken the authority, and distract the plans and operation of those whom they divide. If they should unfortunately assail the supreme executive magistracy of a country, consisting of a plurality of persons, they might impede or frustrate the most important measures of the government, in the most critical emergencies of the state. And what is still worse, they might split the community into the most violent and irreconcilable factions, adhering differently to the different individuals who composed the magistracy.
Men often oppose a thing, merely because they have had no agency in planning it, or because it may have been planned by those whom they dislike. But if they have been consulted, and have happened to disapprove, opposition then becomes, in their estimation, an indispensable duty of self-love. They seem to think themselves bound in honor, and by all the motives of personal infallibility, to defeat the success of what has been resolved upon contrary to their sentiments. Men of upright, benevolent tempers have too many opportunities of remarking, with horror, to what desperate lengths this disposition is sometimes carried, and how often the great interests of society are sacrificed to the vanity, to the conceit, and to the obstinacy of individuals, who have credit enough to make their passions and their caprices interesting to mankind. Perhaps the question now before the public may, in its consequences, afford melancholy proofs of the effects of this despicable frailty, or rather detestable vice, in the human character.
Upon the principles of a free government, inconveniences from the source just mentioned must necessarily be submitted to in the formation of the legislature; but it is unnecessary, and therefore unwise, to introduce them into the constitution of the Executive. It is here too that they may be most pernicious. In the legislature, promptitude of decision is oftener an evil than a benefit. The differences of opinion, and the jarring of parties in that department of the government, though they may sometimes obstruct salutary plans, yet often promote deliberation and circumspection, and serve to check excesses in the majority. When a resolution too is once taken, the opposition must be at an end. That resolution is a law, and resistance to it punishable. But no favorable circumstances palliate or atone for the disadvantages of dissension in the executive department. Here, they are pure and unmixed. There is no point at which they cease to operate. They serve to embarrass and weaken the execution of the plan or measure to which they relate, from the first step to the final conclusion of it. They constantly counteract those qualities in the Executive which are the most necessary ingredients in its composition, vigor and expedition, and this without any counterbalancing good. In the conduct of war, in which the energy of the Executive is the bulwark of the national security, everything would be to be apprehended from its plurality.
It must be confessed that these observations apply with principal weight to the first case supposed that is, to a plurality of magistrates of equal dignity and authority a scheme, the advocates for which are not likely to form a numerous sect; but they apply, though not with equal, yet with considerable weight to the project of a council, whose concurrence is made constitutionally necessary to the operations of the ostensible Executive. An artful cabal in that council would be able to distract and to enervate the whole system of administration. If no such cabal should exist, the mere diversity of views and opinions would alone be sufficient to tincture the exercise of the executive authority with a spirit of habitual feebleness and dilatoriness.
But one of the weightiest objections to a plurality in the Executive, and which lies as much against the last as the first plan, is, that it tends to conceal faults and destroy responsibility.
Responsibility is of two kinds to censure and to punishment. The first is the more important of the two, especially in an elective office. Man, in public trust, will much oftener act in such a manner as to render him unworthy of being any longer trusted, than in such a manner as to make him obnoxious to legal punishment. But the multiplication of the Executive adds to the difficulty of detection in either case. It often becomes impossible, amidst mutual accusations, to determine on whom the blame or the punishment of a pernicious measure, or series of pernicious measures, ought really to fall. It is shifted from one to another with so much dexterity, and under such plausible appearances, that the public opinion is left in suspense about the real author….
“I was overruled by my council. The council were so divided in their opinions that it was impossible to obtain any better resolution on the point.” These and similar pretexts are constantly at hand, whether true or false. And who is there that will either take the trouble or incur the odium, of a strict scrutiny into the secret springs of the transaction? Should there be found a citizen zealous enough to undertake the unpromising task, if there happen to be collusion between the parties concerned, how easy it is to clothe the circumstances with so much ambiguity, as to render it uncertain what was the precise conduct of any of those parties?…
It is evident from these considerations, that the plurality of the Executive tends to deprive the people of the two greatest securities they can have for the faithful exercise of any delegated power, first, the restraints of public opinion, which lose their efficacy, as well on account of the division of the censure attendant on bad measures among a number, as on account of the uncertainty on whom it ought to fall; and, secondly, the opportunity of discovering with facility and clearness the misconduct of the persons they trust, in order either to their removal from office or to their actual punishment in cases which admit of it.
In England, the king is a perpetual magistrate; and it is a maxim which has obtained for the sake of the public peace, that he is unaccountable for his administration, and his person sacred. Nothing, therefore, can be wiser in that kingdom, than to annex to the king a constitutional council, who may be responsible to the nation for the advice they give. Without this, there would be no responsibility whatever in the executive department an idea inadmissible in a free government. But even there the king is not bound by the resolutions of his council, though they are answerable for the advice they give. He is the absolute master of his own conduct in the exercise of his office, and may observe or disregard the counsel given to him at his sole discretion.
But in a republic, where every magistrate ought to be personally responsible for his behavior in office the reason which in the British Constitution dictates the propriety of a council, not only ceases to apply, but turns against the institution. In the monarchy of Great Britain, it furnishes a substitute for the prohibited responsibility of the chief magistrate, which serves in some degree as a hostage to the national justice for his good behavior. In the American republic, it would serve to destroy, or would greatly diminish, the intended and necessary responsibility of the Chief Magistrate himself….
Hamilton, Federalist 78
While the framers spent extensive time at the Constitutional Convention discussing the composition of the legislative and executive branches, they spent relatively little time discussing the judiciary. Rather than establish a court system, they left this to Congress and merely provided minimum requirements for federal judges. However, the theory of a third branch that is independent of popular will is an important addition to constitutional theory, since prior to this time the judiciary was viewed as a component of the executive branch.
Hamilton began by explaining that the life tenure of federal judges would help prevent the other branches from exceeding their constitutional powers. He then discussed how he thought this would work: the Supreme Court would declare laws unconstitutional if they exceed the power delegated to Congress. Although he claimed the judiciary would be “the least dangerous branch” because it “has neither force nor will but merely judgment,” he admitted that judges would have the power to declare laws unconstitutional when they were contrary to the “manifest tenor” of the Constitution—not only when they violate specific constitutional provisions.
Hamilton argued that the will of the people, as expressed in the constitution, can only be sustained if the constitution is regarded as superior to subsequent laws–the opposite of the British common law tradition. He correctly predicted that the judiciary’s power of judicial review would protect the rights of minorities and even deter Congress from passing laws infringing on their rights.
The Judicial Department
We proceed now to an examination of the judiciary department of the proposed government….
As to the tenure by which the judges are to hold their places; this chiefly concerns their duration in office; the provisions for their support; the precautions for their responsibility.
According to the plan of the convention, all judges who may be appointed by the United States are to hold their offices during good behavior; which is conformable to the most approved of the State constitutions and among the rest, to that of this State. Its propriety having been drawn into question by the adversaries of that plan, is no light symptom of the rage for objection, which disorders their imaginations and judgments. The standard of good behavior for the continuance in office of the judicial magistracy is certainly one of the most valuable of the modern improvements in the practice of government. In a monarchy it is an excellent barrier to the despotism of the prince; in a republic it is a no less excellent barrier to the encroachments and oppressions of the representative body. And it is the best expedient which can be devised in any government to secure a steady, upright, and impartial administration of the laws.
Whoever attentively considers the different departments of power must perceive, that, in a government in which they are separated from each other, the judiciary, from the nature of its functions, will always be the least dangerous to the political rights of the Constitution; because it will be least in a capacity to annoy or injure them. The Executive not only dispenses the honors, but holds the sword of the community. The legislature not only commands the purse, but prescribes the rules by which the duties and rights of every citizen are to be regulated. The judiciary, on the contrary, has no influence over either the sword or the purse; no direction either of the strength or of the wealth of the society; and can take no active resolution whatever. It may truly be said to have neither force nor will, but merely judgment; and must ultimately depend upon the aid of the executive arm even for the efficacy of its judgments.
This simple view of the matter suggests several important consequences. It proves incontestably that the judiciary is beyond comparison the weakest of the three departments of power [citing Montesquieu]; that it can never attack with success either of the other two; and that all possible care is requisite to enable it to defend itself against their attacks. It equally proves that though individual oppression may now and then proceed from the courts of justice, the general liberty of the people can never be endangered from that quarter; I mean so long as the judiciary remains truly distinct from both the legislature and the Executive. For I agree, that “there is no liberty, if the power of judging be not separated from the legislative and executive powers.” [quoting Montesquieu] And it proves, in the last place, that as liberty can have nothing to fear from the judiciary alone, but would have everything to fear from its union with either of the other departments; that as all the effects of such a union must ensue from a dependence of the former on the latter, notwithstanding a nominal and apparent separation; that as, from the natural feebleness of the judiciary, it is in continual jeopardy of being overpowered, awed, or influenced by its co-ordinate branches; and that as nothing can contribute so much to its firmness and independence as permanency in office, this quality may therefore be justly regarded as an indispensable ingredient in its constitution, and, in a great measure, as the citadel of the public justice and the public security.
The complete independence of the courts of justice is peculiarly essential in a limited Constitution. By a limited Constitution, I understand one which contains certain specified exceptions to the legislative authority; such, for instance, as that it shall pass no bills of attainder, no ex post facto laws, and the like. Limitations of this kind can be preserved in practice no other way than through the medium of courts of justice, whose duty it must be to declare all acts contrary to the manifest tenor of the Constitution void. Without this, all the reservations of particular rights or privileges would amount to nothing.
Some perplexity respecting the rights of the courts to pronounce legislative acts void, because contrary to the Constitution, has arisen from an imagination that the doctrine would imply a superiority of the judiciary to the legislative power. It is urged that the authority which can declare the acts of another void, must necessarily be superior to the one whose acts may be declared void. As this doctrine is of great importance in all the American constitutions, a brief discussion of the ground on which it rests cannot be unacceptable.
There is no position which depends on clearer principles than that every act of a delegated authority, contrary to the tenor of the commission under which it is exercised, is void. No legislative act, therefore, contrary to the Constitution, can be valid. To deny this, would be to affirm, that the deputy is greater than his principal; that the servant is above his master; that the representatives of the people are superior to the people themselves; that men acting by virtue of powers, may do not only what their powers do not authorize, but what they forbid.
If it be said that the legislative body are themselves the constitutional judges of their own powers, and that the construction they put upon them is conclusive upon the other departments, it may be answered, that this cannot be the natural presumption, where it is not to be collected from any particular provisions in the Constitution. It is not otherwise to be supposed, that the Constitution could intend to enable the representatives of the people to substitute their will to that of their constituents. It is far more rational to suppose that the courts were designed to be an intermediate body between the people and the legislature, in order, among other things, to keep the latter within the limits assigned to their authority. The interpretation of the laws is the proper and peculiar province of the courts. A constitution is, in fact, and must be regarded by the judges, as a fundamental law. It therefore belongs to them to ascertain its meaning, as well as the meaning of any particular act proceeding from the legislative body. If there should happen to be an irreconcilable variance between the two, that which has the superior obligation and validity ought, of course, to be preferred; or, in other words, the Constitution ought to be preferred to the statute, the intention of the people to the intention of their agents.
Nor does this conclusion by any means suppose a superiority of the judicial to the legislative power. It only supposes that the power of the people is superior to both; and that where the will of the legislature, declared in its statutes, stands in opposition to that of the people, declared in the Constitution, the judges ought to be governed by the latter rather than the former. They ought to regulate their decisions by the fundamental laws, rather than by those which are not fundamental.
This exercise of judicial discretion, in determining between two contradictory laws, is exemplified in a familiar instance. It not uncommonly happens, that there are two statutes existing at one time, clashing in whole or in part with each other, and neither of them containing any repealing clause or expression. In such a case, it is the province of the courts to liquidate and fix their meaning and operation. So far as they can, by any fair construction, be reconciled to each other, reason and law conspire to dictate that this should be done; where this is impracticable, it becomes a matter of necessity to give effect to one, in exclusion of the other. The rule which has obtained in the courts for determining their relative validity is, that the last in order of time shall be preferred to the first. But this is a mere rule of construction, not derived from any positive law, but from the nature and reason of the thing. It is a rule not enjoined upon the courts by legislative provision, but adopted by themselves, as consonant to truth and propriety, for the direction of their conduct as interpreters of the law. They thought it reasonable, that between the interfering acts of an equal authority, that which was the last indication of its will should have the preference.
But in regard to the interfering acts of a superior and subordinate authority, of an original and derivative power, the nature and reason of the thing indicate the converse of that rule as proper to be followed. They teach us that the prior act of a superior ought to be preferred to the subsequent act of an inferior and subordinate authority; and that accordingly, whenever a particular statute contravenes the Constitution, it will be the duty of the judicial tribunals to adhere to the latter and disregard the former.
It can be of no weight to say that the courts, on the pretense of a repugnancy, may substitute their own pleasure to the constitutional intentions of the legislature. This might as well happen in the case of two contradictory statutes; or it might as well happen in every adjudication upon any single statute. The courts must declare the sense of the law; and if they should be disposed to exercise will instead of judgment, the consequence would equally be the substitution of their pleasure to that of the legislative body. The observation, if it prove anything, would prove that there ought to be no judges distinct from that body.
If, then, the courts of justice are to be considered as the bulwarks of a limited Constitution against legislative encroachments, this consideration will afford a strong argument for the permanent tenure of judicial offices, since nothing will contribute so much as this to that independent spirit in the judges which must be essential to the faithful performance of so arduous a duty.
This independence of the judges is equally requisite to guard the Constitution and the rights of individuals from the effects of those ill humors, which the arts of designing men, or the influence of particular conjunctures, sometimes disseminate among the people themselves, and which, though they speedily give place to better information, and more deliberate reflection, have a tendency, in the meantime, to occasion dangerous innovations in the government, and serious oppressions of the minor party in the community. Though I trust the friends of the proposed Constitution will never concur with its enemies, in questioning that fundamental principle of republican government, which admits the right of the people to alter or abolish the established Constitution, whenever they find it inconsistent with their happiness; yet it is not to be inferred from this principle, that the representatives of the people, whenever a momentary inclination happens to lay hold of a majority of their constituents, incompatible with the provisions in the existing Constitution, would, on that account, be justifiable in a violation of those provisions; or that the courts would be under a greater obligation to connive at infractions in this shape, than when they had proceeded wholly from the cabals of the representative body. Until the people have, by some solemn and authoritative act, annulled or changed the established form, it is binding upon themselves collectively, as well as individually; and no presumption, or even knowledge, of their sentiments, can warrant their representatives in a departure from it, prior to such an act. But it is easy to see, that it would require an uncommon portion of fortitude in the judges to do their duty as faithful guardians of the Constitution, where legislative invasions of it had been instigated by the major voice of the community.
But it is not with a view to infractions of the Constitution only that the independence of the judges may be an essential safeguard against the effects of occasional ill humors in the society. These sometimes extend no farther than to the injury of the private rights of particular classes of citizens, by unjust and partial laws. Here also the firmness of the judicial magistracy is of vast importance in mitigating the severity and confining the operation of such laws. It not only serves to moderate the immediate mischiefs of those which may have been passed, but it operates as a check upon the legislative body in passing them; who, perceiving that obstacles to the success of iniquitous intention are to be expected from the scruples of the courts, are in a manner compelled, by the very motives of the injustice they meditate, to qualify their attempts. This is a circumstance calculated to have more influence upon the character of our governments, than but few may be aware of. The benefits of the integrity and moderation of the judiciary have already been felt in more States than one; and though they may have displeased those whose sinister expectations they may have disappointed, they must have commanded the esteem and applause of all the virtuous and disinterested. Considerate men, of every description, ought to prize whatever will tend to beget or fortify that temper in the courts: as no man can be sure that he may not be tomorrow the victim of a spirit of injustice, by which he may be a gainer today. And every man must now feel, that the inevitable tendency of such a spirit is to sap the foundations of public and private confidence, and to introduce in its stead universal distrust and distress.
That inflexible and uniform adherence to the rights of the Constitution, and of individuals, which we perceive to be indispensable in the courts of justice, can certainly not be expected from judges who hold their offices by a temporary commission. Periodical appointments, however regulated, or by whomsoever made, would, in some way or other, be fatal to their necessary independence. If the power of making them was committed either to the Executive or legislature, there would be danger of an improper complaisance to the branch which possessed it; if to both, there would be an unwillingness to hazard the displeasure of either; if to the people, or to persons chosen by them for the special purpose, there would be too great a disposition to consult popularity, to justify a reliance that nothing would be consulted but the Constitution and the laws.
There is yet a further and a weightier reason for the permanency of the judicial offices, which is deducible from the nature of the qualifications they require. It has been frequently remarked, with great propriety, that a voluminous code of laws is one of the inconveniences necessarily connected with the advantages of a free government. To avoid an arbitrary discretion in the courts, it is indispensable that they should be bound down by strict rules and precedents, which serve to define and point out their duty in every particular case that comes before them; and it will readily be conceived from the variety of controversies which grow out of the folly and wickedness of mankind, that the records of those precedents must unavoidably swell to a very considerable bulk, and must demand long and laborious study to acquire a competent knowledge of them. Hence it is, that there can be but few men in the society who will have sufficient skill in the laws to qualify them for the stations of judges. And making the proper deductions for the ordinary depravity of human nature, the number must be still smaller of those who unite the requisite integrity with the requisite knowledge. These considerations apprise us, that the government can have no great option between fit character; and that a temporary duration in office, which would naturally discourage such characters from quitting a lucrative line of practice to accept a seat on the bench, would have a tendency to throw the administration of justice into hands less able, and less well qualified, to conduct it with utility and dignity. In the present circumstances of this country, and in those in which it is likely to be for a long time to come, the disadvantages on this score would be greater than they may at first sight appear; but it must be confessed, that they are far inferior to those which present themselves under the other aspects of the subject.
Upon the whole, there can be no room to doubt that the convention acted wisely in copying from the models of those constitutions which have established good behavior as the tenure of their judicial offices, in point of duration; and that so far from being blamable on this account, their plan would have been inexcusably defective, if it had wanted this important feature of good government. The experience of Great Britain affords an illustrious comment on the excellence of the institution. | 26,802 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://touro.pressbooks.pub/rozinskiamericanpoliticaltheory/chapter/the-federalist-papers/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:69689 | https://touro.pressbooks.pub/rozinskiamericanpoliticaltheory/chapter/the-federalist-papers/ |
lO5eF261K5R56HhV | Microeconomics | 191 Reading: Monopoly and Antitrust Policy
MORE THAN COOKING, HEATING, AND COOLING
If you live in the United States, there is a slightly better than 50–50 chance your home is heated and cooled using natural gas. You may even use natural gas for cooking. However, those uses are not the primary uses of natural gas in the U.S. In 2012, according to the U.S. Energy Information Administration, home heating, cooling, and cooking accounted for just 18% of natural gas usage. What accounts for the rest? The greatest uses for natural gas are the generation of electric power (39%) and in industry (30%). Together these three uses for natural gas touch many areas of our lives, so why would there be any opposition to a merger of two natural gas firms? After all, a merger could mean increased efficiencies and reduced costs to people like you and me.
In October 2011, Kinder Morgan and El Paso Corporation, two natural gas firms, announced they were merging. The announcement stated the combined firm would link “nearly every major production region with markets,” cut costs by “eliminating duplication in pipelines and other assets,” and that “the savings could be passed on to consumers.”
The objection? The $21.1 billion deal would give Kinder Morgan control of more than 80,000 miles of pipeline, making the new firm the third largest energy producer in North America. As the third largest energy producer, policymakers and the public wondered whether the cost savings really would be passed on to consumers, or would the merger give Kinder Morgan a strong oligopoly position in the natural gas marketplace?
That brings us to the central question this module poses: What should the balance be between corporate size and a larger number of competitors in a marketplace? We will also consider what role the government should play in this balancing act.
Introduction to Monopoly and Antitrust Policy
The previous modules on the theory of the firm identified three important lessons: First, that competition, by providing consumers with lower prices and a variety of innovative products, is a good thing; second, that large-scale production can dramatically lower average costs; and third, that markets in the real world are rarely perfectly competitive. As a consequence, government policymakers must determine how much to intervene to balance the potential benefits of large-scale production against the potential loss of competition that can occur when businesses grow in size, especially through mergers.
For example, in 2006, AT&T and BellSouth, two telecommunications companies, wished to merge into a single firm. In the year before the merger, AT&T was the 121st largest company in the country when ranked by sales, with $44 billion in revenues and 190,000 employees. BellSouth was the 314th largest company in the country, with $21 billion in revenues and 63,000 employees.
The two companies argued that the merger would benefit consumers, who would be able to purchase better telecommunications services at a cheaper price because the newly created firm would be able to produce more efficiently by taking advantage of economies of scale and eliminating duplicate investments. However, a number of activist groups like the Consumer Federation of America and Public Knowledge expressed fears that the merger would reduce competition and lead to higher prices for consumers for decades to come. In December 2006, the federal government allowed the merger to proceed. By 2009, the new post-merger AT&T was the eighth largest company by revenues in the United States, and by that measure the largest telecommunications company in the world. Economists have spent – and will still spend – years trying to determine whether the merger of AT&T and BellSouth, as well as other smaller mergers of telecommunications companies at about this same time, helped consumers, hurt them, or did not make much difference.
This module discusses public policy issues about competition. How can economists and governments determine when mergers of large companies like AT&T and BellSouth should be allowed and when they should be blocked? The government also plays a role in policing anticompetitive behavior other than mergers, like prohibiting certain kinds of contracts that might restrict competition. In the case of natural monopoly, however, trying to preserve competition probably will not work very well, and so government will often resort to regulation of price and/or quantity of output. In recent decades, there has been a global trend toward less government intervention in the price and output decisions of businesses. | 954 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://library.achievingthedream.org/herkimermicroeconomics/chapter/monopoly-and-antitrust-policy/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:50257 | https://library.achievingthedream.org/herkimermicroeconomics/chapter/monopoly-and-antitrust-policy/ |
zPkkNN-SliM4F7Dp | Foundations of Education | 13 Appendix C: The Reflective Practitioner
The experience in reflective teaching is that you must plunge into the doing, and try to educate yourself before you know what it is you’re trying to learn.
—Donald Schön, 1987
Donald Schön, a philosopher and educational researcher, makes an important observation: learning to teach often means making choices and taking actions without knowing in advance quite what you need to learn or what the consequences will be. The problem, as we have pointed out more than once, is that classroom events are often ambiguous and ambivalent, in that they usually serve more than one purpose. A teacher compliments a student’s contribution to a discussion: at that moment she may be motivating the student, but also focusing classmates’ thinking on key ideas. Her comment functions simultaneously as behavioral reinforcement, information, and expression of caring. At that moment complimenting the student may be exactly the right thing to do. Or not: perhaps the praise causes the teacher to neglect the contributions of others, or focuses attention on factors that students cannot control, like their ability instead of their effort. In teaching, it seems, everything cuts more than one way, signifies more than one thing. The complications can make it difficult to prepare for teaching in advance, though they also make teaching itself interesting and challenging.
The complications also mean that teachers need to learn from their own teaching by reflecting (or thinking about the significance of) their experiences. In the classrooms, students are not the only people who need to learn. So do teachers, though what teachers need to learn is less about curriculum and more about students’ behavior and motivation, about how to assess their learning well, and about how to shape the class into a mutually supportive community.
Thinking about these matters begins to make a teacher a reflective practitioner (Schön, 1983), a professional who learns both from experience and about experience. Becoming thoughtful helps you in all the areas discussed in this text: it helps in understanding better how students’ learning occurs, what motivates students, how you might differentiate your instruction more fully, and how you can make assessments of learning more valid and fair.
Learning to reflect on practice is so important, in fact, that we have referred to and illustrated its value throughout this book. In addition we devote this entire appendix to how you, like other professional teachers, can develop habits of reflective practice in yourself. First, we describe what reflective practice feels like as an experience, and offer examples of places, people, and activities that can support your own reflection on practice. Then we discuss how teachers can also learn simply by observing and reflecting on their own teaching systematically, and by sharing the results with other teachers and professionals. This is an activity we mentioned in this book previously; we call it teacher research or action research. As you will see, reflective practice not only contributes to teachers’ ability to make wise decisions, but also allows them to serve as effective, principled advocates on behalf of students.
Resources for professional development and learning
At some level reflection on practice is something you must do for yourself, since only you have had your particular teaching experiences, and only you can choose how to interpret and make use of them. But this rather individual activity also benefits from the stimulus and challenge offered by fellow professionals. Others’ ideas may differ from your own, and they can therefore help in working out your own thoughts and in alerting you to ideas that you may otherwise take for granted. These benefits of reflection can happen in any number of ways, but most fall into one of four general categories:
- talking and collaborating with colleagues
- participating in professional associations
- attending professional development workshops and conferences
- reading professional literature
In the next sections we explore what each of these activities has to offer.
Colleagues as a resource
Perhaps the simplest way to stimulate reflections about your own teaching is to engage fellow teachers or other colleagues in dialogue (or thoughtful conversation) about teaching and learning: What do you think of this kind of experience? Have you ever had one like it yourself, and what did you make of it? Note that to be helpful in stimulating reflection, these conversations need to be largely about educational matters, not about personal ones (“What movie did you see last night?”). Dialogues with individual colleagues have certain advantages to more complex or formal professional experiences. Talking with an individual generally allows more participation for both of you, since only two people may need to express their views. It also can provide a measure of safety or confidentiality if your conversation partner is a trusted colleague; sometimes, therefore, you can share ideas of which you are not sure, or that may be controversial.
A somewhat more complex way of stimulating reflection is group study. Several teachers at a school gather regularly to bring themselves up to date on a new curriculum, for example, or to plan activities or policies related to a school-wide theme (e.g. “the environment”). Group meetings often result in considerable dialog among the members about the best ways to teach and to manage classrooms, as well as stories about students’ behavior and learning experiences. For a beginning teacher, group study can be a particularly good way to learn from experienced, veteran teachers.
Sharing of ideas becomes even more intense if teachers collaborate with each other about their work on an extended basis. Collaboration can take many forms; in one form it might be “team teaching” by two or more teachers working with one group of students, and in another form it might be two or more teachers consulting regularly to coordinate the content of their courses. Collaborations work best when each member of the team brings responsibilities and expertise that are unique, but also related to the other members’ responsibilities. Imagine, for example, a collaboration between Sharon, who is a middle-years classroom teacher, and Pat, who is a resource teacher—one whose job is to assist classroom teachers in working with students with educational disabilities or special needs. If Pat spends time in Sharon’s classroom, then not only will the students benefit, but they both may learn from each other’s presence. Potentially, Pat can learn the details of the middle-years curriculum and learn more about the full range of students’ skills—not just those of students having difficulties. Sharon can get ideas about how to help individuals who, in a classroom context, seem especially difficult to help. Achieving these benefits, of course, comes at a cost: the two teachers may need to take time not only for the students, but also to talk with each other. Sometimes the time-cost can be reduced somewhat if their school administrators can arrange for a bit of extra planning and sharing time. But even if this does not happen, the benefits of collaboration will be very real, and often make the investment of time worthwhile.
Professional associations and professional development activities
Another way to stimulate reflection about teaching is by joining and participating in professional associations— organizations focused on supporting the work of teachers and on upholding high standards of teaching practice. Exhibit 1 lists several major professional associations related to education and their Internet addresses. Most of them are composed of local branches or chapters serving the needs of a particular city, state, or region.
Exhibit 1: A selection of professional associations related to education
- American Association for the Mentally Retarded (AAMR)
- Association for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, & Dance (AAHPERD)
- Association for Experiential Education (AEE)
- Association for Retarded Citizens (ARC)
- ENC Online Resources for Math and Science Education
- National Association for Bilingual Education (NABE)
- National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC)
- National Council for Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM)
- National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS)
- National Council for Teachers of English (NCTE)
- National Science Teachers Association
- Organization of American Historians (OAH)
To achieve their purposes, a professional association provides a mixture of publications, meetings, and conferences intended for the professional development of educators, including classroom teachers. Typically the publications include either a relatively frequent newsletter or a less frequent journal focused on issues of practice or research. Very large associations often publish more than one newsletter or journal, each of which is focused on a particular topic or type of news (for example, the National Education Association in the United States publishes eight separate periodicals). Some also publish online journals (there are several listed as part of Exhibit 2 or online versions of print journals. Whatever format they take, professionally sponsored publications stimulate thinking by discussing issues and dilemmas faced by professional educators, and sometimes also by presenting recent educational research and the recommendations for teaching that flow from that research. We discuss ways of using these publications further in the next section of this chapter
Exhibit 2: A sampling of journals related to professional education
- CSS Journal: Computers in the Social Studies—dedicated to the encouragement of the use of computers and related technology in K-12 social studies classrooms.
- Education Policy and Evaluation—published by the College of Education at Arizona State University
- Educational Theory—publishes work in the philosophy of education and other disciplines.
- Harvard Educational Review—quarterly journal that provides an inter-disciplinary forum for innovative thinking and research in education.
- Journal of Computing in Higher Education—publishes articles that contribute to our understanding of the issues, problems, and research associated with instructional technology
- Revista Iberoamericana de Educacion—Revista de la OEI.
- Scholarly Electronic Journals—Trends and Attitudes: A Research Proposal
Meetings and conferences sponsored by a professional association also take a variety of forms. Depending on the size of the association and on the importance of the topic, a meeting could be as short as a one half-day workshop or as long as a full week with many sessions occurring simultaneously. Sometimes, too, an association might sponsor a more extended course—a series of meetings focused on one topic or problem of concern to teachers, such as classroom management or curriculum planning. In some cases, the course might carry university credit, though not always.
As you might expect, the size of a professional association makes a difference in kinds of professional development experiences it can provide. In general, the smaller the association, the more exclusively it focuses on local news and educational needs, both in its publications and in its meetings or other activities. At a professional development workshop sponsored by a local teachers’ association, for example, you are relatively likely to see colleagues and acquaintances not only from your own school, but from other neighboring schools. Locally sponsored events are also more likely to focus on local issues, such as implementing a new system for assessing students’ learning within the local schools. In general, too, local events tend to cost less to attend, in both time and money.
By the same token, the larger the association, the more its professional development opportunities are likely to focus on large-scale trends in education, such as the impact of the No Child Left Behind legislation we discussed in Chapter 1 or the latest trends in using computer technology for teaching. Conferences or other professional development events are more likely to span several days and to be located outside the immediate town or region whether you live and work. You may therefore see fewer of your everyday colleagues and acquaintances, but you may also have a greater incentive to make new acquaintances whose interests or concerns are similar to your own. The event is more likely to feature educators who are well-known nationally or internationally, and to call attention to educational trends or issues that are new or unfamiliar.
Whether large or small, the activities of professional associations can stimulate thinking and reflecting about teaching. By meeting and talking with others at a meeting of an association, teachers learn new ideas for teaching, become aware of emerging trends and issues about education, and confront assumptions that they may have made about their own practices with students. Professional meetings, conferences, and workshops can provide these benefits because they draw on the expertise and experience of a wide range of professionals—usually wider than is possible within a single school building. But compared simply to talking with your immediate colleagues, they have a distinct disadvantage: they take effort and a bit of money to attend, and sometimes they are available at convenient times. Well-balanced professional development should therefore also include activities that are available frequently, but that also draw on a wide range of expertise. Fortunately, an activity with these features is often easily at hand: the reading of professional publications about educational research and practice.
Reading and understanding professional articles
Although publications about educational issues and research can take many forms, they tend to serve three major purposes in some sort of combination. A publication could either (1) provide a framework for understanding teaching and learning, (2) offer advice about how to teach, or (3) advocate particular ideas or practices about education. Benefiting from a professional publication depends partly on understanding which of these purposes a particular article or book is emphasizing.
Three purposes of educational publications
Consider the first purpose, to provide a framework for understanding teaching and learning (Hittleman and Simon, 2005). A “framework” in this context means a perspective or general viewpoint for understanding specific events and actions. They are much like the theories described earlier in this book, though not always as formal or broad. A published article might propose, for example, a way of understanding why certain students are disrespectful in spite of teachers’ efforts to prevent such behavior (perhaps they are reinforced by peers for being disrespectful). It might offer evidence supporting this perspective. In doing so, the author provides a sort of “theory of disrespectful behavior,” though he or she may not call it a theory explicitly.
A second purpose is to offer advice about appropriate teaching practices. An article intended for this purpose, for example, might suggest how to introduce reading instruction to first graders, or how to use fiction to teach high school history, or how to organize a class to include a student with a disability. Often giving such advice overlaps with the first purpose, providing a framework for understanding, since thinking about an educational issue in a particular way may imply certain ways of dealing with it in practice.
A third purpose of a published article is to advocate ideas and persuade others to take actions benefiting students and society. It might take a position about important issues in education: Is it a good idea or not to retain (or hold back) a student in grade level for another year if the student fails the curriculum the first time? Should schools teach about sexuality? Should girls learn science in classrooms separate from boys? In advocating for ideas or policies about such matters, the article may express concern about what is good, ethical or desirable in education, not just about what is factually true or practical. The author may seek explicitly to persuade readers of the author’s point of view. These features do not mean, however, that you need to give up thinking for yourself. On the contrary, when reading an advocacy-oriented article, reflection may be especially important.
Whatever its purpose—understanding, advice, or advocacy—an article or book about a professional issue can stimulate thinking about what you know and believe about teaching and learning. It should therefore create, rather than undermine, your individuality as a teacher. Think of professional reading as a dialogue or conversation about education: some of the comments in the conversation will probably be more helpful than others, but each participant contributes somehow, even if none can give a final answer or everlasting truth. It is the same with publications; some may be more helpful than others, but none will be so perfect that you can afford to cease further reading or further thinking. If you are about to begin a teaching career, for example, you may be especially interested in anything published about classroom management, but less interested in the problems of administering schools or in the political issues that usually accompany educational systems. Yet some publications may discuss these latter issues anyway, and eventually you may find yourself more concerned about them than at the start of a career. Your job, as a reflective teacher, will be sort out the currently useful articles (or parts of articles) from ones you cannot use immediately.
To experience educational publications in this way, however, you must think of the authors as your collaborators as well as general authorities. As a reader, you need to assume that you are entitled to consider an author’s ideas, but not obligated to accept it without journals related to professional education question. There are several strategies for developing this attitude, but to keep the discussion focused, we will look at just two. We have already discussed the first strategy, which is to understand the purposes of any particular piece of research which you encounter, in order to assess its current usefulness to your daily work and your long-term professional goals. We have already indicated several general purposes of educational research publications, but we will go into more detail about this in the next section. The second strategy for relating to authors as collaborators is to think about how you yourself might contribute to professional knowledge by engaging in research of your own, even as a classroom teacher—an activity often called action research (Mills, 2006; Stringer, 2007). At the end of this chapter we discuss what action research involves, and how you might consider using it.
Authors’ assumptions about readers
Authors of professional articles and books also make assumptions about their readers, and it helps to be aware of these while you read. The assumptions affect the style, content, and significance of the author’s ideas in ways that are both obvious and subtle.
One assumption is about the response which an author expects from you, the reader: does he or she expect you actually to do something new, or simply to consider doing something new? Or does the author just want you to be aware of a new idea? Consider, for example, an article reviewing best practices about inclusion of students with special needs. The author may imply, or even urge you to take a moral position: you should include these students, the author may seem to say. But in a different article—one recommending particular teaching practices—the author may merely ask you to think about alternatives to your normal ways of teaching. Certain strategies worked under certain teaching conditions, the author says, so simply consider whether they might work for you as well.
A second, less obvious difference among professional publications is in their un-stated assumptions about prior experiences and attitudes of readers. This assumption may be either helpful or frustrating, depending on you actual prior background. A piece intended as a “framework for understanding” may assume, for example, that you are familiar with basic theories of learning already. If you have read and understood what we outlined in Chapter 2 of this book, the article may turn out to be relatively accessible or understandable to you even if you have relatively little experience in actual classroom teaching, and even if you have never studied learning theories in detail. The article might seem more accessible than you expect because, for example, it focuses primarily on how teacher’s praise affects students’ learning, an idea with which you may be somewhat familiar already.
On the other hand, a professional publication may assume that you have taught school for a number of years already, or that you are at least familiar with classroom life from the point of view not of students, but of a teacher. An author writing about “withitness” (discussed in Chapter 7), for example, may make this assumption, since the concept originated by observing teachers managing large group classroom activities. If you yourself are experienced at actual teaching, reading about withitness may trigger a lot of questions about just how withit teachers are able to be in practice, and about whether in fact they always need to be withit. You can also ask yourself these questions even if you have not yet been a teacher yourself, of course, but they may seem less immediate or urgent.
A professional article intended to advocate for a particular educational policy or practice may make very different assumptions about you as a reader. It may assume, for example, that you do in fact enjoy persuading others of your point of view, even when others initially disagree or react indifferently. This sort of assumption may show up as much in what the writing omits, as in what it includes: if the term cooperative learning activity is used without explanation, for example, the researcher may be assuming not only that you are the sort of person— perhaps a teacher—who knows what that term means already, but also that you already believe in the value of cooperative learning and are motivated to explain its value to others.
In making these distinctions among published articles, keep in mind a point we made at the outset: that an individual article usually serves more than one purpose at a time and makes more than one assumption about your prior knowledge and about how you are supposed to respond to the article. The differences are only about emphasis. To illustrate these ideas about the purposes and effects of research, look in the next section at three examples of actual published articles relevant to education. The studies are not a full cross-section of educational research or publications, but they do suggest some of the variety possible (and necessary) among them. Each example serves a mixture of purposes, but also emphasizes one purpose in particular (perspective-taking, teaching recommendations, or advocacy) described earlier. The authors of each example also make particular assumptions about you, the reader—about the intellectual work which the authors expect you to do and about the motivations which they assume you have or hope that you will acquire. For each example, we describe the reactions of one of us (Kelvin Seifert) as he read the article.
Example #1: How do children acquire moral commitments?
In 1997, Herbert Saltzstein and several colleagues published a research-oriented article about how children acquire moral beliefs (Saltzstein, et al., 1997). The group of researchers were all graduate students and professors of psychology, working mostly at the City University of New York. When Kelvin read of their affiliation with psychology, he suspected that they would talk about moral beliefs in general, and not necessarily about moral issues in classrooms, such as cheating or treating classmates with care and respect. Still, the article interested Kelvin as a former teacher and current university professor, because he had long been concerned with fostering qualities like integrity, honesty, cooperation, and loyalty in students. If Kelvin could find out about the mechanism or process by which children acquire mature moral beliefs, he reasoned, maybe he could modify his teaching to take advantage of that knowledge.
So Kelvin began reading the article. He discovered some parts were challenging and required careful reflection, whereas others were easier to read. One of the most challenging passages came almost immediately, in the second and third paragraphs; these paragraphs, it seemed, required a bit of prior knowledge about theories of moral development. But Kelvin was willing to concentrate more fully on these paragraphs, because he expected that they might clarify the rest of the study. Here are the paragraphs, and some of Kelvin’s thoughts as he read them:
| Initial problem: We began by re-examining the phenomenon of heteronomy, Piaget’s assertion (1932/1965) following Kant (1785/1959) that young children equate moral obligation with deference to authority when justifying their moral judgments. The concept is important because it is central to the organismic account of moral development as a series of differentiations and integrations…. [p. 37] | This was one of the difficult paragraphs, perhaps especially because Kelvin had never read the specific book by Piaget or by the philosopher Kant. But Kelvin did recall reading, at various times over the years, about Piaget’s views on moral development. Piaget believed that at first, children define morality in terms of what adults think: an action is “good” if and only if adults (e.g. parents) consider it good, and “bad” if and only if adults consider it bad. This is the idea of “heteronomy” to which Saltzstein is referring. Children, in this view, take quite awhile to develop or “grow” into truly autonomous moral beliefs. Autonomous beliefs form slowly out of earlier beliefs, in the way that a young plant or animal might grow. This is the “organismic account of moral development” that Saltzstein is talking about. |
| …This account has been challenged by Turiel’s domain theory (Turiel, 1983). According to Turiel and his colleagues, even young children intuitively distinguish moral from conventional rules. [p. 37] | Here was an idea that was intriguing! Saltzstein and his colleagues were pointing to research (by the person cited, named Turiel) that suggests that even preschoolers know the difference between truly moral rules and merely conventional rules. Apparently they believe, for example, that it would be wrong to steal toys or to hit someone, even if adults gave you permission to do so. But apparently they also know that it would be OK for traffic lights to use different colors—for red to mean “go” and green to mean “stop”—provided that everyone agreed on changing the rule. That is what the researcher named Turiel apparently meant by distinguishing convention from morality. |
The introduction continued in this challenging style for about two pages, requiring Kelvin to read slowly and carefully in order to understand its points. Kelvin was not discouraged from continuing, though, because he wanted to find out more about how, in general, children acquire moral beliefs. Did moral beliefs take time to develop—did they “grow” on children slowly after initially being borrowed from parents or other adults? In this case, then maybe Kelvin owed it to his students to adopt and express desirable moral attitudes myself, so as to provide a good model for their developing beliefs. Or were students’ key moral beliefs already in place when they entered school—almost as if “hard wired” in their minds, or at least already learned during infancy and the preschool years? In this second case, it might still be desirable for Kelvin to adopt positive moral attitudes, but not for the purpose of modeling them for students. Students already “hard wired” for key moral beliefs might not need a model so much as an enforcer of desirable moral behaviors. Concerning the issue of cheating, for example, the students might already understand the undesirable nature and implications of this behavior. As a result they might not need demonstrations of honest integrity from their teacher as much as affirmations from the teacher of the importance of honesty and integrity, along with consistent enforcement of appropriate sanctions against cheating when it did occur.
For Kelvin, therefore, the outcomes of research on moral development—including Saltzstein’s that he was currently reading—posed issues of classroom management, both in university classrooms and in public school classrooms. So Kelvin read on. Saltzstein proposed resolving the issues about the origins of moral development by distinguishing between moral conflicts and moral dilemmas:
| Moral conflicts are conflicts between moral duty or right and a non-moral desire. An example might be the conflict between whether to return a wallet to its rightful owner or keep the coveted wallet with its extra cash. In contrast, moral dilemmas are conflicts involving two moral rights or duties. [p. 38] | The distinction between conflicts and dilemmas looked promising to Kelvin. Moral conflicts looked fairly simple in cognitive terms, even if they were sometimes difficult emotionally. The “right” action was obvious. Moral dilemmas were more complex cognitively as well as emotionally, because two “goods” were being weighed against each other. The moral alternatives might both be right and wrong at the same time, and their relative “rightness” might not be immediately obvious. |
Saltzstein and his colleagues proposed that when young children show awareness of moral rules, they may be doing so in the simpler context of moral conflicts. A young child might believe that you should return a dollar to its owner, even if the child has trouble in practice overcoming a selfish impulse to keep the dollar. The same child might have trouble deciding, however, whether it is “right” to inform his teacher if a best friend has cheated on a test. In that case two moral principles compete for attention—honesty and loyalty to a friend. To sort out the implications of choosing between these principles, a young child might need to rely on older, wiser minds, such as parents or other adults. The minute that he or she does so, the child is showing the moral heteronomy that Piaget used to write about and that Saltzstein referred to early in the article
Understanding these ideas took effort, but once Kelvin began figuring them out, the rest of the article was easier to follow. In reading the remaining pages, he noted in passing that the researchers used several techniques common in educational research. For example, they interviewed participants, a common way of gathering systematic information about individuals’ thinking. They also imposed controls on their procedures and on the selection of participants. Procedures were controlled, for example, by posing the same three moral dilemmas and to all participants, so that individuals’ responses could be compared meaningfully. The selection of participants was controlled by selecting two age groups for deliberate comparison with each other—one that was seven years old and the other that was eleven. Since the researchers wanted to generalize about moral development as much as possible, but they obviously could not interview every child in the world, they sampled participants: they selected a manageable number (sixty-five, to be exact) from the larger student population of one particular school. In a second part of the investigation, they also selected a comparable number of children of the same two ages (7 and 11) from the city of Recife, located in Brazil. The Brazilian group’s responses were compared deliberately with the American group’s responses, in order to allow for the impact of cultural beliefs on moral development in general. Kelvin recognized this research strategy as an example of using control groups. In research terms, the Brazilian group “controlled for” the impact of American culture on children’s moral beliefs, and vice versa, the American group controlled for the impact of Brazilian culture on children’s moral beliefs. Altogether, these techniques helped insure that the interviews of children’s moral beliefs really illustrated what they were supposed to illustrate—that they were reliable and valid, in the senses that we discussed in earlier chapters. As Kelvin noticed Saltzstein’s attention to good research techniques, he gained confidence in Saltzstein’s observations and in the interpretations that the authors made from them.
What did Saltzstein and his colleagues find out—or more to the point, what did Kelvin Seifert learn from what Saltzstein and his colleagues wrote about? There were three ideas that occurred to Kelvin. One was that in everyday life, children probably deal with moral beliefs of all levels of cognitive complexity, and not just “simple” moral conflicts and “complex” moral dilemmas. Saltzstein found that children’s solutions to moral dilemmas depended a lot on the content of the dilemma. Children advocated strongly for truthfulness in some situations (for example, in deciding whether to tell the teacher about a friend’s cheating), but not in other situations (like in deciding whether to back up a friend who is being teased and who has lied in an effort to stop the teasing). But it was rare for all children to support any one moral principle completely; they usually supported a mix
Another idea that Kelvin learned from Saltzstein’s research was about how children expressed moral heteronomy versus moral autonomy. Age, it seemed, did not affect the beliefs that children stated; younger and older children took similar positions on all dilemmas initially. But age did affect how steadfastly children held to initial beliefs. Younger children were more easily influenced to switch opinions when an adult “cross-examined” with probing questions; older children were more likely to keep to their initial position. Moral heteronomy was revealed not by a child’s views as such, but by the kind of dialogue a child has with adults.
A third idea that Kelvin learned was about children’s perceptions of adults’ moral beliefs. Saltzstein found that even though older children (the 11-year-olds) showed more moral autonomy (were more steadfast) than younger children, they tended to believe that adults thought about moral issues in ways similar to children who were younger. In the “teasing” dilemma mentioned above, for example, the 11-year-olds opted much more often than 7- year-olds for remaining loyal to a friend, even though doing so meant further untruthfulness with peers. Yet the 11- year-olds also more often stated a belief that adults would resolve the same dilemma in a way characteristic of 7- year-olds—that is, by telling the truth to peers and thus betraying loyalty to a friend. This finding puzzled Kelvin. Why should older, and presumably more insightful, children think that adults are more like younger children than like themselves? Saltzstein suggested an interpretation, however, that helped him make sense of the apparent inconsistency:
| …Consistent with our past research, children attributed the kinds of moral choices made by younger children to adults. In our view, this finding tends to support a constructivist rather than a [social modeling] view of morality, which would predict that the child’s judgments mirror (or develop toward) their representation of adult judgments. [p. 41] | In other words, thought Kelvin, if children learned moral beliefs by imitating (or modeling themselves after) parents or other adults, then they ought to see themselves as resembling adults more and more as they get older. Instead, they see themselves as resembling adults less, at least during middle childhood. This would happen only if they were preoccupied with “constructing” their own beliefs on the basis of their experiences, and therefore failed to notice that adults might also have constructed beliefs similar to their own. |
Relevance: a framework for understanding moral development
The article by Saltzstein offered a way to understand how children develop moral beliefs, and especially to understand the change from moral heteronomy to moral autonomy. By imposing controls on the procedures (uniform interviews) and on the selection of participants (particular ages, particular societies or cultures), the researchers eliminated certain sources of ambiguity or variability in children’s responses. By framing their project in terms of previous theories of moral development (Piaget’s, Turiel’s), furthermore, they made it easier to interpret their new results in the general terms of these theories as well. In these ways the investigation aspired to provide a general perspective about children’s moral development. Providing a framework for understanding, you recall, is one of the major purposes of many professional publications.
But note that the authors paid a price for emphasizing this purpose. By organizing their work around existing general theory and research, they had to assume that readers already had some knowledge of that theory and research. This is not an unreasonable assumption if the readers are expected to be fellow researchers; after all, many of them make a living by “knowing the literature” of psychology. But assuming such knowledge can be an obstacle if the authors intend to communicate with non-psychologists: in that case, either the authors must make more of an effort to explain the relevant background research, or readers must educate themselves about the research. The latter activity is not necessarily difficult (the background knowledge for Saltzstein’s work, for example, took me only a few paragraphs to explain in writing), but it must be done to make full sense of research that tries to provide a universal framework of psychological knowledge.
The reader’s role: interested observer of children
In conducting and reporting their research, Saltzstein and his colleagues were not presenting themselves as school teachers, nor were they expecting readers necessarily to respond as teachers. As they put it in the first paragraph of the article, they sought to offer “a more contextualized perspective for understanding the development of moral judgments” [p. 37]. Unlike most teachers, they seemed indifferent to recommending how children’s moral judgements ought to be fostered. Observation of children was their purpose, not intervention. The meaning of the term “contextualized perspective” was not obvious to Kelvin when he first read it, but eventually it became clearer: they were talking about the importance of distinguishing among types of moral decisions and moral beliefs. They did sometimes note information relevant to teaching—for example, they pointed out that for cultural reasons, teachers in Brazil do not command high respect and therefore compared to American children, Brazilian children may feel less compelled to tell the truth to their teachers. But this comment was not the primary focus of their research, nor did the authors discuss what (if anything) it might imply about teaching in the United States.
Yet the non-teaching perspective of the article did not keep Kelvin, a long-time school teacher and current university teacher, from reflecting on the article in terms of its educational relevance. As we mentioned already, Kelvin was attracted to the article because of his own concerns about character development in students—how do they acquire moral beliefs and commitments, and how should he help them in doing so? Kelvin did not really expect to find an answer to the second of these questions, given the “observation” orientation of the authors. He did hope to find an answer to the first, although even here he also expected that to make allowances for the fact that research interviews are not usually identical to classroom situations. Children might respond differently when interviewed individually by a researcher, compared to how they might respond to a teacher in class. Or perhaps not. So in reflecting on the article, Kelvin had to note the context and purposes of Saltzstein’s study, and to remind himself that once a teacher went beyond simply observing children to intervening on their behalf, the teacher might be led to different conclusions about children’s moral development. But in spite of these cautions—or maybe because of them—Kelvin found much food for thought in the article related to teaching.
Example #2: Learning disability as a misleading label
In 2006, Ray McDermott, Shelley Goldman, and Hervé Varenne published an article that discussed the use of disability categories in education. The article attracted Kelvin’s attention because he had been concerned for a long time about the ambiguities of disability categories (see Chapter 5 of this book) as well as about their potential for stigmatizing individuals. He expected the article to document additional problems with labeling when a student is from a non-white ethnic group. Kelvin’s expectation was fulfilled partially, but he was surprised also to encounter an additional and tougher message in the article. Here is how the study began:
| Since about 1850 . . . classifying human beings by mental ability, accurately or not, has been a politically rewarded activity. Those with power have placed others, usually the downtrodden, into ability and disposition groups that they cannot escape. . . . People who live together in a culture must struggle constantly with the constraints…of systems of classification and interpretation used in the culture. | Kelvin had a mixed reaction to this opening. In one way it seemed to say something familiar—that classification systems (such as categories for disabilities) may create problems for individuals. But the tone of the paragraph sounded more severely critical than Kelvin had expected: it was saying that power governed all classifications, implying that misclassifications may be widespread or even universal. |
Kelvin’s initial hunch was therefore that the article would express a radically critical view of disability classifications—particularly as they affect the “downtrodden,” which presumably included children from minority ethnic groups. His expectation proved correct as the authors explained their point of view, which they called a cultural approach to understanding disability. Using learning disabilities (LD) as an example, here is how they explained their position:
| We are not as interested in LD behavior as in the preoccupations—as seen from the level of classroom organization—of all those adults who are professionally poised to discover LD behavior. We are less interested in the characteristics of LD children than in the cultural arrangements that make an LD label relevant. | At this point Kelvin was not sure if he wanted to continue reading the article because it seemed like it might not be relevant to classroom life specifically. It also implied a severe criticism of professional educators —implied that they are too eager to find examples of LD and for this reason may misclassify students. On the other hand, Kelvin was already aware that LD are an especially ambiguous category of disability; maybe the article would help to show why. So he kept reading. |
The authors continued by outlining the history of LD as a category of disability, describing this category as an outgrowth of the general intelligence testing movement during the twentieth century. By the 1970s, they argued, the concept of LD offered a way to classify children with academic difficulties without having to call the children mentally disabled. Because of this fact, the LD category was needed—literally—by well-off parents who did not want their children treated or educated as children with mental disabilities. LD as a concept and category came to be applied primarily to children from the white middle-class, and mental disability became, by default, the equivalent category for the non-white and poor.
To support this assertion, the authors reported a classroom observation of three non-white boys—Hector, Ricardo, and Boomer—while they worked together to design an imaginary research station in Antarctica. Citing actual transcripts of conversation while the boys worked, the authors concluded that all three boys showed intelligence and insight about the assignment, but that the teacher was only aware of the contributions of one of the boys. Hector systematically hid his knowledge from the teacher’s view by getting Boomer to speak for their group; Ricardo participated well in the group work but was rarely acknowledged by the other two boys. Boomer received considerable praise from the teacher, thanks to his speaking for the group. Yet the teacher was never aware of these subtleties. The authors blamed her oversight not on the teacher herself, but on an educational and cultural system that leads educators to classify or typify students too quickly or easily. Here is how they put it:
| The American classroom is well organized for the production of display of failure, one child at a time if possible, but group by group if necessary…Even if the teacher manages to treat every child as capable, the children can hammer each other into negative status; and even if both…resist dropping everyone into predefined categories, the children’s parents can take over, demanding more and more boxes with which to specify kinds of kids doing better than other kinds of kids. In such a classroom, if there were no LD categories, someone would have to invent them. | When Kelvin read this conclusion, he did not really disagree, but he did feel that it was beside the point for most teachers. Maybe children do get classified too easily, he thought, but a teacher’s job is not just to lament this possibility, as the authors seemed to be doing. Instead their job is to help the real, live children for whom they have daily responsibility. What teachers need are therefore suggestions to avoid misclassifying students by overlooking key information about them. Kelvin wished, at the end, that the authors had made some of these suggestions. |
Relevance: a critical framework
In this study the authors offered a sort of backhanded framework of thinking about categories of disability; or more precisely they offered a framework for understanding what the categories are not. In essence they said that disability categories describe qualities “in” students only in the sense that educators and others happen to think of disability categories in this way. An equally reasonable way to think about disabilities, they argued, is that modern society is organized so that its citizens have to be classified for many different reasons. Educators are simply helping to implement this society-wide expectation. A frequent result in classrooms is that teachers classify students too easily and that key evidence of students’ capacity is overlooked.
In making this argument, the authors implied an indirect recommendation about how to teach, though the recommendation actually focused on what teachers should not do. Instead of (mis)identifying children with learning difficulties, the authors implied, teachers and other educators should stop concerning themselves with classifying children, and seek to reorganize classrooms and schools so that classification is less important. “Change the school,” they wrote, “and LD becomes less relevant.” This conclusion may be an important reminder, but it is not especially helpful as a recommendation to practicing teachers, who usually need to know about more than what to avoid.
The readers’ role: concerned advocate for social justice
It is not surprising that the article lacked concrete recommendations for teaching, given that the authors seemed to speak to readers not as classroom teachers, but as general critics of society who are concerned about fairness or social justice. Their comments made two assumptions: first, that readers will want to minimize unfair stereotypes of students, and second, that readers will seek greater fairness in how teachers treat students. For readers who happen to be teachers themselves, the first of these assumptions is a reasonable one; most of us would indeed like to minimize unfair stereotyping of students. The second is also reasonable, but perhaps not in a way that the authors intended. Teachers probably do try their best to treat students fairly and respectfully. Their responsibilities usually mean, however, that they can only do this conveniently with their own students; the time available to work toward general social justice is often limited. (As you might suspect, Kelvin was not fully satisfied after he finished reading this article!)
Example #3: The impact of bilingualism on reading
In 1995, three education professors—Robert Jiménez, Georgia García, and David Pearson—published a study about the impact of bilingualism on children’s ability to read English (1995). The three specialized in curriculum studies, literacy acquisition, and bilingual language development, and were therefore motivated by a concern for the academic success of bilingual children and especially by concern for identifying why bilingual children sometimes have difficulty learning to read English. Too much research on bilingualism, they argued, was based on what they called a “deficit” framework: it focused on what bilingual children lacked compared to monolinguals. They sought an alternative framework, one focused on bilingual students’ competence, and especially on their competence to read a second language.
To search for this alternative, the researchers mounted a large research program, and the article published in 1995 was one of the studies resulting from this research. It caught Kelvin’s interest not only because of its topic, but because of its approach. Instead of surveying dozens of students with a questionnaire, as researchers sometimes do, these investigators relied on just three students studied intensively. Each student became a case study and included detailed, lengthy observations and interviews of that particular student. Each student was chosen deliberately for a particular purpose. One was a highly proficient reader who was also bilingual (Spanish and English); a second was a marginally proficient reader who was bilingual (Spanish and English); and a third was a highly proficient reader who was monolingual in English. To qualify for the study, furthermore, each student had to be comfortable reflecting on and talking about their own reading processes, so that the authors could interview them at length on this topic. The researchers asked each student to read six one-page passages in English and (where relevant) in Spanish. They invited all three to think aloud about their reading as they went along, commenting on how they figured out particular words or passages. The oral readings and think-aloud commentaries were taped and transcribed, and became the information on which the authors based their conclusions and recommendations.
Using these procedures, Jiménez, García, and Pearson discovered important differences among the three girls. The proficient bilingual, Pamela, used her growing knowledge of each language to help in learning vocabulary from the other language. When she encountered the English word “species” , for example, she guessed correctly that it meant the same as the similar Spanish word “especies”; and when she encountered the Spanish “liquído,” she guessed correctly that it meant the English “liquid.” Her focus on learning vocabulary was stronger than for the proficient monolingual, Michelle, who commented less on specific words than how the overall reading passages related to her prior general knowledge. The difference presumably stemmed from Michelle’s greater familiarity with English vocabulary—so much greater, in fact, that Michelle did not need to think about individual words deliberately. Both Michelle and Pamela differed, however, from the less-proficient bilingual reader, Christine. Like Pamela, Christine focused on vocabulary, but she did not think of her native Spanish as a resource for this task. When reading a Spanish word, she was sometimes reminded of English equivalents (“cognates,” as language teachers call them), but she did not use her much greater knowledge of Spanish to assist with her more limited English. She did not search for equivalent words deliberately, as Pamela did.
Relevance: recommendations for teaching english as an additional language
The authors of this article focused more directly on particular learning behaviors than did the authors of the two articles described earlier. Jimenez and his colleagues emphasized the importance of regarding a child’s native language as a strength in the process, not a liability, and they then pointed out the importance of facilitating vocabulary development. But they did not claim this recommendation to be appropriate for all children or for all forms of bilingualism. They only focused on a particular pair of languages (Spanish and English in the USA), and on three combinations of skill level in these two languages. These are common bilingual experiences in the United States, but they are not the only ones, either in the United States or elsewhere in the world.
For other bilingual situations, their conclusions might not hold true. For some students (e.g. Chinese Americans), the native language and the second language are much more different in vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammar than Spanish is to English, and therefore may provide less of a resource to a child learning to read. In some settings, relationships between languages are more equal than in the United States. In Canada, for example, both the numbers and the overall social status of English speakers and French speakers are more equal than in the United States. In both of these situations, if a child fails to learn to read the second language, it may not be for the reasons suggested by Robert Jiménez, but for other reasons, ranging from difficulties with reading per se to cultural differences in how a child expects to be taught (Johnson, 2004).
The reader’s role: both teacher and researcher
In the published article describing their research, Jiménez, García, and Pearson assumed that readers have some familiarity with bilingual students and with issues related to teaching reading. They began their article by describing previous research studies in these areas—more than a dozen of them, in fact. In the middle they described numerous responses of the three bilingual students to the passages they were asked to read. At the end of the article they made specific suggestions for teaching, such as “focus more on vocabulary development”. When Kelvin read these various sections, he found that his prior knowledge of and reflections about teaching helped to make sense of them. But he also found that did not need to be an expert in bilingualism order to understand the authors’ messages—he had never, in fact, taught English as a Second Language, nor had he ever conducted research on reading or bilingual language development.
Action research: hearing from teachers about improving practice
Each of the professional articles just described offers ideas and recommendations that can stimulate reflection about teaching and learning. But they all suffer from a particular limitation: Although they often relate to teachers and classrooms, teachers’ role in influencing in designing and interpreting a study is minimal. In the world of educational research, persons other than teachers—typically professors, educational administrators, or other professional researchers—tend to speak on behalf of teachers. All three of the articles described earlier in this chapter had this feature. Persons other than teachers chose the research topics.
The information that emerges from this arrangement often still relates to teaching and learning, and may contain useful insights for classroom work. But by definition, it is framed by people whose interests and fundamental commitments may not be identical with classroom teachers. As a result, the studies are somewhat more likely to attend to problems posed by academic disciplines or by educational administrators. Two of the studies which we described earlier—the ones about moral development and about labels for disabilities—showed this quality. Classroom teachers are concerned, of course, about both moral development and categorizing of students. But if teachers had designed the two projects themselves, they might have re-framed both of them to focus more explicitly on the challenges of classroom teaching. In studying moral beliefs, for example, teachers might have focused more squarely on how to foster moral beliefs in their students. In studying inclusive education, they might have focused more fully on the practical difficulties faced by teachers in assessing students’ learning disabilities with validity.
The nature of action research
In view of these issues, a particularly important kind of investigation for teachers is action research (sometimes also teacher research), an activity referring to systematic, intentional inquiry by teachers for the purpose of improving their own practice (Stenhouse, 1985; Brydon-Miller, Greenwood, & Maguire, 2003; Russell, T. & Loughran, J. 2005). Action research is not to be confused with research about teaching and learning, which are investigations by professional researchers on topics of teachers, teaching, or learning.
Action research has several defining characteristics, in addition to being planned and conducted by teachers. First, it originates in the problems and dilemmas of classroom practice, or in chronic problems with certain students, materials, or activities. Second, its outcomes offer information focused on particular teachers and classrooms, rather than about teachers in general or students in general. Although this feature might make action research seem less useful as a source of advice or knowledge that is truly general, supporters argue that focusing on specific learning contexts makes action research more credible or valid as a source of practical information and ideas. It is, they argue, simply more attuned to the context of real classrooms (St. Clair, 2005). Third, while the audience for action research can certainly include professors and educational administrators, the audience tends to be other teachers (Fenstermacher, 1994; Ackerman & MacKenzie, 2007). Action research is therefore in an especially strong position to provide “insider” perspectives on educational problems.
Action research in practice
Action research makes a number of assumptions as a result of its nature and purposes (Richardson, 1994; Schmuck, 2006). To varying degrees, most such studies support some combination of these ideas:
- that teaching is itself really a form of research
- that action research, like teaching itself, requires substantial reflection
- that collaboration among teachers is crucial for making teacher research meaningful, and for the improvement of teaching
- that teachers’ knowledge of teaching has to be shared publicly, especially when gained systematically through action research
To see how these features look in practice, look at several examples of action research studies.
Example #1: Focusing on motivating students
A number of years ago, Patricia Clifford and Sharon Friesen published an account of their effort to develop a classroom program based on students’ out-of-school interests and experiences (1993). Clifford and Friesen were co-teachers in a double-sized classroom which deliberately included children from first, second and third grades. Their interest in students’ out-of-school experiences grew out of three more basic questions about teaching, which they phrased like this:
- How can curriculum remain open to children’s unique experiences and connect with the world they know outside the school? Too often, the official school curriculum lacked meaning for children because it seemed cut off from the rest of the world. The result was unmotivated students and poor learning.
- Why is imaginative experience the best starting place for planning? The teachers felt that imaginative experiences—make-believe play, stories, poems—provided access to children’s lives outside school—their make-believe play, or their stories or poems. Perhaps somehow these could be connected to the goals of the official curriculum.
- What happens when teachers break down the barriers between school knowledge and real knowledge? In drawing on children’s outside experiences, would children actually become more motivated or not? Would they take over the program, and fail to learn the official curriculum goals?
To answer these questions, the teachers kept extensive diaries or journals for one entire school year. These became the “data” for the research. In the journals, they described and reflected on their daily teaching experiences. The teachers also talked with each other extensively about classroom events and their significance, and the results of the conversations often entered the journals eventually during the research. In their journal, for example, the teachers recorded an experience with students about ways of telling time. In preliminary discussions the students became interested in how a sundial worked. So the teachers and students went outside, where they created a human sundial, using the students themselves. The teachers’ journal kept a chronicle of these events, and noted the comments and questions which students developed as a result:
- If you stood in the same place for a whole day you would see your shadow change places because the earth changes position.
- Why is my shadow longer than I am in the evening, but shorter at noon?
- Clouds can block the sun’s rays so sundials won’t work on rainy days.
- How did people start to tell time?
As the year evolved and observations accumulated and were recorded, the teachers gradually began to answer their own three questions. They found, for example, that connecting the curriculum with children’s interests and motives was most effective when they could establish a personal bond with a child. They also found that imaginative expression helped certain children to feel safe to explore ideas. They found that blending school-based and personal knowledge caused children to learn much more than before—although much of the additional knowledge was not part of an official curriculum. With these conclusions in mind, and with numerous examples to support them, Clifford and Friesen published their study so that others could share what they had learned about teaching, learning, and students.
The study by Clifford and Friesen is interesting in its own right, but for our purposes think for a moment about their work as an example of action research. One of its features is that it formed part of the normal course of teaching: the authors were simply more systematic about how they observed the students and recorded information about classroom events. Another feature is that the research required conscious reflection over an extended time: their journals and conversations contained not only descriptions of events, but also interpretations of the events. A third feature is that the study involved collaboration: it was not just one teacher studying the major questions, but two. Th fourth feature is that the teachers not only developed their results and conclusions for themselves, but also shared them with others. These four qualities make the study by Clifford and Friesen a clear example of teacher research. Note, though, that sometimes studies conducted by teachers may not show all of these features so clearly; instead they may show some of the key features, but not all of them, as in the next two examples.
Example #2: Focusing on development
Since 1981, Vivian Paley has published a series of short books documenting and interpreting her observations of young children in classrooms (1981, 1986, 1991, 1998, 2000, 2005). Paley was interested in how young children develop or change over the long term, and in particular how the development looks from the point of view of a classroom teacher. In one of these books, for example, she observed one child in particular, Mollie, from the time she entered nursery school just after her third birthday until after the child turned four years old (Paley, 1986). Her interest was not focused on curriculum, as Clifford and Friesen’s had done, but on Mollie as a growing human being; “the subject which I most wished to learn,” she wrote, “is children” (p. xiv). Paley therefore wrote extended narrative (or story-like) observations about the whole range of activities of this one child, and wove in periodic brief reflections on the observations. Because the observations took story-like form, her books read a bit like novels: themes are sometimes simply suggested by the story line, rather than stated explicitly. Using this approach, Paley demonstrated (but occasionally also stated) several important developmental changes. In Mollie at Three (1988), for example, she describes examples of Mollie’s language development. At three years, the language was often disconnected from Mollie’s actions—she would talk about one thing, but do another. By four, she was much more likely to tie language to her current activities, and in this sense she more often “said what she meant.” A result of the change was that Mollie also began understanding and following classroom rules as the year went on, because the language of rules became more connected in her mind to the actions to which they referred.
Vivian Paley’s book had some of the characteristics of action research—but with differences from Clifford and Friesen’s. Like their research, Paley’s “data” was based on her own teaching, while her teaching was influenced in turn by her systematic observations. Like Clifford and Friesen’s, Paley’s research involved numerous reflections on teaching, and it led to a public sharing of the reflections—in this case in the form of several small books. Unlike Clifford and Friesen, though, Paley worked independently, without collaboration. Unlike Clifford and Friesen, she deliberately integrated observation and interpretation as they might be integrated in a piece of fiction, so that the resulting “story” often implied or showed its message without stating it in so may words. In this regard her work had qualities of what some educators call arts-based research, which are studies that take advantage of an artistic medium (in this case, narrative or story-like writing) to heighten readers’ understanding and response to research findings (Barone and Eisner, 2006). If you are studying the use of space in the classroom, for example, then aesthetically organized visual depictions (photos, drawings) of the room may be more helpful and create more understanding than verbal descriptions. If you are studying children’s musical knowledge, on the other hand, recordings of performances by the children may be more helpful and informative than discussions of performances.
Example #3: Focusing on collaboration
In 1996, an example of action research was published that was intended simultaneously for classroom teachers and for university researchers, and which focused on the challenges of collaboration among educators (Ulichny & Schoener, 1996). A teacher (Wendy Schoener) and a university researcher (Polly Ulichny) explored how, or even whether, teachers and university researchers could participate as equals in the study of teaching. Wendy (the two used first names throughout when they published their experiences) was a teacher of adults learning English as a Second Language (ESL); Polly was a specialist in multicultural education and wanted to observe a teacher who was successful at reaching the ethnically diverse students who normally study ESL. Polly therefore asked Wendy for permission to study her teaching for an extended period of time—to visit her class, videotape it, interview her about it, and the like.
What followed is best described as an extended negotiation between teacher and professor for access to Wendy’s class, on the one hand, and for mutual respect for each other’s work, on the other. In the published article, the negotiations are described separately by each participant, in order to honor the differences in their concerns and perspectives. Before, during, and after the observations, it was necessary for Polly and Wendy each to adjust expectations of what the other person could do and was willing to do. As the authors put it, some things were “easy to hear” from the other and some things were “hard to hear”. Wendy, as a teacher, found it easier to hear criticisms of her teaching if they came from herself, rather than from the higher-status university professor, Polly. Polly, for her part, found it easier to hear Wendy’s comments if she matched Wendy’s self-criticisms and evaluations with some of her own experiences. Polly therefore made sure to tell Wendy about dilemmas and problems she experienced in her own (university) teaching. Because they needed to adjust to hearing and talking with each other, the two educators eventually focused less on Polly’s original purpose—studying multicultural teaching—and more on the problem of how teachers and university researchers might collaborate effectively.
Overall, this study qualifies as a piece of action research, though it is not fully focused on classroom teaching. For example, the teachers did collaborate and reflect on their experiences, but not all of the reflection was about teaching in classrooms. The rest was about the relationship between Wendy and Polly. While the problem selected was originally about classroom teaching—Wendy’s—it did not originate with the classroom teacher (Wendy) or concerns she had about her own classroom; instead it was chosen by the university researcher (Polly) and her desire to study multicultural teaching. The researchers did share what they learned by publishing their observations and ideas, but their published report speaks only partly to classroom teachers as such; in addition it speaks to academic researchers and educators of future teachers.
By pointing out differences among these examples of action research, we do not mean to imply that one is “better” than another. The point is simply to show how diverse studies by teachers can be and to appreciate their differences. Whatever their specific features, classroom studies by teachers hold in common the commitment to giving a voice to teachers as they reflect on problems and challenges intrinsic to classroom life. This goal can be accomplished in more than one way: through journals and other record-keeping methods, through oral discussions with colleagues, and through written reflections created either for themselves or for others concerned about teaching and learning. Diversity among topics and methods in action research studies should not surprise us, in fact, since classrooms are themselves so diverse.
The challenges of action research
Well and good, you may say. Action research offers teachers a way to hear each other, to learn from their own and other’s experience. But there are also a few cautions to keep in mind, both ethical and practical. Look briefly at each of these areas.
Ethical cautions about action research
One caution is the possibility of conflict of interest between the roles of teaching and conducting action research (Hammack, 1997). A teacher’s first priorities should be the welfare of his or her students: first and foremost, you want students to learn, to be motivated, to feel accepted by their peers, and the like. A researcher’s first priorities, however, are to the field or topic being studied. The two kinds of priorities may often overlap and support each other. Vivian Paley’s observations of children in her classes, described earlier, not only supported her children’s learning, but also her studies of the children.
But situations can also occur in which action research and teaching are less compatible, and can create ethical dilemmas. The problems usually relate to one of three issues: privacy, informed consent, or freedom to participate. Each of these becomes an issue only if the results of a research project are made public, either in a journal or book, as with the examples we have given in this chapter, or simply by being described or shared outside the classroom. (Sharing, you may recall, is one of the defining features of action research.) Look briefly at each of the issues.
Insuring privacy of the student
Teachers often learn information about students that the students or their families may not want publicized. Suppose, for example, you have a student with an intellectual disability in your class, and you wish to study how the student learns. Observing the student work on (and possibly struggle with) academic activities may be quite consistent with a teacher’s responsibilities; after all, teachers normally should pay attention to their students’ academic efforts. But the student or his family may not want such observations publicized or even shared informally with other parents or teachers. They may feel that doing so would risk stigmatizing the student publicly.
To respect the student’s privacy and still study his learning behavior, the teacher (alias the “action researcher”) therefore needs to disguise the student’s identity whenever the research results are made public. In any written or oral report, or even in any hallway conversation about the project, the teacher/researcher would use a pseudonym for the student, and change other identifying information such as the physical description of the student or even the student’s gender. There are limits, however, to how much can be disguised without changing essential information. The teacher could not, for example, hide the fact of the intellectual disability without compromising the point of the study; yet the intellectual disability might be unusual enough that it would effectively identify the student being studied.
Gaining informed consent
Students may not understand what is being studied about them, or even realize that they are being studied at all, unless the teacher/researcher makes an explicit effort to inform them about the action research and how she will use the results from it. The same is true for the students’ parents; unless the teacher-researcher makes an effort to contact parents, they simply will not know that their child’s activities are being observed or may eventually be made public. Students’ ignorance is especially likely if the students are very young (kindergarten) or have intellectual or reading difficulties, as in the example we described above. As an action researcher, therefore, a teacher is obliged to explain the nature of a research project clearly, either in a letter written in simple language or in a face-to-face conversation, or both. Parents and students need to give clear indications that they actually understand what class activities or materials will constitute data that could be made public. In most cases, indicating informed consent means asking students’ parents signing a letter giving permission for the study. Sometimes, in addition, it is a good idea to recheck with students or parents periodically as the project unfolds, to make sure that they still support participation.
Insuring freedom to participate
When a student fails to participate in an ordinary class activity, most teachers consider it legitimate to insist on the student’s participation—either by persuading, demanding, or (perhaps) tricking the student to join. Doing so is ethical for teachers in their roles as teachers, because teachers are primarily responsible for insuring that students learn, and students’ participation presumably facilitates learning. If a teacher designates an activity as part of an action research project, however, and later shares the results with them, the teacher then also becomes partly responsible for how other teachers use knowledge of the research study. (Remember: sharing results is intrinsically part of the research process.) The resulting dual commitment means that “forcing” a student to participate in an action research activity can no longer be justified solely as being for the student’s own educational good.
Much of the time, a simultaneous commitment to both teachers and students presents no real dilemma: what is good for the action research project may also be good for the students. But not always. Suppose, for example, that a teacher wants to do research about students’ beliefs about war and global conflict, and doing so requires that students participate in numerous extended group discussions on this topic. Even though the group discussions might resemble a social studies lesson and in this sense be generally acceptable as a class activity, some parents (or students) may object because they take too much class time away from the normal curriculum topics. Yet the research project necessitates giving it lots of discussion time in class. To respond ethically to this dilemma, therefore, the teacher may need to allow students to opt out of the discussions if they or their parents choose. She may therefore need to find ways for them to cover an alternate set of activities from the curriculum. (One way to do this, for example, is to hold the special group discussions outside regular class times—though this obviously also increases the amount of work for both the teacher and students.)
Practical issues about action research
Is action research practical? From one perspective the answer has to be “Of course not!” Action research is not practical because it may take teachers’ time and effort which they could sometimes use in other ways. Keep in mind, though, that a major part of the effort needed for action research involves the same sort of work—observing, recording information, reflecting—that is needed for any teaching that is done well. A better way to assess practicality may therefore be to recognize that teaching students always takes a lot of work, and to ask whether the additional thoughtfulness brought on by action research will make the teaching more successful.
Looked at in this way, action research is indeed practical, though probably not equally so on every occasion. If you choose to learn about the quality of conversational exchanges between yourself and students, for example, you will need some way to record these dialogues, or at least to keep accurate, detailed notes on them. Recording the dialogues may be practical and beneficial—or not, depending on your circumstances. On the other hand, if you choose to study how and why certain students remain on the margins of your class socially, this problem too may be practical as action research. Or it may not, depending on whether you can find a way to observe and reflect on students’ social interactions, or lack thereof. Much depends on your circumstances—on the attention you can afford to give to your research problem while teaching, in relation to the benefits that solutions to the problems will bring students later. In general any action research project may require certain choices about how to teach, though it should not interfere with basic instructional goals or prevent coverage of an important curriculum. The main point to remember is that action research is more than passive observation of students and classrooms; it also includes educational interventions, efforts to stimulate students to new thinking and new responses. Those are features of regular teaching; the difference is primarily in how systematically and reflectively you do them.
Benefiting from all kinds of research
Although we authors both feel a degree of sympathy for the nature and purposes of action research, we are not trying to advocate for it at the expense of other forms of educational research or at the expense of simply reading and understanding professional publications in general. The challenge for you, as a classroom teacher, is to find the value in all forms of professional development, whether it be participation in a professional association, reading general articles about research, or engaging in your own action research. To the extent that you draw on them all, your ways of learning about teaching will be enriched. You will learn ways to grasp the individuality of particular students, but also to see what they need in common. You will have more ways to interpret your own experiences as a professional teacher, but also be able to learn from the professional experience of others. Realizing these benefits fully is a challenge, because the very diversity of classrooms renders problems about teaching and learning complex and diverse as well. But you will also gain good, professional company in searching for better understanding of your work—company that includes both educational researchers, other professional teachers, and of course your students.
Appendix summary
The complexities of teaching require teachers to continue learning throughout their teaching careers. To become a lifelong reflective practitioner, teachers can rely on colleagues as a resource, on professional associations and their activities, and on professional publications related to educational issues and needs. Understanding the latter, in turn, requires understanding the purposes of the published material—whether it is offering a general framework, recommending desirable teaching practices, or advocating for a particular educational policy or need. Interpreting published material also requires understanding the assumptions that authors make about readers’ prior knowledge and beliefs.
An important additional strategy for becoming a reflective practitioner is action research—studies of teaching and learning designed and carried out by teachers in order to improve their own practice. By nature, action research studies are highly relevant to classroom practice, but there are also cautions about it to keep in mind, both ethically and practically.
Further Resources
The two following websites belong to professional organizations dedicated to action research.
- The first belongs to the Society for Community Research and Action, a division of the American Psychological Association. It promotes and publishes action research in many professions, one of which is education.
- The second website belongs to the Action Research Special Interest Group of the American Educational Research Association; as you might suspect from its name, it focuses exclusively on action research by educators.
This website offers the lectures notes and videos of class sessions in a course about reflective practice offered at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in Cambridge, Massachusetts. The materials are of high quality, and go into much more detail about the concept than is possible in this appendix.
References
Ackerman, R. & MacKenzie, S. (Eds.). (2007). Uncovering teacher leadership: Voices from the field. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Barone, T. & Eisner, E. (2006). Arts-based research in education. In J. Green, g. Camilli, & P. Elmore (Eds.), Handbook of complementary methods in education research. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Bissex, G. (1980). GNYS AT WRK. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Brydon-Miller, M., Greenwood, D., Maguire, D. (2003). Why action research? Action Research, 1(1), 3–28.
Clifford, P. & Friesen, S. (1993). A curious plan: Managing on the twelfth. Harvard Educational Review, 63(3), 339–358.
Fenstermacher, G. (1994). The knower and the known: The nature of knowledge in research on teaching. In L. Darling-Hammond (Ed.), Review of research in education, Volume 20, pp. 3–56. Washington, D.C.: American Educational Research Association.
Hayes, D. (2006). Telling stories: Sustaining improvement in schools operating under adverse conditions. Improving Schools, 9(3), 203–213.
Hittleman, D. & Simon, A. (2005). Interpreting educational research, 4th edition. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Jimenez, R., Garcia, G., & Pearson, D. (1995). Three children, two languages and strategic reading: Case studies in bilingual/monolingual reading. American Educational Research Journal, 32(1), 67–98.
Johnson, M. (2004). A philosophy of second language acquisition. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Lortie, D. (1975). Schoolteacher. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Loughran, J., Hamilton, M., LaBoskey, V., & Russell, T. (Eds.). (2004). International handbook of self-study of teaching and teacher education practices. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer.
McDermott, R., Goldman, S., & Varenne, H. (2006). The cultural work of learning disabilities. Educational Researcher, 35(6), 12–17.
Mills, G. (2006). Action research: A guide for the teacher researcher, 3rd edition. New York: Prentice Hall.
Paley, V. (1981). Wally’s stories. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Paley, V. (1988). Mollie is three. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Paley, V. (1991). The boy who would be a helicopter. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Paley, V. (1998). Kwanzaa and me. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Paley, V. (2000). The kindness of children. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Paley, V. (2006). A child’s work: The importance of fantasy play. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Ragland, B. (2007). Positioning the practitioner-researcher: Five ways of looking at practice. Action Research, 4(2), 165–182.
Richardson, V. (1994). Conducting research in practice. Educational Researcher, 23(5), 5–10.
Russell, T. & Loughran, J. (2005). Self-study as a context for productive learning. Studying Teacher Education, 1(2), 103–106.
Samaras, A. & Freese, A. (Eds.). (2006). Self-study of teaching practices. New York: Peter Lang.
Schmuck, R. (2006). Practical action research for change. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Schön, D. (1983). The reflective practitioner. New York: Basic Books. Schön, D. (1987, April). Educating the reflective practitioner. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Washington, D.C.
Saltzstein, H., Millery, M., Eisenberg, Z., Dias, M., & O’Brien, D. (1997). Moral heteronomy in context: Interviewer influence in New York City and Recife, Brazil. In H. Saltzstein (Ed.), New directions in child development: Culture as a context for moral development, pp. 37–50. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Seifert, Kelvin. (1981). Have we oversold mainstreaming? Journal of the Canadian Association for Young Children, 4(2), 6–9.
St. Clair, R. (2005). Similarity and superunknowns: An essay on the challenges of educational research. Harvard Educational Review, 75(4), 435–453.
Stenhouse, L. (1985). Research as a basis for teaching. London, UK: Heinemann.
Stringer, E. (2007). Action research, 3rd edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Publications.
Tidwell, D. & Fitzgerald, L. (Eds.). (2006). Self-study and diversity. Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Sense Publishers.
Ulichny, P. & Schoener, W. (1996). Teacher-researcher collaboration from two perspectives. Harvard Educational Review, 66(3), 496–524.
Zeichner, K. (2007). Accumulating knowledge across self-studies in teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education, 58(1), 36–46. | 17,732 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://library.achievingthedream.org/hostoseducation/chapter/appendix-c-the-reflective-practitioner/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:23362 | https://library.achievingthedream.org/hostoseducation/chapter/appendix-c-the-reflective-practitioner/ |
EEywATyrgRyJUCGr | Chemistry 110 | Private: Chapter Nineteen
Chapter 19 – Introduction
Transition Metals and Coordination Chemistry
Figure 19.1 Transition metals often form vibrantly colored complexes. The minerals malachite (green), azurite (blue), and proustite (red) are some examples. (credit left: modification of work by James St. John; credit middle: modification of work by Stephanie Clifford; credit right: modification of work by Terry Wallace)
Chapter Outline
- Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Transition Metals and Their Compounds
- Coordination Chemistry of Transition Metals
- Spectroscopic and Magnetic Properties of Coordination Compounds
Introduction
We have daily contact with many transition metals. Iron occurs everywhere—from the rings in your spiral notebook and the cutlery in your kitchen to automobiles, ships, buildings, and in the hemoglobin in your blood. Titanium is useful in the manufacture of lightweight, durable products such as bicycle frames, artificial hips, and jewelry. Chromium is useful as a protective plating on plumbing fixtures and automotive detailing.
In addition to being used in their pure elemental forms, many compounds containing transition metals have numerous other applications. Silver nitrate is used to create mirrors, zirconium silicate provides friction in automotive brakes, and many important cancer-fighting agents, like the drug cisplatin and related species, are platinum compounds.
The variety of properties exhibited by transition metals is due to their complex valence shells. Unlike most main group metals where one oxidation state is normally observed, the valence shell structure of transition metals means that they usually occur in several different stable oxidation states. In addition, electron transitions in these elements can correspond with absorption of photons in the visible electromagnetic spectrum, leading to colored compounds. Because of these behaviors, transition metals exhibit a rich and fascinating chemistry. | 361 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://psu.pb.unizin.org/eshanichemistry110/chapter/chapter-19/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:92906 | https://psu.pb.unizin.org/eshanichemistry110/chapter/chapter-19/ |
dh-50OJl-plSUuc0 | A Quick and Dirty Guide to Art, Music, and Culture | Main Body
10. MTV and Music in the 1980s
Clayton Funk
- TV and Multimedia Shift
In the Summer of 1969, broadcast television made it possible for almost anyone with a television to experience in virtual space the first human to walk on the moon. Most of what we saw on the television screen was a studio simulation with actors in astronaut costumes acting out the moon walk as it happened. What was live from the Moon surface, however, was the actual radio communications between NASA and the Astronauts. In those days, viewers still perceived programming like this as a way of “being there,” as if to embody Marshall McLuhan’s theory that television viewing actually extended the range of viewers’ senses, what they could see and hear. Then came Cable Television.
The years 1940 through the 1960s saw some of the first Cable Television (CATV) systems in the United States developed by James F. Reynolds in his town of Maple Dale, Pennsylvania, which grew to include near by cities. But CATV was controversial, because its closed network tended to exclude some viewers who could not pay for it, which went against the grain of those who believed broadcast media carried vital information that citizens have a right to know and should be free to anyone within range.
After the complicated discourse of lawmaking and litigation in the 1960s, CATV was allowed to grow, so long as it carried local free broadcast stations; and by the 1980s CATV became more common, especially in major urban areas where reception could be bad due to signals blocked by tall buildings. As more neighborhoods came onto the cable grid, the more TV began to change.
The rapidly growing cable television industry was also changing our perceptions of why people watched TV. Instead of a network on which you heard a variety of programming from the press, to sitcoms, to variety shows; cable featured an array of channels, each with its own kind of programming. There were cable channels that broadcast only news and commentary around the clock, while other channels, like American Movie Classics (AMC), ran classic movies back-to-back. And not the least of these channels was Music Television or MTV.
MTV
Music Television (MTV) came online in 1981. It was a new kind of cable channel formed expressly to broadcast the new media of music videos and most importantly a new clearinghouse for rating and promoting recorded music. In homes with multiple television sets, young people could watch music in one room while parents watched programs they liked in another room.
Link to this video of the history of MTV at: https://youtu.be/Y6jz65YRCy8
By the 1990s, cable services were digitized and bundled with fast Internet access. This configuration made it possible to see a video on MTV and order the CD from such new retail sites as Amazon.com. And as we know, in less than a decade, music could simply be downloaded.
Remember the power of radio DJs to promote recordings between the 1950s and the 1970s? Well, MTV represented a radical departure the world of Radio DJs. In its early years, MTV targeted an audience of mostly White suburban males, with music from a Rock industry made up of mostly White male performers, but there were a few exceptions. Micheal Jackson was one of the musicians of color to be featured on MTV, and eventually such women performers as Cyndi Lauper, Donna Summer, and Pat Benatar became popular. It took much longer for MTV to broadcast Hip Hop and Rap videos, thinking White audiences would be afraid of the aggressive lyrics. But sooner than later, White viewers constituted the largest audience demographic for Hip Hop in the 1990s and beyond, around the world. This growth came along at the right time for a music industry struggling in an economic recession. And eventually the marketing of the music industry would shift to digital networks. (See video above).
Continue to biographies of musicians from the 1980s on this Biographies menu: http://aaep1600.osu.edu/book/menu1980s.php
Or simply follow this list:
- Alabama
- Blondie
- Duran Duran
- Eurythmics
- The Go-Go’s
- Guns and Roses
- Michael Jackson
- Madonna
- Metallica
- The Police
- Prince
- Public Enemy
- George Strait
- Van Halen | 920 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://ohiostate.pressbooks.pub/artandmusicbiographies/chapter/reading-10-mtv-and-race-and-diy/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:6060 | https://ohiostate.pressbooks.pub/artandmusicbiographies/chapter/reading-10-mtv-and-race-and-diy/ |
npTRnQrqKgL3L9XZ | Line B: Employability Skills, Competency B-2: Describe Expectations and Responsibilities of Employers and Employees – Second Edition | Learning Task 7: Job-Search Strategies
Describe Effective Job-Search Strategies
Very few people are lucky enough to find their “dream career job” right away. Typically, there are a series of decisions to make, experiences and qualifications to gain, and opportunities to consider in the world of work before landing that “one perfect job.”
When you are looking for a job, the importance of the first impression you make can never be overstated—whether it is in writing, over the phone, or in person. To land the job you desire, you need to make a good and lasting impression.
In this section, you will learn about job-search strategies from self-marketing through to the interview stage.
Uncovering Job Leads
The very first step toward securing a job is to find out who is hiring. Job leads come from two basic sources:
- The visible job market. The visible job market refers to jobs that are advertised in public places, such as newspapers, Internet job banks, and signs posted in stores.
- The hidden job market. The hidden job market refers to jobs that are not advertised publicly, but through word of mouth, networking, or direct contact with employers.
The Visible Job Market
Accessing job leads through the visible job market is generally straightforward. You may find jobs posted in local newspapers, online, company websites, or other sources such as career fairs or signs posted in storefronts. Occasionally employers will post openings at training institutions or ask to make a class presentation to potential employees.
If you are searching for work through the visible job market, keep in mind that effective reading skills are important to assessing job ads. Because advertising is expensive, most employers limit the size of their ads in order to reduce costs. To keep the ads short and to the point, employers often use jargon and abbreviations, which can make ads difficult to understand. Being able to understand job search vocabulary used in an ad will help narrow your options and find a fit that is right for you.
For example, you might come across a job ad that uses the abbreviation “a/p.” If you know that “a/p” means “accounts payable,” you might decide not to apply for the job because you don’t have any bookkeeping skills. You will save yourself a lot of time and effort by applying only for those positions for which you meet the minimum qualifications.
Sometimes employers provide a link in a job ad to their own website where the position may be described in more detail. Be sure to check this out, especially if you aren’t sure about any aspect of the job ad.
It is also important to be able to glean additional information from the ad’s that are posted. To understand the poster’s use of language in ad’s will allow you to flag workplaces that may not be particularly open to hiring you based on their own biases or may be inexperienced in diverse hiring practices. Ads posted looking for “Journeymen” are appealing only to a male audience by using gendered language, whereas ads that use gender neutral language such as “Journeyperson” show an inclusivity to all applicants. If a female identified Journeyperson wanted to apply for the ad looking for “Journeymen,” they might choose to only put their first initial on their resume, so as not to face discriminatory hiring practices prior to obtaining an interview. The language used in employment ads can provide us with hints towards our approach to applying for jobs.
Scanning job ads
Learning how to scan ads for appropriate job leads can also help to reduce the amount of time you spend reading employment sections in newspapers or searching online databases.
“Scanning” refers to the ability to read information very quickly by looking for keywords. By not reading every single word, you can review an ad efficiently.
When looking at job ads, scan for the following information:
Job category
Know what job categories to look in. You are more likely to find an entry-level trades position under categories such as “construction and skilled trades,” “general labour,” or “other.”
Job titles
Know the different titles commonly used for the type of job you are looking for. In the restaurant industry, employers may use the titles such as prep cook, line cook, or kitchen help. In construction, you may look for the terms labourer, apprentice, or apprentice levels 1, 2, 3, or 4.
Location
Know the sections of town or regions that you’re willing to travel to.
Be clear about your availability. Can you work evenings, weekends, and shift work?
Salary
Have a sense of your salary expectations, since wages are often advertised.
Special skills
Know what special skills you bring to the job and scan for them. For example, you may have industrial lift truck operator certification or first aid certification. Some online databases will even allow you to search by keywords.
Accessing the Hidden Job Market
Accessing the visible market may seem straightforward and the logical way to conduct a job search. But the more effective way to secure a job is through accessing the hidden job market— that is, finding a job that has not been posted publicly—because the majority of job leads are never posted. Instead, an employer and job seeker may make contact through personal connections or networks.
You can access the hidden job market through cold calling (a phone call or visit to an employer to inquire about possible job openings, even though none is advertised), asking friends, networking, making volunteer connections, or being at the right place at the right time.
While accessing the hidden job market may require you to be more resourceful, organized, and assertive, it can also provide you with a greater chance of finding employment and a better knowledge of your employer and working conditions. The extra legwork can also put you in tune with what is happening in an industry and provide new leads. You also need to be prepared for some dead-end leads as well as negative responses, but the experience you gain will improve your communication skills. You must always be prepared—you never know when a casual conversation can turn into a formal interview.
Making contact
A great way to access the hidden job market is to directly contact employers or people currently working in your field of interest. One challenge new job seekers experience is finding out exactly what a certain job entails. A job might appear great on paper, but you may not be entirely sure about the day-to-day reality.
One strategy to uncover the reality of a job is to conduct an information interview: that is, you contact a potential employer and arrange to have a brief conversation about a job. This is sort of like background research. It is a way to learn more about a company and position before you actually submit a résumé. This process allows you to know exactly what the job is before you apply. Sometimes, an information interview can turn into a job interview.
In making contact with a potential employer, your communication skills are very important. You want to make a positive first impression. To do so, an effective strategy is to practice before you approach an employer for a meeting.
Here are some guidelines:
- Be clear about your intention for the call and the request for the information meeting.
- Keep your meeting professional and on time (ask for only 10 to 15 minutes of someone’s time).
- Keep your meeting focused on the purpose for your meeting.
- Present yourself in a manner fitting for an actual job interview. In preparing for the information interview:
- o Prepare questions by writing them down in advance.
- o Demonstrate that you have conducted some research on the company. Be sure to take a notepad and pen to record information when you go to your information interview. (It doesn’t hurt to take more than one pen, just in case one of them doesn’t work!)
- Once you return home, transfer your information into a table or database where you can keep track of the information.
Figure 1 shows one possible format:
| Name | Organization | Date | Contact Info. | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Don Miller, Apprentice Coordinator | DW Oil & Gas | June 2, 2021 | (xxx) 455-1234
<EMAIL_ADDRESS>|
Spoke to receptionist. Left message for DM.
Should call back by Friday. If no response, email next week. (Normally gets back to people within a week.) |
| Dave Jameson, Owner | Dave’s Electric | June 5, 2021 | (xxx) 652-2213
<EMAIL_ADDRESS>|
Spoke to Dave’s wife, Charlene, who does the books.
They don’t currently have a 1st year apprentice. May be interested. Dave is out of the office until June Suggested to call after June 18 to see if he is interested in meeting up. |
Even if you have made contact with a potential employer who has told you there’s no work, it’s important to keep the name and contact information for that person on file. Sometimes, maintaining regular contact with a potential employer over time can lead to a job because that person remembers your name from having spoken with you recently and on more than one occasion.
The elevator pitch
Who are you? What type of work you are looking for? What skills do you possess that are relevant to your work target? All these questions require thought when you are job searching. You will encounter situations where you are speaking with someone who could be a potential employer but is unfamiliar with your background. Communicating who you are and the skills you possess requires more detail than a single sentence. You need a tightly structured response.
The “elevator pitch” is one way to get started: imagine getting into an elevator in a large office building. In the elevator, you recognize a manager from a company that you want to work for. You are both going up 35 floors—you have some time to introduce yourself and perhaps get a foot in the door with this company. You now have 90 seconds before the elevator reaches your floor to briefly introduce yourself and skills, essentially impressing upon this manager that you would be a great employee for the company.
The 90-second elevator pitch is something you should practice and perfect. It is the basic introduction of who you are and what you are looking for. It will form the basis of your introductory message when networking, your opening statement in telephone contacts with employers, and the foundation of your “Tell me about yourself” answer in an interview.
Most contacts are not looking for your life history. They are looking for a short summary of your skills. Develop a level of comfort in your personal presentation by rehearsing and practicing the delivery of your elevator pitch. You should be able to explain who you are and what you are looking for with confidence.
Step A: Job description
Research an organization and job you are interested in. This may include looking at the company’s website and publications, recent news stories, and any recent job postings.
Step B: Elevator pitch
Structure your elevator pitch (90 seconds) by:
- introducing yourself
- stating your interest in working for the organization you’ve chosen
- identifying two to three skills that you possess that would make the organization interested in interviewing you
Step C: Evaluating your pitch
The best way to gain confidence is to have others listen to your pitch and provide their feedback, or record your pitch and play it back. Feedback should be based on the following questions:
- Did you identify the organization and position that interests you at the onset of your pitch?
- Was the content well organized?
- Was your communication purposeful?
- Were your tone and vocabulary professional?
- Was your pronunciation clear and articulate?
- Was your delivery confident?
Dressing the Part for the Interview
Whenever we meet someone for the first time, we make and form a first impression. First impressions are made within the first three seconds of an initial meeting. It doesn’t take long to make one, and yet it can be next to impossible to reverse it. How we dress plays a large role in the first impression that we make. For example, a heavy-equipment operator would be inappropriately dressed if they showed up for an interview wearing a suit or a dress, whereas a person applying for a corporate position would not. In both situations, the person wants to present themself in an appropriate manner. If you’ll be working on a construction site or manufacturing setting, dress ready to work (e.g., clean jeans and an appropriate shirt or T-shirt and steel-toed boots). If you are interviewing for a service company similarly come dressed in a clean button up shirt or plain polo or tee shirt and clean khakis or jeans. Avoid wearing clothing that has offensive language or images on it, is dirty or torn, or is too formal for the type of work you are applying for. An employer wants to be able to picture you on the job when they are interviewing you, whether it be in their uniform in the case of a service company or in work clothing on a construction site. If they cannot picture you doing the work, it will be harder for you to get the job.
Résumés and Cover Letters
Your résumé and cover letter are the two documents that you will use to interest potential employers and let them know why you are the candidate they should shortlist or hire for a job. At times you may be creating these documents from scratch. At other times, you may be provided with online templates or questions that need to be completed and submitted electronically to the employer.
This section reviews how to write a résumé and cover letter. Once you know how to complete these documents from scratch, it is easy to fill out electronic forms and provide the necessary information.
Résumés
A résumé is a “living” document. Sometimes professionals use the term CV instead of résumé. CV stands for curriculum vitae, meaning “course of life” in Latin.
Because your résumé summarizes your education, employment history, skills, and accomplishments, it will change every time you acquire new knowledge, a new skill, or a new job. In fact, you will likely need to update your résumé after completing this course to highlight your new skills and accomplishments. The résumé tells a potential employer what you can do and have done, who you are, and what you know. It also states what kind of work you’re looking for, so you’ll have to change your résumé depending on the type of job you’re applying for.
The purpose of the résumé is to help you get an interview. The average amount of time an employer takes to scan a résumé is 30 seconds, so how can you make your résumé stand out from the rest? The answer is to create interest. Describe your accomplishments actively and invite the employer to contact you. And be sure to provide enough information for the employer to evaluate your qualifications.
Here are a few résumé guidelines:
- Keep it short, no more than one or two pages.
- Organize it with coherent information presented in an attractive and tidy way.
- Focus it to show the employer how your skills and accomplishments can benefit the organization.
- Have proof to support every statement about yourself with a specific, recent example.
There are three main types of resumes: the chronological résumé, the skills-based résumé, and the combination résumé.
Chronological résumé
A chronological résumé lists education, skills, and experience in reverse chronological order (the most recent experience first) with the focus on relevant experience. Chronological résumés are effective when you have a solid work history, and you are applying for a similar type of work as the work history.
Skills-based résumé
A skills-based résumé lists skills and talents in order of importance. This form is more suited to those with limited experience and is therefore particularly popular with students. Skills- based résumés are effective when you have developed skills through school, hobbies, or volunteering, but do not have direct work experience. Skills-based résumés are also effective when changing careers.
Combination résumé
A combination résumé is the most common format and combines prominent skills and relevant experience with the most recent history presented first. The combination format helps you to focus your résumé while providing a detailed work history.
Hints for writing your résumé
Creating a good résumé starts with gathering all the information an employer will want to know about you. Whether you’re creating a brand-new résumé or polishing up an old one, you first need to collect the relevant information.
Once you have gathered all the information for your résumé, the writing begins. Here are a few things to keep in mind:
- A résumé has to be word processed (typed) and easy to read.
- Do not include your race, birth date (consider also leaving off the date you graduated high school as this can be used in reverse to find your birthdate), or social insurance number.
- Include your city and province but do not include your home address (this can create a personal safety issue in some situations).
- Important information, such as your contact information, should be easy to find.
- Avoid lengthy paragraphs. Use bullets to highlight information.
- Ensure you have 3 references at the ready (with complete contact information and where they are from) and they know that you’ll be applying for jobs and they are your reference.
- Don’t discount any skills that could be considered transferable, especially if you are changing careers. For instance, if you have worked in the food service industry as a server, you will have communication skills, customer service skills, time management skills and organizational skills that transfer easily to a job in the trades.
- Make it perfect! Have someone proofread it for spelling and grammatical errors.
- Do not handwrite corrections on the final copy.
- Use action words or verbs (e.g., coached, designed, built, organized) to describe your skills and experience. Refer to the list of action words below when you create your résumé and cover letter.
Although there is no set résumé style that you must follow, it is wise to use a format that is generally accepted and is easy for another person to read. Read through the following three sample résumés. All the samples are acceptable formats. Which one do you prefer?
Using action verbs in your resume
The following are action verbs that can help you when preparing your resume:
Creative
- acted
- composed
- conceptualized
- created
- cooked
- displayed
- drafted
- directed
- designed
- developed
- established
- fashioned
- founded
- illustrated
- instituted
- integrated
- introduced
- invented
- mapped
- modelled
- originated
- painted
- performed
- planned
- photographed
- printed
Research
- clarified
- collected
- critiqued
- diagnosed
- evaluated
- examined
- extracted
- identified
- inspected
- interpreted
- Interviewed
- Investigated
- Organized
- Reviewed
- Summarized
Helping
- assessed
- assisted
- cared for
- clarified
- coached
- counselled
- decided
- demonstrated
- diagnosed
- educated
- expedited
- facilitated
- familiarized
- guided
- lead
- managed
- motivated
- referred
- rehabilitated
- represented
- supervised
Financial
- administered
- allocated
- analyzed
- appraised
- audited
- balanced
- budgeted
- calculated
- computed
- developed
- forecasted
- managed
- marketed
- planned
- projected
Management
- administered
- analyzed
- assigned
- attained
- chaired
- consolidated
- contracted
- coordinated
- consulted
- delegated
- developed
- directed
- evaluated
- executed
- improved
- increased
- organized
- oversaw
- planned
- prioritized
- produced
- recommended
- reviewed
- scheduled
- strengthened
- supervised
Detail
- approved
- arranged
- analyzed
- assessed
- catalogued
- checked
- classified
- collected
- complied
- copied
- defined
- dispatched
- executed
- evaluated
- examined
- filed
- generated
- implemented
- inspected
- learned
- monitored
- operated
- organized
- prepared
- processed
- purchased
- proofread
- processed
- purchased
- recorded
- retrieved
- screened
- specified
- systematized
- tabulated
- updated
- validated
Communicate
- addressed
- arbitrated
- arranged
- authored
- corresponded
- developed
- directed
- drafted
- edited
- enlisted
- formulated
- influenced
- interpreted
- lectured
Teaching
- adapted
- advised
- clarified
- coached
- communicated
- coordinated
- developed
- educated
- enabled
- encouraged
- evaluated
- explained
- facilitated
- guided
- informed
- initiated
- instructed
- persuaded
- set goals
- stimulated
Technical
- Assembled
- Adjusted
- Built
- calculated
- computed
- Drove
- designed
- devised
- engineered
- Fixed
- fabricated
- installed
- Lifted
- maintained
- operated
- overhauled
- programmed
- remodeled
- repaired
- scheduled
- solved
- serviced
- Tested
- trained
- upgraded
Cover letters
You’ve written a brand new résumé or you’ve polished up an old one. Now what? You need a cover letter to introduce and communicate even more about yourself to a potential employer.
An exceptional cover letter is the key to getting your résumé read. The cover letter is a tightly written advertisement about you: the person who is applying for that particular job. It includes a description of:
- the position for which you’re applying
- your skills, achievements, and experience that relate to the position
- your contact information
A cover letter accompanies your résumé when you apply for a job. Where a résumé may be considered generic enough to be easily adapted to several jobs, a cover letter is very specific and tailored for each job for which you apply. Therefore, it needs to be modified for each employer. The cover letter introduces you to a prospective employer and should make them interested enough to invite you for an interview. It is important to always send a cover letter even if you have spoken with the employer in person or by phone.
The cover letter includes:
- the standard format of a greeting
- an introductory paragraph
- a supporting paragraph
- a closing or summary paragraph
- a signature closing
It gives you the opportunity to highlight the skills in your résumé that are especially relevant to the job.
In the cover letter, be sure to do all of the following:
- Grab the employer’s attention. You’re trying to make yourself stand out against other applicants.
- Address your letter specifically to the person in charge, and include their title (e.g., Site Manager, Director of Human Resources). Researching that information, instead of addressing your letter “To Whom It May Concern,” shows initiative. Make sure you have the correct spelling of the person’s name and are using the pronouns that they prefer to address them, if you don’t know it’s best just to stick to their first and last name.
- Base your correspondence to employers on what you can do for them, not on what you want them to do for you.
- Don’t be presumptive, when formatting your letter don’t make statements like “when I get this job,” or “I expect to hear from you soon.” Instead, be gracious using statements like “I look forward to the opportunity to discuss my qualifications further.”
- Use “I” statements, rather than “you” statements. There is a big difference between “I believe that I am a qualified candidate for this position” and “you will see I am the best person for the job”
- Interest the employer enough to read your résumé by specifically pointing out why you are perfect for the job.
- Provide information about how, where, and when you can be contacted.
- Tailor your letter to match the duties and qualifications of the job. Show that you know the employer’s priorities and concerns, this can be achieved by reflecting back what they were looking for in their ad.
- Write a different letter for each application. Although all your letters can have the same format and some similar information, each letter must match each job for which you apply.
- Present something unique about yourself.
- Stay brief and focused. Keep the cover letter to one page.
- Keep the cover letter free of spelling and grammatical errors.
- Send an original copy of the cover letter, not a photocopy.
The following pages give a model for cover letter writing and well as an example of a cover letter.
Once you’ve drafted your cover letter, it is important to review it to make sure that you’ve addressed all points in the job posting and have created a clear and concise letter, free of spelling and grammatical errors. The following checklist can assist you with this task.
- Check content (Have you done what you set out to do?)
- Does your cover letter address all of the key points/job requirements listed in the job posting?
- Is your résumé up to date? For example, are the employers or job functions you’ve listed in your cover letter in your résumé?
- Are there any unnecessary details in your letter or résumé that should be deleted? For example, as you gain more experience in your trade, some of your previous work experience may no longer be relevant and can be deleted from your résumé. As a general rule, a résumé can include 10 to 15 years of prior relevant experience.
- Check language (Is it easy to follow?)
- Are there any unnecessary words that need to be deleted?
- Are there transitions from one idea to the next?
- Are your sentences properly constructed?
- Are the words you selected accurate and specific? Don’t hesitate to look up a word in the dictionary if you are not sure if it is being used correctly.
- Check format
- Do your documents (cover letter and résumé) follow the suggested format (or another recognized format)?
- If you use a subject line in your cover letter, does the title reflect the job posting? (Note: Some job descriptions require that you include the job posting number and job title in a subject line.)
- Do you have a new paragraph every time you change to a new idea?
- Did you include your name and the date?
- Did you use only one side of the page? In general, résumés and cover letters should not be double sided.
- Are your fonts and font sizes consistent throughout your documents?
- Check grammar, punctuation, and spelling Grammar:
- Do all subjects and verbs agree?
- Are the verb tenses consistent and correct?
- Punctuation:
- Are apostrophes used with all possessive nouns?
- Does each sentence begin with a capital and finish with end punctuation?
- Are proper names capitalized?
- Are quotation marks used correctly where appropriate?
- Spelling:
- Did you use spell check to catch obvious spelling errors?
- Did you read through the document manually to ensure that the spell check changes are correct? (Never rely on the automated spell check only to proofread your documents.)
- Did you manually look up difficult or confusing words in the dictionary?
The Job Interview
A well-written cover letter and résumé may get your foot in the door, but it’s the interview that will secure you the job. The interview allows you to verbally communicate who you are and what you can do. In addition to the skills you listed in your résumé, your verbal skills, thinking skills, and social interaction skills are on stage in the interview.
The interview is an exchange of information between an employer and a potential employee. A job interview allows an employer to get to know you as a person and to:
- determine if your personality will fit into the company
- ask what you can do for the company
- get a sense of your attitude about work and their business
- see what you know about their business
- verify the facts on your résumé and cover letter
A job interview allows you to:
- find out more about the position for which you have applied
- ask questions about the job and the company
- decide if you really want to work for this company
- convince the employer that you are the best person for this job
The interview process usually involves a short meeting (15 to 30 minutes) during which the employer will ask a variety of questions. These can range from very general—such as an overview of your work history—to the very specific, such as explaining a skill or knowledge set listed in your résumé. Being able to communicate well by answering questions effectively is an essential part of securing a job.
You might also be asked questions about what you would do in a certain situation, or to elaborate on a past experience. These kinds of questions and queries are called behavioural interview strategies. They help the interviewer evaluate your ability to solve problems and handle mistakes. They usually begin with phrases such as:
- Tell me about a time when… (you provided exceptional customer service)
- Describe a time when… (you had a difficult customer)
- Give me an example of your skill (mathematical, organizational, etc.)
Other typical interview questions are:
- Tell me about yourself.
- What can you do for our company?
- What are your strengths and weaknesses?
- Tell me about your leadership experiences.
- How would your classmates describe you?
- How would your teachers describe you?
- Why did you apply for this job?
Practicing for the interview
It is important that you feel confident when answering interview questions. Too often people think they can memorize answers, and then under the pressure of the interview, they forget and lose focus. Rather than memorizing answers, it is a good idea to formulate a strategy to answer questions. One way to approach an answer is outlined below. Take note of the three parts to the answer.
Sample Question: What are your strongest skills?
- Part 1: Factual answer – I feel that my strongest skills are my ability to work with my hands, follow specifications, and meet deadlines.
- Part 2: Detailed example (proof) – In school we had to create many projects, from custom pieces to duct fittings, and I was always top of the class in shop marks. I also have a letter of reference from JB Metals, where I completed a six-month work placement, attesting to the quality of my work and my ability to follow specifications and meet deadlines.
- Part 3: Link to potential employer (value) – I believe that these skills would be beneficial to your company because the custom work done here demands high quality, precision, and meeting established deadlines.
Typical questions
The following are some typical questions that get asked in interviews. Read through each question and take some time to think about what your most appropriate response would be. It is helpful to practice with the three-part approach so that you will be able to address most questions in your interview without hesitation and have a strategy to address any new questions that you haven’t prepared for.
Hint: Try answering these questions with a specific job opening in mind. Include relevant information you have researched about the company in some of your answers.
- Tell me something about yourself.
The interviewer is trying to find out what kind of person you are, not merely about your job skills. Mention your personal strengths, interests, and abilities. - Why do you want to work here?
The interviewer wants to make sure that you’ll be satisfied with the job and likely to stay. This question also demonstrates if you have researched the company. Share what you learned about the job, the company, and the industry through you own research. Talk about how your professional skills will benefit the company. - Why did you leave your last job?
The interviewer is trying to determine whether you had previous work problems. Don’t say anything negative about your previous company or supervisor. Simply give an appropriate reason, such as you relocated away from job; company went out of business; temporary job; no possibility of advancement; or wanted a job better suited to your skills.
Hint: In the interview, keep answers straightforward and concise. Try to keep answers to less than two minutes long. - What are your long-range career goals/objectives?
The interviewer wants to know if your plans and the company’s goals are compatible. Talk about new experiences or responsibilities you’d like to add in the future that build on the current job you are applying for. - What do you consider to be your greatest strengths and weaknesses?
If you have researched the organization, you should have an idea of what skills or qualities the company values. Use examples to illustrate your positive qualities and how they apply to work. In discussing weaknesses, talk about things that you recognize and have taken steps to improve. - What wage are you expecting?
Instead of stating a certain amount, ask the interviewer to discuss the company and the approximate pay range for the position. It is important to know what the current wage is for the position; you can find salary surveys at the library or on the Internet or check the classified ads to see what comparable jobs in your area are paying. This information can help you negotiate your wage once the employer makes you an offer. - Do you prefer to work alone or with others?
The interviewer wants to get a sense of your ability to get along well with others. Discuss the advantages of working in a group and be prepared to give concrete examples of your experience of teamwork.
Hint: Avoid one-word answers, such as “yes” or “no.” Provide an example whenever possible. - Under what circumstances do you work best?
The interviewer may be indicating that the job can be stressful. Talk about several examples where you met deadlines and show how capable you were of rising to the occasion. - What are your hobbies?
The interviewer may be looking for evidence of job skills outside of your work experience or may simply be curious about your life outside of work. Employees who have creative or athletic outlets for their stress are often healthier, happier, and more productive. - What contributions do you see yourself making to this job/company?
Offer examples of actions you took and the positive results you obtained. Show how this ability transfers from your previous position to the new job/company.
Here is a list of additional interview questions you may encounter and may want to prepare answers for:
- What do you see as being your most significant accomplishment?
- What are your expectations regarding career progress and promotion?
- Which of your jobs was the least interesting/most interesting and why?
- When you are supervising others, how do you motivate them?
- What motivates you to put forth your best effort?
- What would you look for in an employee and/or colleagues?
- How do you adapt to new situations?
- How do you determine or evaluate success?
- Describe your contribution to a group effort that you may have participated in.
- Have you ever had to work with someone who did not share the same work style or ethic as you? How did you manage that?
Some interview questions may not be relevant, can be considered discriminatory and you will have to decide whether to answer them. These can include:
- How much do you weigh?
- How tall are you?
- How old are you?
- What religion do you practice?
- Have you ever received psychiatric care?
- What is your sexuality?
- Have you ever been convicted of a criminal offence for which you have not been pardoned?
- Do you smoke or drink?
- Are you married?
- Are you single?
- Do you have any children?
Under the law, you do not have to answer these questions, and you may want to ask how the question is relevant to the position. This can show an employer’s biases and can spur you as an interviewee to make decisions on whether the employers values align with your own. If you do not want to answer a question because it makes you uncomfortable and you feel it doesn’t concern the job, you can answer by saying, “Sorry, I’m not comfortable answering that question.” Being asked inappropriate questions by an employer may influence whether you choose to take the job if offered to you following the interview.
To be perceived as an active participant in the interview process and to show your interest in the company, you can also ask questions. In fact, it is very important that you take the time during the interview to ask questions yourself. You don’t want to take a job that will not suit you (i.e., hours of work or benefits that may be unacceptable). You also want to be clear about what is expected of you so you can be prepared. Accepting a job and quitting shortly after can harm your professional reputation, especially if you live in a small community.
Some questions you can ask include:
- What qualities are you looking for in an employee?
- What are your expectations of new employees?
- Can you tell me about your training programs?
- How is an employee evaluated and promoted?
- What are the opportunities for personal growth?
- What are the challenging aspects of this job?
What employers are looking for
Now that you have had an opportunity to think about questions and put yourself into an interview frame of mind, consider what else an employer is looking for. Consider the following points:
- Make a good first impression. The decision to hire is often made in the first 30 seconds. Practice coming into a room, offering your hand confidently, smiling, and introducing yourself. Use your left hand for carrying, leaving your right hand free for the handshake.
- Be prepared. Know something about the company. Bring an extra copy of your résumé, as well as a pen and a notepad to have something to hold in case you are nervous or want to make notes.
- Stay calm. Create a good first impression by appearing confident and being mindful of your body movement (hands, fingers, feet).
- Watch your body language:
- Offer a firm handshake.
- Stand up straight and look confident.
- Sit only when instructed to do so or if the interviewer sits first.
- Cross legs at ankles, not the knees.
- Look at the interviewer.
- Smile.
- Remember to breathe. Watch your appearance:
- Have clean, styled hair.
- Make sure you’re wearing clean shoes.
- Make sure that you have clean fingernails.
- Don’t wear strong perfume or cologne.
- Don’t wear distracting jewellery.
- Carry your extra papers in a bag that’s not ripped or tattered or a portfolio.
Interview summary
The interview is an opportunity for you to get to know your potential employer in person and for your potential employer to get to know you! Interviews let you ask detailed questions about the job for which you are applying, which will let you and your interview panel know if you’re the right person for the position. Effective communication is an essential skill during the job interview.
Make sure you know something about the organization for which you are applying. When you first greet the employer, introduce yourself cordially, and try not to be nervous. Pay attention to your body language and make sure that your appearance is professional.
In many cases during an interview, you will be asked to explain how you would respond to very particular situations where some kind of a conflict may be involved (behavioural interview strategies). One way to prepare for interviews is to anticipate the kinds of questions that you will be asked and to rehearse responses. You can formulate answers based on the facts about who you are, provide examples that support your opinion, and provide a rationale for how your response relates to the job for which you are applying.
After you’ve had the interview and are waiting for a phone call, is there anything else you can do? Yes! Thanking the person who interviewed you is one way to set yourself apart from other candidates. Write a positive, enthusiastic letter thanking your interviewer and restating your interest in the position.
Thank-you emails/letters
Writing a thank-you email or letter is a step that many interviewees overlook but which can play an important role in helping you to secure the job. This small but thoughtful gesture can set you apart from other applicants, particularly when competition is high.
A thank-you letter or email:
- shows that you understand and practice good business etiquette
- keeps your name fresh in the employer’s mind
- reinforces your interest in the position
- gives you a chance to reinforce some of the positive things you said in the interview
- allows you the chance to mention something that you might have forgotten to say in the interview
- lets you talk about the workplace you have seen and how you feel you would fit
Which format?
Think of the thank-you letter as the concluding paragraph in a composition. Your cover letter is your introductory paragraph that states your purpose in applying for a job. The résumé and interview are your body paragraphs that expand the points outlined in your cover letter. The thank-you letter is your closing, restating your interest in the position and confirming why you are the best applicant for the job.
A thank-you letter can be written in the form of a business letter, a handwritten note, or an email. The business letter is the most formal. Handwritten notes are more personal, but they can be perceived as less polished and professional and therefore are not usually recommended. Email is appropriate when that has been your means of communication with the person you want to thank, or if your contact has expressed a preference for email. The important point to consider is the nature of the organization to which you are applying.
Of the three options, a business letter or email are likely the best. The letter or email allows you to further showcase your writing, editing, and communication skills, and provides the space needed to include details about your skills for the job.
Business thank-you letters
Generally, your thank-you letter should include the following information:
- First paragraph
Thank the interviewer for taking the time to meet with you (mention the date). Remind them of the position for which you interviewed. - Second paragraph
Restate your interest in the position and the company. Mention something you learned from the interview or comment on something of importance that you discussed. Again, emphasize your strengths, experiences, skills, and accomplishments, and slant them toward the points that the interviewer considered the most important for the position. - Third paragraph
Once again, thank the interviewer for their time and consideration. If appropriate, close with a suggestion for further action (if a second interview is a possibility), or mention that you will follow up with a phone call in a few days. Include your phone number as well and offer the interviewer the chance to contact you. The following is an example of a business thank-you letter.
Thank-you emails
If you choose to email your thank-you note, it is important to have a business-like writing style. Here are some conventions to follow:
- Make sure your email address is professional. If it is an address you use for MSN or corresponding with your friends<EMAIL_ADDRESS>for example), you may need to set up a new email account for business correspondence (a_brown@msn.com).
- Use a meaningful subject line (e.g., Re: Interview for Carpentry Position).
- Double space between paragraphs.
- Use at least a size 10 font.
- Do not use texting-type abbreviations such as “k” or “u.”
- Pay attention to grammar, spelling, and punctuation (use the same rules as for business letter correspondence).
- Don’t use all capitals. Writing in capitals is the email equivalent of SHOUTING and people don’t like it. By the same token, don’t use all lowercase letters.
- Don’t include anything that has potential to be offensive or misunderstood.
The following is a sample thank-you email.
Subject: Position of Labourer/Tool Room Assistant Dear Ms. Jones:
Thank you for interviewing me for the position of labourer/tool room assistant at Malouf Contracting. This job is an excellent fit for my skills and interests. Your company’s social responsibility and philosophy of building green reinforced my desire to work with your organization.
In addition to my trade qualifications, I have a strong background in customer service. I am enthusiastic, enjoy working in teams, and am always ready to take on new challenges. After meeting with you, I understand how this role fits into Malouf’s organization and the importance of being able to perform a variety of different functions at any given time. I believe that I’m the right candidate to fulfill this role.
I appreciate the time you took to interview me. I am very interested in working with your organization and look forward to hearing from you regarding this position. Please don’t hesitate to contact me if you have any further questions.
Sincerely,
Jessica Smith
(250) 555-6789
<EMAIL_ADDRESS>City
Self-Test
Self-Test 7
- The importance of first impressions cannot be understated.
- True
- False
- What are the two main sources of job leads?
- Friends and family
- Head-hunters and company websites
- Visible job market and hidden job market
- Advertisements online and in newspapers
- Reading skills and understanding special vocabulary related to the industry/job are important to understanding the visible job market.
- True
- False
- Knowing how to scan job ads has no effect on the amount of time you spend searching for a job online or in newspapers.
- True
- False
- Through which means can the hidden job market be accessed?
- Associations and networking
- Cold calling, friends, and family connections
- All of the above
- None of the above
- An information interview should be conducted for every job you are interested in.
- True
- False
- How much time and effort does accessing the hidden job market require, compared with the visible job market?
- Less time and effort
- More time and effort
- The same amount of time and effort
- It’s hard to tell.
- What do you do if a potential employer refuses to meet with you?
- Send all your questions to the company via their general email address.
- Go to the company personally and introduce yourself to the main receptionist and see if they can answer your questions or find someone who is willing to do so.
- Go through the company directory and contact other individuals until you find someone to meet with you.
- Be polite, accept “no” as their answer, and thank them for their time. Use their website and other sources of information to find out more about the company.
- The “elevator pitch” is a strategy to let a potential employer know about you and why you’d like to work at their company in a very short period of time.
- True
- False
- What are the three main types of résumés?
- Summary, detailed, and extensive
- Extended, chronological, and skills-based
- Summary, chronological, and combination
- Chronological, skills-based, and combination
- You should always use action verbs in your résumé.
- True
- False
- In general, a cover letter should always be written for every job application.
- True
- False
- What kind of information should be in your covering letter?
- The exact same information as in your résumé
- Information about your expectations of the job
- Information about your personality and interests
- The issues addressed in the job posting in order to encourage the reader to look further at your application
- The quality of my cover letter and résumé has no impact on my hiring process.
- True
- False
- All individuals with the necessary qualifications will be interviewed.
- True
- False
- Practicing for the interview and acquiring feedback on your performance is a good way to ensure that you are prepared and that you reduce stress the day of the real interview.
- True
- False
- There is a set of questions that most employers will typically ask.
- True
- False
- Which of the following are employers not looking for in an interview?
- Good first impression
- Overconfidence in your abilities
- Optimistic and knowledgeable about their company
- Showing up dressed appropriately and ready to work on the job
- Questions about your personal attributes (e.g., weight, height, age, religion, sexuality) are not relevant and can be skipped over politely.
- True
- False
- The behavioural interview strategy includes asking how you would respond in a particular situation where there is some kind of conflict.
- True
- False
- Thank-you emails or letters are optional following an interview.
- True
- False
- When writing a cover letter, you should use “I” rather than “you” statements.
- True
- False
- When addressing a cover letter, you should base the gender pronouns you use on whether the addressee has a feminine or masculine name.
- True
- False
- It is best to keep things simple during an interview and use “yes” or “no” answers whenever possible.
- True
- False
- Adding “References available on request” to the end of a resume or cover letter is sufficient until you receive an interview.
- True
- False
Media Attributions
- Sample chronological résumé © BC Industry Training Authority is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA (Attribution NonCommercial ShareAlike) license
- Sample skills based résumé © BC Industry Training Authority is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA (Attribution NonCommercial ShareAlike) license
- Sample combination Résumé © BC Industry Training Authority is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA (Attribution NonCommercial ShareAlike) license
- Model for cover letter © BC Industry Training Authority is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA (Attribution NonCommercial ShareAlike) license
- Sample cover letter © BC Industry Training Authority is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA (Attribution NonCommercial ShareAlike) license
- Sample thank-you letter © BC Industry Training Authority is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA (Attribution NonCommercial ShareAlike) license | 11,024 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/tradescommoncoreb2/chapter/job-search-strategies/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:18225 | https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/tradescommoncoreb2/chapter/job-search-strategies/ |
UYa-YBaC8LpgmmsW | Technology and the Curriculum: Summer 2019 | 8
Amanda Cannon
Ontario Tech University
Abstract
With technology advancing and information being so accessible with the internet, the skills required of learners have changed significantly over the last few years, according to Forbes (Adams, 2014). Learners need to possess strong analytical and critical thinking skills, with the ability to effectively communicate, while making quick decisions and solving unexpected problems. It is equally as important that they demonstrate affective skills and traits such as dependability, adaptability, self-discipline, interpersonal skills, and responsibility. Along with the previously mentioned skills and abilities, we know that through collaboration comes innovation, this makes being able to effectively work and collaborate with others an essential skill required to be successful in the digital world of the 21st century. With so much information available at our fingertips, educators can no longer evaluate learners based on the memorization of facts. The importance is now focused on learners creating meaningful solutions to ill-structured problems and real-world scenarios. Technology can be used in the classroom to promote critical thinking and problem-solving skills, to enhance student engagement, encourage participation and collaboration, as well as be utilized as an effective tool for formative and/or summative assessment. Technology can be used to support education by focusing on developing the skills students require in order to be successful in the 21st century and promote strong digital citizenship. Essential skills, including collaboration are required in order to be successful in adult life, reach employment goals and ultimately promote lifelong learning.
Keywords: essential skills, collaboration, 21st century skills, problem solving skills, digital citizenship, analytical skills, critical thinking skills, innovation
Introduction
As technology advances and the needs of the learners are changing, it is important that the teaching methods of our educators are also changing and adapting to fit the needs of the students. Moving away from traditional teaching methods, educators are seeking new ways to personalize learning and incorporate current technologies such as interactive presentation software, social media applications, websites and blogging, video, digital simulations, and computer games, just to name a few.
Technology can be used to support a learner-centred classroom environment that focuses on collaboration. Students should be involved in active learning activities that encourage them to develop a deeper understanding of content by working with and reflecting upon the material being presented (Brown, Roediger, & McDaniel, 2014). Eliciting students’ previous knowledge and understanding by using technology tools help to provide the opportunity to build and challenge that initial understanding. Having so many available resources allows the classroom to now become the place to work through problems, advance concepts, and engage in collaborative learning (Fulton, 2012). Educators who are using technology to support learning report increased levels of student achievement, interest, and engagement (Fulton, 2012). Using digital technology in the classroom has become particularly attractive because of the availability of internet resources including audio and video on virtually any subject, frequently narrated by some of the world’s most outstanding authorities and subject matter experts (Herreid & Schiller, 2013).
This chapter will explore the key principles and theories which support effective learning with technology. It will discuss using technology to support the development of the skills required of the 21st century learner and educate learners about becoming responsible and intelligent digital citizens. This chapter will discuss different technology tools that support essential skills and collaboration and contribute to meaningful use of technology in learning.
Background Information
In today’s classroom, much attention is devoted to incorporating applications and tools that facilitate active and collaborative learning environments (Santos, Hernández-Leo, Navarrete & Blat, 2014). With today’s competitive workforce and available technology, our learners have specific needs and goals. Learners expect that their curriculum is ultimately guided towards essential skills, future demands or employability, especially concerning adult learners. In order to make learning applicable to the students, they need to be fully engaged in the learning process in order to create meaning and see the value in the tasks they are performing (Fullan, 2013). Learning that is problem-based, inquiry-based, case-based, interest-based, and/or play-based, supported by technologies is proven to enhance student engagement, develop higher order thinking skills and support authentic learning and meaning making (Brown, Roediger, & McDaniel, 2014).
Active Learning
A course designed to create opportunities for active learning is more flexible and student-centred, enabling the students to make choices or be more involved in the learning process. Active learning is defined as a conscious effort by an educator to encourage student participation and enhance student engagement in a classroom (Donovan, Bransford, & Pellegrino, 2002). Technology facilitates multiple means of engagement, representation action and expression among students. Allowing students to present their findings in a way that best suits to their needs and abilities creates a higher level of self-efficacy among learners. One of the greatest benefits that technology has to offer is its flexibility and autonomy. The learners of today use tech in every area of their lives and appreciate that it allows them to be mobile. Technology also provides today’s learners with the flexibility to engage when they are most comfortable and a time that works for them (Tapscott, 2009). Taking away the restriction of classroom walls allows the learning process to be more autonomous and empower the students. The use of technology gives the opportunity for students to experience life outside the structures of the classroom, and or allow the outside world into the classroom.
Collaborative Learning.
The educational approach to teaching and learning in a collaborative learning environment places a strong emphasis on a group of learners who are working together to complete a task, solve a problem, or create a product (Bloom, Krathwohl, & Masia, 1956). Collaborative learning encourages students to learn from one another’s experiences and share knowledge (Panitz, 1996). Collaboration allows students to be active participants in the learning process and in control of constructing knowledge. This method of collaboration promotes a deeper understanding of the subject matter and helps learners make connections between previous knowledge and new information (Gabelnick, MacGregor, Matthews & Smith., 1990). Learners are challenged socially and emotionally by this type of environment where they have the opportunity to hear different perspectives and they are encouraged to articulate and support their ideas. By doing this, learners are able to create their own understanding and conceptual frameworks and they do not rely on the opinions of others.
Universal Design for Learning (UDL).
When UDL principles are incorporated into the course during its design and development, they lay the foundation with learning outcomes, activities, assessments, and teaching methods that improve accessibility for all learners (Rose & Meyer, 2002). There are many interactive student engagement platforms that offer an innovative approach to assist teachers with effective classroom management. Assessment and evaluation are easy with these types of platforms as many of them offer a teacher dashboard or facilitator report to enhance the students’ understanding of the class on individual levels. Gaming or simulations can be used to encourage friendly competition amongst participants and also allow the teachers to provide immediate feedback to improve the experience of the students throughout the course. Using technology such as multimedia software, interactive presentation software, digital simulations, interactive games, online brainstorming, classroom feedback and encouragement of real-time audience participation offers multiple means of representation, multiple means of engagement and multiple means of expression, aligning with UDL principles.
Applications
Technology to Support Essential Skills
Critical thinking involves problem-solving skills, making educated and informed decisions, management skills and the ability to analyze large amounts of information. Authentic learning experiences that offer real life context is essential in order to develop critical thinking skills (Brown, Roediger, & McDaniel, 2014). With technology educators can create authentic learning experiences with tools that offer a mix between virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) that allow the teacher to guide students through 360°scenes and 3D objects. There are a number of applications which allow educators to incorporate AR in different areas such as history, science, arts, and the natural world. Educators can also encourage critical thinking skills by utilizing different presentation platforms that focus on creating interactive activities which are fun and promote student engagement such as real-time polling questions, minute papers, quizzes, exercises, and interactive and formative assessment questions. There are also a number of organizations that posts talks online for free distribution which are excellent resources offering massive collections of engaging videos to gain insight to real-world problems. Inquiry- based instruction (IBL) or problem-based learning (PBL) requires the students to be involved in the learning process and helps create deeper understanding (Brown, Roediger, & McDaniel, 2014) IBL or PBL strategies are used to engage students to learn by asking questions, investigating, exploring, and reporting what they see which helps them be able to apply these concepts that they are learning in new situations. Educators can incorporate technology tools that create a virtual “bulletin” board where students can answer complex questions and develop solutions for these problems by providing a platform to collaborate, reflect and share links.
Communication and Collaboration.
Communication is an essential 21st century skills. 21st century learners are able to effectively share or exchange information, news, or ideas orally, in writing and using a variety of digital tools and also hone superb listening skills (Fullan, 2013). Most of today’s communication takes place using digital tools and resources. It is important that educators explore these tools and encourage these interactions. Utilizing video discussion software allows each student to share their voice by having them record short, authentic videos and replying to one another’s posts. Creating websites and blogs can support student and teacher learning by facilitating reflection, questioning by self and others, collaborating and by providing context for engaging in higher-order thinking. With all the available communication tools, it now becomes important for students to learn how to effectively use these forms of communication and help them to distinguish which platform best suits their needs. Students should work collaboratively to solve problems and build upon previous knowledge by actively interacting and sharing experiences. Creating a community of learners allows for students to draw upon and share what they already know and work together to think, apply, and create new knowledge (Donovan, Bransford, & Pellegrino, 2002). Educators can use cloud-based services that allow you to email, chat, video conference, and create real-time document collaborations by incorporating real time audience participation, online brainstorming and classroom feedback. The ability to work together, learn from one another and help to teach each other is a very important 21st century skill. By utilizing social networking skills and encouraging collaboration this allows students to show empathy to others and work together in diverse environments (Fullan, 2013). Social learning requires students to develop collective intelligence and to co-construct meaning. Social learning applications allow students to collaborate digitally and contribute to the collective knowledge base. Using student engagement platforms or social media applications in the classroom enhances active engagement among the learners and allows them the opportunity to talk to peers, present and defend ideas, as well as allows them to exchange and question diverse opinions and beliefs (Bloom, Krathwohl, & Masia, 1956). Collaborative learning is an essential part of active learning. Ultimately, the combination of active collaborative learning with technology has proven to enhance student academic performance.
Digital Citizenship.
Information literacy is an essential skill for lifelong learning. It is important that students make informed decisions and are able to critically analyze presented facts statistics, figures and data. Digital technology has provided us with so much information, and information literacy skills focuses on the ability to locate, evaluate and effectively apply the information that is required (Tapscott, 2009). It can be hard sorting through all the resources available to incorporate digital media into the classroom. Using sites that review and rate different products such as apps, games, and websites makes finding safe technologies easier for educators. It is important that learners are able to identify and understand the messages of the content that they are consuming and ultimately be able to distinguish between fact and fiction (Tapscott, 2009). Building an understanding of the role of media in our society, along with the essential skills of inquiry and self-expression is a necessity for learning in the 21st century. Today’s students need to be well versed in all types of media including text, audio, video, AR, 3D printing, social media, interactive media, blogs, vlogs, newspapers, books, film, and tv) in order to navigate the world. Creating multimedia products that allow users to create and generate multimedia content and combine different media tools can teach the importance of knowing how to combine and utilize these tools effectively. Helping students be responsible digital citizens requires them to be able to effectively use technology to access, evaluate, integrate, create and communicate information to enhance the learning process through problem-solving and critical thinking. Becoming knowledgeable about online etiquette, exploring our digital footprints, and understanding how personal information can be collected and used will help navigate 21st century learners through life in a “connected” world. In order to be successful in the digital world, we need more than just technical skills – we need to foster awareness, attitudes, and a broad set of abilities. Educators can introduce tools to help establish a professional online presence for students. Students can also be encouraged to explore networking sites and join groups of like-minded professionals to connect, share ideas and encourage educated digital citizenship.
Conclusions and Future Recommendations
There is a lot of research that supports technology to enhance learning in education. Studies have indicated technology used properly in education can encourage problem-solving skills, allowing learners to be self-directed. According to Fulton (2012), it also serves to educate students about the various uses of technologies and teaches them which options are flexible and most appropriate for “21st century learning”. Overall, research concludes that technology in education provides opportunities for learners to draw upon their previous knowledge and skills and apply them to real-world problems and scenarios. Creating a student-centred classroom supported by technology requires a more active approach to learning resulting in a higher level of engagement and motivation. Lastly, there is evidence indicating that incorporating current technology and teaching students about digital literacy and citizenship supports a healthy relationship for technology and future advancements such as online software and collaboration tools to further enhance learning (Sharples et al., 2015).
As educators we need to give our learners the tools to be self-directed learners who are equipped with the knowledge and skills they need in order to keep abreast in a world of technology that is ever-changing. Using technology in the classroom to support 21st century skills and educating them about digital literacy better prepares our students to be lifelong learners. Students focus and work collaboratively on developing the skills they require to actively seek out solutions to real-world problems, which ultimately enhances their problem-solving skills and encourages them to become lifelong learners and become responsible digital citizens.
References
Adams, S. (2014, November 12). The 10 skills employers most want in 2015 graduates. [Web log post]. Forbes. Retrieved from http://www.forbes.com/sites/robertfarrington/2014/05/28/the-two-key-traits-employers-need-from-todays-college-graduates/#259f0990e270
Bloom, B.S. (Ed.), Engelhart, M.D., Furst, E.J., Hill, W.H., & Krathwohl, D.R. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals. Handbook 1: Cognitive domain. New York: David McKay
Brown, P. C., Roediger, H. L., & McDaniel, M. A. (2014). Learning is misunderstood. In Make it stick (pp. 1-22). Cambridge, MA: Belknap.
Donovan, M.S, Bransford, J. D., & Pellegrino, J.W. (2002). Key Findings. In How people learn: Bridging research & practice (pp. 10-24). Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Fullan, M. (2013). Pedagogy and change: Essence as easy. In Stratosphere (pp. 17-32). Toronto, Ontario: Pearson.
Fulton, K. (2012). Upside down and inside out: Flip your classroom to improve student learning. Learning & Leading with Technology, 39(8), 12-17.
Gabelnick, F., MacGregor, J., Matthews, R., & Smith, B.L. (1990). Learning communities: Creating connections among students. San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass.
Herreid, C. F., & Schiller, N. A. (2013). Case studies and the flipped classroom. Journal of College Science Teaching, 42(5), 62-66.
Panitz, T. (1996). A Definition of Collaborative vs Cooperative Learning. Deliberations. London, UK: London Metropolitan University. Retrieved from http://www.londonmet.ac.uk/deliberations/collaborative-learning/panitz-paper.cfm
Rose, D.H., and Meyer, A. (2002). Teaching every student in the digital age: Universal Design for Learning. Alexandria, VA:Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Santos, P., Hernández-Leo, D., Navarrete, T., & Blat, J. (2014). Design Narrative. Practical Design Patterns for Teaching and Learning with Technology, 255-261. doi:10.1007/978-94-6209-530-4_44
Sharples, M., de Roock, R., Ferguson, R., Gaved, M., Herodotou, C., Koh, E., Kukulska-Hulme, A., Looi, C-K., McAndrew, P., Rienties, B., Weller, M., & Wong, L. H. (2016). Innovating Pedagogy 2016: Open University Innovation Report 5. Milton Keynes: The Open University. | 3,588 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://pressbooks.pub/techandcurr2019/chapter/essential-skills-and-collaboration/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:56721 | https://pressbooks.pub/techandcurr2019/chapter/essential-skills-and-collaboration/ |
UW3pSRd3YjcOzUWm | An Epitome of the Homeopathic Healing Art
Containing the New Discoveries and Improvements to the Present Time | Produced by Bryan Ness and the Online Distributed
Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
AN EPITOME OF THE Homoeopathic Healing Art,
CONTAINING THE NEW DISCOVERIES AND IMPROVEMENTS TO THE PRESENT TIME;
DESIGNED
FOR THE USE OF FAMILIES, FOR TRAVELERS ON THEIR JOURNEY,
AND AS A POCKET COMPANION FOR THE PHYSICIAN.
BY B. L. HILL, M. D.,
Professor of General, Special, and Surgical Anatomy Late Professor of
Surgery, Obstetrics, and Diseases Females and Children, in the W. H.
College, Author of the "Homoeopathic Practice of Surgery," &c., &c.
CLEVELAND, OHIO: JOHN HALL, 72 SUPERIOR STREET.
CHICAGO, ILL. HALSEY & KING, 162 CLARK STREET.
1859.
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1859,
By B. L. HILL, M. D.,
In the Clerk's office of the District Court in and for the Northern
District of Ohio.
PINKERTON & NEVINS' Print, Cleveland, O.
TABLE OF REMEDIES.
In this table I have affixed to the remedies figures designating the
dilutions or the attenuations, at which, under ordinary circumstances, I
would advise their use. The strongest, or mother tinctures, marked with
an apha (0), the dilutions or triturations to be of the decimal degrees
of attenuation, are marked 1, 2, 3, &c., to designate that they are to
be used at 1-10th, 1-100th, 1-1000th, &c., the strength of the pure
drugs.
The list for a full FAMILY CASE contains all the remedies recommended in
this book for diseases that may be safely trusted to unprofessional
hands.
The TRAVELER'S CASE needs only such medicines as are prescribed for the
diseases which he would be most liable to contract on his journey;
though I have put in the principal ones used in domestic practice, so
that the Case will do for family use.
The CHOLERA CASE is only supplied with such remedies as are particularly
applicable to that disease; useful, however, for many other complaints.
TRAVELER'S CASE.
1 Aconite p 3|15 Hydrastus Can. p 1
2 Apis Mellifica p 3|16 Ipecac p 3
3 Arsenicum p 3|17 Mercurius sol. p 3
4 Arnica tr 0|18 Mercurius cor. tt 2
5 Arum triphyllum tt 2|19 Macrotin tt 1
6 Belladonna p 3|20 Nux Vom. p 3
7 Baptisia p 1|21 Phosphorus p 3
8 Bryonia p 3|22 Phos. acid p 3
9 Colocynth p 3|23 Podophyllin p 2
10 China Sul. tt 1|24 Rhus toxicod. p 3
11 Chamomilla p 3|25 Secale p 3
12 Copaiva p 2|26 Tartar emetic p 3
13 Cuprum p 3|27|Veratrum p 3
14 Eupatorium Aro. p 1|
CHOLERA CASE.
1 Aconite p 3|8 Laurocerasus p 4
2 Arsenicum p 3|9 Opium p 3
3 Belladonna p 3|10 Merc. cor. p 3
4 Camphor tr 0|11 Phosphorus p 3
5 Carbo Veg. p 5|12 Phos. acid p 3
6 Cuprum p 3|13 Secale p 3
7 Ipecac p 3|14 Veratrum p 3
FULL FAMILY CASE.
Tr. is used for tincture, Tt. trituration, P. pellets.
REMEDIES. |CONTRACTIONS.
1 Aconitum. |Aconite Tr 0 1 p 3
2 Althæa. |
3 Apis mellifica. |Apis mel. 0 p 2 3
4 Arsenicum. |Arsenicum 0 p 3
5 Arnica. |Arnica, 0 p 3
6 Arum triphyllum. |Arum triphyllum, 0 tt 2
7 Belladonna. |Bell. tr 1 p 4
8 Baptisia tinctoria. |Baptisia, tr 0 2
9 Bryonia. |Bryonia, tr p 3
10 Carbo. Vegetabilis. |Carbo. Veg. tr p 4
11 Cantharides. |Cantharides, tr 0 p 3
12 Colocynthis. |Colocynth, tr or p 3
13 China Sulphuricum. |China Sul. tt 1
14 Chamomilla. |Chamomilla tr or p 3
15 Copaiva. |Copaiva tr 1 p 2
16 Cauloph. Thalictroides.|Caulophyllum tr 1
17 Cuprum. |Cuprum, p 3
18 Cuprum Aceticum. |
19 Cornus Sericea. |Cornus sericea, tr 0 p 2
20 Conium maculatum. |Conium mac. tr 0 p 3
21 Coffea. |Coffea p 4
22 Eryngium Aquaticum. |Eryngium Aquaticum 2
23 Eupatorium aromaticum |Eupatorium aro. tr 0 p 2
24 Hepar Sulphur. |
25 Hydrastus Canadensis. |Hydrastin tr 0 p 2
26 Hamamelis Virginica. |Hamamelis Vir. tr 0 p 3
27 Ipecacuanha. |Ipecac tr 0 p 2 3
28 Laurocerasus. |Laurocerasus p 3
29 Mercurius solubilis. |Merc. tr 3
30 Mercurius corrosivus. |Mercurius cor. tt 2 p 3
31 Macrotys Racemosa. |Macrotin, tr 2
32 Nux Vomica. |Nux p 3
33 Opium. |Opium p 3
34 Phosphorus. |Phosphorus, tr 2 p 3
35 Phosphoric acid. |Phos. acid, tr 2 p 3
36 Podophyllum peltatum. |Podophyllin, tt 1 p 3
37 Pulsatilla. |Pulsatilla 3
38 Rhus Toxicodendron. |Rhus Tox. p 3
39 Secale cornutum. |Secale, tr 1 p 3
40 Santonine. |Santonine, tr 1
41 Spongia. |Spongia, p 4
42 Tartar Emetic. |Tartar emetic tr 2 p 3
43 Thuya. |
44 Veratrum alba. |Veratrum. p 3
AN EPITOME
OF THE
HOMOEOPATHIC HEALING ART.
Introduction.
This work contains in a _condensed form_ a very large portion of all
that is practically useful in the treatment of the diseases ordinarily
occurring in this country. The symptoms are given with sufficient
minuteness and detail to enable any one of ordinary capacities of
observation to distinguish the complaint; and the treatment is so
_plainly_ laid down, that no one need make a mistake. If strictly
followed, it will, in a very large proportion of cases, effect cures,
even when administered by those unacquainted with the medical sciences
generally. It has been written from necessity, to meet the demands of
community for a more definite work in a concise form, that should
contain remedies of the most reliable character, with such directions
for their use as can be followed by the _traveler on his journey_, or by
families at home, when no physician is at hand. It might seem to some
preposterous to speak of a _demand_ for another _domestic_
Homoeopathic Practice, when half a score or more of such works are now
extant, some having come out within a very short time. The demand
arises, not from the want of Books, but from the defects of those that
exist. There is in most of them, too little point and definiteness in
the prescriptions, and a kind of vague doubting recommendation
noticeable to all, which carries the impression at once to every reader,
of a want of _confidence_ by the author in his own directions.
Again, in some of the works there is too much confusion, the symptoms
not being laid down with sufficient clearness to indicate the best
remedy. Some of the works are unnecessarily large and cumbersome, while
the real amount of valuable practical matter is comparatively meager,
obliging the reader to pay for paper and binding without the contained
value of his money. I do not claim entire perfection for this work, yet
I do claim it to be several steps in advance of the books now extant.
This work is my own, being the result of my practical experience and
observation. I have introduced several remedies that, though they are
familiar to me, and have been used in my practice for many years, are,
nevertheless, comparatively strange and new to most of the profession.
Of some we have no extensive provings yet published, still the provings
have been made, both upon the healthy and the sick. Their use, as
directed in this work, is in strict accordance with their
Homoeopathic relation to the symptoms for which they are prescribed.
Some may object to my practice of giving several remedies in alternation
or rotation and in quick succession. To such I would say, When you try
this mode of practice and on comparing it with the opposite one of
giving only one remedy, and that at long intervals between the doses,
find my mode to be less successful than yours, _then_ it will be time
for you to make your objections. _You_ may rely upon the vague
hypotheses of the books, and give your high dilutions singly, at long
intervals, and let your patients die for want of _real_ treatment, while
I will use lower dilutions and give two or more remedies in quick
succession and cure mine. I only speak what is in accordance with
universal observation, where the two modes are compared on equal
footing, when I affirm that, while the former _may_ effect some cures,
_most_ of the recoveries under it, are spontaneous and unaided, the
latter _does_ cure; the disease being arrested by the medicine, and the
proportion of unfavorable terminations is much less under the latter
than the former course. I know many learned and successful practitioners
who have substituted low dilutions and the giving of several remedies in
quick succession for the old mode of high attenuations and long
intervals of single remedies, all of whom still adhere to the low, while
I have yet to hear of the man who has gone _back_ to high single
remedies and long intervals. My reason then, for the course here laid
down, is, that it will _cure_ with more promptness and certainty. If
others are so prejudiced as not to _try it_, they will still remain in
ignorance of the _best practice_, and their patients will be the
sufferers.
In reference to the fear that is expressed that if one medicine is given
too soon after another, it will antidote the former, I have simply to
say, I have no confidence in the hypothetic antidotal powers of the
medicines one over another, as laid down in the books. It has not been
verified by experience, and has no foundation in truth. It is true that
one medicine will remove morbid symptoms that might be produced by an
overdose of another; but both being given in the ordinary medicinal
doses, neither of them to such an extent as to produce sensible
symptoms, if given alone, would not, if given in quick succession,
prevent each other from acting to remove their own peculiar symptoms
that exist in the system at the time. So if we have the symptoms that
are found in two or more different remedies present in the same attack,
as is often the ease, we may give these several remedies one after
another, with confidence in their curative effects for the symptoms they
represent.
This has been my practice, and it has been _eminently successful_, and
therefore I commend it to others, treating with pity the infirmity of
those who ignorantly condemn it, as "They know not what they do."
ADMINISTRATION OF REMEDIES.
The remedies are either in the form of tinctures saturated, more or less
dilute, in Pellets or Powders. The _Pellets_ may be taken dry upon the
tongue, allowed to dissolve and swallowed. The dose for an adult is from
4 to 7; for an infant, from birth to one year old, 1 to 3; from one to
three years, 2 to 4; from three to ten years, 3 to 5 pellets; after ten,
same as an adult. 15 or 20 pellets may be dissolved in a gill of water,
and a tea-spoonful dose given at a time, being particular to stir it
until all are perfectly dissolved, stirring it each dose.
_Powders_ may be taken in the same manner, upon the tongue, a dose when
dry, being about the same bulk as of the pellets as nearly as
practicable. If put into water, to a gill of water add of the powder
about what would lie on a three cent piece. If the liquid medicine is
used, add 1 drop to a gill of water, and use tea-spoonful doses as above
directed. The length of time between the doses should be, in Dysentery
and Diarrhoea, regulated by the frequency of the discharges, giving a
dose as often as the evacuations occur. In acute and violent diseases,
the doses should be repeated oftener than in milder cases--about once an
hour as a general rule is often enough, though in some cases they should
be given in half an hour or oftener. In mild cases, once in two or three
hours is often enough, and in chronic cases, once or twice a day.
Bathing.
The surface of the body should be kept clean, as far as possible, and to
this end, in summer, should be well bathed at least once a day. In
winter, though useful, it is not so indispensable; still no one should
neglect the bath more than a week, and all ought to bathe at least twice
a week, if not oftener, even in winter.
The bath should be of a temperature that is agreeable, and the room
warm, especially for a feeble person. It should be so applied as not to
give a general chill, as such shocks are always hurtful.
The _teeth_ should be kept clean and free from tartar. They should be
cleaned every morning and after each meal. The feet, legs and arms
should be warmly clothed, especially the _arms_, as an exposure of them
to cold is liable to induce affections of the lungs, and to aggravate
any existing disease of those organs.
By exposure of the feet and legs to cold, diseases and derangements of
the female organs, even in young girls, are induced; and one prolific
cause of female weakness is to be found in improper dressing of the feet
and legs, while the _lung affections_ of females, now so fearfully
prevalent, are traceable in a great degree to the fashion that has
prevailed for a few years, of exposing the arms to cold.
Diet.
The diet of the sick should he nutricious, but at all times simple, free
from greasy substances, and from all stimulating condiments whatsoever,
as well as from vinegar, or food in which vinegar is used.
In short, let the food be nutritious, easily digested, small or moderate
in quantity, and free from all "seasoning," except salt or sugar; and if
salt is used at all, let the quantity be very small, much less than
would be used in health.
Diarrhoea.
This disease consists in a looseness of the bowels, generally
accompanied with pain in the abdomen, more or less severe. It sometimes
occurs without pain, but is _then_ attended with a sense of weakness,
and a general feeling of uneasiness. It prevails mostly in the warm
seasons, but may occur at any time. It is not usually considered a very
dangerous affection, except during the prevalence of _Cholera_, or in
children during hot weather.
TREATMENT.
_Veratrum_ and _Phos. acid_, given alternately, at intervals, as
frequently as the discharges from the bowels occur, will generally be
sufficient. If there is nausea or vomiting, or cramping pains in the
bowels, give _Ipecac_ in alternation with one or both the former. If
thirst and a burning of the stomach or bowels exist, use _Arsenicum._
This last medicine may be given in alternation with either of the
others, but is most frequently indicated in connection with _Veratrum._
The intervals between the doses should be regulated by the frequency of
the evacuations in all cases, lengthening them as the evacuations become
less frequent, until they cease. In _children_, where the discharges are
greenish or slimy, and contain undigested food, give _Chamomilla_ and
_Ipecac_ alternately, as above directed. If the discharges are dark, or
yellow, with distress in the stomach, give _Podophyllin._ The dose is
from 3 to 6 pellets. In all cases of diarrhoea, adults should abstain
from all kinds of food until cured, if possible, and eat but little at
first, when food is taken. Children should be fed carefully, and but a
small quantity at a time, being particular both for adults and children
to use as little _liquid_ as possible; drink water in _small_
quantities, not very cold. Avoid exercise, and lie on the back quietly,
when that is practicable. In a large majority of cases, _Veratrum_, if
given in the early stages of the disease, will arrest it at once, and in
many chronic diarrhoeas of weeks or months standing, it is the surest
remedy. In chronic diarrhoea of females, _Podophyllin_ should be used
in alternation with _Veratrum_.
Dysentery.
This disease is caused by inflammation of the mucous membrane of the
colon and rectum, (the large intestine) generally confined to the lower
part of the bowel. It is always painful. There is griping and straining
in the lower part of the abdomen, and generally great bearing down when
at stool, with a peculiar distress after the evacuation, called tormina.
The discharges often commence like a common diarrhoea, with copious
liquid evacuations, but there is more or less griping pain, low down,
from the beginning. The evacuations sooner or later become lessened,
slimy or bloody, or both, the pain increasing accompanied with more or
less fever, often quite severe. Sometimes the patient is costive, and
has been so for several days, the dysentery coming on without being
preceded by looseness. At others, especially in summer, when fevers are
prevailing, the dysentery begins with a severe chill, followed by fever
and the dysenteric symptoms above described.
TREATMENT.
If it begins with looseness without blood, give _Arsenicum_ and
_Veratrum_ alternately, once an hour, or oftener if the evacuations are
more frequent. If the discharges are bloody, use _Mercurius cor._ in
place of the _Arsenicum_. If there is any sickness of the stomach, or
the discharges are dark or yellow, use _Podophyllin_ with _Mercurius
cor._ If there are colic pains in the bowels, use _Colocynthis_
alternately with the others, giving it between them. If the patient was
costive previous to the attack, and the dysentery came on without much
looseness, _Nux Vomica_ should be given alternately with _Mercurius
cor._ If the disease comes on with a chill, or a chill occurs at any
time during the attack, followed by fever, _Aconite_, _Baptisia_ and
_Podophyllin_ should be used in rotation half an hour apart until a free
perspiration is produced, and the pain diminishes; or if bloody stools
appear, use _Mercurius cor_, with the _Aconite_ and _Baptisia_. A large
proportion of the dysenteries of hot weather in miasmatic regions, will
be arrested in a few hours by these three or four remedies, especially
if the patient keeps still, and generally even if he keeps about his
business. In very bad cases, much benefit will be derived from
injections of Gum Arabic water, or mucillage of Slippery Elm thrown into
the bowel in quantities of a pint or more at a time, as warm as can
possibly be endured. I have often relieved patients immediately with
injections of a strong solution of Borax in Rice water, as hot as
bearable. _Never apply cold water_ to _any_ inflamed surface, much less
a _mucous_ surface. All food should be withheld as far as practicable
and not starve, until the symptoms abate.
Colic.
The symptoms of this are cramping pains in the abdomen, without fever or
looseness of the bowels. The colic sometimes occurs after the cessation
of a diarrhoea that had been induced by severe cathartics. The pains
are cutting and straining, drawing the bowels into knots, relieved
temporarily by pressure.
TREATMENT.
For a male, _Nux Vom._, and for a female, _Pulsatilla_ will generally
afford immediate relief. In children, especially, where diarrhoea
exists, _Chamomilla_ should be used. If it is the result of severe
cathartics, or if there is a soreness or a bruised feeling, _Colocynth_
is the remedy. Hot injections into the rectum, and large quantities of
warm water taken into the stomach, will often _cure colic_.
Bilious Colic.
This disease, in addition to the symptoms of cutting, cramping pains in
the bowels, as in common colic, has great distress in the stomach, with
nausea and vomiting, the bowels being costive, the feet and hands cold,
sometimes cold sweats occur. There is also considerable fever, and
frequently headache is present. The substance vomited is at first dark
bilious matter, but if the case continues a long time, stercoraceous
(fecal) matter will be thrown up.
TREATMENT.
_Colocynth_ is the most important remedy, and should be given early and
constantly. _Podophyllin_ is next in importance, and it should be given
in alternation with the former, the dose to be repeated as often as
every half hour at first, and as the patient becomes easy, at longer
intervals. In this, as in the former case, great benefit will be derived
from large injections of quite warm water, and let it be taken into the
stomach freely, as hot as can be safely swallowed. I have given a gallon
of hot water in the course of two hours, to a patient suffering under
this disease, the first half pint being rejected, but the balance
remaining, perfect relief having been experienced. If fever continues
after the colic and nausea cease, _Baptisia_ and _Aconite_ should be
given alternately every hour until the fever subsides. If the patient
is, and has been, for some time, costive, _Nux Vomica_ should be given
once in six or eight hours until the bowels move. Injections may also be
used.
Cholera Morbus.
This disease generally comes on at night, in hot weather, and is, in
many cases, induced by over eating while the patient is suffering from
diarrhoea and a deranged state of the liver. It is essentially of a
bilious character. It sets in with great pain in the bowels, sickness at
the stomach, and vomiting of large quantities of dark greenish bitter
tasting substance. At first, the vomiting will seem to afford relief,
but sooner or later the stomach and bowels cramp, and the cramping may
extend to other parts of the body, the feet, hands, calves of the legs,
and the arms, cold sweats come on, and death terminates his sufferings.
TREATMENT.
_Ipecac_ and _Colocynthis_ are to be given in alternation, and repeated
as often as every 30 minutes, for the first three or four doses, then as
the patient gets easier, at longer intervals. A dose every hour will
suffice as soon as the symptoms begin to abate. The application of hot
cloths or even mustard, over the abdomen, frequently palliates the
sufferings, and does not interfere with the action of the medicines.
Fever of a low typhoid type some times sets in after an attack of
cholera morbus, and terminates fatally. This ought never to occur under
Homoeopathic treatment. For such fever give _Baptisia_, a dose every
hour until the fever subsides, which will occur generally in six or
eight hours; if not, and the patient complains of headache, or is
delirious, or dizzy, or feels a fullness in the head, give _Macrotin_ in
alternation with the _Baptisia_. Keep the patient very quiet and free
from noise, as far as possible. _Sleep_ is a great restorer in any case,
but particularly so in this.
FEVERS.
Intermittent Fever, Ague or Chill Fever.
This comes on with pains in the head and back, aching in the joints,
yawning, followed by coldness of the hands and feet, blueness of the
nails and skin of the hands, general chilliness, sometimes "shaking."
This lasts from a few minutes in some cases, to several hours in others.
The chill is followed by a fever, which is generally severe and long
continued, in proportion to the length and severity of the chill. The
fever is followed by free perspiration, when it subsides and leaves the
patient in a comfortable condition. This state is called the
_Intermission_. This continues from a few hours to twenty-four, or
longer, when another chill comes on followed by fever and sweats as
before. During the chill and fever, the patient often suffers great
pain, and is sometimes delirious. Young children frequently have
convulsions when the chill sets in. _These_ convulsions of children,
though alarming, are not often dangerous.
TREATMENT.
As soon as the first symptoms of the chills appear, such as the
headache, pain in the back and bones, coldness of the hands, nose and
ears, give _Aconite_ and _Baptisia_ alternately, giving the first three
doses every ten minutes, the next three doses every fifteen minutes, and
then once in half an hour until the patient begins to sweat freely, when
the medicines should be discontinued. If there is nausea or vomiting
present, let the patient have lukewarm water freely in large draughts,
until he vomits it up several times. As soon as the sweating commences,
give _Arsenicum_ and _Macrotin_ alternately every hour during the
intermission, except during sleeping time. On return of the chill,
should it appear a second time, use the _Aconite_ and _Baptisia_ as
before, and follow them with _Arsenicum_ and _Nux Vom._ every two hours.
This course of treatment will cure a majority of cases, but some require
_Cinchonia_. That Cinchonia is a specific for intermittent fevers in
many of their forms, no one will deny. It is the Homoeopathic remedy
for many cases, and should be prescribed. The injurious effects that are
often attributed to Quinine, are, I have no doubt, attributable not to
that remedy, but to the _drugs_ that are used prior to giving the
_Chinium Sul_. I have used it in more than two thousand cases, and have
never been able to see any evil consequences follow its _proper_ use. It
should be given _from the beginning of the chill to the end_ of the
paroxysm, and continued during the whole time of the intermission: _i.
e._ until the time arrives for the next chill, _time_ being important in
the use of this remedy. Use the first decimal trituration, and give
grain doses (equal to 1-10th of a grain of the drug) every half hour
till the time the next chill would occur, if it pursued its regular
course, allowing the patient six or seven hours time in each
twenty-four, for sleep.[1] Though from two to four grains of the pure
_Chinium Sulphuricum_ is all the patient would get, very few cases that
do not yield to a course of the former treatment here recommended, will
have the third paroxysm after this _China_ treatment is commenced and
pursued as here directed. For children the dose may be one-half or
one-fourth that of the adults. If a trituration of the medicine cannot
be got conveniently, four grains of the _Quinine_ may be put into a four
ounce vial of water, shaken well every time, and a teaspoonful taken at
a dose. Abstinence from food as far as practicable, and quiet is of much
importance in this disease, but the patient may use water freely.
[1] NOTE.--The Eclectic Physicians use equal parts of Quinine and
Prussiate of Iron, with marked success in agues, giving from one to
three grains of the mixture at a dose, every two hours, or oftener, for
ten or twelve hours, and some times more, during the intermission. An
intelligent Homoeopathic Physician informs me that he has used with
_uniform_ success, a _trituration_ of this mixture of Quinine and
Prussiate of Iron, in proportion of ten grains of the Sugar of Milk to
one of the Mixture, giving the trituration in doses of about one grain
every hour through the chill, fever and intermission. Very few cases had
a second chill after taking the prescription. I have used this
trituration successfully in a few cases.
In some cases, the chill is irregular and indistinct, the patient is
thirsty during the chill, and the cold stage is long in proportion to
the length of the fever, the surface pale and more or less bloated.
_Arsenicum_ is the remedy, and should be given from the commencement of
the chill, and every hour until the fever subsides, then every three
hours during the intermission. In chronic cases, where the patient has
been drugged with mercurials and cathartics, together with larger doses
of Quinine, and is still suffering under the disease, _Pulsatilla_ and
_Macrotin_ in alternation, will, in nearly every case, effect a cure.
Bilious Fever.
This fever may be either intermittent, remitting, or continued, and
typhoid. It is distinguished from common intermittent, by the great
derangement of the stomach, as nausea and vomiting of bilious matter,
yellow coated tongue, bitter taste in the mouth, foul breath, loss of
appetite, high colored urine, and frequently distress and fullness in
the right side, (though this last is not in every case present,) the
skin and white of the eyes soon become yellowish, the chills are often
imperfect, the fever being disproportionably long.
TREATMENT.
_Podophyllin_ and _Merc._ should be given in ease of intermittents of
this character, during the paroxysm, and in rotation with the other
remedies for intermittents, giving a dose every three hours during the
intermission. It is well also to continue these remedies night and
morning, alternately, for a week or so, after the cessation of the
chills and fever, or until all bilious appearances cease.
A REMITTING FEVER is one that goes nearly off, but not so entirely as an
intermittent, returning again by a paroxysm of chill more or less
distinct, sometimes hardly perceptible, and an increase of the fever
following, from day to day, until arrested.
CONTINUED FEVERS are generally of a Bilious character, except in winter,
when they are more or less connected with irritation of the lungs, or
with Rheumatic affections, when they are termed Catarrhal or Rheumatic
Fevers. If the bilious symptoms prevail, give _Aconite_ and _Baptisia_
during the chills and high febrile stage, at intervals of an hour, and
during the declining stage of the fever, give _Podophyllin_ and
_Mercurius_ until a perfect intermission is produced, when the same
treatment should be adopted as in intermittents. But should it take the
form of
Catarrhal Fever,
the head being "stuffed up," pain in the head, the lungs oppressed,
cough and sneezing, the eyes and nose suffused with increased secretion
of tears and mucus, pain in the back or loins, almost constant chilly
sensations, use in rotation _Baptisia_, _Copaiva_ and _Phosphorus_,
giving a dose every hour until the fever begins to abate and
perspiration comes on, then leave off the _Baptisia_, and give in its
stead _Macrotin_, lengthening the interval between the remedies to two
hours or longer.
For the _chronic cough_ that sometimes follows catarrhal fever,
_Copaiva_, _Macrotin_ and _Phosphorus_ should be used morning, noon and
night, in the order here named. Should the fever be a
Rheumatic Fever,
(_Rheumatism_,) the patient complaining of soreness of the muscles, of
the chest, back and limbs, with or without lameness of the joints,
_Aconite_, _Macrotin_ and _Nux Vom._ are the remedies for a male
patient, and the two former, with _Pulsatilla_, for a female, (or for a
_male_, of light hair, delicate skin, feminine voice and mild temper,)
to be used in rotation one hour apart. These remedies are to be taken in
a severe acute case, every half hour until the symptoms begin to abate;
then every hour or two hours as the case progresses. _Baths_ properly
administered, are of great importance in all forms of fever. The surface
of the patient should be washed and thoroughly _rubbed_ in water quite
warm, into which a sufficiency of the ley of wood ashes has been put to
make it feel quite slippery. This should be done twice daily in all
fevers. But in
Rheumatism,
In addition to the medicines directed under the head of _Rheumatic
Fever_, the most decided benefit can be derived from _Alcoholic Vapor
Baths_, which, while they do not in the least interfere with the action
of the medicines, tend greatly to mitigate the pains, and produce an
equal state of the circulation by stimulating the surface; abridging in
many cases, the disease one-half the time it would run under the long
interval treatment alone. This is to be applied by filling a tea cup
with alcohol, placed in a saucer of water to insure against danger from
an overflow while burning. Place both under a solid wood bottom chair,
elevated about the thickness of a brick under each post, strip the
patient naked, and after giving him the alkaline bath, and rubbing his
surface dry, place him upon the chair, enveloping him completely, except
his head, with a woollen sheet or blanket, (as there is no danger of
the wool taking fire,) letting the blanket enclose also the chair and
come down to the floor. Then set fire to the alcohol, and if the heat is
too great, raise the edge of the blanket and let it become reduced.
Continue this until he sweats freely, or becomes too much fatigued to
sit longer. Let the patient often drink freely of cold water, during the
process. Remove him from the chair to his bed and cover him warmly. It
is well to place the feet in hot water during this process. This is a
delightful operation for a rheumatic patient, and no one will object to
a repetition of it. Whatever Physicians may think or say of this
operation, I _know_ it is a most potent agent for the _cure_ of
_inflammatory_ rheumatism, and is a valuable agent in the chronic form
of this disease.
Typhoid Fever.
This is a dangerous, and with the ordinary allopathic treatment, a very
fatal disease. It generally comes on insidiously, the patient feeling a
dull head ache, more or less pain in his joints, back and shoulders,
with loss of appetite, restless and disturbed sleep, slight chilly
sensations, with a little fever, dry skin, and a general languid
feeling. These symptoms continue from four or five days in some cases,
to two or three weeks in others, gradually getting worse until the
patient is prostrated, or if he takes no drugs, and keeps still,
avoiding food as far as practicable, he may escape prostration, and
after lingering for eight or ten days, and sometimes longer, just on the
point of prostration, he begins slowly to get better, and recovers about
as slowly and imperceptibly as he grew sick. This is in accordance with
observation of cases under my own eye, and I have no doubt those cases
of spontaneous recovery, had they taken a single dose of active
cathartic medicine or any of the active drugs, they would have been
immediately laid upon a bed of sickness from which a recovery would have
been extremely doubtful. I believe that two-thirds of the deaths from
typhoid fever are the direct results of medication, and that those who
recover, do so in spite of the cathartics and the active drugs when such
are used. Some cases, however, will not thus spontaneously recover, and
require proper treatment; and it is safest to treat all cases, at as
early a day as possible. Some cases come on more rapidly and run into
the prostrating or critical stage, in a very few days. Delirium is a
symptom that comes on early in these cases. When the disease is fully
established, and even sometimes in the early stage, diarrhoea sets in
and runs the patient down rapidly.
TREATMENT.
In the early stage, that which might be called premonitory, while the
patient is yet able to be about his business, but is complaining of the
symptoms above named, he should, as far as possible, abstain from
exercise and food, and take of _Baptisia_ and _Phosphorus_ alternately,
a dose once in three hours. These will almost invariably produce
amendment in a few days, and as soon as he improves _any_, leave off the
medicines. Should there be diarrhoea present, use _Phos. acid_ instead
of Phosphorus. If the patient is delirious or has fullness and redness
of the face, the eyes red, and headache, give _Belladonna_ in rotation
with the other two. For the foul breath that comes on, use _Mercurius
cor._, especially if the diarrhoea assumes a reddish tinge, like beef
brine. Should the fever at any time rise high, the pulse being full and
hard, give _Aconite_, but it rarely happens that Aconite is useful in
the later stage. If the patient complains of pains in the back, and
fullness of the head, give _Macrotin_. This is particularly useful for
persons who have rheumatic pains in the limbs or back, during the fever.
If the evacuations from the bowels are dark, or yellow and consistent,
or there is bilious vomiting, _Podophyllin_ is the remedy. From some
cause or other, to me wholly unaccountable, the writers generally have
laid down _Rhus_ and _Bryonia_ as _the_ remedies in typhoid fever. I
must confess I have no confidence in them for this fever as it prevails,
and has for several years past, in this country. They have proved a
failure, and I discard them altogether, as I am confident, from thorough
trial, we have much more reliable remedies as a substitute for Rhus in
the _Podophyllin_, and for Bryonia in the _Macrotin_. In the early
stage, or at any time to arrest febrile and inflammatory symptoms, the
_Baptisia_ is much more potent than Aconite, its symptoms corresponding
peculiarly with typhoid fever. If the discharges become slimy or bloody,
give _Leptandrin_ and _Nit. acid_. It is important to bathe in this
disease.
Scarlet Fever.--Scarlatina.
This fever assumes two principal forms: Simple or mild, and Malignant.
In the _Simple form_, there is great heat of the surface, extremely
quick and frequent pulse, headache, and some sense of pain and soreness
in the throat. After a day or two, there appears upon the surface,
bright scarlet patches, in some cases extending over the whole limbs,
the skin smooth and shining, and somewhat bloated or swollen; upon
pressure with the finger, a white spot is seen, which soon disappears on
removal of the pressure. As the disease subsides, the cuticle comes off
(_desquamates_) in patches. In the simple form of this disease, the
throat, though often more or less sore, does not ulcerate. In some
cases, notwithstanding the fever is high, the pulse frequent, and the
throat sore, there may be no external redness, but the mouth and tongue
will have a scarlet hue, indicating the existence of disease more
dangerous than when it appears externally. _In the malignant form_, the
same symptoms are present, the patient suffers more pain in the head;
the back and throat, root of the tongue, tonsils and soft palate become
ulcerated, turn black, and sometimes gangrenous, proving fatal in a few
days, or slough out in large portions, the ulcers destroying the parts
extensively. The breath becomes foul and fetid, and the effluvia from
the ulcerated surface, is very sickening to the patient and all around
him. This disease rarely attacks adults, but occasionally, and for the
last six or eight months, in one region where I am acquainted, where
Scarlatina of a malignant type has prevailed among children, adults have
been affected with an epidemic soreness of the mouth and throat,
strongly resembling the worst form of the _angina_ in malignant
Scarlatina, together with a low typhoid form of fever.
TREATMENT.
In simple scarlatina, all that is necessary is to keep the child quiet,
in a room of uniform temperature, as far as practicable; let it drink
cold water only, and give _Aconite_, _Belladonna_ and _Pulsatilla_ in
rotation, a dose every hour until the fever subsides. If any soreness of
the throat remains, give a few doses of _Mercurius_. If the fever
subsides, and the soreness remain, _Hydrastin_ or _Eupatorium arom._
will soon complete the cure. In the _malignant_ form, with ulcerated,
dark colored, or red and purulent throat, and typhoid form of fever,
give _Aconite_ and _Belladonna_ in alternation, every hour, and, at the
same time, gargle the throat freely with _Hydrastin_. Some of the
tincture may be put in water, about in the proportion of ten drops to a
teaspoonful, or a warm infusion of the crude medicine may be used. This
can be applied with a camel's hair pencil, or a swab, to the parts
affected, once in two hours, and will soon bring about such a state as
will result in speedy recovery. After the active fever has subsided, the
_Aconite_ and _Bell._ may be discontinued, and _Eupatorium arom._ used
instead, once in three hours until convalescence is complete.
I would remark that, with these remedies applied as here recommended, my
brother, Dr. G. S. HILL, of Erie County, Ohio, has, during the last four
months, treated a large number of those malignant sore-throats, (the
"Black tongue Erysipelas,") and been universally successful, relieving
them in a few hours, when the symptoms were of the most alarming
character, and the disease in some cases, so far advanced that the
patients were considered by their friends and attendants, "at the point
of death."
The _Hydrastin_ is a most potent remedy in putrid ulcerations of the
mucous surfaces, and much the same may be said of _Eupatorium
aromaticum_.
Yellow Fever.
[As I have never practiced farther South than Cincinnati, and have seen
but few cases of this disease, my experience with it has not been
sufficient to be relied upon as authority. Therefore, I shall give a
brief description of the disease, with the proper and _successful
treatment_, furnished me by A. H. BURRETT, M. D., of New Orleans, who is
not only a Physician of more than ordinary learning and skill in his
profession generally, but is one who has spent his time in New Orleans
among the sick of Yellow Fever, through three of the most fatal
epidemics that ever scourged any city. He is a man for the times, a man
of resources, who draws useful lessons from experience and observation.
Hence he has been able to select such remedies as have enabled him to
cope most successfully with the pestilence, saving nearly all his
patients, while, under other treatment, a majority have died. I
therefore, attach great value to his treatment, and recommend its
adoption with the most implicit confidence.]
When this Fever prevails as an epidemic, as it usually does, in the
southern part of the United States, it is a disease of the most
malignant character. The proportion of _fatal_ cases under the
Allopathic course of treatment, has been equal to, and, in some places,
as in New Orleans, and some Towns in Virginia, has exceeded that of
_Asiatic_ Cholera. It is almost entirely confined to Southern regions,
and only prevails in hot weather, after the continuance of extreme heat
for some weeks.
It usually begins with premonitory symptoms somewhat like those of
ordinary fever, but with this difference: the patient, instead of losing
his appetite, has often a morbidly increased desire for food. He
complains of severe pains in the back, and more or less headache. Both
the head and backache are of a peculiar character: the pains resembling
rheumatic pains, the head feeling full and too large, the eyes early
turn red, almost bloodshot and watery, a chill comes on, which may be
distinct and quite severe, lasting for an hour or more, or, it may be
slight, and hardly perceptible. The chill is followed by high fever, the
pain in the head and back increasing, the eyes becoming more red and
suffused, the forehead and face extremely red and hot, and the heat of
the whole surface very great, the carotids beat violently, the pulse
very frequent, and usually, at first, full and strong, though sometimes
it is feeble from the beginning. However the pulse may be in the
beginning, it very soon becomes small, but continues to be frequent. The
tongue is at first covered with a white paste-like coating, which
afterwards gives place to redness of the edges and tip, with a dark or
yellow streak in the center. The stomach is very irritable, rejecting
every kind of food, and all drinks, except, perhaps, a few drops of ice
water. There is a peculiar distressed feeling in the stomach, often a
burning sensation, so that, if suffered to do so, he would take large
quantities of ice or water. One remarkable feature of the cases noticed
in the epidemic, as it existed in New Orleans the past season, was, that
the patients had a great desire for food, notwithstanding the nausea and
distress at the stomach.
Sooner or later, varying from a few hours to several days, in the
ordinary course of the disease, the fever subsides. From this time the
patient may recover without any further symptoms, but this is, by no
means, the usual result. If the subsidence of the fever is accompanied
by natural pulse, a free, but not profuse or prostrating perspiration,
a genial warmth of the surface, natural appearance of the countenance,
eyes, and tongue, with little or no soreness on pressure over the
stomach, we may safely look for a speedy recovery. But if, on the
contrary, the eyes, face, and tongue, become yellow, or orange-colored,
the epigastrium is tender to pressure, the urine has a yellow tinge, the
pulse becomes unnaturally slow, with the least degree of mental stupor,
we have reason to know, full well, that the lull of the fever is only
the calm preceding a more destructive storm. The fever has subsided,
only because exhausted nature could re-act no longer. It may be in a few
hours, or not until twelve or twenty-four have elapsed, the pulse
becomes quickened, even to the frequency of 120 to 140 in a minute, but
very feeble, the extremities of the fingers and toes turn purple or
dark, the tongue becomes brown and dry, or is clean, red, and cracked,
sordes may be on the teeth, the stomach become more irritable, nausea
and vomiting are extreme, the substances vomited being, at first,
reddish, afterwards watery, containing floculæ, like soot, or coffee
grounds; the breath becomes foul, and the whole surface emits a
sickening odor. The pulse becomes very small, though the carotid and
temporal arteries beat violently. The urine fails to be secreted, and
later, blood is discharged from the mucous surfaces, involuntary
discharges from the bowels, clammy sweats; and death follows.
The disease runs its course in from three to seven days, sometimes
proves fatal in less than a day, and at others, assumes a typhoid form,
and runs for weeks. Occasionally it sets in without any of the
premonitory symptoms, the chill being first, the fever following,
succeeded immediately by the black vomit, going through all the stages
in a single day, or two days.
Again, it sometimes begins with the black vomit, the patient being
immediately prostrated. In all cases, however it may begin, the peculiar
head-ache and back-ache as described in the beginning, as well as the
extreme heat of the head and face, redness of the eyes, the gnawing
sensation at the stomach, and peculiar nausea are present. These seem to
be characteristic symptoms that mark the Yellow Fever, and those which
should guide in the search for the proper remedies.
TREATMENT.
The remedies that proved successful in arresting the disease during the
early or forming stage, before the chill or fever had set in, while the
symptoms were pain, fullness, and throbbing of the head, with more or
less dizziness, rheumatic pains in the back, and redness of the eyes,
were _Aconite_ and _Bell._, at low attenuations, once in two to four
hours, according to the violence of the symptoms. For the fullness of
the head, pressing outwards, as though it would split, with pains of a
rheumatic character, _Macrotin_ 1st, given in one grain doses, every
hour or two hours, proved specific.
These three remedies, _Aconite, Bell._ and _Macrotin_,
would, in nearly all cases, arrest the disease in the forming stage, so
that no chill or fever would occur, or, if fever did come on after this
treatment, it was mild.
When the fever sets in, and the pain in the head and back increases, the
eyes, forehead and face are extremely red, or purple and hot, the pulse
frequent and full, the tongue coated white, _Aconite_, _Belladonna_ and
_Macrotin_ are still to be relied upon, but they should be given every
half hour, in rotation, at low attenuations. If the tongue is red, in
the early stage, use _Bryonia_ in place of the _Belladonna_. In a later
stage, when sickness or distress at the stomach had become prominent,
with the quick pulse, and hot skin, _Ipecac_ and _Aconite_, both at the
1st attenuation, a dose given every half hour alternately, generally
arrested the symptoms, and brought on perspiration of a healthful
character, followed by subsidence of the fever and convalescence. Sponge
baths, with half an ounce of _Tr. Ipecac_ in two quarts of tepid water,
applied to the whole surface freely, under the bed clothes, so as not to
expose him to the air, contributed much towards bringing on perspiration
and subduing the fever, as well as allaying the nausea.
When called to patients in the stage of _Black Vomit_, whether that came
on as an early symptom, or at a later stage, _Nit. acid_, _Veratrum
virid._ and _Baptisia_, all at the first dilution, were administered
every hour, in rotation, with great success, the symptoms yielding in a
few hours. For the great oppression, as of a load, in the stomach,
without vomiting, _Nux_ was found sufficient. In the later stage, when
there seemed to be no secretion of urine, _Canabis_ and _Apis mel._,
gave relief.
The remedies most successful for the cases that assumed a typhoid
character, with dry, cracked tongue, sordes on the teeth, and low
sluggish pulse, were _Baptisia_ and _Bryonia_, given every two hours,
alternately. _Nitric acid_ given internally and injected into the
rectum, when bloody discharges appear, is generally quite successful.
Good nursing is of the utmost importance, and the patient should be
visited frequently by his Physician, as great changes may occur in a
short time. Three times a day is none too often to see the patient. As
soon as the fever comes on, the patient should be stripped of his
clothes, and dressed in such garments as he is to wear in bed through
the attack. He should be put to bed and lightly covered, but have
sufficient to protect him from any sudden changes in the atmosphere, and
the room should be well ventillated all the time. The baths should
always be applied under the bed clothes.
The diet should be very spare and light, after the fever subsides, and
while the fever exists no food should be taken. Thin gruel, in
teaspoonful doses, once in half an hour, is best. After a day or two,
the juice of beef steak may be given in small quantities but give none
of the meat. No "hearty food" should be allowed for eight or ten days
after recovery. A relapse is most surely fatal.
As _Prophylactics_ (_preventives_) of the fever, _Macrotin_, _Bell._ and
_Aconite_ should be taken, a dose every eight to twelve hours, by every
one that is exposed. These will, no doubt, often prevent an attack, and
if they do not, they will so modify it, that it will be very mild, of
short duration, and very easily arrested.
Pregnant females, and young children were sure to die if attacked, when
treated by the Allopathic medication; but, by the use of these remedies
as _preventives_, their attacks were rendered so mild as to be amenable
to remedies, and all recovered.
Pleurisy--Pleuritis.
This is inflammation of the Pleura of one or both lungs, generally
confined to one side. It is known by sharp pain in the side of the
chest, increased by taking a long breath, or coughing, or by pressing
between the ribs. The cough is dry and painful, the patient makes an
effort to suppress it, from the pain it gives him; the fever is of a
high grade, the pulse full, hard and frequent, with more or less pain in
the head.
TREATMENT.
_Aconite_ is a sovereign remedy. It should be given at intervals
proportionate to the severity of the disease, once in half an hour, for
about three doses, then every hour until the patient is easy and
perspires freely. This is the course I have generally pursued, and
scarce ever failed of relieving in a few hours. Other means may often be
used with advantage at the same time, and not interfere with the action
of the medicine. Put the feet and _hands_ into water as hot as it can be
endured, and apply to the affected side very hot cloths, hot bags of
salt, or mustard. There is no harm in this, and it relieves the pain.
Let the patient drink freely of _hot_ water, into which you may put milk
and sugar to render it palatable. If the case seems to linger, and
perspiration is tardy in appearing, give, in alternation with _Aconite_,
_Eupatorium arom._ This will soon relieve.
Inflammation of the Lungs--Pneumonia.
This disease is often connected with Pleurisy, and consists of
inflammation of the substance of the lungs. As in the former case, it
may attack only one, but may exist in both sides at the same time. If
the pleura is also affected, there will be all the symptoms of pleurisy,
together with those peculiar to inflammation of the lungs proper. They
are, pain in the lungs, oppressed breathing, cough, causing great
distress on account of the soreness of the affected parts: at first,
expectoration from the lungs is nearly wanting, the cough being dry, but
after a time, there is a rattling sound on coughing, and more or less
mucous substance is with difficulty raised. This is, at first, white or
brownish, but soon becomes reddish and frothy, tinged with blood. The
patient lies on the affected side, and cannot rest on the sound side.
The pulse is full, hard and frequent, the fever high, pain in the head,
and sometimes delirium. If the disease is not arrested, the patient
generally dies from suffocation, by the lungs filling up, hepatized, or
abscess and ulceration come on, and then what is called "quick
Consumption" carries him off.
TREATMENT.
In the early stage, _Aconite_ and _Phosphorus_ should be used at
intervals of from half an hour to one hour, in alternation, until the
fever abates, and the oppression in the chest is relieved. If, however,
there is bloody expectoration, _Bryonia_ may be used in place _of
Phosphorus_, though I prefer to use it in rotation with the two others.
These will soon, in all ordinary cases, subdue the most distressing
symptoms, and effect a perfect cure in a day or two. _Belladonna_ should
be used, when there is much delirium, or great pain in the head.
Occasionally, the cough from the beginning, is apparently loose; there
being a rattling sound, but the expectoration is difficult, the fever
high, with some chilly sensations, or at least, coldness of the knees,
feet and hands, a white or brownish fur upon the tongue, and pain in the
bowels, For such symptoms, especially with the pain in the bowels, as
though a diarrhoea would come on, give _Tartar emet._ It is often one
of the best remedies in this disease, affording relief when others have
failed.
After subduing the high febrile symptoms, if there remains cough,
indicating much irritation, or inflammation of the lungs, _Macrotin_
should be used in place of Aconite, with _Phosphorus_ and _Copaiva_, the
three in rotation, two hours between doses.
Acute Bronchitis,
_Inflammation of the Bronchial Tubes._
This is attended with distressing cough, profuse expectoration,
oppressed breathing, pain in the forehead, and general catarrhal
symptoms. _Baptisia_, _Copaiva_ and _Eupatorium arom._ given every hour,
in rotation, will, in general, relieve from the acute affection in a
short time; but the
Chronic Bronchitis
requires the use of _Copaiva_, _Macrotin_ and _Arum triphyllum_, to be
taken morning, noon, and night, in the order named; or, if the cough be
severe, they should be used every three hours. These will be sufficient
to effect a cure.
Coughs
Generally, unless they arise from consumption, yield readily to the
alternate use of _Copaiva_, _Phosphorus_ and _Macrotin_, a dose given
once in from three to six hours. If, however, there is soreness of the
throat, redness and soreness of the tonsils, palate, and fauces, or
soreness of the larynx, with hoarseness, _Arum triphyllum_ and
_Hydrastus Can._ are the surest remedies. They rarely ever fail of
effecting a complete cure in a few days. They should be used three or
four times a day. They may be used with the other medicines recommended
for coughs. In acute
Sore Throat,
arising from sudden cold, _Arum triphyllum_ and _Eupatorium aromaticum_
are the remedies to be relied upon. If the tonsils seem to be mainly
involved, constituting
Quinsy--Tonsilitis,
_Belladonna_ and _Aconite_ should be given, while there is high fever,
then substitute for them, _Arum tri._ and _Phosphorus_; or, these may be
used in rotation with the former, a dose every hour or oftener.
Inflammation of the Bowels.--Enteritis.
This consists in inflammation of the muscular and peritoneal coats of
the intestines, sometimes also involving the mucous coat.
The pain in the abdomen is constant, intense and burning in its
character, felt most at the navel; the abdomen is extremely tender to
pressure, and often bloated or tympanetic.
Thirst is intense, but cold drinks distress and vomit the patient. The
pulse is small, feeble and frequent, and the bowels costive. This is a
very dangerous disease. It is sometimes connected with inflammation of
the stomach, then called gastro-enteritis. The tongue is then red and
pointed, the nausea and vomiting are more violent and constant, the
thirst burning and insatiable.
TREATMENT.
The same medicines are applicable to both _Gastritis_ and _Enteritis_.
_Aconite_, _Arsenicum_ and _Baptisia_ should be used one following the
other every half hour until the symptoms begin to subside, then let the
intervals be lengthened.
In addition to these remedies, I allow the patient to drink often and
freely of hot water, as hot as can be swallowed, and though it is at
first almost instantly rejected by the stomach, by repeating it in a few
minutes in moderate quantities, it gives relief and will soon so allay
the irritation as to remain. In some cases the vomiting is severe, the
bowels are loose, and pain burning. For such, _Tart. Emet._ is the
proper remedy. Cold drinks should not be taken.
Cloths wet in cold water, ice water if it is at hand, and wrung out so
as not to drip, should be laid over the whole abdomen and instantly
covered with two or three thicknesses of warm dry flannel, and the
patient's feet kept warm. This may be considered harsh treatment, but
there is no danger in it; on the contrary I have, in the worst and most
alarming cases of _gastritis_ and _peritonitis_, made such applications,
and in less than an hour have seen my patient easy and beginning to
perspire freely, all danger having passed. It always affords more or
less relief and is never attended with danger. Covering the wet cloths
immediately with plenty of dry ones is very essential.
After the acute inflammation has subsided, it is well to have the bowels
moved, but don't give drastic cathartics. _Nux Vomica_ given at night
and repeated morning and noon, will generally serve to cause an
evacuation. Injections may be used.
Croup.
This is a disease of children. Comes on in consequence of a sudden cold.
Children suffering from Hooping Cough are more subject to it. The cough
is of a peculiar whistling kind, like the crowing of a young chicken,
with rattling in the throat and difficult breathing, fever is present,
and often very violent. It is properly an inflammation of the Larynx,
but the inflammation may also exist in the Pharynx, the tonsils may be
involved, and it may extend to the trachia, (wind pipe). A false
membrane forms in the larynx if the disease is not arrested, and so
obstructs the breathing as to cause death from suffocation.
TREATMENT.
Give at first _Aconite_, _Phosphoric Acid_, and _Spongia_, giving them
in the order here named once in ten minutes in a very violent case, and
as the patient improves at intervals of half an hour, and then an hour.
Should the fever subside, and still the tightness in the throat and
cough continue to be troublesome, give _Ipecac_ in place of Aconite. And
when the cough seems to be deep seated use _Bryonia_ instead of spongia.
The patient should be kept in a warm room, and free from exposure to
currents of cold air. The application of a cloth wrung out of cold or
ice water to the throat, covered immediately with dry warm flannels so
as to exclude the air from the wet cloth, will often exert a decidedly
beneficial effect, and there is no danger if managed as here directed.
The feet should be kept warm and the head cool, but _don't_ put _cold_
water on a child's head.
Asthma.
If an attack comes on from sudden cold, take _Aconite_ and _Ipecac_
every hour for a day, and if any symptoms remain, in place of the
Aconite use _Copaiva_, _Arsenicum_ and _Phos. Acid_ with the _Ipecac_,
giving them in rotation, a dose every hour.
In _Chronic Asthma_, where the patient is liable to an attack at any
time, great benefit will be derived from taking these four in rotation
about two hours apart for a day or two, at any time when symptoms of an
attack begin to appear.
I have recently succeeded in alleviating several bad cases, at once, by
these four remedies in succession as here recommended, on whom (some of
them) I had at various times tried all of them, as well as other
medicines, singly at longer intervals, as directed in the Books, without
any decided benefit. After trying these in succession, as here directed,
I found no trouble in arresting the paroxysm in a few hours, and I am
strong in the faith that with some, at least, I have effected _cures_.
It is worth much to _arrest_ the _paroxysm_ if no more.
Hooping Cough.
According to my experience, though this disease may not be entirely
arrested in its course, and not generally much abridged in its duration,
still the use of appropriate medicines will greatly modify it, and
render it a comparatively trifling affection.
In treatment, give at the commencement of the attack _Bell._ and _Phos.
acid_ alternately every twelve hours for a week, then once in six hours,
and if the child should take cold so as to bring on fever, give one
every hour. Continue these, as above directed, for the first two or
three weeks, then, in their stead, after the cough becomes loose, and
the patient vomits easily, give _Copaiva and Ipecac_ in the same manner
as directed, for the two former remedies.
Dyspepsia.
This term is applied so loosely and so indiscriminately to all chronic
derangements of the stomach, that it is difficult to define it. I shall
therefore point out some of the more common ailments of the stomach and
their proper remedies.
For sour eructations with hot, burning, scalding fluid rising up in the
throat, with or without food, give _Phos. acid and Pulsatilla_ in
alternation every half hour, until the stomach is easy. For a feeling of
weight and pain in the stomach, with dull pain in the head, with or
without dizziness, give _Nux. Vom._ every hour until it relieves. If
there is a _burning_ feeling in the stomach as well as the heavy load,
_without_ eructations and rising of fluid, _Arsenicum_ should be
alternated with the _Nux. Vom._, at intervals of two hours. There are
persons who, from imprudence in eating or drinking or both, or which is
more frequent, from _harsh drug medication_, have so enfeebled their
stomachs, that, though by care in selecting their food, and prudence in
taking it, they may suffer but little, are, nevertheless, when from home
or on special occasions, liable to overeat or take the wrong kind of
food, from which unfortunate circumstance they are made to suffer the
most tormenting and intolerable distress in the stomach and bowels,
which may last, more or less severe, for several days. Soon after the
unfortunate meal, perhaps the next morning, or, it may be, in a few
hours, the stomach begins to bloat, by accumulating gas within, which is
belched up every few minutes in large quantities; the stomach and bowels
are racked with the most torturing pains; cold sweat stands on the brow,
and he is the very picture of misery. Thus he may roll and tumble all
night, and remain in misery the next day and several days longer, before
the food will digest. It often passes from the stomach without
digestion, and on its way through the bowels inflicts constant pain. If
he does not take some emetic substance, he is not apt to vomit, his
stomach cramping so as to prevent it.
I have here described one of the bad cases, but bad as it is they are by
no means _very_ rare. There are such cases in abundance, of all grades
from the one here described down to a slight derangement. They all
require a similar course of _treatment_.
It is useful for such patients to take at once large quantities of
lukewarm water, and repeat the draught every ten to fifteen minutes,
until free and thorough vomiting is induced, so as to throw off all the
food from the stomach.
But even this does not often cure these bad cases. If it did, it is not
always convenient to do it. The medicine that is quite certain to afford
relief at once is _Podophyllin_. Let it be given, and the dose repeated
in an hour. A third dose is rarely necessary. After relief from this
attack, the medicine should be taken night and morning for a month or
more until the stomach is restored. In the meantime care should be taken
not to overload the stomach.
Constipation.
The medicine for this affection is _Nux vom._, to be taken at night on
retiring. If there is fulness and pain in the head from costiveness,
_Bell._ should be used in the morning, and at noon. Let the patient
contract a habit of drinking _cold water_ freely on rising in the
morning, at least half an hour before eating. The patient _should not
take physic_.
For constipation of children, _Nux_ and _Bryonia_ are to be given Nux at
night and Bryonia in the morning. _Opium_ is useful.
Much needless alarm is often felt by persons on account of a costive
state of the bowels. If no pain is felt from it, there is no cause for
alarm.
"Heartburn."
This peculiar burning and distressed feeling at the stomach depends on
imperfect digestion, but is _not_ ordinarily, as is generally supposed,
connected with a sour or acid state of the fluids in the stomach. The
condition of the fluids is alkaline, in most cases, though it is
sometimes acid. If it depends upon biliary derangement, _Nux Vomica_ and
_Podophyllin_ are the remedies for a male; _Pulsatilla_ and
_Podophyllin_ for a female.
Erysipelas.
This is a disease of the skin, producing redness, burning and itching
pains, appearing in patches, in adults, most apt to appear about the
head and face, but in children, upon the limbs, or in very young
children, beginning at the umbilicus. It sometimes begins at one point,
and continues to spread for a time, then suddenly disappears, and
reappears at some other point.
_Simple Erysipelas_ only affects the surface, with redness and smarting.
_Vessicular_, produces vessicular eruption, or blisters filled with a
limpid fluid, somewhat like the blisters from a burn.
The _Phlegmonous Erysipelas_ affects the whole thickness of the skin and
cellular tissues beneath it, producing swelling, and not unfrequently,
resulting in suppuration, ulceration or gangrene and sloughing of the
parts. It is a dangerous disease, especially when on the head.
TREATMENT.
For the simple kind, _Bell._ is all that will be needed, unless there
should be considerable fever, when _Aconite_ should be alternated with
the _Bell._ For the _vessicular_ kind, where there are blisters, _Rhus
tox._ should be used with _Bell_. For the _Phlegmonous_, with deep
seated swellings, _Apis mel_ is the most important remedy. I prefer to
use three of these remedies, giving them in rotation, beginning with the
_Bell._, followed with _Rhus_, and then by _Apis mel._ giving them one
hour apart. In a mild case, or after the patient begins to recover, give
them at longer intervals. The _Apis_ alone will often be sufficient.
During the whole time, the affected parts should be kept covered with
dry, superfine flour, some say Buckwheat flour acts most favorably. The
diet should be very spare. Eat as little as possible, until the disease
begins to subside.
A very important part of the treatment of this affection is to keep the
patient in a room that is comfortably warm, say at a temperature of from
65 to 75°, and keep the temperature _uniformly the same_, as nearly as
possible, night and day. Do not, by any means, expose him suddenly to
cold air, or a cold breeze, as on going into a cold room, going out into
cold air, or undressing or dressing in a cold room. Uniformly warm
temperature is of great importance.
Burns and Scalds.
No matter what the nature and extent of the burn may be, the very best
of all medicines of which I have any knowledge, is _Soap_. If the parts
affected, are immediately immersed or enveloped in Soft Soap, the pain
will be greatly lessened, and the inflammation that would otherwise
follow, will be essentially modified, if not entirely prevented. It acts
like magic; no one who has never tried it can have any idea of its
potency for the relief of pain, together with the prevention of bad
consequences following severe burning. Under the influence of the _Soap_
applications, burns and scalds will often be rendered comparatively
insignificant injuries. Instead of endangering the life of the sufferer
from the excessive pain, or the ulceration, or gangrene and sloughing
that would follow if the pain in the first instance does not destroy
life, the pain ceases, or becomes bearable in a short time, and either
little or no suppuration or sloughing takes place, or the sore assumes
the appearance of healthy suppuration, and heals kindly--avoiding those
unsightly deformities that so commonly follow severe burning. If
practicable, the soap, as before suggested, should be applied
immediately after the burn, the sooner the better. The part may be put
into soft soap, or cloths saturated with it can be wrapped around or
covered over the affected surface, to any desirable extent. The parts
should not be exposed to the air for a single moment, when possible to
prevent it. During the first two or three days, dressings need not be
removed, unless they cause irritation after the first severe pain has
subsided. They should be kept all of the time moist, and as far as
practicable, in a condition to be impervious to the air.
When it is necessary to remove them, let the affected surface be
immersed in strong soap suds, at a temperature of about 75 or 80°, and
the dressing removed while it is under water, and others applied while
in the same situation. In ordinary cases, however, even of extensive
burns, after the fever consequent upon it has subsided, and the part is
tolerably free from pain and smarting, the dressings may be removed in
the air, but others should be in readiness and applied as speedily as
possible. The soap dressings are to be continued from the beginning
until the inflammation has subsided and the sore has lost all symptoms
that distinguish it from an ordinary healthy suppurating sore.
After the first few days, or in case of a slight burn at the beginning,
an excellent mode of applying the soap, is to make a strong thick
"_Lather_" with soft water and good soap, such as Castile, or any other
good hard soap, as a barber would for shaving, and apply that to the
affected part with a soft shaving brush; apply it as carefully as
possible, so as to cover every part of the surface, and go over it
several times, letting the former coat dry a little before applying
another, forming a thick crust impervious to the air. In small burns,
and even in pretty extensive and severe ones, this is the best mode of
application, and the only one necessary.
In many cases of very severe and dangerous burns, under the influence of
this application, the inflammation subsides, and after a week or more,
the crust of lather comes off, exposing the surface smooth and well.
Although it is important to apply the _soap_ early, and the case does
much better if that has been done, still I have found it the best remedy
even as late as the second or third day. In such a case, the _lather_
application is the best.
For the fever and general nervous disturbance, _Aconite_ and _Bell._
should be given alternately, as often as every half hour, and the
_Aconite_ should be given in appreciable doses; it acts powerfully as an
anodyne. The soap treatment, or at least, the mode of applying it was
first suggested to me by Dr. J. TIFFT, of Norwalk, Ohio, some six or
seven years ago, since which time I have had opportunities of testing
its virtues in all forms of burns and scalds, some of which were of the
severest and most dangerous character, and I am quite sure in several
cases, no other remedy or process known to the medical profession, could
have relieved and restored as this did.
The application of finely pulverized common salt, triturated with an
equal part of superfine flour, acts very beneficially on burns. It seems
to have the specific effect to "extract the heat," literally putting out
the fire. It is particularly useful for deep burns where the surface is
abraded. Some may suppose this would be severe and cause too much pain
when applied to a raw surface, but so far from that being the case, it
is a most soothing application. It often so changes the condition of
even the severest burns, in a short time, as to render them of no more
importance and no more dangerous than ordinary abrasions to the same
extent, by causes unconnected with heat. _Urtica urens_ is directed for
burns, and is useful, but the _Urtica dioica_ is better. For
Chilblains,
That follow freezing or chilling the feet, causing most distressing
uneasiness and itching of the feet and toes, take these remedies, _Rhus_
and _Apis_, the former at night and the latter in the morning. In bad
cases, they should be used once in six hours. Applications of _Oil of
Arnica_ to the affected parts at night, warming them before a fire, will
serve greatly to palliate the sufferings, and frequently effect a
perfect cure. The _Urtica Dioica_ will relieve recent cases,
immediately, and is one of the best remedies for the chronic affection.
It should be taken at the 2d dilution, and the tincture applied to the
affected part every night.
Hoarseness.
This arises generally, from inflammation of the mucous membrane of the
_Larynx_, in ordinary cases but slight. It is a frequent accompaniment
of Bronchitis.
The remedies most useful, and those which will, in almost all ordinary
cases, remove this affection at once, are _Arum tri._ and _Copaiva_, to
be taken a dose every three hours in alternation.
If there is present a dry hacking cough, it will be well to take _Bell._
in the interval between the other medicines, for a day, or until the
cough is relieved, or changed to a moist condition.
Inflammation of the Brain.
_Brain Fever._
Though this affection is not strictly what is called "brain fever," it
is attended with more or less general fever, while in what is called
"Brain fever," there is great irritation of the brain, requiring in many
respects similar treatment. As the treatment proper for inflammation of
the brain, with some slight modifications in relation to the existing
fever, will be applicable to both, I shall treat of them under one head.
Some of the principal symptoms are delirium and drowsiness, fullness of
the blood vessels of the head, beating of the temporal arteries, redness
and fullness of the face, the pupils dilated, (though in the very early
stage they may be contracted.) If the membranes of the brain be the seat
of the disease, the pain is more intense, and frequently the limbs are
in a palsied state. The patient sometimes vomits immoderately, and the
pulse is slow and irregular, but full. The breathing becomes stertorous.
The fever is very considerable, and the head hot.
TREATMENT.
_Aconite_, _Belladonna_ and _Bryonia_ should be given in rotation, one
dose every hour in a violent case, lengthening the intervals as the
symptoms abate. Applying _hot cloths_ to the head, removing them
occasionally to let the water evaporate, will greatly palliate and will
not in the least, interrupt the action of the medicines. Never apply
cold to the head of any person, when hot or inflamed, much less to that
of a child. Children are often killed by the application of ice to the
head, producing congestion and paralysis of the brain. Hot applications
are Homoeopathic to the state then existing, and always beneficial.
The feet may also be placed in hot water, but children should never be
put into a hot or warm bath when sick, so as to cover more than the
lower extremities.
Convulsions of Children--Fits.
These generally occur, either from the irritation of worms, or as
precursors of ague, or they may arise from diarrhoeal irritation,
affecting the brain. They sometimes occur in hooping cough.
If convulsions occur from worms, the child appearing to be choked, give
at once some salt and water, and as soon as the first paroxysm is over,
give a dose of _Bell._, and after an hour a dose of _Santonine_. If they
come on at the commencement of an ague chill, give _Aconite_ and _Bell._
every half hour for three or four doses alternately, then leave off the
_Bell._ and give _Baptisia_. If diarrhoea is the cause, give _Bell._
and _Cham omilla_. If from hooping cough, _Bell._ alone should be used.
Measles.
This is a contagious disease, and always begins with symptoms like a
cold, with high fever, and a severe dry cough, thirst and restlessness.
_Pulsatilla_ is the proper medicine to palliate and regulate the
symptoms. If the fever is high, _Aconite_ should be used every two hours
alternately with _Puls._ Should the eruption subside suddenly, give
_Bryonia_ with _Pulsatilla_ until it reappears.
Let the child drink freely of cold water, and avoid stimulants of every
kind. If the eruption is tardy in its appearance, a hot bath may be
administered, being careful to have the room quite warm, and to rub the
patient dry, very suddenly after the bath. Frictions by the healthy hand
over the surface, will do much towards bringing out measles. After the
eruption is out, quiet, freedom from sudden exposure to cold, cold water
and light diet is all that is necessary. In some of the most obstinate
cases, where the eruptions failed to appear in the proper time, as well
as where they had receded too soon, I have been able to bring them out
in a short time with an infusion of Sassafras root, sweetened and taken
quite warm, in doses of half an ounce in fifteen to thirty minutes. It
is a remedy for measles well worth attention.
Mumps.
This is a contagious disease, consisting in an inflammation of the
Parotid gland. There is, at first, a sense of stiffness and soreness on
moving the jaw, soon after the gland begins to swell, and continues to
be sore and painful, with more or less headache, and general fever for
from six to eight days. It is not ordinarily a dangerous disease, unless
translated to some other part. It may remove from the original seat to
the brain, the testicles, or in females to the breasts.
TREATMENT.
_Mercurius_ should be given three times a day during the attack. If the
brain becomes affected, use _Bell._ and _Apis mel._ in alternation.
Should it recede to the testicles, or to the female breasts, _Apis mel._
is _the_ remedy. _Mercurius_ may be used in connection with the _Apis_
as soon as the violent symptoms have subsided, in order to prevent
permanent glandular swellings.
Stings of Insects.
The effect produced by the sting of Bees, Wasps, and Hornets of all
kinds, is so nearly, if not quite identical, that I shall make no
distinction between them. There are very few, if any persons, who do not
know the symptoms, at least the local effects of the Bee sting. Pungent,
stinging, aching pain, redness and swelling of the part. The wound has
at first, and for some time, a white spot or point where the sting
entered, surrounded by an areola of bright scarlet, growing fainter and
paler as it recedes. The swelling is not pointed, but a rounded
elevation, with a feeling of hardness. If upon the face, it not
unfrequently causes the whole face to swell so as to nearly if not
entirely close the eyes. In some instances, the brain becomes affected
and death ensues.
TREATMENT.
I have for many years, used but _one remedy_, and that has in all cases,
and under all circumstances, when applied at any stage of the affection,
produced prompt and perfect relief; therefore I shall recommend no
other. It is the common garden _Onion_, (_Allium cepa_) applied to the
spot where the sting entered. I cut the fresh Onion and apply the raw
surface to the spot, changing it for a fresh piece every ten to fifteen
minutes, until the pain and swelling, and all disagreeable symptoms
disappear. If it is applied immediately after the stinging, the first
application will afford perfect relief in a few minutes, and no further
effect from it will be experienced. Applied later, it must be continued
longer, and this may be done one or two days after the stinging, with
just as much certainty of removing whatever symptoms may still exist.
I treated one case when three days had elapsed, the patient (a young
lady) was delirious and speechless, the whole face was so swollen as to
entirely disfigure her features, raising the cheeks to a level with the
nose, and closing the eyes. Her life was almost despaired of. The
surface of a freshly cut onion was applied to the point where the sting
entered, and changed about once an hour for a fresh piece. In a few
hours consciousness returned, and a rapid recovery followed. All the
swelling and disagreeable symptoms were gone in three days.
_Ledum_ is highly recommended by some Physicians, and is doubtless of
some value, but it is not to be compared with the _Allium_.
The most potent and certain remedy for the poison caused by the
Bite of the Rattlesnake
is _Alcohol_, in the ordinary form, or in common Whisky, Brandy, Rum or
Gin. Let the patient drink it freely, a gill or more at a time, once in
fifteen to twenty minutes, until some symptoms of intoxication are
experienced, then cease using it. The cure will be complete as soon as
enough has been taken to produce even slight symptoms of intoxication.
It is remarkable how much alcohol a patient suffering from the poison
of the Rattlesnake will bear.
An intelligent medical friend of mine in Kanawha County, Virginia, gave
a little girl of ten years, who had been bitten by a Rattlesnake, over
three quarts of good strong Whisky, in less than a day, when but slight
symptoms of intoxication were produced, and that seemed to arise
entirely from the last drink. She recovered from the intoxication in a
few hours, and suffered no more from the poison of the serpent.
Instances of cures with whisky are numerous, and I have never heard of a
failure, when it was used as here directed. I presume it will do the
same for the poison of other serpents.
Headache.
This symptom or affection, (if it can be classed as a disease) may
depend upon so many causes, and be so very different in its effects,
degrees of intensity, and the kind of pain or sensation attending it,
that one will find it very difficult to mark out any definite treatment.
I shall, therefore, only point out some of the more frequent cases, and
the indications for certain remedies.
What is called "_sick headache_," or "nervous headache," begins by a
sense of blindness or blur, before the eyes, of green or purple colors,
dazzling or swimming in the head, without, for some time at first, any
positive aching or pain. In the course of an hour, a longer or shorter
time, the dimness of vision goes off, and the head begins to ache. This
may or may not be accompanied with nausea and vomiting. Some persons are
always more or less sick at the stomach, when these "nervous headaches"
come on, others are not thus affected.
TREATMENT.
If taken as soon as the first blur before the eyes is noticed, or before
any pain is felt in the head, _Nux Vomica_ will, in nearly all cases,
arrest the disease at once. It may be necessary to take two or three
doses at intervals of an hour. Later in the case, though _Nux_ may
palliate, it will not cure.
If headache with sickness comes on, _Macrotin_ and _Podoph._ should be
given in alternation, every half hour, if the symptoms are very severe,
and the nausea great; but in a mild case, give it once an hour,
lengthening the interval as the symptoms abate.
If the feet are cold, as is often the case, putting them into hot water
will palliate the symptoms, and not interfere with the medicines.
If the head feels hot, apply _hot_ water to it. Never apply cold to the
head, when there are any symptoms of congestion, as of fullness of the
blood vessels. For
Common Headache,
If the face is red, and the arteries of the neck and temples throb
violently, give _Bell._ If there is paleness and faintness, _Pulsatilla_
is the remedy, especially if the forehead is principally affected. If
the pain is mostly in the back of the head, _Nux_ is to be used; if in
the front, and is sharp, affecting the eyes, _Aconite_; if at the angles
of the forehead, with a sense of pinching, _Arnica_; if a sense of
fullness and pressing outwards, or with an enlarged feeling, _Macrotin_;
if intermitting or remitting, _Mercurius_; if there is ringing in the
ears, _China_. Headache from fright should have _Aconite_.
For that kind of _headache_ that often occurs during the prevalence of
fevers, and is not unfrequently a premonitory symptom of an attack of
fever, I have found _Baptisia_ and _Podophyllin_ to be specifics. I give
them alternately, every two hours a dose, until the headache ceases. It
often subsides in a few minutes after the first dose of either, though I
have sometimes failed with one alone and succeeded in the same cases
afterwards with both in alternation. _I have no doubt_ but that they act
in many cases, as _Prophylactics_, entirely warding off and preventing
fevers, or at least arresting them at the premonitory stage.
_Podophyllin_ is a most valuable remedy for headache.
Nose Bleed--Epistaxis.
If it arises from fullness of the vessels of the head, with throbbing of
the temples, redness of the face and eyes, _Belladonna_ is the remedy.
If fever is present, _Aconite_ must be alternated with _Bell._
In females or children who have habitual nose-bleed, _Pulsatilla_ and
_Podophyllin_ are to be used alternately, night and morning. During the
paroxysm of bleeding, _Arnica_ should be used, one dose repeated in a
half hour if it continues.
If it is produced by over-exertion, _Rhus_ is the proper remedy. If it
occurs in the _early stage_ of fever, _Aconite_ and _Bell._; in the
latter stage, _Rhus_ and _Phos._ are to be used. _Hamamelis_ will
frequently arrest nose-bleed _immediately_ after one or two doses.
Worms.
It is difficult to determine the presence of _worms_ in children, much
more in adults, yet both are affected by them occasionally. In children,
there is more or less fever and restlessness, screaming out in sleep,
starting, pain in the bowels, vomiting, choking, diarrhoea, picking at
the nose, fetid breath, voracious and variable appetite.
TREATMENT.
_Santonine_ is a remedy which I have used for years, and I have treated
many hundreds of cases, with such unvariable success, that I feel
disinclined to use or to recommend any other. It brings away the worms
entire, and relieves the patient of all morbid symptoms immediately, or
in much less time than any other remedy of which I have any knowledge.
It seems to act specifically upon the worms, causing them to leave the
bowels by being evacuated with the feces, without producing any sensible
impression upon the bowels, the evacuations remaining natural, if they
were so, or becoming so, if deranged, and the worms coming away not
quite lifeless.
I have often prescribed this remedy for children suffering under
intermittent or remitting, and even typhoid fever, in the summer season,
when there were not present any well defined symptoms of worms, and yet
the fever would soon abate, and in due time worms appear in the fecal
evacuations. It often arrests entirely intermittent fever, when worms
are present, and are the probable cause of the fever.
I give either the crude salt in from one-fourth to one-half grain doses,
or a trituration of one grain to four of sugar, giving in the latter
case, from one to two grains of the trituration. Give one dose at
bed-time, or in an urgent case at any other time, but never repeat the
dose under thirty-six hours, and in an ordinary case, under forty-eight
hours.
This is _the_ medicine _par excellence_ for worms. It may be repeated
once a week, when there is a tendency in the patient to the development
of worm symptoms, or, in other words, the breeding of worms. The idea
held out by some that it is hurtful, or unimportant to remove the worms,
in itself considered, is simply _nonsense_, and _worse_, for children
are sometimes sacrificed to this idea.
Earache--Otalgia.
This may arise from various causes, but a common one is sudden cold. If
it arises from cold, and there is general fever, or if the ear is red,
or the side of the head and ear hot, _Bell._ and _Baptisia_ should be
given in alternation, every hour, or in a violent case, more frequently.
These remedies will soon relieve such cases. Cloths wrung out of hot
water should be laid over the ear, or the side of the head steamed, or
it may be laid into water quite warm, with good effect.
Where the disease is a chronic affection, and the patient is subject to
frequent attacks of pain in the ear, especially on a change of the
weather, from dry to moist, _Mercurius_ is the proper remedy, especially
if it is worse at night, when warm in bed.
If it arises from a shock or blow, _Arn_. is to be used. In scrofulous
persons, whether there is ulceration or not, _Phosphorus_ and
_Pulsatilla_ are the remedies.
Children and even adults, not unfrequently suffer from earache, without
any known cause sufficient to account for it. On examination into the
ear you will often find either the cavity filled or nearly so, with a
hard black substance, (the inspissated "earwax") almost as hard as horn,
or else the ear will be quite empty, and the sides of the cavity _dry_
and red, though perhaps not properly in a state of inflammation.
The natural condition of the cavity as it can be seen by straining the
ear outwards and backwards a little in a strong sun light, is moist, the
surface covered slightly with a yellowish, greasy, soft substance (the
cerumen) "earwax." When this is wanting or in excess, or its character
changed, it is evidence of disease, and pain is likely to occur. The
TREATMENT
for this condition is to remove the accumulation when that exists, as
the first step. But this must be first softened by pouring some warm
oil, pure olive oil, or good pure sperm oil, into the ear, and repeat it
two or three times a day for several days, until it is so far softened
as to be easily removed with the probe end of common small tweezers,
having a spoon-bowl point.
When there is dryness, moisten the surface with oil. In either case, it
is best, for a while, to protect the delicate surface from the air, by
putting oiled wool into the external ear.
If the ear was filled, give _Mercurius_ once a day until there appears a
natural secretion. If dry, use _Belladonna_.
Toothache.
It is difficult to determine the cause of toothache, and more difficult
to select the remedy. It often depends upon decay of the tooth, and
exposure of the nerve to air, and contact with food or drinks, or even
saliva, which irritate and produce pain.
_Pulsatilla_ will as often relieve such cases as any other remedy, yet
if it has been aggravated by a recent cold, _Bell._ and _Nux V._ may be
better. If the nerve is not exposed, and there is a disposition to a
return of the pain on exposure to cold air, or a change of weather, the
pain being of a _rheumatic_ character, give _Rhus_ and _Macrotin_ in
alternation. These will relieve many cases. For decayed teeth, the pain
being dull aching, with soreness, use _Chamomilla_. The body of the
tooth, that is the dentine, sometimes becomes very sensitive when there
is no decay or cavity, the pain being experienced when some hard
substance hits, or the air or water, either cold or hot, comes in
contact with the tooth. The temporary pain will generally yield to
_Arnica_, and in most instances, the daily use of _Arnica_ at the first
decimal dilution, applied to the surface, and upon the jaws, will effect
a cure.
The _chloride of Zinc_ applied to the surface of such teeth for a few
moments will destroy the sensitiveness of the dentine.
Teeth that are ulcerated at the roots, or have ulcerated gums around
them, the teeth being decayed, should be extracted at once, for, besides
the pain and inconvenience they cause, they are a _very prolific_ source
of _disturbance_ to the digestive organs, from the positive poison
generated by the decaying process.
If people will use soft brushes upon the teeth with soap and water,
followed by rinsing with simple water only, after each meal, brushing
both inside and out and crossways, so as to clean between them, they
will be saved much pain and decay, and disease of other parts, arising
from foul and diseased teeth.
Teething of Children.
Affections arising from teething of children, are often of a serious
character. The most prominent of which is _Diarrhoea_. _Fever_
frequently accompanies the diarrhoea, and _convulsions_ occasionally
occur. _Aconite_ and _Chamomilla_ should be used in alternation, every
one or two hours, according to the violence of the fever, and if
convulsions occur, or are threatened, as will be known by twitching,
starting, and screaming, use _Nux_ and _Bell_. These may be given in
rotation with the others, following the remedies, one after the other,
every hour. I have relieved the most alarming cases in a day by this
method of procedure, that had not yielded to either of the single
remedies for several days, given as directed in the books; the patient
growing worse continually. If the gums over the teeth look white and the
teeth, (one or more,) are near the surface, the gums should, by all
means, be cut. Press the point of a lancet or penknife down upon the top
of the gum, until the tooth is plainly felt, and be sure to make the cut
as wide as the tooth. Rub the gums with _Arnicated water_ once or twice
a day. _Pulsatilla_ should be given at night and _Chamomilla_ in the
morning, during the whole summer while the child is teething, as a
prophylactic against the fever and diarrhoea that is likely to occur.
It will generally save all trouble.
If the diarrhoea is profuse, watery and light colored or brown, give
_Phos. acid_ and _Veratrum_ alternately, as often as the discharges
occur. For the restlessness of infants at night, _Coffea_ is the
specific.
Apthæ--Thrush.
This is a disease peculiar to nursing children. The mouth becomes sore,
and the tongue, lips, and fauces are covered with a white crust, looking
like milk curds, which, when removed, leaves the surface red, inflamed
and very tender. It sooner or later, extends to the stomach and bowels,
producing severe and dangerous diarrhoea.
TREATMENT.
Of all the medicines known to our Materia Medica, none, according to my
experience, will in the least, compare with the _Eupatorium aromaticum_.
It is almost, if not quite certain to relieve speedily in all cases. I
say this, not only from my own experience and observation, but from the
testimony of several other Homoeopathic Physicians, who have, within
the last year, used it.
It should be given at the first or second dilution, once in four or six
hours, and three or four drops of the tincture put into a teaspoonful of
water, and the mouth occasionally washed with the mixture.
In summer, where agues prevail, and the child is feverish and restless,
_China_ will aid in the cure, to be given once in six hours between the
doses of the _Eupatorium_. If the diarrhoea is obstinate, the
discharges colored, and the child is sick at the stomach, give
_Podophyllin_ with the other remedies.
Inflammation of the Eyes--Ophthalmia.
For common Ophthalmia, in the early stages, while there is more or less
fever and headache, with flushed face, bloodshot eyes and throbbing of
the temporal arteries, _Bell._ and _Aconite_ should be used alternately
every two hours, and a wash made with ten drops of tincture of Aconite
to one gill of pure water, applied to the eyes as hot as the patient can
bear. This application should be repeated every two hours, in a violent
case, until the eyes are easy, and then about twice a day until all
inflammation and redness pass off. This will relieve a large proportion
of cases in from one to four days.
If, however, the case continues obstinate for a longer time, or has been
of a week or more standing before the treatment is commenced, in the
place of Bell., or after using it one or two days, use _Hydrastus_ with
the _Aconite_, giving them alternately at intervals of two to six hours,
according to the stage of the case--more frequently as the symptoms are
more urgent, using washes prepared of each separately, as directed for
Aconite, except that the Hydrastus wash may be twice as strong; and
apply each about half as often as the same medicine is taken internally.
The wash should, in all cases of acute inflammation of the eyes, be as
hot as it can be borne. Let it be put into the eyes so as to come
directly in contact with the inflamed surface.
Simple hot water applied to inflamed eyes for hours together, allowing
short intervals between the applications, will often cure most painful
cases.
_Never apply cold_ to inflamed eyes. It always aggravates. When the
inflammation is in a scrofulous person, especially in infants, it
assumes a purulent character, and may leave the cornea in clouded
(nebulous) condition, and the sight more or less obliterated. For this
condition use _Conium_ first, and apply it _in tinct._, half water, to
the eyes every four hours.
Wounds and Bruises.
On this subject, I must necessarily be very brief. When a wound is
inflicted, the first and most important thing to be done is to _arrest
the flow of blood_. Every one should know how to do this. The bleeding
is to be stopped, and the wounded vessels to be secured, so that no
further flow can take place.
First, then, to stop the bleeding, _pressure_ is to be made upon the
artery leading to the wound. If the wound is in the leg or foot,
pressure is to be made, either on the vessel above and near the wound,
or, where that cannot be easily found and compressed, make firm pressure
with the thumb or some hard substance, in the groin, about two and a
half inches at one side of the center of the pelvis, (wounded side) just
below the lower margin of the belly, towards the inner side of the
thigh, where the great artery (Femoral artery) can be felt pulsating. By
pressing firmly upon this artery, the blood is arrested in its flow into
the limb, and of course the bleeding from the wound soon ceases. If the
wound is in the arm or hand, _pressure_ is to be made, either just above
the wound, or on the inside of the arm, about one-third of the way from
the shoulder to the elbow, where the artery (Brachial) can be felt. To
secure the parts from further bleeding, the wounded artery must be taken
up and tied. Let it be seized by forceps, or the point of a needle may
be thrust into it, and the vessel stretched out a little, a thread put
round it and tied; cut off one end of the tie, and let the other hang
out of the wound, until it comes out by the vessel sloughing off. Bring
the lips of the wound together, and if it is large, put in stitches
enough to hold them, and put on an adhesive plaster, compress of cloths,
and bandages to keep it from straining the stitches, and protect it from
the air. The _Arnica_ plaster, made by JOHN HALL, of Cleveland, is the
best adhesive plaster of which I have any knowledge. Give the patient
_Aconite_ once in two hours, for a day after the accident.
_Slight Cuts_ about the joints, especially the knee, are dangerous, from
their liability to affect the ligaments, inflame, and produce _Lockjaw_.
Therefore, such wounds, ever so slight, are of great importance. They
should be at once closed up, whether they bleed or not, and covered with
an adhesive plaster, (Arnica plaster is the best) a bandage, and the
knee should not be bent, even when walking or sitting, until the wound
is healed. It is best to apply a splint from the hip to the heel, and
bandage the limb to it, so as to prevent bending of the joint.
_Bruises_ are to be treated with _Arnica_, applied to the part affected,
by putting twenty drops of the tincture into a gill of water, if the
skin is _not_ ruptured, or three drops into the same if it is, and
bathing freely. The _Arnica_ is to be taken internally at a higher
dilution. Keep the parts covered with cloths and wet in _Arnica_ water.
If a blow is received upon the head, by a fall, or in any other way,
producing a "stunning" effect, (concussion of the brain) so that the
patient appears lifeless for a time, and delirious when he begins to
come to, there is great danger of inflammation of the brain, and death
from the re-action, or in some cases, the shock is so great that the
patient will never revive unless he has the proper aid.
_Arnica_ is the great remedy to bring on reaction, arouse the patient,
and prevent _dangerous_ inflammation or congestion of the brain.
When a patient is "stunned" by a blow or fall, he should be conveyed
soon as possible, to some _quiet_ place, and as little noise as
practicable made about him, and the room kept darkened. _Arnica_ 3d
should be given immediately, and the nostrils wet with strongly
arnicated water.
If fever arise after he comes to, _Aconite_ should be given with
_Arnica_, and if the head aches, or becomes hot, _Bell._ is to be used.
This will prevent or arrest all symptoms of inflammation.
_Torn and Mangled_ wounds should not be handled much. If they bleed, the
blood must be stopped as in any other case. If they are dirty, warm
water may be gently applied to cleanse them. The wound should be covered
with some soft cloths, and kept constantly wet in Arnicated water of the
strength of four drops of the _tincture_ to a pint of water.
Piles--Hemorrhoids.
One important matter in all cases of habitual piles, is, to keep the
bowels regular. Much can be done for this purpose by diet and regimen.
On rising from bed in the morning drink freely, from a gill to half a
pint of cold water, at least half an hour before breakfast; use such
diet as is easily digested, and drink no alcoholic beverages. To relieve
the bowels when costive, take a dose of _Nux Vomica_ at night, and
_Podophyllin_ in the morning. This may be repeated from day to day until
the proper effect is produced.
To relieve from a severe attack of Piles, use _Bell._ and _Podophyllin_
in alternation every four hours, and apply to the tumors when inflamed,
cloths wrung out of hot water, or sit in hot water for a time.
A poultice made of fine-cut _Tobacco_ wet in hot water and crowded
firmly up against the pile-tumors, secured by a T bandage, will relieve
the most desperate cases for the time, and is attended with no danger or
disagreeable symptoms except in rare cases, when it produces sickness at
the stomach, which soon subsides on the poultice being removed. _Oil of
Arnica_ is an excellent application for inflamed Piles.
A most important point in the management of Piles, and one often
neglected, is to replace the prolapsed tumors. The tumors will be
protruded from within the anus by the act of evacuating, and if left in
that condition, will be pressed upon by the external parts, chafed and
inflamed. In all such cases, the patient should take particular pains to
return the tumors into the rectum; and to aid in that process a little
oil may be applied when they will be easily pushed back, and the
sphincter of the bowel will close below them, preventing any chafing,
and the consequent inflammation.
For _Bleeding Piles_, _Ipecac_ and _Bell_. are very efficient remedies.
They may be alternated every half hour, or oftener if the bleeding is
severe, or at longer intervals when it is only slight.
_Hamamelis V._, (Witch Hazel,) will in nearly all cases arrest the
bleeding at once. It should be applied to the parts and taken internally
at the same time. Drop doses to be put on the tongue once in fifteen or
twenty minutes.
An infusion of the _Hamamelis_ may be taken internally in doses of half
a teaspoonful, and the same injected into the bowel with excellent
effect.
The most effectual way, and the best for obtaining permanent relief from
Piles when the tumors have become hard, and remain all the time so as to
pass out of the anus at every evacuation, being constantly more or less
tender and painful, and often becoming inflamed, is to have them taken
off. But never let that be done with a knife. The bleeding would, in
such a case, be very excessive, and most likely fatal. The history of
knife operations for the excision of Pile tumors is written in blood,
and the tombstone stands as a monument of condemnation of the practice.
No trustworthy surgeon will at this day attempt it.
But however dangerous may be the knife operation, there is no danger at
all to be apprehended from removing the tumors by a _ligature_. To
accomplish this, take a soft cork about three-fourths of an inch in
diameter, and one inch long--make a hole through the center from end to
end, about one-eighth of an inch in diameter--cut crucial grooves in the
top of the cork about an eighth of an inch deep, bevel down the lower
end nearly to an edge, make a cord of saddler's silk, three fold twisted
together and waxed, about eight or ten inches long, double this in the
middle and pass the loop down through the cork out at the sharp end, the
two loose ends of the string being out at the grooved end. Make a strong
hickory stick about three-sixteenths of an inch in diameter, and just
long enough to pass across the square end of the cork. Now have the
patient protrude the Pile tumors as far out as possible, being placed on
his knees with the head bent to the floor, pressing out firmly as if to
evacuate the bowels. Let the tumors be dried as much as possible by
gently pressing a soft, dry cloth to them; then let the loop of the
string projecting from the flattened end of the cork, be pushed on over
the largest tumor, and held down at its base, while an assistant places
the stick in one of the grooves, ties the two ends of the cord firmly
down over the stick, or _toggle_, by a square bow knot; then turn the
stick round once, twice, or more, until the pressure upon the tumor is
sufficient to strangulate it perfectly, and prevent the string from
slipping off. Care should be taken to keep the cord down to the base of
the tumor while it is being tied and tightened, as in many cases the
base is much the larger part of the tumor, and the cord tends to slip
up. After the ligature is applied and tightened, apply arnicated water
to the parts, and a large, warm poultice of superfine slippery elm bark,
wet so as not to be too soft and slippery, on the face of which Arnica
may be put. Keep it on with a T bandage. The patient must be put to bed
and kept quiet until the ligature and tumor come off, which will be in
about six or seven days, sometimes sooner. Once a day the "toggle" must
be turned part, or the whole of a circle or more, to tighten the cord as
the patient can bear. This will be very painful from beginning to end of
the ligating, but any, even the most sensitive, patient can bear it. The
patient must have quite warm hip baths two, three, or more, times a day,
or as often as the pain is severe, the poultice being replaced after
each bath, and kept constantly on.
If there are several tumors protruding, apply ligatures to two of the
largest, when these are removed, the others will disappear.
Injections of mucillage of slippery elm should be carefully used to move
the bowels daily, or at least once in two days. Let the diet be of corn
or oat meal mush, or rice. As the tumor gradually sloughs off, the
surface heals, so that, though the base where the ligature was applied,
may have been an inch or more across it, there will not be a raw surface
of over an eighth of an inch in diameter, to which _Calendula Cerate_
should be applied. The patient must keep quiet for a few days longer.
Though this is a painful operation, it is not in the slightest degree
dangerous. I have effected complete and permanent cures by this mode in
numerous instances.
Sea-Sickness.
_Nux Vomica_ should be used once in about four hours, for twelve hours
before sailing, as a preventive to sea-sickness.
If, however, symptoms, such as dizziness or blur before the eyes, and
headache, begin to come on, a dose of _Nux_ should be taken, followed in
an hour with _Pulsatilla_.
If the nausea comes on, _Ipecac_ and _Arsenicum_ should be taken
alternately between the paroxysms of vomiting, should that symptom
appear.
If practicable, the patient should lay still upon the back until the
sickness passes off. I have removed sea-sickness immediately in several
instances with _Pulsatilla_ alone, and the last time I had an
opportunity to prescribe for this affection I gave _Podophyllin_. It
removed all the symptoms in a few minutes. That is the only time I ever
tried it, but from the provings I am satisfied it is one of the best
remedies.
Asiatic Cholera.
I was practicing in Cincinnati during the prevalence of Cholera in the
years 1849, and 1850, and in Northern Ohio in 1854, and had abundant
opportunity to observe and treat it. The disease generally begins with a
diarrhoea, which may continue for several days, or only a few hours
before other symptoms set in, such as vomiting, then cramping in the
stomach and muscles of the legs, arms, hands and feet, followed by cold
sweats, great prostration, restlessness, excessive and burning thirst,
drinks being immediately rejected. These symptoms continue, the patient
sinking rapidly into _collapse_, when the skin looks blue and shriveled,
the eyes sunken, the surface covered with a cold, clammy sweat, the
extremities, nose, ears, tongue and breath cold, the voice hollow and
unnatural. This condition continues from two to eight or ten hours, the
patient regularly failing, sometimes becoming delirious before he dies.
In some cases the vomiting and diarrhoea set in simultaneously, and
the other symptoms follow, as above described, in rapid succession. In
others the cramping may be the first symptom, the others following it.
In a large proportion of cases, the disease takes the course first
described above, the diarrhoea, called the _premonitory symptoms_, or
sometimes _cholerine_, coming on several hours, if not a day or more,
before any other symptoms.
The diarrhoea is not usually painful, hence the patient may not be
alarmed so as to attend to it until the more dangerous symptoms appear.
It begins in some cases with pain and some griping, the discharges
rather consistent, having a bilious appearance, so that the patient
supposes it to be an ordinary bilious diarrhoea, which is not
dangerous, his fears being thus quieted. But however the diarrhoea
begins, it becomes sooner or later, copious, watery, and light colored,
(rice water) painless but rapidly prostrating.
TREATMENT.
In the early stages of the diarrhoea, _Veratrum_, taken about twice as
often as the evacuations occur, will frequently arrest it in a few
hours, especially if the patient lies down and keeps quiet. But if not,
and it increases in frequency, or becomes more copious, or any sickness
is felt at the stomach, the patient should, at once, be laid upon a bed
and _strong tincture of Camphor_ should be given in drop doses, once in
five minutes, for one hour or more, and as the symptoms abate, once in
ten, fifteen or twenty minutes, for six or eight hours.
A teaspoonful of the _Camphor tincture_ may be put into a tumbler of
cold water, ice water if at hand, and the water agitated until it
becomes clear, giving a teaspoonful of this camphorated _cold_ water as
a dose, stirring the water each time. I think this is better than to
give the pure tincture. After the patient becomes quiet and easy,
_Veratrum_ should be given in alternation with Camphor, a dose in four
to six hours for several days, or oftener if he feels any symptoms like
a threatened return of the disease. These two medicines serve as
_prophylactics_ (preventives) of Cholera.
If, however, the disease continues in spite of the Camphor and Veratrum,
in the first instance, or later, (as the Camphor may be given in many
cases with success in the advance stage,) you must resort to other
remedies.
If vomiting comes on with burning in the stomach give _Ipecac_ and
_Arsenicum_ in alternation as often as the vomiting occurs, and if the
diarrhoea continues give _Veratrum_ between the doses of the other
two, in a violent case, as often as every ten to fifteen minutes, and at
longer intervals when the disease is slow in its progress. If the
vomiting and diarrhoea, or either, occur with a kind of explosion, the
vomiting ceasing suddenly for the time, after the first _gush_, or the
discharges from the bowels are involuntary, _Secale_ is the specific
remedy.
For the cramping, _Cuprum_ and _Veratrum_ are the remedies to be given
alternately.
If, however, the _cramping_ comes on as the first symptom, which is
sometimes the case, the patient being suddenly seized with it before any
other alarming symptoms occur, _Camphor_ is _the great remedy_, and in
this case it may be given in doses of double or treble the quantity
before directed.
If he sinks into the _collapse_ and lies quiet, indifferent to
everything, the pulse sinking, or he is pulseless, _Carbo Veg._ will
sometimes arouse and restore him, hopeless as the case appears. It
should be given once in half an hour until the pulse begins to rise. If,
however, instead of being quiet he is restless and thirsty, give
_Arsenicum_ in alternation with _Carbo Veg._, repeating the dose as
above directed. In some cases, after all the active symptoms cease, the
patient will become quiet and drop to sleep, and instead of the pulse
rising, as it will if he is recovering, it sinks, or does not appear if
he has been pulseless, and the breathing becomes irregular and
feeble--he is sinking. If aroused, he sinks back into the stupor in a
few moments as before. _Laurocerasus_ is a specific for this condition.
It should be given once an hour until he is aroused.
If, however, besides the stupor, the head is hot, the face red, the
breathing oppressed, the pulse slow and sluggish, _Opium_ is to be
used, and may be given in alternation with _Laurocerasus_.
For the irritation of the brain, and furious delirium that sometimes
sets in after the cessation of cholera symptoms, _Secale_ and
_Belladonna_ in alternation will prove specific.
Let the patient have warm or cold drink as he prefers, and let his
covering be light or plentiful as is most agreeable. As soon as he gets
easy, and the vomiting and purging cease, and his pulse begins to
return, keep him quiet as possible, let the room be darkened and
everything still, so that he may go to sleep, which he is inclined to
do, this being the surest restorer. I am quite sure I have known several
patients carried off by a return of the disease, after it had been
effectually arrested, in consequence of sleep being prevented by the
rejoicing officiousness and congratulations of friends, disturbing and
preventing that early and quiet slumber which nature so much needs, and
must have, or hopelessly sink. The diet for two or three days after
recovery, should be a little oat meal gruel or rice.
Small Pox--Variola.
This disease begins with pain in the head and back, chilly sensations,
followed by a high fever, so similar in all respects to a severe attack
of Bilious or "winter" fever, that it is difficult or impossible to
distinguish it with certainty, as Small Pox. The fact of the prevalence
of the disease at the time, and the exposure of the patient, may lead
the Physician and friends to suspect Small Pox. There is one very
striking symptom of Small Pox, however, that exists from the beginning,
which, though it may be present in fever simply, is not uniformly so.
This is a severe and constant aching _pain in the small of the back_.
The headache is also constant.
The Small Pox is of two varieties or degrees, _distinct_ and
_confluent_. The _distinct_ is when the pustules are separated from each
other, each one a distinct elevation, with more or less space between
them not affected by the eruption.
The _confluent_ is where the pustules spread out from their sides and
run together, covering the whole surface as one sore.
It may be distinct on some parts, as on the body, and confluent on
others, as the arms, face, and parts most exposed to the air.
In the _Distinct_ variety the fever continues without abatement until
the eruption appears, when it entirely subsides, and that quite
suddenly. The eruption comes out about the third day of the attack,
sometimes not discoverable until the end of the third or beginning of
the fourth day. The eruption is at first very slight, beginning with
small red pimples on the forehead, upper part of the cheeks, neck and
upper part of the breast, extending by degrees to the arms, and other
parts of the body and limbs. About the end of the fourth or forepart of
the fifth day, the eruption is complete.
There is a symptom, not mentioned in the books, which will often
determine the disease before the occurrence of any eruption. It is the
appearance of hard shot-like pimples, to be _felt under the skin_ in the
palms of the hands, while there is, as yet, no trace of eruption to be
seen upon the surface.
On the eighth or ninth day, the eruptions become vessicular, have
flattened tops, and contain a limpid fluid. The parts continue to
swell, the eruptions to enlarge, and become filled with purulent matter,
having a dark color at the top, up to about the fourteenth or fifteenth
day, when they begin to flat down, to dry up, and some of the scabs
become loose. At this time, some fever arises, often quite severe, with
headache and other inflammatory symptoms. If the eruption is very
severe, fever will be of corresponding violence, and lighter or wanting
when the eruption is mild. This fever rarely lasts more than twenty-four
hours, from which time the patient rapidly recovers.
In the _Confluent_ variety, all the symptoms are more violent, the fever
continuing after the eruption begins. The pustules burst early, and run
into each other, covering nearly or quite the whole skin; the surface
swells and turns black or dark brown, the lungs are more or less
irritated, producing cough, and not unfrequently the stomach is
nauseated, and vomiting ensues.
If the patient survives the irritation up to the fifteenth or sixteenth
day, when the _secondary fever_ sets in, he is liable to be taken off
by an affection of the brain or lungs, during this fever. If he
recovers, his whole surface, especially that part exposed to air, is
deeply pitted.
TREATMENT.
As it is not often known for a certainty, in the early febrile stage,
that it is the small pox, the treatment will be first adopted that would
be proper for a like fever arising from other causes. But in all my
observations in this disease, and they extend to several hundred cases,
I have not found in a single instance, any of the ordinary fever
remedies, such as _Aconite_ and _Bell._, which would be applicable for
such symptoms in an ordinary case, to do any good in small pox. They are
directed, however, for these symptoms by the authorities, in the febrile
stage of the small pox; but I am quite sure they are not the proper
remedies.
From the great similarity, the almost absolute identity of small pox
_headache_ and _backache_, with the same symptoms developed by the
_Macrotys racem._ as well as the nausea and restlessness produced by the
drug, I was led several years ago to the conclusion that this, or the
_Macrotin_ was valuable in small pox. Not only so, but during the
prevalence of small pox in Cincinnati, to an extraordinary degree in the
winter of 1849-50, I treated about one hundred cases, including both
sexes, and all ages, from infants a few weeks old, to very old persons,
giving the _Macrotin_ to all, and had the good fortune to see _all_ my
patients recover. Since that time I have prescribed it for every case
successfully.
Having then, been entirely successful in so many cases, with this
medicine, I am not inclined at this time to give any other the
preference. I must admit, however, that though my patients all
recovered, I was not able to greatly abridge the duration of the
disease, nor to prevent the development of all the stages in their
proper order, as is _claimed_ by M. TESTE, for his use of _Mercurius
cor._ and _Causticum_. I was satisfied with so far modifying the
symptoms, as to enable my patients to live through, and come _out well
in the end_. I would then direct, if small pox is suspected, the patient
having been exposed to contract it, or from the peculiarity of the
symptoms, in the early stage, or when the disease is discovered after
the eruption, to give _Macrotin_ at the first trituration, in one grain
doses, once in two hours, while the fever, headache and backache
continue, after which, during the whole course of the disease, give it
three times a day. This will prevent the development of a dangerous
secondary fever, as well as irritation of the lungs, stomach or bowels.
In addition to this medicine I give the patients daily, from half an
ounce to two ounces of _pure_ (_unrancid_) _Olive oil_. This serves to
prevent the development of pustules in the throat, lungs and stomach; is
more or less nutritious, and keeps the bowels in a healthy condition.
Wash the surface once a day in weak soap suds, following it with a bath
of milk and water, and keep cloths moistened with warm milk and water,
constantly upon all parts that are exposed to the air, lubricating the
surface with _Olive oil_ after the bath of milk and water. This keeps
the surface quite comfortable.
The best diet is corn or oat meal mush and molasses, to be taken in
small quantities. Cold water is the proper drink, though it should not
be very cold.
The room should, at all times, be well ventillated, but in cold or cool
weather, sufficient fire must be kept up, to keep the room warm and dry.
A temperature of about 65° is the best. Hardly any thing can be worse
for a small pox patient than to be in a cold or damp room, and to
breathe _cold_ air. Uniform temperature is important.
If the eruption is tardy about appearing, or after it is out, a
recession takes place, the Alcoholic Vapor bath will soon bring it out.
(See Rheumatism **p. 30).
Occasionally the feet and limbs below the knees, will swell
prodigiously, and become extremely painful, causing the principal
suffering. For this, wrap the feet and legs in cloths wet in a strong
solution of Epsom salts, quite warm, and cover with flannels so as to
keep them warm. This will afford immediate relief, and reduce the
swelling in a day or two. The finely pulverized Epsom salts, dry,
sprinkled on the pustules, will very often prevent pitting. It is the
safest and surest remedy of which I have any knowledge.
Varioloid
is small pox modified by vaccination. It is to be treated as a mild case
of small pox. The _Macrotin_ has been used with apparent success as a
prophylactic (preventive) to small pox, taken three times daily.
Painful Urination, Incontinence of Urine,
_Involuntary Urination._
Where the discharge of urine produces smarting and burning of the
urethra, _Cantharis_ is the remedy. Where there seems to be an over
secretion of acrid urine, producing inflammation of the neck of the
bladder, known by pain in the glans penis, _Copaiva_, and _Apis mel._
are the remedies. If there appears to be a partial palsy of the neck of
the bladder, the discharge taking place in sleep, _Podophyllin_ is the
surest remedy. I have cured some bad cases by the use of these three
remedies, given in rotation three or four hours apart.
Injections of a solution of borax into the bladder, have, in several
cases, been sufficient to effect a perfect cure, without any other
remedy. This may be used in connection with the other remedies. For
painful urination with a distressed feeling in the neck of the bladder,
causing a constant disposition to evacuate urine, the _Althoea
Officinalis_ is a certain remedy; it acts like a charm. It is an
important remedy for inflammation of the bladder. A good mode of using
it is in form of a warm infusion in doses of a table spoonful every half
hour or hour, according to the urgency of the symptoms. The _Althoea
Rosa_ (Hollyhock) may be used as a substitute, though it is not as good.
Every family should cultivate the _Althoea Officinalis_ (Marsh
Mallow), so that the fresh green root, which is the best, can be
procured at any time. I have been able to relieve patients with it,
especially females, when all other remedies seemed unavailing. It is
particularly useful for urinary difficulties of pregnant females.
Neuralgia.
_Aconite_ and _Bell._ are two important remedies in this affection. If
given low, and applied directly along the course of the affected nerves,
at full strength of the tincture, they will almost always effect a
cure. The proper way to use them is to give them internally at the
second dilution, at intervals of fifteen to thirty minutes, when the
pain is severe and nearly constant, and apply _Aconite tincture_ as hot
as practicable over the course of the nerve, by means of wet cloths, for
an hour or two hours, and if the pain has not subsided use _Bell._
locally in the same manner.
If the Neuralgia is periodical, coming on at regular intervals,
_Arsenicum_ and _China_ are the remedies, and they should be used
externally as directed for the others, both at the first dilution, and
given internally at intervals, in proportion to the violence of the
symptoms, the _Arsen._ at the 3d and the _China_ at the first dilution.
If the patient has used alcoholic drinks to excess, _Nux_ is to be used
in place of Arsenicum.
_Periodical Neuralgia_ generally requires the same treatment as ague. In
females when there is uterine disease, _Pulsatilla_ and _Macrotin_ are
the remedies to be used, as directed above.
Jaundice.
This disease depends upon derangement of the liver. The skin and whites
of the eyes become yellow; the patient grows weak, loses his appetite,
is dull and sluggish in all his actions, melancholly and discouraged in
his moods.
TREATMENT.
_Mercurius_ and _Podophyllin_ given in alternation, each twice a day,
will nearly always effect a cure. If the patient is costive, _Nux_
should be taken at night, until his bowels become regular.
Bathing the surface daily, or oftener, is a very important measure in
the treatment of this affection. As often as once in two or three days,
an alkaline bath should be taken. If the patient has fever every day, or
once in two days, ever so slight, _China_ should be used with
_Podophyllin_. If he has been drugged with Mercury in any form, in large
doses, even six months or a year before, give _Hydrastin_ in place of
Mercurius.
Itch.
I shall say but little about this very common and very obstinate
affection. Everybody has a "cure for itch" yet nobody cures it short of
the use of _Sulphur_ in some form. Though the attenuations of Sulphur
may sometimes cure itch, it must be acknowledged that such cures are so
rare in this country, and the time requisite to accomplish it is so
long, as a general rule, that few will trust them.
The most successful remedy, and the one that will always cure quickly,
if at all, is _Hepar Sulphurus Potassium_, the common Hepar Sulphur
(sulphuret of Potassa) of the shops. To succeed with it most certainly,
let the patient be thoroughly bathed with warm soap suds, _quite
strong_, in a room at the temperature of 90 to 100°, continuing the
bathing and _rubbing_ for an hour or more, then dry off the surface with
soft cloths, and apply the _Hepar sul._ with water, at the strength of
thirty drops of the strong alcoholic solution, with a gill of water,
wetting every eruption on the whole surface and let it dry on. This
causes some smarting, but it is effectual; it kills the _acarus_, (itch
animalcule) and in a few days the sores heal, the itching all subsides
immediately. If every pustule has not been touched, those left may
continue to itch, in which case, a second application is necessary.
_Hepar Sul._ should be given internally at the third dilution, for a
month, once a day, after the baths. Avoid greasy food. For the
Scald Head
of children, where there is a discharge of yellow and watery pus from
the sores, and the eruption extends to the ears or face, like the
disease called the _crusta lactea_ (milk crust), the same washes as for
itch, are the most effectual, while at the same time, and for a month or
two, the child should have _Hepar Sul._ 5th at night, and _Petroleum_ 3d
in the morning. Daily ablutions of the head with warm soap suds, and
keeping it covered, are absolutely essential.
Carbuncle.
This affection, though it somewhat resembles a common boil, and is by
some writers considered only such, in an overgrown state, is,
nevertheless, far from being identical with it.
While a _boil_ is only a sanitive effort of nature to eliminate the
cause of a morbid process, and tends to a spontaneous, healthy
termination, the _carbuncle_, on the contrary, is the very essence of
disease; its constant tendency being towards the dissemination of
diseased action, causing destruction of the parts affected. It, in fact,
appears like a parasite, living by the destruction of surrounding
tissues, literally absorbing them and "thriving on death." It begins
with a red, livid color, slight aching and burning pains, the part
swells and is elevated some like a boil, except that it does not
"point," but has a broad base rising like a cone and flattened at the
top. It feels soft and spongy, and will appear to fluctuate, but if
punctured, blood only flows. The pain and burning increases rapidly, and
sooner or later several openings appear upon the top, varying from three
or four to half a dozen or more, looking like the holes in a sponge, out
of which issues a fluid like thin gruel. Instead of becoming easier
after the suppuration begins, as is the case with a boil, the burning
increases to an alarming and unbearable extent; cold chills, loss of
appetite, great depression of spirits, general nervous and muscular
debility come on. The tumor continues to discharge, turns purple;
gangrene beginning in the carbuncle extends to other parts and death
follows.
The disease is nearly always confined to quite feeble persons and those
past the meridian of life; but I have seen it on younger though feeble
patients. It is generally located on the back, occasionally on the head,
where it is very dangerous from its liability to affect the brain.
TREATMENT.
If treated very early, _strong tincture of Arnica_ applied to the
surface of the carbuncle, by cloths wet and laid over the tumor, will
often arrest it so that the swelling will not be developed to the
suppurative stage. However, to reap any benefit from _Arnica_, it must
be applied while the pain is not severe, and the parts only feel bruised
and tender to pressure, like a common bruise.
After the ulceration occurs, _Arsenicum_ is the great remedy to be
relied on. It should be given at the second or third attenuation as
often as every three hours, when the pain is severe, and applied to the
surface of the carbuncle freely by cloths laid over it, wet in the
first dilution, or by sprinkling the first trituration of the oxyde
(1-10) freely upon the open surfaces, so that it may penetrate into the
open mouths or orifices. Over this powder apply an emolient poultice, or
soft cloths wet in water hot as can be endured. This will soon allay or
greatly lessen the pain. It should be repeated as often as any of the
burning pain peculiar to the carbuncle returns, until the tumor
suppurates in a tolerably healthy manner; then lessen the strength of
the _Ars._ applications, and continue them until it has the appearance
of a healthy abscess, when only simple dressings are necessary. Some may
suppose such strong applications injurious, but I can assure them from
abundant experience, that there is not the slightest danger. The
carbuncle should _never be punctured_ or _cut into_. Such operations
always make them worse, and induce a more rapid approach to gangrene.
The patient should have nourishing food, and good native wine may be
taken in moderate quantities, by a very feeble person, with decided
advantage.
Though the knife operations for the removal of carbuncle are always
injurious, the chemical effect of _Potash_ is frequently most
beneficial. I have, in repeated instances, applied to the ulcerated
surface, _caustic potash_ freely, allowing the dissolved caustic to
penetrate to the very "core" by running into the orifices. At first it
would produce some smarting, but the pain is different from that of the
carbuncle, and the change is agreeable rather than otherwise. Soon after
the application all pain ceases, and the tumor, under the use of a
poultice, begins to slough off in a few days, leaving a raw surface,
disposed to heal kindly. Occasionally, however, the healing process is
tardy, when _Arsenicum_, at the third, applied and taken internally,
will soon effect a cure.
I have occasionally used _Hepar Sul._ with good effect in the latter
stage.
Felon--Whitlow.
For this disease, in the early stage, when the sensation is that of
sharp, sticking pain, feeling as though a brier or thistle was in the
finger, immerse the part in water as hot as possible, into which put
common salt as long as it will dissolve; hold it in this _hot_ salt bath
for an hour or more at a time, and when removed, apply finely pulverized
salt, wet in _Spirits of Turpentine_; bind on the salt with several
thicknesses, and keep it constantly wet with the sp'ts turpt. for
twenty-four hours, when, if all symptoms of felon are gone, no further
treatment is necessary. As a general rule, the hot bath should be
repeated three times a day, especially if the symptoms have existed for
several days and there is much pain or swelling, and the dressings
should be kept on as above directed for several days, more or less,
until all symptoms disappear.
I am quite confident that a large majority, if not all, of the cases if
thus treated at any time before pus is formed, will be discussed and
cured. If pus has begun to form before the treatment is commenced, this
will not _cure_ the felon, but it is good treatment, especially the hot
bath, as it will greatly lessen the pain.
By holding it in hot water for an hour or two each day, the suppurative
process will be hastened, and as soon as the pus can be felt at any
point, fluctuating, puncture and let it out; then continue the hot bath,
with _Calendula_ (_Marygold_) flowers in the water, keeping the part all
the time warm and moist.
For the restless and nervous irritability that frequently occurs,
especially in females, _Aconite is the best remedy_. It should be given,
one drop of the tincture to a gill of water, in teaspoonful doses, once
in one or two hours, and the same applied to the sore.
DISEASES OF FEMALES
Suppression of the Menses, (Amenorrhoea.)
For sudden suppression from taking cold, as by wetting the feet, there
being headache, more or less fever, the pulse frequent and variable,
pains in the small of the back and cramp like pains in the pelvic
region, give, in alternation, _Aconite_ and _Pulsatilla_, as often as
every fifteen or twenty minutes in a violent case, and at longer
intervals as the patient begins to get easy. Putting the feet into hot
water, or taking a hot Sitz bath is very useful. If the patient is sick
at the stomach, as is often the case, give lukewarm water freely and let
her vomit; after which let her drink freely of water as hot as it can be
safely swallowed, adding milk and sugar to make it palatable. The good
effects that are often attributed to and experienced from the use of
various hot teas in this affection, are, in my opinion, attributable
more to the hot fluid alone than to any specific medicinal virtue in the
substance of which tea is made. At all events, very _hot_ drink with
nothing but water, milk and sugar, is equally efficacious, and my
medicine (a few grains of sugar of milk) put into the hot water,
seasoned as above, has often obtained great credit, when the _hot water_
was alone worthy. Rubbing the loins and abdomen briskly downwards with
the hands of a healthy and vigorous nurse, will often excite the
menstrual flow after a sudden suppression. If the head is hot, the face
full and red, and the arteries of the neck and temples beat violently,
give _Bell._ with _Pulsatilla_, and if the lungs are oppressed, use also
_Bryonia_, giving the three in rotation. If, after the menstrual flow
begins, there is still much pain in the pelvic region, give
_Caulophyllin_, which will immediately afford relief.
_Apis mel._ is very servicable in suppressed menses of several days, or
even weeks duration, where there is fever, redness of the face, and pain
in the head, and pains in the hips extending to the limbs, especially if
there is any tendency to bloating of the abdomen and swelling of the
limbs or feet. It acts _promptly_ and _efficiently_.
If the suppression has been caused by sudden fright or any strong mental
emotion, _Veratrum_ should be given in connection with the two former
medicines. Should there be great fullness of the vessels of the head, or
bleeding at the nose, _Bryonia_ with _Pulsatilla_ are to be used.
_Bell._ is also useful in this case if the pain in the head is
throbbing, especially if any delirium is present.
For suppression in young females, of several months duration, I have
used, with much success, _Podophyllin_ and _Macrotin_, one at night, the
other in the morning, giving them for two or three weeks before the
proper time for a return, and a day or two prior to the time, give also
_Pulsatilla_, and give the three in rotation, a dose every six hours.
This practice has been successful with me in cases of long standing and
apparently obstinate character. Where there is other disease, as an
affection of the liver, lungs or stomach, this must be treated and
cured, or the menses will not probably return. Great care should be
exercised to keep the patient's feet and limbs warm, as upon this may
depend her future health.
Dysmenorrhoea.--Painful Menstruation.
For this disorder, I know of no one remedy so valuable as the
_Caulophyllin_, but _Pulsatilla_ in many cases is efficacious, and as
they do not prevent each other's action, I prescribe them in
alternation, giving a dose every half hour, for a short time during the
paroxysm, or until the pain abates to some extent, then every hour.
If there is pain in the head, sickness at the stomach, a kind of sick
headache, as is often the case, with painful menstruation, _Macrotin_
should be used with the others; _Ipecac_ is the _Specific_ for an
excessive flow of the menses with great pain, especially if the stomach
is nauseated. It should be given as low as the first dilution, and the
tincture, in water, in the proportion of thirty drops to half a pint,
injected into the vagina quite warm.
The application of extract of _Belladonna_ to the neck of the uterus
will often produce immediate and perfect relief. After the patient is
relieved from the painful paroxysm, she should be treated so as to
prevent a return of the pains at the next monthly period. _Pulsatilla_,
_Caulophyllin_ and _Podophyllin_ are the three medicines that are most
certain to effect this object. They are to be given, one medicine each
day, a dose at night for three weeks, then morning, noon and night,
until the time for the return of the menses, when they should be used
oftener if there is pain. If the patient is inclined to be costive,
_Nux_ should be given at night for a few days before the menstrual
period, in place of _Pulsatilla_.
Menorrhagia--Profuse Menses--Flowing.
For this affection, _Ipecac_ and _Hamamelis_ are the specifics. They
should be taken alternately, at intervals of from half an hour to two
hours apart, according to the urgency of the symptoms, and the
_Hamamelis_ injected into the vagina. These will nearly always arrest
the flooding immediately. _Secale_ should be used either alone or with
the above medicines, if there are bearing down pains like labor pains,
and sickness at the stomach in spite of the Ipecac. _Ipecac_ alone is
often sufficient.
Nursing Sore Mouth.
Sore mouth of nursing women, as the name of the disease indicates, is
peculiar to women who are suckling children. It is an inflammation of
the mouth, tongue and fauces, which sometimes comes on during pregnancy,
several months or but a few days before the birth of the child. It
generally, however, makes its first appearance when the child is a few
weeks old, and sometimes not till after the lapse of several months. In
some cases the tongue and inside of the mouth ulcerate, and the
irritation extends to the stomach and bowels, producing distressing and
dangerous inflammation of these parts, with severe and obstinate
diarrhoea.
For the sore mouth, before diarrhoea begins, give _Eupatorium Aro._
and _Hydrastin_, in alternation, a dose once in three hours, and wash
the mouth with the same, each time. After the diarrhoea occurs, use
_Podophyllin_ with the other medicines, giving them in rotation, three
hours apart. It is best to give a dose of _Podophyllin_ night and
morning.
I have treated very bad cases of this disease that had been running for
more than a year, and been treated with the ordinary remedies directed
in the Homoeopathic authorities without any permanent benefit, curing
them perfectly in ten days with _Podophyllin_ and _Leptandrin_, giving
them in alternation at the 1st attenuation in half grain doses, at
intervals of from four to eight hours according to the frequency of the
evacuations. These two remedies are almost certain to arrest _Chronic
Dysentery_ where there is ulceration of the lower portion of the rectum,
a peculiar distress felt at the stomach just before stool, with _sudden_
rush of the evacuations and inability to control the inclination even
for a few minutes, with a feeling of faintness after the stool.
_Leptandrin_ is the specific for the Dysentery that often succeeds
cholera, and these two, _Pod._ and _Lept._, are almost certain to
relieve the "Mexican Diarrhoea," as well as that connected with the
fevers along the Mississippi river.
Mammary Abscess,
(_Ague in the breast--Inflamed breast_.)
This is a disease peculiar to nursing women. The first symptom is a
slight pain or soreness in some part of the "breast," which continues to
increase for a day or two, when a chill, more or less severe, sets in,
followed by high fever and quick pulse, headache and great restlessness.
The gland swells and becomes very painful. This is generally a disease
of rather slow progress, running eight or ten days and sometimes two or
three weeks before abscess forms and "points" to the surface.
TREATMENT.
_Phosphorus_ is to be taken internally, and the first dilution put in
water, twenty drops to one gill, and applied to the surface by means of
cloths wet in the mixture, as hot as it can be borne, and laid over the
whole breast. If this is done and the medicine given internally every
hour, as early as the first and frequently as late as the second or
third day, it is quite sure to remove the disease and prevent an
abscess. It is best to use it even much later. In fact it often succeeds
as late as the fifth or sixth day, and if it does not prevent the
abscess, it so far palliates the severe symptoms as to render the pain
but slight and keep the patient comfortable.
An application of the Tincture of Cantharides diluted with water and
applied to the breast by cloths wet in it, to the extent of producing
considerable redness and even eruptions, and the second dilution of the
same taken in drop doses every three hours, has proved successful in
subduing the inflammation after _Phos._ had failed, and it was supposed
an abscess would form in spite of any treatment.
I recently succeeded in giving perfect relief with _Apis Mel._
internally, applying it externally after the pain and swelling was very
great. I am of opinion that the _Apis_ is a valuable remedy.
_After abscess forms_ as soon as the pus can be felt at any point, soft
and fluctuating under the skin, _puncture_ and let it out, then poultice
it for a few days until it heals, giving _Phosphorus_ and applying it to
the sore. In _puncturing_, always be _very particular_ to have the
lancet or knife enter so that the edge will look towards the point of
the nipple, so as not to cut _across_ the milk ducts, which all run
toward that point, and if cut off will close up so that the milk which
may be secreted at any future time cannot get out, and swelling, pain
and severe inflammation, abscess and ulceration will be the consequence;
whereas, if the cut is made lengthwise of the ducts, very few, if any
will be cut off, and all future danger will be avoided. Apply an elm
poultice from the beginning to the end of treatment. For malignant
ulcers of the breasts, the _Cornus Sericea_ is a most potent remedy. It
is to be taken internally at the first dilution, and applied in strong
infusion or diluted _Tr._ of the bark to the sore.
Sore Nipples.
This affection of nursing women frequently comes on before the birth of
the child, but generally does not make its appearance until after the
suckling has continued for a week or more. It seems in some cases to be
connected with the aphthæ (sore mouth) of the child, or at least to be
aggravated by contact with the sore mouth; on the other hand it
sometimes seems as though the sore nipples produced the sore mouth of
the child.
TREATMENT.
I treat both the nipple and the child's mouth with the same remedy
_Eupatorium aro._, applied at the strength of 6 drops of the tincture,
to a teaspoonful of water, the application being made by a soft cloth,
wet and laid over the nipple; give drop doses of the same strength
internally every three hours, which will, in nearly all cases effect a
cure in one or two days. The child's mouth should be wet with the same
each time just before nursing. The oil from the pit of the butter nut,
(Juglan's Cinerea,) obtained by heating the pit and pressing out the
oil, applied to the nipple, will generally cure it after 3 or 4
applications about six hours apart. The child may take hold when the oil
is on, without danger. This remedy is sufficient in nearly all cases.
Leucorrhoea and Prolapsus Uteri--Whites, Female Weakness.
The disease depends in all cases upon _inflammation_ of the uterus, or
vagina, or both.
The inflammation may be simply in the neck of the uterus extending to
the posterior surface of the vagina, or the latter may not be affected;
or it may extend to the whole internal surface of the uterus, producing
swelling of that organ, both the fundus and neck.
The swelling may be confined mostly to the fundus, causing it to be too
large for the space it ordinarily fills, hence there will be more or
less _displacement_ of the womb, and crowding upon other parts, as the
bladder or rectum. In some cases, the swelling is more on one side than
on the other, so that it will be crowded over to the opposite side.
These displacements are often called _prolapsus uteri_, or "_falling of
the womb_," carrying the idea that the difficulty depends upon a morbid
relaxation of the ligaments that support the organ. Not one case in a
hundred is of this latter character, but nearly, if not all, depend upon
the inflammation and swelling above mentioned. How futile then, not to
say _hurtful_, must be all instruments for, and all attempts at
replacing and supporting it by _force_! All such mechanical meddling is
injurious, and should, with all the "supporters," be condemned and
discarded.
They may afford temporary relief, but this is at the expense of future
health. Cure the disease, relieve the inflammation, and nature will
replace the organ. Leucorrhoea is always present where there is
ulceration of the neck of the womb, and this ulcerated condition exists
to a greater or less extent, in many cases where it is not suspected by
the patient. It is vastly more prevalent than is generally supposed. The
_symptoms_ are numerous. Among the more prominent are a sense of weight
and bearing down in the pelvis, pains extending down the limbs, aching
and weakness of the small of the back, headache, more or less gastric
disturbance, dyspepsia, the food souring on the stomach. There is often,
especially when there are ulcers on the parts, a distressing sense of
heat or a smarting sensation. The menstrual function is frequently
deranged, the bowels costive, the urethra, by being pressed, becomes
irritable and burns and smarts whenever the urine is evacuated. The
sleep is disturbed and unrefreshing, and the whole nervous system is
unstrung.
The discharge from the diseased surfaces, in an ordinary case without
ulceration, is of a mucous or muco-purulent character, not unlike an
ordinary catarrhal secretion. When ulceration exists it is dark, fetid
or bloody, or sanious and purulent, sometimes it is acrid, excoriating
the parts.
TREATMENT.
Inflammation or ulceration, either acute or chronic, in these parts does
not differ essentially in its characteristics from the same affection in
other mucous surfaces.
The proper treatment for a catarrh of other mucous surfaces will be
applicable to these, though there is no doubt but that some medicines
are more specifically adapted to these than to other organs.
In the early stage of the complaint, while the inflammation is acute, or
sub-acute, the discharge thin or white, _Copaiva_ and _Macrotin_ are to
be given once in 6 hours alternately. During the same time let
injections into the vagina of warm soap and water be used twice a day,
to cleanse the parts of the secretion, followed in half an hour by a
wash of warm water, into which _tr. of Macrotys_ has been put in
proportion of 40 drops to half a pint. The application should be made
with an 8 ounce or at least 6 ounce curved pipe syringe, so as to throw
it with considerable force. If there is a burning sensation, use the
washes quite warm, until the heat of the parts is allayed. Avoid the use
of _cold_ injections as long as any inflammation exists. If the bearing
down is present with burning in the parts, _Bell._ is to be used in
rotation with the two former remedies. If the sensation is that of
smarting, _Cantharis_ is to be used in place of Bell.
Where the disease comes on soon after child-birth, _Podophyllin is the
Specific_. It is to be given at the first attenuation three times daily
in half gr. doses of the trituration. In this case let the parts be
freely washed daily with a solution of borax, quite warm. In the
_chronic_ form of the disease, especially where _barrenness_ exists,
_Macrotin_, _Podophyllin_ and _Hydrastin_, given morning, noon and
night, in the order named, will, in nearly all cases, afford relief.
For females who have never borne children, give _Phos. acid_, 2d and
_Eryrgium Aquaticum_ 1, night and morning for a week, and then give them
at the 3d dilution until the symptoms subside. If there are headache and
derangement of the stomach, _Macrotin_ and _Podophyllin_ should be
used, each once a day, between the latter remedies. When the discharge
is colored and the pains darting, cutting or smarting, indicating
ulceration, or if ulceration is discovered by examination, use
_Macrotin_ and _Hydrastin_ internally, injecting the latter upon the
affected parts freely. The ulcerated surfaces should be well washed off
every day with soap and water, or a solution of borax, and the medicine
(_Hydrastin_) in form of infusion, used half an hour after the other
wash. If the neck of the womb looks dark, and is ulcerated, or is hard
and painful to the touch, especially on probing the cavity, _Cornus
Sericea_ must be used both as a wash to the parts, and at the first
dilution internally, using them twice a day. This remedy will often cure
malignant cases.
It takes a long time in some instances to cure a chronic case, but if
persevered in, these remedies will not be likely to fail.[2]
[2] NOTE.--The late Prof. Morrow was remarkably successful, and became
justly celebrated for curing hard cases of Leucorrhoea ulceration and
"Prolapsus uteri."
Almost his entire reliance in their treatment were the _Macrotys_ and
_Caulophyllum_, given internally and by injection upon the parts. He
gave the Macrotys in the form of tincture every day to the extent of
producing specific head symptoms when he discontinued it till the next
day, using the Caulophyllum in the meantime in small doses. He rarely if
ever failed.
Morning Sickness of Pregnant Females.
The most efficient and certain remedy for this symptom is _Macrotin_. It
should be taken at the first attenuation, a dose before rising in the
morning, and one every six hours during the day, as long as the sickness
is troublesome. It will generally relieve in a few days. If the stomach
is sour use _Pulsatilla_ with the _Macrotin_.
As a _preparation for labor_, a dose (one grain) of _Macrotin_ at the
first attenuation given in the morning, and the same of _Caulophyllin_
at evening, is of great service.
Whatever others may think or say in relation to any preparatory
treatment for labor, I have reason to know as well as anything in
medicine be known, that patients treated as here directed, pass through
labor much quicker, frequently in one-fourth the usual time. Their
sufferings are comparatively trifling, and the length of time for
recovery to ordinary health after labor is abridged from three-fourths
to nine-tenths that of former labors. I am quite confident that the
medicines produced this difference.
For _irregularity of labor pains_, and for distressing _after pains_,
the _Caulophyllin_ is specific.
During labor it should be given at the 2d attentuation in about half
grain doses, every half hour, until the pains are regular. Two or three
doses at most, and generally one will suffice.
For the after pains it may be given in alternation with _Ipecac_ or
_Aconite_ if there is flooding, or with _Pulsatilla_ when the flooding
is not troublesome, a dose once in half an hour, until the pains are
checked.
For _Rigidity_ of the soft parts and severe, _retarded and long
protracted labor_, where the pains are strong and irregular, and great
pain and exhaustion is experienced on account of the unyielding
condition of the parts, _Lobelia Inflata_ given in drop doses of the tr.
in water, once in twenty minutes, in alternation with _Caulophyllin_ as
above directed, will in a short time produce the proper condition of the
parts, while they render the pains stronger, regular and progressive.
In urgent cases I have given the medicines every 5 or 10 minutes, with
decided benefit.
A Useful Hint to Mothers.
Children push beans, peas, corn, &c., into the nose and ear, causing
much alarm. To remove such a body take a syringe that works tightly, put
the end of the pipe against the bean, shot, or other substance, draw
back the piston so as to _suck_ up the article firmly as the pipe is
withdrawn from the cavity.
LOCAL APPLICATIONS.
That medicines act locally, that is, manifest their symptoms by peculiar
derangement or disturbance of some particular part of the system, more
prominently than of any other part, for the time, no one will deny. That
each one has some particular locality or tissue upon which its action is
more perceptible than anywhere else, is equally undeniable, and that the
prominent symptoms are often external and local, is also true. Yet, with
these truths clearly demonstrated, there are those of our school who
discard the external or local application of all remedies except
_Arnica_.
Why this is done, is difficult to determine, unless we can believe that
such physicians suppose it to be _heresy_ to make use of any remedy in a
different manner from what was recommended by the "Father of
Homoeopathy," and abjure all possibility of _improvement_ in our
practice.
That nearly if not all medicines, may be applied externally with
advantage, when there are local manifestations similar to those produced
by the drugs, there can be no doubt in the mind of any sensible man.
That they will act favorably when so used is _reasonable_, as a matter
of theory, and that they do, as a matter of fact, has been _proven_ to
my mind, by abundant experience in their use. Therefore, I hesitate not
to recommend the practice to others. Medicines must act either by
combination with the affected part, or by _Catalysis_, changing the
molecular action of the living tissues. In either case, they must come
directly in contact with the part to be affected. This _must_ be done
through the circulation, when taken internally, or it _may_ be done by
direct application of the remedy to the diseased tissue, when that is so
situated as to be reached. The difference is greatly in favor of the
latter mode when that is practicable, from the greater certainty of its
results. This assertion is based, not upon vague hypothesis, but upon
_actual practice_.
Entertaining these views, however heretical they may be pronounced, I
shall proceed to mention some of the remedies I have learned to use
thus, and the cases for which they are prescribed. I would remark that,
in selecting a remedy, it must be done with as much certainty of its
homoeopathic relation to the local or general symptoms for external as
for internal use. I have found, however, that much lower attenuations
are requisite and admissible.
ARNICA is highly applicable to _bruises_, and is valuable also when
applied to lacerated or mangled surfaces, to the surface of the limb
where a bone is fractured, also about the joint when it has been
dislocated. It is to be used in the form of _Arnicated water_, by
putting one or two drops to a gill of water for application where the
skin is ruptured or the surface raw, and ten to twenty drops to the
gill, upon parts where the skin is sound. It is useful also, for
_boils_, and _carbuncles_ in the _early stage_, the _strong tincture_ to
be applied when the surface is sound, and (to boils) when the surface is
open, one drop to a gill of water.
Aconite
Is applicable to inflamed eyes, in the early stage, where the disease is
in the conjunctiva, (that portion which lines the lids and covers the
front of the ball), especially if there is a sense of scratching, as
though some foreign substance is in the eye, great intolerance of light,
chilly sensations, with more or less fever, and quick pulse. Put three
or four drops to a gill of warm water, and apply it freely.
It is also very valuable for _Neuralgia_, applied strong and warm, along
the course, or at the origin of the affected nerve. In neuralgia of the
face, apply it upon the side of the face, also just behind and below the
ear of the affected side.
It is of much value as a remedy for neuralgic affections of the womb. I
have relieved the most distressing symptoms of neuralgia of the womb, in
a few minutes, by injecting warm water containing twenty to forty drops
of _tr. Aconite_ to the pint. By repeating this application at every
paroxysm, patients recover rapidly, each succeeding attack being
lighter, and the interval between being longer, until they cease
entirely. It may be used with much benefit in the same manner, for
_Hysteritis_, as well as recent cases of _Leucorrhoea_. It is the most
valuable remedy applied to the _Eye_ for a _wound_ of that organ.
In _Gonorrhoea_, it is more valuable as a local remedy, than most of
those now in use. It will frequently cure alone. In this case, it is to
be used with an equal part of the _tr_. and warm water.
Belladonna
has great power as a local remedy in _Erysipelas_, to be applied with
water in proportion of ten drops of the _tr._ to a gill of warm water.
It is also of much value applied to the surface of inflamed breasts;
also injected when there is inflammation of the _uterus_, with pressing
pains as though the bowels would be pressed out. _Very valuable_ in
parturition where there is rigidity of the _os uteri_, with fullness of
the head and throbbing of the temples. It has the specific power to
relax circular fibres without affecting the longitudinal.
Calendula,
is applied to wounds, _incised_ and _lacerated_, promoting healing by
the first intention. It is a valuable application for wounds in
scrofulous persons, which tend to suppurate rather than heal by the
first intention. It is also useful in old sores.
The _Calendula Cerate_ is one of the best of dressings for any abraded
surface.
Conium
is valuable as a _palliative_ upon cancerous tumors. As a _curative
remedy_ it is useful in chronic ophthalmia, especially the purulent of
children; useful also for _indurated_ swellings.
Thuya
is a specific when locally used for _Sycosis_, also for fungoid
cancerous tumors. I have cured well-marked cases of _Fungus Hæmatodes_
with the tinct. Thuya applied to the surface of the tumor.
The _Thuja Cerate_ is a valuable application for malignant ulcers.
Cornus Sericea
will often cure malignant ulcers both of the breast and uterus, used as
a wash.
Arsenicum
acts favorably on cancers, and is a specific when applied to the surface
of _carbuncle_.
Ipecac
acts very beneficially when applied to the surface where there is high
fever, with nausea and vomiting. Half an ounce of _tr._ Ipecac to two
quarts of tepid water, applied with a sponge to the whole surface, acts
like magic in yellow fever, allaying the nausea, producing free and
health-restoring perspiration.
Rhus Tox,
applied, with water at the strength of thirty drops of the _tr._ to a
gill, to parts affected with _Rheumatism_, acts very beneficially. It is
also a most valuable application at half the above strength upon parts
affected with Erysipelas, when the surface is swollen, and there are
vessicles filled with fluid like a blister in burns.
It is also useful for sores that exist as the chronic effects of burns
when the proper treatment had not been used in the beginning, and the
healing process was never perfected.
_Rhus Cerate_ is a very useful application to irritable ulcers.
Hepar Sulphur
is a specific for _Itch and Scald Head,_ applied in form of a wash with
twenty to thirty drops of _tr. Hepar Sul._ to a gill of water. Also for
ill-conditioned scrofulous ulcers, generally.
Cuprum Aceticum.
(_Acetate of Copper Verdigris_) applied to _Cancerous_ ulcers of the
face, _Lupus_ or _Noli-me-tangere_, in the early stage, will in most
cases effect a perfect cure, especially if for a week previously the
part has been wet daily with _tr. Thuja_. The best mode of applying the
_acetate_ is to mix the impalpable powder, as prepared for paint, with
some substance to form a cerate, as equal parts of bees-wax and mutton
suet, with 1-50 to 1-100 part of the pure _acetate_ as found in the
bottom of the can, when prepared in oil for paint; heat all together and
stir until cool. This forms a good plaster for covering and shielding
the sore while its medicinal property is in the _Cuprum Aceticum_
diluted as above. It is quite useful for any ill conditioned ulcer.
Acetic Acid
is a most efficient remedy applied to old irritable _varicose ulcers_ on
the limbs of females who have suffered from _Phlegmasia Dolens_, (milk
leg.)
It may be applied as a wash to the part once or twice a day at the
strength of 1-20th of the acid with water, or in the form of good cider
vinegar.
The manufactured vinegar of the cities does _not_ usually contain acetic
acid.
ARUM TRIPHYLLUM is a specific to allay the inflammation and excessive
pain in _scrofulous swellings_ of the neck, (_Kings Evil_.) The pure
drug in powder, wet with warm water, or the green root bruised so as to
form a poultice, is to be applied over the swelling. It soon discusses
the swelling, or if pus has already formed, allays the the pain, and
brings the pus to the surface, and if continued, disposes it to heal
rapidly.
BAPTISIA TINCTORIA applied as a poultice either in the powdered drug, or
with some other substance wet with the infusion or _tr._, _arrests
gangrene_ in a short time. It is especially useful for threatened or
actual gangrene arising from _lacerated_ wounds or scalds with wounds,
as in accidents connected with the explosion of steam boilers; when we
often have scalds and lacerations in the same wound.
HYDRASTUS CANADENSIS used as a gargler in a putrid state of the throat
in malignant _Scarlet fever_, arrests the destructive process _at once_.
It is also a most excellent application for inflamed eyes in the second
or sub-acute stage.
PROPHYLACTICS.
(_Preventives of Disease._)
TO PREVENT SCARLET FEVER
Give Belladonna at the 3d attenuation, three to six pellets, according
to the age of the child, every morning, during the prevalence of the
epidemic. This is for the common or mild form of the disease. If the
prevailing epidemic is of the _malignant_ kind, producing fatal
ulcerations of the throat, give _Bell._ once in two days and _Mercurius
Corrosivus_ at the 3d attenuation on the alternate day.
While _Bell._ is a very certain preventive of the common eruptive
Scarlatina, it is not as certain to prevent the _malignant_ form. Though
it renders the latter much more mild, the _Merc. Cor._ is necessary to
ward it off entirely, or so modify as to divest it of the dangerous
features.
TO PREVENT YELLOW FEVER
Take _Aconite_, _Belladonna_ and _Macrotin_, 1st in rotation one dose a
day. If there is any headache, or pains occur in other parts of the
body, or a languid feeling, take a dose twice or three times a day in
rotation.
TO PREVENT BILIOUS FEVER OR AGUE
Take _Podophyllin_, _Baptisia_ and _Gelseminum_ 1st in rotation, one
dose at night, and if symptoms of fever, as headache and loss of
appetite, or bad taste in the mouth in the morning appear, take a dose
three times a day, and refrain entirely from food for one or two days.
TO PREVENT TYPHOID FEVER
When exposed, as in nursing the sick, take _Baptisia_ 2d, and _Macrotin_
2d, a dose three times a day.
TO PREVENT SMALL-POX
Use _Macrotin_ 1st night and morning, and if nursing or exposed
frequently, use it every four hours.
TO PREVENT CHOLERA.
_Camphor_ (_pellets medicated_ with the pure tincture) _Veratrum_ 3d,
and _Arsenicum_ 3d, should be taken in rotation--a dose morning, noon
and night, in the order named; so as to take a dose of each every
twenty-four hours. If any sense of weakness or trembling comes on, use
the _Camphor_ oftener; if pain or uneasiness in the bowels threatening
diarrhoea, use the _Veratrum_, and for increased thirst with
uneasiness at the stomach _Arsenicum_ more frequently.
TO PREVENT DIARRHOEA
Where it is prevailing as an _epidemic_, _Ipecac_ at night, and
_Veratrum_ in the morning will often _suffice_. For _teething children_
give _Ipecac_ and _Chamomilla_ in the same manner.
TO PREVENT DYSENTERY
In hot weather when bilious diseases prevail, use _Mercurius_ 3d,
_Podophyllin_ 2d, and _Leptandrin_ 1st in rotation, giving one dose a
day.
In the winter, or when _Typhoid fevers_ prevail, use _Mercurius_ and
_Rhus_ tox. alternately a dose every day.
TO PREVENT ITCH.
A dose of _Sulphur_, or rubbing a little flour of sulphur on the hands,
will generally suffice.
TO PREVENT COLDS
Keep the _arms_, _hands_ and _chest_ well clothed and warm.
_Affecting_ the _head_ as _catarrh_, or the pelvic regions keep the
_feet and ankles warm and dry_. Affecting joints and muscles as
Rheumatism--protect the _Spine_ (back) from colds and currents of air.
After an accidental exposure as by getting the feet wet, or being caught
in a shower, drink _bountifully_ of cold water, and take a dose of
_Nux_; followed in an hour by _Aconite_, if any chilliness is felt, or
_Copaiva_ if the head is "stuffed up."
In winter and spring when the weather is mild, but there is snow, or the
ground is damp, more clothes are necessary than when it is freezing hard
and the air is dry.
PREPARATION OF MEDICINE.
As it often becomes necessary for the practitioner to make more or less
of his own dilutions and attenuations, some brief instructions
especially to new beginners, may not come amiss.
Medicine is prepared by mixing it with distilled water, or purified 98
per cent. Alcohol; or if solid and dry, by reducing it to powder and
triturating (rubbing) it in a mortar with pure sugar or Sugar of Milk.
The liquid is called _dilution_, the powder _trituration_. The
attenuations are mostly made at the decimal (1-10,) or centecimal
(1-100) ratio and numbered 1, 2, 3, &c., by putting ten drops of the
liquid with ninety drops of Alcohol, or ten grains of the powder with
ninety grains of Sugar for the 1st, and ten grains or drops of the 1st
with ninety more of Alcohol or Sugar, as the case may be, for the 2nd,
and so on to any desirable extent.
If the centecimal attenuation is adopted, one grain or drop is used
instead of ten, as in the decimal.
I prefer the decimal to the centecimal ratio. Not that there can
possibly be any difference in the action of the medicines, at the same
attenuation, whether it was brought to that state through a series of
1-10, or 1-100; the 3d at the 1-100 ratio of dilution being _precisely
the same_ as the 6th at 1-10. My preference for the decimal ratio is
based upon the greater convenience and accuracy of measuring larger
quantities.
_Accuracy_ is very desirable, but the practice of _guessing_ at the
amount as pursued by some, is anything but accurate. When one makes his
dilutions by putting the fluid into a vial and "_pouring it all out_,"
_guessing_ that he has a _drop_ left which is to medicate the
ninety-nine drops of Alcohol or water, he may put in by guess, I am
inclined to _guess_ that he knows nothing, _accurately_ as to what
dilution he is making. (See Hull's Laura, introduction, also Jahr &
Possart's Pharmacopoeia and Posology.) For if the vial is small and
quite smooth there may not be a drop left, or if it is rough, there may
be several drops.
Yet some physicians make their dilutions thus, and insist upon the
superiority of the centecimal over the decimal attenuations.
Whatever ratio is adopted, should be _accurately_ followed. Have true
scales for weighing solids, and a graduated measure marked from ten
drops up to one hundred for liquids; then _always_ weigh or measure
_accurately_ the medicine, as well as the substance with which it is to
be attenuated.
The measure and mortar, after using them for one medicine, can be
cleaned preparatory for another, with scalding water, rinsing them with
purified Alcohol, then drying.
Never smoke or chew Tobacco in any place, but if you are such a _slave_
to habit, that you must do it despite your good sense and better
judgment, never do either, or have tobacco or any other odoriferous
substance about your person when you are preparing medicines, or they
are exposed to the air. Keep the medicines excluded from the light and
air as far as practicable.
Triturate the powders thoroughly for an hour or more upon each, and
shake the dilution from fifty to one hundred times, more for the higher
attenuations.
It is better to medicate pellets in large bottles, filling them half or
two-thirds full, put in just liquid enough to wet every one, but not so
as to dissolve any. Shake them until all are equally wet, and let them
stand for four or five days, if practicable, shaking them up two or
three times a day until all are dry.
INDEX.
Administration of Remedies, 11
Ague, 22
Ague, preventive treatment of, 153
Asthma, 57
Aphthæ, 90
Asiatic Cholera, 104
Amenorrhoea, 129
Ague in the breast, 135
Attenuation of medicines, 151
Bathing, 12
Bilious Fever, 26
Preventive treatment of, 153
Bronchitis, 51
Burns and Scalds, 64
Bilious Colic, 19
Brain Fever, 70
Bee stings, 75
Bite of Rattlesnake, 77
Bruises, 95
Cholera Case, 3
Colic, 18
Colic, Bilious, 19
Cholera Morbus, 21
Cholera, Asiatic, 104
Preventive treatment of, 153
Chill Fever, 22
Continued Fever, 28
Catarrhal Fever, 28
Cough, 52
Colds, 57
Colds, Preventive treatment of, 154
Croup, 55
Constipation, 62
Chilblains, 69
Convulsions of Children, 72
Crusta Lactea, 122
Carbuncle, 122
Diarrhoea, 14
Preventive treatment of, 154
Dysentery, 16
Preventive treatment of, 154
Diet, Rules for, 13
Dyspepsia, 58
Diseases of Females, 129
Dysmenorrhoea, 131
Enteritis, 53
Erysipelas, 62
Epistaxis, 81
Earache, 84
Foreign Substances in the Ear or Nose, 144
Fevers, 22
Intermittent, 22
Chill, 22
Fits of Children, 72
Felon, 126
Flowing, 132
Female weakness, 198
Gastritis, 54
Hooping Cough, 58
Heartburn, 62
Hoarseness, 70
Headache, 78
Sick, 80
Introduction, 5
Intermittent Fever, Ague, 22
Inflammation of the Lungs, 49
Inflammation of the Brain, 70
Inflammation of the Bowels, 53
Inflamed Eyes, 91
Incontinence of Urine, 117
Involuntary urination (nightly), 117
Itch, 120
Itch, preventive treatment of, 154
Inflamed Breast, 135
Inflammation of the Uterus, 140
Jaundice, 120
Local application of Remedies, 145
Leucorrhoea, 138
Mammary Abscess, 135
Menorrhagia, 132
Measles, 73
Mumps, 74
Morning sickness of pregnant females, 143
Nursing Sore-mouth, 133
Nosebleed, 81
Neuralgia, 118
Nightly urination of Children, 117
Otalgia, 84
Ophthalmia, 91
Preparation of medicine, 155
Pleurisy, 48
Prolapsus Uteri, 138
Pneumonia, 49
Piles, 97
Painful urination, 117
Painful menstruation, 131
Profuse menstruation, 132
Preventives of Disease, 151
Quinsy, 53
Rheumatism, 30
Rheumatic Fever, 29
Remitting Fever, 27
Rattlesnake bite, 77
Scarlet Fever, 35
Preventive treatment of, 151
Sore Throat, 52
Scalds, 64
Stings of Insects, 75
Sick Headache, 79
Sore-mouth of Children, 90
Sea Sickness, 103
Small-Pox, 110
Preventive treatment of, 153
Scald Head, 122
Suppression of the menses, 129
Sore Nipples, 139
Table of Remedies, 3
Traveler's Case, 3
Typhoid Fever, 31
Tonsillitis, 53
Toothache, 86
Teething of children, 88
Thrush, 90
Ulceration of the Uterus, 140
Urination painful, 117
Urination, Involuntary, 110
Variola, 117
Varioloid, 117
Worms, 82
Wounds, 93
Whitlow, 126
Yellow Fever, 38
Preventive treatment of, 153
APPENDIX
ON THE USE OF GELSEMINUM SEMP. IN FEVERS. BY J. S. DOUGLAS, A. M., M.
D., Prof. of Mat. Med. and Special Pathology, in the Western
Homoepathic College, Cleveland; author of "Treatment of
Intermittents," &c.
Such has been the general result of the treatment of the fevers of this
country, that most Homoeopathic physicians deny the possibility of
_breaking up_ a fever when once established.
Those who labor under this impression, will be soon convinced of the
error by properly employing the _Gelseminum semper virens_, or yellow
Jasmine. Having proved this drug repeatedly on myself and seven or eight
others, it was impossible to avoid the conviction that it would be
homoeopathic to the ordinary fevers of this country.
The pathogenetic symptoms, almost uniformly experienced, are the
following, the dose being from one to five drops:
Within a few minutes, sometimes within two or three, a marked depression
of pulse, which becomes 10, 15 or 20 beats less in the minute, if quiet,
but greatly disturbed by movement. Chilliness, especially along the
back, pressive pain of the head, most generally of the temples,
sometimes in the occiput, at others, over the head. The chilliness is
soon followed by a glow of heat and prickling of the skin, and quickly
succeeded by perspiration which is sometimes profuse and disposed to be
persistent, continuing from twelve to twenty-four hours. As soon as the
re-action takes place after the chill, the pulse rises as much above the
normal standard, as it was before depressed below it. With these
symptoms is a puffy, swollen look and feeling of the eye-lids, slimy and
disagreeable or bitter taste in the mouth, languid feeling of the back
and limbs, and sleepiness.
As example affords the best illustration, we will give one to illustrate
the usual action of this drug in fevers:
P. W., aged 21, sanguine temperament, had been complaining of languor,
and want of appetite for three weeks. For a week has been unable to
attend to business. Took a cathartic, and was, of course, worse. For the
last thirty-six hours had been seriously sick. June 30, 1858, had the
following symptoms: Pulse rather full, but weak and vascillating, about
100 per minute. Tongue red and dry; hands tremulous when extending them;
tongue trembles when protruded; the mind wanders; he reaches after
imaginary objects; lips dry and parched; he is uneasy, restless. Now
this, all will recognize as a case which had been long in coming on,
and was fairly established, and was not likely to be _broken up_ by
ordinary means. He took one drop of _Gelseminum tincture_ to be repeated
every hour, if needed. The next morning he reported that he had been in
a perspiration ever since fifteen minutes after taking the first dose,
had slept quietly during the night, the tongue and lips were moist, mind
clear, pulse 80, and steady. The next day I found him dressed and down
stairs, with good appetite and free from disease. I could give sixty
cases of equally prompt results from this precious drug, in fevers which
make their attack rather suddenly, whether from cold or otherwise, and
attended with chilliness, pain in the limbs, head and back, variously
disordered taste of the mouth, with great restlessness. The almost
uniform effect, in these cases is, a cessation of the chills, within
from two to five minutes, quickly followed by a glow of heat and
prickling of the surface; and within from five to twenty minutes,
perspiration with progressive abatement of all the pains and
restlessness. The patient falls asleep, and after a longer or shorter
time, wakes with a consciousness that his disease is _broken up_--and
this proves to be the truth. Like all other drugs, the dose must be
various, generally one drop repeated every half hour, till the desired
effect is produced repeated afterwards as occasion may require.
In simple cases of fever, I regard it as _the_ remedy, not only, but
_the only_ remedy required. There are, of course, many cases of fever,
with local complications, as inflammation of the liver, &c., &c., where
other remedies will be necessary. Half a drop, or even a quarter, is
often sufficient. The largest I have yet given is five drops, and this
in only one case.
Several Homoeopathic physicians to whom I have recommended it, have
made equally favorable reports of it.
My experience has been, that not a few of our Western fevers, especially
if neglected beyond the incipient stages, are accompanied by such
gastric and bilious disorder, as to require _Mercurius_, _China_, or
_Podophyllin_, after the general febrile symptoms are removed by _Gels._
But at an early stage, the _Gels._ alone will prevent the development of
these complications.
The drug seems to me to act specifically and energetically, not only
upon the circulatory system, but equally so upon the nervous system,
allaying nervous irritability more effectually in fevers, than _Coff._,
_Cham._, _Bell._, _Nux_, or any other drug we possess. As it acts very
quickly, the first dose may be soon repeated and increased, if no effect
is observed.
+---------------------------------------------------------------+
|Transcriber's note: |
| |
|Inconsistent punctuation in headings in this book are as in the|
|original. |
| |
+---------------------------------------------------------------+ | 38,806 | common-pile/project_gutenberg_filtered | 25692 | project gutenberg | project_gutenberg-dolma-0003.json.gz:946 | https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25692.txt.utf-8 |
m-yZLqonsKU61C2G | 22.1: Introduction | 22.1: Introduction
Ecological Succession of Bacteria in Milk
The communities within ecosystems develop over time, from very simple species assemblages, to complex, rich ecosystems. In this process, called succession, each succeeding species facilitates changes in environment which allow new species to come into the ecosystem. As the community becomes more and more complex, the biodiversity of the ecosystem also increases. Both biotic and abiotic processes can reset the succession process. That is, events cause by both the community itself, and outside events can return the community to an earlier succession state. The gradual changes in the community are both orderly and predictable in many ecosystems. The peak or most complex, advanced community that can develop in any abiotic environment is called the climax community. The picture below describes the developing communities as a series of steps, each of which can be driven against the succession process by disturbances:
QUESTION
- What types of events could “reset” a succession process? Name at least one biotic and one abiotic disturbance.
One example of a severe disturbance, reducing the land to bare ground, is the passage of a glacier. Though glaciers have not covered this part of North America for ten thousand years, there are parts of the continent that are even now becoming uncovered by receding glaciers. One area is the pacific northwest. From Juneau to Glacier Bay, many glaciers which have previously fallen directly into the ocean are now leaving bare soil which has not been exposed for more than fifty thousand years. Because the glaciers retreat very slowly, we can watch communities change across time in a single snap shot. Take the glaciers of Glacier Bay National Park, midway between Juneau and Anchorage, Alaska. The glaciers there have been retreating since the explorer Vancouver’s first expedition in 1794. Since then, the retreat has covered over 100 km, including new coastline, meadows and mountains:
QUESTION
- Explain how this retreat will result in different communities along the glacier’s retreat, though in similar environments. Hint: what is the difference between exposed soil at point A and point B.
As the glacier retreats, it leaves nutrient poor soil which can only support simple plants such as liverworts, lichens, and other primitive plants. As they photosynthesize and die, we see them enter the decomposer pathway and increase the quality of the soil for later plants. However, this slow glacier retreat is a unique situation. To set up an experiment to test our understanding of succession would require hundreds of years, longer than a scientists lifetime. However, some organisms and communities proceed at a much faster rate, within your own refrigerators. The process of milk decomposition from a community of bacteria can test the same processes and theories in a much more reasonable time frame. This substitution of a simpler and faster community for experimental purposes is called a ‘model’ system.
LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS
CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL
- Community Ecology Lab. Authored by : Dr. William Edwards. Provided by : Niagara University. Located at : Niagara.ed [www.niagara.edu] . License : CC BY: Attribution
CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY
- Biology 102 Labs. Authored by : Lynette Hauser & Dr. James Holden. Provided by : Tidewater Community Colleg. Located at : [www.tcc.edu] . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright | 708 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://bio.libretexts.org/Courses/Evergreen_Valley_College/BIO_Majors_4A_4B_Lab_Manual_2023/22%3A_Microscopy_Part_III/22.01%3A_Introduction | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:50928 | https://bio.libretexts.org/Courses/Evergreen_Valley_College/BIO_Majors_4A_4B_Lab_Manual_2023/22%3A_Microscopy_Part_III/22.01%3A_Introduction |
CRd_Z2n4jx1MFBAT | Anatomy and Physiology I MSK at Cambrian College | 2.6 Fibrous Joints
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Describe the structural features of fibrous joints
- Distinguish between a suture, syndesmosis, and gomphosis
- Give an example of each type of fibrous joint
At a fibrous joint, the adjacent bones are directly connected to each other by fibrous connective tissue, and thus the bones do not have a joint cavity between them (Figure 2.18). The gap between the bones may be narrow or wide. There are three types of fibrous joints. A suture is the narrow fibrous joint found between most bones of the skull. At a syndesmosis joint, the bones are more widely separated but are held together by a narrow band of fibrous connective tissue called a ligament or a wide sheet of connective tissue called an interosseous membrane. This type of fibrous joint is found between the shaft regions of the long bones in the forearm and in the leg. Lastly, a gomphosis is the narrow fibrous joint between the roots of a tooth and the bony socket in the jaw into which the tooth fits.
Suture
All the bones of the skull, except for the mandible, are joined to each other by a fibrous joint called a suture. The fibrous connective tissue found at a suture (“to bind or sew”) strongly unites the adjacent skull bones and thus helps to protect the brain and form the face. In adults, the skull bones are closely opposed and fibrous connective tissue fills the narrow gap between the bones. The suture is frequently convoluted, forming a tight union that prevents most movement between the bones. (Figure 2.18a.) Thus, skull sutures are functionally classified as a synarthrosis, although some sutures may allow for slight movements between the cranial bones.
Syndesmosis
A syndesmosis (“fastened with a band”) is a type of fibrous joint in which two parallel bones are united to each other by fibrous connective tissue. The gap between the bones may be narrow, with the bones joined by ligaments, or the gap may be wide and filled in by a broad sheet of connective tissue called an interosseous membrane.
In the forearm, the wide gap between the shaft portions of the radius and ulna bones are strongly united by an interosseous membrane (Figure 2.18b). Similarly, in the leg, the shafts of the tibia and fibula are also united by an interosseous membrane. In addition, at the distal tibiofibular joint, the articulating surfaces of the bones lack cartilage and the narrow gap between the bones is anchored by fibrous connective tissue and ligaments on both the anterior and posterior aspects of the joint. Together, the interosseous membrane and these ligaments form the tibiofibular syndesmosis.
The syndesmoses found in the forearm and leg serve to unite parallel bones and prevent their separation. However, a syndesmosis does not prevent all movement between the bones, and thus this type of fibrous joint is functionally classified as an amphiarthrosis. In the leg, the syndesmosis between the tibia and fibula strongly unites the bones, allows for little movement, and firmly locks the talus bone in place between the tibia and fibula at the ankle joint. This provides strength and stability to the leg and ankle, which are important during weight bearing. In the forearm, the interosseous membrane is flexible enough to allow for rotation of the radius bone during forearm movements. Thus in contrast to the stability provided by the tibiofibular syndesmosis, the flexibility of the antebrachial interosseous membrane allows for the much greater mobility of the forearm.
The interosseous membranes of the leg and forearm also provide areas for muscle attachment.
Gomphosis
A gomphosis (“fastened with bolts”) is the specialized fibrous joint that anchors the root of a tooth into its bony socket within the maxillary bone (upper jaw) or mandible bone (lower jaw) of the skull (Figure 2.18c). Due to the immobility of a gomphosis, this type of joint is functionally classified as a synarthrosis. | 859 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/cambriananatomyphys2e1msk/chapter/2-6/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:38879 | https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/cambriananatomyphys2e1msk/chapter/2-6/ |
lCyd74sKz5Eqcmbq | 9.6: Specialized Library Databases- Videos, Ebooks, and More! | 9.6: Specialized Library Databases- Videos, Ebooks, and More!
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yC7g9iikUZ7Ql5oo | The warblers of North America / by Frank M. Chapman, with the coöperation of other ornithologists. | AMERICA. Revised Edition.
With Keys to the Species, Descriptions of their Plumages, Nests, etc., and their Distribution and Migrations. With over 200 Illustrations. Also in Cloth, $3.75 net. POCKET EDITION, with flexible covers, $4.25. net.
BIRD STUDIES WITH A CAMERA, with introductory Chapters on the Outfit and Methods of the Bird Photographer. Illustrated with over 100 Photographs from Nature by the Author. Cloth, $2.00 net.
THE WARBLERS OF NORTH AMERICA.
With Contributions from other Ornithologists and 24 full-page Colored Plates illustrating every species, from Drawings by L. A. Fuertes and B. Horsfall, and Half-tones of Nests and Eggs. Cloth, $3.25 net; postage, 20 cents additional.
PREFACE
THE WARBLERS have been described as "our most beautiful, most abundant, and least known birds." The knowledge that at certain seasons our woods, and even the trees of our larger city parks are thronged with an innumerable host of birds, the brilliancy of whose plumage rivals that of many tropical species, comes to the bird student with the force of a surprising discovery. One never forgets one's first Warbler !
Highly migratory, the extended journeys of Warblers are nevertheless performed with a regularity which makes their appearance in the spring a fixed calendar event. The very essence of the season is in their flitting forms and lisping voices ; without them May would seem a dreary month and the migration of birds lose half its charm.
But these dainty, fascinating sprites of the tree-tops are elusive. Years of observation may be required to add to one's list of field acquaintances the last of the thirty-odd species which, in eastern North America, may be found at a single locality.
In this quest the field-glass student is handicapped. The small size of Warblers, their activity, the nature of their haunts, their rapid journeys, marked seasonal changes in plumage, and the general resemblance in the song of many species all tend to render recognition in life unusually difficult. This book has, therefore, been prepared with the cooperation of other ornithologists, to meet the demand for a fully illustrated work which will serve as an aid to the field identification of Warblers and to the study of their life-histories.
Genus n. GEOTHLYPIS 251
46. Geothlypis trichas trichas, Maryland Yellow-throat. . 251 46a. ignota, Florida Yellow-throat. . . 257 46b. occidentalis, Western Yellow-throat. 259 460. arisela, Pacific Yellow-throat. . . 260 46d. sinuosa, Salt Marsh Yellow-throat. . 261
PLAN OF THE WORK
The plan on which this work was projected was outlined in 'Bird-Lore' for April, 1903 (pp. 61-63). Responding to frequent and continued requests for a book treating especially of Warblers, the writer, as editor of that magazine, asked ornithologists to assist in the preparation of the proposed volume by contributing the results of their observations of the habits of Warblers, and added :
"Continued study of our birds emphasizes the absolute necessity of many observers if we are to have anything approaching adequate biographies of even a single species. Habits should be affirmed or denied only on the basis of abundant data; again, what proves true of a species in one part of its range may be incorrect in another; and we need, therefore, not only many observations from one place, but from many places throughout a bird's range before we can write its life-history with an approach to thoroughness. Cooperation, therefore, is the watchword of the bird study of to-day.
"The truth is, the best of bird biographies tell only the story of the individual rather than the species. Life is too short for a single student to acquire a thorough knowledge of more than a few species of birds, and even then his experience is apt to be limited to a small part of their range. In the writer's opinion, the bird biographies in Bendire's 'Life Histories of North American Birds' are among the best, if not the best of any which have been written. This is not solely because of Major Bendire's wide field experience and powers of observation, but also because he secured the cooperation of ornithologists throughout the country. It was not required that they should be skilled in painting pen pictures of bird-life ; facts, not rhetorical flights, were wanted, and the result is one of the most satisfactory books of reference of its kind.
"There is an object-lesson for us here. In our enthusiastic appreciation of the bird as a creature of rare grace and beauty, the final touch giving life to woods and fields, let us not forget that as bird students we are here more intimately concerned with the birds' habits
than with the part they play as the 'jewels of creation,' when, with no loss of appreciation of the esthetic side of bird-life, we may make our bird biographies a storehouse of exact and detailed observations in regard to a bird's distribution, migrations, its manner of courting, singing, nest-building, incubating, caring for its young, the relation between its structure and habit, etc."
The concluding lines were then expanded into an outline biography representing the manner in which it was desired to treat each species ; and it may at once be confessed that in only a small number of instances have contributions been received which would permit of the treatment proposed. Of observations on migration, numerical abundance, local distribution, and nesting dates, there have been no lack; valuable descriptions of haunts, actions, and, particularly, of song have been sent, but the minute, intimate study revealing the bird's inner life and relation to its surroundings has, in most instances, yet to be made. Such studies result only from definitely directed and prolonged observation, and, in the development of ornithological science in America, we are only just beginning to receive contributions from naturalists who, not content with the mere ability to name the birds of their own locality and describe their habits in a general way, have chosen some particular subject or species for thorough investigation. However, it is believed that the present volume adequately reflects existing knowledge of the North American Mniotiltidae and it is hoped, therefore, may prove a stable foundation on which to build a more complete structure.
At the outset the author disclaims any special knowledge of the members of the family of which this book treats. Circumstances, some of which have been before mentioned, have induced him to undertake its preparation ; and only the generous cooperation of other workers has enabled him to complete the task.
A special effort has been made to acknowledge fully all sources of assistance. Manuscript contributions have been marked as such, while information which has been previously published is, when practicable, given in the words of its author. In this connection intro* ductory and transition remarks and other editorial ear-marks, which become tiresome through frequent repetition and tend to rob the matter quoted of its own distinctive character through the needless interposition of another personality, have been avoided as much as possible. While the result may be a less finished, it is, to our mind, a more effective whole.
It should be added that in the selection of material, other things being equal, preference has been given to articles which have appeared in magazines, and in the publications of scientific societies which are comparatively inaccessible ; while those books which can be more readily purchased have been used only when other sources of information have failed.
A list of the contributors, or co-authors of this volume is given on a succeeding page, but it is desired here to specify the nature of the material they have contributed, as well as to comment in a more or less explanatory way, on the book's contents.
Preliminary Chapters. — The subjective matter herein contained was prepared by the writer with the exception of the article on 'Migration,' which is by W. W. Cooke, and that on 'The Food of Warblers,' which was written by E. H. Forbush.
Descriptions of Plumages, etc. — The description of plumages, with remarks on genera and comments on species are by the writer. They are based on the collection of the American Museum of Natural History and the admirable series of carefully sexed Warblers in the collection of Dr. J. Dwight, Jr., which is deposited in the museum, but thanks are also due Robert Ridgway, Curator of Birds of the United States National Museum, and Dr. C. Hart Merriam, Chief of the Biological Survey, for permission to examine the birds under their charge, as well as to William Brewster and Dr. L. B. Bishop for an opportunity to study the Warblers contained in their private collections. It is a pleasure to acknowledge here, also, the assistance derived from the second volume of Ridgway's 'Birds of North and Middle America' which includes the Warblers, and Dwight's 'The Sequence of Plumages and Moults of the Passerine Birds of New York.'
The measurement of 'Length' here given is taken from study 'skins', first, because a large series of measurements taken in the flesh, of all the species treated, is not available; and, second, because it is believed that the measurement of the length of a properly prepared skin gives a more nearly correct idea of the size of the living bird, than does the measurement of the recently killed, usually relaxed, and more or less stretched specimen.
Range. — The paragraphs on distribution are, in the main, by W. W. Cooke with additions by the author who is responsible for the range given of the various subspecies of Warblers.
Cooke of the Biological Survey. For the past twenty years ornithologists throughout the country have been sending data on bird migration to the Survey. In the preparation of Bulletin No. 18 of the Survey ('Distribution and Migration of North American Warblers'), it was Professor Cooke's duty to elaborate this unequalled store of migration records, and the matter here given is based on that work, the migration records being presented in a tabular form which makes them easy of reference and comparison.
The Bird and its Haunts. — Under this heading an attempt has been made to present a picture of the bird in nature; sketching its appearance and actions as well as describing its haunts, both while migrating and nesting. Here are also occasionally included remarks on the time, place, or manner of the discovery of the bird or its nest and eggs, with other pertinent historical details, and, in some instances, biographical data which seem more in place here than in any other section of the outline for treatment adopted.
and Andrew Allison.
Song. — Under this caption the call-notes as well as the songs of Warblers are treated. Always a difficult and unsatisfactory subject to deal with, it is particularly so in the case of the Warblers, the calls and songs of most of which lack sufficient character to be described recognizably. However, the impressions of different observers in widely separated localities are presented, not with the expectation that what they have written will give one an adequate idea of the particular song in question, but that it will lead to its identification when heard.
Miss Paddock, Mrs. Farwell, Gerald Thayer, and Andrew Allison have made notable contributions to this part of the book, and Lynds Jones has permitted liberal use of his 'Songs of Warblers'. The student should also consult Matthews' 'Fieldbook of Wild Birds and their Music' (Putnams) which being readily procurable has not been quoted from.
Nesting-Site and Nest. — The method of treatment of these sections requires but little comment. The abundant literature of the subject has been freely drawn on, reference showing the source ol information. The collections of the American Museum, William Brewster, and C. W. Crandall have been used, while particularly acceptable manuscript contributions were made by Andrew Allison, Frank L. Burns, and Verdi Burtch.
The descriptions and measurements of the eggs were prepared by Mr. C. W. Crandall, well known as a careful, conservative oologist. Mr. Crandall possesses one of the largest private collections of eggs in the country, and his work is therefore based on abundance of material. The eggs figured are, in the main, from Mr. Crandall's collection with additions from the collections of the American Museum of Natural History and of Mr. J. L. Childs.
Nesting Dates. — Unless otherwise specified the dates here given are the earliest and latest at which full sets of fresh eggs were found. Most of the data here presented were contributed by the ornithologists whose names are given as authority, but the collections of the American Museum and of Mr. C. W. Crandall as well as the literature of the subject have also been drawn on.
Biographical References. — As the heading indicates this bibliographical matter is restricted to articles treating of the habits of the bird in question. Where quotations are made from these articles due acknowledgment is made by cross-reference in the text.
Contributors. — In the preceeding comments on the plan of the book, the principal contributors to it have been mentioned. Assistance, however, was received from many others, in some cases merely a nesting date, in others more extended notes. Whenever used such matter is duly acknowledged and we give here an alphabetical list of all contributors of manuscript to the book. The impossibility of including in this list the names of the hundreds of observers on whose work the migration tables are based is regretted, but Professor Cooke assures us that the manner in which these data are presented makes it impossible to give credit where credit is due.
THE GENERAL CHARACTERS OF WARBLERS
The American Warblers (Family Mniotiltidae), or Wood Warblers as they are more formally called to distinguish them from the wholly different Old World Warblers (Family Sylviidae), are small insectivorous birds with generally slender, sharp-pointed, sometimes flattened, but never hooked (as in the Vireonidae) bills. The three or four outer primaries are longest and of nearly the same length, the tarsus is posteriorly ridged (not rounded as in the Tyrannidae), the hind-claw never lengthened (as in the Alaudidae or Motacillidae).
The broad, bristly billed, flycatching members of the family are too brightly colored to be mistaken for most North American representatives of the true Flycatchers (Family Tyrannidse), from which they differ in other respects, and, among North American birds, the Warblers are to be confused in nature only with the Vireos and Kinglets. From the Vireos they differ in wing-formula and in lacking a hooked bill, while in life they may usually be distinguished from them by their greater activity. The Vireos are more deliberate in movement, they peer, while the Warblers pirouette, or flutter, turning the whole body this way then that, darting or springing here or there, the embodiment of perpetual motion among birds.
The Kinglets are smaller than the smallest Warbler, except Lucy's Warbler. In the Golden-crowned Kinglet the black and orange or yellow crest is always diagnostic, while the Ruby-crown's habit of nervously twitching its wings, and wren-like call note will readily distinguish it from any Warbler.
PLUMAGE OF WARBLERS
Development of Plumage. — When a Warbler leaves the egg it is apparently naked, but close examination will reveal on the feathertracts of the upper surface of the body a scanty growth of the finest down. This is the 'natal down'. (See Dwight, The Sequence of
Plumages and Moults of the Passerine Birds of New York.') While the bird is in the nest this downy plumage is succeeded by a second plumage which has been termed both the 'first' and the 'Juvenal' plumage but which, in my opinion, among altricial birds, may best be known as the nestling plumage.
Where, in the newly hatched bird, there was down, it is forced outward by the rapidly growing feathers of the nestling plumage, on the tips of which it remains for a brief period. Where there was no natal down, the nestling plumage is the first plumage to appear.
When, at the age of about twelve to fourteen days, the young bird leaves the nest, the nestling plumage of its body is virtually complete, but the tail is stumpy and the wings, although they support the bird in its first uncertain flight, are not fully grown. Both wings and tail, however, belong also, as we shall see, to the first fall plumage, and the distinctive nestling plumage may therefore be said to be wholly acquired in the nest.
No time intervenes between the completion of the nestling plumage and the appearance of the first feathers of the first fall plumage, traces of which indeed may often be detected in the feather tracts of the breast before the wings and tail are fully grown.
This first fall plumage is acquired by molt of the feathers of the nestling plumage and the development of a new growth of feathers. The wing and the tail quills and the primary wing-coverts are retained, but the remaining wing-coverts and all the feathers of the body are shed.
Although there may be some feather-growth during the winter, the first fall plumage remains virtually unchanged until the following spring, when, by a molt involving the feathers of various parts of the body,. but not those of the wings and tail, the first breeding plumage is acquired.
With the exception of Vermivora bachmani, Peucedramus olivaceus, Dendroica chrysoparia, and Setophaga ruticilla, which apparently do not secure their mature plumage until their first postbreeding molt (at the beginning of their second autumn), the first breeding plumage resembles that of the mature bird, except for such minor differences as may be shown in the intensity of color of the wings and tail.
Following the nesting season, in accordance with the almost universal law of molt, an entirely new set of feathers, including wing and tail quills, is gained, and this, like the plumage of the first fall,
followed by the species.
Nestling Plumage. — It is difficult, if not impossible, to frame a law which shall express the relations of the nestling plumage of Warblers to their adult plumage. When, however, the adult is olivegreen above, yellow or whitish below and without spots or streaks, the young is dull olive-green or olive-brown above, dusky olive or grayish below with the belly whitish or yellowish.
Examples are Vermivora peregrina, V. rubricapilla, V. pinus, Dendroica ingorsi, Geothlypih trichas, Oporonis formosus, Wilsonia pusilla, W . citrina, and Icteria virens.
When the plumage of the adult is varied in pattern with streaks or spots, etc., the plumage of the nestling, while it may be widely different, is generally streaked or spotted. Examples are Mniotilta varia, Dendroica coronata, D. auduboni, D. magnolia, D. Striata, D. castanea, D. fusca, D. palmar um, and the Seiuri.
When the adult is gray above the nestling is gray, as in Vermivora luci<z, Dendroica nigrescens, and D. dominica; and when the adult is brown above the nestling is brown or brownish, as in Helinaia swainsoni, Helmitheros z'ermivorus, and Seiurus aurocapillus.
As might be expected, indications of common ancestry are betrayed by the nestling plumage. The nestlings of Dendroica coronata and D. auduboni, for instance, while quite unlike the nestling of any other Warbler known to me, very closely resemble one another, and the spotted nestlings of Dendroica striata and D. castanea are almost indistinguishable. Among the more uniformly plumaged, olive-green birds this similarity in the plumage of the nestling also prevails.
An interesting character shown by the nestling, with but few exceptions, is the presence of wing-bars when they are absent or obscure in the adult. These bars are usually buff but are generally in strong contrast to the wing-coverts, of which they form the tip. With the molt from nestling into first fall plumage, these coverts are shed and the bars lost, a fact which suggests that the unbarred wing represents a higher stage in the development of the species than the barred wing.
When, in the adults, there exists a sexual difference in the color of the wings or tail, the nestling presents a corresponding difference in color, since both wings and tail are retained until after the first nesting season (e. g. Dendroica carulescens} . When, however, no such difference exists, the nestlings of both sexes are alike in color.
First Fall Plumage. — Leaving aside for the moment the question of the relation of the fall plumage of the young to that of the adult, it will be found that most of our Warblers in first fall plumage conform to the general laws of color in relation to sex and age. These may he stated as follows:
1. When the adults are alike or nearly alike in plumage, the young in first fall plumage resemble their parents in spring plumage. Examples are Protonotaria, Helmitheros, Helinaia, Vermivora, pinus, V . lucia, Dendroica dominica, the Seiuri, Oporornis fonnosus, Jcteria virens, Setophaga picta, Cardellina.
2. When the adults in breeding plumage differ, the young of both sexes resemble either the breeding female or the adults in the fall. This class includes by far the largest number of Warblers. Exceptions are Vermivora chrysiptera, Den-droica carulescens, and Wilsonia citrina.
Adult plumage. — Essentially adult plumage, as we have seen, is acquired not later than the first spring molt by all our Warblers except Vermivora bachmani, Peucedramus, Dendroica chrysoparia, and Setophaga ruticilla, in which it is doubtless acquired immediately after the first breeding season, or in the following spring.
Once acquired, the adult plumage, as far as color is concerned, may remain virtually unaltered, or it may be changed for a widely different fall plumage to be worn until the approach of the next nesting season, when the mature breeding dress is regained.
These facts may be expressed in two laws as follows:
1. When the sexes are alike, or nearly alike, in color, the fall plumage of both is generally like the spring plumage. Examples are Protonotaria, Helinaia, Helmitheros, Vermivora lucia, V. Virginia, V. pinus, Dendroica dominica, D. grades, D. kirtlandi, the Seiuri, Chamathlypis, Setophaga picta, and Cardellina.
2. When the male in spring plumage differs from the female, he generally resembles her in fall plumage. There are numerous exceptions to this law but it holds good for most species in which there is marked sexual difference. Examples are: Dendroica tigrina, D. coronata, D. auduboni, D. magnolia, D. Pensylvanica, D. castanea, D. striata, D. fusca. Exceptions are: Vermivora bachmani,
DISTRIBUTION OF WARBLERS
The approximately one hundred and fifty-five species contained in the family Mniotiltidse are distributed in summer from Argentina to Labrador and northern Alaska, including the West Indies and Galapagos. During the winter few species are found north of the southern border of the United States. The wide range of some species makes a geographical analysis of the group difficult, but by allotting a species to the region in which it occupies the largest area, we have the following results:
North America 55 species
Twenty-six of the 40 South American species are contained in the genus Basileuterus and the remaining 14 belong to the genera Myioborus (9 species), Geothlypis (4 species) and Compsothlypis (I species).
Nine of the Galapagan species belong in the somewhat aberrant genus Certhidea, placed in this family for the first time by Mr. Ridgway, and one is a Yellow Warbler of the West Indian petechia group. Central America and Mexico, omitting the northern part of the tableland, have 6 species of Basileuterus, 2 of Oreothlypis, I of Compsothlypis, 1 of Vermivora, 6 of Geothlypis, 2 of Chamaithlypis, 4 of Granatellus, 3 of Myioborus, i of Euthlypis, 2 of Ergaticus, and 2 of Rhodinocichla.
The West Indies have 10 species of Dendroica, i of Catharopeza, 2 of Teretistris, i of Leucopeza, i of Microligea and 5 of Geothlypis. The constitution of the 16 North American genera is stated on a later page. It is evident, therefore, that, although of tropical origin, the Warblers now reach their highest numerical development in North America.
Of the 16 genera of Warblers found in North America, the following 7 have no species breeding south of our limits: Mniotilta, Helinaia, Helmitheros, Protonotaria, (all monotypic), Oporornis, Seiurus, and Wilsonia. None of the 9 species of Vermivorv nest south of the Mexican tableland, all but one entering North
America. Icteria also extends southward over the Mexican tableland and, with Vermivora, is more North American than Mexican, though doubtless of Mexican origin.
This leaves 7 genera whose breeding range still includes an area in the tropics. Of these the following 6 enter North America through Mexico: Compsothlypis, Peucedramus, Geothlypis, Chamathlypis, Cardellina, and Setophaga. With the exception of the forms of Geothlypis trichas, which have apparently reached the Bahamas through Florida, none of these genera is known to be represented in the breeding season in the West Indies.
On the other hand, Dendroica is evidently a West Indian genus. Excepting members of the widely distributed Yellow or Golden Warbler group, Mexico has no species of this genus which are not found in the United States, although 3 of our species extend southward into Mexico as geographic forms (i. e. D. auduboni nigrifrons, D. a. goldmani, and D. grades decora, the latter reaching Honduras).
The West Indies, however, without including the Golden Warblers, have 7 resident species of Dendroica, 5 of which are represented in North America by closely related forms (i. e. D. adelaidte and D. delicata, by our D. dominica and D. grades; D. vigorsii achrustera and abacoensis, by D. v. vigorsi; D. vitellina, by D. discolor}.
In this evident West Indian origin of Dendroica, we have a probable explanation of the numerical abundance of the birds of this genus in the Eastern states as compared with the Western states. Of the 23 North American species, only one, the phenomenally distributed Yellow Warbler, is found in both the Eastern and Western states, 6 occur in the west but not in the east, one appears to be restricted to east central Texas, and 15 are found in the east but not in the west.
This restriction of forms of West Indian origin to the Eastern states, in connection with their confinement to these islands in winter, leads us to consider Helinaia and Helmitheros, both confined to the east, as of West Indian rather than of Mexican origin.
As might be expected, therefore, forms of Mexican origin (e. g. Icteria and Geothlypis}, which spread both to the east and the west, are likely to occupy a larger area than those which enter our limits at their extreme southeastern border. In other words, we share with the west many of the Warblers of Mexican origin, but give her in return few or none of those which have been received from the West Indies.
sented in the east, i. e. Cardellina and Peucedramus of the Mexican tableland, which cross our border in Arizona and New Mexico. The east, on the contrary, has the 2 genera mentioned above as of probable West Indian origin and also Mniotilta and Protonotaria.
Cham&thlypis reaches our border on the lower Rio Grande, and Compsothlypis comes to us through the same door and, evidently finding the arid region of the west a bar to range extension in that direction, has followed the humid coast to the north and east. Doubtless the origin of several other species (e. g. Oporornis formosus and Wilsonia citrina) of eastern Warblers is to be accounted for in a similar manner.
The remaining 8 genera are common to both regions but it is worthy of note that only i of them is presumably of West Indian origin. Omitting, therefore, Chamcsthlypis and Compsothlypis, as occupying neutral ground, the east has 12 genera of Warblers, the west 10. In species, however, chiefly owing to the large number of species of Dendroica derived from the West Indies, and to those of other genera which have spread from eastern Mexico eastward, the difference between the east and the west is more pronounced. It is expressed in the following figures: Species found in both the east and west, 7; species found only in the west, 13; species found only in the east, 32; Texas species, 3 ; thus giving the east 39 species as against 20 for the west.
It should be added that this comparison is based on the Warblers of the Atlantic States with those of the Pacific States, no account here being taken of the northwestward distribution of some species to Alaska bringing them properly into the bird-life of western North America, though obviously of eastern origin.
The subject is a wide one and absence of definite knowledge of the past tempts us to speculate on the significance of the present This outline, however, may well be concluded by the appended
Mniotilta, i species, eastern North America. Helinaia, i species, eastern North America. Helmitheros, i species, eastern North America. Protonotaria, i species, eastern North America. Vermivora, 9 species, 8 North America, 1 Mexico. Oreothlypis, 2 species, Mexico and Central America. Compsothlypis, 3 species, South America from Argentina north to Central America, Mexico, and eastern North America.
BY W. W. COOKE
Scarcely a Warbler in the United States remains through the winter in the vicinity of its nesting site, while most of the North American members of this family travel many hundreds, or even thousands of miles, to their winter home. Among the few exceptions are a small number of Florida Yellow-throats (Geothlypis trichas ignota} that are resident throughout the year in Florida and southern Georgia, and also a few of the western form of the Orange-crowned Warbler (Vermivora c. sordida) resident on the Santa Barbara Islands, California.
limit of its breeding range; migration with this species, therefore, is simply the withdrawing of the northern breeding individuals and the massing of the whole species in the southern fourth of its summer home. This same Pine Warbler is also one of the very few species that are confined in the winter season almost entirely to the United States.
One of the greatest travellers among the Warblers is the Blackpoll, of which species comparatively few individuals breed south of Canada, and all winter in South America. The shortest journey that any Blackpoll performs is 3,500 miles, while those that nest in Alaska have 7,000 miles to travel to their probable winter home in Brazil.
Some individuals of most of the species of Warblers desert the United States during the winter and, indeed, there are only a few species that can be found at all in this country during cold weather.
The Myrtle Warbler is the hardiest, many wintering regularly as far north as southern New York, while a few may remain in Massachusetts and in Maine. Most of the Palm Warblers spend the winter in the Gulf States; a few Black and White Warblers occur in winter in northern Florida in company with Orange-crowned and Yellow-throated Warblers, some Oven-birds and an occasional Northern Water-Thrush; while, in southern Florida a few Wormeating, Parula, Black-throated Blue, and Prairie Warblers may be found.
The Black and White, Nashville, Orange-crowned, Myrtle, and Sycamore Warblers occur during the winter in Texas, principally in the southern part. On the Pacific slope, at this season, Audubon's Warbler ranges north to southern Oregon, and Townsend's Warbler is found in southern California.
Most of the species, and by far the larger number of individuals, therefore, go south of the United States in their migration, but the distance they travel varies greatly. The Prairie, Blackthroated Blue, Swainson's, Bachman's, Cape May and Kirtland's Warblers go only to the West Indies. The Worm-eating, Myrtle, Magnolia, Chestnut-sided, Black-throated Green, Hooded, Bluewinged, Nashville, Orange-crowned, Parula, Palm, and Wilson's Warblers and the Chat, go no farther than Central America, while many species spend the winter in South America including some, or all the individuals of the Black and White, Prothonotary, Goldenwinged, Tennessee, Yellow, Cerulean, Bay-breasted, Blackpoll, Blackburnian Kentucky, Connecticut, Mourning and Canada Warblers,
the Redstart, Oven-bird and both the Water-Thrushes. Nearly all the Warblers of the western United States spend the winter in Mexico and the contiguous portions of Central America.
Knowing that so many Warblers from the eastern United States spend the cold season in South America, and seeing the chain of islands in the West Indies stretching from Florida to Venezuela, one would suppose these islands to be the principal route of migration between the two countries. As a fact no Warbler takes the shortest course between New England and South America, by a direct flight across the ocean, as is done by many of the water birds, and few Warblers reach South America by way of the West Indies. The Blackpoll and the Connecticut Warbler are probably the only ones that use this route regularly and commonly, while the rest of the Warblers of the eastern United States, follow along the coast to Florida, then make a long flight across the Gulf of Mexico and thus, by a roundabout course through Central America, reach their winter home in South America. In the case of the Yellow Warbler, the route actually followed is about two thousand miles longer than a straight course across the Atlantic Ocean, The reasons for taking the longer journey seem to be the impossibility of making so long a single flight (2,500 miles) as would be required by the direct course from New England to Venezuela and the scarcity of food in the West Indies due to the small size of the eastern islands.
The Warblers are night migrants ; the hundred-mile trip between Florida and Cuba is apparently always made at night and at such a speed that, in spring migration, many birds leaving Cuba after sunset, arrive on the Florida coast before midnight. The longer flight, five to seven hundred miles, across the Gulf of Mexico is also evidently made in a single night without stop or rest. How long a journey is made each night when the bird is flying over land is as yet unknown. But either the flight is short or else, after a single night's journey, the bird stops for several days to feed, for the general advance of a species in its northward migration is only a few miles per day. The Black-and-White Warbler, an early migrant, averages only thirteen miles per day and occupies a whole month in the journey from North Carolina to Massachusetts. The late migrants move faster and the Canadian Warbler, one of the latest, averages thirty miles per day and in a month crosses the whole width of the United States from the Gulf of Mexico to Canada.
Warblers observed off the eastern coast of Andros Island, Bahamas, April 26-28, 1884, which lasted three days. Thousands of birds were seen and none of them flew more than twenty feet above the water. This observation is confirmed by Chapman (Bird-Lore, VII, 1905, 140) who writes:
"While sailing from Miami, Florida, directly east across the Gulf stream to the Bahamas, in May, 1904, I observed three small bodies of migrating Warblers flying toward Florida. The birds were not so high in the air as we might have expected them to be, but were flying low, within a few feet of the water.
"The first group of six or seven birds, among them a Redstart, was seen about 6 A. M., May 10, when we were some six miles from land, which was still, of course, plainly visible. Later in the day, when we were about midway between the Florida coast and the Biminis, the nearest Bahaman land, a compact flock of seventy five to one hundred Warblers passed us, flying slightly north of west. The birds were not more than ten feet above the water and were evidently not guided by sight in their choice of direction.
"On the morning of May. n, as we approached the Bahaman banks, between the Biminis and Great Isaacs, a third group of Warblers was seen, and they, like the two preceding, were flying toward Florida within a few feet of the water."
Warblers make the long five hundred mile flight across the Gulf of Mexico from choice, since, if they desired, they could cross from Florida to Cuba and from Cuba to Yucatan without being out of sight of land. So far as now known, no Warbler uses this route in migration, preferring the straight course over the Gulf. It seems probable that even this five hundred mile flight is not severely exhaustive to the average bird as there are good reasons for believing that after crossing the Gulf of Mexico in the spring, many Warblers do not descend to earth as soon as they sight the coast, but continue inland many miles before alighting.
The farther north a Warbler goes the faster it migrates. The Blackpoll Warblers that nest in Alaska occupy a month in the thousand-mile trip from Florida to southern Minnesota, or an average of about thirty-five miles per day; while these same birds make the last part of their journey, 2,500 miles to Alaska, in not over two weeks, or at an average speed of at least two hundred miles per day.
When Warblers are feeding in the daytime during the migration season, they are continually on the move and their general direction is toward their summer home. This movement is not rapid, a person
gate it amounts to quite a portion of the whole distance to be traversed.
The northward or southward migration of Warblers is not a constant, uniform movement, but rather a succession of waves. Yesterday the woods were deserted, to-day almost every tree is alive with a flitting host of bright-hued migrants ; in a few hours they have passed, to be followed, at longer or shorter periods, by similar companies.
Warblers have the peculiar habit, during migration, of collecting in mixed flocks composed of many different species. These combined flocks may be large or small, but during the height of the migrating season, it is rather unusual to find a flock composed of a single species. No other group or family of birds presents such composite flocks as the Warblers. In northern Minnesota, twenty-three different species, most of them in large numbers, were seen during one forenoon in a single spot in the woods through which they were passing in practically a continuous flock.
The Warblers, as a whole, are among the later Spring migrants. Feeding on insects, they remain in their southern homes until Spring is well advanced and their food abundant. Their northward movement is more rapid than the advance of the season. Thus some Yellow Warblers arrive in the Great Slave region when the average daily temperature is only 47° F. But these same Warblers remain so late in South and Central America, that when they reach New Orleans, about April 5, an average daily temperature of 65° F. awaits them. Thence northward they hasten, covering one thousand miles in a month, and, moving faster than the advance of Spring, find in southern Minnesota a temperature of 55° F., and when they arrive, late in May, at Great Slave Lake, they have gained 8° more on the season. During the whole trip from New Orleans to Great Slave Lake, these birds are continually meeting colder weather. The last fifteen days they traverse a district that Spring requires thirty-five days to cross. Late and rapid journeys of this kind offer certain advantages; fewer storms are encountered and food is more plentiful along the way.
The mortality of birds during the time of migration is very great and probably no other family suffers so severely as the Warblers. Small in size, with loose feathers ill adapted to withstand storm or rain, they nevertheless cross and recross the Gulf of Mexico, which doubtless becomes each year the watery grave of untold thousands. Warblers are peculiarly susceptible to the attraction of a bright light, and on stormy or dark nights during the period of migration, many
kill themselves by striking light-houses. When the dead birds at the foot of any light-house are examined after a disastrous night, more than half are always found to be Warblers.
How the Warblers find their way in the long night journeys is still a disputed point. Some believe that they are guided entirely by sight and that mountain ranges and river courses form prominent land marks to aid in finding the course. Others go to the opposite extreme and attribute to a so-called 'sense of direction,' the bird's wonderful success in retracing its way to the last year's home. Still others think they have explained the case sufficiently when they say the bird finds its way by instinct, while still others deny the efficacy of instinct and affirm that the young birds are led in their southward journey by the old birds, who in turn remember the route from their previous season's passage. All observers are agreed that each Warbler intends to return each year to the general vicinity of the last year's nest and that most of them succeed.
Almost as great a diversity of opinion exists as to the reasons for bird migration, both as to its original cause and the factors that at present work for its continuance. There are two general theories in regard to the origin of migration. One, that the birds, originally non-migratory, increased so in numbers that their home became overcrowded and adventurous birds, passing beyond the usual boundaries, found new and congenial nesting sites. From these they were driven by the winter's shortage of food, to return again the following summer. In this view of the case, the place of residence in the winter is the bird's true home, which it deserts in the summer for the purpose of reproduction.
The second theory is the direct opposite of the one just given. According to this second theory the nesting-site is the bird's real home, from which it was driven originally by the advancing ice of the Glacial Epoch, and the habit of migration thus induced has been continued through the ages. Both theories base the origin of migration on a failure of the food supply, the one a failure in the winter home and the other in the summer.
But whatever the cause, the migration of Warblers as now conducted is at widely different periods. The Myrtle Warbler presses north in the Spring when the trees are still bare of leaves, while the Canada Warbler forms one of the rear guard, after vegetation has reached nearly full summer luxuriance. Instead of waiting until the winter's cold and a shortage of food compel
20 SONGS OF WARBLLRS
them to depart, the more southern breeding individuals of the Summer Warbler and the Redstart begin their fall migration in early July, when the season is warmest, and their insect food supply has not yet reached its maximum.
In the light of the foregoing statements, it is no wonder that the study of bird migration has interested naturalists for generations and that the number of students of the migration of birds is steadily increasing.
From a purely musical point of view, Warblers, as a family, take low rank as songsters. Nevertheless, the voices of even the technically least-gifted among them often so potently appeal to our memory that, as we hear them, the pleasures of the past are adtled to our enjoyment of the present. All the sweetness and promise of spring seems stored in Parula's little sizzling gurgle ; there is good cl/eer and sunshine in Yellow Warbler's simple lay; peace and rest in the quaint seeing of the Black-throated Green. The flight songs af the Seiuri and the unique potpourri of the Chat, however, give these Warblers just claim to a place among our leading song-birds.
If not great songsters, the Warblers are at least great singers. During the winter, I have heard only the Pine Warbler sing, but all the species, so far as I am aware, sing freely during their migrations and many of them have a second, if brief, song period in the Fall.
Acquaintance with their songs is of the greatest assistance in identifying these small, active haunters of the tree-tops, not one in a hundred of which may be satisfactorily seen. It would, therefore, be fortunate for the student of birds with a field-glass if some intelligible method of transcribing Warbler's songs could be devised. But, alas ! not only do two people rarely hear the same song alike, but one's best attempts at description after a time are often meaningless to oneself. Still a description of a bird's notes may be an aid to identification, and especial attention has therefore been paid to this phase of Warblers' biographies, while the following classification of Warblers' songs may further assist the student in gaining a clue to the identity of some well-heard but poorly seen singer.
A preliminary arrangement places in one group birds which sing more than once or twice from the same perch ; in another, those which pause only while singing and, between songs, continue their search for food or, indeed, sing even while moving. It will be observed
that in the first group are included all the terrestrial and sub-terrestrial species, the lowly nature of whose haunts do not meet the requirements of a singing-perch, and, abandoning for a time their search for insects, they mount to a favoring branch and give themselves wholly to song. As if in reward for their earnestness we find that this group contains all the notable songsters of the family.
Group A. Loud, whistled songs.
Prothonotary, Swainson's, Olive (?), and Kirtland's Warblers, Pine and Yellow-throated Warblers (sing also while moving), Oven-bird, Northern Water-Thrush, Louisiana Water-Thrush, Kentucky, Connecticut, Mourning, and Macgillivray's Warblers, Northern Yellow-throat and races (sing also while moving), Chat, and probably also Belding's and Rio Grande Yellow-throats.
CLASS III. WARBLERS WITH A FLIGHT SONG.
Prothonotary, Golden-winged (?), Nashville, Orange-crowned, and Tennessee (?) Warblers, Oven-bird, Northern Water-Thrush, Louisiana Water-Thrush, Mourning Warbler, Northern Yellowthroat and races, Worm-eating Warbler, Chat.
NESTING HABITS OF WARBLERS
Although only the three Seiuri, among our fifty-five species of Warblers, may be considered truly terrestrial, no less than nineteen species nest upon the ground, and fifteen more usually nest within less than three feet of it. There is, in general, a relation between the color of the bird and the character of its nestingsite. The terrestrial species are, as might be expected, dull colored, but even among the arboreal species which nest on the ground, striking colors are less frequent than among those which nest in trees. A marked exception to this rule, however, is presented by Setophaga picta, which nests in banks, etc., although the female is indistinguishable from the black and red male.
Data do not exist upon which satisfactorily to ascertain the comparative safety of ground and tree sites. While the former are more open to attack by terrestrial predaceous mammals and snakes, a nest in the trees is more likely to be visited by Crows and Jays.
On the other hand, the Cowbird appears to be more partial to a nest upon the ground, nearly one-half of the twenty-four species of Warblers in whose nests its egg has been found being ground nesters. On the whole, we may assume that the tree site is the safer, and the fact that our most abundant Warblers nest in bushes or trees gives this view some support.
We have not as yet many intimate studies of the home-life of Warblers but, so far as recorded observations go, it appears that the nest is built by the female to the accompaniment of the male's song. Occasionally the male is permitted to bring a bit of nesting material but he apparently rarely takes part in the construction of the home.
The male Pine Warbler is said rarely to sit upon the eggs but with this exception, I find no evidence that the male ever assists in incubation. He, however, lives near the nest and may at times feed the female while she is upon it.
will doubtless be found.
The young are cared for by both parents and leave the nest when from eight to twelve days old, or on the completion of the nestling plumage. In most cases but one brood is reared.
BY EDWARD HOWE FORBUSH
It is no exaggeration to say that for the preservation of the forests, which supply the raw material for nearly all wood products, man is largely indebted to birds. The service that birds perform in protecting woodland trees against the inroads of injurious insects is more nearly indispensable to him than any other benefaction that his feathered friends confer, for the money value of woods, while great in the aggregate, is not ordinarily large enough to repay the owners the expense of protecting the trees against insect enemies, even were this possible.
A single species of insect may be too much for man to cope with when it infests his woodland. The wild animals and venomous serpents of the woods he may exterminate ; but, in spite of all his efforts, insects, dangerous to human life or destructive to property, still infest the land.
Dr. A. S. Packard enumerates over four hundred species of insects that feed upon our oaks. All other forest trees have many enemies of their own. Insects attack all parts of the tree, and in so many insidious ways that man cannot hope to check them all. Were the natural enemies of insects annihilated, every tree of the woods would be threatened with destruction and we would be powerless to prevent the impending calamity. We might save a few orchards and shade trees; we might find means to raise some vegetables; but the protection of all the trees in all the woods would be beyond our powers.
It may be profitable to spray orchards with insecticides but it does not pay to spray wood-lots ; to say nothing of the expense of the manual labor that must be utilized in combating insects that cannot be reached by ordinary insecticides. So we must leave the protection of the woods to birds and other natural enemies of injurious insects.
out much human interference.
Warblers are among the most useful birds of the woods, for to them mainly is given the care of the foliage. Trees cannot live without leaves. Lepidopterous larvae, commonly called caterpillars, are among the greatest of leaf-destroyers. They form a great part of the food of Warblers and are fed very largely to their young.
As the spring waxes warm and merges into summer, the opening buds and growing leaves are attacked by a succession of caterpillars of different species, which, were they not checked by birds, would soon strip all trees of their foliage and keep them stripped throughout the season. Trees breathe through their leaves and, lacking them for a considerable period, they must die. Coniferous trees are killed by a single defoliation. Deciduous trees last longer but the end is sure.
Warblers save the leaves by constantly pursuing and killing caterpillars. While living in the woods year after year I have been greatly impressed by the vast annual uprising of these pests and the strong repressive influence exerted by the Warblers upon their increase. Each brood of hundreds of caterpillars that hatches from the hidden egg-cluster is soon so reduced in number that very few live to maturity and, even though the survivors may riddle many leaves, the trees remain practically uninjured and the woods maintain their luxuriant summer verdure.
Thus the presence of Warblers in woodlands goes far towards preserving the trees for their owner. Even should the caterpillars stop short of killing the defoliated trees, the lumberman would still owe to the birds such profit as accrues from woodlands, for without their aid the trees would be so reduced in growth that they would yield no profit. While a tree is stripped of its leaves it makes no wood growth. The wood-ring for that year is smaller than usual, and the annual profit on the tree is proportionately decreased.
Warblers never receive credit for the good they do, because the insects that they eat are mainly of small size, and the majority of larger species eaten by them are taken in infancy and before they have had a chance to work noticeable injury. Warblers destroy many of the young larvae of such great and destructive insects as the Cecropia and Polyphemus moths while these insects are still too small to attract attention. These larvae which were so
FOOD OF WARBLERS 25
injurious on the "tree claims" of the prairie States before arboreal birds became abundant there, are almost never numerous enough to be destructive where such birds are plentiful. The fact that Warblers do away with these insects while the caterpillars are still very small and before they have had a chance to do any real injury, is of great economic significance. It may yet place them on a par, as regards usefulness, with the Cuckoo and other larger birds, which are considered to be among the most useful caterpillar hunters, but which probably prefer the larger caterpillars ; for the Warbler, notwithstanding its small size, may be able to destroy more individual caterpillars in their infancy than even the Cuckoo can devour after the same caterpillars have increased several hundred times in size.
Warblers are mainly insectivorous and most species cannot live long without insect food. Hence their economic position is quite different from that of the Vireos, Thrushes, or Sparrows, for example, for these can live either largely or entirely for considerable periods on vegetable food.
Warblers are obliged to spend a great part of their time in a continual hunt for insects. Digestion in most small birds is continuous and the stomach is rilled many times each day. It is sometimes so packed with food that when one is dissected the contents will expand to twice, or, as Professor F. E. L. Beal tells me, nearly three times, the size of that organ.
It would seem impossible for digestion to go on under such circumstances, but it nevertheless progresses so rapidly that, unless the food supply is constantly replenished, the stomach is soon empty. The capacity of Warblers for consuming the smaller insects may be shown by the statement of a few facts. According to Dr. S. D. Judd, Mr. Robert H. Coleman stated in a letter to the Biological Survey, that he counted the number of insects caught by a Palm Warbler and found that it varied from forty to sixty per minute. He says "the bird spent at least four hours on our piazza, and in that time must have gathered in about nine thousand, five hundred insects."1
Of course the insects in this case must have been very small ; but some of the greatest pests are small at maturity, as, for instance, the Hessian fly and the wheat midge, — insects which
growers of the United States.
My former assistant, Mr. F. H. Mosher, one day observed a. pair of (Maryland) Yellow-throats feeding upon the aphis that infests the gray birch. One of these birds ate eighty-nine of these tiny insects in a minute. Mr. Mosher watched the pair eating at this rate for forty minutes, and states that they must have eaten over seven thousand plant-lice in that time.2 His field-notes also give instances where numbers of caterpillars of considerable size were eaten within very brief periods, by Warblers.
A Chestnut-sided Warbler was seen to capture and eat, in fourteen minutes, twenty-two gipsy caterpillars, that were positively identified, and other insects that could not be seen plainly were taken during that time. A Nashville Warbler ate forty-two of these caterpillars in thirty minutes, with many other insects as well, that either could not be plainly seen or fully identified.
A Chestnut-sided Warbler took twenty-eight browntail caterpillars in about twelve minutes. When we consider that the short hairs on the posterior parts of this caterpillar are barbed like the quills of a porcupine and will penetrate the human skin, causing excessive irritation and painful eruptions, we may well wonder if the little bird lived to repeat this performance. But many small birds eat these caterpillars at a time when probably the noxious hairs have not fully developed, and others seem to have learned to divest the larger caterpillars of their hairs by beating and shaking their prey and thus loosening the hairs, which are shed as the porcupine sheds its quills. The insect is then eaten with impunity and even fed to young birds.
Still other birds reject the external parts of the larvae and, tearing them open, eat only small portions of their viscera. A Black and White Warbler was seen to take twenty-eight of these caterpillars in ten minutes and probably took many more. A Yellow Warbler ate thirty-three canker worms in a little over six minutes.
that in an orchard infested by canker worms, those trees nearest some woods were soon cleared of the worms, mainly by Warblers, which came from the woods and sprout-land to feed upon them.
Among the favorite caterpillars eaten by Warblers are those of the Tortricidae, or leaf rollers, which birds are very expert in taking from their places of concealment in the rolled-up leaves. The little case-bearing caterpillars, which are at times so injurious to fruit, shade, and forest trees, also are eaten by Warblers. The larvae of the night-flying owlet moths (Noctuidae), which include the army worm and the various cutworms, are not so often eaten by Warblers, but such species as climb trees are attacked by these birds while the ground Warblers probably feed on cutworms to some extent.
There are some caterpillars that are supposed to have a certain immunity from the attacks of birds, either because they are protected by spines, covered with hair, or secrete acrid or other distasteful or poisonous matter which renders them unfit for food. The families of silk-spinning moths, formerly collectively known as the Bombycidae, but now subdivided into many groups, include a number of the insects most injurious to fruit, shade, and forest trees. The larvae of these insects are hairy. It is widely believed that such caterpillars are never troubled by more than a very few species of birds. But I have learned by observation that in these cases, as in many others, protection often fails to protect. I now believe that when these caterpillars are very young and small, most Warblers eat them with avidity, for they can do so with impunity at this time when the hairs or spines have not developed sufficient strength to be disagreeable.
The forest tent-caterpillar and the apple-tree tent-caterpillar are two hairy native species, while the caterpillars of the browntail moth and the gipsy moth, previously mentioned, are two very destructive introduced species. All of these are eaten by most of the commoner Warblers of New England. The two imported species were fought for years by the Massachusetts State Government, which expended more than a million dollars and then gave up the fight. These two pests are now beyond the bounds of Massachusetts and may be expected to spread over a great part of the United States, in spite of the fact that the fight against them has now been renewed in Massachusetts and taken up in other states. These insects have now become pests of the orchard, garden and forest, feeding on nearly all kinds of trees and vegetation.
They are even more destructive here than they ever were in Europe, for here they have escaped most of their native enemies. Hence those American birds that have learned to eat them may prove of great economic value. It happens that the browntail larvae emerge from the egg in the fall, at a time when the Warblers that breed in the Canadian Provinces and the northern tier of states are returning southward in migration, while the gipsy larvae begin to hatch as the spring migration begins. The Warblers, in both cases, appear at just the right time and destroy the small larvae by thousands. The tent-caterpillar and the forest caterpillar also are attacked by them during the spring, and eaten in considerable numbers. The larvae of butterflies are taken as well as the pupae and imagoes of many Lepidoptera. Warblers, however, in their selection of food are not confined to any one order of insects. They are well fitted to pursue and capture any of the smaller insects, except those that hide in the ground or in the solid wood, and even they are in danger if they ever show themselves in daylight outside their chosen retreats.
The habits and haunts of the Warblers are so varied that, collectively, the species of this family exert a repressive influence on nearly all orders of insects, from those that live on or near the ground to those that frequent the very tree-tops. The Oven-birds, Water-Thrushes, Yellow-throats, and the other ground Warblers search the ground, the fallen leaves, and undergrowth for the species most commonly found there as well as those that fall from the trees. Where grasshoppers are plentiful the ground Warblers sometimes feed largely on them. The bugs that are found so often on berry bushes, are not overlooked, notwithstanding their rank taste, which is so well known to all who have picked blueberries from the bushes. The eggs of bugs are also eaten.
Another family belonging to this order (Hemiptera), which is often prominent among the food of Warblers, is the Aphididae or plant-lice, previously mentioned. Most Warblers probably eat certain of these insects or their eggs. Each of these eggs may represent the future form of plant-louse known as the Stem Mother which, no mishap occurring to shorten the natural life of her descendants, would, according to Huxley, produce in ten generations a mass of plant-lice equal in bulk to that of five hundred million human beings, or the population of the Chinese Empire. A few species of Warblers eat bark lice and scale insects.
Beetles (Coleoptera) form a varying part of the food of Warblers. While a few beneficial species are eaten, the vast majority taken are believed to be either neutral or injurious. The useful ladybugs (Coccinellidse) apparently are seldom eaten. The tiger beetles and the larger useful ground beetles ( Cicindelidae and Carabidae) are not much sought by Warblers.
Many of the injurious bark beetles and other boring beetles are greedily eaten. Bark beetles (Scolytidae) are among the most insidious and deadly enemies of trees. They often complete the destruction of trees that have been defoliated by caterpillars. Unable, as they usually are, to live in the most thrifty and vigorous trees, a tree is no sooner weakened by the loss of its leaves, than these beetles are attracted to it. Their eggs are soon deposited and the resulting larvae bore away among the vital tissues of the tree along the inner surface of the bark. If their increase is not checked, a year or two of their work is sufficient to destroy the noblest trees of the forest. The Warblers, however, attack these borers as they mature and emerge from their burrows in the pairing season. The Black and White Warbler, which in summer takes the place so well filled in winter by the Brown Creeper, probably leads in the destruction of bark beetles, but many other species eat them, and thus the Warblers again come to the rescue of the trees.
Warblers are not only useful in woodland by destroying borers, they are valuable also in orchards. Professor S. A. Forbes found that fifteen Warblers shot in an orchard infested by canker worms in Illinois, had all eaten Cerambycid beetles, or borers, to the amount of ten per cent, of their stomach contents. Other important elements of the food of Warblers at times are the destructive click beetles and weevils. Leaf-eating beetles also are eaten.
Many Hymenoptera are taken by the flycatching Warblers, such as the Redstart and other species that capture much of their food on the wing. Some of the wasps and bees taken are beneficial, but they are probably most useful when kept within proper bounds by the birds. At times considerable numbers of hymenopterous parasites are taken.
It is probable, however, that the larger numbers of these useful insects are found in the stomachs of Warblers only when the parasites are unduly abundant. A surplus of these insects is of no
eaten by birds.
Birds eat not only the useful primary parasites but the injurious secondary parasites that feed on primary parasites. Hence it is questionable whether birds ever do much harm by destroying parasitic hymenoptera, except by some unlucky accident. Whatever injury they may do in this way is probably offset by their destruction of injurious ants. Caddice flies and May flies are eaten by Warblers.
In addition to the insect food, some spiders, myriapods, and snails are taken. Spiders are useful creatures, but if one will go out into the woods and fields some dewy or foggy morning in fall and observe how spiders' webs cover the fields, how they drape the trees, and net the shrubbery, he will see how essential it is that they be held in check lest a spider-plague overwhelm the land.
Dr. Judd tells us that he found that ninety-six per cent, of the food in the stomach contents of fifty-three Warblers taken on a Maryland farm, consisted of insects, and that the arboreal Warblers, other than the Myrtle Warbler are almost purely insectivorous. Still some Warblers are able to subsist for a brief time on vegetable food mainly.
Audubon tells us that in May, 1808, during a light fall of snow in Pennsylvania, he took five Chestnut-sided Warblers that had eaten nothing but grass seeds and a few small spiders. Occasionally small seeds or remains of wild berries are found in the stomachs of Warblers, more particularly those of the ground-frequenting species; but I have examined the digestive tract of Warblers taken in the height of the berry season and found only insects and spiders. The Myrtle Warbler, that hardy little bird that so often winters in the north, eats very freely of the fruits of the bayberry, waxberry or myrtle, and cedar : remains of grapes are sometimes found in their stomachs and small seeds are not disdained. The Pine Warbler is said to feed on the seed of pine trees in winter, and I have seen it eat suet almost as freely as does the Chickadee.
On the whole, however, Dr. Judd rightly regards the Warblers as insectivorous, and the value to man of those species that nest in or near an orchard or shade trees is not likely to be overestimated.
each young bird requires fully half its own weight of insects each day. As the young are fed very largely on caterpillars, and as they are reared at a time when these insects are most plentiful there is no doubt regarding the restraining influence exerted upon the increase of such insect life throughout the North Temperate Zone by a family of birds so abundant and widely distributed as the Warblers. The usefulness of these birds in migration consists in their eminently insectivorous habits and in the power possessed by them, in common with most other birds, of assembling quickly where food is plentiful. They thus form a sort of aerial police whose chief function is to put down uprisings of injurious insects. Such insects are of little importance except where they appear in abnormal numbers. Wherever this occurs a counter-check is needed, at once, lest by the geometrical progression of their increase they overwhelm all opposition and sweep everything before them. The migrating Warblers form such a counter-check. They sweep over the country always on the watch for an abundant food supply. Wherever food is plentiful the birds gather. Find a great swarm of young caterpillars or birch plant-lice in the spring and there you will find, in their seasons, practically all the Warblers that pass through that region.
The reduction of the numbers of insects by migrating Warblers may be illustrated by a leaf or two from my own experience. In the spring of 1903, an old field in Concord, Massachusetts, grown up to birches, was much infested by plant-lice. Although the spring flight of Warblers was small, these birches were frequented by them. In the fall migration the birch field was again the gathering place of Warblers, although elsewhere in the woods the flight of birds was so meagre as to be hardly apparent. In 1904 the aphids were somewhat reduced in number, but the birds followed them up, as in the previous year, until, late in October, most of the plant-lice had disappeared, and the Myrtle Warblers, the latest migrants, leaving the birches, attacked other plant-lice on the wild apple trees. Since then comparatively few birch plant-lice have been seen in the field. This may have been partly due to the action of predaceous insects, parasites, or to adverse meteorological conditions, but the effect produced by the birds was very marked.
One fine Sunday in October, 1904, I saw a flock of Warblers about a few poplar trees near the river. They were feeding on swarms of a mature aphis. I watched them at intervals all day.
The flock seldom exceeded fifteen birds, mostly Blackpoll and Myrtle Warblers. Before night the swarms of insects that had been so numerous in the morning had dwindled so that it was rather difficult for me to secure a specimen, although the birds still found some. When I went there the next morning a single remaining bird was still finding a few, but I could not see a specimen nor have I seen one there since.
In 1905 I returned to my home at Wareham, Massachusetts, the first week in November, and found a flock of Myrtle Warblers busily hunting over the limbs and twigs of some apple trees and pear trees near my house. From the actions of the birds, I concluded that they had discovered an outbreak of some pest, but at first I could see nothing on the twigs that they were inspecting. By watching them with the glass, however, I soon saw exactly where they were finding food. Then by stepping up to a bird quickly and driving it away before it could seize the object of its quest, I saw that it was feeding on a minute cicada-shaped, black insect. This, indeed, was the only species of living insect I could find on those trees. Three of these insects were secured, and two were sent to Dr. L. O. Howard, chief of the Bureau of Entomology at Washington. He identified them as the imago of the peartree Psylla, a pest which has been very destructive to pear orchards in Maryland and New Jersey. I learned that the birds had been visiting these trees for about two weeks. At the time of my return they had evidently disposed of most of the last brood of the season, for, although they were still finding a good many on the day of my return, they found very few afterwards though they visited the trees daily for a week longer. These insects hibernate on the trees by hiding in the crevices between the twigs and are thus exposed to the attacks of birds all winter. The above brief and imperfect review represents fairly well our knowledge of the economic relations of American Warblers. Probably we shall never have an authentic and scientifically accurate account of the percentages of the component parts of the food of each species, until the investigation of their food is taken up by the Division of Biological Survey of the United States Department of Agriculture, where the greatest study of the food of birds the world has ever seen is now being made. Enough is known, however, to warrant the belief that our Warblers are deserving of all the protection man can afford them.
MORTALITY AMONG WARBLERS
The mortality among North American Warblers is doubtless higher than that which prevails in any other family of American birds. Their nest mortality is probably above the average while a variety of unfavorable conditions encountered during their exceptionally extended migrations, often cause them to perish by tens of thousands.
A discussion of the comparative safety of terrestrial and arboreal nesting-sites will be found under the head of the 'Nesting Habits of Warblers', here I may simply enumerate the enemies of Warblers while in the nest. Chief among them are foxes, skunks, weasels, martens, opossums, squirrels, cats, snakes, crows, jays, and, except among the more northern species, probably most fatal of all, the Cowbird. Cowbirds' eggs have now been recorded from the nests of no less than twenty-four species of North American Warblers. These species are included in the appended list which is based in the main on Bendire (Life Histories of North American Birds) : Black and White Warbler, Prothonotary Warbler, Worm-eating Warbler, Blue-winged Warbler, Golden-winged Warbler, Nashville Warbler, Lucy's Warbler, Northern Parula Warbler, Yellow Warbler, Black-throated Blue Warbler, Cerulean Warbler, Blackburnian Warbler, Chestnut-sided Warbler, Blackthroated Green Warbler, Golden-cheeked Warbler, Prairie Warbler, Oven-bird, Northern Water-Thrush, Louisiana Water- Thrush, Kentucky Warbler, Northern Yellow-throat, Chat, Hooded Warbler, and Redstart.
The Cowbird's habit of selecting as a host a bird smaller than itself is doubtless responsible for this long list of victims. The Warblers may build cunningly concealed nests upon the ground, they may place them in the densest thickets, or in trees at a height of over eighty feet, it is apparently all one to this bird, which, never having had a home of its own, has formed no attachment for any particular site, It is not unusual to find three Cowbird's eggs in a single nest, and, in one instance, four are recorded.
Only the Yellow Warbler appears habitually to avoid incubating the intruded egg by building a second, and, should occasion require, a third story to its home, and the fact that with other species the unfortunate Warblers devote the nesting season to the care of their foster children makes this form of persecution far more serious than the loss of merely eggs, which may be replaced by a second or third laying.
During the nesting season, Warblers sometimes suffer, as do other birds, from prolonged wet and cold weather and severe storms, but it is while they are migrating that they are most exposed to danger from the elements. None of our land birds are greater travelers than the Warblers. Journeying by night and crossing large bodies of water, they sometimes encounter storms with which they are ill-prepared to contend, and die in countless numbers. From a large amount of literature on this subject I extract only one or two descriptions of catastrophes of this nature.
In a paper entitled 'On Some Causes Affecting the Decrease of Birds' (Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club, VI, 1881, 189), H. W. Henshaw quotes the account of an eye-witness who writes: "Two years ago there was a heavy storm, lasting some twenty-four hours. It occurred during the first week in September, and the eastern shore of Lake Michigan was strewn with dead birds. I took some pains to count those in a certain number of yards, and estimated that if the eastern shore was alike through all its length, over half a million of birds were lying dead on that side of the lake alone." Added remarks show that many of the birds were Warblers.
described as follows:
"April 2, 1881, found me in a small schooner on the passage from Brazos de Santiago, Texas, to Mobile, Alabama. At about noon of that day the wind suddenly changed from east to north, and within an hour it was blowing a gale ; we were now about thirty miles south of the mouths of the Mississippi River, which would bring the vessel on a line with the river and the peninsula of Yucatan. Up to the time the storm commenced the only land birds seen were three Yellow-rumped Warblers (Dendroica coronata) that came aboard the day previous, keeping us company the most of the day; but within an hour after the storm broke they began to appear, and in a very short time birds of various species were to be seen in all directions, singly and in small flocks, and all flying towards the Mississippi River. These birds, of course, must have been far overhead and only came down near the surface of the water in endeavoring to escape from the force of the wind. By four o'clock it had come to be a serious matter with them, as the gale was too strong for them to make scarcely any progress. A? long as they were in the trough of the sea the wind had very
little effect on them, but as soon as they reached the crest of a wave it would catch them up and in an instant they were blown hundreds of yards back or else into the water and drowned.
"A great many flew on to the deck of the vessel to be washed about by the next wave that came over the side. Although I made no attempt to count the number of specimens that came aboard, I should estimate them at considerably over a hundred, and a great many more struck the sides and tumbled back into the water. It was sad indeed to see them struggling along by the side of the vessel in trying to pass ahead of her, for as soon as they were clear of the bows, they were invariably blown back into the water and drowned. Most of those that came aboard were washed into the sea again, but the next day we found about a dozen dead bodies that had lodged underneath the galley. The following is a list of the species recognized, and if more time could have been given to observation, I undoubtedly could have made out others."
It is, however, not only when migrating over water that Warblers are subject to death by severe storms. Writing from Rockport, Texas, H. P. Atwater says (Auk, IX, 1892, 303) :
March 16.
' "In the evening of that day flocks of Warblers were noticed around the gardens and houses here, and the next day many were found dead or were caught in a half-perished condition. About fifty per cent, of them were Black and White Warblers. (Mniotilta varia}. The remainder were about equally divided between Parulas (Compsothlypis americana) and Sycamore Warblers (Dendroica dominica albilora). Many Sycamore Warblers and Parulas were captured alive in the houses.
motacilla) and one Hooded Warbler (Wilsonia citrina). Many Yellow-rumps were in company with the rest, and, though much tamer than usual, none were found dead or were captured. On the iQth I made a trip for the purpose of observation, and found many Black and White Warblers and Parulas lying dead on the ground at the foot of live-oak trees. From many of the ranches in the country round here, came reports of similar occurrences and many dead birds of the species mentioned have been sent to me."
Without giving further instances of similar character, mention may be made of large numbers of migrating Warblers which annually meet their death by striking light-houses or light-towers. Serious accidents of this nature occur only during cloudy or foggy nights when the birds, losing their bearings, descend from the height at which they have been migrating. Apparently fascinated by the far reaching rays of light, they fly toward their source and, striking some unilluminated part of the tower, are often killed.
Of five hundred and ninety-five birds which were killed by striking the Fire Island Light, Long Island, on the night of September 23, 1887, no less than three hundred and fifty-six were Blackpoll Warblers, and more than half the twenty five species represented were Warblers. (Dutcher, Auk, V, 1888, 182).
Nevertheless, in spite of this unusual mortality, the Warblers, as a family, remain our most abundant birds, an exhaustless food supply and widespread favorable nesting areas apparently enabling them to hold their own in the face of conditions to which many forms of bird Hfe would succumb.
In treating the fifty-five species and nineteen subspecies of Warblers, which have been found north of Mexico, I have followed the order of arrangement adopted by Mr. Ridgway in his 'Birds of North and Middle America', uniformity of method being in my estimation, of more importance than the expression of individual opinion. In the belief, however, that in the work just mentioned, Seiurus was inadvertently inserted between Oporornis and Geothlypis, I have here placed it before these closely related genera.
The inclusion in this book of one hundred and twenty-four colored figures of Warblers is thought to make the presentation of an analytical key to species superfluous. The appended summary of their more striking generic characters and habits may, however, prove useful:
Genus MNIOTILTA Vieillot
The genus Mniotilta contains but a single species which is distinguished among the Warblers for its creeper-like habits. As might be expected, so marked a trait is reflected in the bird's form, the bill being proportionately long, slender, and slightly decurved, with the upper mandible usually notched at the tip and projecting over the lower. The hind-toe, in comparison with the middle-toe, is longer and has a stouter nail than in any of our other Warblers. The rictal bristles are very small, the tail is nearly square and, compared with the wing, is rather short. The wing is long and pointed, the three outer primaries being of nearly equal length. In color both sexes are black and white, the male being the blacker, the female, especially in the fall, showing a brownish wash.
BLACK AND WHITE WARBLER 39
Adult c? Spring.— Crown black, a white stripe through its center and over each eye; cheeks entirely or largely black; back black striped with white; upper tail-coverts black, their outer webs margined with white; tail blackish, externally margined with gray, usually all but the central pair of feathers with white patches or margins on the inner web at the tip ; wings blackish, externally edged with grayish, tertiaries and coverts black, the first margined, the latter broadly tipped with white forming two wing-bars ; throat black usually with more or less white and with white stripes at either side from the base of the bill ; breast and sides streaked black and white, center of the belly white.
breast and throat, the latter sometimes wholly white.
Young c? Fall.— Similar to adult d1 Fall, but with cheeks entirely or largely white with a black postocular streak; the throat and center of the breast white, the black streaks of the underparts being confined to the sides and under tail-coverts.
Adult $ Spring. — Similar to adult d" in Spring, but above less glossy and more or less washed with brownish, particularly on the rump; the cheeks grayish or whitish with a brownish tinge sometimes extending to the sides of the throat and breast ; below white, the streakings duskier, less sharply defined and confined to the sides and crissum, which, with the flanks, is usually strongly washed with brownish. Resembles young d* but is less distinctly streaked below and shows brownish tinge.
foundland and the Mackenzie Valley, west to the Rocky Mountains.
Summer Range. — Breeds commonly as far south as to New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Iowa ; less commonly to North Carolina, Missouri, and Kansas ; locally and rarely in the Gulf States ; west regularly to central Texas, central Kansas, and central South Dakota; north to New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, Hudson Bay, and Mackenzie (Fort Norman) ; casually to Lesser Slave Lake and Peace River Landing, Athabasca; occurs westward casually in Colorado (Boulder, Table Rock), and in California (Farallone Islands, May 28, 1887; Pasadena, October 8, 1895; Arroyo Seco, Los Angeles Co., October 2, 1895 '•> Point Lobos, Monterey Co., Sept. 9, 1901 ; Watsonville, Sept. 24, 1903); Washington (Olympia, Sept. 8, 1903).
Spring Migration.— A few Black and White Warblers winter in southern Florida, so that the only way of knowing the beginnings of spring migration in that district is from the records of the striking of the birds at the lighthouses. Both at Alligator Reef and at Sombrero Key lighthouses in southern Florida, this species begins to strike early in March. Thence, northward the progress is so slow — an average of twenty miles per day — that it is the middle of May before the species has reached the Gulf of St. Lawrence.
Fall Migration.— The Black and White Warbler is one of the earliest fall migrants; it begins to appear in the Gulf States early in July, and reaches southern Florida by the middle of the month. South of the United States it has been noted in southern Mexico August 13, 1895; in Costa Rica August 10, 1883; and in Colombia, South America, August 21, 1898.
October 3, 1888
The Bird and its Haunts. — The Black and White Warbler may be said to be generally distributed throughout deciduous woodlands. When migrating it visits the trees of our lawns and orchards but the nature of its nesting site requires less cultivated surroundings. But wherever seen it may be known by striped markings and creeping habits. Though it may at times borrow the manners of what may be called the fluttering Warblers, they rarely adopt its characteristic method of running actively up tree-trunks, over and under limbs with all the agility of a true Creeper (Certhia} or Nuthatch. The Pine Warbler clings to the bark of trees, the Yellow-throated Warbler climbs to some extent among the upper branches but in its mode of progression none rivals the Black and White Warbler.
When flushed from the nest, the female, with tremulous wings trails painfully over the dead leaves in an evident effort to lead the intruder from her home and its contents.
"The Black and White Warbler is a bird of deciduous and mixed growth, rarely found in the dense spruce forests, and more commonly in scrubby second growth than in the big primeval timber. Not common on the higher parts of Mt. Monadnock, even where, — as on the eastern slopes, — the woods are suitable. Fairly common in summer and abundant in migrations everywhere about the mountain's base." (Thayer, MS.}
"At Berwyn, Pa., the Black and White Warbler inhabits timbered upland, the rocky wooded hillsides and down to the damp swampy thickets whenever there are sufficient tmdergrowths of laurel, saplings, etc. It is at all times a woodland bird.
"I have frequently seen the male and the female carrying white grubs and white moths to their young; and feed a big lubberly Cowbird, out of the nest, as late as June 27. Another time, a female fed a young Cowbird, at large, with green grubs taken from the leaves of the chestnut and oak sapling. Three times in as many minutes she dropped morsels down its gluttonous throat, all the while exhibiting the most jealous care, guarding it from harm. It was well able to fly." (Burns, MS.}
Song. — The Black and White Warbler is not a vociferous singer and its high screening notes, to which the terms thin and wiry are commonly applied, might readily escape the notice of a person not listening for birds' voices. The sharp pit alarm note is rapidly and loudly repeated when the birds fear for the safety of their young.
"The ordinary call-note of the species, both in fall and spring, resembles the syllable dzt ; it often uttered rapidly, thus : dzt-dzt-dztdzt, while the bird is creeping about the trunks and large limbs of trees. The usual song — not uttered in fall, I think — is monotonous, consisting of a single lisping syllable repeated rather rapidly, five or six times. A much rarer song I have heard in spring when much migrational activity was being shown; this is much more elaborate, and longer than the other. I heard it once in Amite County in July ; when the singer may have been a breeding bird" (Allison, MS.}
"This Warbler has at least two main songs, both penetrating and perfectly smooth-toned, as well as thin and wiry. The one commonly described consists of about eight like-toned notes, in barelyseparated couplets, with a slight emphasis on the second note of each couplet : Ssee-wwee-ssee-wwee-ssee-wwee-ssee-wwee, — uttered neither fast nor slowly. This song seems to be comparatively little subject to variation, though by no means free from it. The other, longer and less common song begins in the same way, but continues, after the six or eight ordinary notes, with two or three somewhat hurried repetitions of the phrase, all in a slightly richer and more liquid tone, and one or two on a slightly lower key. Thin and slight though it is, this complete song has something of a rollicking sound, and ranks very high among weak-voiced Warbler songs. The Black and White's common call-note, small and rather sharp, is pretty easily recogniz-
or in the shelter of a log.
Nest. — Bulky, composed of dead leaves, strips of grape-vine or cedar bark, or soft inner bark of other trees, grasses and rootlets and lined with hairs; sometimes more or less roofed.
Eggs. — 4 or 5, usually 5. Ground color of creamy white to white, heavily and profusely spotted and specked with reddish brown, chestnut, hazel and lavender, tending to form a wreath around large end, but quite evenly marked all over. Many types approach those of the Canada and Lutescent Warblers, some few specimens exhibit small blotches. The shape is a rounded oval, less pointed than the majority of our Warblers' eggs. Size; average, .66x_53 ; extremes, 72X.52, .62X.52, .69X.55, .64x48. (Figs. 3-5.)
Nesting Dates.— Iredell Co., N. C, April 18 (/. P. N. ) ; West Chester, Pa., June 2, young on wing (Jackson) ; New York City, May 18 (F. M. C.) ; New Haven, Conn., May 2O-June 4, three eggs, two young (Bishop) ; Cambridge, Mass., full sets of first laying, May 18-30 (Brewster) ; Bangor, Me., May 2/-June 21 (Knight) ; Listowell, Ont, May 23-June 10 (Kelts).
BIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES
(i) J. P. N. [ORRIS], A Series of Eggs of the Black and White Warbler, Orn. and O6L, XIII, 1888, 183. (2) W. L. KELLS, Nesting of some Canadian Warblers, Ottawa Naturalist, XV, 1902, 229.
Genus HELINAIA Swainson
Helinaia bears a strong general resemblance, both in form and color, to Helmitheros, the bill, however, is longer (nearly equalling the head in length), and much straighter, the arc of the culmen is not convex, its ridge is more developed and sharper, and parts the feathers of the forehead more deeply; the wing is slightly more rounded, the tail-feathers are broader, the under tail-coverts reach to within half an inch, or less, of the the end of the tail, the tarsus is slightly longer than the middle-toe and nail.
Adult <$, Spring. — Crown cinnamon-brown, forehead with a more or less indistinct buffy median streak; a whitish line over the eye and a dusky streak through it ; back olive-brown ; tail the same without white patches ; wings, like back, without white bars or edgings ; underparts whitish more or less tinged with yellowish, the sides grayer; bill brownish, legs flesh-color.
Adult <$, Fall. — Not seen; doubtless not materially different from the last. Young <$, Fall — Doubtless similar to adult c? in Fall. Adult $, Spring. — Similar to adult c? in Spring. Adult $, Fall. — Not seen, doubtless resembles Spring $. Young ?, Fall. — Similar to $ in Spring.
Nestling. — Above cinnamon-brown, paler below, the belly whitish. General Distribution. — Eastern United States; north to Virginia and Indiana; west to the Mississippi River.
Summer Range. — This is one of the rarer Warblers of the United States ; its breeding range on the Atlantic coast extends from northern Florida (the lower Suwanee River) to Virginia (Dismal Swamp). It is strictly a swamp lover and along the Gulf coast to Louisiana, it is not uncommon in the few localities that seem suited to its habits. Thence it ranges up the Mississippi River to southeastern Missouri, and up the Wabash to Knox county, Indiana. Accidental twice in Texas (Navarro county, August 24, 1880; Port Bolivar, April 17, 1904) and once in Mexico (Vera Cruz, winter, 1887-88).
taken from October i to April 8.
Spring Migration. — The earliest recorded spring arrival in the United States was on March 22, 1890 on the lower Suwanee River. The same year the species was taken at the Tortugas, March 25 to April 5. The other records of the first arrival in spring are: Sombrero Key lighthouse April 3, 1889; Savannah, Ga., April 8-16, 1894; Kirkwood, Ga., May 4, 1898; Frogmore, S. C, April 1-5, 1885; New Orleans, La., April 8, 1898; April i, 1904; March 30, 1905; Bayou Sara, La., April 8, 1887; Coosada, Ala., April 12, 1878. Fall Migration. — This begins rather late when compared with the date of nesting. Fledged young have been seen near Charleston, S. C., by June 9, but the earliest date of striking at Sombrero lighthouse is August 17, 1888; other dates at this lighthouse extend from September 14, 1884, to October 26, 1885, and at Key West, Fla., from the middle of September to September 20.
The Bird and its Haunts. — Swainson's Warbler has an interesting history. Discovered by Bachman near Charleston, S. C, in 1832, the bird remained virtually unknown until 1878. In the intervening years, it is true, four additional specimens had been taken (see Brewster2) but nothing was published concerning its habits until Brown1 observed it in Alabama, on April 12 of the last-named year. During the six following years the species was detected in Texas, and again near Charleston, but it was not until 1884 that, with the exception of Bachman's and Brown's observations, we had any information of this bird in nature. In that year through the definitely directed efforts of Brewster2 and Wayne3 it proved to be a locally common species near Charleston, as it has since been found to be in many other places, and it is from Brewster's account of his field work in the spring of the year mentioned that the following extracts are made:
"While the facts already given prove incontestably that the present species may occur at times in dry, scrubby, woods, or even in such open situations as orange groves, it certainly haunts by preference the ranker growth of swamps, to which, indeed, it appears to be confined during the nesting season. * * * The particular kind of swamp to which he is most partial is known in local parlance as a 'pineland gall.' It is usually a depression in the otherwise level surface, down which winds a brook, in places flowing swiftly between well-defined banks, in others divided into several sluggish channels, or spreading about in stagnant pools, margined by a dense growth of cane, and covered with lily leaves or other aquatic vegetation. Its course through the open pinelands is sharply marked by a belt of hardwood trees nourished to grand proportions by rich soil and abundant moisture. * * * More extensive swamps, especially those bordering the larger streams, are subject to inundations, which, bringing down deposits of alluvial soil, bury up or sweep away the humbler plants, leaving a floor of unsightly mud, interspersed with pools of stagnant water. Such places answer well enough for the Prothonotary and Hooded Warblers, which, although essentially swamp lovers, are not to any extent terrestrial; but you are not likely to find Swainson's Warblers in them, unless about the outskirts, or in islands elevated above the reach of the floods. Briefly, four things seem indispensable to its existence, viz., water, tangled thickets, patches of cane, and a rank growth of semi-aquatic plants. * * *
"When not singing Swainson's Warbler is a silent, retiring bird, spending nearly his entire time on the ground in the darkest recesses of his favorite swamps, rambling about over the decaying leaves or
among the rank water-plants in search of small beetles which constitute his principal food. His gait is distinctly a walk, his motions gliding and graceful. Upon alighting in the branches, after being flushed from the ground, he assumes a statuesque attitude, like that of a startled Thrush. While singing he takes an easier posture, but rarely moves on his perch. If desirous of changing his position, he flies from branch to branch, instead of hopping through the twigs in the manner of most Warblers. * * *
In Mississippi, Allison (MS.) writes that Swainson's Warbler is "Everywhere a bird of the cane-brakes — not the heavy riverswamp brakes of Arundinaria gigantea, but the thick patches of A. tecta. These are found in the borders of the deep river swamps, and in the low, rich, parts of somewhat less swampy woods. This Warbler, like the Worm-eating, is constantly rustling among the leaves ; but it is nearly always on the ground that it seeks its food, among the fallen leaves at the roots of the trees."
Song. — "A bird emerged from a thicket within a few yards of me, where he had been industriously searching among the fallen leaves, flew into a small sapling, and gave utterance to a loud, ringing and very beautiful song. * * * I was impressed by the absorbed manner in which this bird sings. Sitting quietly upon a limb of a small tree, he suddenly throws back his head and pours forth his notes with utmost fervor and abandon. During the intervals of silence he remains motionless, with plumage ruffled, as if completely lost in musical reverie." (Brown*.)
"A performance so remarkable that it can scarcely fail to attract the dullest ear, while it is not likely to be soon forgotten. It consists of a series of clear, ringing whistles, the first four uttered rather slowly and in the same key, the remaining five or six given more rapidly, and in an evenly descending scale, like those of the Canon Wren (Catherpes mexicanus conspersus. In general effect it recalls the song of the Water-Thrush (Seiurus noveboracensis.) It is very loud, very rich, very beautiful, while it has an indescribably tender quality that thrills the senses after the sound has ceased.
"It is ventriloquial to such a degree that there is often great difficulty in tracing it to its source. * * * In addition to its song this Warbler utters a soft tchip indistinguishable from that of Parula americana, but wholly unlike the cry of any ground Warbler of my acquaintance. I heard this note on only one occasion, when the bird
presence of a snake.
"Although a rarely fervent and ecstatic songster, our little friend is also a fitful and uncertain one. You may wait for hours near his retreat even in early morning or late afternoon, without hearing a note. But when the inspiration comes he floods the woods with music, one song often following another so quickly that there is scarce a pause for breath between. In this manner I have known him sing for fully twenty minutes, although ordinarily tne entire performance occupies less than half that time. Such outbursts may occur at almost any hour, even at noontide, and I have heard them in the gloomiest of weather, when the woods were shrouded in mist and rain." (Brewster*}
Nesting Site. — "The nests are generally built in canes, but I have also found them in small bushes, and, in one instance, in a climbing vine by the side of a large public road. The height from the ground varies from two to eight feet, but they are always near or over a pond of water." (Wayne*}
high, dry land.
Nest. — "The nest is a remarkable affair — very large, made of water-soaked leaves of the sweet gum, water oak, holly and cane, lined with needles of the pine trees and a little dry moss. The stems of the leaves point upwards, and the nest can easily be mistaken for a bunch of old leaves lodged in the top of a cane." (Wayne.9)
Eggs. — 3 or 4, very rarely 4. Ground color white, creamy white and bluish white, unmarked, little or no gloss ; in shape very blunted at small end. Size; average, .75*. 59; extremes, 79X.57, . 72x^9,
(i) N. C. BROWN, A List of Birds Observed in Central Alabama, Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club, III, 1878, 172. (2) WILLIAM BREWSTER, Swainson's Warbler [in So. Car.], Auk, II, 1885, 65. (3) A. T. WAYNE, Nesting of Swainson's Warbler in South Carolina, Orn. and O61., XI, 1886, 187. (4) T. D. PERRY, Nesting of Swainson's Warbler [near Savannah, Ga.], Orn. and O61., XI, 1886, 188. (5) C. W. BECKHAM, Additions to the Avifauna of Bayou Sara, La., Auk, IV, 1887, 305. (6) T. D. PERRY, Some Additional Notes on Swainson's Warbler, Orn. and O61., XII, 1887, 141. (7) J. P. N[ORRIS], A Series of Eggs of Swainson's Warbler, Orn. and O61., XIII, 1888, 185.
Genus HELMITHEROS Rafinesque
Helmitheros is chiefly distinguished by its stout bill, which, in proportion to the size of the bird, is more robust than in any other genus of this family, except Chamcethlypis; the ridge of the culmen is curved, its base is decidedly ridged and intrudes upon the feathers of the forehead; the bill is unnotched; rictal bristles not evident. The wing is rather pointed, about .80 inches longer than the tail ; the three outer primaries are of nearly equal length; the tail is rather short, the feathers of about equal length, obtusely, but decidedly pointed; the under tail-coverts are long, reaching to within nearly .50 inches of the end of the tail. The feet are well developed, the tarsus about equalling in length the middle-toe and nail.
Adult 3, Spring. — Crown with a broad median olive-buff stripe separated from stripes over the eyes, of the same color, by broad stripes of black; a well-marked black or blackish post-ocular stripe, lores sometimes dusky; back, olive-green ; tail olive-green without white ; wings like back, without white, the bend yellowish; underparts cream-buff, belly, and sometimes throat, whiter.
Summer Range. — Common in the heavily timbered bottom lands of Southern Illinois and Indiana and eastward to the lower portions of the valleys of the Hudson and Connecticut rivers. It is not uncommon in the lower parts of the Allegheny Mountains from northwestern South Carolina to southern New York, and from the Dismal Swamp of Virginia northward. Outside of this usual range it has been taken in Vermont (St. Albans, 1891), Massachusetts (Easthampton, Cambridge, September 19, 1881, Taunton, May 9, 1890) ;
New York, (Penn Yan, Onondago) ; Northern Ohio (Cleveland, May 2, 1873); southern Michigan; southern Wisconsin (Racine, Milwaukee, Lake Koshkonong) ; central Iowa (Des Moines, Grinnell, May 15, 1886) ; southeastern Nebraska (Omaha, Lincoln) ; eastern Kansas (Lawrence, May 6, 1873; Atchinson, May 31, 1899).
The species nests rarely south of the latitude of southern Virginia, except in the mountains, but has been recorded as breeding at Raleigh, N. C. ; La Grange, Ala. ; Rodney, Miss., and northern Louisiana. It occurs in migration throughout the Gulf States to eastern Texas.
April 18, 1900
Fall Migration. — The earliest fall migrant was recorded at Key West, Fla., August 30; the average date at which they first strike the Florida lighthouses is September 14. Migration at the mouth of the Mississippi is at about the same time, earliest August n. The latest migrants are noted at Raleigh, N. C., September 2; near New Orleans, La., September 30; Key West, Fla., about October I.
The Bird and its Haunts.— The Worm-eating Warbler appears to be a locally common bird from southern Pennsylvania southward, but is rather uncommon from this point northward. In a degree it is a connecting link between the terrestrial and arboreal Warblers, and feeds both upon the ground and in the trees. In color, voice, and actions it is far too inconspicuous to force itself on our attention and its presence is usually detected only by the watchful.
F. L. Burns6 reports it as common, but extremely local, at Berwyn, Pa., where it inhabits the wooded hill-slopes. "I do not remember," he says, "having ever met with it in the open, or in small groves of the bottom lands. It is at home in the second growth timber of the hills, and is very deliberate in its movements, seeming never in a hurry and yet never idle.
"The bird exhibits a remarkable love for its chosen nesting haunts, building the second and third nest within a radius of a few hundred feet when disturbed, and returning year after year to the same place if successful in raising a brood. I have not observed a single pair building on the exact site of former years, but on several occasions within a few feet of it. While the female takes the leading part, the male is always present and seems busy, a by no means silent partner in the selection of site and construction of nest. * * *
"Incubation does not always commence immediately after completion of set, particularly if the season be young. It is probable that the second night witnesses the beginning of that period and, as far as my experience goes, I believe it is performed by the female alone. The male feeds her when covering newly hatched young. The homecoming of a brooding bird, after a brief airing and feeding, is heralded several hundred yards distant by frequent chips and short flights from branch to branch near the ground, in leisurely fashion and circuitous route, until at length, arriving above the nest, she runs down a sapling and is silent. The bird is a close sitter and if approached from the open front will often allow a few minutes' silent inspection, eye to eye, at arm's length, sometimes not vacating until touched, then she runs off in a sinuous trail, not always feigning lameness before the young are out. When disturbed with young in the nest she flutters off with open wings and tail, and failing to lead one off, will return with her mate, who is seldom far off at this period, circling about the nest or intrude*-. anH if the young are well feathered, she will dash at them, forcing them from the nest and to shelter. Once this brave little bird dashed at me and ran up to my knee, scratching with her sharp little claws at every step. On the return the birds always make the vicinity ring with their protests — a quickly repeated chip. The period of incubation in one instance was thirteen days."
retired thickets in the woods along water courses, and seldom or never found in the high open groves. They keep much on the ground, where they walk about rather slowly, searching for their food among the dried leaves. In general appearance they are quite unique, and I rarely failed to identify one with an instant's glance, so very peculiar are all their attitudes and motions.
"The tail is habitually carried at an elevation considerably above the line of the back, which gives them quite a smart, jaunty air, and if the dorsal aspect be exposed in a clear light, the peculiar marking of the crown is quite conspicuous. Seen as they usually are, however, dimly flitting ahead through the gloom and shadow of the thickets, the impression received is that of a dark little bird which vanishes unaccountably before your very eyes, leaving you quite uncertain where to look for it next; indeed, I hardly know a more difficult bird to procure, for the slightest noise sends it darting off through the woods at once. Occasionally you will come upon one winding around the trunk of some small tree, exactly in the manner of Mniotilta varia, moving out along the branches with nimble motion, peering alternately under the bark on either side, and anon returning to the main stem, perhaps in the next instant to hop back to the ground again. On such occasions they rarely ascend to the height of more than eight or ten feet. The males are very quarrelsome, Chasing one another through the woods with loud, sharp chirpings, careering with almost inconceivable velocity up among the tops of the highest oaks, or darting among the thickets with interminable doublings, until the pursuer, growing tired of the chase, alights on some low twig or old mossy log, and in token of his victory, utters a warble so feeble that you must be very near to catch it at all, a sound like that produced by striking two pebbles very quickly and gently together, or the song of Spisella socialis heard at a distance, and altogether a very indifferent performance." (Breivster2.)
ment on the similarity.
Mr. W. DeW. Miller of Plainsfield, New Jersey, tells me that he has on two occasions heard a flight song from this species. It is described by him as much more varied and musical than the ordinary song, though lacking in strength. It was given as the bird flew through the woods at an even level, not rising above the tree-tops, as does the Oven-bird and other flight singers.
This is probably the song referred to by Jones in the following quotation: "Mr. Burns describes a song that resembles that of a Goldfinch; chat-ah-che-che-chee-chee-chee, which seems to correspond well with a passion song in the manner of utterance."
"Commonly remains in song after its arrival until the second week in July. Sometimes singing ceases a little earlier than this ; again, in other years, songs are to be heard until the third week of the month.
"The second song-period of this Warbler I can speak of only from one season's experience. On July 10, 1881, several of these birds were silently inhabiting a small tract of woodland, their first season of song having passed; here on August 14, and again on the 2ist, they were found in fine plumage and in full song.
"The songs of no three birds known to me are more alike than those of the Worm-eating Warbler, the Chipping Sparrow", and the Slate-colored Junco." (Bicknell.8)
"Call-note a sharp dzt like that of Swainson's Warbler, or the Black and White Warbler; it is uttered at all times and seasons. The song is a perfectly monotonous trill; it is uttered during spring migration during momentary pauses in the active creeping of the bird — never in flight. I have seen a bird perch for some time upon an exposed dead limb, uttering the song at short intervals, and meanwhile sitting quite still. This was on April 26, in Tishomingo county — almost too soon for the bird to have had a nest. I have heard no song in the fall." (Allison, MS.)
"I can distinguish no difference between the notes of this species and those of the Chipping Sparrow ; the first may be a trifle weaker, perhaps. The series of notes may be uttered while perched, or cieeping about the lower branches of the trees, sapling tops, bushes, or fallen brush, or while on the ground. With slightly drooping tail and wings, puffing out of body plumage, throwing its head back until the beak is perpendicular, it trills with swelling throat an unvarying Che — e-e-e-e-e-e, which does not sound half so monotonous in the woods as does the Chippy's lay in the open. The first song period is from the time of arrival until June 24 to July 5, but during the last two weeks, when housekeeping is a thing of the past and the hot days have come, it is seldom heard except in the early morning, beginning about four o'clock, and in the cool of the evening. The second song period is very brief and follows the molt. I have no dates." (Burns, MS.}
Nesting Site.— "It always nests on the ground, generally on a steep hillside in the woods. A stream of water or a swamp seem to be a desirable condition." (Jackson.3)
Ladd4 states that the nest is placed at the foot of either a sapling or small bush, not necessarily on a hillside but sometimes on level ground in open places with little shade.
Nest. — "The nest is invariably lined with the red flower stalks of the hair moss (Poly trie hium)." (Jackson.3) Ladd confirms this habit and adds: "Sometimes fine grass and horse-hair are used as part of the lining." The body or outside of the nests is composed of leaves only. Nests taken by J. N. Clark at Saybrook, Connecticut (C. W. C.) are composed of decayed leaves and lined with stems of maple seeds.
Eggs- — 3 to 6, usually 4 or 5. Ground color white with a wide variation in markings from sparingly to profusely marked with spots, specks, and blotches of chestnut, lavender, light and dark reddish, with a tendency to form wreaths around the larger end, but in most cases a nearly evenly marked egg. In shape some are rounded oval and others much pointed. Size; average, .6o,x.53; extremes, .75x.58, .64x48. (Figs. 9- 1 1.)
Nesting Dates.— Iredell County N. C, May lo (J. P. N.) ; West Chester, Pa., May 26- June 15 (Jackson) ; Waynesburg, Pa., May i6-June ii (Jacobs)', New York City, May 20 (F. M. C.)', New Haven, Conn., May 25-June 19 (Bishop).
(i) R. RIDGWAY, Field and Forest, i, 1875, 10. (2) WM. BREWSTER, Observations on the Birds of Ritchie County, West Virginia, Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist., N. Y., XI, 1875, 134. (3) T. H. JACKSON, Nesting of the Worm-eating Warbler [in S. E. Pa.], Orn. and O61., XI, 1886, 156. (4) S. B. LADD, Nesting of the Worm-eating Warbler [in S. E. Pa.], Orn. and O61., XII, 1887, no; (5) A Series of Eggs of the Worm-eating Warbler, Ibid, 149. (6) F. L. BURNS, The Worm-eating Warbler [in Penn.], Bird-Lore, VII, 1905, 137. (7) J P. N [ORRIS], A Series of Eggs of the Worm-eating Warbler, Orn. and O61., XV, 1890, 118. (8) E. P. BICKNELL, A Study of the Singing of our Birds, Auk, I, 1884, 210.
Genus PROTONOTARIA Baird
Protonotaria citrea, the single species contained in this genus, has the bill long, stout, aculeate, the upper mandible nearly straight but somewhat decurved at the slightly notched tip, the ridge of culmen is pronounced and slightly parts the feathers of the forehead,
PROTHONOTARY WARBLER
the rictal bristles are barely evident. The wing is rather broad, not especially pointed, the tail is short, square, or even somewhat rounded, the outer feather being slightly the shortest; the under tail-coverts are long, reaching to within half an inch, or less, of the end of the tail; the hind-toe is shorter but stouter than the middle toe.
Distinguishing Characters. — The prevailing orange-yellow color, grayish wings and absence of wing-bars will always distinguish this species. Length (skin), 4.90; wing, 2.85; tail, 1.85; bill, .55.
Adult <$, Spring. — Whole head orange-yellow; back yellowish green; rump and upper tail-coverts gray; tail margined with gray, all but the central pair of feathers white on the inner web except at the tip, which is black; wings black, externally margined with gray, lesser coverts like the back, greater coverts tinged with same, first primary covert blackish margined with whitish, bend of wing yellow; below orange-yellow changing to white on the crissum; bill black.
primary covert grayer.
Adult $, Spring. — Resembles adult <£ but crown duller, greenish yellow or orange, back the same changing to gray on the rump; tail with less white, the black areas duller; below averaging paler than the adult and with more white on the lower belly.
and Minnesota, west nearly to the Plains.
Summer Range. — The Prothonotary Warbler is pre-eminently a bird of damp woods in the immediate vicinity of water, and, in general terms, it can be said that its principal summer home is the bottom lands of the Mississippi River and its tributaries to an altitude of one thousand feet; north to northwestern Ohio (St. Mary's Reservoir), northeastern Indiana (Steuben County), southern Ontario (Hamilton), southeastern Michigan (Lansing), central Wisconsin (Shiocton), southeastern Minnesota (Hastings); west to central
Iowa (Des Moines), eastern Nebraska (Omaha, Lincoln and West Point), central Kansas (Manhattan and Neosho Falls), Oklahoma City and Kiowa Agency), and eastern Texas (Gainesville and Austin).
Along the Atlantic slope, near the coast, the species is common north to the Dismal Swamp of Virginia, and rare locally, thence to western Delaware (Choptank River). It breeds south to northern Florida. It has occurred accidentally in Pennsylvania (Arcola, May 15, 1887; near Philadelphia, May 1879; Allegheny County, May 17, 1892; Chester County, May; Lancaster County); New Jersey, (Haddonfield) ; New York (Montauk Point, L. I., August 26, 1886; Jamaica, May 1849; Yonkers, June 2, 1895); Rhode Island, (South Kingston, April 20, 1884; Lonsdale, April 29, 1892 and April 19, 1893) > Massachusetts (South Abington; Northampton, May 1883; Concord, May 9, 1886, August 17 and 23, 1886; Auburndale, June 19, 1890; Hyde Park, May 21, 1892; Mattapan Station September 15, 1894) ; New Brunswick (St. Stephens, October 30, 1862), and Arizona (Tucson, May i, 1884).
Yucatan.
Spring Migration: Atlantic Coast. — The earliest record in the United States for this species is Sombrero Key Light, Florida, March n, 1888; the average date of arrival in northern Florida is the first week in April, the earliest, being Suwanee River, March 22, 1890, and Perdido Lighthouse, March 22, 1885. At Charleston, S. C, eight struck the light April 8, 1902. At Cumberland, Ga., the earliest record is April 10, 1902; on April 15, 1902 this was the most common among the birds that swarmed about the light; it was again abundant the next night. The average at Raleigh, N. C., is April 18.
Mississippi Valley. — At New Orleans, La., the earliest record is March 13, 1888, the average being March 18. Additional records are : Central Mississippi, average April 6, earliest April 3, 1889 ; Lomita, Texas, March 26, 1880; Matagorda Island, Texas, March 31, 1900; Dallas, Texas, April 8, 1898, April 6, 1899; Manhattan, Kansas, April 25, 1891, April 26, 1894, April 26, 1895; St. Louis, Mo., April 18, 1884, April 20, 1885; Wabash County, Illinois, April 19, 1878; Knox County, Indiana, April 18, 1881 ; Vigo County, Indiana, April 10, 1896; Elkhart County, Indiana, April 27, 1891, and Shiocton, Wis., May 4, 1882.
28, 1888, and August 8, 1889. The earliest records south of the United States are on the coast of southeastern Nicaragua, September 2, 1892, and in northern Colombia, South America, September 25. The latest date at Raleigh, N. C, is August 26, and at Omaha, Nebr., August 25 to September 10. The latest Florida record is of a bird that struck the light at Sombrero Key, September 25, 1888, and the latest from New Orleans is September 24, 1893. The only fall record for the West Indies is of one taken at New Providence, Bahamas, August 28, 1898.
The route of the Prothonotary Warbler in its fall migration is interesting; the breeding birds of the Middle Atlantic States apparently pass southwest to northwestern Florida and then take a seven-hundred-mile flight directly across the Gulf of Mexico to southern Yucatan, instead of crossing to Cuba and thence to Yucatan.
The Bird and its Haunts. — The charm of its haunts and the beauty of its plumage combine to render the Prothonotary Warbler among the most attractive members of this family. I clearly recall my own first meeting with it in the Suwanee River region of Florida. Quietly paddling my canoe along one of the many enchanting, and, I was then quite willing to believe, enchanted streams which flowed through the forests into the main river, this glowing bit of bird-life gleamed like a torch in the night. No neck-straining examination with opera-glass pointed to the tree-tops, was required to determine his identity, as, flitting from bush to bush along the river's bank, his golden plumes were displayed as though for my special benefit.
If all our Warblers had received the attention which the Prothonotary's attractions have won for him, the preparation of this volume would have been a much easier and more satisfactory task. Space, indeed, prohibits adequate quotations from the monographs of which this bird has been the subject, and for more detailed information than can here well be presented, the student is referred to the papers cited beyond. From the one by William Brewster1, the following admirable pen picture of the Prothonotary and its haunts is extracted :
In the heavily timbered bottoms of the Wabash and White Rivers, Brewster writes, two things were found to be essential to the Prothonotary's presence, "namely, an abundance of willows and the immediate proximity of water. Thickets of button bushes did indeed satisfy a few scattered and perhaps not over particular individuals and pairs, but away from water they never were seen. So marked
was this preference, that the song of the male heard from the woods indicated to us as surely the proximity of some river, pond, or flooded swamp, as did the croaking of frogs or peeping of hylas.
"In general activity and restlessness few birds equal the species under consideration. Not a nook or corner of his domain but is repeatedly visited through the day. Now he sings a few times from the top of some tall willow that leans out over the stream, sitting motionless among the yellowish foliage, fully aware, perhaps, of the protection afforded by its harmonizing tints. The next moment he descends to the cool shades beneath, where dark, coffee-colored water, the over-flow of pond or river, stretches back among the trees. * * *
"This Warbler usually seeks its food low down among thickets, moss-grown logs, or floating debris, and always about the water. Sometimes it ascends tree-trunks for a little way like the Black and White Creeper [=Warbler], winding about with the same peculiar motion. When seen among the upper branches, where it often goes to preen its feathers and sing in the warm sunshine, it almost invariably sits nearly motionless. Its flight is much like that of the WaterThrush (either species) and is remarkably swift, firm, and decided. When crossing a broad stream it is slightly undulating, though always direct."
"The typical haunt is low, flat, woodland, preferably with some standing water; this is usually a river bottom, though a 'bay-gall,' or low swamp among pine-lands, wooded with white bay, black-gum, etc., often answers the purpose. In Louisiana, a piece of ground recently deposited by the Mississippi River, and covered with a thick growth of willows, is attractive to this Warbler. It joins less than many other species with the roving bands of migrant Warblers in the upland woods."
Song. — "The usual song of the Prothonotary Warbler sounds at a distance like the call of the Solitary Sandpiper with a syllable or two added, — a simple peet, tweet, tweet, tweet, given on the same key throughout. Often when the notes came from the farther shore of a river or pond we were completely deceived. On more than one occasion, when a good opportunity for comparison was offered by the actual presence of both birds at the same time, we found that at the distance of several hundred yards their notes were absolutely indistinguishable; nearer at hand, however, the resemblance is lost,
and a ringing penetrating quality becomes apparent in the Warbler's song. It now sounds like peet, tsweet, tsweet, tsweet, or sometimes tweet, tr-sweet, tr-sweet, tr-sweet. When the bird sings within a few yards the sound is almost startling in its intensity, and the listener feels inclined to stop his ears. The male is a fitful singer, and is quite as apt to be heard in the hot noontide or on cloudy days, when other birds are silent, as during the cool morning and evening hours. The ordinary note of alarm or distress is a sharp one, so nearly like that of the Large-billed Water-Thrush (Seiurus motacilla} that the slight difference can only be detected by a critical ear. When the sexes meet a soft tchip of recognition common to nearly all the Warblers is used. In addition to the song above described the male has a different and far sweeter one, which is reserved for select occasions, an outpouring of the bird's most tender feelings, intended for the ears of his mate alone, like the rare evening warble of the Oven-bird (Seiurus aurocapillus) . It is apparently uttered only while on the wing. Although so low and feeble as to be inaudible many rods away, it is very sweet, resembling somewhat the song of the Canary given in an undertone, with trills or 'water notes' interspersed. The flight during its delivery is very different from that at all other times. The bird progresses slowly, with a trembling, fluttering motion, its head raised and tail expanded. This song was heard most frequently after incubation had begun." (Brewster1.)
Nesting Site. — Brewster1 writes that to give an account of all the situations in which he has found nests of this species "would entail a description of nearly every conceivable kind of hole or cavity that can be found in tree-trunks. The typical nesting-site, however, was the deserted hole of the Downy Woodpecker or Carolina Chickadee. The height varied from two to fifteen feet, though the usual elevation was about four." Barnes's2 observations agree with Brewster's but he adds that, rarely, nests are found as high as twenty-five feet. Both writers state that the height of the nest and its distance from the water depend upon the fall in the water after the site has been selected.
A wide, and apparently not infrequent departure from the type of nesting-site just described is the vicinity of houses (Ganier5) and, in one instance, a railroad bridge (Roberts*} when, bluebird-like, the bird accepts nest-boxes or similar situations.
arrange.
"The female begins by bringing some fine straws or grasses which are arranged in a nice nest in the bottom of the hole. Next she procures some fine strips of grape-vine bark, and lines her nest, and lastly covers this all over carefully and thickly with moss which grows on the bark of trees standing in the water. * * * They very rarely use any feathers or hair, and sometimes build their nest entirely of one of the above materials." (Barnes2.)
Ganier (MS.) writes that in Mississippi the birds "frequently excavate their own hole in the soft cottonwood stumps," a habit not mentioned by other writers I have consulted.
Eggs. — 5 to 7, usually 6. Ground color 'a rich creamy white to buffy, very glossy and very heavily and profusely blotched and spotted with rich chestnut-red, many lavender and purplish shades occurring. The heaviest and richest marked of North American Warblers' eggs; in shape a rounded oval tending to become nearly spherical, the larger end having the heavier markings. An extreme type has rich cream ground with a few scattering spots of purplish brown. Size; average, 7OX.57; extremes, 76x.59, .65x.57, 7OX.53, 72x.6i. (Figs. 6, 7.)
Nesting Dates. — Charleston, S. C., May 3; June 23, two eggs with large embryos (Wayne)', Lewis County, Mo., May 13 (J.P.N.) ; Mt. Carmel, Illinois, May 8 (Brewster) ; Lacon, Illinois, May 2 1 -July 7 (C. W.C.); Pierce County, Wis., May 31 (C. W. C.).
(i) WILLIAM BREWSTER, The Prothonotary Warbler (Protonotaria ritrea) [in Illinois and Indiana], Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club, III, 1878, 153. (2) R. M. BARNES, Nesting of the Prothonotary Warbler, Orn. and O6L, XIV, 1889, 37. (3) W. E. LOUCKS, Life History of the Prothonotary Warbler, Bull. 111. State Lab. Nat. Hist., IV, 1894, 10; also Osprey, II, 1898, 99, in, 129. (4) T. S. ROBERTS, The Prothonotary or Golden Swamp Warbler (Protonotaria citrea) a Common Summer Resident in southeastern Minnesota, Auk, XVI, 1809, 236. (5) ALBERT GANIER, Nesting of the Prothonotary Warbler, Bird-Lore, II, 1900, 89. (6) J. P. N [ORRIS], A Series of Eggs of the Prothonotary Warbler, Orn. and O61., XV, 1890, 177.
bachmani, in which the bill is slightly decurved; the rictal bristles are not evident; the wing averages about .70 inches longer than the tail; the tail-feathers are rather narrow, terminally rounded or obtusely pointed; the under tail-coverts are about three-fourths as long as the tail; the feet are blackish, the tarsus decidedly longer than the middle-toe and nail.
are plain in color and in pattern of coloration.
V , chrysoptera and V . pinus are the only species having wingbars; while with V. bachmani and, to a lesser degree, V. peregrina, they differ from other members of the genus in having the tail marked with white.
Vermivora contains nine species and two forms of doubtful status, all but one of which, V. crissalis of the Sierra Nevada of Colima, Mexico, are North American. Four species are eastern, one of them, V . peregrina, extending, however, northwestward to Alaska, two are found in the Rocky Mountain region and southward into Mexico, and two, V. celata and V . rubricapilla, range from the Atlantic to the Pacific, their color showing some response to the varying climatic conditions encountered in so vast an area.
Although arboreal in habit, the species of this genus nest upon the ground, with the exception of V . lucia which nests in holes, etc., and V. bachmani, which builds in low bushes.
Distinguishing Characters.— General color gray; a yellow patch on the wings; cheeks and throat black in the <£ gray in the $. Length (skin), 4.30; wing, 2.45; tail, 1.90; bill, .46.
Adult c?, Spring. — Crown yellow bordered by a white line above eye; cheeks black; back gray sometimes tinged with olive-green; tail gray, the outer three or four feathers with white patches on the inner vane; wings externally gray, the inner feathers edged with olive-green, outer vane of greater coverts largely yellow, median coverts broadly tipped with yellow, forming a yellow wing-patch; throat and upper breast black bordered by a white line at either side, rest of underparts grayish, white on the median line.
green above and with yellow below.
Young $, Fall. — Similar to adult d" in Fall but black throat-patch slightly smaller and sometimes tipped with grayish, the chin white connecting the two white stripes on either side of the throat.
Adult $, Spring.— Crown greenish yellow, a white line above eye, cheeks gray; back gray more or less washed with olive-green; tail and wings as in c? but yellow of wing-bars more restricted; throat gray bordered by whitish stripes; middle of belly whitish, sides gray.
Nestling.— Dusky olive-green above, below dusky olive; wings and tail as in young in Fall, greater and median wing-coverts olive-green tipped with greenish forming two conspicuous bars. The early development of the plumage of the throat soon distinguishes the sexes.
Summer Range. — The principal summer home is in Michigan, southern Ontario and northern Wisconsin; a few occur east to New York (Penn Yan, May 1872; Buffalo, May 12, 1888), New Hampshire (Durham, Hampton Falls, Jaffrey, Manchester and Concord), and the species is not uncommon locally in Massachusetts and Connecticut. It breeds south to northern Illinois, northern Indiana and Ohio, while in the mountains, the breeding range takes a southerly dip from Pennsylvania to northern Georgia, where at an elevation of 2,000 to 4,000 feet, the bird is, locally, almost as common as in Michigan. The species has been noted in Manitoba (Winnipeg about May 24, 1887), Iowa (Iowa City, May 17, 1885), and New Mexico (Fort Thorn, April 1854.)
The southern Mississippi Valley is crossed in migration, but the species is very rare in eastern Texas and occurs only rarely or casually in South Carolina, Georgia and Florida; accidental in Mexico and the West Indies.
May 12 1888
Fall Migration. — A fall migrant has been seen at New Orleans, La., as early as July 23, 1898, and one was taken on the northern coast of South America, September 6, showing that the Golden-winged Warbler is among the early migrants. The last ones seen were noted at Lanesboro, Minn., September 8, 1889; Livonia, Mich., September 21, 1891 ; Chicago, III, September 25, 1895 ; Englewood, N. J., September 2, 1886; French Creek, W. Va., September 15, 1892; Chester County, S. C, September 22, 1887, and New Orleans, La., September 21, 1897.
The Bird and its Haunts. — This beautiful Warbler is by no means a rare bird throughout the greater part of its breeding range and in some localities is abundant, nevertheless it is usually sufficiently uncommon as a transient spring migrant to make its appearance worthy of special comment in our note-books. Students of the fall migration, however, will some years find it an abundant August migrant.
The complex and as yet not clearly understood relations existing between this species, the Blue-winged Warbler and the intermediate forms known as Brewster's and Lawrence's Warblers make, as has been said under the Blue-wing, a study of their nesting habits, particularly in that region where the range of this species overlaps that of the Blue-wing, a matter of unusual interest.
About Cambridge, Mass., Brewster7 writes that the Golden-wing "frequents deciduous woods and thickets, preferring to all other places springy runs shaded by gray birches, old pastures growing up to birches and wild apple trees, and dry hillsides covered with a young sprout growth of oak, hickory or maple. As a rule it shuns evergreen trees, but at its seasons of migration I have occasionally seen it feeding, with Warblers of other species, in the tops of large white pines."
In southwestern Pennsylvania, we learn from J. Warren Jacob's5 monograph of this species, it prefers fields "abundantly supplied with damp or springy places, with rank — but closely rooted grass, clumps of bushes, briers, etc., and the adjacent forest skirted with like growth." He adds: "I have never found a nest on the creek bottom lands, but always well up the side or on top of a hill."
In southern Michigan, Gibbs2 states, "the Golden-wing evidently prefers low sections of land, and appears most at home in quarters where deep woods border marshy tracts. I have yet to meet with the birds in very high and dry localities, although they are sometimes seen in elevated swampy spots. I have never found the bird in oak openings, hickory lands or sandy soil."
In its general actions the Golden-wing resembles the Blue-wing. It has the same peering ways and habit of examining a branch tip or leaf while hanging back downward. Jacobs5 writes: "This bird must be a great destroyer of leaf lice and small caterpillars that infest the tips of branches and the underside of leaves, for they are continually searching and picking at the opening buds and waxen leaves at the ends of new twigs, the male pausing frequently to sing. At times their actions [remind] one of the Gnatcatcher in flitting hither and thither snatching up small winged mites."
The same author states that two days seem to be ample time for the birds to complete a nest, and in more than one instance he has known a nest commenced one day to contain an egg "the second day thereafter." The period of incubation, he adds, is ten days and the young leave the nest when ten days old.
Song. — "I have only heard the song on three occasions, but the song is too distinctive a one ever to be forgotten. It was uttered almost by the hour. An indolent, rather wheezy note, repeated three or four times without variation ; always the same note, a lazy, droning song with a little of the Black-throated Blue's huskiness in it. The syllables sh, hush, hush, hush, recall it to me, the last three slightly quicker than the first." (Farwell, MS.}
"The song of H. chrysoptera consists normally of four notes — shree-e-e, swee, zwee, zwee, — the first about two notes higher than the following three, being slightly prolonged. It is varied somewhat at times, with the second note like the first ; again it is reduced to three two, or even a single note. The song will immediately attract attention from its very oddity. By some it is considered harsh, but to me it has a soft penetrating quality, unexcelled, this effect being heightened by the uncertain source of the song." (Eames.9)
"While the female is incubating the eggs, her mate moves about the tips of branches and tops of saplings, searching for food, all the while singing his little ditty, which is a simple little bit of bird music hard to put into print. At some distance the song can be distinguished by the syllables zee-ze-ze-se-ze, beginning slowly and proceeding more rapidly and ending in a slightly higher pitch. When near the bird this song sounds somewhat different, and is now hard to imitate in type. The best I can do is to write it zee-u-ee'-zee-u-ee'zee-u-ee' zee-u-zwee' , with the u barely articulated. I have several times heard the song continued to the middle of July, and again on still, sultry days in August. At this time, however, it is not so strong and complete as during the early summer. While emitting this song, the bird stands quite erect, stretched up to its full height, the throat extended until the feathers ruffle. The head pointing about 70 degrees upward when the first syllable is uttered, is turned farther upward at the close of the song. The alarm note of both sexes, when the nest or young is disturbed, consists of a sharp chip like that of the Chipping Sparrow, but sharper and repeated oftener." (Jacobs.6}
Nesting Site. — The following quotation from Jacob's5 admirable monograph of this species seems to apply to the bird throughout its nesting range: "The nest is hardly ever placed away from some substantially supporting stalks of weeds — new or dead — briers, elders, sprouts, etc., of not sufficient abundance to hinder a good growth of grass. One nest was placed above ground, being three inches up in a clump of iron-weeds in a marshy place."
Nest. — "The domicile is rather compact and neatly cupped, but on the whole is very bulky for a bird so small. The base is composed of dry oak and beech leaves, and other leaves which dry hard, glossy, and without crumpling ; on top of this heap a more compact structure is made, the leaves being placed points downward ; then comes a goodly supply of strips of grapevine bark and shreds of inner tree bark, so placed that the rough ends extend beyond the rim of the nest. A lining is then put in place consisting of fine grass stems and, in some cases, long horse-hairs. A strict lining is not alway put in place, some birds being content to rest the eggs on the grapevine bark and a few intermingling grass stems. Although constructed of coarse materials, the inside of the nest presents a neat appearance, the long shreds of bark and grasses crossing diagonally, much resembling basket work. The opening is not straight down, but slightly tilted, the jaggy leaf -stems and bark sometimes reaching two or three inches above the rim of the nest proper. * * * Two days seem to be
ample time for the birds to complete a nest, and in more than one instance I have [found that] a nest commenced one day contained an egg the second day thereafter." (Jacobs.5)
Eggs- — 4 to 6, usually 5. Ground color white, markings the same as in the eggs of the Blue-winged Warbler, except that they are more profuse and of larger size, tending to form small blotches in many cases. Size; average, .66x.5i; extremes, -73X.55, .58x.5i, .61x48. (Figs. 15-17.)
Nesting Dates. — Weaverville, N. C, May 22, Tarboro, N. C., June 22 (C. W. C.); Waynesburg, Pa., May 14- June 13 (Jacobs)', Bethel, Conn., May 2Q-May 31 (Bishop) ; Monroe County, Mich., May i7-June 18 (J. P. N.).
(i) J. WARREN, Nesting of the Golden-winged Warbler (Helminthophila chrysoptera) in Massachusetts, Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club, I, 1876, 6. (2) 'SCOLOPAX' [=MORRIS GIBBS], Nesting Habits of the Golden-winged Warbler, Oologist, XI, 1894, 3i i- (3) J- P- N [ORRIS], A Series of Eggs of the Golden-winged Warbler, Orn. and O61., XV, 1890, 21. (4) J. H. SAGE, Notes on Helminthophila chrysoptera in Connecticut, Auk, X, 1893, 208. (5) J. W. JACOBS, The Haunts of the Golden-winged Warbler, with notes on Migration, Nest Building, Song, Food, Young, Eggs, Etc., published by the author, Waynesburg, Pa. (6) E. H. EAMES, Notes on the Blue-winged Warbler and Its Allies, Auk, VI, 1889, 305. (7) WM. BREWSTER, Birds of the Cambridge Region, 322.
Adult <$, Spring. — Crown yellow, nape and back olive-green; a black or blackish line to or through the eye; tail gray, three outer feathers with large white patches on their inner vanes, fourth and fifth sometimes with white ; wings externally grayish, inner feathers more or less margined with olivegreen; median coverts tipped with white on both vanes, greater coverts chiefly on outer vane forming two white wing-bars,; below uniform yellow, the crissum whitish.
Adult $, Spring. — Resembles adult <£ in Spring, but crown more like back, eye-stripe duskier, generally less white in tail and on wing-coverts. Much like young Fall <£, but eye-stripe duskier. Adult $, Fall.— Similar to last.
Summer Range. — Southern Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, northern Kentucky, northern Missouri and southern Iowa. Eastward the bird breeds more rarely and locally in some of the lower portions of southern Pennsylvania (West Chester, Carlisle, East Penn, Kirkland, Laughlintown) ; Maryland (Laurel, Gwynn's Falls) ; Washington, D. C., more commonly northward to southeastern New York (Riverdale, Ossining, Oyster Bay); New Jersey (Englewood; Morris County) ; Connecticut (New Haven, Stratford, Stamford, Brantford, Portland, Bridgeport, Saybrook) ; rarely in Rhode Island (Gloucester) .
The species occurs rarely or casually in Massachusetts (West Roxbury, May 17, 1878, Boston, May 29, 1902, Dedham, May, 1857, Dorchester, May 15, 1897) ; western New York (Penn Yan) ; southern Michigan (Petersburg, May 10, 1894, Battle Creek, May 13, 1902, Detroit, May 29, 1902) ; southern Wisconsin (LaCrosse, May 7, 1885), and southern Minnesota (Minneapolis, May 17, 1880), west to Nebraska (Omaha, Peru) ; Kansas (Emporia and Onaga).
The most southern breeding records are in the Creek Nation, Oklahoma; on the St. Francis River in extreme southeastern Missouri; Tishomingo County, Mississippi; and on the coast of Georgia near the mouth of the Altamaha River. Throughout most portions of the southeastern States from South Carolina to eastern Texas, the species is a rare migrant; accidental once in the West Indies.
Island, Bahamas, April 7.
Spring Migration.— South of the United States the Blue-winged Warbler has been recorded on only one occasion during the spring migration, when Chapman noted a single bird at Jalapa, Vera Cruz, April 7, 1897. The migration, however, was evidently well under way at that date for the earliest arrivals of this species noted in the United States are at New Orleans, La., March 22, 1898, and on the Tortugas, Fla., March 23, 1890.
Fall Migration. — The last one noted at Lanesboro, Minn., was on September i, 1889, but the southern part of the breeding-ground is not deserted until early in October.
The Bird and its Haunts. — Although the Blue-wing is locally common, its insignificant song and generally quiet ways make it a comparatively inconspicuous bird, likely to be noticed only by those who look for it. It is not, as a rule, a deep woods Warbler, though I have found it nesting in heavy forest, but prefers rather, bordering second growths, with weedy openings, from which it may follow lines or patches of trees to haunts some distance from the woods.
It is rather deliberate in movements for a Warbler, and is less of a flutterer than the average member of the genus Dendroica. Some of its motions suggest those of the tree-inhabiting Vireos, while at times, as the bird hangs downward from some cocoon it is investigating, one is reminded of a Chickadee.
The Blue wing's unsettled relations with the Golden-wing and with Brewster's and Lawrence's Warblers, create a special interest in its life history, and the fact, that among this group of birds song is not always diagnostic, makes it well worth while to attempt to see the singer of every supposed Blue-wing song.
the grass and weeds have not been choked out by a too thick growth of briers, bushes, saplings and vines. While not precisely a bird of the semi-cultivated fields, it has a wider local range than any of our home Warblers with the possible exception of the Chat.
"Perched inconspicuously near the top and well out in the branchlets of a tree or sapling, preferably facing an opening, if in a thicket; it is in itself so minute an object as to be passed unseen by many, more especially as it is much less active than most of our Warblers. With body feathers puffed out to a delightful plumpness, except for the backward sweep of the head while in the act of singing, it remains motionless for quite a while. When it moves it is with a combination of nervous haste and deliberation, and its song may be heard from quite another part of the landscape with no apparent reason for the change. While it has its favorite song perches, it is quite a wanderer and not infrequently sings beyond possible hearing of its brooding mate, but oftener within fifty to two hundred feet of the nest.
"Deposition of eggs occurred daily, in one instance, when five eggs were laid, and before nine a. m. Incubation commences soon after the completion of set, the female sitting on eggs on the afternoon of the day in which she completes the set. In an exceptional case in which three eggs formed the clutch, the embryo was large in one, commenced to form in the second, and the third egg was fresh, showing that several days elapsed between deposition, and thcommencement of incubation before the set was complete.
"The task of incubation falls on the female alone. It appears that an airing is taken in the early morning or a little before midday, and again in the early evening, though perhaps not regularly every day. I have not seen the male about the nest with food at this period. The female will allow a close approach, looking into one's eyes with that hunted look so common in wild animals, and often flushing without a protesting note. The period of incubation in the one instance was exactly ten days.
"On June 13, at 6.30 p. m., five young just hatched were blind, naked and prostrate from chin to sternum. The shells were disposed of immediately, in what manner I am unable to state; the female was reluctant to vacate.
"On June 15, at 2.45 p. m., the young were able to raise their heads slightly and a fluffy bit of down had appeared about the head, also a dark stripe along the back bone. The female appeared, accompanied by the male, and fed the young with small green larvse— such
then shielded the callow young from the hot rays of the sun.
"On June 16, at 6.30 p. m., when the young were three days old, a downy puff appeared between the shoulders, wing quills being dark. The strongest bird had the eyes partly open and the mouth wide open for food.
"On June 18, at 7 p. m., the heads and bodies were no longer flesh-colored but were well enough covered to appear dark. The eyes were open. At a cluck from me their mouths flew open. Both parents fed them with green-colored larvae. When the male rested a moment on a brier above the nest, the female flew down and drove him away, fed the young, re-appearing with excrement in her beak, which was carried in an opposite direction from the regular approach via maple bough and poplar sapling. The male fed young from a mouthful of very minute larvae or eggs, which were gathered from the silken nests in the unfolding leaves of a nearby poplar; after this (7.30 p. m.) the female covered the young for the night.
"On June 20, at from 6.50 to 7.35 p. m., the young had been seven days in the nest. They were well feathered and of a yellowishgreen cast, the short tails being tipped with yellow. The parents were more suspicious. The female came to the maple bough with something in her beak and flew down to the briers and back again several times before she dropped to the edge of the nest and fed her young. The male appeared immediately but swallowed a green grub himself upon discovery of me twenty-five feet away. The female came again in five minutes with a brownish object in her bill, but appeared more timid and refused to drop to the nest until the male set her an example of courage.
"On June 21, at 6.12 p. m., the young were fully fledged in green plumage above and dirty yellow beneath. They showed fear of me for the first time, eyeing me in the same manner as the parent bird when on the nest. They were evidently ready to vacate at a moment's notice or hasty movement on my part. The parents appeared, scolding rapidly. The female fed the young as soon as I retired to my old stand under a bush, with a rather large green grub (6.20 p.m.) and flew out to the top of a blackberry bush, followed immediately by the topmost fledgeling. It could do little more than run. The adults flew to within a yard of my head, making a great outcry, and in the midst of the excitement the remainder of the young vacated the nest with feeble chips. The male gave his attention to them, while the female followed me as I beat a hasty retreat to
enable them to collect their little family before dark. Eight days had elapsed since incubation was completed, and it is not at all unusual for the young of this species to leave the nest while so tiny and ragged."
been noted by many observers.
"The ordinary call song of this species has a decided insect quality. He seems to inhale a shrill zre-e-e-e-e-e and immediately exhale a buzzing zwe-e-e-e-e-e, the whole performance comprising a perfect double run through about half an octave of the scale. Often it seems to be a simple zwe-e-e-e-e-e ze-e-e-e-e-e, the latter part merely a sputter. At its best the song is a drowsy locust-like shrill, belonging rather to mid-summer than to spring.
"There is another song which is usually given during the early summer months, but which I have heard shortly after the arrival of the bird in the last days of April or the first days of May. This song is far more varied and has a far better claim to be called a song. Mr. Chapman renders it wee, chi-chi-chi-chi, chur, chee-chur.
"There are two definite song periods, the first beginning with the bird's arrival and ending about the middle of June, during which time the insect song is given almost entirely ; the second one beginning late in July or early in August and continuing to the third week in August, this period being characterized by the more varied song, but not to the entire exclusion of the other." (Jones.)
"A drowsy, locust-like, swe-e-e-e-e ze-e-e-e-e, the first apparently inhaled and the last exhaled. * * * Another song heard on the first day of arrival, on one occasion, uttered by several males in company, possibly transients here, and maybe the mating song, suggests the Chickadee's che-de-de-e, che-dee-e, and che-de-de-dee, uttered repeatedly in one form or other in some excitement, and while running out on the branchlets. The call and alarm note is a rather weak chip, uttered more -or less rapidly and not distinguishable from that of several other of our local Warblers. The male sings upon arrival up to about the i6th of June (June 11-24 in a series of years) marking the end of the breeding season. A second period of song in 1902 occurred July 2-7, perhaps a belated breeder. I have not recognized the female as a singer." (Burns, MS.)
Nesting Site. — On the ground sometimes in a bunch of weeds, goldenrod being frequently chosen, but often placed independently of its immediate surroundings. A favorite locality is the bushy border
"Never far from a grove, thicket or woods; sometimes nesting on, but usually just above, the ground in a clump of grass, goldenrod, or wild aster, raspberry or blackberry sprouts, or at the foot of a small sapling or wild rose-bush. The nest is always surrounded by grass, weeds, briars, wild grapevine, etc. One nest was placed within a foot of the wheel track of a much frequented public road. The bird to the best of my knowledge, does not use the same site or even within a few feet of it the second time; but apparently the same individuals return to the same tract regularly and nest in some part of it." (Burns, MS.)
Nest. — "Outwardly composed of the broad blades of a coarse grass, the dead leaves of the maple, beech, chestnut, cherry and oak trees; the leaf points curving upward and inward forming a deep cup-like nest in which the bird's head and tail seem almost to meet over her back. Occasionally grass stems coarse strips of wild grapevine bark, shreds of corn fodder, and fragments of beech and wild cherry bark appear in the make-up. Lined most frequently with wild grapevine bark laid across, instead of bent around in a circle, shredded finest on top, to which is added an occasional long black horse-hair or split grass stem, with now and then a final lining of split grass stems in place of fine bark. The shape varies in accordance to situation, outwardly a short cornucopia, a round basket, and once a wall-pocket affair, would best describe the shapes I have noticed." (Burns, MS.)
Eggs. — 4 or 5, nearly always 5. Ground color white to slightly creamy; the variations in markings range from entirely unmarked to as heavily marked as some eggs of the Northern Yellow-throat, but in all cases the markings are most delicate specks and spots of burnt umber, seal brown, chestnut, lavender, and rich purplish shades, mostly at the larger end, but in some examples, sparingly distributed over the entire .egg. Shape, rounded oval ; one of the daintiest eggs of all our Warblers. Size; average, .64x.5i; extremes, .68x.53, .59x46. (Figs. 12-14.)
Nesting Dates.— West Chester, Pa., May 27- June 10 (Jackson) ; New York City, May 23- June 19 (F. M. C.) ; New Haven, Conn., May 20-June 16 (Bishop) ; Oberlin, O., May lo-june 10 (Jones) ; De Kalb County, Ind., May 26 (Gault).
(i) F. T. JENKS, The Blue-winged Warbler; Its Nesting Habits, Orn. and O6L, VI, 1881, 57. (2) J. N. CLARK, The Blue-winged Warbler, Orn. and O61., VIII, 1883, 37. (3) I. S. REIFF, A Few Days among the Blue-winged Warblers [near Philadelphia?], Orn. and O6L, XVIII, 1893, 6. (4) E. H. EAMES, Notes on the Blue-winged Warbler and Its Allies, Auk, VI, 1889, 305. (S) B. S. BOWDISH, Some Breeding Warblers of Demarest, N. J., Auk, XXIII, 1906, 16.
VERMIVORA CHRYSOTERA and V. P1NUS
Distinguishing Characters. — Between the Golden-winged and Blue-winged Warblers there exists a series of intergrades known variously as Lawrence's Warbler (Vermivora lawrencei) and Brewster's Warbler {Vermivora leucobronchialis) . Typical leucobronchialis, meaning the extreme development of the leucobronchialis type, is white below, gray above with the forehead and wing-bars yellow. A discussion of the status of these interesting birds follows a description of their plumages.
Adult <$, Spring. — Crown yellow; lores and upper part of auriculars black; back bright olive-green; tail grayish, inner vanes of the three outer feathers largely white, fourth with much less white; wings grayish, inner feathers edged with olive-green; wing-bars as in H. pinus or chrysoptera or white but as broad as in chrysoptera; chin and sides of the throat yellow, throat and upper breast black, rest of underparts yellow, the sides greener. A specimen in the Bishop collection has the chin yellow, the sides of the throat white.
Adult $?, Spring. — Cheek stripe and throat dusky olive, rest of plumage as in 9 pinus but wing-bars sometimes as in chrysoptera; another specimen resembles ? chrysoptera but is greener above and more yellow below.
valley, eastward to the Connecticut valley in Connecticut.
Summer Range. — Specimens have been taken or observed near Chatham, N. J. (Herrick}, Hoboken, N. J. (Lawrence}, Morristown, N. J. (Brewster}, Englewood, N. J. (Dwight), Bronx Park, New York City (Bildersee, Beebe), Rye, N. Y. (Voorhees}, Stamford
Adult <$, Spring. — Crown yellow, a black or blackish line from bill to or through the eye, back gray with, as the bird tends towards pinus, more or less greenish; tail as in pinus, wings externally grayish, the inner feathers edged with greenish, wing-bars generally broadly yellow as in chrysoptera, but not infrequently white as in pinus and often variously intermediate between the two; underparts white rarely without more or less yellow tinge on the breast increasing in intensity and extent as the bird approaches pinus.
cut and, rarely Massachusetts, west to Michigan.
Summer Range. — The bird has been found breeding at Englewood, N. J., (Chapman'), Bridgeport, Conn. (Eames), North Haven, Conn. (Bishop}, Bethel, Conn. (Meeker}, Portland, Conn. (Sage} ; there are also records in the breeding season for Ossining, N. Y. (Fislwr}, various places in Connecticut (Bishop et al}, Newtonville, Mass. (Brewster), Hudson, Mass. (Purdie), Lexington, Mass. (Faxon}, Oberlin, O. (Jones}, Ottawa Co., Mich. (Gibbs.}
are no winter records.
Spring Migration. — Washington, D. C, May i, and 8; Clifton, Pa., May 12; Maplewood, N. J., May n ; Englewood, N. J. May 15; Parkville, L. I., May 16; Bridgeport, Conn., May 6; Portland, Conn., May 10 ; Oberlin, O., May 23.
Aug 31.
The Bird and its Haunts.— The haunts and general habits of Lawrence's and Brewster's Warblers do not appear to differ from those of the Golden-winged and Blue-winged Warblers.
Song. — As the following records show some individuals of these birds sing like V . pinus, some like V . chrysoptera while the song of others is intermediate in character.
From Bridgeport, Conn., Eames8 writes: "Seven birds, typical of V. leucobronchialis, expressed their good spirits by precisely the song of the preceding (V. chrysoptera) except in one trifling point. Another, with a bright yellow breast-patch, had, in addition, a few original variations of its own. Still another, with a close resemblance to V ' . pinus, repeated songs of V, chrysoptera only, but they were all harsh and disagreeable in comparison. * * * A perfectly typical bird repeated but one style of song. This surprised me greatly, it being precisely the same as the commoner song of V. pinus. I heard this many times on two different occasions before shooting the bird, and it was always the same. But one more bird, with a faint greenish color on the back, a strong patch of yellow on the breast, and a wash elsewhere on the under parts, used the latter song exclusively.
"The only V '. lawrencei I ever knowingly listened to, as before mentioned, favored me with its song for nearly two hours, and during the several hundred repetitions, it never varied in the least particular from the characteristic song of V. pinus, its song consisting of two drawling notes, see-e-e e, zwee-e-e-e-e, with a very decided z sound. The first series is somewhat higher pitched than the last and hardly as long continued."
"Continued experience leads me to think that the song of this puzzling bird (V. leucobronchialis} is not, as has been stated, any criterion by which to distinguish it. Sometimes they sing exactly like chrysoptera, again like pinus, and often have notes peculiar to themselves." (Sage™.}
"During the ten or fifteen minutes which the bird (V. leucobronchialis} was under observation I had the pleasure of hearing it sing many times, even seeing it open its bill in the act of song. This song exactly resembled the rising and falling tse notes of V. pinus but was slightly weaker than the average song of that species." (Chapman5.)
From a male Lawrence's Warbler which was nesting with a Blue-winged Warbler, Bildersee18 records the following three songs and the observation is independently confirmed by Beebe17:
"(a) Shree-e-e, swe-e-e-e, the first syllable like that of the song of the Golden-winged Warbler, the second like that of the song of the Blue-wing. This was the song most frequently heard.
(c} Chip-a-chip-a-chip-a-shree, the first phrase of this song is exactly like the song heard during the second song period of the Blue-winged Warbler, the second being a typical Golden-wing syllable.
Ossining, N. Y. V. chrysoptera 2 feeds two young, one of which collected, is typical of pinus ; the other, which escaped, was seen to resemble the mother and had no yellow on the breast. (Fisher*}.
Discussion of Status. — The relationships of these Warblers have been the subject of much discussion. It has been stated of one or the other or both, that they were distinct species, hybrids, color phases, and mutants, but, we may now be said to have passed the purely theoretical stage in our study of these birds, incontrovertible observations and large series of specimens furnishing us with defin-
itely ascertained facts. The interbreeding of leucobronchialis with pinus, and with chrysoptera, of pinus with chrysoptera, and of lawrencei with />WM.S is recorded on unquestionable evidence. Here alone, therefore, we have indisputable knowledge of sets of relations which in their subsequent stages are bound to produce the most varied results, accounting for every phase of plumage of the lawrencei type of which we have any knowledge.
Doubtless our most satisfactory observations in this connection have been supplied by Dr. Walter Faxon who writes: "In the summer of 1910, there bred within the confines of a camp of about fifteen acres in Lexington, Mass., a pair of Golden-winged Warblers and two male Golden-winged Warblers mated with two female Brewster's Warblers. . . The progeny of the three pairs were closely observed from the juvenile (in one case, from the natal) plumage up to the first winter plumage, when the adult characters were acquired; the young of the pair of Golden-wings were all Golden-wings ; one of the Brewster's Warblers that was mated with a Golden-wing brought forth a homogeneous brood of Brewster's Warblers, while the other produced a mixed brood of Brewster's Warblers and at least one Goldenwinged Warbler. A striking thing about it was this : the young birds of mixed parentage were absolutely pure in plumage, — either Brewster's Warblers or Golden-wings, without any tendency to combine as 'intermediates' the characters of the two parents." (Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool., XL, No. 6, Aug. 1913, 311.)
Two years later, in the same locality, Dr. Faxon (1. c.) made even more definite and conclusive observations in regard to the breeding of these birds which apparently fully justify his "satisfaction of demonstrating the true nature of Brewster's Warbler, removing the question forever from the realm of conjecture."
In a word, he found a typical male Golden-winged Warbler mated with a typical Blue-winged Warbler, and kept their young (number not stated) under observation from June 15, about two days after they had left the nest, until they "all grew up to be Brewster's Warblers."
The same season a male Brewster's Warbler was found mated to a female Golden-wing and of their young one "grew up to be a typical Brewster's Warbler, while the other, its own brother, became a typical Golden-wing." These two birds and one from the brood first mentioned were banded, and a beginning was thus made for the study of succeeding generations.
chialis Brewster, and Helminthophaga lawrencei, Herrick, Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club,
VI, 1880, 218. (2) R. RIDGWAY, Helminthophila leucobronchialis, (and H. lawrencei; a discussion of their relationships), Auk, II, 1885, 359. (3) A. K. FISHER, Evidence Concerning the Interbreeding of Helminthophila chrysoptera and H. pinus (at Sing Sing, N. Y.), Auk, II, 1885, 378. (4) F. M. CHAPMAN, Additional Captures of Helminthophila leucobronchialis (at Englewood, N. J.), Auk, IV, 1887. 348. (5) The Song of Helminthophila leucobronchialis, Auk,
VII, 1890, 291. (6) On the Breeding of Helminthophila pinus with H. leucobronchialis at Englewood, N. J., Auk, IX, 1892, 302. (7) E. H. EAMES, Notes on Helminthophila leucobronchialis (in Conn.), Auk, V, 1888, 427. (8) Notes on the Blue-winged Warbler and its Allies, (Helminthophila pinus, H. leucobronchialis, H. lawrencei, and H. chrysoptera) in Connecticut, Auk, VI, 1889, 305. (9) L. B. BISHOP, Helminthophila pinus, H. chrysoptera, H. leucobronchialis, H. lawrencei, in Connecticut in the Spring of 1888, Auk, VI, 1889, 192. (10) Helminthophila leucobronchialis (breeding in Conn.), Auk, XI, 1894, 7Q- (n) The Status of Helminthophila leucobronchialis and Helminthophila lawrencei, Auk, XXII, 1905, 21. (12) J. H. SAGE, The Interbreeding of Helminthophila pinus and H. chrysoptera, (at Portland, Conn.), Auk VI, 1899, 299- (13) Notes on Helminthophila chrysoptera, pinus, leucobronchialis and lawrencei in Connecticut, Auk, X, 1893, 208. (14) Nesting of Helminthophila leucobronchialis in Connecticut, Auk, XII, 1895, 307. (15) G. H. THAYER, The Coloration and Relationships of Brewster's Warbler, Auk, XIX, 1902, 401. (16) I. BILDERSEE, Notes on the Nesting of Lawrence's Warbler, Bird-Lore, VI, 1904, 131. (17) C. WM. BEEBE, Breeding of Lawrence's Warbler in New York City, Auk, XXI, 1004, 387. Relates to the same bird as No. 16. (18) W. E. D. SCOTT, Of the Probable Origin of Certain Birds, Science, XXII, 1905, 271. (19) J. A. ALLEN, The Probable Origin of Certain Birds, Science, XXII, 1905, 431. (A reply to Scott.) (20) J. DWIGHT, JR., Plumages and Molts of the Passerine Birds of New York, 1900, 246. (21) J. C. A. MEEKER, A Male Golden-winged Warbler mated with a female Blue-winged Warbler, Auk, XXIII, 1906, 104. (22) C. J. MAYNARD, (Discussion of status of Brewster's and Lawrence's Warblers) Warblers of New England, 1905, 83.
Distinguishing Characters. — Bill slightly decurved; <? with the forehead, throat, or, at least, chin yellow, the breast black; $ with forehead more or less tinged with yellow, the feathers of the crown wholly gray. The young $, with but little yellow below, resembles the young of the Orange-crowned and Tennessee Warblers. It differs from the former chiefly in the yellowish frontlet, entirely gray crown-feathers, and white crissum; while the Tennessee Warbler is greener above with the head the same color as the back. The c? apparently does not acquire mature plumage until the second year. Length (skin), 4.40; wing, 2.40; tail, 1.80; bill, .48.
Adult <$, Spring. — Forehead broadly yellow, bordered by a black band across the crown; eye-ring yellow; hindhead and nape gray; back olive-green; tail fuscous, the outer three, and sometimes all but -the middle pair of feathers, with white patches on the inner web near the tip; wings margined with gray on primaries, olive-green on other feathers; lesser coverts and bend of wing bright yellow, no white bars; chin, sides and, sometimes, upper part of throat yellow; lower throat and breast black, belly yellow usually becoming brownish white on the lower belly and crissum.
Adult ?, Spring. — Forehead and eye-ring yellowish; crown and nape gray; back olive-green; tail fuscous with little or no white on inner vanes of outer feathers ; wings as in <$, but lesser coverts olive-green ; underparts yellow, fading to brownish white on the lower belly and crissum; a dusky wash on the breast, where, in some specimens, there is a more or less well-developed black patch.
Wayne near Charleston, S. C, is described by William Brewster as follows:
"Top and sides of head and forepart of back faded hair brown with a trace of ashy on the middle of crown ; remainder of upper parts dull olive-green ; wings and tail (which are fully grown) as in the first winter plumage excepting that the greater and middle wing-coverts are rather more broadly tipped with light brown, forming two well-marked wing-bars ; chin and throat brownish white tinged with yellow; sides of jugulum smoke gray, its center yellowish ; sides of breast gamboge yellow shading into olive on the flanks ; middle of breast, with most of abdomen, yellowish white; under tail-coverts ashy white. All the feathers on the under parts which are strongly yellow or olive, and those on the upper parts, which are decidedly ashy, or greenish, appear to belong to the autumnal plumage or, as it is now called, the first winter plumage, but all the other feathers on the head and body are evidently those of the first plumage." (The Auk, 1905, p. 393.)
Summer Range. — This Warbler has been secured in the breeding season in North Carolina, South Carolina, Kentucky, Arkansas and Missouri ; as a young of the year in Virginia ; during migration in Florida and Louisiana. Accidental in Indiana. Winter Range. — So far as known, Cuba.
Spring Migration. — One of the earliest migrants ; it crosses to the United States in March; Sombrero Key, Fla., March 3, 1899, Suwanee River, Fla., March 12, 1890, Branford, Fla., March 14, 1892, Old Town, Fla., March 10, 1893, VVacissa River, Fla., March 13, 1894, Leon County, Fla., March 22, 1904; Bay St. Louis, Miss., March 26, 1902 ; Lake Pontchartrain, La., February 27 to March 14, 1891.
Fall Migration. — The southward migration begins so early that in July many individuals reach their winter quarters. Earliest record at Key West, Fla., July 17, 1889; latest September 5, 1888.
The Bird and its Haunts. — In many respects the history of Bachman's Warbler is not unlike that of Swainson's. Both were discovered near Charleston, S. C., by that keen naturalist, Dr. Bachman, and both remained virtually unknown for the succeeding half century. Bachman procured "a few specimens" of this bird in the summer of 1833 and sent them to Audubon, who described the species the following year in the second volume of his Ornithological Biographies.
With the exception of its occurrence in Cuba, the Warbler remained unknown to naturalists until October, 1886, when Charles S. Galbraith, a millinery collector, brought to George N. Lawrence a specimen which he had secured the preceding spring near Lake Pontchartrain, La. This specimen, now in the American Museum of Natural History, is prepared for a hat-piece. The feet are missing, the wings are stiffly distended, the head bent backward in typical bonnet pose, and, had it not been for an interest in ornithology which led Galbraith to take his unknown birds to Mr. Lawrence for identification, this rara avis might have become an unappreciated victim on Fashion's altar.
In any event, it was decreed that Bachman's Warbler should no longer remain among the 'lost species' and the following spring it was brought to the attention of ornithologists, again in an unconventional manner, through an individual which struck the Sombrero Key lighthouse, off southern Florida, March 21 (Merriam*).
Galbraith2, also, procured six additional specimens in Louisiana, and the efforts of collectors being now especially directed toward this species, it proved to be an abundant migrant in Florida and southern Louisiana. Atkins* reported it from Key West in late July and early August, Chapman6 from Brevard County, Florida, in March, and Brewster7 and Chapman from the lower Suwanee River in the same month.
Eleven years passed after the re-discovery of this Warbler before its nest was found when, as related beyond, the well-directed researches of Otto Widmann8 established the species as breeding commonly in the St. Francis River region of Missouri and Arkansas.
As with most Warblers the character of the haunts of Bachman's Warbler during migration depends upon the nature of the country through which it is passing. At Key West, where the forest is low and with undergrowth, Atkins5 found it "alike in trees, low bushes, and shrubbery, sometimes on, or quite near the ground," but it seemed "to prefer the heavy and more thickly grown woods to trees or bushes more in the open." But on the banks of the Suwanee, where the trees were exceptionally high and with little or no undergrowth, the bird was rarely found below the upper branches, usually of cypress trees, where it was associated with other migrating Warblers.
Very different are the bird's breeding haunts in the wet, forested bottom-lands of the St. Francis River region, as described by Widmann8, with their "blackberry brambles among a medley of halfdecayed and lately felled tree-tops, lying in pools of water."
Atkins6, writing of southbound migrants at Key West, speaks of them as "active and constantly in motion," but Mr. Brewster7 and I found the many individuals which we saw in March, on the Suwanee, to be rather deliberate in their movements, resembling, in this respect, the Blue-winged Warbler.
Widmann8, writing of the species on its breeding ground, says it may be "easily overlooked, even in a region where it is common. Its small size, its protective coloration, and its quiet ways, combine to make it next to invisible among the heavy foliage of its habitat. * * * Even if in song it takes minutes to find the bird, though he is generally seated on a dry, or thinly-leafed branch at a height of twenty to forty feet from the ground. The reason why it is so difficult to locate him is his habit of pouring out his song into different directions, now to the right, then to the left, even turning entirely around on his perch. When he leaves he is liable to fly quite a distance, far enough to get lost out of sight for the moment, and in the wildness of his home, it takes several minutes to follow him over fallen trees, and around impenetrable thickets or pools of water."
Wayne12 writes : "Bachman's Warbler is a high-ranging bird, like the Yellow-throated Warbler, and generally sings from the top of a sweet gum or cypress. It a\>pears to have regular singing stations
during the breeding season, and upon leaving a tree, it flies a long distance before alighting. * * * I have occasionally seen the males in low gall-berry bushes within six or eight inches of the ground, but their usual resorts are among the topmost branches of the tallest trees."
Song.— "The song is unlike that of any other species of Helminthophila with which I am acquainted, and most resembles the song of the Parula Warbler. It is of the same length and of nearly the same quality or tone, but eight notes being given in the same key and with equal emphasis. Despite these differences it would be possible to mistake the performance, especially at a distance, for that of a Parula singing listlessly. The voice, though neither loud nor musical, is penetrating and seems to carry as far as most Warblers'. Besides the song the only note which we certainly identified was a low, hissing zee-e-eep, very like that of the Black-and-White Warbler." (Brewster.7)
Mr. Otto Widmann8 writes of a male under his observation for eight hours "the bird kept singing nearly all the time at the rate of ten times a minute with the regularity of clockwork, and the sharp rattling notes reminded me of an alarm clock. In this regard it recalls one of the performances of Parula, whose rattle is of the same length and quality, except that it has a certain rise at the end, by which it is easily distinguished. To my ear the Bachman's song comes nearest to that of the Worm-eating Warbler, which is fortunately not found in swampland, but the Chipping Sparrow is, and, if the presence of the Bachman's Warbler is not suspected, it is indeed possible to mistake its song for a shrill variety of the Chippy's well-known ditty."
"The song is wiry or insect-like, and resembles the song of the Worm-eating Warbler very closely, while it also bears a strong resemblance to the song of the Parula Warbler and Chipping Sparrow" ( Wayne™}. Embody,11 also, compares the song to that of a Chipping Sparrow.
Nesting Site.— Bailey's description of the supposed nesting site and eggs of this species (Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club, VIII, 1883, 38) is evidently based on a collector's error and credit for the discovery of the nest and eggs of Bachman's Warbler belongs to Otto Widmann3 who found them on May 14, 1897 in Dunklin County, Missouri. The nest was two feet from the ground and "was tied very slightly to a vertical blackberry vine of fresh growth and rested lightly on another which crossed the former at a nearly right angle. From
above it was entirely hidden by branchlets of latest growth and the hand could not be inserted without first cutting several vines." A second nest, was taken by Mr. Widmann, in Dunklin County, May 13, 1898 and is recorded by Short10 as similar in structure to the type nest and like it placed in a blackberry bush, where it was not "attached to the branches but simply supported between half a dozen of them."
Since the above was written Bachman's Warbler has been found breeding by Wayne on April 17, 1906 and later dates, near Charleston, S. C, and by Embody, on May 14, 1906, in Logan County, Ky. In both instances the birds inhabited heavily timbered, swampy land with more or less stagnant water. The nests were in low bushes, briers, or canes and were one to three feet from the ground.
Nest. — The first nest found by Widmann is described by Ridgway9 as a "somewhat compressed, compact mass composed externally of dried weed and grass-stalks and dead leaves, many of the latter partly skeletonized; internally composed of rather fine weed and grass-stalks, lined with black fibers, apparently dead threads of the black pendant lichens (Ramalina, species?) which hang in beard-like tufts from button-bushes (Cephalanthus}, and other shrubs growing in wetter portions of the western bottom lands. The height of the nest is about three and one-half inches; the greatest breadth is about four inches, its width in the opposite direction being about three inches. The cavity is about one and one-half inches deep and one and onehalf by two inches wide." Six nests found by Wayne are described as being chiefly constructed of fine grass, cane leaves, and skeletonized leaves of other kinds, and some contained Spanish 'moss'.
Eggs. — Both the nests discovered by Widmann contained three eggs which, as they were left until the bird began to sit, evidently constituted a complete set. Wayne, however, found two nests each with four eggs. The eggs of Widmann's first set are described by Ridgway9 as "of very regular ovate form and entirely pure white in color." They measured .63x48; .64x49; .63x49. The eggs of the second set are described by Short* as "pure china white and glossy." In size they agreed with those of the first set.
Nesting Dates.— Dunklin County, Mo., May 13 and 17 (Widmann} ; Logan Co., Ky., May 14 (Embody} ; Charleston, S. C., April 17; May 13, two young, Juvenal plumage (Wayne}.
TENNESSEE WARBLER 83
United States, Auk, IV, 1887, 35. (2) Ibid., 262. (3) C HART MERRIAM, Another Specimen of Bachman's Warbler, Auk, IV, 1887, 262. (4) W. E. D. SCOTT, Bachman's Warbler at Key West, Florida, in July and August, Auk, V, 1888, 428; also (5) ibid., VII, 1890, 313. (6) FRANK M. CHAPMAN, Helminthophila bachmani on the East coast of Florida, Auk, VI, 1889, 278. (7) WM. BREWSTER, Notes on Bachman's Warbler [in Florida], Auk, VIII, 1891, 149. (8) O. WIDMANN, The Summer Home of Bachman's Warbler No Longer Unknown. A Common Breeder in the St. Francis River Region of Southeastern Missouri and Northeastern' Arkansas, Auk, XIV, 1897, 305. (9) R. RIDGWAY, Description of the Nest and Eggs of Bachman's Warbler, Auk, XIV, 1897, 309. (10) E. H. SHORT, Bachman's Warbler, Oologist, XXII, 1905, 103. (n) GEO. C. EMBODY, Bachman's Warbler Breeding in Logan County, Kentucky, The Auk, XXIV, Jan. 1907. (12) A. T. WAYNE, The Nest and Eggs of Bachman's Warbler taken near Charleston, S. C., Auk, XXIV, Jan. 1907.
Distinguishing Characters. — No conspicuous wing-bars; adult c? grayish white below, crown and nape bluish gray; adult $ with crown greener, and tinged with yellow below; young greenish yellow below, above entirely yellow olive-green. Length (skin), 4.40; wing, 2.60; tail, 1.70; bill, 40.
Adult $, Spring. — Crown and nape grayish blue the former rarely with traces of chestnut, a whitish line above the eye and, usually, a dusky line through it; back bright olive-green; tail edged with olive-green, the two outer feathers usually with more or less dull white at the end of the inner vane; secondaries edged with olive-green, the median and greater coverts narrowly tipped with paler green or greenish white; underparts grayish white, the breast often tinged with buff or yellowish, the sides with greenish.
green, underparts with more buffy or greenish.
Young ^, Fall. — No gray on crown, upper parts entirely bright olive-green ; line over eye yellowish; underparts greenish yellow, whiter on the belly and crissum; wings and tail as in the adult
Adult $, Fall.— No gray on crown; upperparts entirely bright olive-green, below white washed with yellow; resembles young d1 in Fall but averages less bright above and less yellow below.
Summer Range. — New Hampshire (White Mountains , Lake Umbagog) ; Maine (Androscoggin, Penobscot, Piscataquis and Washington Counties) ; northern New York (Lewis County) ; northeastern Minnesota; eastern British Columbia (Carpenter Mountain), and north to the upper Yukon Valley, Labrador, and the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Accidental in California (Pasadena, September 27, 1897).
The species is most common in the Mississippi Valley in its migrations, and extends west rarely to Colorado; it is not common anywhere east of Allegheny Mountains, but occurs rarely throughout all of eastern United States. Accidental in West Indies.
November 3 1900
The Bird and its Haunts. — The Tennessee Warbler awaits a biographer. We know that generally it is rather rare in spring but sometimes not uncommon in fall, and that during its migrations it is associated with other arboreal Warblers.
In the summer Maynard1 found it to be very common in wooded localities about Umbagog, the male, while singing being perched on some high dead branch. Faxon* who found a singing male of this species in a "thick growth of black spruce, balsam fir, and mountain ash" on Graylock Peak, Mass., on July 15,1888, quotes Brewster as saying that he found it "in a white spruce and larch swamp in Anticosti" and that at Lake Umbagog he observed it in "larch swamps, but sometimes on mountain sides — always among coniferous trees." Merriam2, however, writes that in the Adirondack region it "generally prefers hardwood areas."
In British Columbia Brooks, as recorded by Norris5, found the bird breeding in "clumps of aspen trees and Norway pines, where the ground was covered with a thick growth of dry pine grass."
About Monadnock, Gerald Thayer writes that the Tennessee Warbler is "very rare, and seemingly irregular. It haunts blossoming apple trees, big elms, and roadside copses of mixed deciduous second growth. This most un-warbler-colored little Warbler seems to have pretty nearly the same general habits and demeanor as the nervous, yellow-breasted Nashville, — though it is perhaps a little less restless, — and the only one of its call-notes I have heard is almost exactly like the Nashville's least peculiar call." (Thayer, MS.}
Song. — "Its song begins with a note like chipiti, chipiti repeated a dozen or more times, with increasing rapidity, then suddenly changed into a mere twitter." (Set on1.}
"The Tennessee is easily discovered and identified by its peculiar song; — a twittering, semi-trilled, rather prolonged utterance of three parts, not very unlike some of the weaker and buzzier strains of the American Goldfinch's song. Its tone is ambiguous — hard to place between full and feeble, wheezy and clear. On the whole, however, the song is a decidedly noticeable one. Having heard the Tennessee but seldom, I know only one main song, with no important variations, and cannot even describe that one very closely." (Thayer, MS.)
Nesting Site. — Little appears to be known about the nesting habits of this Warbler. Norris5 recording the observations of Allan Brooks in British Columbia, writes: "The nests were always on the ground, sometimes at the foot of a small service berry bush or twig. They were all arched over by the dry pine grass of the preceeding year; this year's growth having just commenced."
Nest. — "The nest is small and loosely constructed, being quite flat. It is composed outwardly of a few leaves, a little moss, and a good deal of fine grass, lined only with the latter material." (Norris5.)
Eggs. — 4. "The eggs seem to differ in appearance from any of the same genus that I have seen, and may be thus described: Creamy white, finely speckled all over the surface with reddish brown, and also marked with larger spots of the same color, more heavily at the larger end. There are also a number of spots of light lilac which are not conspicuous. They measure .57x48; .65x46; .59x47; .61x46." (Norris.5)
(i) C. J. MAYNARD, Birds of Coos Co., N. H., and Oxford Co., Me., Proc. Bost. Soc., N. H., XIV, 1871, 7. (2) C. HART MERRIAM, Birds of the Adirondack Region, Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club, VI, 1881, 227. (3) ERNEST THOMPSON SETON, Birds of Manitoba, Proc. U. S. N. M., 1891, 617. (4) W. FAXON, On the Summer Birds of Berkshire County, Massachusetts, Auk, VI, 1889, 102. (5) J. PARKER NORRIS, JR., Nesting of the Tennessee Warbler in British Columbia, Auk, XIX, 1902, 88.
Adult <£ Spring.— Upper parts olive-green tipped with grayish, except on rump ; an orange-brown crown-patch tipped with olive-green and gray ; eyering and a narrow line from bill to above eye, yellow or yellowish; tail externally olive-green, inner margin of inner vane of outer feathers often whiteedged ; wings edged with olive-green, their bend yellow ; underparts dusky greenish yellow indistinctly streaked.
absent.
Nestling. — "Above dull olive, or grayish olive, becoming more olive-greenish or russet-olive on rump and upper tail-coverts; middle and greater wingcoverts tipped, more or less distinctly, with paler olive or dull buffy; throat, chest, sides of breast, sides and flanks pale brownish gray; tinged with dull buffy, especially on chest; abdomen white; otherwise like adults, but without trace of tawny-ochraceous on crown". (Ridgw.)
to Alaska.
Summer Range. — Not uncommon breeder in Manitoba and northwestward to Alaska, except coast region north to Cook Inlet. Probably breeds locally and rarely in Wisconsin arid occurs sparingly east to New England; once found breeding at Brunswick, Maine. There are no breeding records for Canada in Ontario or eastward, though the species is a rare migrant from southern Ontario to New Brunswick and south to the Gulf of Mexico.
Massachusetts.
Spring Migration. — This species winters in the south Atlantic states as far north as southern South Carolina, but northward is so rare east of the Allegheny mountains that its normal times of migration in the north Atlantic states cannot be stated with any degree of accuracy. Some of the following data refer to the western races of this bird.
The Bird and its Haunts. — During the winter I have found the Orange-crowned Warbler a not uncommon inhabitant of the live-oaks in middle Florida where its sharp chip soon becomes recognizable. In Mississippi, at this season, Allison (MS.) says that "its favorite haunts are usually wooded yards or parks, where the evergreen live oak and magnolia can be found; but I have seen it most commonly among the small trees on the border of rich mixed woods, above an undergrowth of switch cane. Coniferous trees it seems not to care for, though I have seen it in the cypress swamps."
The bird's migration route in the spring appears to pass through the Mississippi valley and it is rare or unknown at this time of the year in the north Atlantic States. During the fall, however, it is not infrequently found there, Brewster's8 records of nine individuals seen in his garden in Cambridge, in November, showing that it is both more common and later than was previously supposed.
Very little appears to have been written about the habits of this form of the Orange-crown in its summer home. Near Carberry, Manitoba, Seton2 says it is a common summer resident in the wooded sections, "moving about continually among the topmost twigs of the trees and uttering its little ditty about once every half minute." About the Great Slave Lake, Kennicott (B. B. & R., I., 204) found the bird nesting among clumps of low bushes. In northern Alaska, Nelson1 states that the Orange-crown is a common summer resident of wooded regions, straggling southward as an autumn migrant to the shores of Behring Sea and Kotzebue Sound.
"Their song, only heard during the mating and breeding season, is a simple lay — a few sweet trills uttered in a spirited manner, and abruptly ending on a rising scale." (Goss, Birds of Kansas.}
"The only note heard is a sharp, persistent, chipping, many times repeated, as the bird moves about the tree, often moving its wings restlessly, like a Kinglet." (Allison, MS.}
"The song is full and strong, not very high pitched, and ends abruptly on a rising scale. My note book renders it chee chee chee chw' chw'. The first three syllables rapidly uttered, the last two more slowly. One heard late in the season sang more nearly like Mr. Thompson's description: chip-e, chip-e, chip-e, chip-e, chip-e, but with the first vowel changed to e, thus eliminating what would appear to be a marked similarity to the song of Chippy. Even in this song the ending is retained." (Jones.}
(i) E. W. NELSON, Report on Natural History Collections made in Alaska, 200. (2) ERNEST THOMPSON SETON, Birds of Manitoba, Proc. U. S. N. M., 1891, 616. (3) WM. BREWSTER, Birds of the Cambridge Region, 324.
Subspecific Characters.— Intermediate in color between Helminthophila celata celata and H. c. lutescens; yellower than former, not so yellow as the latter; in size larger than lutescens, and virtually agreeing with celata.
Columbia.
Winter Range. — Southward to Lower California and southern Mexico. In migration casually eastward to Minnesota (Ft. Snelling) and Pennsylvania (Williamsport), (cf. Oberholser}.
Subsfecific Characters. — Similar to V . c. orestera, but smaller and decidedly yellower. In life, breeding birds impress one as being yellow rather than olive-green birds ; the underparts being strong, if somewhat dusky, yellow.
ward into Mexico.
The Bird and its Haunts. — Compared with our eastern Orangecrown, the Pacific coast form is distinctly a yellow bird, and is consequently much more conspicuous than true celata. Walter Fisher (MS.) contributes the following sketch of it in its haunts: "Chaparral hillsides and brushy open woods are the favorite haunts of the Lutescent Warbler. Its nest is built on or near the ground, usually in a bramble tangle or under a rooty bank, and the bird itself hunts near the ground, flitting here and there through the miniature jungle of wild lilacs, baccharis and hazel bushes. Its dull greenish color harmonizes with the dusty summer foliage of our California chaparral, and with the fallen leaves and tangle of stems that constitute its normal background. It impresses one chiefly by its lack of any distinctive markings, and the young of the year, particularly, approach that tint
DUSKY WARBLER 9I
which has been facetiously called 'museum color'. Ordinarily the crown-patch is invisible as the little fellow fidgets among the undergrowth, but at a distance of three feet Mr. W. L. Finley was able to distinguish it when the bird ruffled its feathers in alarm."
Nesting Site. — "Nests on the ground, on dry hillsides overgrown with brush." (Bowles, MS.) Finley1 mentions nests found "under some dry ferns in the bank of a little hollow. * * * on a hillside under a fir tree, placed on the ground in a tangle of grass and brier. * * * In an arrow-wood bush three feet from the ground and amid a bunch of sprouts, and in a bush two feet up."
Eggs- — 3 to 5, usually 4. Ground color white to creamy white spotted and specked with reddish brown and lilac-gray more heavily at the larger end, slightly tending to wreathe, with very few specimen* showing blotches. Size; average, .66x.5i. The eggs of this bird show very little variation in size, one set of four showing the remarkable variation of only i-ioo of an inch in length and none in breadth, three eggs measuring .64X.5O and one .63X.5O. (Figs. 26-28.)
Subspecific Characters. — Similar to V. c. lutescens but darker, more heavily tipped above, duskier more strongly streaked below; wing averaging slightly shorter, the bill and tail slightly longer. Wing, 2.20 ; tail, 2.00 ; bill, .40.
The Bird and its Haunts. — In their summer home on San Clemente Island, Grinnell1 says : "Dusky Warblers were quite numerous in the weed-patches and brush along the ravines nearly to the beaches. But
92 NASHVILLE WARBLER
later, when most of the plants were dry and dead, they were confined to the cherry thickets along the canons. Their song and habits were similar to those of the Lutescent Warbler of the mainland."
According to the same author2 the Dusky Warbler "appears in the vicinity of Pasadena in the oak regions and along the arroyos in large numbers during August, and even by the middle of July. Remains in diminishing numbers through the winter; the latest specimen noted in the spring was secured by me, Feb, 29, '96."
Distinguishing Characters. — Adults with the head gray, the d, an.d often $, with a partially concealed chestnut crown-patch ; no white tail-patches or wingbars. Length (skin), 4.30; wing, 2.35; tail, 1.80; bill, .36.
Adult <$, Spring. — Head and nape gray; a large chestnut crown-patch tipped with gray; eye-ring white, loral region white or, at times, yellow; back olivegreen, the rump brighter; tail, externally, olive-green, without white patches but inner web of outer feathers sometimes margined with white; wings, externally, olive-green, no wing-bars, the bend yellow; under-parts and crissum yellow, the lower belly whitish.
underparts paler.
Adult $, Fall. — Similar to last, but crown browner, the chestnut patch, when present, more broadly tipped, the back grayer, the breast tinged with brown, the feathers of belly tipped with white.
present.
Nestling. — Above dusky olive-green, sometimes broadly edged with dark brown; wing-coverts tipped with buff, forming two well-marked wing-bands; breast and flanks dusky brownish-yellow, belly clear pale yellow.
(Cape Breton Island), Quebec (Gaspe Bay), central Ontario, and Athabasca (Cumberland House); the southern limit of the breeding range is found in New Jersey (Englewood, casual), Pennsylvania (Dingman's Ferry, Pike County), northern Illinois, Nebraska (Nebraska City). East of the Allegheny Mountains it is scarcely known south of Maryland, nor in the Gulf states east of Texas. Accidental in Greenland.
Guatemala.
Spring Migration. — Wintering principally in Mexico, the Nashville Warblers of New England seem to reach their summer home by a migration route that shuns the lowlands of the southeastern United States. The species is almost unknown in this district south of Virginia. Records for the western form of this species are here included.
Fall Migration. — The arrival of migrants south of their breeding grounds has been noted at Chicago, 111., August 16, 1896 ; Beaver, Pa., September 5, 1903; Ossining, N. Y., August n; Englewood, N. J., August 26, 1887; Washington, D. C, September 5; French Creek, W. Va., September 7, 1890; St. Louis, Mo., September 17, 1885, and at Gainesville, Texas, October n, 1885.
The Bird and its Haunts. — Wilson, the discoverer of this species, found only the three specimens, taken near Nashville, Tennessee, on which his description was based; and, in the early part of the last century it was considered a rare bird. Brewster5, quoting Samuel Cabot, says that soon after 1836 "a few birds began to appear every season. They increased in numbers, gradually but steadily, until they had become so common that in 1842 he obtained ten specimens in the course of a single morning."
Recounting his own experience in the Cambridge region, Brewster5 adds: "In 1868, and for some fifteen years later, I found Nashville Warblers breeding rather numerously in Waltham, Lexington, Arlington and Belmont, usually in dry and somewhat barren tracts sparsely covered with gray birches, oaks or red cedars, or with scattered pitch pines. A few birds continued to occupy certain of these stations, but in all of the towns just mentioned the Nashville Warbler is less common and decidedly less generally distributed in summer now than it was twenty-five or thirty years ago."
Gerald Thayer writes : " 'Birch Warbler' would be a good name for this bird as it appears in the Monadnock region where it breeds abundantly. For here it is nowhere so common as in abandoned fields and mountain pastures half smothered by small gray birches. From the airy upper story of these low and often dense birch copses the Nashvilles sing ; and among the club-mosses and ferns, and the hard-
hacks and other scrubby bushes at their bases and around their borders, the Nashvilles build their nests. But such is merely their most characteristic home. They are so common and widespread that it is hard to get out of earshot of their song during the breeding season. Dark spruce woods they do not favor, nor big, mixed virgin timber; but even in these places, one is likely to find them wherever there is a little 'oasis' of sunlight and smaller deciduous growth. They are fairly common among the scanty spruces, mountain ashes and white birches of the rocky upper ridge of Mt. Monadnock, almost to the top — 3,169 feet.
"The Nashville's proper domain or 'beat', during the breeding season, lies between the ground and the tops of the lower trees — mainly deciduous trees. He is a little, active, foliage-colored Warbler, un-showily yellow-breasted, inconspicuously gray-headed (except for a yellow throat, and a rufous crown-spot which scarcely shows at all) with a dim white eye-ring, but without white tail-spots, wing-bars or any other bold markings. In demeanor it is one of the most nervously agile and restless of the gleaning Warblers." (Thayer, MS.}
Song. — "The Nashville has at least two main perch-songs, and a flight-song, all subject to a good deal of variation. It belongs decidedly among the full-voiced Warblers; — the Yellow, Magnolia, Blackthroated Green, Chestnut-side, Hooded, Canadian, etc., on the one hand, as compared with the Parula, Blackburnian, Cape May, Black and White, Blackpoll, Bay-breast, etc., on the other. Its commoner perch-song consists of a string of six or eight or more, lively, rapid notes, suddenly congested into a pleasant, rolling twitter, lower in key than the first part of the song, and about half as long. In the other perch-song, the notes of what correspond to the rolling twitter are separate and richer, and the second part of the song is longer and more noticeable than the first, whose notes are few and slurred, while the whole is more languidly delivered. The differences are hard to describe intelligibly; but in reality they are pronounced and constant. The flight-song, a fairly common performance in late summer, is sung from the height of five to forty feet above the (usually low) tree-tops. It is like the commoner perch-songs, but more hurried, and slightly elaborated, — often with a few chippings added, at both ends. Among the Nashville's calls a very small, dry chip, and a more metallic, louder chip, somewhat Water-Thru sh-like, are noteworthy. It also chip per s like a young Warbler or a Black-throated Green." (Thayer, MS.}
Miss Paddock sends six renderings of the Nashville's song and writes : 'The first half of the Nashville's song is sibilant, the last half is a twitter. I cannot agree with Mr. Matthews that the first part is always 'lame-legged', though it is often so."
"A very peculiar song, unlike the usual quality, and in leisurely fashion, ran as follows: The tempo was regular and all the notes seemed to utter the syllables chip, chip, chip."
Nesting Site. — The nest is apparently always placed on the ground, the character of the situation being indicated by the following quotations: "the side of a knoll well concealed by brakes and brush. * * * on the roots of a small bush that grew from the side of a knoll" (Morrell*) ; "under a shrub or tree much after the fashion of the Black and White Warbler" (Bowles*) ; "the nests I have found have uniformly been in the side of sphagnum tussocks, and well sunken out of sight from above, so that one must stoop to look into them" (Preston2). Nests found by Spaulding- at Lancaster, N. H., were in the side of grassy knolls.
CALAVERAS WARBLER 97
Nest. — After stating that in Massachusetts the site selected resembles that chosen by the Black and White Warbler, Bowles4 adds : "the material, however, is somewhat different, consisting of moss, dry leaves, grass and pine-needles, and lined with pine-needles and grass, instead of horse-hair, which is almost invariably used by Mniotilta. Spaulding describes New Hampshire nests as made of moss and fine grasses lined with rootlets, while nests found by Preston2 in Minnesota were composed of the "soft stems of a slender Juncus and some were lined with deer's hair."
Eggs. — 4 or 5. Ground color white to creamy white specked and spotted with reddish brown and lilac of varying shades forming a more or less distinct wreath about large end. This egg and that of the Pileolated Warbler approach each other closely. Size; a typical set of five measures .62x46, .63x46, .65x48, .62x47 and .63x46; other specimens measure the same. (Figs. 23-25.)
Nesting Dates. — New Haven, Conn., May 30- June 8 (Bishop) ; Cambridge, Mass., full sets, first laying, May 25-June i (Brewster} ; Lancaster, N. H., May 25-June 8 (Spaulding} ; Bangor, Maine, June 3- June 6; Fort Kent, Maine, July 10 {Knight} ; Detroit, Mich., May 30 (J.P.N.).
(i) J. P. N [ORRIS], A Series of Eggs of the Nashville Warbler, Orn. and O61., XV, 1890, 23. (2) J. W. PRESTON, A Glimpse of the Nashville Warbler [in Minn.], Orn. and O61., XVI, 1891, 89. (3) C H. MORRELL, Nesting of the Nashville Warbler [in Maine], Nidologist, III, 1896, 125. (4) J. H. BOWLES, Nesting Habits of the Nashville Warbler [in Mass.], Osprey, I, 1896, 20. (5) WM. BREWSTER, Birds of the Cambridge Region, 323.
Summer Range. — High mountains, from the Sierra Nevada (Calaveras Co., Calif.) to British Columbia (Vernon, Nelson, Okanagan district, etc.), eastward to eastern Oregon (Fort Klamath, northern Idaho (Fort Sherman), etc. (Ridgw.).
Of this bird, as it occurs in California, Walter Fisher writes: "The Calaveras Warbler is a characteristic denizen of the chaparral and is found on both slopes of the Sierra Nevadas about as far south as Mt. Whitney. It frequents the belts of the yellow, sugar, and Jeffrey pines, and ranges up into the red fir zone. During the height of the nesting season one may see them flitting about among thickets of manzanita, wild cherry, huckleberry, oak and buck brush, almost always in song; and while the female is assiduously hunting among the dense cover of bushes, the male is often singing in a pine or fir, far above mundane household cares.
"These Warblers are conspicuous fellows, the yellow underparts showing in bold contrast to the gray crown and cheeks, and olive-green upper-parts. It is likely that the brilliant mountain sunshine heightens the color effect. I have observed this Warbler at lower altitudes on the west slope among small black oaks, in company with Hermit Warblers, from which it can be readily distinguished by the absence of yellow cheeks and black throat." (Fisher, MS.}
Adult <$, Spring. — Crown-patch chestnut tipped with gray; cheeks and back brownish gray, eye-ring white; rump and upper tail-coverts dull yellow; tail fuscous, outer pair of feathers usually margined with white on the inner web ; wings margined with gray, no white bars ; below grayish white, breastpatch and under tail-coverts yellow.
patch.
Nestling. — Above grayish brown; throat and breast paler, belly whitish; upper and under tail-coverts saffron ; wings and tail as in young <£ greater and median coverts brownish gray narrowly but sharply tipped with buffy.
General Distribution. — Rocky Mountains of the United States, north to Colorado (common), Utah (Wasatch Mts., Salt Lake City) and Nevada (East Humboldt Mountains). Winters in Mexico.
Migration. — The first migrant was seen at Cooney, New Mex., April 10, 1889; Huachuca, Ariz., April 10, 1902; Beulah, Colo., May 6, 1905 ; Monon, Colo., May 3, 1905.
The Bird and its Haunts. — "Virginia's Warbler was discovered at Cantonment Burgwyn in New Mexico, by Dr. W. W. Anderson, and first described, in 1860, by Professor Baird who dedicated it to the wife of the discoverer. The type specimen remained unique until 1864, when the present writer took a second example at Fort Whipple, on the fifteenth of August; this was a young bird very likely bred in the vicinity. Shortly afterward, 1869, Mr. Ridgway ascertained that the bird was abundant in the East Humboldt and Wahsatch Mountains, where it was breeding in thickets of scrub oak. * * *
"Mr. C. E. Aiken shortly afterward extended the known range of the species to include the eastern foothills of the Rocky Mountains in Colorado, where it breeds. This excellent observer found it in various parts of the State, but especially along the eastern base of the mountains, where, in its favorite haunts, it sometimes outnumbers all other Warblers put together. It is a shy and timid species, generally darting, with its sharp note of alarm, into its place of concealment when approached. In summer it frequents the scrub of the hillsides, at any elevation up to about 7,500 feet, but during the migrations it is found indifferently in the pine forests and among the cottonwoods and willows along the streams." (Coues.}
"This species is quite common in the pine regions throughout Arizona, but I have not seen it at a lower elevation than 5*000 ^ee*Unlike other Warblers in this section, they keep almost entirely in the underbrush, where they are continually on the move and at the same time uttering a quick chirp as if in distress." (Howard2.}
search of his morning repast; or having satisfied his appetite, he mounts to the top of some tree in the neighborhood of his nest, and repeats at regular intervals a song of remarkable fullness for a bird of such minute proportions." (Aiken.)
"Ordinary note, a sharp chip; song simple but various (deceptively so) ; common forms are che'-we-che'-we-che'-we-che'-we,-wit-awit-wit-wit (these terminal notes being partially characteristic of Helminthophaga} and che-we'-che-we'-che-we'-che'-a-che'-ache'" (Minot*}
Nesting Site. — Nests found by Howard and Judson were on the ground under a bush or bunch of grass. A nest found by W. G. Smith at Estes Park, Colorado, was "under a rocky ledge, sunken in the ground and well hidden." (C. W. C.)
Eggs- — 4 or 5, rarely 5. Ground color white lightly wreathed around the larger end with specks and spots of reddish and purplish brown, a few scattering specks of the same colors over rest of egg. Size; average, .66x.49. A set of four, from Estes Park, Colorado, show very regular measurements : .66x49, .66x49, .66x.5o and .67x49. (Figs. 21,22.)
(i) W. B. JUDSON, Nesting of Virginia's Warbler, Osprey, III, 1898, 54. (2) C. W. HOWARD, Summer Resident Warblers of Arizona, Bull. Cooper Orn. Club (=Condor), I, 1899, 63. (3) H. D. MINOT, Notes on Colorado Birds, Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club, V, 1880, 226.
Adult $, Spring. — Crown largely chestnut with more or less pronounced gray tips which wear off in the breeding season; back gray; upper tail-coverts chestnut; tail fuscous, outer feathers with a dull white patch, white sometimes extending to margin of inner vane of second feather; wings gray, no white bars ; cheeks and underparts dusky white more or less tinged with buff.
Adult £, Fall. — Similar to last "but above tinged with brown, the chestnut crown-patch concealed by very broad brownish gray tips to the feathers ; underparts pale brownish buff, becoming white, or nearly so, on the abdomen" (Ridgw.).
washed with buffy.
General Distribution. — Western United States, breeds commonly in Arizona and rarely north to the lower Santa Clara Valley, southwestern Utah. Winters in northwestern Mexico.
Migration. — Its arrival in Arizona was noted at Fort Lowell, March 20, 1902; Oracle, April i, 1899; Fort Mojave, March 25; Whipple Barracks, March 31, 1892, and in the Huachuca Mountains, April 8, 1902.
The Bird and its Haunts. — The restricted range of this species has brought it within the field experience of comparatively few ornithologists. Discovered by J. G. Cooper at Fort Mojave, Arizona, March 25, 1861, where it was not uncommon in the mesquite chaparral, it was taken two years later by Holden and in April, 1865, was found by Coues at Fort Whipple.
The nest was first found by Bendire at Tucson, Arizona, on May 19, 1872, additional examples being discovered by Stephens, as recorded by Brewster1, at the same locality nine years later.
Coues described the Lucy's Warblers which came under hi.observation as "rather timid, retiring birds, likely to be long overlooked in the thickets and copses to which they seem to be much attached." Stephens, however, states that "although active and restless they were not at all shy." He adds that "they were more abundant among the mesquites than any other species and their tseeping could be heard on every side. They were continually in motion, flying from tree to tree, and occasionally visiting some low brush in the vicinity."
been described.
Nesting Site.— Recording Stephens' observations on the nesting habits of this Warbler in Arizona, Brewster1 states that the site was "variable; the characteristic place, like that of the specimen discovered by Captain Bendire, was behind the loosened bark of a large tree, but use was frequently made of old Woodpecker's nests, knot-holes, and in short, all sorts of crevices." One pair appropri-
ated a deserted Verdin's nest using it without apparent repairs or alterations. Howard2 records a similar instance and adds: "most of the nests were in mesquite trees, in natural cavities or behind pieces of loose bark, ranging in height from two to twenty feet, but, as a rule, they are within easy reach."
Eggs. — 3 to 5, usually 3 or 4. Ground color white, handsomely wreathed around the large end with specks, spots, and small blotches of reddish brown, umber, and lavender; in some cases the markings are sparingly distributed over all the egg, the rule, however, is a well-defined wreath around the large end. Probably averaging the smallest of North American Warblers' eggs. Size; average, .59X.44; extremes, .61x45, .56x43. (Figs. 18-20.)
(i) WM. BREWSTER. On a Collection of Birds lately made by Mr. F. Stephens in Arizona, Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club, VII, 1882, 82. (2) O. W. HOWARD. Summer Resident Warblers of Arizona, Bull. Cooper Orn. Club, (=Condor), I, 1899, 37-
Genus COMPSOTHLYPIS Cabanis
Our two species of this genus are small bluish birds with a short, wedge-shaped, sharply pointed, slightly curved, unnotched bill, of which the upper mandible is blackish, the lower, whitish; the rictal bristles are short but evident; the wing is about .70 inches longer than the tail and has the four outer primaries of nearly equal length, the tail-feathers are narrow and of about equal length, the outer ones being conspicuously marked with white; the feet are dark, the tarsus is much longer than the middle toe and nail, the hind toe-nail is nearly as long as the toe.
Compsothlypis contains three species, C. graysoni of.Socorro Island, Mexico, C. pitiayumi, ranging from Brazil to the Lower Rio Grande and separated into half a dozen geographical races, of which our C. nigrilora is the most northern, and C. americana of the eastern United States.
Subspecific Characters — Similar to C a. usnece but with less black about the lores, throat in c? with more yellow, the blackish throat band very narrow or poorly denned ; $ not distinguishable from $ of usnea. Smaller and with a slightly larger bill than usnece from the North Atlantic States ; larger than specimens of umece from the lower Mississippi valley and Texas. Wing, 2.25 ; tail, 1. 60; bill, .38.
Summer Range. — Southeastern Atlantic and eastern Gulf states west along the coast region to Alabama ; north to southern New York. Ridgway refers to this form occasional specimens from as far north as Sing Sing and Shelter Island, N. Y., and even Cape Cod, Mass., and as far west as Mount Carmel, Ills., and Rockwood, Tenn. A breeding bird from Caesar's Head in the mountains of western North Carolina is typical americana. The form as fully developed, is frequently Austroriparian, specimens from the Carolinian fauna being largely intermediate between it and usnece.
The Bird and its Haunts. — About March i, in northern Florida, when the blossoming cypress, maple and red-bud announce the coming of spring the quaint sizzling trill of the newly arrived Parula Warbler is one of the most characteristic bird voices of the season. Possibly among these migrants there may be representatives of the more northern form of this bird, but if the singer's drowsy little lay appeals to you as it does to me you will not stop to inquire the exact shade of his coat but will greet him as the author of one of the most welcome bits of bird music in the Florida spring.
The abundance of the Spanish 'moss' (Tillandsia} in which this southern Parula nests is accountable for its being a more common and uniformly distributed bird than is the northern Parula. When migrating it is often found feeding amid the blossoms of the cypress, while the quantity of 'moss' usually pendant from these water-loving trees makes them a favorite summer home. The Parula also frequents the deciduous 'hammocks' but not, so far as I have observed, the pines.
Song. — I am unable to say whether there is any difference in the song of the Northern and Southern Parulas but I imagine that the quaint, attractive, little gurgling sizzle chip-er, chip-er chip-er, cheeee-ee-ee, which is first heard in Florida about March i, is uttered by the southern form, though I do not detect in its notes any difference from those of the northern bird.
I04 PARULA WARBLER
Nesting Site. — Although specimens of Compsothlypis from Mississippi are nearer usneoe than americana, the following description of their nest and its site is more applicable to the later than to the former. "The invariable nesting site is a clump of Spanish moss — where this is to be had ; I have not observed nests from beyond the range of this plant. The nest is generally placed near the branch from which the long filaments of the 'moss' depend, so that it is well concealed. The height from the ground varies from about eight feet upwards. The site is not used a second year; whether for a second brood or not, I cannot say.
Nest. — The nest is nearly hemispherical in shape, opening directly upward. The usual material, in lower Louisiana, is thistle-down, which is abundant during the nesting season. Animal hairs are not used, I think. A nest from Bay St. Louis was composed of the very black horse-hair-like inner fiber resulting from the decay of Tillandsia." (Allison, MS.)
Eggs. — 3 to 5, usually 4. Ground color white to creamy white, somewhat glossy, marked with reddish brown, chestnut, and grayish tints, tending to form a wreath around the large end; the markings are coarse and well-defined. These eggs vary in size and shape to a marked degree. Size ; average, .67X.48. Two extreme sets of 4 eggs each measure ,75x.5o, .76x.5o, .77X.5O and .65x47, .61x44, .64x46. (Figs. 31,32.)
Nesting Dates. — Bay St. Louis, Miss., May 8, young about ready to leave nest — August newly fledged young (Allison). (Doubtless referable to C. usnece) ; Mt. Pleasant, S. C, April 15 (Wayne).
Adult <$, Spring. — Upperparts grayish blue, center of back yellowish green; lores black, eye-ring with a white spot above and another below the eye; tail edged with bluish, outer two or three feathers with a white patch on the inner web near the tip ; wings edged with bluish, median and greater coverts broadly tipped with white; sides of the throat grayish blue much restricting the browntinged yellow of chin and upper throat, lower throat with a more or less welldefined band of bluish black often tinged with brownish and tipped with yellow, this bordered posteriorly by a less well-defined brown, yellow-tipped area which, in turn, is bordered by clear yellow; belly white the sides grayish, often with more or less brownish chestnut.
Adult $, Spring. — Similar to adult c? in Spring but blue areas duller and with more or less greenish wash; blackish throat-band usually absent, brown breast-band much reduced, paler, or absent; sides grayish usually without chestnut
north Atlantic States.
Summer Range. — Gulf States east to Alabama, Mississippi Valley as far west, casually, as eastern Nebraska (Havelock, April 20, 1901), South Dakota (Black Hills), Wyoming (Cheyenne, May 30, 1888), Colorado (Fountain, May n, 1870) ; north to northern Wisconsin, northeastern Minnesota (St. Louis Co.,), Michigan (Spectacle Reef) ; east through central Ontario (Ottawa, Algonquin Park), Prince Edward Island, New Brunswick (rare or local), Nova Scotia, northern Maine; south to southern New England and casually further and along the Alleghenies to North Carolina.
Spring Migration. — Records from the South Atlantic States doubtless relate to both the southern Parula ( Compsothlypis americana americana} and the northern Parula (C. a. usnea) ; those from the northern States and Mississippi Valley to the northern Parula only.
October 26. 1800
The Bird and its Haunts. — During its migration this is a generally distributed species preferring, however, deciduous to coniferous trees — except as it visits cypresses — but when settled for the summer we may look for it only where the usnea moss grows in which it builds its nest.
Although this moss is parasitic on many kinds of trees and bushes, it requires a moist, humid atmosphere and, in consequence, our Warbler makes its home in wet, swampy places. The restriction of the moss to comparatively limited areas often induces a number of pairs of Parulas to nest near one another. Rawson5 mentions a swamp near Norwich, Connecticut, containing seventy-five pairs.
Some difficulty may be experienced in identifying fall specimens, but in the spring the Parula is unquestionably a blue bird and as such likely to be confused with few other Warblers. Furthermore, its conspicuous wing-bars allied to its small size and chickadee-like (hence the name Parula, a diminutive of Parus, a titmouse) habit of feeding while hanging back downward, are good field characters.
Gerald Thayer writes that the Parula is "common about the base of Mt. Monadnock in woodland bogs where the trees — firs and spruces and red maples, etc., — are thickly hung with usnea moss. But we have also found several pairs of breeding Parulas in drier virgin woods and old second growth where usnea was rare. The only nest I have seen was in an usnea swamp, about twenty feet up in a bearded, scrawny, two-thirds-dead fir balsam. It was not only made of usnea, but made of a long, free-hanging usnea beard looped up and spliced onto itself, thus forming a suspended basket-nest with a roof, — and a small side entrance. It was big for the size of the birds, and suggested a European Long-tailed Tit's nest. In certain views from the ground, it showed globose and dark against the sky. The three eggs lay on a scanty bed of wild cherry stems — the only 'imported' building material the nest contained.
"The Parula is less nervous in its movements than most of our Warblers, and it is also among the tamest of them. Its 'beat* lies between the forest under-scrub and the tops of all but the very highest trees. A blue-gray, black-cheeked Warbler, with conspicuous white wing-marks, much white in the tail, and a transverse dusky smudge, sometimes partly reddish brown, on its yellow breast — such is the adult male Parula. His greenish yellow saddle being almost of one shade with the encompassing blue-gray, is very inconspicuous in life." (Thayer, MS.}
Song. — "The Parula is weak-voiced, and its call notes, as far as I know, are slight and barely peculiar; but it has at least three main songs, with a great range of variations. All may be recognized, or at least distinguished from the weak songs of the Dendroica, like the Blackburnian and Bay-breast, by their beady, buzzy tone. In phrasing, in everything but this tone-quality, certain variations of the Parula's
and of the Blackburnian's songs very nearly meet and overlap : but the tell-tale tones remains unchanged, — wheezy and beady in the one, smooth as glass in the other. Commonest of the Northern Parula's three main songs is probably the short, unbroken buzz, uttered on an evenly-ascending scale, and ending abruptly, with a slight accentuation of the final note. Next is that which begins with several notes of the same beady character, but clearly separated, and finishes, likewise on an ascending scale, with a brief congested buzz. The third main song is based on an inversion, of the second — a buzz followed by a few separate drawled notes, high-pitched like the buzz-ending of the two other songs. All three vary and intervary perplexingly." (Thayer, MS.} Miss Paddock describes the Parula's song as "a rapid trill ending explosively" and writes it as follows :
Nesting Site. — In a hanging bunch of usnea moss from three to thirty or more feet above the ground; more rarely "at the end of a drooping spruce branch" (Jacobs9.)
Nest. — As a rule, the bird selects a favorable bunch of moss, gathers or weaves the bottom together, lines it scantily, or not at all, with fine grasses and forms an entrance at one side. Brewster8, however, describes a nest taken at Stoneham, Mass., which in shape and manner of attachment resembled a Baltimore Oriole's nest. No bunches of Usnea large enough for use in the usual manner, being available, the builder had apparently gathered bits of the moss here and there with which to construct a home.
A nest found by Jacobs9, at Blacksville, West Virginia, appears to differ from the usual type. It was "well concealed among twigs at the end of a drooping spruce branch, nine feet up. * * * The composition was chiefly of fine grasses, with a slight mixture of Usnea moss, vegetable fiber, and small bits of wool." A second nest, similarly placed, resembled the first but "contained a goodly supply of hickory catkins and hair, as well as some fine rootlets in the lining."
(i) T. M. BREWER, Am. Nat., I, 1867, 117; XVII, 1875, 439- (2) TRIPPE, Am. Nat., II, 1868, 177. (3) W. W. WORTHINGTON, Blue Yellow-backed Warbler Nesting on Shelter Island, Orn. and O61., VI, 1881, 62. (4) C. H. ANDROS, The Blue Yellow-backed Warbler, Orn. and O61., IX, 1884, 147. (q) /. M. W. [=C. L. RAWSON], Norwich. Conn., The Parula Warbler — Its Nest and Eggs, Orn. and O6L, XIII, 1888, i. (6) WM. BREWSTER, An Unusual Nest of the Parula Warbler, Orn. and O6L, XIII, 1888, 46. (7) J. H. BOWLES, Notes on the Parula Warbler, Nidologist, II, 1895, 63. (8) M. L. C. WILDE, Nesting of the Parula Warbler (Compsothlypis americana) in Cape May County, New Jersey, Auk, XIV, 1897, 289. (9) J. W. JACOBS, Some Notes on the Summer Birds of Monongalia Co., West Virginia, Gleanings, (published by author at Waynesburg, Pa.), IV, 9.
Distinguishing Characters. — Similar to Compsothlypis a. americana but cheeks black; underparts yellow becoming white on the lower belly; breast tinged with orange brown and without black ; no white about eye ; sides of throat, at junction of yellow and black, with traces of white. Length (skin), 3.90; wing, 2.00; tail, 1.50; bill, .38.
General Distribution. — Breeds in Northeastern Mexico and along the lower Rio Grande in Texas. It winters in Mexico and has been taken the last week of February, 1880, on the Rio Grande near Hidalgo.
The Bird and its Haunts. — At the time of its discovery by Mr. Sennett in the Rio Grande Valley, this bird was supposed to be a distinct species; it proves, however, to be the most northern representative of a form of Parula Warbler which ranges over the greater part of South America and northward through Central America and Mexico to the lower Rio Grande. There it evidently resembles our Southern Parula in habits, living, Merrill3 says, "among thick woods and near the edges of lagoons where there is Spanish moss."
.Nesting Site. — Merrill2 found a nest near Brownsville. Texas, eight feet from the ground in a bunch of Spanish 'moss.' Sennett1 records one from Lomita, on the Rio Grande, which was placed in a "mistletoe-like orchid" ten feet from the ground.
Nest. — Merrill's nest evidently resembles that of the Parula Warbler in the southern states, being constructed in the Spanish moss and lined with a few horse-hairs. Sennett describes his nest as "con
HO OLIVE WARBLER
structed very simply, being formed by parting the gray leaves of the orchid and digging into its center from the side, a cavity of some two inches in diameter being made with an opening of one-and-a-quarter inches. The bottom and sides are lined pretty well up with short cottony wood fibers, forming a fine matting for the eggs to rest upon." The identity of this nest, however, does not seem to have been satisfactorily established.
(i) G. B. SENNETT, Bull. U. S. Geol. and Geog. Surv. Terr.. IV, 1878, 12. (2) Ibid., V, 1897, 384. (3) J. C. MERRILL, Notes on the Ornithology of Southern Texas, etc., Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., I, 1878, 123.
The single species contained in this genus has, by most authors, been placed under Dendroica, but it obviously has as much claim to generic distinction as several other Warblers which are conceded that rank and I follow Mr. Ridgway in recognizing Peucedramus as generically separable from Dendroica. From Dendroica it differs chiefly in its slenderer, more rounded bill, proportionately longer wings (about i.oo inch longer than the tail) and decidedly forked tail, the central tail-feathers being more than .25 inches shorter than the outer ones.
In general color and pattern of coloration Peucedramus is markedly unlike Dendroica, from all the species of which the male differs in requiring two years to acquire adult plumage.
Distinguishing Characters. — Outer vane of outer tail-feather in part white; adult d1 with whole head and neck orange-brown, a broad black band through the eye; young d1 and $ with the same parts yellowish, a dusky eye-band. Length (skin), 4.90; wing, 3.00; tail, 2.00; bill, .45.
Adult £, Spring. — Head, neck and breast orange-brown, a broad black band through the eye; back grayish olive-green; tail black, the other pair of feathers white on both webs except at the end, the next pair narrowly white on the outer web and largely white on the inner web, the third usually with some white on the inner web; wings black, narrowly edged with olive-green:
the adult plumage evidently not being acquired until the second Fall, at least.
Adult ?, Spring. — Crown and nape dull olive-yellow, a broad dusky band through the eye; back olive-gray; basal half of outer web of outer tail-feather white, inner web largely white, next feather sometimes with white on the inner web; wings as in c? but white areas smaller; throat and breast dull yellowish; belly white, sides gray.
Adult $, Fall. — Similar to adult ? in Spring but crown tipped with grayish, the throat and breast with buffy, the sides, with brownish; white tips to greater wing-coverts with some yellowish.
Nestling. — Above dusky olive-brown, a buffy postocular mark passes behind the auriculars to the side of the throat; greater wing-coverts tipped with yellowish, median coverts, with white; throat and breast buffy or pale greenish; belly white, sides brownish gray.
General Distribution. — Breeds from Guatemala north to southern Arizona. Winters in the highlands of Mexico and Guatemala. A few may winter in southern Arizona, as one was taken there February
the Huachuca Mountains, Arizona.
The Bird and its Haunts. — This species was first definitely recorded from the United States by H. W. Henshaw who secured three specimens, on Mt. Graham, Arizona, in September, 1874. In March, 1880, Stephens, as quoted by Brewster1, found it apparently not uncommon in the Chiricahua Mountains, where, fourteen years later, Price2 first discovered it nesting. Three nests were subsequently taken by Howard3 in the Huachuca Mountains, making a total of four which have thus far been recorded.
The Olive Warbler is a bird of open pine forests where in general habits it reminds one strongly of the Pine Warbler. During the last week in April, 1897, I found it to be an abundant inhabitant of the pines at Las Vigas, in the state of Vera Cruz, Mexico, at an altitude of 8,000 feet. Young of the year were already on the wing. It fed leisurely among the terminal branches creeping or hopping along the twigs without displaying the activity of the fluttering Warblers. Occasionally it descended to the ground for food, but I do not recall seeing it cling to the trunk of a tree as a Pine Warbler does at times.
Song. — "A liquid, quirt, quirt, quirt, in a descending scale." (Price2). The call-note of the Olive Warbler as I heard at Las Vigas, Vera Cruz, Mexico, late in April when the birds were feeding young out of the nest, is a rapid whistled peto closely resembling the call of the Tufted Titmouse.
Nesting Site. — Our knowledge of the nesting habits of this species is based on the studies of Price and Howard in the mountains of southern Arizona, where four nests have been found in pines saddled on a limb from thirty to fifty feet from the ground, and in a red fir in the fork of a large limb about thirty feet up.
Nest. — "The nests are very beautiful affairs and are built very much like those of the Blue-gray Gnatcatcher, and are composed of bits of moss, lichens, fir blossoms and spider webs with a lining of fine rootlets." (Howard3.}
Eggs. — 4. "The eggs are ovate in shape, the shell is fine grained and without lustre. The ground color is sage green and the eggs are heavily blotched and spotted, especially about the larger end, with clove and sepia brown, and lighter shades of drab and olive gray. They bear no resemblance to the known eggs of any of our Warblers. They measure .65x49, .65x49, .65x48, .63x48." (Price.} (Figs. 37,38, Childs Coll.)
(i) WM. BREWSTER, On a Collection of Birds lately made by Mr. F. Stephens in Arizona, Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club, VII, 1882, 135. (2) W. W. PRICE, Nest and Eggs of the Olive Warbler, Auk, XII, 1895, 17. (3) O. W. HOWARD, Summer Resident Warblers of Arizona, Bull. Cooper Orn. Club (=Condor), I, 1899, 37-
Genus DENDROICA Gray
This, the largest genus of the family, contains the true Wood Warblers. Among so many species there is, as might be expected, much variation and the extremes in Dendroica, could one dispose of the intermediates, might readily be placed in different genera. As a whole, however, Dendroica may be known by its comparatively short (except in D. dominica} rounded, notched bill with slightly curved culmen, and short, but evident rictal bristles. The wing is generally less than .80 inches longer than the tail; the four outer primaries are of about equal length. The tarsus is longer than the middle toe and nail, the nail of the hind-toe is nearly as long as the toe.
YELLOW WARBLER II3
There is no pronounced type of color in Dendroica but nearly all the species have wing-bars and all have white patches in the tail, except D. estiva and its allies which have the tail marked with yellow. As a rule, the sexes are unlike in color but in dominica, grades, kirtlandi, and discolor there is little sexual difference in plumage and in palmarum the sexes cannot be distinguished with certainty.
All but kirtlandi and palmarum nest in trees or bushes, these two species alone nesting on the ground; a habit which may account for the strong brown or gray tone of their dorsal plumage.
Dendroica contains some thirty-four species of which twentythree enter our limits, the remainder inhabiting Mexico, Central America, and chiefly, the West Indies. Eastern North America has by far the larger number of these brightly colored birds, no less than fifteen of the twenty-three species occurring in the Atlantic States but not in the Pacific States.
Six species are western, and only one, D. csstiva, ( which in its more or less closely related forms is found wherever Dendroica occurs) ranges from the Atlantic to the Pacific.
Distinguishing Characters. — A yellow bird; no white anywhere, inner webs of nearly all the tail-feathers largely yellow. Young females are obscure olive birds but may be known by the yellow tail markings. Length (skin), 4.60; wing, 2.45; tail, 1.90; bill, .40.
Adult c?, Spring. — Crown rich golden yellow sometimes with traces of reddish brown; back greenish yellow, rump yellower; tail blackish margined with yellow, inner webs of all but central feathers yellow, except at tip; wings blackish edged with yellow, the coverts widely margined with yellow; underparts rich golden yellow, breast and sides conspicuously streaked with reddish brown.
Adult $, Spring. — Much less yellow than <£; above yellowish olive-green, upper tail-coverts brighter; tail-feathers with yellow on inner webs as in <$; wings margined with yellow ; below uniform yellow with few if any streaks.
unstreaked.
Nestling. — Above brownish olive, below whitish tinged with pale yellow. General Distribution. — North America, except southwestern part, British Columbia, Alaska, Florida, southern Georgia, the upper por-
Spring Migration. — More notes have been contributed by the observers on the Yellow Warbler than on any other species of Warbler, and the following records are an epitome of about two thousand observations during a -period of more than twenty years. The winter range of the Yellow Warbler and its subspecies extends from western Mexico to Dutch Guiana, a longitudinal winter range equalled by few species. But, though occuring throughout Central America, it is absent from the West India Islands, and reaches the eastern United States in the spring by a roundabout course across the Gulf of Mexico, and is one of the later Warblers to arrive in the Gulf States.
Fall Migration. — The Yellow Warbler begins its southward migration among the very earliest of the family, and fall migrants have been noted in central Florida July 20 and at Key West July 26. So rapid is the southward journey that the arrival of the first in the fall has been noted in southeastern Nicaragua August 9, 1892 ; San Jose, Costa Rica, Aug. 25, 1889, and Aug. 24, 1890; Bonda, Colombia, August 27, 1898.
The Bird and its Haunts.— The Yellow Warbler is a bit of feathered sunshine. In his plumes dwells the gold of the sun, in his voice its brightness and good cheer. We have not to seek him in the depths of the forest, the haunt of nearly all his congeners, he comes to us and makes his home near ours. And so because of his beauty and sociability, the Yellow Warbler has become the best known member of his family. Known, indeed, to many who are not aware that he has a large number of near relatives some of whom are even more attractive.
The habit of nesting in fruit and shade trees and lawn or garden shrubbery is, of course, of recent origin, and the bird is by no means so abundant in growth of this type as it is in willows near water, where the Yellow Warbler seems as much a part of the tree as its own foliage. In smaller numbers it frequents also other open growths
deep woods.
Walter Fisher writes that "in California the Yellow Warbler is common during Spring and early Summer among the willows, poplars, and alders that line most of the streams and dry water-courses of the lowlands; and it is found also at lower altitudes in the mountains, about as high as the black oak ranges. Its song and characteristic chip are heard almost continually in willow thickets of bottom lands, where the birds move busily to and fro in the tree tops." {Fisher, MS.) It is remarkable that although Warblers are imposed upon by the Cowbird more than any other birds, the Yellow Warbler alone appears to resent the intrusion of the strange egg, so unlike that of any other Warbler, and to have a definite method of avoiding its incubation. The building of a platform or second nest-bottom over the unwelcome egg may with this species be called a habit and numerous cases are on record where the unfortunate Warbler has been visited three times by the Cowbird and has built as many floors to its home, sealing, as it were, the unwelcome contribution.
Song. — "While there is no little variability there is little likelihood of confounding any of the variations with other species. Over all presides the bird's distinct individuality. In all the variations I have heard the penultimate syllable is at a higher pitch, if the last phrase be three syllabled, lower if the last phrase be two syllabled. There is also a tendency to an increase in cadence to the last. The whole song is forcible and loud, but smooth and pleasing. It will be seen that in each variation there are two parts, though the last may be but a double syllable.
"There is no second song period, because singing does not cease until the last of July or the first week in August. It should be remarked, however, that there is a marked decrease in singing after the middle of July, at least in northern Ohio. Sometimes individuals are heard singing after the middle of August for a few days" (Jones.) "There are two common call-notes used in the fall. The song is more often heard in spring than the call-notes, and is rarely or never uttered in the fall. The commoner of these two notes is the dzt uttered by many Warblers; the other is a softer, less decisive chip, much like that uttered by the Parula and Prairie Warblers. The song is generally uttered while the singer moves slowly about among the branches ; it is simple, but lively and pleasing, resembling
the following, with a descending intonation: T sweet, tsweet, tsweettsee-tsee-tsee-tsee-tsee-tsee. The only note I have heard uttered in flight is the sibilant chirp mentioned above, one of the characteristic sounds of late summer." (Allison, MS.)
eight feet up, but not infrequently in trees as high as forty feet up.
Nest. — Compact, symmetrical, and well-woven, of silver-gray hempen fibers and fine grasses with a conspicuous amount of plantdown ; lined with cottony plant-down, fine grasses, sometimes hair or a few feathers. Bowles states that nests of this species found at Tacoma, Washington, often have a heavy lining of feathers. This is the only bird that has the habit of building a second and, when the necessity arises, a third story to its nest to cover the unwelcome egg of the Cowbird.
Eggs. — 4 or 5, usually 4, in a large series of sets, one containing 6 eggs occurs, but two-thirds have four eggs each. Ground color ranges from grayish and greenish white to a rich green shade, over this are markings of umber brown, blackish, lilac-gray, and purplishbrown in all varieties of spots, splashes, and blotches, always tending to wreathe around the large end, but many are heavily marked all over. Size; average, ,68x.5o; extremes, .75x.52, .60x48, -73X-53, .62x47. (Figs. 39-41.)
Nesting Dates.— Burning Springs, W. Va., May 14 (C. W. C.) ; Waynesburg, Pa., May 14- June 10 (Jacobs) ; New York City, May 20- July 4 (building) (F. M. C.) ; New Haven, Conn., May 20- June 30 (Bishop) ', Cambridge,Mass., full sets, first laying, May 23-30 (Brewster) ; Lancaster, N. H., June 7 (Spaulding) ; Bangor, Me., May 29- June 30 (Knight) ; Listowel, Ont, June i-June 22 (Kelts) ; Oberlin, O., May i-June i (Jones) ; Jasper Co., la., May 16 (C. W. C.)', Boulder, Colo., June 5 (C. W. C.) ; Denver, Colo., June 6 (Dille) ; San Jose, Calif., April $(C.W.C.)', Tacoma, Wash., May 24- June 17 (Bowles} ; Ann Arbor, Mich., May 5, Ypsilanti, Mich., June 23 (Wood).
(i) C. J. MORRISON, Yellow Warbler vs. Cowbird. Orn. and O61., IX, 1884. 124. (2) J. P. N. [ORRIS], Eggs of the Western Yellow (—Yellow) Warbler. Orn. and O61., XII, 1887, 185. (3) A. B. DUNNING, Yellow Warbler (in E. Mass.), Oologist, IX, 1892, 35- (4) N. F. POSSON, Incessancy of the Yellow Warbler's Song, Ibid., IX, 1892, 65. (5) MORRIS GIBBS, The BlossomEater, Nidologist, II, 1894, 48.
DENDROICA ESTIVA SONORANA Brewst.
Subspecific Characters. — Resembles Dendroica (estiva (Estiva but adult <£ paler above, the back yellower, the feathers usually with dark shaft streaks; the tail with more yellow, all the feathers, including the central pair being yellow at the base on both webs; streaks below finer, less numerous, sometimes barely evident.
The Bird and its Haunts. — This southwestern form of the Yellow Warbler resembles the eastern bird in habits and, like it, shows a marked preference for willows. Owing to the aridity of the country in which it lives, suitable haunts are less common than in the east and the bird is proportionately less numerous.
Nesting Site. — Along the San Pedro River in southern Arizona, Howard1 found "several nests placed in willow and mesquite trees, generally in upright forks from ten to twenty-five feet up."
Eggs. — Usually 4. Ground color, in the sets I have examined, has been paler than in eggs of the Yellow Warbler, but the markings are the same. Size; a typical set of four measures, .7ox.5i, ./OX.SQ. .68x.52, .6o,x.5i.
Subspecific Characters. — Similar to Dendroica estiva estiva but slightly smaller, adult <$ darker above, the crown of nearly the same color as the back, only the forehead yellower; the rump more nearly the color of the back than in astiva.
winters in Mexico and Central America.
The Bird and its Haunts. — In his admirable work on Alaskan birds Nelson1 writes, "This is perhaps the most abundant Warbler throughout Alaska. It is found everywhere in the wooded interior, or the bushy borders of the water-courses, or frequenting the scattered clumps of stunted alders. * * * Its lively presence, even among the pleasant surroundings of the south, lends animation to the scene, and even more impressive is its presence under the dismal skies and in the damp, depressing climate of the north, where such visitants are only too rare."
Nesting Site. — "Breeds on the shores of the Arctic Ocean wherever it can find a willow or alder patch wherein to place its nest and shelter its young. * * * It is the only Warbler, with the exception of the Black -capped Flycatcher (Sylvania pusilla pileolata), which nests in the alder-thickets in the vicinity of St. Michaels." (Nelson1.)
(i) E. W. NELSON, Natural History Collections made in Alaska, 1887, 201. (These notes are given under the name Dendroica (estiva, the Alaskan form not being recognized until 1897.)
Subspecific Characters. — "Resembling Dendroica (estiva (estiva, from which it differs in smaller size, paler (or less brightly yellow) coloration, and, in the male, narrower streaking on under surface; differs from Dendroica (estiva rubiginosa in smaller size and yellower coloration, and from Dendroica (estiva sonorana in smaller size and much darker coloration." Male, wing, 2.45 ; tail, 1.96; female wing, 2.33; tail, 1.93. Grinnell, Condor, 1903, 72.
General Distribution. — "Breeds in Transition and Upper Sonoran Zones, west of the Cascades and the Sierra Nevada, from Washington to Southern California; winter home unknown." (A. O. U.)
DENDROICA BRYANTI CASTANEICEPS Ridew. Plate I
Distinguishing Characters. — Adult d1 with head all around and throat reddish chestnut; both sexes with yellow on inner webs of two or more tailfeathers. Length (skin), 4.65; wing, 2.40; tail, 1.80; bill, .45.
Adult $, Spring. — Head all around and throat reddish chestnut; back yellow olive-green, the rump brighter; inner webs of all but central tail-feathers largely yellow; wings black margined with yellow; underparts, except throat, rich yellow faintly streaked with reddish brown.
Adult ?, Spring. — Above olive-green, much darker and greener than in c?; tail black the two outer feathers with large yellow patches on the inner web near the tip; wings black margined with greenish yellow; below uniform pale, dull yellow.
Young $. — Above grayish olive-green, rump brighter; tail blackish, externally greenish, webs of all but central feathers narrowly margined with yellow; wings and their coverts blackish, quills margined, coverts tipped with dull greenish; below whitish more or less washed or obscurely streaked with yellow, the under tail-coverts pale yellow.
western Mexico and Lower California north to Magdalena Bay.
The Bird and its Haunts. — The observations of Belding1, Bryant2, and Frazar3 show that in Lower California this Pacific Coast form is found only in the red mangroves (Rhizophora mangle) and it is, consequently, of local distribution.
Belding records it from La Paz, Pichalinque Bay and Espiritu Island where he considered it resident. At La Paz he found it to be common, but in March, 1889, Frazar could secure only eight specimens there. Bryant observed it in Magdalena Bay and on Santa Margarita Island.
(i) L. BELDING, Catalogue of a Collection of Birds made at Various Points along the Western Coast of Lower California, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., V, 1883, 536. (2) W. BRYANT, A Catalogue of the Birds of Lower California, Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci., 2nd Ser. II, 1889, 309. (3) WM. BREWSTER, Birds of the Cape Region of Lower California, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zoology, XLI, 1902, 181.
122 MAGNOLIA WARBLER
of the tail near the center, instead of at the end of the feather. The black bases of the tail feathers are concealed by the crissum and, seen from below, the tail appears to be white broadly tipped with black. In young birds the white is much decreased in extent but its position in the tail, together with the yellow rump, is diagnostic. Length (skin), 4.50; wing, 2.30; tail, 1.95; bill, .35-
Adult d, Spring. — Crown and nape bluish gray, a white line behind the eye and a white mark on the lower part of eye- ring; frontlet, cheeks and back black, the latter sometimes with olive and becoming greenish towards the yellow rump; upper tail-coverts black; tail black, all but the central part of feathers with a white patch on the inner half of the web about half-way to the tip; wings blackish edged with gray, the median and greater coverts broadly marked with white forming a conspicuous white wing-patch ; below yellow becoming white on the crissum, the throat unmarked, a black band on the upper breast from which run rows of heavy black streaks on the sides.
from it, but black streaks of back and sides averaging lighter.
Adult $, Spring. — Similar to adult <? in Spring but crown not so bluish gray or cheeks so pronouncedly black ; back olive-green spotted with black ; yellow of rump paler; upper tail-coverts broadly tipped with gray; wing-coverts with less white, at times merely tipped not margined ; black streaks below lighter, less apt to form a band on the upper breast.
less white.
Young $, Fall. — Resembling adult $ in Fall but the crown and back browner, the black streaks above usually wanting, the rump less clearly yellow, the streaks on the sides finer, less prominent.
Summer Range. — The higher parts of Massachusetts (Berkshire Co.), northern New York (Oneida Co.), northern Michigan, northern Minnesota and southern Assiniboia northward. It also breeds not uncommonly in the higher portions of the Alleghenies of eastern Pennsylvania and on the highest mountains of western Maryland. It is
a rare migrant west to eastern Nebraska and has occurred accidentally in Colorado (Denver, May 17, 1873, Fort Lyon, May 17, 1884, Denver, May 17, 1888), California (Santa Barbara Island, May 15, 1897, L°s Angeles, October 21, 1897, and October 5, 1901), and several times in British Columbia.
The Bird and its Haunts. — In this day of numerous bird manuals, keys, etc., book knowledge of a bird usually precedes our actual meeting with the species in life and we are more or less prepared for the encounter; but before the day of these publications the embryo ornithologist was sometimes thrilled by the 'discovery' of birds which, as far as he was aware, no one had ever seen before.
William Brewster's2 monograph of the Magnolia Warbler contains a description of such an experience which we are sure will appeal to every bird lover, whether or not it has been his good fortune to begin his study of birds in a similarly memorable manner. Mr. Brewster writes: "Entering a grove of thickly growing young spruces, I sat down to rest on a mossy log. I had been there but a short time when I became conscious of faint sounds in the trees above and around me, — chirpings, twitterings, and occasionally a modest little effort at song. Watching attentively, I soon spied a movement among the branches, and a tiny bird hopped out into the light, presenting a bright yellow breast and throat for just a moment before flying into the next tree. Here was a revelation! I already knew a few of the most familiar birds, — the Robin, the Bluebird, the Sparrow, the Oriole, and some others; but it had never occurred to me that dark forests like these might be tenanted by such delicate and beautiful forms. Only the tropics surely could boast such gems."
This was before the day of 'keys' ; the opera-glass had not supplanted the gun and "with enthusiasm now fairly aroused and animated with the spirit of the explorer" the young ornithologist "went at once to work to investigate, and in the course of an hour or two, my ammunition was nearly exhausted, and quite a line of poor lifeless, mutilated little birds lay along the old log. * * * Scarcely any two of my specimens were alike, and as I contemplated in amazement their varied forms and coloring, I felt like the discoverer of a
new world, and doubted whether human eyes had ever beheld the like before. * * * I can recall with sufficient distinctness for identification but a single bird of them all, — a fine adult male Black and Yellow Warbler [as this species was then called], which at the time I considered the handsomest and which I still think cannot be surpassed in beauty by any New England representative of the family."
Later, in the same paper this author states that as a spring migrant in eastern Massachusetts the Magnolia Warbler is abundant, frequenting "willow thickets near streams, ponds, and other damp places. * * * It is also not unusual to find many in the upland woods, especially where young pines or other evergreens grow thickly." In the autumn, he adds, it is less common and its haunts are then "somewhat different from those which it affects during its northward journey. We now find it most commonly on hillsides, among scrub-oaks and scattered birches and in company with such birds as the Yellow-rump (Dendroica coronata) and the Blackpoll (D. striata)."
About Monadnock, Gerald Thayer writes: "This most beautiful Warbler is a common summer bird between 2,800 and 1,000 feet, wherever there are second growth spruce woods, and especially such woods combined with bits of upland pasture. 'Spruce Warbler' would be an appropriate name for it in this region — quite as appropriate as 'Birch Warbler' for the Nashville. These two birds may often be found almost together on the same pasture-border ; but the Magnolia keeps to the spruces (and other conifers) at least as strictly as the Nashville keeps to the birches (and other broad-leaf trees).
"The feeding-range or 'beat' of this Warbler in its chosen summer woodlands about Monadnock, lies between the tip-tops of second growth spruce trees and their lowest branches. Although not shy, it is apt to stick rather closely to the inner recesses of spruce clumps, less often showing itself on the outermost twigs than do the Blackburnian and Black-throated Green. In its movements it is fidgety and quick, and it often partly spreads its broadly and centrally white-banded tail, distinctive of the species in all plumages." (Thayer, MS.}
Song. — "The Magnolia belongs among the full-voiced Warblers, and is a versatile singer, having at least two main songs, both subject to much and notable variation. The typical form of the commoner song is peculiar and easily remembered : Weeto weeto iveeetee-eet, — or Witchi, witchi, witchi tit, — the first four notes deliberate and even and comparatively low in tone, the last three hurried and higher pitched,
with decided emphasis on the antepenult weet or witch. The other song has the same general character, and begins with nearly the same notes, but instead of ending with the sprightly, high-pitched weeteeeet" , it falls off in a single perfunctory-sounding though emphatic note, of lower tone than the rest. In syllables it is like Witti witti wet" — or weetee weetee wur. This duller song seems much less subject to variation than the sprightly one. Some of the aberrant songs, though, are as near to one type as another. One such variant I have fixed in my own recollection by the syllables Ter-whiz wee-it', and another, almost unrecognizable, by the syllables Wee-yer weeyer wee-yer. Still another beginning like Weechi weech, ended with a hurried confusion of small notes, some low, some high. But throughout these and all the many other surprising variations I have heard about Monadnock, the characteristic tone-quality was preserved unchanged, and so were certain minor tricks, scarcely describable, of emphasis and phrasing. The tone is much like the Yellow Warbler's and also the Chestnut-side's, though distinctly different from either. In loudness it averages lower than the Yellow's, and about equal to the Chestnut-side's. In addition to several barely characteristic 'chips' the Magnolia has a most peculiar call-note. It is soft, almost song-toned, with a slight metallic ring, and at the same time sounds lisped ; — tlep, tlep, reminding one of certain notes both of the American Siskin and (as Dr. G. M. Allen says) of Henslow's Sparrow." (Thayer, MS.}
Nesting Site. — "The nest is usually placed in a small fir or spruce and rarely at a greater elevation than five or six feet. The average height would probably not exceed four feet, and I have found some barely twelve inches above the ground. It is usually laid somewhat loosely among the horizontal twigs from which it can in most cases be lifted intact * * * Exceptional situations are the interior of the woods, where, in some cases, the nest is placed in the top of a young hemlock ten or fifteen feet up. In one instance I found a nest on a horizontal spruce limb in the very heart of the forest, and at least thirty-five feet above the ground." (Brewster2.)
A large amount of data from northern New England confirms Brewster's observations in regard to the normal nesting site of this species in that region, but Simpson6 states that in the mountains of Pennsylvania, at Warren, the great majority of nests are built about ten to twelve feet up in the tops of small hemlocks or out on the branches of larger trees.
At Branchport, New York, Burtch (MS.) finds the nest "in hemlocks usually on a horizontal limb from eight to twenty feet up and over an opening in the woods. Several nests were found in the top of little hemlock saplings from one to five feet from the ground. One nest was found by Mr. C. F. Stone in a birch sapling, this being the only instance to my knowledge of its nesting in a tree other than a hemlock."
Nest. — Nests in Mr. Brewster's collection from northern New England are made of small coniferous twigs, which project over the edges in irregular fashion, pine needles, grasses, bits of down or spider's webbing, lined with fine, dull black, hair-like rootlets, often so abundantly as to make the nest interiorly black in marked contrast to the brown exterior.
Burtch (MS.) describes the nest as "loosely constructed of fine hemlock twigs, with sometimes a few weeds, lined with fine black rootlets, hair, or fine dead grass, usually decorated with fern down."
Eggs. — 3 to 6, usually 4. Ground color of average specimen is dull creamy white, over this are spots and blotches of many shades of reddish brown, hazel, and chestnut, in some specimens purplish and pale lavender, but in nearly all cases the egg is heavily marked on the large end in form of a well defined wreath. Size ; average, .65x48 ; extremes measure .61x45, .72x45, .66x.5i. (Figs. 52-54.)
128 CAPE MAY WARBLER
Nesting Dates. — Warren, Pa., first week in June (Simpson) ; Branchport, N. Y., June 2- June 24 (Burtch) ; Lancaster, N. H,, May 24- June 20 (Spaulding) ; Bangor, Me., May 3O-June 16 (Knight) ; Grand Menan, N. B., June 8 (7. P. tf.)-July i (C. W. C.).
(i) C. J. MAYNARD, A Catalogue of the Birds of Coos Co., N. H., and Oxford Co., Maine, Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., XIV, 1871, 367. (2) WM. BREWSTER, The Black-and-Yellow Warbler (in New England), Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club, II, 1877, i. (3) J. P. N[ORRIS], A Series of Eggs of Dendroica maculosa, Orn. and O6L, XII, 1887, 177. (4) C. H. ANDROS, The Black and Yellow Warbler at Grand Menan, Orn. and O61., XII, 1887, 182. (5) S. E. WHITE, Birds Observed on Mackinac Island, Michigan, Auk, X, 1893, 228. (6) R. B. SIMPSON, The Magnolia Warbler (at Warren, Pa.), Nidologist, II, 1895, 164. (7) L. M. TERRELL, Summer Warblers in Compton County, Quebec, Ottawa Naturalist, XVIII, 1904, 150. (8) B. HOAG, Nesting of the Magnolia Warbler (in N. Y.), Nidologist, I, 1894, 87. (See also HIGGINS, Ibid., 106.)
Distinguishing Characters. — Adult c? with chestnut ear-patches; adult $ and young grayish olive above, the rump much brighter, below whitish, streaked, the breast more or less yellow. Length (skin), 4.50; wing, 2.55; tail, 1.90; bill, .40.
Adult <$, Spring. — Crown black more or less edged with olive and often with traces of chestnut on the forehead; ear-coverts chestnut, this color sometimes tinging the well-marked yellow superciliary line; sides of the neck yellow with a tendency to spread to the nape; back olive-green spotted with black, rump clear yellow or greenish yellow; tail black edged with olive the inner webs of two to three outer feathers with white patches near the tip; wings black edged with olive-green, median coverts white except at base, outer margins of greater coverts usually white or greenish gray; below yellow, heavily streaked with black, fading to white on the lower belly, the throat generally tinged with chestnut.
Young <$, Fall. — No chestnut ear-patches or black crown; crown and back grayish olive-green with some more or less concealed black spots, rump dusky yellow; tail as in adult; median wing-coverts grayish white, outer margins of greater coverts greenish gray; yellow below less bright than in adult, streaks less pronounced, all the feathers margined with whitish.
Adult $, Spring. — Above grayish olive, grayer than in young <£ forehead usually with black spots, line over eye yellowish ; rump olive-green ; tail with less white than in c?; median and greater wing-coverts margined with grayish white, not forming conspicuous bars; below whitish, breast tinged with yellow and, with the sides, conspicuously streaked with black.
Summer Range. — The greater number summer in Canada north to Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Hudson Bay and almost to Great Slave Lake; a smaller number nest in the northern United States, in Maine (Oxford and Washington Counties), New Hampshire (Umbagog), northern Michigan, northern Minnesota, Manitoba, and Assiniboia (Yorktown). A few are said to breed in the Island of Jamaica. The western limit of the usual range of the species can be marked approximately by a line drawn from Florida to southern Missouri and up the Mississippi River to Minnesota. West of this district it has .been taken casually in Louisiana (New Orleans, April 1890), Mississippi (Tishomingo County, May 4, 1904), Nebraska CAlda, May 12, 1883, Omaha, May 24, 1893), Iowa, (Iowa City, November 27).
America.
The Bird and Its Haunts.— The beauty and rarity of the Cape May Warbler make it one of the most eagerly sought for members of its family. To have seen a 'Cape May' stamps the day's outing with a memorable distinction. I still recall the particular tree and hour in which, over twenty years ago, I discovered with uncontrolled exultation my first Cape May — a fully adult male. One sees the dull plumaged fall birds with no little satisfaction but they never receive the enthusiastic welcome of the exquisitely colored spring male.
In early May in Florida, I have seen this species actually common, feeding in weedy patches among a rank growth of pokeberries. It seemed like wanton extravagance on the part of nature to bring so many of these generally rare creatures within one's experience in a single morning. Both on the east and west coasts of the State the bird is at times a common migrant, possibly bound for its summer home by way of the Mississippi Valley, where it is more numerous than in the north Atlantic States.
Butler2 writes that some years in Indiana, "they are found upon the drier uplands, among the oak woods, where they generally keep among the lower branches or upon the high bushes and smaller trees. They are not very active, but keep persistently hunting insects. At
other times, we find them among our orchards, even coming into towns where they occupy themselves catching insects among the foliage and about the blossoms of all kinds of fruit and shade trees."
Brewster4 states that about Cambridge the Cape May is "one of the very rarest of Warblers which visit us with any degree of regularity, especially if we also consider ( i ) that it is one of the most strikingly colored and easily identified of them all; (2) that it is a rather /oud and very persistent singer; and (3) that, when with us, it is given to frequenting isolated trees near houses."
The last-named habit is confirmed by Gerald Thayer's observations at Scarborough, in the lower Hudson Valley, where he writes that migrant Cape Mays "haunted a few big Norway spruces on our home lawn for two or three days, acting about like Blackburnians, but sticking strangely close to one or two special trees."
We know comparatively little about the Cape May on its nesting grounds. Maynard3 writes that in northwestern Maine "they lived in the tops of the high coniferous trees." It was in this region, in 1871, that H. B. Bailey first found a nest, which was, however, destroyed before the set was completed, and J. W. Banks, as recorded by Chamberlain1, appears to have first secured the Cape May's nest and eggs.
Mr. Chamberlain1 writes, "The birds seen at Edmundton [New Brunswick] were invariably on the topmost branches of the tallest evergreens (usually spruces) growing in the neighborhood. * * * As the birds were constantly singing, their general whereabouts was easily discovered, but no small amount of patient searching was required to catch sight of them." Subsequently, however, as quoted beyond, the bird was found to nest in a low cedar.
Domingo remains unconfirmed.
Song. — "Two, at least, of the Cape May's songs, as I heard them freely uttered by three or four migrant males on the east bank of the Hudson River in the spring of 1900, are of a thin and penetrating tone, much like the Black and White Warbler's. Nor does the resemblance stop there : the whole utterance, in tone, phrasing, and accentuation, strongly suggests the Black and White's shorter song; and in their most kindred variations the two might be hard to distinguish. Hence the rule, if you hear a queer-sounding Black and White, in spring, or in the North Woods, by all means look him up. On the other hand, the Cape May's singing is near akin to the Blackpoll's, — very near to some forms of it. But the notes are shorter, a little louder, less
'thin,' and more run-together. They have also a slightly 'impure,' or double tone, — a quality from which the fine-spun notes of the Blackpoll are peculiarly free. Again, the 'swell and fall,' so characteristic of the Blackpoll's common song, is lacking in the Cape May's, which is merely accelerated a little toward the end. All this applies to one of the Cape May's two (or more?) main songs. The other, more like the Black and White's, has each of the six or eight main syllables longer-drawn-out, and split into barely-severed halves" ( Thayer, MS. ) .
"I have only heard them sing one or two springs; a thin, rather sweet squeak repeated several times. In May, 1897, it impressed me as one of the thinnest and least musical of the Warbler songs." (Far-well, MS.)
Nesting Site. — Too little is known about the nesting habits of this species to warrant general statements. A nest found by Banks1 at St. Johns, N. B., was placed near the tip of a branch of a low cedar less than three feet from the ground and was "well-screenend from observation."
Nest. — The walls of the nest above mentioned are "composed of minute twigs of dried spruce, grasses, and strawberry vines, with spider's webbing interwoven with coarse fabrics and knotted with numerous little balls, which are bound upon the surface. * * *The exterior is rather roughly made, but is more compact, and bears evidence of more art than is shown in the nest of the Magnolia Warbler which it somewhat resembles. The interior, however, is much more neatly and artistically formed in the Cape May's than in its congener's. The lining is composed entirely of horse-hair, and this is laid with precision, and shaped into a prettily formed cup, the brim being turned with exquisite grace. The dimensions of the nest are, outside, 21-4 inches high and 2 3-4 to 3 inches across the mouth; inside, I 1-4 inches deep and I 3-4 inches wide." (Chamberlain1.)
Eggs. — 4. "The eggs are of much the same dull white groundcolor, of a slightly ashen hue, as that of the Magnolia. The form of the egg is different, however, the Cape May's being less pyriform — the point less acute. The markings are of light and dark lilac, and yellowish and reddish tints of brown; the brown being on the surface and the lilac underneath the coatings of the shell producing the various shades. As a rule the spots are circular and very small — many being quite minute — and are irregularly distributed, no two eggs bearing the same pattern, though in all four there is decided tendency to concentration in a ring near the large end; but on some
(i) M. CHAMBERLAIN, Nesting Habits of the Cape May Warbler [in New Brunswick], Auk, II, 1885, 33. (2) A. W. BUTLER, Birds of Indiana, 1043. (3) C. J. MAYNARD, Warblers of New England, 15. (4) WM. BREWSTER, Birds of the Cambridge Region, 331.
Distinguishing Characters. — The c?, whether adult or young may always be known by its black throat and blue back. In the adult $ the white spot on the primaries above the primary coverts, is diagnostic. In the young $ this spot is much reduced and at times not evident and such specimens possess no obvious distinguishing mark. The bird in the hand, however, may be identified by the bluish tone of the tail feathers in connection with other features described beyond. Length (skin), 4.50; wing, 2.50; tail, 2.00; bill, .35.
Adult $, Spring. — Upperparts dark grayish blue, the back and inner tailcoverts at times with more or less black; tail black edged with blue, the three outer feathers with large white patches near the tip of the inner web, the next two usually with more or less white on the margin of the inner web; wings black edged with blue; all but the outer primary with more or less white basally, this on the second to seventh or eighth primaries appears as a conspicuous white spot at the end of the primary coverts; cheeks, throat, and sides black, rest of underparts white.
Adult d1, Fall. — Only slightly different from above; the back very narrowly tipped with greenish, the throat and sides with white; black of throat apparently somewhat less in extent.
Young d, Spring. — Young of the previous year may be distinguished from fully mature males by remains of the greenish edgings generally to be found on the upperparts, and particularly by the browner green-edged wing feathers, which are evidently worn for one year.
Adult $, Spring. — Above dusky olive-green with a more or less evident bluish tinge strongest on crown and upper tail-coverts; a narrow whitish line from bill over eye, lower and upper part of eye-ring whitish; tail fuscous margined with grayish blue, the outer feathers usually with white patches; wings fuscous margined with greenish; a white spot at the base of the primaries at the end of the primary coverts generally evident but sometimes (in immature specimens?) barely visible; underparts pale buffy yellowish or whitish, the sides darker, the throat and sides of the breast rarely dusky.
Adult $, Fall. — Indistinguishable in color from adult $ in Spring. Young $, Fall. — Similar to adult $ in Fall but greener above, where without trace of blue, dingy yellowish below, line over eye yellowish, white wing-spot never large and conspicuous and sometimes concealed by the primary coverts; white in tail much reduced.
Nestling d1. — Above brownish olive-green, lores black, auriculars blackish, a whitish superciliary line; throat and breast somewhat paler than back or dusky yellowish, belly whitish or yellowish white; tail as in young c?, black edged with blue and marked with white; wings as in young c£, black the feathers edged with blue or greenish with a white patch at the base of the primaries; wing-coverts like back, edged with brownish.
Nestling $. — Paler than nestling <$, no black in lores or auriculars ; below as in nestling d, wings and tail as in young Fall $, greater and median wingcoverts like back, edged with brownish.
Summer Range. — Common as a breeder in the southern portion of Quebec and south in the mountains to Maryland ; less common north to Newfoundland, northeastern Quebec, and northern Ontario. Outside of the mountains it breeds south through northern New England to Massachusetts (Berkshire) and Connecticut (Eastford), to New York (Oneida and Hamilton Counties), southern Michigan (Detroit), northwestern Michigan (Porcupine Mountains), and northern Minnesota.
South of the breeding range it occurs rarely west of the Mississippi in Iowa and Missouri; accidentally in Nebraska (Lincoln, Omaha, West Point), Kansas (Finney Co., October 17, 1891), Colorado (Denver, May 24, 1888, Yuma, September 19, 1904), New Mexico (Gallinas Mountains, October 8, 1904,) and California (Farallones, November 17, 1886).
December 6
The Bird and its Haunts. — The sharply contrasted black and white areas and dark blue back, which characterize the male Blackthroated Blue, are so unlike the colors of any other Warbler that the bird may be known at a glance. Fortunately the adult wears his plumage throughout the year and, contrary to the usual rule, the young male closely resembles him. The female, however, is as
obscure as the male is conspicuous and were it not for the white spot at the base of the primaries, would have no prominent distinguishing mark. But in the young female even this is sometimes so small as to be concealed by the primary coverts and, in this plumage, the Black-throated Blue is one of the most difficult Warblers to identify. Where the range of this species penetrates the Canadian life-zone with its coniferous forests it nests in growth of this character but south of these limits its summer home is in deciduous woods.
Gerald Thayer writes that about Monadnock the Black-throated Blue is "a bird of the ampler deciduous undergrowth in deep, moist woods — mixed virgin timber or very old second growth. It is peculiarly partial to these woodland conditions, and is common wherever they occur, especially between the altitudes of 1,000 and 2,500 feet. Creeping yew is almost always common in woods where these Warblers breed, and they sometimes, perhaps often, nest in a clump of it. "In its movements the Black-throated Blue is more deliberate than many of its relatives, but it has at the same time a somewhat Redstart-like way of 'spiriting' itself from one perch to another, and, while perched, of partly opening its white-mooned wings ; — a habit and a marking shared by the boldly blue-and-black-and-white- males and the dimly green and yellowish females and young. It is among the tamest of our Warblers." (Thayer, MS.}
Egbert Bagg, of Utica, writes : "This bird is a common summer resident in the southwestern part of our New York wilderness and it is there, both in the wilderness and along its outskirts, that I have come to know it as one of my bird friends. In these fastnesses of the woods birds appear to be scarce. The wilderness is so great and so impassable that the number of birds seen is small, when they are attending to their duties in breeding season. Quite the contrary is the fact when they are migrating, and I have seen birds in as great numbers, during May, in the wilderness, as I ever saw them anywhere ; hundreds, I presume thousands, passing our camp for several days at a time. But a month later in the same locality hardly a bird will be seen. But even at this time a careful observer will find the species of which I am writing not uncommon in these woods. The males will be seen rather high up in the trees, but the females are but little in evidence.
"It was a long time after I discovered that these birds were common summer residents before I found my first nest, and when I did find it, its location was so uncommon, (as later discoveries showed) that it actually hindered rather than helped the discovery of others.
It was on a high bluff covered with spruce timber and with but little underbrush and was placed in the top of an overturned and dead spruce about eighteen inches from the ground. On June 13, it contained three eggs which hatched on the next day. I never found another nest in the spruce timber and I never found another in open woods, that is, free from underbrush, nor in any location corresponding to this dead tree-top. After several years searching with some success, I think it is safe to say that this species builds in hardwood forests, where the large timber stands somewhat openly, but where all space is grown up with dense undergrowth of hardwood saplings and brush with large leaves. I also think that the breeding spots are very local, and that one may pass through many miles of forest and not find a pair of these birds ; but when just the right kind of hardwood knoll is found, several pairs may be looked for within a short distance. My facts are rather meagre for this deduction, but this is my belief." (Bagg, MS.}
At Branchport, N. Y., Burtch says that this species is "a rare but regular summer resident. It may be found in the mixed growths of oaks, maple, beech, chestnut and hemlock where the undergrowth is quite thick." (Burtch, MS.}
The first known nest of the Black-throated Blue Warbler was discovered by John Burroughs5 early in July, 1871, at Roxbury, Delaware County, N. Y. It contained four fledged young and one egg. The latter, with the nest, is described by Brewer (B. B. and R., History of N. A. Birds, I, 257) while in 'Locusts and Wild Honey' Burroughs gives a description of the hunt for the nest which could have been written only by a born birds' nester.
Song. — "There is not a more regularly and amply versatile singer among our eastern Warblers than the Black-throated Blue. It has at least four main songs, on which it is forever playing notable variations. Of these four, two end on a sharply-ascending scale, and two are almost monotones. Zwee zwee zwee, is a book rendering, and a fairly good one, of the commoner monotone song. The other, of two notes only, has almost the form and emphasis of the Blue-winged Warbler's explosive little shorter song, Swee-chirrrr!, but is louder and somewhat more languid, with the characteristic and unmistakable full-voiced huskiness of the Black-throated Blue. It might be syllabled Wher weeeee. The second half, in addition to being more emphatic, is a little bit lower in key. Of the other two songs, the commoner one is like the syllables Wheer, wheer, rvheeee, — rather deliberately uttered, — the first two notes almost alike, the final drawled
note decidedly higher pitched and also louder. This is the commonest of the four songs in the breeding season near Monadnock. The fourth song begins with a long string of short, hurried notes, like Hi-hi-hi-hihi-hi-hi culminating at last in the high-pitched, long-drawn wheeee. All four songs, — and, as far as my experience goes, the many variations from them and between them, have, either throughout or in part, the tell-tale tone-quality of huskiness or beadiness in a fullstrength Warbler- voice ; — an almost peculiar characteristic of the Black-throated Blue's. In addition to some rather non-committal small call-notes, it has some that are peculiarly its own. The queerest of these I have heard from the male only. It is a weak, insect-like, grating, but low-toned Bzzz bzsz bzzz bzzz bzzz several times repeated in pretty quick succession; — an utterance which, if it came from any other Warbler, might be taken for a song, but so totally unlike all the Black-throated Blue's unmistakably sung performances, that it cannot be more than a call-note or complaint." (Thayer, MS.}
Miss Paddock sends three notations and writes: "This song is hard to express in musical notation. It is an insect-like buzzing note repeated three or four times with a rising inflection. It sounds a little like the breath sucked through the teeth ; or like one note of the Blackthroated Green's song."
Nesting Site. — Nests found by Jones1 at Eastford, Connecticut, were in laurel not over eighteen inches up, while, in northern New York, Bagg8 found the species nesting in little maples at about one foot from the ground. Nests found by Burtch (MS.) at Branchport, New York, were built in birch saplings eighteen and twenty inches from the ground, and in a blackberry bush fourteen inches from the ground. Near Utica, New York, Egbert Bagg writes that: "the nest is placed in an upright fork of some shrub, quite near the ground, from a foot to three feet from it. The female sits close and allows an observer every opportunity to identify her. The male generally appears, especially if the female leaves the nest, but
Nest. — The nest of this species may readily be distinguished from that of other Warblers by its bulkiness, rough exterior covered with pieces of pithy wood, inner bark fibers or birch bark. Jones,1 nests were made outwardly of "what appears to be the dry bark of the grapevine, with a few twigs and roots. This is covered in many places with a reddish wooly substance, apparently the outer covering of some species of cocoon. The inside is composed of small black roots and hair." »
Bagg's Utica nests are described by him as follows: "The nests are beautiful structures, rather loosely put together on the outside but neatly lined and finished within. All those I have seen had one peculiarity, there entered into the outside construction considerable rotten wood nearly white in color, so that the nest looked quite light colored. One nest contained a few 'birch curls' giving it the same white appearance. A typical nest, before me is composed largely of the rotten wood held together with strips of inner bark of deciduous trees and fibers of weed stalks and grasses. It is neatly lined with fine black roots, entirely, and this lining seems to be almost universal, though one nest had some of the finer quills of our common porcupine (even large enough for their barbs to be visible to the naked eye). This sort of lining might be satisfactory to the old bird, protected by her coat of feathers, but would seem to be somewhat dangerous to her naked fledglings.
The nests found by Burtch (MS.) are described by him as composed of strips of partially decayed bark, and white birch or grapevine bark lined with fine black rootlets and vegetable fibers.
Egg*- — 3 or 4, usually 4. Ground color, buffy white to light greenish white spotted and blotched with light and dark reddish brown and lavender, in some specimens forming a wreath around large end in others quite evenly marked over entire egg. Size; average of three sets, .66x.5i. (Figs. 45-47.)
Nesting Dates. — Litchfield, Conn., June 8 (Bishop) ; Branchport, N. Y., June n (Burtch)', Lancaster, N. H., June 19 (Spaulding) ; Bangor, Me., June 10 (Knight) ; Listowel, Ont., May 2/-June 9 (Kells) ; Kalamazoo Co., Mich., May 29, Westnedge, (Barrows).
(i) CM. JONES, On the Breeding of the Black-throated Blue Warbler (Dendroica car ulesc ens') in Connecticut, Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club, I, 1876, n; Orn. and O61., VI, 1881, 49; IX, 1884, 30. (2) W. L. KELLS, Nesting of the Black-throated Blue Warbler (in Ontario), Orn. and O61., XII, 1887, 76; XIV, 1869, 170; Ottawa Nat, XVI, 1902, 181. (3) EGBERT BAGG, Nesting of the Black-throated Blue Warbler ( in N. N. Y.), Orn. and O61., XII, 1887, 90. (4) O. W. KNIGHT, Contributions to the Life History of the Black-throated Blue Warbler, Journ. Maine Orn. Club, VIII, 1906, 33. (5) JOHN BURROUGHS, Birds' Nesting, in Locusts and Wild Honey, Riverside Edition, 1895, 181.
DENDROICA OERULESCENS CAIRNSI Coues
Subspecific Characters. — Similar to Dendroica c. carulescens but d" with the back always more or less spotted with black, sometimes the center of the back being entirely black. Adult $ generally darker. While specimens of true carulescens ceerulescens not infrequently show more or less black in the back cairnsi is very rarely without this character.
The Bird and its Haunts. — This southern Alleghenian form of the Black-throated Blue Warbler was named by Dr. Coues for the late John S. Cairns to whom we are chiefly indebted for our knowledge of its life history. Cairns2 writes : "High up on the heavily timbered mountain ranges of western North Carolina is the summer home of the Black-throated Blue Warbler. [The bird had not been subspecifically separated when Cairns wrote.] Here, in precipitous ravines, amid tangled vines and moss-covered logs, where the sun's rays never penetrate the rank vegetation and the air is always cool, dwells the happy little creature, filling the woods from dawn to twilight with its song. * * * These birds are a local race; breeding from one generation to another. They arrive from the south nearly ten days earlier than those that pass through the valleys on their northward migration. It is common to observe migrants through the valleys while breeders on the higher mountains are already nest-building and rearing their young."
Nesting Site. — "Nesting begins early in May and continues until the end of June. The nests are placed in various shrubs, such as laurel, wild gooseberry, and chestnut, but the blue cohosh or papooseroot (Caulophyllum thalictroides} seems to be the favorite. These thick
weeds grow rapidly to a height of from three to five feet, entirely hiding the ground, and thus afford the birds considerable protection. * * * "The nests are never placed over three feet from the ground ; usually about eighteen inches; one I examined was only six inches." (Cairns2.)
Nest. — "The nests show little variation in their construction, though some are more substantially built than others. Exteriorly they are composed of rhododendron or grapevine bark, interwoven with birch-bark, moss, spider-webs, and occasionally bits of rotten wood. The interior is neatly lined with hair-like moss, resembling fine black roots, mixed with a few sprays of bright red moss, forming a strikingly beautiful contrast to the pearly eggs. The female gathers all the materials, and builds rapidly, usually completing a nest in from four to six days if the weather is favorable. She is usually accompanied by the male, which, however, does not assist her in any way." (Cairns.2)
Eggs. — 3 or 4, usually 4. The eggs of this subspecies, which have been examined, do not differ from those of the foregoing; a typical set from Craggy Mountain, Buncombe Co., N. C., measures .62X.53, .66x.53, .66x.53.
(i) S. B. LADD, Nesting of the Black-throated Blue Warbler, in Buncombe Co., N. C., Orn. and O61., XVII, 1892, 129. (2) J. S. CAIRNS, The Summer Home of Dendroica carulescens. Papers Presented to the World's Congress on Ornithology, Chicago, 1896, 136.
Distinguishing Characters. — In any plumage this Warbler may be distinguished from all other Warblers, except Audubon's Warbler, by the yellow patches on crown, rump and both sides of the breast. In the young ? the latter marks are sometimes obsolete tut their general brown color above, yellow crown-patch, and rump are distinctive. From Audubon's Warbler, without regard to the color of the throat, it differs in having as a rule only two or three, instead of four outer tail-feathers marked with white. (But see beyond under auduboni.) Length (skin), 5.10; wing, 2.90; tail, 2.10; bill, .35.
142 MYRTLE WARBLER
Adult <3, Fall. — Quite unlike d in Spring; crown and back grayish brown; the latter indistinctly streaked with black; yellow of crown more or less concealed by brownish tips; rump bright yellow, upper tail-coverts and tail as in Spring c?; median and greater wing-coverts margined with brownish; cheeks mixed with brownish; underparts white, the breast washed with brownish and, with sides, with partly concealed black streaks ; yellow patches at sides of breast less pronounced than in Spring.
Young $, Fall. — Similar to adult £ in Fall but browner above, the yellow crown-patch sometimes nearly hidden; the underparts less heavily streaked, the breast patches less pronounced.
Young ?, Fall. — Not always to be distinguished from the adult $ in Fall but the yellow crown and breast-patches average smaller and the latter are sometimes barely evident or wanting.
Nestling. — Strikingly different from the nestlings of other Mniotiltidae, except those of D. auduboni. Above brown streaked with black and edged with buffy; below white heavily and definitely streaked with black; greater and median wing-coverts tipped with white.
Summer Range. — Breeds commonly north almost to the limit of tree growth from Labrador to Alaska, and thence south to southern Maine, the mountains of New Hampshire and Vermont, and the Adirondacks ; less commonly in the Catskills and the more elevated portions of Massachusetts; has bred casually in the lower districts of Massachusetts (Springfield, Winchendon), and of New York (Utica, Buffalo) ; reported as breeding once at Havre-deGrace, Maryland. The regular breeding range extends westward from the Adirondacks, through central Ontario (Ottawa) to northern Michigan (Porcupine Mountains), northern Minnesota, Manitoba and westward to British Columbia and northward to Alaska.
Winter Range. — Mexico and Central America to Panama; the Greater Antilles, the Bahamas, all of southern United States and north to southeastern Kansas, southern Illinois, southern Indiana and northern New Jersey. Along the Atlantic coast and a few miles inland, it occurs with more or less frequency as far north as Massachusetts and even to Cape Elizabeth, Maine. In the western United States the Myrtle Warbler is a common migrant on the plains and not rare at the foothills of the Rockies. It is almost absent from the western slope of these mountains, but reappears again on the Pacific Coast as a rare
The Bird and its Haunts.— The Yellow Warbler was the first, the Myrtle, the second member of the genus Dendroica whose acquaintances I made in life. The experience is doubtless not unusual for this Warbler is so abundant, so generally distributed, and so conspicuous, that even as a migrant it cannot fail to attract the attention of any one looking for birds. Furthermore, it appears to travel leisurely and, under certain conditions, often winters in numbers far north of the winter home of the warblers which pass this season in the United States.
In the spring the Myrtle Warbler is often found in the woods, but in autumn it is rather a bird of bushy second growths, scrubs, and hedgerows, where its characteristic tchip and the flash of its yellow rump seem as much a part of the season as the peek of White-throated Sparrows or twitter of Juncos. Especially is it to be found in numbers where the myrtle or bayberries — after which it is named — flourish; the supply of these berries generally determining the bird's presence or absence, during the winter. At this season insects' eggs or larvae are also eaten, the bird at times frequenting our homes to glean from the cocoons placed in sheltered crevices about our buildings.
In the summer the Myrtle Warbler dwells in coniferous growths. Gerald Thayer writes that it is "a regular breeder in the Monadnock region, common among the scattered spruces on the mountain's rocky ridge, and on the higher of the neighboring hills, but uncommon in the intervening lower country (1,500-1000 feet). During both migrations it is by long odds our most abundant Warbler, — everywhere, high and low. A big, brisk, tame, restless Warbler ; the first to reach Monadnock in the spring and the last to leave in the fall. It ranges from the ground and low bushes to tree-tops, in scrub-lands and halfopen woods, avoiding the deep forests. Recognizable even in dingiest immature plumage by its neatly-defined bright yellow rump." (Thayer, MS.)
In Louisiana, in winter, Allison states that "open woods, preferably not of coniferous trees, are its typical haunts; but the bare, open fields, the thick roadside hedge of Cherokee rose or Osage orange — in both of which these birds roost in large numbers — the weeds and shrubs in neglected city lots ; the trees and shrubbery of yards and parks, all invite Myrtle Warblers. Perhaps the place where a Wood Warbler is least to be expected is the sandy sea-beach; but along the shores of the Gulf I have often seen them flitting along, alighting sometimes on the sand, sometimes on half-buried logs and posts. They make frequent fly-catching excursions from these perches, after the manner of the American Redstart." (Allison, MS.)
Song. — The Myrtle Warbler has an easily recognizable and characteristic tchip or tchep, which, once learned, readily identifies the species. (But see also under D. cerulea.)
"Two call-notes are common; the first, serving to announce the arrival of the bird in fall, and used through much of the winter — not at all or but little, in spnrig — is uttered in flight. It resembles the syllable sweet uttered with rising inflection. The second is of rather
deeper tone than most of our Warbler notes ; it is less used in flight, but is probably the most familiar bird-voice with us in winter ; it is somewhat difficult to render, being rather variable; perhaps the syllable psit is the best rendering. The song is not often heard before the end of February, never in the fall and early winter, and is ordinarily not very frequent, even in March and April. It is uttered from a rest, and is of rather an erratic character — not unlike that of the Sycamore Warbler, but brighter and more varied, though not longer." (Allison, MS.)
"The Myrtle is a full-voiced Warbler. It chips like almost all the rest, but it also loudly tcheps, as probably no other New England Warbler does. Its common summer song about Monadnock is a loud and silvery 'sleigh-bell' trill, — a vivid, sprightly utterance, — often more or less broken up into separate notes, particularly in its diminuendo termination. If it were a little fuller, and more evenly sustained, it would be hard to tell from kindred variations of the Junco's song, its commonest companion and accompaniment among the rocks and spruce-trees of Monadnock. Sometimes, especially in spring, this Warbler sings quite differently; a deliberate phrase of three or four or five well-separated syllables, having the usual tone and volume, but lacking, sometimes only in part, the jingling tremulo. Of this song there are at least two main forms, both of which vary a good deal, and also intergrade with the summer jingle." (Thayer, MS.")
diagnostic.
Terrill2 describes the nest as "very substantial and warmly built" and "composed chiefly of dead spruce twigs with a few grasses and rootlets, bound with spiders' silk and thickly lined with feathers and animal hair."
Nesting Dates. — Lancaster, N. H., May 3i-June 7 (Spaulding) ; Bangor, Me., May 30- June 6 (Knight} ; Listowel, Ont, June 8 (Kells) ; Porcupine Mts., Mich., July 16, adults with young, (Barrows).
Distinguishing Characters. — With a general resemblance to Dendroica coronata but with the throat usually yellow the outer four tail-feathers marked with white. In some young females the yellow of throat is barely evident or wholly absent but almost invariably they may be distinguished from D. coronata by having four instead of three outer tail-feathers with white. I have seen but one specimen of auduboni having only three outer tail-feathers with white, but in this, a young female, the amount of white was so in excess of that which is found in coronata of the same age and sex that the bird's identity was unquestionable. Length (skin), 5.10; wing, 3.00; tail, 2.30; bill, .40.
Adult <$, Fall. — Quite unlike <$ in Spring: crown and back grayish brown the latter indistinctly streaked with black; yellow of crown more or less concealed by brownish tips; rump bright yellow; tail as in Spring; margins to wing-coverts more or less brownish; throat yellowish white tinged with buff
Young £, Fall. — Similar to adult $ in Fall but browner above, the streaks less pronounced; yellow of throat paler and with yellow on sides less pronounced; breast and sides browner, the black markings less evident.
Young $, Fall. — Resembles adult ? in Fall but is browner above, the streaks and crown-patch less evident; breast browner, throat with less yellow or, rarely, with none at all; white in tail diminished in amount but nearly always reaching to fourth feather.
Nestling. — Resembling nestling of Dendroica coronata; above brown streaked with black and white; below white streaked with black; wings and tail as in young c£ in Fall, but greater coverts tipped and not margined with whitish.
Summer Range. — This is one of the most common Warblers of the Pacific slope; it breeds from southern California (San Bernardino Mountains), and New Mexico (Wheeler Park, Tres Piedras), north to British Columbia (i58-Mile House), Alberta (Calgary), Montana and South Dakota (Black Hills) ; east to northeastern Nebraska (Sioux Co.), and western Texas (Fort Davis, Guadalupe Mountains). Accidental in Massachusetts (Cambridge, November 15, 1876) and in Pennsylvania (Chester Co., November 8, 1899). ,
Winter Range. — Guatemala and Mexico, north to the Rio Grande ; through most of the valleys of California to southern Oregon and rarely to southern British Columbia.
Fall Migration. — In August the mountain breeding birds begin to descend to lower altitudes and during September reappear on the plains. The earliest migrants move south of the breeding range in the last week of September and enter Mexico soon after the first of October. The northern part of the range in Montana is deserted about the loth of October.
The Bird and its Haunts. — Audubon's Warbler is the Myrtle Warbler of the west. It is the same hardy, active bird with a similar characteristic tchip and conspicuously yellow-patched rump.
In Colorado, Keyser5 says "this species inhabits all the upper mountain valleys and on the steep slopes of the western as well as on the eastern side of the Divide, I had the Audubon Warblers often at my elbow. In summer they make their homes at an altitude of seven to eleven thousand feet and are partial to pine timber ; indeed, I think I never found them elsewhere save occasionally among the quaking asps."
Walter Fisher writes that in California "in winter, Audubon's Warblers invade the warmer valleys of the western, and are particularly abundant in the southern part of the state, where they are perhaps more in evidence than any other birds. They take possession of orchards, arroyos, open plains, and even hot hillsides among chamiso and yuccas, and ply their fly-catching trade with great singleness of purpose. They burst from sycamore tops and dash after minute insects, hover, and zigzag as skillfully as any Flycatcher. During these very frequent sallies the yellow rump-patch is more or less visible and serves as a convenient mark for identification. The white markings of wings and tail are even more conspicuous and useful for this purpose.
"During the breeding season auduboni retires to the higher mountains and lives among firs and pines of the Canadian zone. The breast now acquires two conspicuous black patches which contrast beautifully with the yellow throat. The favorite hunting grounds of this Warbler are among firs, pines, and incense cedars, or occasionally in willow copses. The male is of a particularly musical disposition, providing a rather monotonous flow of notes to which the ear is soon likely to become insensible. Wherever Calaveras and Audubon Warblers are abundant silence is banished from the mountains." (Fisher, MS.)
tchip of its eastern representative, the Myrtle Warbler.
Bowles4 describes the song as "a short though pleasing little warble, surprisingly feeble for so large a bird, and in no way equal to that of its smaller relative the Yellow Warbler (D. (estiva)."
Nesting Site. — In Estes Park, Colorado, the nest is saddled on the limb of a pine or spruce eight to thirty-five feet from the ground, sometimes near the trunk, at others ten feet out. Bowles (MS.} writes that at Tacoma, Washington, this species "nests invariably in fir trees on a limb, from four to fifty feet, but usually about twenty feet up." In Arizona, Howard3 states that a nest placed fifteen feet up in a fir tree was unusually low for this species, and records a second nest as fifty feet up in a sugar pine twelve feet out from the trunk. At Fort Sherman, Idaho, however, a majority of the nests found by Merrill2 "were in deciduous trees and bushes generally but a few feet from the ground."
Nest. — "Loosely constructed of weed-stems and tops, and strips of bark, lined with fine weeds and horse-hair." (Estes Park, Colo.) "The nest is a well built bulky structure, the largest of any of our Warblers', measuring externally 3.5 inches in width by 2.5 inches in depth. * * * It is very handsome, as a rule, being built of fir twigs, everlasting weed, rootlets, moss, and dried grass with a thick lining of horse-hair and feathers." (Bowles*.)
"The nests are very loosely constructed being composed almost entirely of loose straws with a few feathers and hair for lining." (Howard3.) "Such nests as were found here, while varying considerably as to exterior, agree in having a lining in which black horse hairs are conspicuous, and in which feathers are loosely attached, not well woven in as is usual in most small nests." (Merrill2.)
Eggs. — 3 to 5, usually 4. Ground color varies from dull white or greenish white to bluish white, spotted and blotched with olivebrown, lilac, purplish brown and lavender, very sparingly in some types, quite boldly in others, but usually forming more or less of a wreath around large end. Size; average, . 72x^4, extremes measure 74X.53, .69X.55, .72^.51, .72x^6. (Figs. 50,51.)
(i) H. W. HENSHAW, Zool. Exp. W. looth Merid., 1875, 194- (2) J. C. MERRILL, Birds of Fort Sherman, Idaho, Auk, XV, 1898, 18. (3) O. W. HOWARD, Summer Resident Warblers of Arizona, Bull Cooper Orn. Club (—Condor), I, 1899, 64. (4) J. H. BOWLES, The Audubon Warbler in Washington, Condor, IV, 1902, 118. (5) L. KEYSER, Birds of the Rockies, 62.
Subspecific Characters. — Similar to D. a. auduboni but larger and more widely streaked with black; the Spring d" with the forehead, cheeks, and sides of crown black; black below extending to the belly and without grayish tips. Wing, 3.10; tail, 2.35; bill, .40.
May 9, 1902.
The Bird and its Haunts. — Discovered by Frazar in the Sierra Madre of Chihuahua in 1888 (Brewster1), this subspecies was added to our fauna in 1894 by Price who took eleven specimens in the Huachuca and Chiricahua Mountains of southern Arizona (Loomis2}. Ridgway records an intermediate breeding male from mountains near the head of Pecos River, New Mexico.
(i) WM. BREWSTER, Descriptions of Supposed New Birds from Western North America and Mexico, The Auk, VI, 1889, 94. (See also colored plate, No. I, in Ibid., IX, 1892.) (2) L. M. LOOMIS, An Addition to the A. O. U Check-List, Auk, XVIII, 1901, no.
Distinguishing Characters. — The general gray color, black or black and white throat and entire absence of yellow, except the spot before the eye readily distinguish this species. Length (skin), 4.30; wing, 2.40; tail, 2.00; bill, .40.
Adult <$, Spring. — Crown largely or entirely black; cheeks black bordered by white below; a broad white line behind the eye, a yellow spot before it; back gray, its center streaked with black; tail edged with gray, the two outer feathers largely white on both webs, third feather white on the inner web at the end; wings edged with gray, the secondaries internally margined with white, the greater and median coverts broadly tipped with white forming two conspicuous bars; throat and upper breast black (rarely mottled with white) sharply defined from rest of underparts, which are white; sides streaked with black.
Adult d, Fall. — Similar to adult d1 in Spring but upperparts and cheeks more or less margined with brownish gray; throat margined with white, sides washed with brown, the black streakings obscured.
white on secondaries.
Adult ?, Spring. — Similar to adult c? in Spring and sometimes not distinguishable from it, but, as a rule, with less black on the head, back browner and less heavily streaked; wings and tail browner and with less white; throat and upper breast mottled with black and white.
Adult $, Fall. — Similar to adult ? in Spring but upperparts and cheeks washed with grayish brown, black of throat margined with white, sides tinged with brown, the black streakings obscured.
Summer Range. — Breeds from northern Lower California, southern California, southern Arizona and New Mexico; north to British Columbia and east to central Colorado (Idaho Springs).
Spring Migration. — The species enters southern California the first week in April and reaches southern British Columbia the third week in the month. The earliest dates in southern Arizona and southern New Mexico are included between April 6 and April 9; while the species appears in the northern portion of its Colorado range early in May.
Fall Migration. — The last birds do not leave central California until the first week in October and the species does not desert the State until after the middle of the month.
The Bird and its Haunts. — "These birds are very plentiful during the breeding season in the mountains of southern Arizona. They may be found from an altitude of 4,000 to 9,000 feet, but are more common in the oak belt, from 4,000 to 7,000 feet altitude, where a great many of them breed. Nevertheless, comparatively few nests are found. I believe the reason for this is, because, unlike other Warblers, these birds do not have a note of alarm nor do they show any signs of breeding. The birds are constantly on the jump, apparently catching insects. Even when flushed from the nest they will hop about in their usual unconcerned manner." (Howard'.}
Of this Warbler in California Walter Fisher writes : "The Blackthroated Gray goes about its affairs in a quiet business-like manner suggesting the Lutescent Warbler, and differs, therefore, in temperament from both the Calaveras and Audubon Warblers which are always in evidence. It lives in chaparral such as deer brush, wild lilac
of various species, scrub oak, and sometimes, particularly in the humid coast districts, among evergreens. It is fond of the neighborhood of clearings where it works constantly and carefully among low growth. Although it does not force itself upon one's attention it is a very active bird and during the day must cover considerable territory." (Fisher, MS.}
Bowles4, writing from Oregon, says that in habits the Blackthroated Gray suggests both the Black-throated Green and Prairie Warblers. Like the former, it likes tall trees with a preference for scattered conifers having a bushy undergrowth. Like the Prairie it prefers high and dry places, though it does not object to a swamp if the ground beneath the nest is dry.
Two pairs this writer watched while building "had the same way of going about it. The male followed the female very closely, scolding almost continuously, or perhaps making suggestions, as she did not seem to mind it and gathered materials and acted very much as if he was not there. This continuous scolding generally seems to indicate nest-building and is apparently the only direct method of finding the nest."
Nesting Site. — In Arizona Howard8 found many nests of this species in dense thickets of scrub oak in the fork of the larger limbs quite often within reach of the ground, while other nests were placed high up in the pines. In the Sierras of California, Barlow2, recording Carriger's observations, states that several nests "were found in the deer brush at from five to nine feet up and two were placed in pines, one twelve feet up on a small limb, and another fifty-two feet up on a horizontal limb."
In Oregon, Prill1 writes that "the nest is placed in some small fir, generally not over five or six feet high ; while Bowles4 finds the nest of this species "from three feet and three inches to twenty-five feet from the ground, oaks seeming the favorite in southern Oregon and fir near Tacoma."
Nest. — Howard3 describes the nests as "very compact, of a deep cup shape, much like those of the Yellow Warbler. The nesting material varies according to locality."
with feathers." Bowles4 states that "the nests externally are about 3x2! inches and internally ifxif in diameter and depth. They are composed externally of grass and weed-stalks that must be several seasons old, being bleached, and very soft moss and feathers ; lined with feathers (one had evidently been lined from a dead Steller Jay), horse, cow, and rabbit hair or fur, and sometimes the very fine stems of flowers of some kind of moss."
Eggs. — 3 or 4, usually 4. Ground color white to very pale greenish white, delicately marked with specks and spots of red-brown, purplish, and under shell markings of pale lavender, forming a welldefined wreath around the large end with few spots and specks sparingly distributed over rest of the egg. Size; average, .6o,x.5o. (Figs. 69-71.)
Nesting Dates. — Mountains north of Pasadena, Calif., May 19, four small young in nest; June 26, three eggs incubated (Grinnell) ; Fyffe, Eldorado Co., Calif., June 5 (C. W. C.) ; Tacoma, Wash., May i4-June 24 (Bowles).
(i) A. G. PRILL, Black-throated Gray Warbler, (in Oregon), Oologist, IX, 1892, 128. (2) C. BARLOW, The Nesting Haunts of the Black-throated Gray Warbler (in Calif.), Bull. Cooper Orn. Club (=Condor), I, 1899, 96. (3) O. W. HOWARD, Summer Resident Warblers of Arizona, Bull. Cooper Orn. Club (=Condor), I, 1899, 64. (4) C. W. BOWLES, Notes on the Black-throated Gray Warbler (in Oregon), Condor, IV, 1902, 82. (5) W. L. FINLEY, Two Oregon Warblers, The Condor. VI, 1904, 31.
Distinguishing Characters. — The adult c? in Spring may be known by its black throat and crown and black cheeks surrounded by yellow lines; in other plumages the yellow or yellowish throat, black spots or bases to feathers of crown, yellow mark below eye and dusky or olive cheeks, surrounded by yellow, are characteristic. Length (skin), 4.60; wing, 2.60; tail, 1.95; bill, .35.
Adult <$, Spring. — Crown black, rest of upperparts olive-green spotted with black; a black band through the cheeks bordered above by a yellow superciliary line, below by a yellow stripe on the side of the throat which broadens into a yellow patch on the side of the neck; a yellow spot under eye; tail margined with grayish, both webs of two outer feathers largely white, the inner web of third to fourth feather with white at the end ; wings margined with grayish ; end half of median coverts white, greater coverts tipped with white forming two conspicuous bands ; throat and upper breast black, lower breast yellow, belly white, sides streaked with black.
Adult $, Spring. — Similar to adult d" in Spring but crown olive-green spotted with black, little or no black in back; less white in tail, the outer web of only the outer feather with white; wing-bars narrower, cheeks more olive; throat and breast obscurely marked with black which appears more clearly on the sides of the breast, belly white.
east to Colorado.
Summer Range. — From mountains of southern California( ?) and Oregon north to Sitka, Alaska, and the upper Yukon Valley; east to Idaho (Fort Sherman) and western Colorado; in migration it ranges to the eastern foothills of Colorado (Loveland) and to western Texas, (San Angelo) ; accidental in Pennsylvania ( Coatesville, May 12, 1868).
north as southern California.
Spring Migration. — Migrants from Mexico begin to enter California April 14 to 20. The earliest noted in 1888 at Chilliwack, B. C, was on May 19, but the usual date of arrival is probably several days earlier, for the average date of the first birds seen during five years at Columbia Falls, Mont., is May 7, varying from May 4, 1897 to May n, 1896. First arrivals have been noted on April 9, in the Huachuca Mountains of Arizona; Loveland, Colo., May II, 1889 and at Great Falls, Mont., May 28, 1890.
later than September 12, 1888.
The Bird and its Haunts. — Very little information concerning the habits of this bird appears to have been recorded. At Fort Sherman, Idaho, where it evidently nests, Merrill found it haunting the tops of large firs, flitting restlessly from tree to tree at a height which made identification difficult. At Glacier, Alaska, Bishop8 states that "it was tolerably common in the dense woods of spruce and fir and unquestionably nesting; altogether we noticed about twenty individuals during
our stay." Macoun4, quoting Spreadborough, says they are common on Vancouver Island and nest in the Douglas firs. Woodcock5, quoting Anthony, says that at Beaverton, Oregon, Townsend's Warbler is not at all rare in second growths of fir. In California, Grinnell states, it is a "common winter visitant to the Santa Cruz district, and sparingly elsewhere west of the Sierras; occurs more widely during migration."
Song. — "This usually consists of five notes — dee dee dee — de de all, especially the first three, uttered in the peculiar harsh drawl of D. virens. Later in the season the song changes somewhat at times." (Merrill2.)
Nest and Eggs. — June 7, 1875, Bendire1 took what he believed to be the nest and eggs of this species in southwestern Oregon. It was placed among several willow shoots about four feet from the ground. The identification, however, was incomplete. Spreadborough, as quoted above, states that this Warbler nests in the Douglas firs on Vancouver Island, but no further details are given.
The data accompanying a set of four eggs in the collection of J. Lewis Childs, reads as follows: June 12, 1892, Collected by Walter Raine, Vancouver, B. C., "on a branch of Willow four feet from ground." Mr. Childs writes: "I give you herewith the information regarding the nest and set of eggs of Townsend's Warbler, as per your request of the I5th. The four eggs measure respectively 7ox.5o, •72X.52, -70X.5I, .68x-5i. Color, light ashen gray, heavily blotched, specked and marbled dull rufous-brown ; eggs showing wide variation in extent of color, all having more or less of it on all parts with a predominance at the large end. The color on the large end of one egg is almost solid, on another very sparse. The eggs may be said to be fairly distinct, not resembling those of any other species of Warbler, and none, excepting possibly Cape May and Hermit, show so much color. Nest neat and firm, made entirely of fine grasses (no hair of any sort) with some downy substance and vegetable fiber on the outside. Inside measurement, width 2 inches, depth, I 1-2 inches." (Figs. 97-99, Childs Coll.)
(i) C. E. BENDIRE, Notes on Some of the Birds found in Southeastern Oregon, etc., Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist, 1877, "4- (2) J- C. MERRILL, Notes on the Birds of Fort Sherman, Idaho, Auk, XV, 1898, 19. (3) L. B. BISHOP, Birds of the Yukon Region, N. A. Fauna, No. 19, 1900, 90. (4) J. MACOUN, Cat. of Canadian Birds, III, 631. (5) A. R. WOODCOCK, Birds of Oregon, 87. (6) J. GRINNELL, Check-List of California Birds, 65.
black, chin and upper throat yellow, not black, less black on sides.
Adult ?, Spring. — Similar to adult <$ in Spring but somewhat duller above, less white in tail, in some specimens outer web of only outer tail-feathers white, white wing-bars narrower ; chin and throat yellow, breast black tipped with white or yellowish, sides streaked with black; belly white usually tinged with yellow. Resembling young male in Fall but duller in color and the more worn plumage gives the black of breast a more patchy appearance.
Summer Range. — The region of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Newfoundland, and west to northern Alberta and southwestern Alberta marks the northern limit of the range of this species. It breeds south to Minnesota, Wisconsin (Jefferson County), Michigan (Crawford, Oscoda, and losco Counties"). New York (Oneida County), Massachusetts (Cambridge, Springfield, Martha's Vineyard, etc.), northwestern Connecticut and, less commonly, northern Long Island and northern New Jersey : south in the Alleghenies, it breeds through Pennsylvania to South Carolina. In passing to its summer home it ranges west to western Minnesota, eastern Nebraska (Omaha, Florence, Neligh), eastern Kansas (Onaga) and eastern Texas; rare west of the heavy forest area of the Mississippi Valley.
The Bird and its Haunts. — Singing freely while he travels, one need not follow the Black-throated Green to his northern home to hear the delicious, little lazy drawl which, near New York, marks the opening days of Warbler time. Now we may find him almost anywhere there are trees, but, arrived on his nesting ground, he shows a marked preference for conifers.
About Cambridge, Mass., where the Black-throated Green is among the most abundant summer Warblers, Brewster6 writes that its favorite haunts "are extensive, well-matured woods of white pines, and rocky pastures growing up to pitch pines or to Virginia junipers."
About Monadnock, Gerald Thayer writes, the Black-throated Green is "a very common or abundant summer bird through all the region, high and low; ranging from the pine woods of the lowest valleys to the half open copses of spruce and mountain ash along Monadnock's rocky ridge, — 2,500 to 3,169 feet. High upon the mountain, however, it is less common than the Myrtle, or even the Nashville. Though decidedly a forest Warbler, it favors second growth, and pasture-bordering copses, rather than the very heavy timber, and is particularly partial to dry white pine woods. Its 'beat' lies between the sunlit tops of middle-sized pines, spruce and other trees, and their bottom branches on the outer borders of the groves. The deeply shaded wood-interiors it seems rather to avoid ; and it is a great haunter, especially while singing, of the spindling tops of fair-sized conifers. Active, restless, but very tame, it is a noticeable little bird wherever it occurs, particularly in the clearly-marked costume of the adult male, whose almost fleckless yellow cheeks often lead chance observers to describe it as yellow-headed." (Thayer, MS.}
At Branchport, N. Y., Verdi Burtch says the Black-throated Green "is found during the nesting season in all of our larger gullies. I have found twenty or more nests during the past three seasons, and all have been in hemlocks. The birds are close sitters and will not leave the nest until one gets almost close enough to touch them. When flushed from the nest they usually drop nearly to the ground, then sail to a nearby bush, gradually coming back near one. Usually they are quiet but sometimes they chip a little." (Burtch, MS.)
Song. — "The familiar two main songs of this common Warbler are subject to surprising individual — or rather, idiosyncratic, — variation. Most of the individuals in a region sing nearly alike, — showing, indeed, an unusual fixitude of song-form, but about one in forty does queer tricks with his voice. Among the commonest of these tricks is the introduction into all or part of the song of a pronounced quaver or tremulo. But the phrasing as well as the tone-quality is highly subject to these occasional vagaries. The song is sometimes disguised almost past recognition. Although the Black-throated Green is preeminently a full-voiced Warbler, its voice has a certain quality of huskiness, — like the Black-throated Blue's, but much less obtrusively noticeable, and rather enhancing than marring the quiet sweetness of the song. One of the two main utterances is remarkable for its deliberate and highly-modulated enunciation ; the other not. The deliberate song, of five (sometimes six or eight) notes, is the one usually described in books ; but here about Monadnock the other is at least as often uttered, and in mid-summer is the commoner of the two. The differences between them are suggested, though feebly, by the two phrases : Sweet sweerrr, swi-ni swee (the first and last accented notes the highestpitched), and Wi-wi-wi-wi-zvi-wi-zvi, wer-weee (last note highestpitched as well as most emphatic). The first phrase represents, of course, the more highly modulated song. Two at least of this Warbler's call-notes are fairly characteristic, a plainly Dendroicine but rather loud and full-toned tsip and a reduplicated smaller chip, often running into 'chippering', like that of many young but few other adult Warblers." (Thayer, MS.}
"Below is a second distinct song and the same bird will sometimes sing one form several times and then change to the other. The fourth note of it has an entirely different quality from the other four ; a harsh buzzing sound as though the breath were drawn in."
Nesting Site. — Coniferous trees are most frequently chosen by this species but it selects also an alder or birch. The height of the site from the ground depends largely upon the nature of the bird's haunts; when, for example, it lives among scrubby spruces, the nest, as might be expected, is low, at times within three feet of the ground ; but under suitable conditions the nest may be as high as forty feet well out on a horizontal limb.
Burtch writes that at Branchport, N. Y., he has found twenty or more nests and all have been in hemlocks. Two were in little rudimentary limbs against the body of slender trees, the others were variously situated on horizontal or drooping limbs from three to twelve feet from the body of the tree and from ten to forty feet from the ground. A nest found at Closter, N. J., the most southern sea-level breeding locality recorded, was placed in a most unusual site. It is described as "between the stems of a skunk cabbage plant and fastened to a catbriar and the twigs of a dead bush, and was about fourteen inches from the ground, in a very wet part of the swamp." (Bowdish*.)
to be characteristic of the nest of this species.
"The compact and deeply cupped nest is usually composed of fine dead hemlock twigs lined with hair and rootlets, and, sometimes, feathers or a fine dead grass and fine strips of bark, white birch bark occasionally being used. It sometimes has attached to the exterior little bunches of yellowish wooly substance, and a white fluffy material resembling spiders' silk." (Burtch, MS.)
Eggs. — Almost invariably 4 in number. Ground color ranges from white to creamy white and grayish white, rather heavily marked with fine specks and spots : few blotches occur of cinnamon-rufous,
chestnut brown, purplish and lilac-gray, with under shell markings of lavender, forming well-defined wreathes around large end. Some eggs are heavily wreathed with very few scattering spots, others have numerous specks over entire egg. Size; average .65x.5i, extremes .70x49, -58x.53. (Figs. 74-76.)
Nesting Dates. — New Haven, Conn., May 21 -June 17 (Bishop) ; Cambridge, Mass., full sets, first laying, June 5-10 (Brezvster) ; Lancaster, N. H., June 2 (Spaulding) ; Bangor, Me., May 30- July i (Knight) ; Grand Menan, N. B., June 14 (/. P. N.); Ottawa Co., Mich., May 15, building, (Gunn) ; July n, feeding young, Widmann (Barrows).
(i) JOHN N. CLARK, Nesting of the Black-throated Green Warbler (at Saybrook, Ct.), Orn. and O6L, XII, 1887, 22. (2) E. A. CAPEN, The Blackthroated Green Warbler at Grand Menan, Orn. and O61., XIII, 1888, 59. (3) J. P. N [ORRIS], A Series of Eggs of the Black-throated Green Warbler, Orn. and O61., XVI, 52. (4) WM. L. KELLS, Nesting of Some Canadian Warblers, Ottawa Naturalist, XVII, 1903, 68. (5) LEWIS M. TERRILL, Summer Warblers in Compton County, Quebec, Ottawa Naturalist, XVIII, 1904, 149. (6) B. S. BOWDISH, Some Breeding Warblers of Demarest, N. J., Auk, XXIII, 1906, 17. (7) WM. BREWSTER, Birds of the Cambridge Region, 341.
DENDROICA CHRYSOPARIA Scl. and Salv. Plate XIV
Distinguishing Characters. — The Golden-cheeked Warbler is to be confused only with the Black-throated Green Warbler. Adults of both sexes are sufficiently unlike not to require detailed comparison. Young females may be distinguished by the fact that in chrysoparia the belly is white while in virens it is tinged with yellow. Length (skin), 4.60; wing, 2.50; tail, 2.10; bill, .40.
Adult <$, Spring. — Median frontal stripe yellow, rest of upperparts shining jet black without olive markings; tail blackish two outer feathers largely white on inner web apically, and on outer web, basally, third feather with white on inner web only, less in extent; wings edged with grayish the median coverts broadly, the greater coverts more narrowly tipped with white; cheeks and line over eye yellow; a blackish line through eye from bill to nape; throat and upper breast black; sides heavily streaked with black, rest of underparts white.
Spring.
Young <$, Fall. — Resembles adult $ in Spring hut is more heavily streaked above, the yellow of the sides of the head is brighter- and more extended, the throat and upper breast are black tipped with yellow or whitish.
Between this plumage in which the back is streaked with olive-green and the black of throat or breast tipped with yellowish or whitish and that in which the back and breast are solidly jet black, there is, in Spring specimens, every degree of intergradation, probably in part due to individual variation, but it seems unlikely that the jet black back is acquired before the first post-breeding molt.
Adult ?, Spring. — Above olive-green, both crown and back streaked with black; a partly concealed median frontal streak; a broad yellow line from bill over eye; cheeks and sides of neck yellow, a dusky transocular streak which sometimes extends backward and upward to the nape; tail with less white than in c?» wings as in <$ but grayer; chin and throat yellow with more or less blackish intermixed; upper breast black more or less tipped or mottled with whitish extending into black streaks on the sides; lower breast and belly white. Like young <£ in Fall but with less black above and on throat.
Young $, Fall. — Similar to adult $ in Spring but with few or no streaks above, the yellow of the sides of the head duller and more restricted ; the throat white with little or no yellow; the breast dusky, the feathers basally more or less blackish ; sides less heavily streaked with black and with a brownish wash. Resembles Black-throated Green $ in Fall, but lacks yellow wash below.
Nestling. — Above dusky brownish gray, a faintly suggested grayish superciliary line; below grayish the throat and breast grayer, the sides and belly whiter, the former obscurely streaked with dusky, wing-coverts brownish gray narrowly tipped with whitish.
Spring Migration. — Its arrival near San Antonio, Texas, was noted March 13, 1895; March 10, 1896; March 9, 1897; March 13, 1898; March 14, 1900; March 16, 1903; March 15, 1904; March 16, 1905 ; average March 13.
The Bird and its Haunts. — The limited range of the Goldencheeked Warbler has given few ornithologists the privilege of studying it. Mr. H. P. Attwater, of Texas, when living at San Antonio, near this bird's summer home, took advantage of this opportunity to study its habits with such satisfactory results that, thanks to his efforts, we have a more complete biography of this bird than of many commoner, more widely distributed species. The following observations were prepared by Mr. Attwater for use in the present connection :
"The summer home of the Golden -cheeked Warbler in the United States is confined to certain portions of the counties in south-central Texas, embraced in the timbered parts of the 'Edwards Plateau' region. Throughout this region numerous valleys and deep canons,
with steep, rocky sides, have been cut by erosion, leaving peaks and terraced hills, intersected with ravines, gorges and defiles, presenting wild picturesque mountainous scenery.
"The Golden-cheek is not a bird of the forest, being seldom met with in the tall timbered areas in the wider valleys along the rivers, or in the tall trees which fringe the streams in the canons; but its favorite haunts are among the smaller growth of trees, on the rough wooded hillsides, and which covers the slopes and 'points' leading up from the canons, and the boulder strewn ridges or 'divides' which separate the heads of the creeks. The trees which compose this growth consist chiefly of mountain cedar (juniper), Spanish or mountain oak, black oak, and live oak on the higher ground, and live oak and Spanish oak clumps or thickets on the lower flats among the foothills, interspersed in some localities with dwarf walnut, pecan and hackberry. All these trees grow on an average from 10 to 20 feet high, the cedar often forming almost impenetrable 'brakes'. Whatever space remains among the oaks and cedars is generally covered with shin oak brush, which is a characteristic feature of the region. The cedar or juniper appears to possess some peculiar attraction for this bird for they are seldom found at any great distance from cedar localities, and they seem to divide the greater part of their time between the cedars and, Spanish oaks, searching for insects, with occasional visits to other oaks, walnuts, etc., but seldom descending as low as the shin oak brush, which averages four to five feet. It is quite probable that future observations will show, that some favorite insect food which comprises a portion of their 'bill of fare', is found among the cedar foliage.
"The song of the male is the first unmistakable notification of its arrival and within a few days it is quite common and the females are also observed. In the localities described the Golden-cheeked Warbler is by ho means a rare bird, and it is by far the most abundant of the few Warblers which breed in the same region. In the shaded and watered canons a few Kentuckys and Parulas are always found nesting, and occasionally a Sycamore and Black and White Warbler, but they are all rare breeding birds, compared with the Golden-cheek.
"Like most of the same sex of other Warblers the female of this species is very shy, and seldom noticed except when an intruder disturbs the nest or when feeding the young after leaving it, but the male Golden-cheeked Warbler is by no means a shy bird. He keeps continually flying from tree to tree in search of insects, and on fine days uttering his song at short intervals from early dawn until after
sundown, and before nest building begins shows little alarm upon being approached. I have stood under a tree a number of times within five or six feet of a wandering male Golden-cheek, which appeared as pleased and interested in watching me as / was in observing him. Seemingly he was desirous of assisting me to describe his song in my note-book, by very obligingly repeating it frequently for my special benefit.
"The young birds out of the nest, which are being fed by the parents late in April and early in May, are from early nests which have escaped destruction by 'northers' on account of their sheltered positions and situations, and it is possible that then another nest is built and a second brood reared. Nests with fresh eggs are seldom found after the middle of May. During June the family groups wander about together, chiefly in the canons and along the lower hillsides, keeping together till the young are old enough to take care of themselves. While being fed by the parents the 'twittering' of the young birds is continually heard, with the cautious 'tick, tick' alarm notes of the female when enemies approach. Early in July they begin to scatter, as most of the young birds are then able to shift for themselves. By the middle of July most of the old males have stopped singing, and by the end of July old and young have disappeared from their usual haunts. I have noticed a few stragglers during the first two weeks in August, and all probably leave before September first.
Song. — "It would be difficult to describe the Golden-cheek's song with any real satisfaction. It varies somewhat, being uttered much more rapidly by some individuals than by others. At a distance only the louder parts are heard, so that it sounds somewhat different than when heard at close quarters. The hurried song might be given as tweah, tweah, twee-sy, with some individuals introducing an extra note or two, and the slower or more deliberate style twee-ah, eseah, eachy. After the young leave the nests the males gradually stop singing, and at this period sometimes only use a part of the regular song.
Nesting Site. — "Of over fifty nests of this bird which I have examined, most of them were securely placed in perpendicular forks of the main limbs of cedar trees, about two-thirds up in the tree ; average fifteen feet from the ground. My highest record is twenty-one feet, and lowest six feet. I have also found them in similar positions in small black oak, mountain oak, walnut and pecan trees. The majority of nests are undoubtedly built in cedar trees, and resemble the limbs on which they are placed, on account of cedar bark being chiefly used for the outsides of the nests. The nests were all care-
fully fixed, in forks or crotches, with very substantial foundations of nest material, and are all very similar in appearance. The favorite nesting haunts are isolated patches or clumps of scrubby cedars, with scant foliage, on the summits of the scarped canon slopes, and in the thick cedar 'brakes'. In cedar the older growth of trees is always selected, and no attempt at concealment is made. I have never found a nest in a young thrifty cedar with thick foliage.
"The male is always to be heard singing in the vicinity of the nest, and the old nesting localities, and occasionally the same tree is selected apparently and returned to one year after another.
Nest. — ''The outside of the nest is chiefly cedar bark strips, with a few weed stalk fibers, woven with spider webs and cocoons, lined with fine grass-tops, horse hair, goat hair and feathers, those of the Quail and Cardinal being most commonly selected, and especially the latter. The cavities of six nests measured average 1.60 inches across by i. 80 inches deep.
Eggs. — "The eggs are usually 3 or 4 the latter being a full set, my only higher record is finding one nest which contained five young. Occasionally a nest is found which also includes a Cowbird's egg. Nest building commences very soon after the birds arrive, and nests with full sets of fresh eggs are found about April 15. I have early records of four eggs hard set on April u, 1904, and the young birds ready to leave the nest on April 24. The cold freezing 'spells' and rough storms, or 'northers', which frequently occur during the latter part of March and during April must often interfere with nesting arrangements, and to this cause I attribute the frequent finding in April and early part of May of so many forsaken nests, either empty or containing i or 2 stale eggs. The trees having been thrashed for several days at a time by rough winds, sometimes accompanied by hail storms, and the nests soaked and more or less disarranged no doubt causes the birds to desert them.
"The eggs vary considerably in size, shape and markings. The average for 31 eggs now in my collection, is .66x.5i, the three largest eggs measuring 72X.5I, 7ox.54, and -7ix.53, and the three smallest .61x49, .62X.54, .62X.5O. The eggs are plain white with sometimes a slight gloss, and quite thickly splashed chiefly around the large end with spots, specks, blotches and occasionally streaks, of various shades of dark reddish brown, mixed with lilac and lavender." (Attwater, MS.")
(i) J. P. N [ORRIS], A Series of Eggs of the Golden-cheeked Warbler, Orn. and O61., XIV, 1889, 68. (2) N. C. BROWN, A Reconnoissance in Southern Texas, Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club, VII, 1882, 36. (3) H. P. ATTWATER, List of Birds observed in the Vicinity of San Antonio, Bexar County, Texas, Auk, IX, 1892, 341.
Distinguishing Characters. — The adult d1 may be known by its yellow head, and black throat, whitish, virtually unstreaked sides, while the latter character, in connection with yellow cheeks and yellow or basally yellow crown feathers, will distinguish birds in other plumage. Length (skin), 4.60; wing, 1.55; tail, 1.95; bill, .40. ,
Adult <$, Spring. — Top and sides of head yellow, hindhead and nape with more or less black; back black margined with grayish; tail black margined with gray, both webs of outer feathers largely white, inner web of third feather white at end; wings margined with gray; median coverts broadly tipped with white the greater coverts terminally margined with whitish ; throat black, rest of underparts soiled white, the sides rarely with a few streaks.
sides browner.
Adult $, Spring. — Similar to adult d1 in Spring but with less yellow on head, back olive-gray often without black streaks, less white in tail, wing-bars browner, throat usually yellow bordered posteriorly with black, sometimes largely whitish, rarely all black, white below browner.
Adult $, Fall. — Similar to adult $ in Spring but greener above, yellow of head and streaks in back (when present) more obscured, throat markings more or less concealed with buffy.
Young $, Fall. — Similar to adult $ in Fall but upperparts chiefly dark, grayish olive-green, forehead basally yellow; sides of head and chin yellowish, rest of underparts buffy white. Closely resembles young <$ in Fall but has less yellow and no black on head but that of shaft streaks.
Nestling. — Above brownish gray; breast grayish, belly whitish washed with brownish and tipped with blackish; a whitish postocular streak. General Distribution. — Pacific Coast region.
Spring Migration. — Enters the United States in April being reported from Oracle, Arizona, April 12, 1899, an^ the Huachuca Mountains, Arizona, April 9, 1902. Records of the earliest birds seen in California are Campo, April 27, 1877, and Julian, April 25, 1884.
September 22, in Arizona, and October 9, in California.
The Bird and its Haunts. — Of this beautiful Warbler as it is found in California Walter Fisher writes: "I have observed this Warbler among dense conifers and in open glades of young black oaks in the Sierra Nevada Mountains. But it is preeminently a bird of the coniferous forests although it may wander longer or shorter distances from them. The yellow sides of the head, sharply contrasted with the black throat and that with the white underparts, form a combination of markings which render confusion of this species with any other well nigh impossible. The song is also different from that of any other Warbler of the region, and has been translated by the words zeegle-zeegle-zeegle, seek. It is not loud, yet carries for a considerable distance.
"Hermit Warblers are not so abundant in a region as the Calaveras and Audubon may be, but sometimes in the late summer, migrations of young take place at comparatively high altitudes in the Sierra Nevada. During these 'waves' young birds are abundant among Murray pines, from about 6,000 to 8,000 feet, and they move along silently except for an occasional cheep, as they search among cones and needles for their food." (Fisher, MS.)
At Beaverton, Oregon, A. W. Anthony reports this bird not rare in second growth firs; and about Tacoma, Washington, Bowles8 records it as a regular but far from common summer resident. It frequents the tops of .the giant firs, where at a height of from two to three hundred feet from the ground, it is studied with difficulty amid the dense vegetation. "About the middle of July both young and old assemble in good sized flocks and frequent the water holes in the smaller growths of timber. At such times I have never seen them associating with any other kinds of birds."
Song. — Barlow5 records the"call-note of this species, as it was heard by him in the Sierras of Eldorado County, Calif., as a weak tseet, while the song though not loud "would penetrate through the woods quite a distance and very much resembled tsit, tsit, tsit, tsit, chee chee chee, the first four syllables being uttered with a gradual and uniform speed, ending quickly with the chee chee chee. It was quite distinct from any of the other Warbler songs, and wherever it was heard the little musician was usually traced to some pine tree where he would be found nervously hopping about."
HERMIT WARBLER 169
Nesting Site. — Three nests discovered by Allen and recorded by Brewster2 were placed in 'pitch pines', from twenty-five to forty feet above the ground, on thick, scraggy limbs, where it would have been impossible to find them except by watching the birds. Beck3 found a nest in Eldorado County, California, forty feet from the ground in a slender pine at the end of the limb, and Barlow* records a nest found by Carriger at Fyffe, California, only two-and-a-half feet up in a cedar sapling; and another from the same locality, twelve feet up near the top of a small cedar. Barlow5, however, found a nest fortyfive feet up in a yellow pine near the end of the limb.
Nest. — Brewster2 describes a Blue Canon nest as "composed of the fibrous stalks of herbaceous plants, fine dead twigs, lichens (Evernia vulpina), and a little cotton twine, and is lined with the soft inner bark of some coniferous tree and fine long hairs apparently from the tail of a squirrel. The bright, yellow Evernia, sprinkled rather plentifully about the rim, gives a touch of color to the otherwise cold gray tone of the exterior and contrasts agreeably with the warm, reddish brown lining. Although the materials are coarse, and wadded, rather than woven, together, the general effect of the nest is neat and tasteful. Jt does not resemble any other Warbler's nest that I have seen, but rather recalls the nest of some Fringilline bird, being perhaps, most like that of the Lark Finch. It measures externally 4.50 inches in width by 2. inches in depth. The cavity is 1.25 inches deep by 2.50 inches wide at the top. The walls at the rim average nearly an inch in thickness." Barlow5 describes his nest as "very prettily constructed, the bottom layer being of light grayish weed-stems, bleached pine needles, and other light materials held securely together by cobwebs and woolly substances. The nest cavity is lined with strips of red cedar bark (Libocedrus} and the ends, instead of being woven smoothly, project out of the nest. The inner lining is of a fine brownish fiber resembling shreds of soap-root."
Eggs. — Barlow5 describes a set of 4 eggs as spotted, chiefly in wreaths at the large end, with varying shades of lilac, brown and chestnut. They measure, .66x.52, .68x.53, .67X.53 and .67x.53.
Nesting Dates. — Blue Canon, Calif., June 2, two eggs (Brewster} • Eldorado Co., Calif, June 10 (Beck} ; Fyffe, Calif., June 8, four eggs badly incubated (Barlow} ; Tacoma, Wash., June n, 1905 — only nest found, rather rare and very local. June 21 female seen feeding young recently from nest (Bowles}.
U. S. N. M., I, 1878, 405. (2) WM. BREWSTER, Discovery of the Nest and Eggs of the Western Warbler (in Blue Canon, Cal.), Auk, IV, 1887, 166. (3) R. H. BECK, Nesting of the Hermit Warbler (in Eldorado County, Cal.), Nidologist, IV, 1897, 79. (4) C. BARLOW, Another Chapter on the Nesting of Dendroica occidentalis, and other Sierra Notes, Bull. Cooper Orn. Club (=Condor), I, 1899, 59. (5) C. BARLOW, Nesting of the Hermit Warbler in the Sierra Nevada Mountains, California, Auk, XVI, 1899, 156; Condor, III, 1901, 179. (6) J. H. BOWLES, The Hermit Warbler in Washington, Condor, VIII, 1906, 40.
Distinguishing Characters. — The adult c? may be known by its bright blue upperparts and white underparts with a breast band; the $ and young are usually tinged with blue above, the tail always showing traces of blue; they have two wing-bars, a whitish or yellowish line over the eye, and the underparts whitish or pale lemon white. In this plumage they are to be confused only with the young of Compsothlypis, which has the breast and back much deeper yellow, and no line above the eye. Length (skin), 4.30; wing, 2.70; tail, 1.70; bill, .40.
Adult c?, Spring. — Above grayish cerulean, brighter on the crown, crown and back streaked with black; upper tail-coverts black broadly tipped with blue; cheeks grayish blue with sometimes a rather poorly defined stripe behind the eye which rarely reaches forward to the bill; tail black edged with grayish blue, all but the middle feathers with white patches on the inner web near the tip, the middle feathers there margined with white; wings black edged with grayish blue, median and greater coverts widely tipped with white forming two conspicuous bars; below white, a bluish black breast band, sides streaked with bluish black.
Young <$, Fall. — Above dull bluish gray heavily washed with bright olivegreen; upper tail-coverts black, as in adult <$; tail as in adult c? but with less white ; wings edged with greenish and with two white bars ; underparts whitish tinged with yellow and with a suggestion of streaks on the sides.
Adult ?, Spring. — Above grayish blue brighter on the head, the back strongly tinged with green; a more or less distinct whitish or yellowish line over the eye; upper tail-coverts grayish tipped with bluish; the wing-coverts broadly tipped with white ; underparts whitish or pale yellowish with sometimes a suggestion of streaks on the sides. Resembles young <£ in Fall but is bluer above and has the upper tail-coverts gray instead of black.
Adult $, Fall. — Similar to adult $ in Spring but greener above and yellow below (?). I have not seen a Fall female of which the age had been determined and cannot, therefore, certainly distinguish between specimens of young $ and adult $ taken at this season. Young $?, Fall— See above.
Summer Range. — Principally the valley of the Ohio River ; thence east to Virginia (Natural Bridge), West Virginia (White Sulphur Springs), Maryland (Baltimore), Delaware (Choptank River), Pennsylvania (Williamsport, East Penn.), and central New York (Auburn, Baldwinsville). It has occurred casually in New Jersey (Boonton, September 1887), southeastern New York (West Point, May 17, 1875; New York City, May 5, 1886), Connecticut (Suffield, June 12, 1875, Seymour, May 10, 1888), and Rhode Island (Providence, May 22, 1878, Pawtucket, May 22, 1879, Lonsdale, May 14, 1893). North of the Ohio valley, it ranges to southern Ontario (Plover Mills), southern Michigan, (Lansing, Detroit), southern Wisconsin (Lake Koshkonong, Milwaukee, Racine, Two Rivers), and southern Minnesota (Lanesboro) ; west to eastern Nebraska (Omaha), eastern Kansas (Onaga), and eastern Texas (Texarkana) ; accidental at Denver, Colo., and Rio Mimbres, New Mexico. The southern limits of its regular breeding range are the mountains of Virginia and Tennessee ; but it has been known to breed irregularly at Greensboro, Ala., Franklin and St. Tammany Parishes, La., and in the Creek and Cherokee Nations, Okla.
Spring Migration. — In migration this species shuns the south Atlantic States and the West Indies (except casually), passes through Central America east of Mexico, and enters the United States principally in the Mississippi Valley.
Fall Migration. — The Cerulean Warbler is one of the earliest to start south and reaches the coast of Louisiana and Mississippi on dates ranging, in different years, from July 12 to 29. The birds are most numerous there early in August. The latest migrants have been noted at London, Ontario, September I, 1900; Livonia, Mich., September I, 1892; Beaver, Pa., September 14, 1889; Berwyn, Pa., September 27, 1889; Eubank, Ky., September 14, 1887; Chester County, S. C, as late as October 22.
The Bird and its Haunts. — The Cerulean Warbler is distinguished alike by its color and by its geographical distribution. No other Warbler resembles it in plumage, none has a similar range. Like certain other Mississippi Valley birds it appears to be gradually extending its range eastward through central New York and possibly it may eventually reach the maple groves of Vermont.
Although locally abundant as far east as central New York the bird, true to its route of range extension, migrates southward through the Mississippi Valley and along the Alleghenies, being so rare on the Atlantic seaboard, except in Delaware, as to be considered almost "accidental."
In Mississippi, Allison writes, the Cerulean is "a typical wood Warbler ; it prefers rich mixed woods, its metropolis in migration being the upland beech woods. On the coast it is common in woods of oak and hickory, but shows no objection to pine."
Near St. Louis, Mo., where Smith6 has found upwards of forty nests in a season, the bird frequents sycamores. In the White Water Valley of southeastern Indiana, where Butler3 considers the bird to be as abundant as anywhere within its range, this Warbler is found more frequently along the river valleys and upon hillsides than upon the upland; they prefer the more open woodland, especially that in which the prevailing timber is sugar-maple, elm and linden. They are not gregarious and where found appear to be evenly distributed. They are seldom found nearer the ground than twenty feet, ranging from this height to the tops of the tallest trees. * * * When high in the trees they may be easily mistaken for Flycatchers, and when lower down, among the larger branches, their habits remind one of the Titmouse and Creeper.
About Branchpoint, N. Y., Verdi Burtch reports the Cerulean as locally abundant in mixed growths of oak and maple with a few birch and hickory. The female, which, as usual, incubates unaided, is a very close sitter seldom leaving the nest before one is near to her. On one occasion, in spite of his best efforts to prevent her, a bird returned to the nest three or four times while he was examining its contents.
Song. — Brewster1 compares the song to that of the Parula Warbler but remarks "that of the latter bird has, however, at least two regular variations ; in one, beginning low down, he rolls his guttural little trill quickly and evenly up the scale, ending, apparently, only when he can get no higher; in the other, the commencement of this trill is broken or divided into syllables, like zee, zee, zee, ze-ee-ee-eep. This latter variation is the one used by D. carulea, and I could detect little or no difference in the songs of dozens of individuals. At best it is a modest little strain. * * * In addition to the song, they utter the almost universal Dendroicine lisp, and also, the characteristic tchep of D. coronata, which I had previously supposed entirely peculiar to that bird."
"Six different writers agree in their descriptions of this bird's song. It consists of two distinct parts, the first of several definite single syllables with a comma pause between each two, followed by a trilled syllable of about double the length of the first part. There is thus a marked resemblance to Parula's song. The syllables tse, tse, tse, tse, te-e-e-e-e-e-e-e-e, serve to recall it to mind. The song rolls up the scale quietly and evenly. The effect is less delicate thanParula's song, yet not more wiry. A larger song from a larger bird.
"My notes indicate that this Warbler sings from his arrival in the first week in May until the third week in May, and again during the last of June and first week of July. I have never heard it sing during the fall migrations and find no record of a song period then." (Jones.}
"The Cerulean is an incessant singer. It nests here and several pairs are always here through June. The song is sweet, but rather husky, and has a soft, wheeling, whirring, rolling quality to it. The common song is of four notes all on one key, the last ones a quick, upward, chromatic run, ending in a soft burr-r-r. May 24, 1905, I heard a very unusual song. The form was like the Redstart's shreeshree-shree, but the voice was the soft one of the Cerulean. He sang many times and never gave the upward run." (Far-well, MS.}
Nesting Site. — Smith6 records the site near St Louis as from forty to seventy-five feet up in sycamores, saddled on a limb well out from the trunk. In southeastern Indiana. Butler3 found the nests
placed "in the fork of a limb at some distance from the body (of the tree) and at from twenty-five to fifty feet from the ground." Nests found by Saunders7 in the western peninsula of Ontario were in basswood, maple, oak or elm trees at from thirty to fifty-five feet from the ground. In Baltimore County, Maryland, a nest was found by Kirkwood8 in a tulip tree, forty-eight feet six inches up and fifteen feet out from the body of the tree.
Burtch (MS.) writes that at Branchport, N. Y., where the bird is locally common, "the nest is usually placed on a horizontal branch or drooping branch of an elm, ranging from twenty-five to sixty feet from the ground, and from four, to fifteen, or eighteen feet from the body of the tree over an opening. A nest found June 4, 1905, was in the topmost branches of an elm over sixty feet up, and way out on the branch. There was a nest of a Red-eyed Vireo in middle of same tree and twelve feet from the nest of Cerulean."
Nest. — "The nest very closely resembles a typical nest of Traill's Flycatcher, only smaller, being made of precisely the same materials both inside and out." (Smith6.) A nest from Monroe County, N. Y., is "neatly and compactly built, consisting externally of fine dry grasses of an ashen tint bound firmly together with spiders' silk, to which are affixed a few bits of whitish lichen; it is lined with strips of bark and fine grasses of a reddish brown color. The nest is gray externally and brown within." (Allen2).
Saunders7 describes the nest as extremely shallow and "mainly composed of grasses and a few bark fibers, with a scanty lining of black horse-hairs. * * * The whole is covered with the same silvery gray bark strips the Redstart uses so freely, with some intermingling of cobwebs, both bark strips and cobwebs having the appearance of being put on while wet."
Burtch (Branchport, N. Y.), writes that "the nest is always saddled on a fork of a good-sized limb, much like that of a Wood Pewee. It is well-made and very handsome, composed, of fine strips of bark, lined with a fine red fiber, which may be very finely shredded grapevine bark. Sometimes blossom stems or dead grass are used for lining. The walls, where they touch the branch, are very thin, usually nothing but the lining. The nests are usually profusely covered with grayish lichens held in place with spiders' webs."
Eggs. — 3 or 4, usually 4. Ground color a pale bluish or greenish white spotted and speckled with reddish brown and lavender pretty well over entire egg. Size ; a typical set of 4 measures .6o,x-52, .7OX.52. .6o.x.52 and .6o,x.52. (Figs. 55,56.)
BLACKBURN I AN WARBLER
\tsting Dates.— Yates Co., N. Y., May 31 (C. W.C.); Waynesburg, Pa., May 24 only record (Jacobs) ; Oberlin, O., May 15-June 15 (Jones) ; Washtenaw County, May 15, Hyde — July 15, feeding young, Covert (Barrows)', London, Ont, June n (Saunders) ; Ann Arbor, Mich., May 20 (Wood).
(i) WM. BREWSTER, Some Observations on the Birds of Ritchie County, West Virginia, Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist. N. Y., XI, 1875, 134. (2) J. A. ALLEN, Nest and Eggs of the Cerulean Warbler, Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club, IV, 1879, 25. (3) A. W. BUTLER, The Cerulean Warbler (in Indiana), Orn. and O61., IX, 1884, 27. (4) S. F. RATHBUN, The Cerulean Warbler (near Auburn, N. Y.), Orn. and O61., IX, 1884, 28. (5) E. REINECKE, Cerulean Warbler (near Buffalo, N. Y.), Oologist, IX, 1892, 264. (6) P. W. SMITH, JR., Nesting of the. Cerulean Warbler (near St. Louis, Mo.), Orn. and O61., XVIII, 1893, 5- (7) W. E. SAUNDERS, Nesting Habits of the Cerulean Warbler (in W. Ontario), Auk, XVII, 1900, 358. (8) F. C. KIRKWOOD, The Cerulean Warbler as a Summer Resident in Baltimore County, Maryland, Auk, XVIII, 1901, 137. (9) LYNDS JONES, The Cerulean Warbler, (in Ohio), Wilson Bull., XVI, 1004, 3-
Distinguishing Characters. — The adult c? in Spring has the center of the crown, line over eye, sides of neck and breast flaming orange; in the adult c? in Fall and adult $ in Spring these parts are dull orange or yellowish orange, in young birds these areas are still duller. Birds in the last-named plumage may cause some difficulty in identifying but the marks named, in connection with a brownish, obscurely streaked back, and generally white outer web of the basal half of the outer tail-feather, should be diagnostic. Length (skin), 4.60; wing, 2.65; tail, 1.95; bill, .40.
Adult $, Spring. — Center of crown, streak below eye, line over eye to a patch on the side of the neck orange, ear-coverts and lores black; upperparts black, the back streaked with white which, in some specimens, is tinged with orange; tail black, edged with grayish, the inner web of the two to four outer feathers largely white, the outer web white at the base, the next feather usually with a white spot near the tip of the inner web ; wings black edged with sage ; the median coverts white, outer greater coverts tipped with white, the inner greater coverts with white margin or wholly white, forming a large white patch in the wing; throat and breast flaming orange usually deeper than that of crown, this color generally suffusing the whitish abdomen, sides streaked with black.
Adult d", Fall — Similar to adult c? in Spring but the orange much paler and veiled with buffy tips; the black markings widely bordered with brownish; wings with two white bars, not forming a patch.
Young c?, Fall. — Similar to adult c? in Fall but orange markings less pronounced and still paler, becoming dull yellow; black markings less pronounced and mixed widely with grayish olive or olive-brown.
Adult ?, Fall. — Similar to adult $ in Spring but orange areas still paler, crown spot barely evident, upperparts browner, belly more suffused the breast color being less sharply defined posteriorly.
Young $, Fall. — Not certainly distinguishable from adult $ in Fall but breast averaging paler, in some specimens nearly white; white in tail much reduced, the base of the outer web of the outer tail-feather rarely fuscous like the end.
Nestling. — Above brown the back streaked with black and margined with buffy; a broad buffy white line from the eye to the nape; below white, the throat and breast suffused with buff and brownish, the latter with blackish spots extending to the sides.
Summer Range. — Southern Canada from Cape Breton, through central Ontario to Manitoba and south to Massachusetts (Berkshire, Greenfield, Holyoke, Chester, Winchendon, Roxbury, Concord, Lexington and Sudbury), northwestern Connecticut (probably), New York (Lewis and Oneida Counties), northern Michigan (Porcupine Mountains), Wisconsin (Jefferson and Manitowoc Counties) and northern Minnesota. In the Allegheny Mountains a few Blackburnian Warblers breed in Pennsylvania and south to North Carolina. It. occurs west to the plains of eastern Texas (Boerne), eastern Kansas (Leaven worth) and eastern Nebraska (West Point, Omaha) ; accidental in Utah (Ogden, September 1871) and New Mexico (Fort Bayard, May).
The Bird and its Haunts. — This beautiful Warbler is, as a rule, sufficiently uncommon to make a meeting with it an always noteworthy experience. At Monadnock, however, Gerald Thayer reports it to be "a very common summer resident. It is one of the four deepwood Warblers of this region, the other three being the Black-throated
Blue, the Northern Parula and the Canada. While all the other summer Warblers of Monadnock seem better pleased with various sorts of lighter timber, these four are commonest in the small remaining tracts of primeval woodland, and in the heaviest and oldest second growth. But despite this general community of habit, each of the four has marked minor idiosyncrasies. The Blackburnian favors very big trees, particularly hemlocks, and spends most of its life high above the ground. The Parula is most at home in boggy woods, where the ground is covered deep with sphagnum and the stunted trees are veiled in dangling Usnea; the Black-throated Blue haunts the heavy undergrowth in drier woods; while the sweet voiced Canada, — also, and even more strictly, a bird of the deciduous undergrowth, — is partial to damp hillside woods and brook-meshed swales, but, as a rule avoids the spongy bogs in which Parulas and pitcher-plants most flourish. But the preeminent forest Warbler of the group is the Blackburnian, the lover of deep mixed growth and the upper branches of the biggest conifers. It is rather a restless and quick-moving Warbler, though not shy, and without any (?) very peculiar tricks of pose or gesture."
At Branchpoint, N. Y., Burtch writes that the Blackburnian is a rare summer resident breeding in hemlocks along gullies in company with Black-throated Green and Magnolia Warblers. In northern Minnesota, according to Preston, it favors the black spruce, singing from some high conspicuous perch, or feeding while ascending from branch to branch to the "cone-clad top, from which it falls lightly to another tree, and so continues the search."
Song. — "Its voice is thin, but, unlike the Parula's, exquisitely smooth, in all the many variations of its two (or more) main songs. One of these two, in my experience, is much less changeable than the other. This is the simpler one, which may be syllabled Tsiwi, tsiwi, tsiwi, tsiwi ; or a variation, — Sissi-vit, sissi-vit, sissi vit, sissi vit; — deliberately, almost languidly uttered, in both cases, with a fine, 'kinglety/ sibilant voice-tone. The other common song, though it begins in much the same way, is more hurried throughout, and ends, on a sharply-ascending scale, with a sort of explosion of small, crowded notes. Both utterances vary widely, and the one last described is about the most changeable of all the Warblers' songs I know. Even the tone-quality is not quite constant, for though it never, in my experience, varies toward huskiness, it does occasionally range toward full-voiced richness. Thus I have heard a Blackburnian that began his otherwise normal song with two or three clear notes much like those of the most full and smooth-voiced performance of the
American Redstart's, and another that began so much like a Nashville that I had to hear him several times, near by, to be convinced that there was not a Nashville chiming in. Sometimes, again, tone and delivery are varied toward excessive languidness; and seme times, contrariwise, toward sharp, wiry 'thinness'. The Blackburnian's call-notes are small and scantily peculiar; — at least, I have never learned to recognize them surely, among kindred 'chippings'." (Thayer, MS.}
J. W. Preston writes that in northern Minnesota during May and early June the males, perched upon "a dry and broken branch of some tall, old hemlock" will sit and sing for hours. He describes the song as somewhat resembling the Black-throated Green's, but as "richer and more lively."
Nesting Site. — A nest found by A. J. Dayan at Lyon's Falls, N. Y., was saddled on a horizontal limb eighty-four feet from the ground and about ten feet from the trunk. (Merriam1.) Bowles3 describes a nest found in New Hampshire, as placed in a sugar maple, sixty feet from the ground, on a limb seven feet from the body of the tree. Two nests found by Preston2 in Minnesota, were respectively in a hemlock twenty feet up and against the tree, and in a black spruce thirty feet up far out on the tip of a branch.
Two nests, found at Branchport, N. Y., (Burtch, MS.) were placed in hemlocks, one of them being thirty-five feet from the ground and six feet from the tree-trunk.
Nest. — Dayan's nest is described by Merriam as "large, substantial, and very compact. It consists almost entirely of a thick and densely woven mat of the soft down of the cat-tail (Typha latifolia), with seeds attached, and is lined with fine lichens, horse-hair, and a piece of white thread. On the outside is an irregular covering of small twigs and rootlets, with here and there a stem of moss or a bit of lichen." Bowles8 describes the nest as "composed of hemlock twigs, rootlets, a few pine needles and bits of Usnea all woven rather loosely together and thinly lined with horse-hair." Preston's2 nests had a light platform of dead spruce twigs with Usnea interwoven, and lined with finely
shredded inner bark of the basswood, a few horse, and a number of deer's hairs. The rim is Usnea matted and twined together. The exterior is flecked all over with fluffs of cottony spiders' webbing.
Burtch's nest is described by him as "loosely constructed of fine hemlock twigs and a few pieces of weed-bark lined with fine red fiber such as the Magnolia Warbler and Redstart use. The nest resembles that of the Magnolia Warbler very closely, but lacks the woolly decorations."
Eggs. — 4. Grayish white or bluish white distinctly and obscurely spotted, speckled, and blotched with cinnamon brown or olive-brown. Size, average, .68x.5o. (Figs. 65,66.)
Nesting Dates. — Branchpoint, N. Y., May 24 (Enrich} ; Lyons Falls, Lewis Co., N. Y., June 2 (Merriam) ; Lancaster, N. H., June 4-15 (Spaulding) ; Bangor, Me., June 5-June 15 (Knight} ; Kalamazoo Co., Mich., June 2, B. F. Syke (Barrows).
(i) C. HAKP MERRIAM, Nest and Eggs of the Blackburnian Warbler, (in N. N. Y.), Auk, II, 1885, 103. (2) J. W. PRESTON, The Blackburnian Warbler at Home, (N. Minn.), Orn. and O61., XIV, 1889, 34. (3) J. H. BOWLES, Notes on the Blackburnian Warbler, (in So. N. H.), Oologist, XII, 1895, 64.
Distinguishing Characters. — At all seasons adults and young may be known by their yellow throat, black cheeks, and bluish gray or brownish gray back. Length (skin), 4.80; wing, 2.60; tail, 1.95; bill, .50.
Adult <$, Spring. — Black of forehead reaching back on sides of crown and sometimes occupying most of crown, a small white median spot on forehead; line from above eye to bill yellow, stripe behind eye and patch on sides of neck white; back gray rarely (I have seen but one specimen) with a few black spots; tail black margined with gray the outer three to five feathers with white patches on the inner web at the end; wings black margined with gray, the greater and median coverts broadly tipped with white forming two unusually conspicuous bars; throat and breast yellow bordered by black which extends in streaks along the sides ; belly white,
Summer Range. — From northern Florida, east of the Allegheny Mountains, north regularly to Virginia; occasional in Maryland and on the Choptank River in southeastern Delaware; accidental in Pennsylvania (Beaver, Chester, and Delaware Counties), New Jersey (Trenton, May 29, 1860), New York (Crow Hill, L. I.), Connecticut (Hartford and New Haven), Massachusetts (Dedham, November 4, 1866). North in the interior to West Virginia (Kanawha Co.).
Spring Migration. — Wintering so abundantly in southern Florida, but little can be said of the migration of the Yellow-throated Warbler in the Gulf states. The northward movement begins early in March, Gainesville, Fla., being reached March 2 and Jacksonville, Fla., March 5. The average date of arrival for fifteen years at Raleigh, N. C, is March 26, earliest March 13, 1890; the average at Asheville, N. C., for four years is April 21, the earliest April 13, 1893.
Fall Migration. — The Yellow-throated Warbler is one of the very earliest fall migrants beginning its southward movement by the middle of summer (Key West, Fla., July 25) and reaching Cuba the latter part of July. The last one noted at Washington, D. C., was September, 4, 1890; at Raleigh, N. C., September 17, 1886, and many migrants continue to pass through Florida during the whole month of October.
The Bird and its Haunts. — About the first of March a new voice is added to the swelling chorus of bird music in middle Florida. It is no lisping lay, heard only by attentive ears, but a loud, ringing song which stands out with strongly characterized distinctness. After the lapse of twenty years I well recall the excitement with which I first heard it and my vain efforts to discover the singer in the upper branches of a heavily timbered, densely undergrown, wet 'hammock' of magnolia, maple, hickory, bay and other deciduous trees.
As the migration progressed the bird became abundant in the cypresses and often visited neighboring pines where it could be observed to better advantage. Even here, however, it is by no means so readily observed as are more active Warblers. When singing it remains in one position for many consecutive minutes, and at all times it is comparatively deliberate in its movements resembling the Pine Warbler rather than the fluttering Warblers in its manner of feeding.
At St. Mary's, Georgia, Brewster1 found that the favorite abode of this species was the open piney woods. Their movements, he says, "are much slower than those of Mniotilta, and there is much less of that crouching, creeping motion. They do, indeed, spend much of their time searching the larger branches for food, but it is more in the manner of the Pine Warbler, and their motion is rather a hopping than a creeping one. I have never seen them ascend the trees from the roots to the topmost branches, as Audubon relates, but I occasionally observed one clinging against the main trunk, for a moment, to seize an insect, as will the Bluebird and many of the Warblers. Their huntingground is for the most part, however, among the higher branches, and a considerable part of their time is spent at the extremities of the limbs, searching for food among the pine needles."
Near Charleston, Wayne2 records this Warbler as a permanent resident inhabiting mixed woods and live oaks where there is an abundance of Spanish moss; and at Raleigh, where it is a summer resident only, Brimley states "while it is more or less numerous in large tracts of pines and in all mixed woods containing large pines, it cannot be called plentiful anywhere."
Song. — Although I have long been familiar with the song of this species it was not until the spring of 1905 that I was impressed with its resemblance to the song of Seiurus motacilla. It is not so much the form of the notes, ching-ching-ching, chicker-cher-wee, as their wild, ringing, carrying quality which recalls the song of the Water-Thrush. The bird pauses to sing at intervals in its search for food, and the consequent frequent change of place together with the ventriloquial character of its notes makes it difficult to place the singer.
The Yellow-throat's song is also compared with that of the Indigo Bunting and not without reason. In any event, it is not likely to escape the attention of the unobservant and, in Florida, after March I, when it begins to sing, it is one of the conspicuous songsters of the localities it favors.
Nesting Site. — A nest found by Brewster1 was thirty-five feet up in a southern pine, set flatly, not saddled, on a horizontal limb "nearly midway between the juncture with the main trunk and the extremity of the twigs, and was attached to the rough bark by silky fibers."
After finding thirteen nests at from twenty to ninety feet from the ground (usually about forty-five feet up and three to twelve feet from the trunk of the tree, Brimley4 states that this species selects for a site "a horizontal limb usually, but not always, of a tall thin pine. Sometimes it builds its nest where the limb forks, but more often right
A nest described by M'Laughlin3 from Statesville, N. C, was similarly placed but was only nineteen feet from the ground. Nests found by Wayne2, near Charleston, S. C., however, were placed in bunches of Spanish moss (Tillandsia') in live-oak or gum trees at a height of fifteen to fifty feet.
Nest. — Brewster's1 nest "is composed externally of a few short twigs and strips of bark bound together by Spanish moss (Tillandsia usne aides) and silky down from plants. The lining consists of a few hair-like filaments of moss and soft cottony vegetable down. The whole structure is firmly and neatly compacted." Brimley4 describes the nest as "usually much like a Pine Warbler's in general character, but lacks the black grapevine bark which gives the latter such a dark appearance, and is also usually compact, especially about the rim. The materials of which it is composed are weed stems, strips of trumpetvine bark, fine grass and caterpillar silk ; the lining is of horse-hair or feathers or both."
Wayne2 describes his nests as "built of fine grass, weeds, snakeskins, feathers, and lined with the flower of the moss ; in one of the nests there is a quantity of cotton."
Eggs. — 4 or 5, very rarely 5. Ground color a dull greenish graywhite, in a large series the peculiar color of the markings seem to tinge the ground color ; the markings are very mixed, numerous under shell marks, in the form of blotches and specks, of pale lavender and purplish gray overlaid with heavier surface markings of wine-red, umber and deeper shades of purplish gray and blackish. The heaviest markings are at the larger end, which is sometimes well wreathed, with many spots and specks over rest of egg. Size; average, .6gx.$2, extremes measure 74X.55, .66x.5i, 7OX.56. (Figs. 67,68.)
(i) WM. BREWSTER, The Yellow-throated Warbler (in Georgia), Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club, II, 1877, 102. (2) A. T. WAYNE, Nesting of the Yellowthroated Warbler (in So. Car.), Orn. and O61., XII, 1887, 169; XIII, 1888, 161. (3) R. B. M'LAUGHLIN, Nesting of the Yellow-throated Warbler (in Nor. Car.), Orn. and O61., XII, 1887, 171. (4) C. S. BRIMLEY, Nesting of the Yellow-throated Warbler, at Raleigh, N. C., Orn. and O61., XIV, 1889, 151 ', Auk, VII, 1890, 323-
DENDROICA DOMINICA ALBILORA Ridgw.
Subspecific Characters.— Similar to Dendroica d. dominica but bill smaller, line from above eye to bill generally white or but slightly tinged with yellow, never strongly yellow as in dominica; white patches on tail-feathers averaging larger. Wing, 2.60; tail, 1.95; bill, .45.
Summer Range. — From the Gulf of Mexico north to Ohio (Cleveland, Mt. Vernon, Rockport), southern Michigan (Detroit, Petersburg), and southern Wisconsin (Racine, Lake Koshkonong) ; west to southeastern Nebraska (Nemaha River), and eastern Kansas (Neosho Falls) ; east through the Alleghenies to western South Carolina.
Spring Migration. — At New Orleans the Sycamore Warbler is one of the earliest spring migrants. Dates of arrival are March 1 1, 1894, March 9, 1895, March 7, 1896, and March 12, 1898. At Helena, Ark., the first arrivals were noted on April 14, 1895, and April 10, 1897; at St. Louis, April 4, 1884. April 6, 1885, April 12, 1886, April 10, 1887, and April 13, 1888; in central Indiana about the middle of April; in southern Michigan about April 20. A migrant was noted at Soto del Marina, Tamaulipas, March i, 1902.
Fall Migration.— In the fall the Mississippi Valley form is, like the eastern, an early migrant, being one of the first birds to return in autumn to the Rio Grande of Texas. It is recorded as arriving at Orizaba, Mexico, August 10; Chiapas, Mexico, August 13; Colima, Mexico, in August; Duefias, Guatemala, by the middle of August; Bonacca Island, Honduras, and Truxillo, on the mainland, in September ; and at San Jose, Costa Rica, October 4. In the northern part of its range it lingers somewhat later than the eastern form. The last to pass southward do not leave Indiana and Missouri until well into October.
The Bird and its Haunts. — This slightly differentiated Mississippi Valley form of the Yellow-throated Warbler resembles the Atlantic Coast bird in habits. In the Galveston region of Texas, Nehrling states that it is a rare summer resident in the high moss-grown forest trees of the river bottoms. Allison writes that in southern Louisiana, "it has a strong liking for woods shrouded in heavy festoons of Spanish moss, and, therefore, keeps much to the cypress swamps; but it is common in the less damp woods in the same regions; on the northern shores of Lake Pontchartrain it spreads slightly from the cypress swamp into the pines. It is essentially a bird of the larger trees, and swampy forest may be considered its typical habitat." (Allison, MS.}
In Illinois, Ridgway1 states "the Sycamore Warbler is a common summer resident in the bottom lands, where, according to the writer's experience, it lives chiefly in the large sycamore trees along or near water courses," and Butler2 in Indiana finds it in similar localities.
Song. — "The call-note is a rather lively chipping, like that of an agitated Parula Warbler, or perhaps somewhat more like that of Pine Warbler. The song is like the Indigo Bunting's, much softened, and and with a falling cadence all the way through; thus: See-wee, seewee, see-wee, swee, swee, swee, swee, — the last four notes uttered more rapidly, but becoming fainter, until the last one is very indistinct." (Allison, MS.}
DENDROICA GRACIyE GRACING Baird Plate XIII
Distinguishing Characters. — At all seasons adults and young may be known by their yellow throat, gray auriculars, and bluish gray or brownish gray back. The resemblance to D. dominica is striking but the lack of black in the cheeks and its usual presence in the back, of adults, at least, the yellow, instead of white mark below the eye, etc. are distinguishing marks of graciee. Length (skin), 4.50; wing, 2.55; tail, 2.00; bill, .38.
Adult <$, Spring. — Above bluish gray, crown with black spots which form a stripe along its sides, lores dusky, spot below eye yellow; broad line from bill to above eye yellow terminating in white just behind the eye; center of back usually spotted with black; tail black edged with gray; two outer tailfeathers largely white the outer webs usually white except at tip and base, third feather spotted with white on inner web near tip ; wings margined with gray, the greater and median coverts tipped with white forming two conspicuous bars ; throat and breast yellow sharply defined from the white underparts ; sides streaked with black.
Nestling. — Above dusky grayish brown with an olive tint; below grayish or white the breast, and even belly and sides spotted with blackish; wingcoverts blackish or grayish, conspicuously tipped with whitish.
western Mexico.
Summer Range. — Breeds in northern Mexico and in the mountains of New Mexico and Arizona, north to Colorado (La Plata County) ; accidental in north central Colorado (Loveland, April 25, 1889), and in California (Santa Paula, Ventura Co., May 3, 1881).
Spring Migration. — Arrivals have been noted in Arizona as follows: Fort Whipple, April 24, 1865, Pima Co., April 22, 1885, Huachuca Mountains, April 27, 1902, April 12, 1903.
The Bird and its Haunts. — If the spring or summer visitor to the Grand Canon will explore the neighboring yellow pine forests he will find Grace's Warbler a not uncommon inhabitant of tree-tops, so high that no small amount of looking will be required to complete a satisfactory identification.
Discovered by Dr. Coues on the summit of Whipple's Pass, New Mexico, July 2, 1864, and named by him for his sister, Grace's Warbler is now known as a common summer resident of the pine forests of Arizona, and New Mexico and southward into Mexico. Its nest was not discovered, however, until 1890, when H. H. Keays, as recorded by Ladd, found it breeding in Yavapai Co., Arizona.
Grace's Warbler has several relatives so near that they are doubtless geographical representatives whose distribution seems to throw some light on the tropical (particularly West Indian) origin and subsequent northern dispersal of the Mniotiltidae. To the southward it is replaced by the slightly differentiated D. g. decora, which reaches Honduras, in the east Dendroica dominica is its probable representative, while in Porto Rico and St. Lucia it finds surprisingly near allies in Dendroica adelaidce and Dendroica delicata, respectively.
Nesting Site. — A nest found by H. Keays in Yavapai County, Arizona, was placed on a limb of a pine sixty feet up. Two nests recorded by Howard2 were placed respectively in a pine and in a red fir at the extremity of a limb some fifty feet up.
Nest. — Keays' nest is described by Ladd1 as "very compact; outside diameter 3 inches by I 1-2 inches high; inside diameter I 3-4 inches by i 1-4 inches deep. The body of this nest is composed of horse-hair strings and vegetable fibers. The most abundant vegetable
material interwoven consists of the staminate catkins and bud scales of , Quercus emoryi. There is also some wool, vegetable down, and insect webbing, in which there are entangled the exuviae of some caterpillar. Attached to the outside was a small staminate cone of some species of Pinus. Nest well lined with feathers and horse-hair."
Eggs. — A set of three eggs is described by Ladd1 as "ground color creamy white, marked over entire surface, but more heavily at larger end, where they form a wreath, with light umber and occasional specks of dark chestnut ; lilac shell-markings at large end only." Size ; .51x70, -50X.69, -50X.68.
(i) S. B. LADD, Description of Nest and Eggs of Dendroica gracice, Auk, VIII, 1891, 314. (2) O. W. HOWARD, Summer Resident Warblers of Arizona, Bull. Cooper Orn. Club (=Condor), I, 1899, 39-
Distinguishing Characters. — Adults of both sexes may be known by their chestnut sides, yellowish wing-bars, yellow or yellowish crowns, the wholly different 3roung by bright greenish yellow upperparts, yellow wing-bars, white eye-ring, grayish cheeks and underparts. Length (skin), 4.50; wing, 2.50; tail, 1.95; bill, -35-
Adult $, Spring. — Crown yellow, forehead white; back greenish yellow broadly streaked with black, the nape grayish ; tail black margined with gray the three outer feathers with white patches at the end of the inner web; primaries margined with grayish, inner flight-feathers with yellowish, median coverts tipped, greater coverts tipped and margined with yellowish ; ear-coverts and sides of neck white enclosed by a black post-ocular stripe and black patch below the eye and on the side of the throat, from the latter springs a bright chestnut stripe which, broadening, passes along the sides to the flank, rest of underparts white.
Adult <$, Fall. — Above bright greenish yellow indistinctly streaked on back and rump ; tail and wings as in Spring <£ whole side of head gray, eye-ring white; the sides and flanks chestnut, rest of underparts white.
on sides.
Nestling. — Above brown indistinctly streaked with black; below pale brownish, the belly white ; wings and tail as in young, the coverts tipped with buffy. General Distribution. — Eastern North America; north to Newfoundland and the Saskatchewan; west tcrthe Plains.
Summer Range. — One of the commonest breeding Warblers in New England, New York, Pennsylvania and south in the mountains to South Carolina. Outside of the mountains it breeds south to southern New Jersey (Sea Isle City), northern Ohio, Indiana (La Porte Co.), Iowa (Mahaska Co.), and to eastern Nebraska (Omaha) ; casual in summer in Missouri (St. Louis and Munger), and southern Illinois (Fox Prairie, Richland Co.) ; accidental in Wyoming (Cheyenne, May 23, 1889) ; breeds north to Newfoundland, Ontario and the Saskatchewan.
Migration. — The Chestnut-sided Warbler passes through eastern Mexico and the Gulf States from northwestern Florida to eastern Texas. It is casual in southern Florida and the Bahamas.
October 13 1904
The Bird and its Haunts. — The regret occasioned by the decrease in the numbers of wood-inhabiting birds following the destruction of the forests in which they lived, is in a measure tempered by a knowledge of the fact that their places will be filled by other species The Chestnut-sided Warbler, for example, considered by Wilson and Audubon to be a rare species, is now abundant, and we may believe that this change in numbers is due largely to the development of those scrub and second growths in which the bird delights.
In my own experience, covering the past twenty-five years, at Englewood, N. J., I have seen this Warbler become established as an increasingly common summer resident, and at East Orange, in the same state, Dugmore5 writes "What has been most noticeable about the bird-life of this particular locality is the rapid and steady increase of the Chestnut-sided Warbler." In the summer of 1897, he adds, he did not observe a single specimen but in 1900 they had become comparatively common.
About Cambridge, Mass., Brewster6, quoting Dr. Samuel Cabot, says that this species was very rare in eastern Massachusetts prior to 1835, but that it gradually and steadily increased in numbers after that date. Brewster adds "they nest chiefly on the edges of upland woods, in neglected fields and pastures, along the courses of brooks, and on country roadsides. In general terms they may be saiJ to occupy most of the country which the Yellow Warblers avoid, but in a few localities the two species breed together in the same thickets. Both birds, as a rule, shun evergreen trees, although the Chestnutsided Warbler occasionally frequents white pine woods in late summer, especially when it is consorting in 'mixed flocks' with such pineloving species as the Chickadee and the Black-throated Green Warbler."
Gerald Thayer writes that the Chestnut-sided is "an abundant roadside and brush-land Warbler throughout the Monadnock region, but on the mountain itself is not common above 2,00X3 feet, or there-
abouts. Its 'beat' lies between the ground and the tops of small deciduous trees. The few nests I have seen have all been between two and five feet from the ground, in bushes. The adults' peculiar markings and droop-winged, perk-tailed, and deep-chested attitudes are too well known to bear dwelling on here. Though potentially quick moving, the Chestnut-side is by no means restless, as Warblers go, — often spending many minutes at a time in one small tree, — and it is one of the tamest of the tame." (Thayer, MS).
Song. — "The Chestnut-side, a full-voiced Warbler, has at least two main songs, both of which, but particularly the more liquid and less articulate one, are subject to wide variation. Both types of song are too liquid to be well suggested by English syllables, except for the clearly enunciated ending of one of them, — wee-chew. Twit-a-wit-a-wit-a-wit-wee-chew! is something like the phrasing of the whole of this song, except that it fails to express the soft fluency of the first part. The other song is an elaboration of this initial rolling warble, with the wee-chew left off. Hardly any two Chestnutsides sing this inarticulate song alike, and almost every individual plays noticeable variations on his own version of it. In addition to all this, the Chestnut-side is a mocker. One we used to hear, that regularly began his wee-cheiv song with a loud, long, rattling trill, almost indistinguishable from the more fluent song of the Sparrow ; and another, that lived near Catbirds, used several unmistakable notes of Catbird song. One of the Chestnut-side's two or three or more small call-notes is characteristic, — the others scantily so, if at all." (Thayer, MS.)
Miss Paddock writes that the first two of the songs given below are usual. They are uttered with much energy and decided accent. The last two songs are more like the Redstart's but are without accent, and sound as if sung with closed mouth.
Nesting-Site. — Throughout its range this species appears to nest in low bushes, saplings or briers, at from one to six, but usually about two feet from the ground.
Nest. — The nest is externally rather roughly made of coarse grasses, strippings of weed-stalks, plant fibers, bunches of spiders' webbing, and some plant down, finely and thickly lined with brown rootlets, grasses and horse-hair.
Eggs. — 4 or 5, usually 4, rarely 5. Ground color white to creamy white, beautifully marked, in most cases, with chestnut, varying shades of brown, lavender, and purplish brown and blackish, either in the form of a wreath or a conglomerate mass of spots on large end there being very few scattering spots over rest of egg. Some specimens of the egg of this species closely approach many eggs of the Yellow, Magnolia, Myrtle, and Prairie Warblers. Size ; average ,66x.49 ; extremes measure .6ix.47, .7ix.5i, .66x46 and .69X.52. (Figs. 57-59.)
Nesting Dates. — New York City, May 29 — two broods, one day from nest. (F. M. C.) ; New Haven, Conn., May 23-July 22, young just out of nest. (Bishop) ; Cambridge, Mass., full sets, first laying, May 26- June 5 (Brewster) ; Lancaster, N. H., May 26- June 6 (C. W. C.) ; Bangor, Me., June 4- July 4 (Knight) ; Listowel, Ont, May 2i-June 18 (Kells) ; Ann Arbor, Mich., May 20 (Wood).
(i) W. L. KELLS, Nesting of the Chestnut-sided Warbler, (in Ontario), Oologist, IV, 1887, ii ; Ottawa Naturalist, XV, 1902, 225. (2) CHARLES L. PHILLIPS, The Chestnut-sided Warbler (at Taunton, Mass.), Oologist, IX, 1892, 165. (3) MORRIS GIBBS, Nesting Habits of the Chestnut-sided Warbler (in Mich.), Oologist, XI, 1894, 331- (4) L- M. TERRILL, Summer Warblers in
Compton County, Quebec, Ottawa Naturalist, XVIII, 1904, 152. (5) A. R. DUGMORE, The Increase of the Chestnut-sided Warbler, Bird-Lore, IV, 1902, 77. (6) WM. BREWSTER, Birds of the Cambridge Region, 336. (7) F. H. HERRICK, Home Life of Wild Birds, Rev. Ed., 1905, 189, 222, 236 ,240.
Distinguishing Characters. — The adult c? in Spring may be known by its chestnut crown, breast, and sides, black face, and buffy spot at the side of the neck; the adult ? in Spring by more or less chestnut in crown, on breast, and sides, a grayish back streaked with black. Fall adults show more or less chestnut on the sides but young of both sexes are singularly like the young of Dendroica striata, which see. Length (skin), 5.00; wing, 2.90; tail, 2.10; bill .40.
Adult $, Spring. — Crown chestnut, forehead, lores, and cheeks black, a large buffy space on the side of the neck sometimes spreading to the nape; back grayish buff streaked with black; rump grayer; tail margined with gray, the outer two to three feathers with white patches at the end of the inner web; wings margined with olive-gray; the greater and median coverts broadly tipped with white; throat, upper breast, and sides chestnut; rest of underparts buffy white.
Adult <$, Fall. — Upperparts olive-green more or less streaked with black, the crown usually with some concealed chestnut; tail and wings as in Spring but coverts tinged with yellowish; underparts whitish the throat tinged with yellowish, the breast, belly, and under tail-coverts with buffy; sides with more or less chestnut.
Adult $, Spring. — Similar to adult c? in Spring but chestnut of crown mixed with black; forehead and cheeks gray and black; chestnut on throat and sides much fainter or appearing in patches only.
Nestling. — Above grayish olive, the head sometimes paler, nearly buffy, back heavily spotted with wedge-shaped black marks; below whitish thickly spotted with rounded black marks; median wing-coverts broadly tipped with white or buffy white on both webs, the greater coverts, on only the outer web.
shuns Mexico, the West Indies, and the United States south of Virginia, east of the Allegheny Mountains ; the great bulk passes north through the Mississippi Valley, west to eastern Texas (Corpus Christi, Port Bolivar), Missouri (Freistatt), and Iowa (Grinnell) ; casual or accidental in South Dakota (May 1888), Montana (Big Sandy, May 24, 19°3)> and Alberta (Medicine Hat).
The Bird and its Haunts. — Although close observation will reveal the presence of Bay-breasts during both the spring and fall migrations, they are generally to be classed among the rarer Warblers the mere sight of which is stimulating. Occasionally, however, the weather so affects their migration that they come en masse and for a brief period are actually abundant. On the morning of May 27, 1872,
Brewster2 saw "upwards of forty" Bay-breasts near Cambridge, Mass. Usually, however, he remarks, they "occur singly and in dense woods, especially such as consist largely of white pines, hemlocks or other coniferous trees."
"The southward flight of Bay-breasts," this author continues, "sometimes begins as early as August 23 and usually lasts nearly through September. At this season the birds are given to frequenting gray birches and dense, swampy maple woods and are nearly always found in company with Blackpoll Warblers."
The Bay-breast, Gerald Thayer writes, is "often common at Monadnock in the spring migration, and may possibly breed here. Apparently it is never common in the fall. It associates often with Blackpolls, in loose bands, which drift through the scrub-lands and forest-borders like bands of Titmice. But the Bay-breasts usually leave Monadnock for the north at least a week before the Blackpolls.
"Bay-breasts and Blackpolls alike are rather big and rather duskily-adorned Warblers, and both have an almost vireo-like leisureliness of movement. Adult male Bay-breasts in life are apt to look very dark ; — heavily clouded with deep brown and gray, relieved by a conspicuously bright, big, white-buff spot on each side of the fore-neck. Females look much like female Blackpolls, but are grayer — less green — and usually show some blurred pale chestnut flecks on their sides. The call-notes of these two twin-like species (Bay-breast and Blackpoll) I have never learned to tell apart. They are fine and sharp, but sometimes louder than the average Dendroicine tsipping." (Thayer MS.}
About Umbagog, where it breeds, Maynard1 found the Baybreast the most abundant Warbler. It inhabited all the wooded sections and frequented the tops of tall trees.
"In a grouping based on songs, the Bay-breast should stand in a quintette with the Blackburnian, the Blackpoll, the Black and White and the Cape May. These five heard singing together in the same trees, as I have heard them on the Hudson River, make 'confusion worse than death' for any bird-student but the most adept. But with patience and a good ear one can learn to differentiate them surely. All five are thin-voiced, 'sibilant', singers ; but each has its own slight, prevailing peculiarity of tone, in addition to the differences, varied
but never wholly violated, of phrasing and accentuation. The Baybreast's singing, in the spring at least, is the most liquid and inarticulate of the lot, and sometimes the loudest. It varies greatly, from the bases of at least two and probably three clearly distinct main songs. In one of these, the six or more barely-separated lisping notes are all alike in volume, accentuation, tone, and speed. They are slightly louder than the average Blackpoll notes, and not quite so smooth in tone. Another song begins in about the same way, but ends with three or four clearly-separated louder notes, which have a more nearly full-voiced ring. A third, uncommon, song, which I have all but surely traced to the Bay-breast, is louder throughout, and otherwise very different. It begins with about ten penetrating notes, in close-knit couplets like those of the Black and White's shorter song, and of much the same tone, but louder; and it ends, abruptly, with a single, lower-toned, much richer note, like a fragment of Oven-bird song." (Thayer, MS.}
Nesting Site. — Nests recorded by Maynard1 were placed on the horizontal branch of 'a hemlock fifteen and twenty feet from the ground and five or six feet from the trunk of the tree.
Nest. — The nest of the Bay-breasted Warbler is characterized by large size, and the irregularity of outline given to it by the long coniferous twigs which compose its exterior.
Maynard describes a nest as "composed outwardly of fine dead twigs, from the larch, among which are scattered a little of the long tree-moss. It is very smoothly and neatly lined with black, fibrous roots, the seed-stalks of a species of ground moss, a few hairs of Lepus americana, and a single piece of green moss that grows in damp woods."
Eggs. — Doubtless usually 4. Maynard1 describes one of a set of three eggs as "bluish green, thickly spotted with brown over the entire surface, with a ring of nearly confluent blotches of brown and lilac at the larger end." A second egg is similar but has some amber spots in the ring around the larger end and, the smaller end is immaculate. The third egg "is less spotted than the others, and has a few brown lines on the larger end." These eggs measure -7IX.53, .65x.5o, 7ox.5o. (Figs. 60,61 Childs Coll.)
Distinguishing Characters. — The adult d" in Spring may be known by its black crown, white cheeks, and gray, black-striped back; the adult $ in Spring, by the grayish olive, black streaked upperparts, white or yellow-tinged underparts with black streaks on the sides; Fall birds of all ages and sexes are olive-green above, indistinctly streaked; the wing-bars are white; the underparts greenish yellow obscurely streaked. Specimens in this plumage are curiously like the young of Dendroica castanea and the two cannot certainly be distinguished in nature. The differences between the two are as follows : the upperparts in striata are duller and more streaked, the wings are edged with a yellowgreen in place of gray-green ; the underparts are yellowish instead of buffy and are more or less streaked ; the under tail-coverts are white instead of buffy ; the feet and legs in striata are paler. Some specimens of castanea, however, are to be distinguished from striata only by a slight suffusion of buff on the flanks and under tail-coverts. Length (skin), 5.00; wing, 2.90; tail, 2.05; bill, .40.
Adult <$, Spring. — Crown black, back gray, whitish on the nape, streaked with black; tail blackish edged with gray, two to three outer feathers with white patches at the end of the inner web ; wings edged with greenish, the coverts tipped with white forming two wing-bars, the tertials margined with white; cheeks white; underparts white, the sides from base of bill to flanks, heavily streaked with black.
with dusky.
Adult ?, Spring. — Upperparts grayish olive-green streaked with black from bill to rump; a faint grayish nuchal band; tail much as in c?; wings edged with greenish, the greater and median coverts tipped with white or yellowish white; underparts white; breast and sides often tinged with yellow; side of throat and of breast lightly streaked with black. Resembles adult J in Fall but is grayer above and whiter below, the black streaks everywhere better defined.
Summer Range. — Principally in Canada, but a few nest south to northern Maine (Franklin and Washington Counties), the mountains of New Hampshire, Vermont, and New York, and, probably, to northern Minnesota (Leach Lake). The southernmost breeding record is at Seven Lakes, near Manitou, Colorado, at an altitude of 11,000 feet. The Blackpoll occurs sparingly in Colorado, less commonly in New Mexico (in migration) and northwest through Montana to Yukon and Alaska.
and eastern Brazil.
Spring Migration. — No Blackpoll Warbler seems to spend the winter north of South America, while the southernmost breeding grounds are in northern New York and central Colorado. Therefore, no Blackpoll Warbler can have a migration route less than twenty-five hundred miles in length, and the extremes of the range — Alaska and Brazil are twice that distance apart. It is one of the very few Warblers that migrate directly across the West Indies from South America to Florida. This species is correctly considered one of the latest migrating Warblers, and is seldom seen in the Gulf states before the last week in April. It makes the trip from Florida to Maine at twice the speed of the Black and White Warbler, and the individuals that nest in Alaska travel at an average speed of not less than seventy-five miles per day.
June 2 1899
Fall Migration. — Moving northward late in the spring, the Blackpoll Warbler is almost equally late on its return. It starts south late in August and reaches northern South America the first week in October.
BLACKPOLL WARBLER I99
The Bird and its Haunts. — Although the Blackpoll is by no means the last Warbler to arrive in the spring it is usually the last of the transients to leave us for a more northern summer home, the length of its stay combined with its abundance, making its passage one of the most pronounced features of the vernal migration. It is as deliberate in actions as it is in traveling, a fact which may either account for or may be accounted for by its extreme fatness at this season.
In the fall the adults of both sexes take the inconspicuous plumage of the young of the year when all are the subjects of much patient scrutiny by the opera-glass student. They are, however, only to be confused with the young of the Bay-breast from which they differ as described above. Still some of the individuals of the latter are too much like the Blackpoll to be distinguished in life.
While a true Wood Warbler, the migrating Blackpoll host is so numerous that stragglers, or even whole divisions, are found far from the main army in our orchards and gardens and, in the fall, as Brewster remarks, "they are often seen flitting along fences and stone walls that traverse open country or feeding on the ground in company with various species of Sparrows, in grain stubbles and weed-infested fields."
At Monadnock, Gerald Thayer writes, the Blackpoll is abundant in the fall and common in the spring, when "it is most dilatory of all the late lingering migrants, staying sometimes till near the middle of June, not only in the spruce and tamarack swamps about the mountain, but even in the big street elm trees of the town of Keene, in the neighboring low valley country (500 feet). While it lives in these elms, it is a most persistent singer." (Thayer, MS.}
In the summer I have found the Blackpoll to be an abundant resident of the stunted spruce woods on the Magdalen Islands, a type of growth which, when nesting, it also frequents in other localities.
Song. — "A succession of hesitating, staccato, unmusical notes varying greatly in volume. The notes separated, not combined in twos, as in the Black and White Warbler's song." (Farwell, MS.}
"Sometimes the tempo is so accelerated as to constitute a rapid, sibilant, trill. The crescendo and diminuendo effects, however, are always present, as far as I have observed." (Fuertes, MS.}
"Although some phases of the Blackpoll's very changeable song are much like variations of the songs of other members of the Warbler quintette above mentioned, its usual performance, is decidedly different. Not so much in tone, — though that has its peculiarities, — as in delivery and phrasing. It is a string of from six to twelve or more, short, equal and equally-divided sibilant notes, cobweb-thin and glassy-clear,— uttered
rather fast ; the whole song smoothly swelling in volume to the middle, or the second third, and then smoothly falling off. This should perhaps be called the one main song, but the variations from it are many and pronounced. Its syllables vary in number from four to fifteen or more; they are sometimes uttered very hurriedly and close together — a song like a trembling wire — and sometimes they are deliberately and distinctly enunciated. Occasionally these two styles of delivery are combined in one utterance. Again, the song's characteristic 'swell and fall' in volume is sometimes, though seldom, wholly wanting; and the shorter versions are often crescendo to the end. So, sometimes, is that one of the Blackburnian's songs which gives him a place in the quintette. But this is always (?) more deliberately uttered than even the most languid song of any of the other four species, and its notes, unlike the Blackpoll's, are in couplets. Like the Blackpoll's, on the other hand, they have a perfectly smooth tone; — though they are less piercingly fine." (Thayer, MS.)
Miss Paddock writes : "There is always a distinct crescendo and diminuendo which makes the sound seem to drift. It resembles the sound children make by striking the closed hand on the knees to make the 'money rattle.' "
Nesting Site. — In the Island of Grand Menan this species nests in spruce trees from one to ten, but usually about five feet up. (Norris1). In the Magdalen Islands, where the birds are abundant, they nest in the stunted spruces at an average of about four feet.
PINE WARBLER 2OI
Nest — "Outside depth 1.75; inside depth i.io; outside diameter, 3.75 ; inside diameter, 2.00. Composed of grasses, roots, a little lichen and a few small twigs of spruce fir. Lined with fine grass, and over this is placed a thick lining of soft white feathers, apparently belonging to the domestic goose." (N orris' Grand Menan specimens.)
Eggs. — 4 or 5. Ground color white, creamy white to dull grayish white, speckled, spotted, and blotched with various shades of reddish brown, lilac, and purplish gray, in most cases forming a wreath around large end but many eggs are well marked all over. A rather dull colored egg, but the markings are bold and well defined. Size; average, .7ix.52; extremes measure .74X.52, .67X.53, .6o,x.5o and 7ox.54. (Figs. 62-64.)
Nesting Dates. — Lancaster, N. H., June 28 (Spaulding} ; Bangor, Me., probably breeds about June 20, but no nests yet found. (Knight) ; Grand Menan, N. B., June n-June 20 (/. P. N.}.
Distinguishing Characters. — In the adult c? of this comparatively large Warbler the underparts, except the lower belly, are bright greenish yellow, the breast, particularly in worn plumage, often being obscurely streaked, the upperparts bright yellowish green; the wing-bars soiled whitish. The adult ¥ is dusky olive above with a decided brownish tinge, soiled whitish below the breast tinged with yellow. In the young the upperparts are decidedly brown, the wing-coverts are brownish white but well-defined and will serve to distinguish the species from several species of Helminthophila which it superficially resembles. Length (skin), 5.00; wing, 2.80; tail, 2.20; bill, .42.
Adult d, Spring. — Above bright yellow-green; narrow line from bill over eye yellow ; inner webs of two outer tail-feathers with white patches at end ; outer web of outer feather usually white basally ; wings margined with grayish, the median coverts tipped, the greater coverts terminally margined with soiled whitish ; underparts bright greenish yellow becoming white on the belly, the breast sometimes obscurely streaked.
Adult ?, Spring. — Much duller than the c?5 above dusky olive-green tinged with brownish, the nape grayish, no yellow about eye, cheeks grayish, tail with less white, wing-bars less pronounced than in c?; underparts soiled grayish white, the breast more or less tinged with yellow, the flanks with brownish.
Summer Range. — Southern Florida and the Gulf States to southern Canada from New Brunswick through central Ontario (Ottawa, Muskoka), to Manitoba (Lake Winnipeg) and Saskatchewan (Carlton) ; in this northern part of the range the species is quite rare, except locally. In the region of the Plains, where pine forests are lacking, it is a rather rare migrant. Nearer the Mississippi River and thence to the Atlantic Ocean, its presence during the breeding season is largely governed by the extent of pine timber. Hence in summer, it is more common in the Southern States and the pitch and white pine districts of southern New England, than in the middle hard-wood districts, throughout which, from about latitude 37 degrees northward, it is known to most observers as a more or less common migrant and to a few as a rather rare summer resident.
Winter Range. — This is one of the few Warblers of the eastern United States whose winter home is included in its breeding range. During the winter season the Pine Warbler occupies approximately the southern third of the breeding range; hence it is not surprising that the birds are found to be more common there in winter than at any other time of the year. From North Carolina and southern Illinois southward, it is common in winter in the pines; occasional north in winter to Massachusetts (Framingham, December 5, 1891 ; January I, 1882; Duxbury, December 15, 1890). Casual in the Bermudas, at Revelstoke, B. C, and at Matamoras, Mexico.
Spring Migration: Atlantic Coast. — The records of spring migration from the winter home are neither regular nor numerous, but the following notes on the arrival of the first birds will give a fair idea of the general movement:
Lynchburg, Va., March 30, 1901 ; Washington, D. C., average April 3 ; Renovo, Pa., April 18, 1894 ; Englewood, N. J., April 18, 1900 ; Portland, Conn., average April 17; Durham, N. H., average April 26; southwestern Maine, average April 20; Petitcodiac, N. B., May 19, 1887; Pictou, N. S., May 19, 1894; North River, P. E. I., May 2, 1889.
Mississippi Valley. — Nashville, Tenn., March 24, 1902; Bowling Green, Ky., April 20, 1902 ; central Indiana, average April 25 ; southwestern Ontario, average May 4; Ottawa, Ont, average May 17; St.
Aweme, Man., May 21, 1902.
Fall Migration. — The last Pine Warbler seen at Aweme, Man,, in 1902, was on September 2 ; the average of the last seen in southwestern Maine, is September 25, and the latest October 4, 1896. The earliest migrants reach Washington, D. C., the last week in August, and the rear guard passes central Indiana and Washington between October 10 and 20.
The Bird and its Haunts. — The pine barrens of Florida have no more characteristic bird than this abundant Warbler. Even on frosty mornings one may hear its trilled monotone rising distinctly above the accompaniment of Palm Warbler chips, Bluebird whistles, and Nuthatch chatter. By February I they are singing in numbers and to one who is much in the pines, their voice becomes as much an audible expression of the mood of the trees as the sighing of the wind through their branches. The bird ranges from the ground to the tree-tops, and is at all times deliberate in movements, picking its way slowly along the branches or even clinging to the trunk itself, its plumage generally being more or less soiled with pitch.
While the Pine Warbler has one of the most extended breeding ranges among Warblers, it is never found nesting in other than pines, and even during its migrations it is seen in other growths with comparative infrequency. At West Englewood, N. J., where there are virtually no pines, I have seen it only twice.
Gerald Thayer puts it very well when he says: "Never was a bird more patly named than the Pine Warbler. Except when migrating, it sticks to pine woods as a cockle-bur sticks to a dog's tail. There is even a sort of gummy sluggishness about its movements, as it skulks among the pitchy branches, crawling along their stems, and doing little of the agile twig-skipping, characteristic of its tribe. In the breeding season, the Pine Warbler's 'beat' lies between the middles and tops of big and medium-sized pine trees; but during migrations it is extended to scrubby deciduous copses and to apple orchards.
"A rather big, rather sluggish, rather dingy Warbler, its costume is almost an epitome of inornate American Wood Warbler coloration. Even less characteristically than the Yellow Warbler does this bird belong to the breeding avifauna of Mt. Monadnock proper. But it is fairly common no further away than Keene (ten miles), in riverbordering groves of big white pines; and one or two singing males wander to Monadnock's northern base about mid-summer, or earlier,
Song. — The sweet trill of the Pine Warbler is one of the most characteristic bird notes in the great pine forests of the south. In Florida the birds are in full song by February I and are frequently heard during the winter.
"The song is a rather slow, monotonous trill ; the key varies much, being sometimes lower than that of any other Warbler song with which I am familiar, and always lower than that of the Worm-eating, which it somewhat resembles in other respects. I have heard the songs in these two keys following each other so closely that it seemed probable they were executed by the same bird. These songs are uttered at all seasons, I think; certainly not more than a few weeks in December mark a cessation.
"The ordinary call-note is a rather soft, lisping, chirp somewhat like that of the Parula Warbler. During courtship, and while the young are being fed, a rapid and insistent chipping is common. Some pugnacity is displayed by the males during courtship; but no obvious attempt is made to show superior advantages in color or song ; indeed, the commonest note then appears to be the rapid chipping I have mentioned." (Allison, MS.)
"Its common song is clear and sweet; an unbroken, fluent trill, with a tone and character at once distinguishable from those of other trilling wood-birds of New England ; — the Junco, Chipping Sparrow, Myrtle Warbler, etc. It is uttered on an even scale, but is often crescendo in its first half and diminuendo in its second. I have heard no other song from this Warbler, and no important variations of this one, either in New England or in the South. The bird seems to be about the least versatile singer of its tribe." (Thayer, MS.)
Nesting Site. — "In this section ( Statesville, N. C.) the nest is usually placed on a horizontal limb thirty — but varying from eight to fifty — feet from the ground." (M'Laughliri1.} "The nest is always placed in a pine, the two species (Finns mitis and P. taeda) being used about equally, but the situation varies a great deal. It may be on a horizontal limb, or built among the small twigs toward the end of the limb ; in whichever position, it is put there to stay and takes a good deal of pulling to get it away. It may be close to the trunk or as far off as fifteen feet. The height too varies from twelve to eighty feet, the usual height being from thirty to fifty feet." (Brimley*.)
from grapevines, bits of dead weeds and the stems of dry oak leaves, intermixed with a very fine silken web or cocoon which the bird gathers from openings in the pine bark ; web of the caterpillar is also often used. It lines freely with feathers using a respectable quantity of horse-hair and dead tops of sedge also. The bottom consists mostly of feathers, and, 'on the whole, the nest is quite warm and neatly built." (M'Laughlin1.) "The time occupied in building the nest and laying the four eggs is fourteen days provided the weather is favorable. * * * The female Pine Warbler gathers material from the trunks and limbs of trees and from the ground, and from both near the nest and as far as several hundred yards. * * * The female does most of the building but on one occasion we observed the male assisting her. As a rule, however, he merely accompanies her in her journeys, keeping a little way off and singing assiduously his own individual song. * * * The nest is solid and deep. It is constructed of weed stems, horse-hair and feathers. The dark-colored grapevine bark on the outside gives it an appearance characteristic of this species. A good deal of caterpillar's silk also is used, as well as small cocoons." (Brimley4.)
Nesting Dates. — Charleston, S. C, March 28-May 13 (Wayne); Raleigh, N. C., March 24 (Brim-ley) ; New Haven, Conn., July 4, young in nest. (Bishop) ; Cambridge, Mass., full sets, first laying, May 20-30 (Brewster) ; Bangor, Me., June 2, seen taking food to inaccessible nest, either for mate or young (Knight) ; Porcupine Mts., Mich., July 19, adults feed young, Wood (Barrows).
Eggs. — Usually 4, rarely 5. Ground color varies from a dull creamy white to grayish or bluish gray-white, about 90 per cent, in a large series, are heavily wreathed around large end but, in all cases, the markings are bold and heavy; they consist of specks, spots and blotches, in some cases much run together, of many shades of lilacgray, reddish brown, burnt umber, purplish brown and blackish with under shell-markings of lavender and grayish. Size ; average -72X.54, extremes measure -77X.55, .64X.52, .7ix.5i, .65x.5i. (Figs. 79-81.)
(i) R. B. M'LAUGHLIN, Nesting of the Pine-Creeping Warbler, (in Nor. Car.), Orn. and O61., XII, 1887, 171. (2) C. S. BRIMLEY, Nesting of the Pine Warbler in 1888, (in Nor. Car.), Orn. and O61., XIII, 1888, 89; (3) XIV, 1889, 157; (4) On the Breeding Habits of Dendroica vigorsii at Raleigh, N. C, Auk, VIII, igQi, 199- (5) J. P. N [ORRIS], A Series of Eggs of the Pine Warbler, Orn. and O61., XIV, 1889, 130. (6) J. W. P. SMITHWICK, Nesting and other Habits of the Pine Warbler in eastern North Carolina, Orn. and O61., XVI, 1891, 119.
Distinguishing Characters. — Kirtland's Warbler may be known by its large size, slate-colored or grayish crown, brown, black-streaked back, pale yellow underparts and streaked sides. Length (skin), 5.10; wing, 2.75; tail, 2.30; bill, .42.
Adult £, Spring. — Crown and nape slaty finely streaked with black; cheeks and frontlet black or blackish, eye-ring with white on upper and lower portions; back grayish broadly streaked with black; tail edged with grayish the inner web of two outer feathers with white patches at end; wings fuscous-brown edged with grayish; wing-coverts blacker margined with brownish or soiled white; below pale yellow, breast slightly spotted, sides heavily streaked with black; flanks tinged with brown.
streaks less pronounced, less white in the tail.
Adults in Fall. — Fall specimens of both sexes have the upperparts much browner than in Spring, the wings more broadly margined and browner, the flanks with a stronger brownish wash.
Summer Range. — All the known breeding records of Kirtland's Warbler come from a restricted area in north central Michigan comprising Oscoda, Crawford, and Roscommon Counties. Winter Range. — The Bahama Islands.
Spring Migration. — This, the rarest of American Warblers, has been taken at West Jupiter, Fla., April 19 and 27, 1897; Cumberland Island, Ga., April 12, 1902; St. Helena Island, S. C, April 27 and May 3, 1886; St. Louis, Mo., May 8, 1885; Wabash, Ind., May 4, 1892, May 7, 1895; Richmondjnd., May 13, 1905; near Chicago, 111., May
12, 1880, May 13, 1851, May 15; Cincinnati, O., May 1872; Oberlin, O., May u, 1900; May 9 1904; Kalamazoo, Mich., May 15, 1885; Ann Arbor, Mich., May 14, 1902, May 15, 1875, May 16, 1879, May
13, 1892.
Fall Migration. — In the fall this species has been noted near Ironton, Ohio, August 28, 1902; Fort Meyer, Virginia, September 25, 1887; Chester, S. C, October 11, 1888; and at Mount Pleasant, S. C., October 29, 1903.
Warblers. In 1898 I1 estimated that sixty-eight specimens of it were known, of which twenty had been taken in the United States, the remaining forty-eight in the Bahamas, to which islands it is apparently restricted in the winter.
At this time the bird's breeding habits were still unknown, but in June, 1903, its nest was discovered by Norman A. Wood2 in Oscoda County, Michigan. The following year in the same county, a nest with three eggs was taken June 6, by R. A. Brown and J. A. Parmelee, and, on June 15, a nest with four eggs by E. Arnold*. The appended biography, contributed by Mr. Wood, is based on his own studies in 1903, and those of Brown and Parmelee in 1904.
"This bird is of local distribution, living and nesting on the high, sandy, jack-pine plains of Crawford, Oscoda, Roscommon, and probably, Otsego and Montmorency Counties, Michigan. It may breed also in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan and in northern Wisconsin and Minnesota. It is unevenly distributed throughout the counties named, only occurring in colonies, and these are from two to ten miles apart. I have hunted over hundreds of acres of seemingly favorable ground, and failed to find a single pair. This Warbler is a very graceful walker and seems equally at home on trees or on the ground, where the habit of bobbing its tail is very characteristic.
"Incubation seems to be performed by the female alone and she seems to feed herself while incubating. When the young were newly hatched, I have seen the male carry as food a white moth, that is common on the small jack pines, and deer flies, but I could not tell if the female ate them or fed the young with them.
"The female is a close sitter and left the nest only when I was within two or three feet of it. When flushed she fluttered off with open wings and tail trying to lead me after her, failing in this she came back and circled about the nest uttering a sharp chip-chip, even alighting on the toe of Mr. Parmelee's shoe as he sat near the nest.
"On July 8-11, 1903, when but a few days old, the young seemed to have no fear of me, but on the morning of the 14th, when I tried to take a photograph of the nest, they scampered out and quickly hid in the thick cover, and I had to put them back a number of times before they would stay. I think they leave the nest at twelve or eighteen days of age. Both parents brought food to the nest, but the female came oftener and was more fearless than the male.
Song. — "This Warbler has several distinct songs, all of which belong to the whistling type and have the clear ringing quality of the Oriole's. The usual perch, while singing, is the top of a dead stub or limb of such a tree in the vicinity of its home. At short intervals
you will hear the song and see the singer with wings slightly lowered, tail drooping, and plumage fluffed, but with the body erect and head thrown back, uttering earnestly and very forcibly Chip-chip-che chee chee-r-r-r. The first two notes are soft and short, the next three uttered rapidly, increasing in volume and ending in a clear ringing whistle on the r. The male of a pair that seemed to be courting (See Bull. Mich. Orn. Club, Vol. V, 1904, 6.) had a different song, more like Wichy-chee-chee-chee-r-r. This song was not so loud and ringing but was very sweet and clear. This male lit and sang low down in the jack pines many times. One male, with a worm in his bill, sang, at intervals of fifty or sixty seconds, a song which sounded like Ch-ch-che-che-che-ah, the ah long drawn out. When I found the nest, this male came down to the tops of the small jack pines and sang rapidly as though much excited by my presence, and this song seemed then to take a scolding tone, like Che-che che-chee-wich-a-a. All of the males have a sharp call note chip-chip ; and the females the same chip only lower and softer.
"On the morning of May 6, 1905, near Ann Arbor, I had the pleasure of hearing a fine male sing a different song of the same general character, but softer and not given with the intense earnestness of the breeding bird. It sounded as though he was singing to himself and not at you. It had much of the r and z quality and I give it tsip-tsip, chze-chze-e-e. In its summer home it sings from morning till night; only not so frequently through the heat of the day, from the time of arrival in May, and through June it is in full song, and when I left on July 15, it was still singing. They leave their summer home the first of August, when the females and young start south. The males are content to linger and old ones were seen as late as August 20, 1903, and September 3, 1904. These were the last ones seen by Mr. Parmelee, who lives near their nesting grounds.
Nesting Site. — "The nesting site (See photographs in Bull. Mich. Orn. Club, Vol. V, 1904, pp. 4, 7, u) is usually in a dense growth of small Jack pine and scrub oak; not always at the foot of one of these trees but as a rule, under one and protected by its shade. Here the bird excavates a site and in this hole builds its nest, the top about even with the ground, sometimes with a rim, making the nest cupshaped.
Nest. — "These birds return each year to their chosen locality and no doubt to a spot near the site of the previous year. About fourteen inches from the nest shown in the Bulletin is a nest of the year before. In June 1904, all of the colonies described in the Bulletin contained
sings all of the time.
. "The nest is made of soft bark, strips of vegetable fiber, and dead grass, with dead flower stems of arbutus and weeds, which make the outside firm. It is lined with fine, dead grass, old pine needles, and, lastly, with horse and cattle hair.
Nesting Dates. — "There is much variation in the time of nesting. I have the first nest with complete set of three eggs ever taken; it was found in Oscoda County, June 6, 1904, the earliest recorded nesting date. On July 7, 1903, I flushed a female at work on a nest site, but, possibly, her first nest may have been destroyed. The average is from June 15 to 20, although I am sure it varies with each season.
Eggs. — "The eggs in a set vary from 3 to 5 the usual number being 4, only two sets of 3 are recorded, while of 5 we have three nests recorded, and eight at least of 4. Only one brood is reared each year. Second sets are no doubt laid to replace a first set which has been destroyed." (N. A. Wood, MS.}
(i) F. M. CHAPMAN, Kirtland's Warbler, Auk, XV, 1898, 289. (2) N. A. WOOD, Discovery of the Breeding Area of Kirtland's Warbler, Bull. Mich. Orn. Club, V, 1904, i. (3) C. C. ADAMS, The Migration Route of Kirtland's Warbler, Bull. Mich. Orn. Club, V, 1904, 14. (4) E. ARNOLD, Nesting of Kirtland's Warbler in northern Michigan, 1904, Bull. Mich. Orn. Club, V, 1904, 67.
Distinguishing Characters.— The. adult <£, and, usually the adult $, may be known by the reddish chestnut dorsal spots, while the small size, entirely yellow underparts, more or less streaked sides, and yellowish wing-bars will identify most specimens without regard to age. Length (skin), 4.20; wing, 2.20; tail, 1.90; bill, .35.
Adult <$, Spring. — Above bright olive-green the center of the back spotted with reddish chestnut ; line over, and space below eye yellow, a blackish streak through eye; outer tail-feather largely white on both webs, second and third feathers white at end of inner web ; wings edged with greenish the median and greater coverts edged with dusky yellowish; underparts entirely yellow, a black crescent at the side of the throat, sides streaked with black.
Young c?, Fall. — Similar to adult <$ but chestnut back marks much reduced or wanting, back duller, black markings less pronounced (better denned than in young c?) wing-bars duller. In very worn plumage (late summer) the upperparts become grayish, the underparts whitish.
Summer Range. — The Prairie Warbler is a bird of middle altitudes, shunning the mountains above a thousand feet and rare in the low coastal region of the Gulf States. Along the Atlantic slope it is common from the northern Bahamas and Florida north to Pennsylvania, but north of Philadelphia, it is found, as a rule, only near the coast; common locally in Connecticut, Rhode Island, and eastern Massachusetts, where it is characteristic of the barberry districts (Plymouth and Bristol Counties, Martha's Vineyard) ; casual or accidental in New Hampshire (Hollis, June 28, 1884, August 23, 1876, September 4, 1876; Manchester, spring, 1901), Ontario (Toronto, May u, 1900; Mt. Forest, May 13, 1905), Michigan (Port Huron, May 20, 1900; Ottawa County, May 26, 1879; Montcalm County), Wisconsin, (Racine, Lake Koshkonong). The western range extends regularly to eastern Nebraska ( West Point, Omaha), eastern Kansas, rarely to southern Mississippi (Beauvoir), Louisiana (West Baton Rouge Parish), and Texas (Gainesville).
southern half of Florida.
Spring Migration. — From its winter home in the West Indies and Florida, the Prairie Warbler begins to move northward early in March, though the full tide of migration does not start until the last of the month.
The latest records of striking the southern lighthouses are in the first half of May and the earliest spring date is March 7. Thus the period of spring migration in the southern United States extends through more than nine weeks.
Fall Migration. — The southward migration occupies more time than the northward, and lasts from the middle of August to the first week in November. Some dates of the last ones noted are at Taunton, Mass., Sept. 15, 1887; Shelter Island Heights, N. Y., Sept. 19, 1901; Washington, D. C, September 4, 1887; Raleigh N. C., September 9; Frogmore, S. C., September 30, 1886; Fowey Rocks Lighthouse, Florida, November 6, 1891.
The records indicate that the southern breeding birds spend about live months in the summer home, at least as long in the winter home and the remainder of the year in migration. Even the northern nesting birds remain for four months at the breeding grounds.
The Bird and its Haunts. — The Prairie Warbler is reported as abundant by various observers from Florida to Massachusetts, nevertheless it is so local in habit that, even as a migrant, it is entirely wanting over large areas. At Englewood, N. J., there are many scrubby tracts apparently suitable for its occupation, nevertheless the Prairie Warbler remains the only member of its family among those which might be expected to occur, which I have yet to find there.
At Columbus, S. C., this species is the commonest Warbler, inhabiting partially cleared oak and hickory lands. ( Taylor, MS. ) In Virginia it breeds in bushy second growths of hickory, dogwood, and laurel, with scattered pines and cedars (Cones). In southern New Jersey it is an abundant summer resident of the Pine Barrens (Stone), and in New England it resorts to old cedar-grown pastures and hillsides with an undergrowth of barberry. On Prospect Hill, near Cambridge, Mass., Brewster* notes an exception to this custom, the birds there frequenting sprout growths and building their nests in sapling oaks and maples.
Continuing, Brewster gives a pleasing picture of the bird's haunts: "Many and delightful were the days I used to spend looking for nests of the Prairie Warbler in the hill pastures of Arlington and Belmont These breezy uplands are attractive at every season, but most so in early June when the barberry bushes blossom. This is the time when our Prairie Warblers have full sets of fresh eggs. A search for their nests among the handsome, dome-shaped barberry bushes, covered with young foliage of the tenderest green, and with graceful, pendant clusters of golden yellow flowers that fill the air with
Song. — Dr. Coues' unique characterization of the song of the Prairie Warbler as suggesting the plaint of a mouse with the toothache, has a certain aptness which those who are familiar with the song will recognize. It is to me one of the most easily recognized an'4 remembered of Warbler's songs.
"The ordinary call-note resembles the softer of the two chirps uttered by the Yellow Warbler, but is perhaps more slowly uttered. The song, uttered in spring, by the male, which sits, during the performance, with the head held vertically upward, and the tail straight down, is a lisping trill much like that of the Parula Warbler in its general character ; but it has a wiry quality that at once distinguishes it Once I heard another song, of which I have record only as a queer, interrupted song, instead of the usual wiry trill." (Allison, MS.}
Nesting Site. — At Raleigh, N. C, Brimley3 states that this species "delights in sunny hillsides covered with bushes and saplings, building its nest in one of these at a height of from one to twelve feet from the ground, but usually about three or four feet high. * * * Unlike some localities where this bird nests mainly in pine saplings, here sweet gums are [given] the preference, with elm next best, nests being only found very occasionally in pines."
Near Washington, D. C., Coues1 found that the nests were built in an upright or oblique crotch, preferably one formed in part by the main stem of a bush, from one and a half to five feet from the ground, in a rather open, scrubby, hilly locality."
three feet from the ground.
Nest. — All the nests of this species which I have examined are characterized by the presence of a large amount of buff fern down which is tightly woven or felted into their walls.
Brimley8 describes the nest as "a beautiful structure, usually being largely composed of rabbit tobacco, a kind of gray-leaved, wild everlasting very much used by birds in nest-building," and lined with soft materials."
Eg£s- — 3 to 5> usually 4. Ground color white to pale greenish white marked with specks, spots and small blotches of chestnut-brown, burnt umber, purplish brown and many under shell-markings of lavender grayish. In some types the markings form beautiful wreathes about the large end with the rest of the egg comparatively clear of spots; others have the wreath very indistinct and many scattering spots and specks over the entire egg; a few extremes, in a large series, have the wreath around the small end. Size ; average .64x49 ; extremes measure .6o,x.5i, .55x47. (Figs. 84-86.)
Nesting Dates. — Savannah, Ga,, April 25 (C. W . C.) ; Raleigh, N. C., May 16 (Brimley} ; New Haven, Conn., May 27-June 25 (Bishop} ; Cambridge, Mass., full sets, first laying, May 28- June 5 (Brewster} ; Ottawa Co., Mich., May 26, Gibbs (Barrows').
(i) E. B. COUES, Nesting of the Prairie Warbler in the Vicinity of Washington, D. C., Auk, V, 1888, 405. (2) H. K. JAMISON, Nesting of the Prairie Warbler in Fairfax Co., Va., Orn. and O61., XIV, 1889, 85. (3) C. S. BRIMLEY, Nesting of the Prairie Warbler at Raleigh, N. C, Orn. and O61., XV, 1890, 165. (4) WM. BREWSTER, Birds of the Cambridge Region, 346.
Distinguishing Characters. — In adults of both sexes the reddish chestnut crown and yellow throat are diagnostic; while young and winter adults may be known by their brown, more or less streaked upperparts, yellowish upper, and yellow under tail-coverts, streaked underparts, white line over eye, and other characters. Length (skin), 4.70; wing, 2.60; tail, 2.05; bill, 40.
Adult o*, Spring. — Crown reddish chestnut, line from bill over eye yellow; back olive grayish brown obscurely streaked, upper tail-coverts yellowish ; two outer tail-feathers with sharply denned white patches at tips of inner webs; wing-coverts edged with brownish gray not forming conspicuous bars; throat and upper breast yellow rest of underparts grayish white more or less suffused with yellow, sides brownish, throat and sides streaked with ' reddish chestnut, under tail-coverts yellow.
Adult <$, Fall. — Similar to adult o* in Spring but chestnut crown widely tipped with brown, line over eye white or whitish, throat and upper breast suffused with yellow, or whitish without yellow, rest of underparts suffused with yellow, streaks below blacker
chiefly in fall.
Summer Range. — Interior of British America north of Manitoba and west of Hudson Bay. Accidental in Colorado (Denver, June 20, 1891), Montana (Great Falls, Sept. 18, 1889), and California (Pacific Grove, Oct. 9, 1896).
Spring Migration. — The Palm Warbler has been separated into two sub-species, of which Dendroica palmarum palmarum ranges west of the Alleghenies, while Dendroica palmarum hypochrysea, the Yellow Palm Warbler, occurs along the Atlantic slope. In the following notes, the locality will serve as a general guide to the particular form referred to.
The Bird and its Haunts. — The Palm Warblers, including under this head both the present species and its eastern representative, hypochrysea, are strikingly unlike all but one of their congeners in color, in actions, and in choice of both haunts and nesting site. Kirtland's Warbler is the only other member of the genus which nests on the ground, and this species, singularly enough, is the only other Dendroica which has the habit of tail-wagging.
It is this motion in connection with the. bird's occurrence in old fields, that causes it to be likened to the Titlark or Pipit; the latter, however, is purely terrestrial, rarely if ever alighting in bushes or on fences, etc., as is the custom of this Warbler.
During the winter, and indeed, until May I, the Palm Warbler is one of the commonest birds in Florida. It inhabits not only the pineries, old fields, and fence-rows, but is common in gardens and even visits the streets of the towns, its oft-repeated chip and wagging tail impressing themselves on the memory as characteristic features of Florida's winter bird-life.
Allison writes that "about New Orleans, this Warbler is found on open ground, roadsides, pastures, etc., — with small bushes, clumps of oalmetto. or occasional willow trees. In Tishomingo County I
216 YKLLOW PALM WARBLER
found it abundant in spring on hillsides covered with a low growth of V actinium. It is distinctly a bird of the ground and the low growth, and I have -never seen it perch twenty feet above the ground." (Allison, MS.}
Northward through the Mississippi Valley this species is a common migrant, but it nests so much farther north than the Yellow Palm that we know but little of its habits during the summer.
In September and October the Palm Warbler occurs as a rare but regular migrant in the Atlantic States. Brewster records an individual seen by Hoffman at Belmont, Mass., December 6, 1902.
Song. — "The trill remains as a prominent feature, but the note is no longer a true chip. Better tsee tsee tsee tsee. with a distinct swell. Each syllable should be given a half double utterance except at the middle of the swell, where the greater effort seems to completely coalesce the half double quality into one distinct syllable. There is a little similarity to the song of Myrtle Warbler, but lacking the liquid quality of that species." (Jones.}
Nesting Site. — A nest containing five young was found by Kennicott at Fort Resolution, June 18, on the ground, in a hummock, at the foot of a small spruce (B. B. & R. i, 275).
DENDROICA PALMARUM HYPOCHRYSEA Ridgw.
Subspecific Characters. — Similar to Dendroica palmarum palmarum but larger, upperparts more olive, underparts entirely yellow, the streaks browner, line over eye yellow at all seasons. In winter the yellow below is more or less veiled with whitish but I have seen few specimens that were not sufficiently unlike D. p. palmarum to be distinguished in life. Length (skin), 4.80; wing, 2.70; tail, 2.10; bill, .40.
Nestling. — Above olive-brown strongly streaked with black; below whitish strongly and evenly streaked with black, except on lower abdomen; median and greater wing-coverts edged with brownish and tipped with buffy forming more conspicuous bars than in the young in Fall plumage.
west to Louisiana, rare in the West Indies.
The Bird and its Haunts. — So far as habits are concerned this bird agrees with its Mississippi Valley representative, Dendroica />. palmarum. It is apparently less abundant than that ibrm which,
although it is found commonly in the West Indies in winter, is still more numerous in the United States than hypochrysea, which rarely ventures beyond our limits. About Gainesville, Fla., an occasional individual of the Yellow Palm was seen with the loose flocks of palmarum, fifteen of the former to at least several thousands of the latter being observed there during a single winter.
Brewster says : "Yellow Palm Warblers visit the Cambridge region with unfailing regularity in spring and autumn, although their numbers vary greatly from year to year. * * * In spring they associate freely with Myrtle Warblers, and hence frequent much the same places, although they resort rather less to upland woods and are even more given to haunting thickets near water, and to venture out into fields and pastures where they sometimes occur hundreds of yards from any cover. Their favorite haunts in autumn are barren tracts sparsely covered with gray birches."
Gerald Thayer writes: "Earliest among Monadnock's springarriving Warblers is the Myrtle and close behind it comes this beautiful, ruddy-crowned, golden-browed, and red-streaked, golden-breasted 'tail-tipper' of field-borders and bushy roadsides ; a bird of the semiopen ground and the first tier of scattered woody growth above it.
"With a methodic regularity which almost saves the action from the look of nervousness, his greenish tail is forever swinging up and down. Ducks and Motmots, and some other birds really wag their tail, from side to side; but it is a far commoner trick to jerk or wave it up and down, as is the way of the Yellow Palm and Palm and several other eastern Warblers. The two 'Palms' come nearest to being 'continuous performers' of the trick, but even they have occasional lapses into quietness, in the midst of their flitting and feeding." (Thayer, MS.)
O. W. Knight2, who first discovered this species breeding in the United States, writes that in Maine, in the nesting season, this species "may be confidently looked for in sphagnum-hackmatack bogs with open stretches, within the Canadian fauna sections of the State. So far as known, the birds are found in what may be perhaps termed loosely aggregated colonies."
Song. — Knight1 writes that in Maine the song is heard until well into June. "It consists of a series of trills which may be rendered tsee tsee tsee tsee tsee, and the call and alarm notes are mere chips uttered with various intonations" (Knight1).
perhaps midway between them and the weak-voiced, for its tones, though clear and sweet, are by no means loud. It has at least two main songs, both varying a good deal. Both are chiefly trills, one slower and fuller-toned, the other much quicker and 'thinner.' To both, but most often and most fully to the louder song, separate, twittered notes are sometimes added, at the beginning and end, or sometimes at the beginning or the end alone. The trill in all its variations has a delicate softness of tone, and a hint of brokenness and hesitancy in delivery, which clearly separates it from all (?) other trill-songs of New England birds. The migrant Yellow Palm's commonest call is a rather weak tsip, small and fine, but with a touch of softness, a recognizable though scantily peculiar little note. But the bird makes other, more subdued and ambiguous lisps" (Thayer, MS.}
Nesting Site. — Knight2 records nests found near Bangor, Maine, in the following situations: at the base of a small spruce imbedded in sphagnum moss or a tuft of grass ; at the foot of a small fir bush ; between two small bushes, and four inches from the ground in a small spruce bush.
Nest. — The same author describes the nest as "composed of fine dry sedges and grasses, lined with a very few feathers and one or two horse-hairs. Its external diameter was three inches and its internal diameter at the top two inches. Its depth outside was two and a half inches and the depth inside one inch."
Eggs. — 4 or 5. Knight1 describes a set of 5 as of "a buffy white color, spotted with brown and lilac. The spots are thicker toward the larger end, and tend to form an irregular wreath." Size ; .63X.5O, .64X.50, .65x48, .62x48, .65x49. (Figs. 82,83.)
(i) O. W. KNIGHT, The Nest and Eggs of the Yellow Palm Warbler, (in Maine), Nidologist, II, 1895, 140; (2) Contributions to the Life History of the Yellow Palm Warbler, Journ. Me. Orn. Soc., VI, 1904, 36. (3) WM. BREWSTER, Birds of the Cambridge Region, 345.
The three members of this genus are, comparatively speaking, large birds with rather slender, straight, notched, rounded bills (more compressed in 5". aurocapillus) and heavily streaked underparts. Rictal bristles are barely evident. The wing is long, averaging an inch or more longer than the tail ; the three outer primaries are longest and of
are pale or brownish, the tarsus nearly an inch in length.
The Seiuri are distinguished among the Warblers for their superficial resemblance to the Thrushes, due to the spotting of the underparts. Their plumage is without wing-bars or tail-patches, and, as in other dull-colored species of this family, the sexes are alike. All are terrestrial, walking birds and two have the habit of wagging or tipping the tail.
Distinguishing Characters. — Large size, white, heavily streaked underparts, and orange-brown, black-margined crown are the principal distinguishing characters of the Oven-bird. Length (skin), 5.50; wing, 3.00; tail, 2.20; bill, .50.
Adult <$, Spring. — Crown orange-brown inconspicuously tipped with brownish and bordered laterally by two pronounced black stripes extending from the bill to the nape; back, wings, and tail brownish olive-green, no white wingbars or tail-patches, but tips of outer tail-feathers sometimes narrowly whitish or brownish and wing-coverts occasionally margined with buffy; below white, the throat unspotted but bordered by black lines; breast and sides heavily streaked with black, the flanks washed with the color of the back.
Summer Range. — The southern limits of the regular breeding range are found in Virginia, Kentucky, Missouri, and Kansas, south in the Allegheny Mountains to South Carolina ; accidental in Colorado (Denver, June, 1862; Ramah, June 5, 1898), Montana (Fort Keogh, July 23, 1888), British Columbia (Esquimault). A few are said to breed in the northern Bahamas. The species breeds north almost to the limit of trees in Newfoundland, Hudson Bay, and Alaska.
Winter Range. — Western Mexico to northern South America; most of the West Indies, the Bahamas, the southern half of Florida and, casually, southern South Carolina and southern Louisiana.
The Bird and its Haunts.— At Englewood, N. J., the Oven-bird prefers dry, rather open, deciduous woods ; but it is by no means confined to them, being also found in low, swampy forest lands with heavy undergrowth. Passing most of its time on or near the ground, the Oven-bird, in spite of its abundance, would not attract our notice were it not for its loud, frequently repeated, unmistakable song, and its sharp, readily recognizable chip. The bird utters this note with irritating persistency as long as one remains in the vicinity of its nest; its quickly aroused suspicions making it by no means easy to study its home-life closely.
Like other members of this genus, the Oven-bird is a walker but it lacks the tail-wagging habit so characteristic of its congeners. With tail often slightly raised and wings drooped, it steps daintily over the leaves in its search for food, stopping at times to mount to the lower tree branches, there to utter its song with great earnestness.
The Oven-bird's nest, seen from above, is so like the leaves among which it is placed that, as a rule, it is found only when a too close approach frightens the sitting bird, who, slipping from her snug home, trails pitifully over the leaves at one's feet.
Morris Gibbs1 describes a courtship scene in which the male Ovenbird flew singing above the female, who was perched on the ground, "describing every form of flight except that of regular sailing; first dashing through space to the edge of the glade, which was probably twenty feet across; then rising to the tops of the bushes, he would flutter, half fall towards his prospective mate. On a sudden he
would flutter directly upward as we often see the English Sparrow or House Wren do, and reaching a height of twenty feet or more, dash about the clearing in varying circles, ever tending in his flight toward the object of his extravagant attention. She, in the meanwhile, sat silent and evidently interested in the performance. Suddenly the male dropped beside her, and alternately dashing and wheeling about, but continually on the move and always revolving about her, gave evidence of his adoration by a series of hops, dignified struts, droopings of the head and tail, elevation of the wings and crest, which would have done credit to both the Turkey and the Ruffed Grouse. While on the ground, the song was kept up with the usual vigor, but the interruption by the coarser, common notes was more frequent and the bird stopped in its struts in order to utter the notes which apparently caused him more effort than did the more beautiful song. The appearance of a third party on the scene, probably also a lover, caused the first performer to dash into the brush much to my disappointment."
Song. — Formerly, singing Oven-birds said, to my ear, with remarkable distinctness and decision, teacher, teacher, etc., in the usual crescendo chant, but as I now hear the song the accent is placed on the last syllable. The call-note is a fine, small cheep, which, when one is near the bird's nest is uttered with irritating persistence.
The Oven-bird's flight song is one of the remarkable vocal performances among the Warblers. It is a wild outpouring of jumbled notes over which the bird seems to have no control and is often concluded with the common teacher song.
"Widely and intimately known though the Oven-bird is, there seem to be no written accounts either of the occasional strange vagaries of its perch-singing, or of the abundance and regularity of its nocturnal free-air flight-singing. Here in southwestern New Hampshire, its full flight-song, — delivered often from a height of a hundred or more feet above the tree-tops — is one of the commonest night-sounds, from early May to September. Indeed, we are apt to hear Ovenbirds singing high overhead the night before their first spring appearance in our daylit woods, and the same performance is often the last token we have of their presence in late September. Of course, this song is often uttered in the daytime, too, — especially at late afternoon, — but never so commonly as in the moonlit nights of mid-summer. Even on pitch-dark nights it is not uncommon, but then as a rule, the birds don't go so high, — sometimes singing fairly amid the tree-tops. This flight-song is a combination of the usual Teacher, teacher, per-
formance, uttered rather rapidly and wildly, with a medley of very different, hurried, warbling notes. The full utterance usually begins as the bird poises, fluttering, at its greatest height; and ends, — obscurely, as if smothered by the rushing air, — as the bird shoots downward with half-shut wings into the forest. But the performance is often heralded by a few sharp, reduplicated call-notes, and sometimes by a few preluding scraps of song as the eager singer darts upward from perch to perch and launches himself into open air. The full flight-song itself varies comparatively little, in my experience. The regular perch-song, too, Teacher, teacher, etc., is far more constant than are those of most Wood Warblers. Its tone-quality is, I believe, practically changeless, but its volume, speed and accentuation vary somewhat. Often, for instance, it is accented on the second syllable of each teacher, instead of on the first ; and the whole song is sometimes uttered very softly — almost in a whisper — as is the case with most bird-songs.
"Strangest of all the aberrant utterances of the Oven-bird I have ever heard was a two-minute-long, practically unbroken gush of barely subdued flight-song, delivered'by a bird quietly perching about twenty feet above the ground. This astonishing performance I witnessed on May 5, 1905, in a scrubby roadside forest near Monadnock's northern base. Having finished one round of his seeming endless carol, the 'possessed' Warbler changed his perch and began again, but after singing as before for about a minute, took wing and dashed off horizontally through the forest, singing as he went, till he passed out of my hearing. In the course of these three minutes of singing he had repeated the complete flight-song, omitting none of the regular elaborations, more than thirty times ; and for the most part there had been no apparent break, no moment's pause, between the repetitions. Such prolonged swift singing would be a remarkable achievement for any bird, and puts the Oven-bird, potentially at least, very high in the list of avine songsters. That same May, in the same region, I heard three other perfectly distinct, surprising innovations of Oven-bird-song. One was like the syllables Cher-wutchy wher, cher wutchy wher, tercher; — sung in a tone softer than that of the common teacher song, and slightly double-noted. Another was like Chock, ter-cher, chi-wi, the first note being merely the common deeper-toned call-note, — like the booming cluck of the Chipmunk, — and the others having a nearly normal teacher tone, though decidedly different in form and accentuation, and delicately varied one from another. This phrase I heard repeated many times, without noticeable change, and always with the
chock used as a song-note. The fourth kind of abnormal song was in some ways the most remarkable of all, inasmuch as it contained hardly a suggestion of any Oven-bird notes, and was quite unrecognizable. Nothing short of watching the bird sing, at close range, and on various perches, could have convinced me of the song's true authorship. Fortunately, I had just these essential opportunities. There, on low branches, walked and sat the little orange-crowned rascal, singing, over and over again, a fluid, warbling song, rich-toned and sweet, though not very loud, and lasting only about five seconds. It suggested a Fox Sparrow singing somewhat in undertone, or a Purple Finch heard at a little distance. But, taken all together, these queer perchsung performances are but rare breaks in the abundant monotony of the Oven-bird's regular singing. Each of those I have described is as yet unique of its kind, in my experience" (Thayer, MS.) Miss Paddock sends the following notation and writes : "The words usually given for this song, teacher teacher, seem to me to be begun with the second syllable thus: cher-tea cher-tea cher-tea."
"Toward the end of June the song of this bird, which has been so constantly accentuated through our woodlands for two months, becomes less frequent, and though heard into July, comparatively few individuals sing through the month. In some seasons I have missed it after the first week. * * * July 23 is my latest date.
"The second song-period occurs in August, and is transient and irregular; with varying seasons shifting a little to either side of the middle of the month" (Bicknell.)
Nesting Site. — Norris2 records a nest of the Oven-bird found at Weaverville, N. C, in the "end of a large pine log," but with this exception I know of no instance of the Oven-bird's departing from its habit of building on the ground. The site selected may be at the foot of a bush or tree or simply among dead leaves in more open spaces.
"The wooded upland, hillside or lowland are all alike to this bird. The nest is placed at the foot of a small bush or sprout of the huckleberry, laurel, dogwood, chestnut, sassafras, blackberry, or beside some debris. I can discover no particular significance in the position of the entrance in relation to exposure." (Burns, MS.)
Nest. — The nest is unique in shape among the Warblers and its resemblance to an old Dutch oven has given the bird its name. It is completely arched with a flattened roof, the entrance being at one side. It is composed largely of dried leaves and leaf skeletons, with occasionally bits of moss, and is rather coarsely lined with grasses, blossom stalks, etc.
"Outwardly the nest is composed of dead grass, weed-stems, and bushy heads of the walking or tumbling grass; wild grapevine bark, strips of chestnut bark lining, dead and decayed leaf stems and leaves of the chestnut, oak, beech, maple, cherry, dogwood and hickory, principally the first two. Rarely bits of the hair moss and small dead twigs enter into the body of the nest. The chief difference, however, is in the quantity of grass or leaves. The structure is lined sparsely with long black horse-hair in almost every instance. In twenty per cent an additional underlining of grass and weed stems, and, in one instance, of grass stems alone. I have seen two nests in which a few long white horse-hairs appeared with the black, one with a few wild strawberry runners, and another in which oak blossoms were admixed. The nest is usually arched, the substructure or nest proper is sunk in the carpet of leaves to the level of the lower edge of the entrance hole. The mode of construction does not vary from the ordinary bird architecture. The outer framework of stems is bent over and work proceeds inward at which both sexes work more or less. Any little interference at this stage often results in the desertion of the incompleted structure. I have observed the frail straw arch erected by eleven A. M. and the whole edifice lined and completed within two days. The entrance measures 1.20-1.70x2.00-2.20 inches, being wider than high." (Burns MS.}
Eggs. — 4 or 5, in even proportions, 5 being as common a number as 4. Ground color a rather glossy white to creamy, over which are specks, spots and blotches of reddish brown, lilac-gray and dark chestnut, with under shell markings of lavender distributed in varying degrees ; some are handsomely wreathed about large end with scattering marks over rest of egg, others have the large end completely covered with numerous spots and specks, while others are quite evenly marked over all the surface, but more heavily at the large end. Size ; average, 79X.63; extremes, .88x.64, .68x.55, .fyx.fy. (Figs. 87,88.)
Nesting Dates. — Weaverville, N. C. May 7- June i (C. W. C.) ; West Chester, Pa., May 25-June 8 (Jackson) ; Waynesburg, Pa., May i5-June 29 (Jacobs) ; New York City, May 20- July 5, two-thirds incubated (F. M. C.) ; Granville, N. Y., May 15 (J. P. N.) ; New Haven,
Conn., May 20- July 10 (Bishop) ; Cambridge, Mass., full sets, first laying, May 25-June 5 (Brewster} ; Lancaster, N. H., June 2- June 5 (Spaulding} ; Bangor, Me., May 3O-June 9 (Knight} ; Listowel, Ont, May 24- June 26 (Kells) ; Kalamazoo Co., Mich., May 27, Gibbs (Barrows} ; Oberlin, O., May lo-june 15 (Jones}.
(i) M. GIBBS, Song of the Golden-crowned Thrush, Orn. and O61., X, 1885, 191. (2) J. P. N. [ORRIS], A Series of Eggs of the Oven-bird, Orn. and O61., XVII, 1892, 65. (3) C. T. BUTTERS, The Oven-bird [in Mass.], Nidologist, III, 1896, 131. (4) W. L. KELLS, The Oven-bird, Ottawa Naturalist, XV, 1902, 232.
Distinguishing Characters. — The only Warbler with which this species is likely to be confused is Seiurus n. noveboracensis and its western form notabilis. It differs from the former as noted under that species, from the latter it may be known by its unspotted throat and buffy flanks. Length (skin), 5.60; wing, 3.25; tail, 2.10; bill, .55.
Adult £, Spring. — Upperparts olive or olive-brown, the crown averaging darker the upper tail-coverts browner; wings and tail slightly browner than back and without white markings, the outer tail-feathers, however, are sometimes narrowly tipped with whitish ; a conspicuous white line from bill over eye to nape; lower eye-lid white; below white, the flanks and crissum, and sometimes sides of breast, more or less strongly buff; dusky lines at sides of throat; throat usually unmarked, sometimes with a few inconspicuous olive tips to feathers; breast and sides heavily streaked with the color of the back.
Nestling. — Above sooty olive-brown, a white superciliary stripe, conspicuous behind, faint before, the eye; breast and sides streaked with blackish, sides and crissum washed with buff; wings and tail as in adult but wing-coverts tipped with rusty.
Summer Range. — The Louisiana Water-Thrush breeds throughout its range in the United States, which extends north to Massachusetts (Sheffield, June u, 1896; Springfield, July 28, 1895; Mount Tom, April 28, 1869; Leveritt, May 18, 1871; Amherst, July 12, 1886), New York (Lake George, May 8, 1877, and May 16, 1881), Ontario (Toronto, London, Guelph), Michigan (Detroit), Wisconsin (Delavan, May 18, 1900; Milwaukee County, April 25, 1897, Lake Koshkonong), and Minnesota (Red Wing).
Its western range is found in eastern Nebraska (Lincoln, Beatrice), eastern Kansas (Manhattan, Onaga) and, sparingly, in eastern Texas (Boerne) ; accidental in Maine (Norway, 1865, Waterville, May, 1865).
French Creek, W Va
The Bird and its Haunts. — This shy, elusive creature seems to me more like some untameable spirit of the woods than a bird. Cautiously we may follow his sharp, decisive call or wild, ringing, almost startling song, through the luxuriant undergrowth only to hear them repeated from some point far ahead or even behind us ; and, if by good fortune, we should get a glimpse of his nervously teetered body, before we have time for one satisfactory look he is off — not to the cover of the nearby bushes, but on a low, darting flight that takes him speedily out of sight.
The Water-Thrush inhabits not only watered bottom-land forests, where moss-covered logs and rank undergrowth give an almost tropical character to the surroundings, but is also found on hillside and mountain streams where the woods are more open below. Always, however, he requires water, and his food is largely secured from the shores of streams or muddy banks of pools. Even when at ease the bird seems controlled by a sense of restlessness, and not only when walking, but when perching, constantly teeters its body. Both the movement and the bird itself suggest the Dipper (Cinclus) but the Dipper is more of a bobber, the whole body moving from the knees, while the Water-Thrush is a tilter or teeterer, its longer tail accentuating this type of motion.
Allison (MS.) writes that the typical breeding haunt of the Louisiana Water-Thrush in Mississippi, "is the bank of a clear, running stream, flowing over white sand and pebbles ; the smaller streams are generally chosen, but creeks and small rivers are not without their Water-Thrushes. The southern limit of its breeding range seems to be determined by the presence of such streams, and therefore probably does not extend to the Gulf coast."
Song. — In recent years I have been impressed with the similarity between the song of this species and that of Dendroica dominica. The song of Seiurus is louder and wilder but as sung by the individuals which have come to my attention it is less musical than that of dominica which lacks the concluding twitter characteristic of the Water-Thrush song. The flight-song of this species is a thrilling performance which carries the bird above the tree-tops in uncontrollable musical ecstacy. The call-note resembles that of Seiurus noveboracensis but to my ear is slightly louder.
William Brewster describes the song of this species as "somewhat like that of S. noveboracensis, being quite as loud, almost as rapid, and commencing in nearly the same way but lacking the beautiful crescendo termination, and altogether, a less fine performance. Represented by words it would be nearly as follows : pseur, pseur, per see ser."
"The call-note is not distinguishable from that of S. noveboracensis. The song — uttered, it seems, only at the breeding-ground in the breeding season — is remarkably fine, being very loud, clear, and far-reaching. It is generally uttered from a perch very near, or over, the water, — not from the ground." (Allison, MS.}
more rapid. On April 20, 1902, I heard a song which, except for the three opening notes, I never would have recognized. The first three notes were the usual clear, piercing, Water-Thursh notes ; but the rest was an intricate jumble of fine notes far softer, and of an entirely different quality. This song was repeated several times. On May 14, 1904, I heard a song consisting of three notes, wee-wee-wee, then whitchee, whit-chee, followed by a confused and less loud jumble." (Farwell, MS.}
Nest. — The nest is generally a loosely made bulky structure filling the cavity or niche in which it is placed, and externally is composed largely of dried leaves, coarse grasses, and rootlets, with often bits of moss ; the lining consists chiefly of coarse grasses. I have sometimes found a few hemlock twigs in the nest. May 21, 1899, I saw a male feeding the female which was sitting on five eggs two of which were just hatching." (Burtch, MS.)
Eggs. — 4 to 6 usually 5, rarely 4 or 6; in a carefully selected series of 45 sets, 4 are of 6 eggs each, 35 of 5 and the balance of 4. Ground color white to creamy white ; the markings vary greatly, many shades of chestnut-brown, cinnamon-rufous, lilac-gray, with lavender under shell markings, which are distributed over the egg in all manner of specks, spots, blotches and conglomerate masses either in a zone, wreath or solid mass of spots on large end ; the rest of the egg is well marked also, but the spots become fewer and less decided toward the small end. Size; average, 77x.6i ; extremes, .84X.65, 72X.58. (Figs. 92-94.)
Nesting Dates. — Walke, N. C, April 22 ; Waynesburg, Pa., May 5, five eggs on point of hatching- June 8, last date for eggs of first laying (Jacobs} ; New York City, May 11 (F. M. C.} ; Branchport, N. Y., May 6- July i (Burtch) ; New Haven, Conn., May 6- June 10 (Bishop) ; Oberlin, O., April i5~June 10 (Jones) ; Lake Co., Illinois, June n (Gault) ; Petersburg, Mich., May 5, Trombly (Barrows). BIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES
(i) WM. BREWSTER, Some Observations on the Birds of Ritchie County, West Virginia, Ann. Lye. N. Y., XI, 1875, 136; (2) Nesting of the Largebilled Water-Thrush, (in Indiana), Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club, III, 1878, 133. (3)
F. T. JENKS, Large-billed Water-Thrush, [in R. I.], Orn. and O6L, VII, 1882, 114. (4) J. N. CLARK, Large-billed Water-Thrush, (in Conn.), Orn. and O61., VII, 1882, 145. (5) R. B. M'LAUGHLIN, Nesting of the Louisiana Water-Thrush, [in Nor. Car.], Orn. and O61., XII, 1887, 174. (See also Brimley, Ibid., XIV, 169.). (6) J. P. N. [ORRIS], A Series of Eggs of the Louisiana Water-Thrush, Orn. and O61., XV, 1890, 53-
Distinguishing Characters. — The uniform dark olive upperparts, including the wings and tail, which are without white markings, yellowish or buffy yellow line over the eye, sulphur yellow, heavily streaked underparts are the principal distinguishing marks of this species. From Seiurus motacilla it may be known by its usually yellowish or buffy, instead of distinctly white superciliary line, its sulphur yellow underparts streaked with black, not with olive or blackish, and its spotted throat. Length (skin), 5.25; wing, 2.95; tail, 2.05; bill, .50.
Adult $, Spring. — Upperparts, wings and tail olive or olive-brown; outer tail-feathers rarely with white at tips; forehead with a more or less faint whitish or buffy median line; a conspicuous yellowish whitish, or buffy line from bill over eye to nape; underparts quite uniformly sulphur yellow, the throat, breast and sides streaked with black, the flanks washed with the color of the back.
Nestling. — Above olive-brown tipped with rusty and obscurely spotted with black; a yellowish superciliary line; below sulphur yellow, throat, breast and sides heavily streaked with black and with more or less rusty wash; wings and tail much as in adult but wing-coverts tipped with rusty. General Distribution. — Eastern North America. Summer Range. — Maine, northern New Hampshire (Lake Umbagog, Ossipee, Dublin), northern Vermont (Burlington), Pennsylvania (Qearfield, Crawford, Clinton, Elk, Cambria, Center and Lycommg Counties), mountains of West Virginia, southern Michigan southern Wisconsin, Minnesota (Red Wing).
The Bird and its Haunts. — When, during the migrations, a Water-Thrush is seen in one's garden or some other locality quite unlike the normal haunts of the species, one may be reasonably sure that it is this species rather than Seiurus motacilla. The former, in my experience, is at all times less shy and retiring and may be observed at short range by the exercise of a little caution.
I recall a Northern Water-Thrush which boarded a steamer on which I was sailing from Tampico, Mexico, to Havana, when we were about midway between these two points. The bird, apparently quite at home, hopped about the steamer's deck, entered the Captain's cabin, as though to examine the charts, and when we approached the coast of Cuba, disappeared, doubtless resuming its more northern flight.
Brewster3 says that at Cambridge they never fail to visit his garden in "both spring and autumn, occurring there most numerously in August, when I have known as many as six or seven to be present at one time. We meet with them oftenest and most abundantly, however, in dense thickets covering swampy or, at least, very low, damp ground, usually not far from water. In the Fresh Pond swamps and along the willow-shaded causeway that crosses Rock Meadow, they literally swarm for days in succession at the height of the spring migration. The loud, rapid, musical songs of the males may then be heard coming from several directions at once, and the birds be seen darting from thicket to thicket or walking demurely about the edges of shallow pools, tilting their tails incessantly."
Gerald Thayer (MS.) writes: "This brilliant songster of the wilderness is a local and uncommon summer resident about Monadnock's northern base haunting some of the deep woodland bogs where Parulas are commonest, and the borders of a few big brooks in the heavier and drier forest. Like the Oven-bird and the Louisiana WaterThrush, it is for the most part a ground bird and a ivalker. Its nest I have never seen, though I've spent many midsummer afternoons, mosquito-tortured, in its nesting places, watching it trip about among black puddles, and hearing its vivid sudden song. Though our bird is less shy than the southern kind, it is, in my experience, out and away the shyest Warbler of the North Woods."
Song. — The Water-Thrush is one of the notable musicians among the Warblers. While its song lacks the ringing wildness of that of Seiurus motacilla I have come to agree with the opinion quoted from William Brewster under that species, that noveboracensis is the finer singer of the two.
The sharp, steely alarm-note, clink, is perhaps not quite so penetrating as the essentially similar call of Seiurus motacilla. So far as my experience goes the Prothonotary is the only other Warbler with a similar call-note.
"At its best the song of this species is not quite so fine, perhaps, as that of Seiurus motacilla — it is very different, and has a rare grace and vigor of its own. Like the Oven-bird the Northern Water-
Thrush makes up for a great general regularity of singing by an occasional wide lapse into variation. Its flight-song, a performance relatively far less common than the Oven-bird's (?), seems to be nearly changeless. It is like the common perch-song, but quicker and longer, and 'framed' in a hurried jumble of half-call-half-song notes; — the whole delivered as the bird dashes horizontally through or barely above the woods. Most notable among the few important variations of its perch-song I have heard was a long, liquid strain seemingly made up of at least three united repetitions of the regular utterances, going unusually fast, in a thinner tone, and intersprinkled with sharp notes of 'chippering,' unlike the common call-notes. The typical perch-song itself is hard to describe in words. A ringing, bubbling warble, swift and emphatic, made up of two parts, barely divided, the second lower-toned and diminuendo. The common call-note is a ringing chip, somewhat less loud and emphatic than that of the Louisiana Water-Thrush, but more so than that of any other ( ?) northern Warbler." (Thayer, MS.)
in similar situations.
"The typical nest is placed at the base of an ash or elm tree in the thick moss, close in a crotch between the roots or where a root projects out leaving a cavity under it, also at the base of moss-covered stumps usually but a few inches above the water. A nest found May 22, 1904, was at base of a moss-covered stump, and there was a Song Sparrow's nest two feet above in the same stump. A nest found May 22, 1903, was under a moss-covered log and could not be seen without getting down on my knees." (Burtch, MS.)
Nest. — Nests from Maine are externally composed almost wholly of a green moss with a slight admixture of bits of leaves, grasses, bark, or twigs, and are thickly enough lined with the brown blossom stalk of a species of moss, to make the color of the interior contrast strongly with that of the exterior.
"The nests are made entirely of moss with the moss blossom stems for lining, so are not easy to find as they look to be part of the moss in which they are imbedded." (Burtch, MS.)
Eg£s- — Usually 4 or 5, about evenly divided. Ground color creamy white, specked, spotted and blotched with cinnamon-rufous, hazel and lavender gray, more or less inclining to wreathe about the large end, though in some cases the markings combine to almost cover the large end, over rest of egg the markings are quite profuse but
Nesting Dates. — Branchport, N. Y., May i8-May 30 (Burtch) ; Lancaster, N. H., June 9, full-grown young following parents (Spaulding) ; Pittsfield, Me., May 28-June 9, young about two weeks old. (Knight); Listowel, Ont, May 2O-June 10 (Kelts).
(i) W. L. KELLS, Nesting of Some Canadian Warblers, Ottawa Naturalist, XV, 1902, 228. (2) J. M. SWAIN, Contributions to the Life-History of the Water-Thrush, Journ. Me. Orn. Soc., VI, 1904, 70. (3) WM. BREWSTER, Birds of the Cambridge Region, 349.
SEIURUS NOVEBORACENSIS NOTABILIS Ridfw.
Subspecific Characters. — Similar to 5". noveboracensis noveboracensis, but larger, bill longer, upperparts darker, less olive; line over eye and the underparts whiter. Wing, 3.10; tail, 2.20; bill, .52.
Alaska, southeast to Florida.
Summer Range. — Western Nebraska (Sioux City), northern Minnesota northwest to Alaska, west to British Columbia. The western line of the district in which the species is common during migration is found from Nebraska southward at the edge of the Plains; to the westward it has been taken casually in Arizona (near Camp Crittenden, August 1874; Catalina Mountains, September 2, 1884; Tucson, May 4, 1881 ; Huachuca Mountains, August 31, 1903), Colorado (Denver May 12, 1873; Fort Lyon, May 6, 1886; Boulder, May 14, 1904), Wyoming (Lake Como, May 10, 1878; Cheyenne, Fort Bridger), Utah ^ Lower Santa Clara Valley, May n, 1891), Idaho (Hellgate), Washington (Camp Moogie).
Nelson says that in Alaska it is abundant in the interior as well as at the mouth of the Yukon, "in fact, is one of the most common bush-frequenting birds throughout the entire fur countries, extending north even beyond tree limit."
(i) W. L. KELLS, Grinnell's Water-Thrush (in British Columbia), Nidologist, I, 1804, 42, 58. (2) E. W. NELSON, Report on Nat. Hist. Coll. made in Alaska, 204 (the bird is given as Seiurus noveboracensis).
Compared with Geothlypis, Oporornis (taking O. agilis as the type) has the wing much longer and more pointed, the tail decidedly less rounded. The wing is at least three and a half, instead of two and three-fourths times as long as the tarsus, the outer primary is usually the longest, the outer tail-feathers are but little the shortest, the hindtoe is as long as its claw.
While admitting the characters which distinguish Oporornis agilis from Geothlypis most systematists have treated Oporornis as a subgenus of Geothlypis because of the existence of several species possessing intermediate characters. The attempt, however, to force Oporornis into Geothlypis negatives any description emphasizing the well-marked structural features which prevail in that genus and, at the same time, prevents the proper description of the generic characters which distinguish Oporornis. It seems desirable, therefore, to recognize both genera and to place the intermediate species with those forms to which they appear to be most nearly related. Of these intermediate species the Kentucky Warbler has invariably been placed in Oporornis, while the Mourning and Macgillivray's Warbler have usually been grouped with Geothlypis. Mr. Ridgway, however, on the basis of their general coloration, more pointed wing and longer outer primary, includes them in Oporornis and I have little doubt of the correctness of his decision.
Distinguishing Characters. — The Kentucky Warbler may always be known by its entirely yellow underparts, absence of white in wings and tail, yellow line over the eye, black or blackish on crown and sides of throat. Length (skin), 5.00; wing, 2.65; tail, 2.00; bill, .45.
Adult c?, Spring. — Crown black more or less tipped with ashy, line over and around back of eye yellow, rest of upperparts, wings and tail olive-green, outer vane of outer primary grayish, bend of wing yellow; underparts from chin to crissum bright yellow, lores, cheeks and band at side of throat black.
areas blackish or only dusky and more heavily tipped, tips brownish or olive.
Adult ? and Young $, Fall. — I have no Fall females with both age and sex accurately determined. The material at hand, however, indicates a difference in females taken at that season similar to that observed in the male.
Summer Range. — The Kentucky Warbler is a forest lover and makes its chief home in the heaviest timbered regions and dark, damp woods of the central Mississippi Valley. Eastward it breeds more or less locally from North Carolina to the lower Hudson Valley (Sing Sing, Pleasantville) and to Pennsylvania (Chester, Delaware, and Beaver Counties) ; occurs casually north to Connecticut (Suffield, August 16, 1876, Lyme).
There is a single record of its breeding in South Carolina (Caesar's Head) and four records of its occurence during migration in Florida. The Kentucky Warbler is common in the state from which it takes its name, and in the watershed of the Ohio River and its tributaries. It is uncommon north of this region, but is found as far as Lake Erie — accidental in Quebec, southern Ontario (near London, May, 1898), southern Michigan, southern Wisconsin (Racine, May 10, 1851, Lake Koshkonong) and southern Minnesota.
The western limit of its range is reached in southeastern Nebraska (Omaha, Lincoln, Peru) and thence through eastern Kansas (Leavenworth, Atchison, Manhattan) to eastern Texas (Navarro County, San Antonio; in migration at Corpus Christi).
Accidental in the West Indies.
Fall Migration. — The southward movement begins the last of July, and on October 7 the species has been taken at the extreme southern limit of its known range in Colombia, South America. Some
KENTUCKY WARBLER
records of the latest observations are at Berwyn, Pa., September 4, 1896; Beaver, Pa., September 13, 1888; Cadiz, Ohio, September 23, 1900; Eubank, Ky., September 6, 1888; Raleigh, N. C, September 12, 1894; New Orleans, La., October 19, 1895.
The Bird and its Haunts. — My own experience with this Warbler, which in habits suggests both the Yellow-throat (trichas) and Ovenbird, is confined to the west side of the Hudson River, at Englewood, N. J. Here, on the western slope of the Palisades, in moist woods with a fairly heavy undergrowth, it is not uncommon, though it is virtually unknown in the apparently favorable woods growing in the valleys to the west. During the nesting season, the loud, musical song of the male readily betrays his whereabouts, and one may watch it with ease as it frequently utters its notes from a perch at a height of twenty feet or thereabouts, descending at intervals to walk about on the ground and search for food.
At Berwyn, Pennsylvania, Burns (MS.) writes: "The Kentucky Warbler is usually one of our commonest summer residents, though apt to be rather irregular in abundance now and then. During the season of 1897, it became abundant, falling off to about half the number the following year. It is here an inhabitant of the overgrown clearings, swampy thickets, and the borders of woodland; a bird of the south, loving the luxuriant undergrowths of spicewood, ferns, mandrake, skunk cabbage, and other shade-loving plants of rank growth.
"It is very cunning in the concealment of its home, usually running quietly from the nest before the intruder is within ten or twenty feet, protesting as it becomes visible at a safe distance, and as it seems always to be chipping around, significance cannot always be attached to its actions. When the mate appears the object of their suspicions may be circled at a safe distance from bush to bush and bush to ground, several times in the course of half an hour, and then one bird may slip unseen to the nest, while the other lingers a little longer to keep up the deception, retiring at last to some distant part of the woods, or perhaps it may gradually lessen the volume of protesting notes until it becomes silent, and with apparent content, settle on what one confidently thinks must be the nest, only to flush it from an empty bunch of weeds.
"The eyes of the young are opened on the fifth day and in two instances birds left the nest on the eighth day. If the too inquisitive observer is noticed lurking around, the frantic female will frequently drive the young from the nest prematurely. The male, while protesting vigorously, seldom approaches as closely as the female."
In Mississippi, Allison (MS.) writes that the Kentucky Warbler inhabits "undergrowth in damp, or, at least, heavily shaded, woods. It may frequent the thickets of rose-bay (Illicium) and the tangle of bamboo briers on the Gulf coast, the varied tangled growth along the creeks and rivers of the higher regions, or the brakes of switchcane ; but it always selects a low, thick growth, where it feeds almost entirely on the ground."
Song. — With the Kentucky Warbler singing is a serious performance to which he gives his entire attention. I quote from my 'Handbook' : "His song is entirely unlike that of any other Warbler. It is a loud, clearly whistled performance of five, six, or seven notes — tur-dle, tur-dle, tur-dle — resembling in tone some of the calls of the Carolina Wren. Even in the woods it may be heard at a distance of about one hundred and fifty yards.
"In the height of the breeding season this Warbler is a most persistent singer. On one occasion, at Englewood, N. J., I watched a male for three hours. During this period, with the exception of five interruptions of less than forty-five seconds each, he sang with the greatest regularity once every twelve seconds Thus, allowing for the brief intervals of silence, he sang about 875 times, or some 5,250 notes. I found him singing, and when I departed he showed no signs of ceasing."
"The call-note is a low-pitched 'chuck,' with some of the querulous quality of a Flycatcher's note ; in fact it considerably resembles the note of the Phoebe. The song is much like that of the Carolina Wren, but less lively and ringing: ter-ivheeter-wheeter-wheeter-wheeterzvheeter, — with falling inflection. I have never heard it in fall." (Allison, MS.)
"The song is a loud, clear and sweetly whistled peer-ry, repeated rapidly four or five times. Often, though less frequently, a che che eke peer-ry peer-ry peer-ry. When first heard it is suggestive of the song of the Cardinal or Carolina Wren. During the nesting season it is an incessant singer from the lower branches of the sapling in which it is constantly moving or as often from the ground where it is at its best, walking about with an air and dignity not often attained by small birds. The song continues from arrival until June 27-June 23, and one was heard August 7, (1902). Most persistent the first four weeks, however, when near its haunts, one is seldom out of hearing of one or more singers. A flight song is sometimes delivered about dusk during the height of the breeding period. It is indescribable. The alarm note is a metallic chip, check, or chuck, more or less rapidly repeated, and to a critical ear easily recognizable. The bird appears to be free from that ever present nervousness of some of our Wood Warblers, exhibiting perfect self possession on almost all occasions. In May 1896, I heard several birds, possibly transients, sing Too-dle too-dle too-dle too-dle (erroneously transposed with the breeding song in Warbler Songs, Wilson Bulletin p. 47). On this occasion the birds were not in full song on arrival." (Burns, MS.)
a few inches of the ground.
"The nest is often placed in the most unexpected places : It may be on top of the ground at the foot of a beech, spice-bush, dog- wood, sweet birch, or black haw sprout; under a fallen bough, or perhaps just off the wet earth between the ground forks of a bunch of spicewood, winter fern, Spanish needles or other weeds ; or less frequently, in the midst of a patch of wild sarsaparilla, mandrake or other annuals, with nothing to turn aside the crushing foot of man or beast. It is usually well concealed by the surrounding vegetation while in a comparatively open spot, and if not directly in an abandoned cartroad, not far from some woodland footpath, public road, or the edge of the woods." (Burns, MS.)
"A rather bulky and loosely constructed nest, outwardly of somewhat ragged dead leaves of the chestnut, beech, cherry, maple, white, black, and chestnut oak, a few weed or grass stems, an occasional strip of wild grapevine bark, and, once, many green leaves of the dogwood, and, in another example, several oak blossoms; usually followed by an inner layer of bright, clean dead leaves of the beech, lined with black rootlets and in fully half of the nests examined, a few long black horse-hairs. In one instance the lining was of light-colored rootlets. Another nest, so well hidden in a patch of woodplants that I accidentally trod upon it while actually searching for it, was a most frail affair built exclusively of grasses, lined with black rootlets, however.
"During the nest building period the birds are so extremely jealous and watchful, deserting the site rather than be spied upon, that I have been unable so far to follow this interesting period to a finish. The male unquestionably aids his mate." (Burns, MS.)
Eggs. — 4 or 5, in about even proportions. Ground color white, in some cases very glossy, spotted and specked, rarely blotched, with burnt umber, cinnamon-rufous and lilac-gray, seldom if ever showing under shell markings; in most cases the markings are heavier at the large end, sometimes in a mass, sometimes well wreathed, and in other types evenly distributed over entire egg. Size; average, 74X.58; extremes, 79x.6o, .6o.x.57, 73X.54. (Figs. 100,101.)
Nesting Dates.— Buncombe Co., N. C, May 23 (C. W. C.) ; West Chester, Pa., May 27 (Jackson} ; Chester Co., Pa., June 25 (J. P. AT.) ; Waynesburg, Pa., May i8-June 10 (Jacobs} ; New York City, June iJune 12 (F M. C.} ; Dunklin Co., Mo., May 15 (C. W. C.}.
(i) WM. BREWSTER, Observations on the Birds of Ritchie County, West Virginia, Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist. N. Y., XI, 1875, 137- (2) F. T. JENKS, Kentucky Warbler, its Nesting Habits, [in Ind.], Orn. and O61., VI, 1881, 49. (3) D. E. L[ANTZ], The Kentucky Warbler, [in Kansas], Orn. and O61., X, 1885, 19. (4) T. A. JACKSON, Nesting of the Kentucky Warbler [in S. E. Pa.], Orn. and O61., XII, 1887, 43. (5) J. P. NORRIS, JR., Nesting of the Kentucky Warbler in Chester County, Penn., Orn. and O61., XIV, 1889, 104. (6) Ibid., XV, 1890, 145. (7) Ibid., Nidologist, I, 1894, 165. (8) J. P. N [ORRIS], A Series of Eggs of the Kentucky Warbler, Orn. and O61., XVII, 1892, I.
Distinguishing Characters. — The adult <£ is to be confused only with the adult c? of the Mourning and Macgillivray's Warbler from both of which it is distinguished by its larger size, complete white eye-ring, and absence of black on the breast. The young c? and ? may be known from the corresponding sex and age of the Mourning and Macgillivray's Warblers by their large size, browner breast, and more conspicuous, complete eye-ring. Length (skin), 4.90; wing, 2.75; tail, 1.85; bill, .48.
Adult <?, Spring. — Upperparts olive-green with a brownish tinge, the crown more or less slaty gray; wings and tail like back and without white markings, bend of wing yellow; a complete white eye-ring; sides of head, throat and upper breast slaty gray paler on the throat, rest of underparts, including crissum, yellow, the sides olive-green.
west to the Mississippi River.
Summer Range. — Summer records of the Connecticut Warbler are rare. There is a single record of its breeding in Manitoba; it was found located for the summer in a tamarack swamp near Hickory, Aitkm County, Minn., where it was seen from June 21 onward; it was seen in July on the St. Louis River in eastern Minnesota, and, therefore, probably breeds in that locality; it is claimed to breed not uncommonly in southern Wisconsin ; old with young were seen on the Porcupine Mountains, northern Michigan, July 27, 1904, and undoubtedly bred there.
migration.
Spring Migration. — This is one of the few species that seems to travel different routes during the two yearly migrations. The spring migration is through Florida to the Mississippi Valley and thence north to the breeding grounds. The few records of spring migration note the arrival of this species in southern Florida May 4-19; northern Florida, May 10-1 1 ; Chester County, S. C., May ro ; St.
242 CONNECTICUT WARBLER
Louis, Mo., May 14-22; English Lake, Ind., May 4, 1891 ; Oberlin, O., May 7, 1904; Glen Ellyn, 111., May 12, 1896; southern Michigan, May 17, 1894; southern Ontario, May 16, 1892.
Fall Migration. — The vicinity of Chicago is one of the few places visited by the Connecticut Warbler during both spring and fall migration. Here the average period of fall occurrence is from August 31 to September 10, with extremes of August 30 and September 17. The path of fall migration passes principally east of the Allegheny Mountians and some dates of occurrence along the Atlantic slope are at Saco, Me., September 8-15; Shelburne, N. H., September 14; Pittsford, Vermont, September 20; Portland, Conn., September 17 to October i; southeastern New York, August 26 to October 12; Englewood, N. J., September 3 to October 1 1 ; Washington, D. C, August 28 to October 12; Raleigh, N. C., October 14-24; southern Forida, October 9. So far as known, the Connecticut Warbler has not been recorded anywhere during the half of the year from October 22 to April 9.
The Bird and its Haunts. — During the spring migration the Connecticut Warbler seems to be confined to the Mississippi Valley where, at this season, as well as in the fall, it is generally considered a rare bird. In its return migration, however, it is often common in the Atlantic states. At this time they may usually be found in low, damp woods with abundant undergrowth, though not infrequently they are flushed from weedy growths bordering hedgerows some distance from the woods. They are now excessively fat, no other Warbler, as far as I am aware, approaching them in this respect. While, locally Connecticut Warblers seem to come in flights, being common some years and rare others, the census of light-housestriking Warblers shows that the bird is a regular autumnal visitor.
At Cambridge, Brewster5 writes: "We used to find Connecticut Warblers oftenest among the thickets of clethra, Andromeda ligustrina, shad-bush and black alder, which formed a dense swamp, and in the beds of touch-me-not (Impatiens) that covered some of its wetter portions. They were also given to frequenting the banks of numerous intersecting ditches, especially where the deadly nightshade, clinging to the stems of the bushes, trailed its gray-green foliage and coral-red berries over the black mud or coffee-colored water. In such places they often literally swarmed, but so retiring and elusive were they that by anyone unacquainted with their habits they might easily have been overlooked. They spent most of their time on the ground under or among rank vegetation, where they
would often remain securely hidden until nearly trodden on. Indeed we learned eventually that the only certain method of starting all the birds that a thicket contained was to beat the place closely and systematically many times in succession. If further disturbed, they were nearly sure to take long flights to distant parts of the swamp During cloudy weather we sometimes found them feeding with Blackpoll Warblers in the tops of large willows, fifty or sixty feet above the ground. The earliest date on which they were ever seen by us was September 7, and the last stragglers usually departed for the south before the ist of October. They never appeared in spring, nor is there a single record in which I have full confidence of their occurrence at that season in any part of Massachusetts."
At Monadnock, Gerald Thayer (MS.) writes that the Connecticut Warbler is "sometimes fairly common at Monadnock in the fall, from mid-September to early October, in bushy roadside copses and damp thickets in and near woods. In spring it is very rare here, we have seen only two or three in the course of a dozen years."
With Brewster he comments on the bird's thrush-like appearance, saying : "As it appears about Monadnock in the Autumn, the Connecticut has a curiously quiet and thrush-like demeanor. Starting up from the ground, where it has been walking, it stops on a low perch and sits dead still for several seconds, sometimes for a half minute or more, before moving on, and then it usually flies rather far. The only note I have ever heard from it is a very quick, sharp call, with a clipped-short metallic ring, plink, easily remembered and differentiated among Warbler chips. In immature plumage, as we commonly see it, it looks very dark, and shows no definite markings whatever beyond the rather conspicuous white eye-ring, which adds to the effect of thrush-likeness."
According to Ernest Seton1, who alone has found the Connecticut breeding, the bird, in Manitoba, summers in tamarac swamps. Gault's4 observations in Aitkin County, Minn., indicate the breeding of the species in similar localities at that place, while the taking of fledglings by Warren8, on August 10, near Palmer, in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, considerably extends the probable nesting range of the species. Warren remarks that at this point he saw over fifty Connecticut Warblers on August 29, an observation which suggests that the species is much more common in the Mississippi Valley than existing records would lead us to believe.
Song. — I have never heard the song of this species. The call-note, however, is a sharp, characteristic peek. Ernest Seton1 writes that the song "may be suggested by the syllables beecher-beecher-beecherbeecher-beecher-beecher. It is like the song of the Golden-crowned Thrush [=Oven-bird], but differs in being in the same pitch throughout. * * *
"Besides the song already recorded I have noted another type; it nearly resembles the syllables fru-chapple fru-chapple fru-chapple in'hoit, and is uttered in a loud, ringing voice, quite unlike the weak, hurried lisping of the Wood Warbler * * * ."
"On first hearing the song it reminded me strongly of the Northern Yellow-throat's. It is, however, more vigorous and resonant than the Yellow-throat's. It does not repeat the song very often. The description fru-chapple fru-chapple fru-chapple, whoit, is good. Or, sometimes, it seems to say too-too-whit. He shakes his body all over when he sings and his wings and tail vibrate furiously." (FarwelL MS.}
Nest. — What appears to be the only authentic nest of this species was found by Ernest Seton1 near Carberry, Manitoba, June 21, 1883. It is described by him as being "composed entirely of fine grass."
Eggs. — The nest discovered by Seton contained 4 eggs. Their color before being blown is described as "a delicate creamy white, with a few spots of lilac-purple, brown, and black, inclined to form a ring at the large end." Size; -75x.56.
(i) E. T. SETON, Nest and Habits of the Connecticut Warbler, [in Manitoba], Auk, I, 1884, 192. (See also Proc. U. S. N. M., XIII, 1890, 621. (2) W. L. COLLINS, Note on Oporornis agilis, [near Philadelphia], Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club, V, 1880, 50. (3) O. B. WARREN, Notes from the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, Auk, XII, 1895, 192. (4) B. T. GAULT, Geothlypis agilis, A Possible Breeder in Northern Minnesota, Auk, XIV, 1897, 222. (5) WM. BREWSTER, Birds of the Cambridge Region, 351.
Distinguishing Characters. — The Mourning and Macgillivray's Warblers closely resemble one another but may be distinguished by the following characters ; the adult c? Mourning has no white in the eye-ring, the lores are blackish, the breast jet black with few or no grayish tips at its junction with the yellow of the underparts ; the adult c? Macgillivray's has a white mark in the
MOURNING WARBLER 245
eye-ring above and below the eye, the lores are black, the breast slate-black, usually widely and more or less evenly tipped with grayish. The $ and young c? of these species can be less readily determined since in such specimens the Mourning develops a more or less well-marked whitish eye-ring. It is, however, usually incomplete and this fact in connection with the bird's shorter tail will serve to separate it from Macgillivray's. Length (skin), 4.90; wing, 2.50; tail, 2.00; bill, .45.
Adult c?, Spring. — Head bluish slate, back, wings, and tail olive-green, no white markings, no white eye-ring; lores gray or blackish; throat heavily tipped with gray, these tips gradually decreasing in width posteriorly, leaving, usually, a black area on the breast at its junction with the yellow of the rest of the underparts, sides greenish.
Adult <$, Fall. — No specimens in early Fall plumage seen, but judging from G. tolmiei, similar to adult <$ in Spring but throat and breast more widely tipped with whitish, the crown tipped with brownish.
Young <$, Fall. — Similar to adult d1 in Spring but crown brownish olivegreen slightly browner than back, a nearly complete whitish eye-ring, throat and upper breast yellowish, the former paler, the feathers of the latter dusky or blackish basally.
Adult $, Spring. — Similar to adult d* in Spring but bluish slate of head and olive of back browner; an inconspicuous whitish or gray eye-ring; throat and upper breast brownish gray.
Young ?, Fall. — Above uniform olive-green, head without trace of gray; below yellow, throat with a more or less evident trace of dusky, sides greenish; eye-ring less distinctly whitish than in adult ?.
Nestling. — Above dark olive-brown, browner than in nestling of Geothlypis trichas, sides and breast a more yellow brown, belly yellowish buff, median and greater wing-coverts tipped with cinnamon-brown.
Summer Range. — The Mourning Warbler is most common in summer near the northern limit of its range, in Manitoba, northern Minnesota, and central Ontario; and less common in eastern Agsiniboia. It is not uncommon as a breeder in Michigan (Porcupine Mountains), southern Ontario (Toronto, Guelph), northern New York (Oneida, Niagara, Ontario Counties), Vermont (Londonderry, Townsend), New Hampshire (Mt. Moosilauke, North Woodstock, Intervale), Massachusetts (Berkshire County), Maine (Franklin County), New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island and Nova Scotia. It breeds also in the Catskills and in some of the mountains of Pennsylvania ( Westmoreland, Sullivan, Cambria, Clinton Counties), and West Virginia (spruce belt).
With the exception of a probably accidental occurrence in South Carolina, it has not been recorded outside the mountains at any time of the year in the Atlantic and Gulf States from North Carolina to
Mississippi. It is a rare migrant in Louisiana, but is fairly common in migration in Texas, and has been noted in eastern Kansas (Topeka, Neosho Falls), eastern Nebraska (Omaha, Neligh), and eastern North Dakota (Cando).
Its distribution in the United States is, therefore, fan-shaped. Touching the Gulf of Mexico along the coast of Louisiana and Texas, a distance of six hundred miles, the lines of migration extend north to Manitoba and northeast along the west side of the Alleghenies to New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and the Magdalen Islands. The east and west extension of the breeding ground is nearly two thousand miles.
Spring Migration. — The Mourning Warbler is one of the latest of the family to arrive from its winter home in Central and South America. It probably reaches the United States late in April or the first week in May.
May 23 1900
Fall Migration. — An unusually early migrant was seen at Lanesboro, Minn., July I, 1888. The species moves south in July and August, and reaches Costa Rica the first of September. The last has been noted at Ottawa, Ont., August 28, 1896 ; North River, Prince Edward Island, September 3, 1890; Cleveland, Ohio, September 26, 1896; Renovo, Pa., September 26, 1899; Cambridge, Mass., September 30; New Orleans, La., October 7, 1896.
The Bird and its Haunts. — Both while nesting and when migrating, the Mourning Warbler appears to be a more or less rare bird throughout its range. At Englewood, I know it only as an occasional late spring migrant and have no record of it in the fall.
At Cambridge, according to Brewster5, there are definite records of the occurrence of but fifteen individuals of this species of which only two were observed in the fall. Most of the birds, Brewster states, "were found either in swampy thickets or among dense shrubbery in gardens."
At Monadnock, Gerald Thayer (MS.) writes, the Mourning Warbler is rare, "we have seen several here in the spring and one or two in autumn. It may possibly breed here. Its call-notes I have never heard, wittingly, and its full-voiced, highly-modulated singing I have heard too seldom to warrant my attempting a detailed description of it. In migration, it is a somewhat shy and quick-moving Warbler, like a Yellow-throat with a dash of Water-Thrush blood. It hops about in thickets like a Yellow-throat, but is prone to visit also the overgrowth of deciduous woods and hedge-rows. The first one I ever saw I shot from the top of a seventy-foot maple, whither it had flown from a blossoming apple tree. The Mourning has also manners in common with its close cousin the Connecticut, notably the habit of stopping very short and sitting quite still for a few seconds."
In Maine, Swain* writes, the Mourning Warbler's nesting haunts are in "dense underbrush on the margin of some lowland woods or second growth swamps or on some hillside covered with brush, near a deep wooded ravine."
At Branchpoint, N. Y., Burtch (MS.) says a favorite nesting resort is a bushy clearing with an abundance of blackberry briars, and I have found the bird, in June, in a similar location in northern Cayuga County, N. Y.
Song. — "The males would sit for a long time on the limb of a dead tree, motionless, but for Hie occasional utterance of their brief song. In quality their song is much like that of the Maryland Yellow-throat ; but the song, as I heard it, consists of five notes, the first three just alike, followed by two others, louder and fuller. The whole is loud, clear and ringing and forms an interesting song. * * * " (Roberts1}
"In quality and style this Warbler's songs bears a strong resemblance to that of the Water-Thrush, the variations having the same general quality, but the song is considerably less in volume and lacks the wild thrill of the Water-Thrush. The song which I have heard most frequently is tee te-o te-o te-o we-se, the last couplet accented and much
higher pitched. A less common form slightly resembles the crescendo chant of Oven-bird, but is weaker. It is rather a swell than a crescendo. Dr. Merriam describes a variation which I have never heard : 'true 'true 'true 'tru 'too, the last and next to the last syllables with falling inflection and more softly. The song is clear and whistling.
Nest. — Swain4 describes a Maine nest as bulky but neat and compact, made externally of dry leaves and vine stalks with an inner wall of dead, coarse, flat-bladed grass, with finer grasses and a few weed stalks, all through this wall a few small, dead white maple leaves being interwoven. The lining was composed of fine grasses and a few horsehairs.
Eggs. — Usually 4. Ground color white, sparingly spotted and blotched with rufous red, brownish and light hazel in form of an indistinct wreath about large end and few scattering marks over rest of
Nesting Dates. — Lancaster, N. H., June 8 (Spaulding) ; between Athens and Hartland, Me., June 16 (Knight) ; Listowel, Ont., June 3-June 14 (Kells) ; Kalkuska Co., Mich., June 7, Dunham — Ontonagon Co., nestlings, July 15, Peet (Barrows}.
(i) T. S. ROBERTS, A Partial List of the Birds of St. Louis and Lake Counties, Minn., Rep. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Surv. Minn, for 1879, 158. (2) W. L. KELLS, Nesting of the Mourning Warbler, (in Ontario), Orn. and O61., XIV, 1889, 4; Ottawa Naturalist, XVIII, 1904, 65. (3) E. G. TABOR, N< sting of the Mourning Warbler, Orn. and O61., XV, 1890, 68. (4) J. M. SWAIN, Contributions to the Life-History of the Mourning Warbler, Journ. Me. Orn. Soc., VII, 1905, 14. (5) WM. BREWSTER, Birds of the Cambridge Region, 353.
Adult <$, Spring. — Head bluish slate, back olive-green, wings and tail olivegreen without white markings; a white mark above and another below the eye, lores black; throat and upper breast blackish or slaty-black rather evenly and widely tipped with grayish white, rest of underparts yellow, the sides greenish.
slate, lores grayish or brownish, throat and breast yellowish or brownish gray.
Adult $, Spring. — Similar to adult c? in Spring but bluish slate of head and olive of back browner; white eye-marks less conspicuous, cheeks and lores grayish, throat and breast gray slightly tinged with brown.
Spring Migration. — The earliest migrants of Macgillivray's Warbler seen in the Huachuca Mountains, Arizona, were recorded April n, 1902. In southern California a few have been seen as early as the last of March, but the general time of arrival in the southern part of the state is the first ten days in April. The average date of arrival in northern Colorado is May 13; at Cheyenne, Wyo., May 14, and at Great Falls, Mont., May 28. Some records of the first birds noted are : Dayton, Ore., about May 2 ; Camp Harney, Ore., about May I ; Portland, Ore., April 29, 1897; Olympia, Wash., April 12, 1904; Tacoma, Wash., April 16, 1905; southern British Columbia, average of three years, May 5, earliest, May 2, 1905.
The Bird and its Haunts. — Macgillivray's Warbler is a generally common bird in favorable localities throughout the west, I have found it even in the midst of the Wyoming sage plains, where a few willows bordered a snow-born stream. Undergrowth of some kind it requires but the scrub of a dry hillside apparently answers its wants as well as the bushes near water. It is much less demonstrative than a Yellowthroat (Geothlypis) and seems to try to avoid being seen either by remaining in cover or by a quick low flight to more distant cover, and were not its song too pronounced to be overlooked the bird might easily escape attention.
In California, Walter Fisher (MS) writes: "This is a very quiet little bird and is common in the Sierra Nevada Mountains among prickly ceanothus, deer-brush, wild cherry, and clumps of willow, often frequenting the vicinity of water, but as often found far from it. It lives in much the same country that is occupied by the Calaveras Warbler, from which it may be readily distinguished by its gray head and more retiring habits. There is something wren-like in the way Macgillivray's Warbler moves through its miniature jungle, shyly eyes the observer, and then vanishes noiselessly."
Song. — "Their ordinary song-notes, chee-chee-chee-chee, I could not positively discriminate from those of Wilson's Black-cap [=Wilsonia p. pileolata], when the two sang on either side of me in a thicket. To these chee-che-chu, or a few terminal notes, may be added. Sometimes, however, in May, this little Warbler has a fit of ecstasy, and, with a short, nervous flight bursts into sweet song, although not so liquid as his eastern cousin's." (Minot1.}
Nest. — Minot1 describes the nest as recalling a coarse type of Chestnut-sided Warbler architecture. Nests in the Crandall collection from Colorado are composed of grasses and rootlets lined with hair; while a nest from California is described as small and loosely made, composed of grasses, principally 'wild oats,' lined with fine grasses and a little hair.
Eggs. — 3 to 5, usually 4, very rarely 5. Ground color white to slightly creamy, marked with many shades of brown, dark lilac, rufous, purplish black and numerous under shell spots of lavender ; these markings occur in the form of specks, spots, blotches, in some cases much run together, and irregular lines, heavier at the larger end where they often form an indistinct wreath; in many types the smaller half of the egg is almost devoid of markings. Size; average, .^ix.^2; extremes measure .66x.5o and ./7X.56. (Figs. 104-106.)
Geothlypis is characterized chiefly by its short wing and rounded tail. The wing in our species is never more than .25 inches longer than the tail and sometimes equals it in length, and averages only two and three-fourths times as long as the tarsus; the outer primary is always shorter than the second and the outer tail-feather is about .25 inches shorter than the longest ; the tarsus is longer than middle-toe and nail, the hind-toe not so long as its nail.
As here restricted, Geothlypis contains about twelve species, only two of which are North American, while one is Bahaman and the others range southward through Mexico to Argentina.
The species of Geothlypis appear to respond to the influences of their environment more readily than do other North American Warblers. Seven forms of the Bahaman bird are recognized and of our G. trichas an equal number are current. In several instances, however, the great individual variation which characterizes these birds, so obscures their subspecific differences that identification is often attended with much uncertainty.
The distribution of the Bahaman forms presents a problem of exceptional interest. Ridgway (Bull. U. S. N. M., 50, II, pp. 675-7) records no less than three of the seven forms described from these islands from the single island of New Providence, but, if as has been
currently believed, the Bahaman races are all representatives of a single species, the occurrence of three of these races on one small island indicates either extreme localization or specific distinctness.
Distinguishing Characters. — This species and its several races may always be distinguished from other North American Warblers by the characters given under the genus Geothlypis. The black 'mask' of the males is an unmistakable mark and while this is lacking in the female she possesses enough of the Yellowthroat individuality of manner to be easily recognized in life.
Adult $, Spring. — A broad, black 'mask' across the forehead and on the sides of the head bordered posteriorly by bluish gray; upperparts olive-green with a grayish or a brownish tinge strongest on the hindhead; wings and tail, externally, olive-green without white patches or bars, bend of wing yellow, outer vane of outer primary whitish; throat and breast yellow, belly whitish generally more or less tinged with yellow, sides brownish, under tail-coverts yellow.
Adult c?, Fall. — Similar to adult c? in Spring but browner above and on sides, forehead and auriculars more or less tipped with grayish, the gray of forehead and crown tipped with brown.
Young <f, Fall. — With a general resemblance to the adult $ in Fall but with more or less black basally, grayish tipped feathers in the auriculars and below the eye, and, in some specimens, a few in the forehead; lores dusky yellowish. The adult plumage is acquired by partial molt the following Spring.
Adult ?, Spring. — No black 'mask'; above olive-green washed with grayish or with brownish, brightest on the forehead where sometimes distinctly reddish brown ; rump and upper tail-coverts greener ; tail and wings, externally, olivegreen without white patches or bars, bend of the wing yellow, outer vane of outer primary whitish, eye-ring whitish ; throat and upper breast yellow or yellowish in varying amount, belly whitish more or less buffy, sides brownish, under tail-coverts yellowish.
Young ?, Fall. — Upperparts uniform brownish olive-green; throat faintly tinged with yellow or buffy without yellow ; belly whitish washed with buff or yellowish; sides brownish. Like adult 5 in Fall but forehead not noticeably browner than back, thrtiat and upper breast much paler.
Nestling. — Above olive-brown, browner in some specimens, greener in others wing-coverts tipped with cinnamon; below dusky yellowish olive, belly and under tail-coverts yellower and without dusky wash.
General Distribution. — Eastern North America. Summer Range. — Eastern North America west to the Great Plains region, north from the northern part of the Austroriparian fauna to Manitoba and southern Labrador.
Spring Migration.— It is not possible to apportion the migration notes with any degree of accuracy among the various subspecies of Yellow-throats. Locality must, therefore, be taken as an index to identity.
The Bird and Its Haunts. — The Yellow-throat, for a Warbler, is possessed of unusual individuality. This is due not only to its mode of life and peculiar markings, but more particularly to its responsiveness. The tree-top Warblers pass us by without so much as a chirp of recognition, but the Yellow-throat is evidently interested in us; his notes are interrogative and so clearly occasioned by our presence that they seem to be actually addressed to us. With nervous animation the bird hops here and there, appearing and disappearing, its bright eyes shining through its black mask, its personality so distinct, that one is tempted to believe it a feather-clad sprite of the bushes. The bird, however, is far from being confined to bushy tracts, wet or dry, in the woods or out, but is distinctly partial to cat-tail meadows, a trait far more pronounced in its western relatives.
It is difficult to believe that this haunter of thickets mounts high in the sky to pursue its air-line flight to or from its summer home, but the large number of Yellow-throats included among the victims of lighthouses show that, like other retiring birds, it is a night migrant.
At Berwyn, Pa., F. L. Burns (MS.) writes that the Yellow-throat is "a common summer inhabitant of the open swampy thickets, damp woods, and to a lesser degree, the borders of the dense upland second growth. It is more often met with in the upland clearings during August and September, than earlier in the season.
"Incubation seems to be performed by the female alone. I have found her on the nest at almost all hours of the day. When flushed she seems very timid and usually keeps well hidden. Often she flies from the nest with whirring wings and always dives into the under-
growth. All attempts to ascertain the period of incubation and of the time the young are in the nest have met with disaster. I have seen parents with young in family groups up to July 25.
"On June 10, 1897, I found a nest containing apparently one large nestling unfledged — a close look showed it to be a very fat Cow-bird, and under it were two puny young of the owner, one dead and the other scarcely larger than when hatched. A little later in the day I duplicated this experience as far as nest and contents were concerned, except that both young of the owner were alive, though as small and weak as the one in the first nest."
At Branchport, N. Y., Burtch (MS.) writes that the Yellow-throat "is common in wet woods or swamps where the grass grows in rank tufts. It is found in Potter Swamp with the Water-Thrush in the more open places and along the edges. The birds are very energetic and lively and make their presence known the moment one enters their territory, when they spring up from the ground uttering their alarm note and, after looking at you to satisfy their curiosity, they disappear in the bushes."
Song. — The call-note of this species is a characteristic, impatient pit, chit, quit or chack ; the song, while variable has a certain rhythm which readily lends itself to syllabification though few writers agree as to what the bird seems to say. The songster himself however, can be identified without difficulty and may best be left to render his own music.
The flight song, uttered as the bird springs a few feet into the air, is a confused stuttering jumble of notes often followed by the normal song as the bird returns to its perch.
"There is probably a dual season of song with this species, which is obscured by variation in the singing-time of individuals. Though it usually remains in song all through the summer, in the last weeks of July and the first of August singing is less general and less spirited than either before or after. Often after the middle of August songs will be louder and more frequent than for weeks previously. Singing may cease at any time from about the middle of August to the end of the month, or first part of September (August 12 and 19, to September 3, 4, ii and 13) ; but September singing is unusual." (Bicknell2).
"A whistled wichity wichity wichity about describes the common song. On May 8, 1898, half a dozen Yellow-throats temporarily located in the corner of a swamp, uttered unusual songs. One male sang che-e-e-e-e-e like the Worm-eating Warbler. The five other males, no females noted, sang che-a-we-a che-a-we-a che-a-we-a occasionally transposing the syllables -we-a-che-a. The alarm note is a reedy tsip or chip, not to be mistaken for that of any other of our Warblers. The period of song is from arrival or shortly after, to about June 11-20, when they appear to be less active, until July 2-6 to July 10August 2." (Burns, MS.)
• "The Yellow-throat is a full-voiced and rather irregular singer. Not only does its prevalent song-form vary greatly with regions, but different individuals in the same region have notable peculiarities of utterance, both constant and occasional. The typical form of its song around Monadnock sounds to me like Witty-titty, witty-titty, etc., but this type is often widely varied from. Still, the Yellow-throat seems to be a bird with one rather than two or more main songs. Like the Chestnut-side, it sometimes mocks, or seems to mock, other birds. Queerly enough, in the only case of this I was ever witness to, the bird mimicked was a Swamp Sparrow, just as with the Chestnut-side. The imitation was equally adequate and convincing, and was repeated many times ; — a long, loud, rattling Swamp Sparrow trill, ending with a few normal witti-titty notes of Yellow-throat song. Like the Chestnutside, too, this bird lived among Swamp Sparrows. Their clear chant seems to be peculiarly catching.
"Among the Yellow-throat's several peculiar call-notes, none is more characteristic than the grating, wren-like Brrrrrr — a little, long-drawn snarl, — which does not seem often to have been described. Its flight-song, uttered from a height of five to fifty feet above the bush-tops, is made, like the Oven-bird's, of a hurried jumble of ordinary song and different song and call-notes. It is uttered oftenest in late summer, but is far from rare throughout the breeding season, from April onwards." (Thayer, MS.}
Nesting Site. — On the ground, at the base of a bush or bunch of weeds, often in a clump of weeds or tussock of grass, sometimes in bushes or briery tangles as high as five feet from the ground.
Nest. — The nest is bulky and loosely made. Externally it is composed of coarse grasses, leaves, grapevine bark, weed-shreds, etc., internally, of fine grasses and, sometimes, horse-hairs.
Eggs. — 4 or 5, usually 4. Ground color a clear glossy white, marked with specks, spots, blotches and in some cases irregular hairlike lines of reddish brown, dark umber and purplish black, the latter appearing in heavy blotches of color; some specimens are very sparingly marked, others more profusely, the markings being mostly confined to the large end in form of a wreath more or less well defined, only in a few examples do the markings occur over rest of egg. Size ; average, .7ix.54; extremes, .76x.56, .6ox.5o. (Figs. 107-109.)
Nesting Dates. — West Chester, Pa., May 26- June 10 (Jackson) ; Waynesburg, Pa., May i8-June 2 (Jacobs) ; New York City, May 25June 15 (F. M. C.) ; New Haven, Conn., May 28-June 18 (Bishop) ; Cambridge, Mass., full sets, first laying, May 25-June 5 (Breivster) ; Lancaster, N. H., June 3-21 (Spaulding) ; Bangor, Me., May 28-June 12 (Knight) ; Listowel, Ont, June 9-22 (Kells) ; Oberlin, O., May 5June 20 (Jones) ; Milton Tp., Du Page Co., Ills., May 25 (Gault).
C. S. PHILLIPS, The Maryland Yellow-throat (in Mass.), Young Oologist, I, 1884, 156. (2) E. P. BICKNELL, A Study of the Singing of our Birds, Auk, I, 1884, 215. (3) J. P. N [ORRIS], A Series of Eggs of the Maryland Yellowthroat, Orn. and O61., XVI, 1891, 150.
Subspecific Characters. — Similar to Geothlypis t. trichas but with longer tarsus, tail, and bill; wing more rounded, outer primary shorter than sixth from it ; adult c? with yellow below of a deeper shade and greater extent ; flanks darker, richer brown; upperparts browner, particularly the hindhead; facial mask wider, its grayish margin usually broader. Adult $ darker above, throat and upper breast yellower, flanks browner than in $ of trichas. Ad. <£ wing, 2.25; tail, 2.32; tarsus, .84; bill, .50.
The Bird and its Haunts. — In Florida this resident form of the Yellow-throat is so commonly found only in scrub palmettos that it is known as the 'Palmetto Bird.' I have also found it about the bushy borders of 'bay-galls' surrounded by scrub palmetto, while in the Kissimmee region it lives in the lower growth (largely young palms) of cabbage palms.
In Virginia W. Palmer found this bird in cypress swamps and canebrakes. In Mississippi Allison (MS.) writes that it frequents "heavy thickets of blackberry, trumpet creeper, and the other wayside vines of the South ; rank weeds ; hedges of Cherokee rose ; — in short, all thickets not shaded by woods, attract this Warbler. On the Gulf coast, it is frequent in thickets of reeds in the salt marshes."
Song. — The song of this bird, as I have heard it in Florida, is full and strong and while unmistakably that of a Yellow-throat, is still recognizably different from that of the Yellow-throats about New York City.
"The usual note is a drawling chip, sometimes prolonged as if the bird were exhausted. The song is generally uttered from a perch more elevated than the low thicket in which most of the time is spent, and the singer elevates the head and depresses the tail in the manner of a wren ; it is variously rendered, but the most poetic and accurate version is, Witchery, witchery, witchery often somewhat extended: Witchercheree, witcher-cheree, witcher-cheree. There is considerable individual variation. It is uttered all through the spring and summer ; but in early spring a more elaborate song, reminding me somewhat of the Hooded Warbler's, is rather frequent. The flight song begins as the singer launches forth from his thicket, reaches its climax at a height of fifteen or twenty feet, when the head is thrown back as when singing at rest, and gradually dies away as the bird sinks down with rapidly vibrating wings ; it resembles the following : Chee, chee, chee, chee, chewitchery, witchery, witchery, witchery." (Allison, MS.)
Eggs. — 4 or 5. Ground color, markings, etc., the same as in the Northern Yellow-throat. Size ; an average set of 4 eggs from Florida measures, Jix.tf, 7OX.53, 7ix-54, 72X.55-
GEOTHLYPIS TR1CHAS OCCIDENTALIS Brewst.
Subspecific Characters. — The largest and most richly colored of our Yellowthroats; the underparts are often continuously orange-yellow from throat to crissum, the sides being brownish, the belly washed with the same color. As a rule, however, the belly shows some buffy whitish, though rarely as much as in trichas; the back averages grayer than in trichas, but the main character of this form is the broad, nearly white but sometimes yellow-tinged, posterior border of the black mask of breeding specimens. Arizona specimens average, wing, 2.30; tail, 2.10; bill, 44. A specimen from Fort Custer measures, wing, 2.38 ; tail, 2.20 ; bill, .42.
Summer Range. — Northern Mexico, north to the Canadian border, east to the Great Plains, west to California, reaching the coast in the southern half of the state. The bird's exact relations with G. t. arizela in California remain to be determined.
Mexico.
The Bird and its Haunts. — In its general habits the Western Yellow-throat so closely resembles its eastern relatives that observers have considered a statement to this effect, all that was necessary in recording its status. Cooke states that in Colorado it is a common summer resident almost confined to the plains, though it has been found breeding as high as 9,000 feet.
At Flathead Lake, Montana, Silloway lists it as not uncommon in the bushes along Crow Creek, and common in the bushes and weeds of Daphnia Pond. In Nevada, Ridgway "found this bird abundant in all the bushy localities in the vicinity of water, but it was confined to the lower portions, never being seen high up on the mountains, nor even in the lower portions of the mountain canons." (B. B. & R.)
Walter Fisher, however, writes that it occurs about Lake Tahoe, his statement of its status in California being as follows : "The Western Yellow-throat ranges into California by way of the back-door and occurs very locally the whole length of the state, east of the Sierra Nevada Mountains. It pushes westward into the Shasta Valley, north of Mount Shasta, and ascends the Sierras as high as about 6,000 feet (Lake Tahoe). In the coast district of southern California, south of latitude 35°, it is a permanent resident of the freshwater tule beds, this resident form having been separated under the name scirpicola. Wherever the tule or bulrush is found whether in marshes or by streams, lakes, or even spring-holes, the Yellow-throat takes up its
Eggs. — 4 or 5, usually 4. Ground color and markings the same in all respects as in the eastern subspecies. Size; a set of 4 from Utah measures, .74*-54> .74*-54, -73x-54 and
GEOTHLYPIS TRICHAS ARIZELA Ober.
Subspecific Characters. — In Oregon, as far east, at least, as the Klamath Lakes, Washington, and British Columbia the breeding Yellow-throat shows an approach to the eastern form in the decrease in yellow on the underparts, and the somewhat narrower margin of the grayish border to the black mask. These characters, however, are variable, some specimens having the mask border fully as wide as in extreme examples of occidentalis though it averages a shade bluer in color.
In central California, whether in the interior or on the coast, the name arizela can be applied with no precision. Breeding specimens from Stockton may be referred to either arizela or occidentalis and, in fact, have been referred to both. A breeding bird from Monterey is assuredly to be referred to occidentalis rather than to arizela.
Specimens from Westminster, Ducks, Revelstoke, and Banff exhibit the intermediate character which distinguishes arizela and it may possibly prove to be desirable to restrict this name to the Yellow-throats breeding at the northern part of the range of occidentalis. Wing, 2.20; tail, 2.10; bill, .42^
British Columbia.
Summer Range. — Northern California, Oregon, Washington, and southern British Columbia eastward, at least, to Banff. (See, however, under a discussion of the bird's characters.) Winter Range. — Mexico.
The Bird and its Haunts. — In the vast tule-grown areas of the Klamath Lake region this bird was even more abundant than I have ever found the eastern form, which, it may be added, it resembles in actions.
Walter Fisher (MS.) writes of this form: "In California the Pacific Yellow-throat breeds in favorable spots west of the Sierra Nevada and north of the Tehachapi Mountains. Like other Yellow-throats it is local in occurrence, frequenting tule patches that border sloughs, lakes or sluggish rivers. In the northwest coast district the patches of high grass and tule are usually of limited extent, so that the colonies are small, but along the sloughs of Clear Lake the birds are abundant."
Song. — The song resembles in form that of the eastern Yellowthroat but differs from it sufficiently to sound somewhat strange and unfamiliar to ears accustomed to the song of North Atlantic coast birds
Eggs. — 3 to 5, usually 4. The eggs of this subspecies are not so profusely marked and average somewhat smaller than those of the eastern forms ; more of the irregular hair like lines, so common to eggs of the Orioles and Blackbirds, occur in some examples, forming a regular network about the large end, the rest of the egg being almost entirely free from markings. Size ; average, .7OX.53.
(i) J. C. MERRILL, Birds of Fort Klamath, Oregon, Auk, V, 1888, 362. (2) W. L. FINLEY, Two Oregon Warblers, Condor, VI, 1904, 31. (3) A. W. JOHNSON, Notes on Unusual Nesting Sites of the Pacific Yellow-throat, Condor, VI, 1904, 129.
GEOTHLYPIS TRICHAS SINUOSA Grlnnell
Subspecific Characters. — This small race of the Yellow-throat appears to resemble specimens of Geothlypis trichas arizela having the posterior border to the black mask narrower and darker than in occidentalis. It may always be known, however, by its small size. Wing, 2.00; tail, 1.80; bill, .40.
about San Francisco Bay.
The Bird and its Haunts. — This is not only the smallest of the Yellow-throats, but it has the most restricted range. Walter Fisher (MS.) writes: "This race dwells in the salt marshes surrounding San Francisco Bay, California. These diminutive, rather deeply-colored birds are found in the tides and tall grasses bordering the almost innumerable sloughs which meander the broad salicornia-covered flats. It is a permanent resident, whereas the Yellow-throat which occurs in fresh-water swamps to the north and south, is a migratory race."
, GEOTHLYPIS BELDINGI Ridfway
Distinguishing Characters. — A black masked Yellow-throat much larger than any member of the G. trichas group, with the mask of the c? bordered posteriorly by yellow. Length (skin), 575; wing, 2.70; tail, 2.40; bill, .60.
Adult $, Spring. — A broad band across the forehead and on the cheeks and ear-coverts black, bordered behind by yellow ; rest of upperparts, wings and tail olive-green, no white markings; underparts entirely yellow. In about
one-half the large number of specimens examined the black of the head is wider on the left side than on the right, its posterior margin, therefore, passing diagonally from right to left.
Young <$, Fall.— Like the adult c? in Fall but black band on forehead not so wide, and tipped posteriorly with grayish. There is, however, much less difference than in G. trichas, the black cheeks being acquired by beldingi in the first Fall.
becoming paler on the abdomen and more olive on the flanks.
Adult ?, Fall. — Similar to adult $ in Spring but browner above, especially on crown, sides strongly washed with brownish. Young $, Fall.— Resembles adult $ in Fall.
The Bird and its Haunts. — At San Jose del Cabo, Lower California, Frazar, as recorded by Brewster3, found this well-differentiated form of Yellow-throat an abundant inhabitant of rushes often where the water was three or four feet deep.
Song. — Brewster3, quoting Frazar, says that "the song resembles that of the Maryland [=Northern] Yellow-throat, but is so much heavier and fuller that it can be easily recognized." He adds that "the bird occasionally mounts into the air and sings on the wing."
Bryant2 writes: "I frequently heard them singing, sometimes in the top of a low tree. Their notes are rather loud and quite clear, an interval of a few seconds occurring between each song."
horse hair.
Eggs. — The nests discovered by Bryant contained from two to four eggs each, but the set of two was probably abnormal. These eggs are described as "white, with shell-spots and dots of lilac-gray and a few surface spots and pencilings of black." Size ; as given by Bryant (converted from millimeters), average, -77X.59; extremes 76x.59, 77X.57,
(i) W. L. BRYANT, A Catalogue of the Birds of Lower Calif., Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci. 2nd Ser. II, 1889, 20. (2) Ibid., 310. (3) WM. BREWSTER, Birds of the Cape Region of Lower California, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., XLI, 1902, 187.
Genus CHAALETHLYPIS Ridgway
Cham&thlypis appears to be a connectant between Icteria and Geothlypis. In general appearance it suggests Geothlypis but the bill is stouter and strongly decurved, in fact, chat-like ; the wing is even more rounded than in Geothlypis but the tail is decidedly longer than in that genus. The two known species inhabit Central America and Mexico and one of them reaches our limits on the Lower Rio Grande.
Distinguishing Characters. — The heavy, curved bill, slaty head and black lores, in connection with the yellow throat, distinguish this species from any other of our Warblers. Length (skin), 5.25; wing, 2.15; tail, 2.35; bill, .50.
Adult d, Spring. — Crown slaty with a slight olive wash, lores black, this color extending below the eye; a white mark on eye-ring above and below the eye; back, wings and tail olive-green without white markings, bend of wing yellow; throat and breast bright yellow becoming paler on the belly and brownish on the flanks.
Adult <$, Fall. — "Similar to the Spring and Summer plumage, but plumage softer, more blended ; back, etc., more buffy olive or bright olive-brown ; feathers of pileum (at least the occiput) tipped with brown, and flanks more decidedly buffy." (Ridgw.)
Young d, Fall. — "Similar in general to the adult plumage, but duller, the pileum concolor with back, or nearly so, and lores dull brownish gray or dusky, not distinctly different from color of pileum." (Ridgw.)
Distinguishing Characters. — The Chat is the largest of our Warblers and, in connection with its size, may be known by its large bill, white line from the base of bill and bright yellow throat and breast. Length (skin), 6.40; wing, 2.95; tail, 2.90; bill, .55.
Adult 3, Spring. — Upperparts, wings, and tail olive-green; bend of wing and under wing-coverts yellow; line from nostril over eye, upper and lower portions of eye-ring, and a short line from lower mandible at the side of the throat, white; lores black; auriculars grayish; throat and breast bright yellow, lower abdomen and crissum white, the flanks olive or brownish; bill shining black.
Adult $, Fall. — Similar to adult c£ in Spring but slightly greener above, flanks and crissum browner; upper mandible brownish, lower, horn color. Young $, Fall. — Similar to adult c? in Fall but lores grayer. Adult ?, Spring. — Not always distinguishable from adult 3 in Spring but generally duller in color, lores grayish, the lower mandible basally paler. Young ?, Fall. — Not seen, doubtless closely resembles young c? in Fall. Nestling. — Above dull brownish gray with an olive tinge; a narrow white superciliary line; wings and tail dull olive-green; throat and belly white, flanks brownish, breast with an olive-gray band.
General Distribution. — Eastern United States. Summer Range. — Chats do not occur in Florida, but from northern Georgia and the Gulf states, and west to the Plains, they are common north to southern New York and Iowa ; they also occur less commonly to southern New England, Massachusetts (rare and local), Vermont (Pownal, June 16, 1896), Maine (accidental, Portland, North Bridgton, Elliott), New York (Albany, West Seneca, Oneida, Orleans, and Yates Counties), Ohio (Oberlin), southern Ontario (Hamilton, Waterdown, Point Pelee), Michigan (Detroit, Grosse Pointe Farms), Wisconsin (Stevens Point), Minnesota.
Spring Migration. — The summer home of the Chat extends from the Atlantic to the Pacific. The species has been separated into an eastern and a western form, and in the following tables, the notes for Colorado and the Pacific Coast refer to the western form (Icteria virens longicauda), the rest to the eastern form (Icteria virens wrens.}
Fall Migration. — The Chat migrates early. It deserts the northern limit of its range in August and by the first of September few are left north of 39 degrees latitude. Some dates of the last noted are at Englewood, N. J., August 29, 1885; Renovo, Pa., September 21, 1897; Berwyn, Pa., September 2, 1898; Washington, D. C., September 19, 1886; Raleigh, N. C., September i, 1888; Brookville, Ind., September 7, 1886; Bicknell, Ind., September 27, 1894; Chicago, Ills., August 16,
tember 20, 1889.
The Bird and its Haunts. — Assuredly no other Warbler, and indeed few of our passerine birds, are possessed of the Chat's individuality. Its characteristics of form, habits, and notes are exceptionally pronounced and, in consequence, we have here a bird of more than usual interest.
Although the Chat avoids rather than seeks observation, he by no means shuns the haunts of man and when favorable cover was available I have known these birds to nest in a village. Generally, however, the tangled undergrowth which the Chat requires disappears as the human population increases and, for the Chat, only the waste places are left. Not only does the dense, often briery growth, which this bird requires, develop more freely near water but here, because of the often less habitable nature of the ground, it is left longest and for these reasons one generally finds the Chat in wet or swampy places, though he evidently is quite as contented in upland thickets, when they are available.
No small part of the impression the Chat creates is due to the nature of his haunts. In them he has the bird student at complete disadvantage. When seemingly almost within reach he is still invisible; and one might well imagine that he intentionally led us through the most impenetrable part of his home merely to enjoy our futile efforts to see him. To the Chat, therefore, more than to any other American bird, might be applied Wordsworth's familiar lines :
If, however, you would see the Chat satisfactorily, fight him with his own fire. Seat yourself in the thicket where as pursuer you are at the bird's mercy, and with pursed lips squeak gently but persistently. Soon there will be an answering chut, and with due patience and discretion, you may induce this elusive creature to appear before you.
I do not recall a more suspicious bird than the Chat. Even the Crow's innate caution is sometimes forgotten ; but a Chat is always on guard. So far as I am aware, no one has as yet succeeded in photographing a Chat on its nest. F. L. Burns (MS.) writes that "the nest is watched very closely although its owner is seldom flushed from it, while a disturbed nest will almost invariably be deserted after the bird has pierced or broken its eggs. While the Cowbird frequently
Song. — As a vocalist the Chat is unique among the Warblers, and indeed, so far as my experience goes, among birds at large. No description does justice to his singular medley of calls and whistles. Heard at night, when, especially if it be moonlight, the Chat often sings freely, the performance takes high rank among the songs of North American birds; not for its fluency or spiritual quality, but for its striking originality.
"Regularly up to the middle of July, and sometimes through the third or even fourth week of the month, this species continues in song. Imperfect songs may be heard in early August, but rarely later, although my record extends to August 14. Dates of fairly perfect final songs range between July 15 and August I." (Bicknell2).
"The voice of this bird is flexible to an almost unlimited degree. It has no notes suggesting its place among the Warblers. Perhaps the commonest note is a harsh, rather nasal, chuck, often prolonged into chuck-uck. The song is almost impossible to describe; it begins with two slow, deep notes ; then follows one high-pitched and interrogative note ; then several, rapid and even, and from that point on to the end, I have never been able to give any rendering of the clucking and gurgling that completes the long song. As far as I have described, it may be rendered thus: Quoort-quoort! whee? whew-whew-whew !
"It is generally uttered from a perch at or near the top of a small tree among the thickets ; but often the bird mounts high into the largest tree available — but never far from the heavy undergrowth, — utters part of the song there, then launches into the air, wings held high, and flapping slowly, almost meeting over the back; legs dangling, and tail wagging extravagantly up and down. (Allison, MS.).
"His love song is a woodland idyl and makes up for much of his short comings. From some elevated perch from which he can survey the surrounding waste for a considerable distance he flings himself into the air, straight up he goes on fluttering wings — legs dangling, head raised, his whole being tense, and spasmodic with ecstasy. As he rises he pours forth a flood of musical gurgles, and whistles that drop from him in silvery cascades to the ground, like sounds of fairy chimes. As he reaches the apex of his flight, his wings redouble their beatings, working straight up and down, while the legs hanging limply down,
remind the observer of drawings we sometimes see from the brushes of Japanese artists. He holds his hovering position for an instant then the music gradually dies away and as he sinks toward the ground, he regains his natural poise, and seeks another perch like that from which he started." (Taverner3.)
the ground.
Nest. — Nests from near New York are coarse, bulky but rather compact structures made chiefly of dried grasses, leaves, grapevine and inner bark, and all lined chiefly with fine grasses. The use of coarse grasses exteriorly and the absence of rootlets in the lining appear to be characteristic.
Egg*- — 3 to 5, usually 4, very rarely 5. Ground color a clear white sometimes tinged with pinkish; again a greenish shade is noticeable ; the majority of specimens show a high gloss ; the markings consist, for the most part, of specks and spots, but often good sized blotches occur, these are either well distributed over the entire egg or clouded together at the large end usually in form of a wreath, they are of varying shades of reddish, cinnamon rufous and chestnut with under shell spots of lavender, in most specimens the markings are very bold and well defined. Size; average, .88x.68; extremes, .96x71, 74x.6o, .86x72, 76x.68. (Figs. 110-112.)
Nesting Dates. — Chatham Co., Ga., May 7; Augusta, Ga., June 23 (C. W. C.) ; Iredell Co., N. C, May 17 (C. W. C.) ; West Chester, Pa., May 23-June 6 (Jackson} ; Waynesburg, Pa., May lo-July 2 (Jacobs) ; New York City, May 23-July 6 (F. M. C.} ; New Haven, Conn., May 22- July 7 (Bishop} ; Oberlin, O., May 15-July 15 (Jones) ; Monroe Co., Mich., May 26, Trombly (Barrows).
(i) WM. BREWSTER, Observations on the Birds of Ritchie County, West Virginia, Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist., N. Y., XI, 1875, 137- (2) E. P. BICKNELL, A Study of the Singing of Our Birds, Auk, I, 1884, 216. (3) P. A, TAVERNER, The Yellow-breasted Chat; a Character Sketch, Bird-Lore, VIII, 1906, 131.
Subspecific Characters. — Similar to Icteria virens virens but wings and tail longer, bill more slender, upperparts grayer, yellow averaging deeper, white stripe at side of throat more extended, sometimes passing behind auriculars Wing, 3.10; tail, 3.40; bill, .57.
Summer Range. — Northern Mexico, west to the Pacific; east to the Plains; north to North Dakota (Musselshell River), southern Montana (Missouri and Yellowstone Rivers), British Columbia (Sumas, Okanagan).
The Bird and its Haunts. — This slightly differentiated form of the Chat is a locally common bird throughout the west. So far as my experience goes its habits differ in no respect from those of the eastern birds. At Sargents, California, where the growth bordering the river is strongly eastern in its general character, the bird was not uncommon, while in the scrubby pastures in the Klamath River Valley at Beswick, and the bushy hillsides of the town of Klamath Falls, in Oregon, it was as numerous as I have ever found its eastern relative.
among briers usually at a height of from two to three feet.
Nest. — Nests from Fort Davis, Texas, are described as composed of "dry leaves, strips of reeds and dry grasses without a different lining." (C. W . C.) Sonoma County, California, nests are described as made of dead leaves and grasses and lined with finer grasses. (C. W. C.}
Genus WILSONIA Bonaparte
In correlation with its flycatching habits IVilsonia has a flat bill and conspicuously developed rictal bristles. Measured at the nostrils the bill is as wide or wider than it is high. The wing is less than .50 inches longer than the tail, the second, third, and fourth primaries are longest, the outer tail-feathers are slightly the shortest; the feet are pale, the tarsus but little longer than the middle-toe and claw.
Omitting Sylvania meridionalis (Pelz.), of Colombia and Ecuador, which probably does not belong to this genus, Wilsonia contains three species, two of which are eastern, while the third, W. pusilla, ranges across the continent; an eastern, a Rocky Mountain, and a Pacific Coast form being recognized.
lesser degree of nape, narrowly tipped with yellowish, chin yellower.
Adult $, Spring. — Similar to the c? but duller, the yellow of crown and cheeks more or less washed or obscured with dusky; the black 'hood' usually but partly developed on the crown and nape, indicated by a narrow line bordering the auriculars, and a blackish wash on the throat or upper breast. In nine out of thirty specimens the black is entirely wanting, in one it is nearly as welldeveloped as in a young <£ in the Fall, in two it is well-developed only on the crown and nape, while the remaining eighteen specimens are variously intermediate.
Summer Range. — With the exception of Texas and Florida, this species breeds throughout its range in the United States. It is an abundant breeder in the eastern portion of the lower Mississippi Valley; less common west of the river to eastern Kansas (Leavenworth), southeastern Nebraska (Nemaha River), north to southern Wisconsin (Milwaukee), central Michigan, southern Ontario (Port Rowan, Hamilton, Cataraqui), central New York (Oneida, Cayuga, and Wayne Counties). Casual in Massachusetts (Brookline, June 25, 1879; Provincetown, June 25, 1888; Taunton, May 8, 1888; Framingham, October 15, 1893), and Rhode Island (Kingston). In migration it is common in northern Florida, rare in the southern part, and occurs in eastern Texas to San Antonio and Waco. Accidental in southern Minnesota (Heron Lake, May 16, 1889), northeastern New York (Lewis County, September 9, 1878), and southern Maine (Falmouth, September 9, 1904).
Spring Migration. — From its winter home the species reaches the United States by a flight across the Gulf of Mexico, avoiding the West Indies and (for the most part) southern Florida.
The Hooded Warbler has also been taken at Chicago, 111., April 28, 1884, and May 3, 1895, and at Grinnell, la., May 18, 1888. The Texas dates are at Refugio County, March 30, 1898, March 13, 1899; San Antonio, March 31, 1890, April 7, 1894; Bee County, April 3, 1886, April 10, 1887.
Fall Migration. — The fall migration is hardly in full swing before the latter part of August. The earliest dates at Key West, Fla., are August 30, 1887, and August 19, 1889; at Truxillo, Honduras, September 26, 1887, and in southeastern Nicaragua, September 24, 1892. The bulk leave the northern breeding grounds by the middle of September and the last have been noted at Renovo, Pa., Sepember 26, 1900, October 13, 1903; Beaver, Pa., September 25, 1890, October 3, 1891; Englewood, N. J., September 15, 1886; Washington, D. C. September 15, 1890; French Creek, W. Va., September 29, 1892; Lynchburg, Va., October 10, 1899; Raleigh, N. C., October I, 1891; Asheville, N. C, September 20, 1890, Sedan, Ind., October 5, 1893; Brookville, Ind., October 20, 1884; Eubank, Ky., September 29, 1889; New Orleans, La., October 19, 1895 and 1897, October 25, 1899. The latest record for the United States is the — probably accidental — occurrence of this species at Germantown, Pa., November 19, 1887.
The Bird and its Haunts. — To my mind there is no Warbler to which that much misused word "lovely," may be so aptly applied as to the present species. Its beauty of plumage, charm of voice, and gentleness of demeanor, make it indeed not only a lovely, but a truly lovable bird. Doubtless, also, the nature of the Hooded Warbler's haunts increase its attractiveness, not merely because these wellwatered woodlands are in themselves inviting, but because they bring the bird down to our level. This creates a sense of companionship which we do not feel with the birds ranging high above us, and at the same time it permits us to see this exquisitely clad creature under most favorable conditions.
As we approach the bird's nest she protests with a chirp which one soon learns to recognize. It is not the sharp, insistent note of the Oven-bird, but of a milder tone uttered as the bird flits from bush to bush displaying her white outer tail feathers in flight or jetting them when perching. The male often ascends to a height of twenty to forty feet, his song being more frequently delivered from a perch well above the undergrowth than from the undergrowth itself.
In Mississippi, Allison (MS.) writes, that the Hooded Warbler inhabits "low, heavily shaded woods, with thick undergrowth. Where convenient cover, such as a brake of switch-cane, extends to the border of the woods, the bird has no objection to an open, light, situation; and along the Gulf coast, where the only swampy situations are the narrow 'bay-galls,' the thickets of rose-bay (Illicium) and azalea afford sufficient seclusion for a few. Damp woods such as are afforded by river and creek bottoms, however, are more favored."
The same writer adds : "I find the following note on the behavior of the males during courtship (New Orleans, Apr. 28) : 'We saw * * * a very interesting fight between two male Hooded Warblers, for the possession of a female; the two began the contest in a tree, fluttered down into the mud and water, and the upper one, who had the other by the head, was in a fair way to drown or disable his opponent, when we frightened them off.' "
Song. — The song of the Hooded Warbler is distinguished by an easy, sliding gracefulness. To my ear the words you must come to the woods or you won't see me, uttered quickly, and made to run one into the other exactly fit the bird's more prolonged vocal efforts, though they are far from agreeing with the attempts at syllabification of others. The call is a high, sharp cheep, easily recognized after it has been learned.
"The first song-period of this species seems rarely to pass early July — latest dates July 10 and 15. Perfect songs heard in the fourth week of August locate the second song period." (Bicknell5.)
"The usual note is a clear and nervous, but not metallic, ^chirp. Little sound of any kind is made in the fall, when the chirp is more subdued. There are two common songs, both uttered on every possible occasion in spring, when the woods are ringing with them. The most frequent is a short one of four syllables, Se-whit, se-wheer; the longer song may be rendered, Whee-whee-whee-a-wheer," accented as marked. A sharper, very clear-cut chirp is sometimes to be heard late in the evening, about dusk." (Allison, MS.).
Nesting Site. — The nest is placed in a small bush or sapling at from one to five, but usually about three feet from the ground. At the southern limit of the bird's nesting range canes are generally chosen, at the northern limit laurel is frequently selected. Where neither of these growths is present various species of bushes or saplings are used.
Nest. — Nests from near New York are generally compactly built with a well- woven rim and composed largely of soft inner bark and sometimes plant-down with often an outer wrapping of dead leaves and leaf skeletons, and are lined with fine grasses.
inner fiber of Tillandsia.
Eggs. — 3 to 5, usually 4, very rarely 5. Ground color white to creamy white, well wreathed about the large end with spots and small blotches of deep, rich chestnut red, purplish red and lilac-gray, with under shell markings of pale lavender; sometimes the markings extend very sparingly over the entire egg, but this is rare, and only the lighter shades occur. Size; average, 73X.54, extremes, .8ox.55, .67X.52, 76x.58, .68x48. (Figs. 113-115-)
Nesting Dates.— Charleston, S. C., April 30- June 26, three eggs, small embryos (Wayne) ; Bertie Co., N. C.,, May 9; Waynesburg, Pa., June 6, only two records (Jacobs) ; New York City, May 26- June 15 (F. M. C.) ; New Haven, Conn., May 27- June 24 (Bishop) ; Kalamazoo Co., Mich., June 10, Gibbs— Macatawa, Ottawa Co., August 22, feeding two young Cowbirds, Smith (Barrows).
(i) WM. BREWSTER, Observations on the Birds of Ritchie County, West Virginia, Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist., N. Y., XI, 1875, 138. (2) J. N. CLARK, Hooded Warblers, Nesting in Southern Connecticut, Orn. and O61., VI, 1881, 9, 102.
(3) J- P- N [ORRIS], A Series of Eggs of Myiodioctes mitratus, Orn. and O61., XII, 200. (4) A. B. BLACKMORE, The Hooded Warbler (in La.), Oologist, XII, 1895. (5) E. P. BICKNELL, A Study of the Singing of Our Birds, Auk, I, 1884' 216.
Distinguishing Characters. — The d and generally also the $, may be known by its black cap, entirely yellow underparts, and absence of white in the wings and tail. Females in which the cap is lacking (young?) resemble the young Hooded Warbler but are smaller and have no white in the tail. Length (skin), 4.25; wing, 2.10; tail, 2.00; bill, .32.
Adult 3, Spring. — Crown shining black, forehead, cheeks, including line over eye, bright yellow; rest of upperparts bright olive-green; wings and tail narrowly edged with same color and without white marks; underparts entirely bright yellow ; upper mandible brownish black, lower, flesh color.
olive, yellow of forehead and above eye duller.
Adult $, Spring. — Sometimes not distinguishable from adult 3 in Spring but usually with black cap less sharply denned and conspicuously tipped with olive-green; yellow duller. In this plumage closely resembles young d1 in Fall.
Nestling. — Above hair-brown, breast lighter, belly yellowish white, the sides brownish, lesser and median wing-coverts tipped with brown-tinged white forming two well-marked wing-bars.
General Distribution. — Eastern North America. Summer Range. — Principally in Canada, a few nesting in northern Maine (casually south to Pittsfield, Me., and accidentally at Lancaster, N. H.), central Ontario (Ottawa, Madoc, Lansdowne), northern Minnesota, Manitoba and Hudson Bay region. Casual in the Rocky Mountain region during migrations.
Indies.
Fall Migration. — Some dates of the last one seen are at Newport, Ore., August 30, 1900; Berkeley, Cal., September 17, 1888; Columbia Falls, Mont., September 14, 1894; Cheyenne, Wyo., September n, 1888; Cooney, New Mex., October 9, 1889; Aweme, Man., average six years September 8; Lanesboro, Minn., average of four years September 20, latest September 25, 1887 ; Grinnell, la., average four years September 21, latest September 25, 1888; Ottawa, Ont.,
average four years September 19, latest September 29, 1890; Pictou, N. S., August 24, 1894; St. John, N. B., September 17, 1896; Renovo, Pa., average six years, September 21, latest September 30, 1895; Germantown, Pa., October 15, 1889.
The Bird and its Haunts. — As a migrant I find Wilson's Warbler usually in bushes bordering woodland waters. At the northern base of Monadnock, Gerald Thayer (M.S.) writes: "This jaunty little Warbler-flycatcher is often common in the spring migration, from the 9th to the end of May. It haunts damp alder-copses, orchards, and small deciduous second growth along roadsides, and seems to avoid the upper parts of the mountain and of the surrounding hills.
"In actions, call-notes and song, this is a decidedly individual little bird. Like the Canada, it is both a gleaner and a darting flycatcher, but it has a more perky restlessness of manner than the Canada. It twitches its tail up and down, not methodically and almost uninterruptedly, like the Palm Warbler, but with spasmodic irregularity. Now the tail will go sharply flip-flip-flipping for many seconds together, and again it will be perfectly still for a longer time. Add to this Warbler's individual manners and sufficiently peculiar notes, his very rich yellow and yellow-green coloration, relieved by a round, glossy, blue-black crown-spot (of erectile feathers) as the sole marking, and you have a bird easily identified. The females usually and the young always lack the distinguishing crown-cap; but their manners betray them."
In Maine, Morrell2 says, "Wilson's Warbler may safely be classed as one of the rarest Warblers which breed regularly in the State. It is nowhere common, even as a migrant, arriving during the second week in May with the main army of migrating Warblers. I always see it singly or in pairs, never in flocks, at this time. They are birds of the bush, never going into large woods as do the Black-throated Green and Blackburnian Warblers, but spend the summer in knolly, bushgrown pastures bordering young growths."
Song. — "The singing as a rule is done from a perch, between sallies into the air, but sometimes it is accomplished during one of the little darting flights. It is highly changeable, in everything but tonequality. Though only just loud enough, at its best, to give the bird rank among full-voiced Warblers, it has much of the ringing clarity of the Canada's and Hooded's songs. The commonest form of it, a rapid, bubbled warble, of two nearly equal parts, the second lowertoned and sometimes diminuendo, has always reminded me of a Northern Water-Thrush song. But it falls short of that utterance in vivid 'suddenness.' It is also somewhat like the Nashville's songs, particularly the less common, softer one. It is fully as clear-toned, but far less loud, and more hurriedly delivered. Sometimes the Wilson's sings only half his song, — using either of the two parts, — and the second part thus used is occasionally prolonged into a full-length song. Another regular variation is an inversion of the common twofold utterance. Again, the complete song is sometimes uttered in a very soft undertone — fairly whispered. But all these variations — all I have yet heard — seem to be based on one main song. Of call-notes, the bird has at least two perfectly distinct kinds, both fairly constant. One is a very fine, quick lisp, and the other an unusually low-toned and
"Rarely sings in migration. May 25, 1897 one sang repeatedly a full chord-like chee-chee-chee followed by a Goldfinch-like trill, the latter varied somewhat, but the opening notes are all usually the same. Another time I heard the jumbled warble without the clear chee-chee-chee. ." (Farwell, MS.)
Nesting Site. — A nest found by Spaulding1 at Lancaster, N. H., "was situated among some short bushes on a small grassy knoll in wet, swampy land. The nest was sunken in the ground and well concealed by fine swamp grass."
At Pittsfield, Maine, Morrell2 has found two nests; one was placed "at the base of a small shrub," the other was "in the side of a depression on the ground, well concealed by overhanging grass and shrubs." Swain3 records a nest, found near Bangor, Maine, "under a thick mass of grasses and weeds at the foot of an alder bush."
Nest. — Spaulding's1 nest "was almost wholly of fine dry grass, lined with a very few hairs, deeply cupped and quite substantial for a Warbler." Morrell describes the first nest found by him as "mainly constructed of short pieces of grass, fairly well woven together, with a very few hairs mingled with the grass lining, and some moss and leaves exteriorly." Morrell's second nest resembled the first "with the exception of the hair, in the place of which were a few black, hairlike roots." The nest found by Swain3 "was made up outside of fine dead grasses (neatly woven, yet a frail structure), lined with fine grasses and a few horse-hairs."
Eggs- — Usually 4. A set collected by Mr. F. B. Spaulding1 is described by him as follows : "The ground color of the eggs is pure white ; number one has a light wreath of small dark specks about the crown, number two has the crown completely covered by larger spots, number three is the same but has in addition some large light-brown splashes over half of the egg, and number four has large light-brown splashes and spots that cover the small end."
(i) F. B. SPAULDING, Nesting of Wilson's Black-capped Warbler, (in N. H.), Nidologist, II, 1894, J3J cf. also Journ. Me. Orn. Soc., VI, 1904, 70. (2) C. H. MORRELL, Osprey, III, 1809, 5. (3) J. M. SWAIN, Contributions to the Life History of Wilson's Warbler, Journ. Me. Orn. Soc., VI, 1904, 59.
Subspecific Characters. — Similar to Wilsonia p. pusilla but forehead much more intense, orange rather than yellow; olive-green of back and yellow of underparts deeper,, richer ; averages slightly larger.
As with Helminthophila celata orestera, the Rocky Mountain bird, while intermediate in color between Atlantic and Pacific coast specimens, is slightly larger than either. Wing, 2.25; tail, 2.00; bill, .35.
Summer Range. — Breeding throughout the Rocky Mountain district, from western Texas (Chisos Mountains), New Mexico (?) and Arizona ( ?) in higher mountains, northward to Alaska, including coast district (Kadiak, Yakutat, Sitka, etc.) as well as throughout the interior, westward to eastern Oregon (Fort Kalmath; Tillamook) and Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia; during migration over the whole of western North America (less commonly along the Pacific coast of United States) and eastward across the Great Plains to Minnesota (Fort Snelling, May), western Missouri (Independence), etc.
The Bird and its Haunts. — In Colorado, Cooke3 writes, this bird reaches its summer home just above timber-line by the end of June and is then the most numerous insect-eating bird at that altitude. The center of abundance during the breeding season is about 11,000 feet, but it has been known to breed from 6,000 to 12,000 feet.
In Alaska, Nelson2 states that this Warbler is "one of the commonest of the bush-frequenting species in the north and extends its breeding range to the shores of the Arctic Ocean, where it is found breeding about Kotzebue Sound as well as along the eastern coast of Norton Sound wherever shelter is afforded."
Song. — "Song, Chee-chee-chce-chee (or this syllable repeated seven times), thus different from their song as I recall it in the East. Certain low querulous notes are indescribable." (Minot*).
Nesting Site. — A nest found June 22, near Seven Lakes, Colorado, by Minot1 "was sunken in the ground on the eastern slope or border of the swamp, at the end of a partly natural archway of long, dry grass, opening to the southward, beneath the low, spreading branch of a willow."
Nest. — The nest above mentioned is described as "composed of loose shreds, with a neat lining of fine stalks and a few hairs, and with a hollow two inches wide and scarcely half as deep."
GOLDEN PILEOLATED WARBLER 279
Eggs- — 4 to 6, usually 4 or 5. Ground color white, sometimes tinged with creamy, specked and spotted with reddish brown and lavender gray, very few under shell markings; some specimens show the markings well distributed, others have them in a wreath about large end with scattering spots over rest of egg. Size: average .63X .49. Figs. (116-118.)
(i) H. D. MINOT, Notes on Colorado Birds, Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club, V, 1880, 228. (2) E. W. NELSON, Report upon Natural History Coll. made in Alaska, 204- (3) W. W. COOKE, The Birds of Colorado, 117. (The notes of both Nelson and Cooke are given under the head of "Sylvania pusilla.")
Summer Range. — Breeding from southern California (San Bernardino, Los Angeles, and Ventura Counties) northward to British Columbia (New Westminster, Mount Lehman) ; during migration southward and eastward to eastern Oregon (Fort Klamath, May, August), Arizona (Final County, September, October; Lowell, April; Fort Verde, May; San Francisco Mountains, August 31; Cienega; Tucson), Chihuahua (San Diego, April 15), Sonora (San Jose Mountains, October), and Lower California (to Cape St. Lucas). (Ridgw.)
The Bird and Its Haunts.— "In California," Walter Fisher (MS) writes, "the Golden Pileolated Warbler frequents copses along water courses of the valleys, or willow thickets near mountain streams and meadows, and in the moist northern coast region is found almost anywhere in the luxuriant undergrowth. I have also encountered a few in manzanita chaparral, where their yellow colors harmonized perfectly with the vivid yellow-green of the sun-lit foliage. In the Sierras I have found them tame but preoccupied, as Mrs. Bailey aptly writes. One usually catches only a fleeting glimpse, when the black cap is a most excellent aid in identification."
mass of drift material in the crotch of a dead limb, and in bunches of nettles, weeds or ferns ; while Silliman8 writes that the nests are situated in "damp, shaded places, often in a wild blackberry vine and well hidden. They are always placed near the ground, never over five feet above. In one instance the bottom of the nest touched the ground." Emerson1, however, records a nest found in blackberry vines eight feet from the ground.
Nest. — Barlow2 describes the nest as "made of grasses, fine leaves and material gathered from debris in the creek, while the lining is of fine white rootlets or grass which resembles horse-hair." Silliman8 states that "a typical nest of this species has a loose exterior of dry leaves, bark fibers, lichens, weed-stems, roots and a few pieces of straw."
Eggs. — 3 to 5, usually 4, very rarely 5. Ground color and markings show the same range of variation as in the Pileolated Warbler, only in some extreme examples the markings in the wreath are heavier and more profuse. Size; average about the same, .64x49; extremes 7ix.5o, .6ix.5i, .62x46.
Nesting Dates. — Los Angeles, Calif., April 24-May 31 (GrinnelV) ; San Geronimo, Calif., May i (Mailliard) ; Tacoma, Wash., June 17, only nest found (Bowles).
(i) W. O. EMERSON, Black-capped Yellow Warbler [in Calif.], Orn. and O61., VI, 1881, 62. (2) C BARLOW, The [Golden] Pileolated Warbler, Nidologist, I, 1893, 44- (3) SILLIMAN, The [Golden] Pileolated Warbler, Nidologist, II, 1894, 28-
Distinguishing Characters. — The Canadian Warbler may always be known by its gray upperparts, absence of white on wings or tail, and necklace of spots across the breast. In the adult c? these are black and conspicuous, in the ? and young of both sexes they are dusky and less sharply defined, but I have not seen a specimen in which they were wholly wanting. Length (skin), 5.00; wing, 2.50; tail, 2.20; bill, .40.
Adult $, Spring.— Upperparts gray, crown spotted with black, the forehead usually wholly black; line from bill to eye and eye-ring yellow; wings and tail externally the color of the back and without white markings; lores and malar stripe black, running into a band of black spots across the breast ; rest of underparts yellow, crissum white.
CANADA WARBLER
Young <$, Fall. — Similar to adult (5* in Fall but crown greenish without black, lores dusky, no black malar stripe, yellow duller, breast spots dusky and not sharply denned. Not certainly distinguishable from adult $ in Fall.
Adult ?, Spring. — Similar to adult <S in Spring but duller throughout, crown gray tinged with yellowish, especially on forehead, and without black, lores dusky, no black malar stripe; breast spots dusky and not sharply denned.
Summer Range. — Breeding principally in Canada, a few nest in the northern United States south to Massachusetts (Berkshire, Bristol, Brookline, Templeton, and Wellesley), Rhode Island (Noyes Beach, Johnston), northwestern Connecticut, central New York (Oneida County), southern Ontario (Ottawa, Kingston, London, Toronto, Guelph), central Michigan, northeastern Illinois, central Minnesota (St. Louis, Lake and Cass counties) ; in the Allegheny Mountains, it breeds south to North Carolina and occurs from 3,000 feet nearly to the top of the highest peaks.
The great bulk of the species passes along the Atlantic coast and westward to and including the valley of the Ohio. In the interior the bird is a rare migrant from eastern Texas (San Antonio, Gainesville), eastern Kansas (Neosho River), eastern Nebraska (Richardson County, May 1875), through the valley of the Red River of the North to Manitoba. Accidental in central Texas (Concho), southern New Mexico (Fort Thorn), and eastern Colorado (Lake, May 23, 1899).
Fall Migration. — Some dates of the last birds seen are at Grand Rapids, Athabasca, August 20, 1901 ; Aweme, Man., August 30, 1901 ; Ottawa, Ont., September 5, 1890; Chicago, 111., September 16, 1894; Waterloo, Ind., September 28, 1902; Petitcodiac, N. B., August 21, 1886; Pittsfield, Me., September 12, 1897; Amherst, Mass., September 29, 1891; Renovo, Pa., average of seven years, August 14; Germantown, Pa., October i, 1889; Englewood, N. J., October 2, 1886; Bay St. Louis, Miss., October 15, 1899.
The Bird and its Haunts. — As a spring migrant I find this Warbler in much the same situations Wilson's Warbler frequents ; but while travelling southward in August and September, when the foliage is so much denser than that of May, it is less restricted in its choice of haunts and may be found in the tree-tops.
At Branchport, N. Y., Verdi Burtch (MS.) reports the Canadian Warbler to breed not uncommonly in two entirely different locations. While not common they are frequently found in the wettest part of Potter Swamp associated with the Northern Water-Thrush and Maryland Yellow-throat. They are also found along the gully banks usually in the lower branches or on the ground.
Gerald Thayer writes : "I have already, in my notes on the Blackburnian, described this Warbler's breeding haunts about Monadnock. It is a bird of rich deciduous undergrowth in the deep, damp forest, — a ranger between the bush-tops and low tree-branches and the ground. It avoids purely coniferous woods, and so is almost wholly wanting from the closely-spruce-clad northern slopes of Mt. Monadnock, though abundant in the deep mixed timber all about its northern base. On the eastern slopes of the mountain, where the forest is more largely deciduous, the Canada is fairly common almost up to the rocky backbone ridge, at heights of from 2,300 to 2,700 or so feet.
"The Canadian is a sprightly, wide-awake, fly-snapping Warbler, vivid in movement and in song; clearly marked and brightly colored. In actions it is like the Wilson's, a sort of mongrel between a Dendroica, an American Redstart, and a true Flycatcher. It darts after flying insects like one of the Tyrannidse, and its bill may sometimes be heard to 'click' when it seizes something; it has much of the Redstart's insistent nervousness of motion, but is a less airy 'flitter' ; and, finally, it glides and gleans among leaves and twigs like a true gleaning Warbler." (Thayer, MS.}
Song. — "Sings a great deal in migration — the song is liquid, uncertain, varied, bright, sweet — sounds like the syllables t'le we, t'le we, t'le we, t'le we, t'l it wit; often begins with a little whirr or snap. (Farwell, MS.)
"Suggests to me the unfinished song of a Goldfinch more than that of a Warbler. It is very broken and energetic and also possesses a larger quality." (Fuertes, MS.).
"The strong and snappily-changeful modulation of this Warbler's clear, rippling song can scarcely be suggested by English syllables, and I shall avoid the attempt. It is one of the most delightful as well as one of the commonest summer bird-songs of the deep woods about Monadnock. It varies a good deal, but I have yet to discover that the bird has more than one constant, main song as a basis for the variations. Nevertheless, it ranks very high in the full-voiced group, as does its beautiful black-hooded relative of the South. In late summer and autumn the young male Canadas of the year often try to sing, as is the case with all or most Wood Warblers ; and, — as is also commonly the case, — their performances are obscure and queer, and barely recognizable.
"The Canada's commonest summer call-note is fairly charcteristic, having a certain peculiar little 'tang' and harshness. It sounds a little like the chack of the Yellow-throat, but is less pronouncedly different
Miss Paddock sends notations of six songs and writes : "The rhythm is not unlike the Yellow-throat's, but its quality is different, and it is more energetic. The notes are always in triplets or groups of four."
cealing its nest in moss or beneath roots.
Burtch (MS.) writes that "in Potter Swamp near Branchport, N. Y., the nest is usually placed under the edge of a stump or log, or in the side of a mound of moss covered with logs and brush. One nest was placed on top of a moss-covered log, the lowest in a crisscross pile, another log being over it and forming a roof. In the gullies the nest is placed from ten to thirty feet above the bottom of the gully, in a hole in the moss-covered bank."
tened, made of dead leaves and grass, lined with fine grass.
Eggs. — 3 to 5, usually 4. Ground color and markings about like the eggs of the Pileolated Warbler, except in the present species the markings are not so profuse and less inclined to wreathe around the large end, being more evenly distributed over the entire egg. Size ; average, .67^.^2; extremes, 73X.53, .64X.54, .6sx.5i. (Figs. 119-121.)
Nesting Dates. — Lancaster, N. H., June 9- June 13 (Spaulding) ; Bangor, Me., May 30- June 4, young a few days old (Knight) ; Listowel, Ont., May 22-June 18 (Kells) ; Bay City, Mich., June 2, Eddy (Barrows).
evident than in Wilsonia.
The wing is rather long, and pointed by the second, third, and fourth primaries, the first (outer) primary about equalling the fourth; the tail is long, the feathers of about the same length ; the feet are dark and slender.
Cardellina rubrifrons, the only species in this genus, ranges from southern Arizona and New Mexico south to Guatemala. The sexes are virtually alike in color, an exception to the prevailing rule among brightly colored birds.
Adult <$, Spring. — Forehead, cheeks, most of eye-ring, throat, upper breast and band back of auriculars bright red, crown and auriculars black, nuchal patch white, sometimes tinged with pink, back, wings and tail gray; rump white sometimes tinged with pink, median wing-coverts tipped with white; lower breast and belly tinged with pink.
Nestling. — Above grayish brown; crown browner, nape buffy; rump white; throat and breast grayish brown, belly white; wing-coverts fuscous edged with brown and narrowly but distinctly tipped with buff.
The Bird and its Haunts. — This singularly colored Warbler was added to our fauna July 12, 1874, by H. W. Henshaw1 who found it near Camp Apache and on Mount Graham in southern Arizona. In the latter locality, later in the month, it proved to be common, "flocks of ten or fifteen being not unusual among the pines and spruces; it frequented these trees almost exclusively, only rarely being seen on the bushes that fringed the streams. Its habits are a rather strange compound, now resembling those of Warblers, again recalling the Redstart's, but more often, perhaps, bringing to mind the less graceful motions of the familiar Titmice. Their favorite hunting places appeared to be the extremities of the limbs of the spruces, over the branches of which they passed with quick motion, and a peculiar and constant sidewise jerk of the tail."
Nesting Site. — Although the nest of this species was first discovered by Mearns3 on June 19, 1886, in the Mogollon Mountains, Arizona, this naturalist did not publish his observations until July, 1890. In the meantime, Price2 had found it breeding in the Huachuca Mountains, on May 31, 1888, and later its nesting habits were studied by Howard*. The nests found by these ornithologists were all placed on the ground beneath a tuft of grass, a hillside being a favorite location.
Nest. — Price2 describes the nest as such a "poor attempt at nest building and made of such loose materials that it crumbled to fragments on being removed. The chief substance was fine fibrous weed stalks while the lining consisted of fine grass, rootlets, plant fibers, and a few hairs."
Eggs. — 4. The set collected by Price is described by Bendire as follows: "They are ovate in shape. Their ground color is a delicate creamy white, and they are spotted with small blotches of cinnamon rufous and a few dots of heliotrope purple and pale lavender. These form a wreath around the larger end. They resemble the eggs of Helminthophila lucia and H. Virginia to a certain extent." Size; "They measure .66x.5o, .67x.5o, .66x.5o and .66x.5o."
(i) H. W. HENSHAW, Zool. Expl. W. looth Merid., 211. (2) W. W. PRICE, Nesting of the Red-faced Warbler in the Huachuca Mountains, Southern Arizona, Auk, V, 1888, 385. (3) E. A. MEARNS, Observations on the Avifauna
Setophaga differs but little in structure from Wilsonia and were it not for its markedly different coloration would doubtless be grouped with it by some authors. In S. ruticilla the bill is broader at the base, the rictal bristles longer, but this is not true of S. picta in which the rictal bristles average shorter than in Wilsonia. The wing is much as in Wilsonia but the tail is more rounded, the outer feathers being decidedly the shortest.
The genus contains two species of which S. ruticilla ranges throughout eastern North America west to the Rocky Mountains and northwest to Alaska, while 6". picta is found from southern Arizona and New Mexico south to Honduras.
Both are distinguished for the beauty of their plumage but while the adult male of S. ruticilla is strikingly different from and brighter than the female, the sexes in 6\ picta are alike. Furthermore, S. picta dons its full plumage in the first molt, shortly after leaving the nest, while 51. ruticilla does not acquire its mature dress until after its first nesting season, or at the beginning of its second year.
Distinguishing Characters. — No difficulty will be experienced in recognizing this strikingly marked species, the salmon or yellow markings in wings and tail alone affording a sufficient clue to its identity. But one should be careful to avoid mistaking the young male for the female, this being one of the few Warblers, in which the male does not assume its adult plumage before the first nesting season after its birth. As a rule, however, the young Spring male has some black feathers on the underparts, a character not shown by the female. Length (skin), 4.75; wing, 2.50; tail, 2.25; bill, .35.
Adult <$, Spring. — Upperparts shining black; central pair of tail-feathers black, next pair basally salmon-orange on the outer web, remaining four feathers entirely orange for basal two-thirds, the terminal third black ; wings black with a band of orange, increasing in width from without inward, across their base; sides of head, throat, and breast black extending to the sides of the body; belly white, more or less tinged with orange ; sides of breast brilliantly salmonorange extending backwards to flanks in decreasing amount. As might be expected, even in adult specimens, there is much variation in the intensity and extent of the orange markings.
288 REDSTART
Young $, Fall. — Generally resembles adult $ in Spring but the back is often more olive or more ruddy brown, and the patches at the side of the breast average deeper in tone. In some specimens the back is suffused with reddish and the breast patches are orange. I have seen two specimens (Bishop Coll.) with a few black patches showing that in some instances the bird begins to acquire adult plumage, the first Fall.
Young <$, Spring. — Similar to young c? in Fall but with a few black feathers on the breast and generally with additional black feathers on the chin, lores, cheeks, or crown. There is no regularity as regards the part of the breast or head in which these black feathers appear, but I have yet to see a Spring c? in which they were entirely wanting. There appears to be no transition plumage between the one just described and the mature orange and black dress which, as molting specimens in Dr. Dwight's collection seem to prove, is acquired after the first breeding season or at the beginning of the second year of the bird's life.
Adult ?, Spring. — Crown and cheeks gray, back olive-green with a grayish tinge, upper tail-coverts blackish; basal two-thirds of three outer tail-feathers yellow their tips blackish, two-thirds of. outer vane and sometimes part of inner vane of next two yellow, their end and inner pair of feathers blackish ; wings brown edged with greenish, orange wing-band of adult c? replaced by yellow and, externally, appearing chiefly on the basal half of outer web of secondaries; underparts grayish white, the sides of the breast with yellow patches, sides of body more or less washed with same color.
Summer Range. — From its far northern home, almost to the limit of tree growth, the Redstart breeds south commonly to Maryland and Iowa, and not rarely to North Carolina, Arkansas, and Kansas. Exceptional breeding records, south of this normal breeding range are at Greensboro, Ala., Hopefield, and Jackson, Miss., and Fort Union, New Mexico. The regular western range includes Colorado, Utah, Idaho, eastern Washington and British Columbia. The species has occurred casually in Oregon (John Day River, July i, 1889), California (Haywards, June 20, 1881 ; Marysville Buttes, June 6, 1884), Arizona (Tucson, spring; Catalina Mountains, August 12, 1884), Lower California (Miraflores, La Paz).
Fall Migration. — Since the Redstart breeds over most of the eastern United States, it is not possible to determine the beginning of its fall migration in that portion of its range from which were received the fullest records of spring arrival. Just south of the breeding range, in the South Atlantic and Gulf states, the dates show that the Redstart is one of the earliest of fall migrants. The earliest migrant in Chester County, South Carolina, was seen July 10; at Key West, Fla., July 22, 1889, and near there, at Sombrero Key lighthouse, July 28 and 29, 1886. It has been taken in Jamaica by August 10; in Costa Rica, August 13 ; Colombia, South America, September 2, and on the island of Antigua, Lesser Antilles, September 6. These dates are especially interesting because they prove so conclusively that the southernmost breeding birds start first in their migration, and pass at once to the southern portion of the winter range. The date of September 6, at Antigua, is interesting because the Redstart is one of the very few migrant land-birds from the United States that range throughout the West Indies, even to the Windward Islands and Trinidad; and the early date shows that the flights from island to island are interspersed with but few and short intervals of rest.
Fall migration in the Mississippi Valley is not quite so early ; still the first were seen at New Orleans, La., July 21, 1899, July 29, 1900, and July 30, 1897. The earliest migrants reach central Texas the last of August and have been noted the first of September in Mexico, nearly at the southern limit of the bird's winter range in that country.
The regular tide of migration in southeastern United States sets in early in August, and the striking of the Redstart against the Florida lighthouses has been reported on nineteen nights in that month. The largest flocks pass through the Middle Atlantic states about the middle of September, and the greatest number strike the Florida lighthouses the first half of October.
The Bird and its Haunts. — With the Redstart we reach the acme of Warbler activity. If a bird exists which is more constantly in motion and in a greater variety of ways, I have yet to see it. But it is at feeding that the bird excels ; not the somewhat sedate, pendulumlike wing-feeding of the true Flycatcher who, sitting quietly in wait, swings out from his perch, makes his capture and returns to his starting point, but a mad series of darts and dives and whirls, ot onward rushes and as sudden stops, which yield not one insect but many and, at the same time, display the bird's brilliant plumage in a manner to set at defiance all laws of aggressive coloration. With what dainty grace he spreads his tail, half opens his wings, and pirouettes
The Redstart is at home in almost any kind of more or less open deciduous woodland, but prefers lowland woods with a sapling undergrowth. The increase in trees in towns is fortunately tempting it to widen its range, and in Cambridge, Mass., Brewster states it nests, in places, "almost if not quite so numerously as in the Fresh Pond swamps, or in the wilder parts of Arlington, Belmont, and Waverly."
At times the Redstart descends to the ground to feed. Gerald Thayer writes : "Like butterflies, of which they so much remind one, — like many of the shy, high-flying butterflies, — the usually tree-hunting Redstarts are wont at times to descend to earth to do strange scavenging work. Horse-manure, with its attendant insects, mightily attracts them, and near Monadnock it is a common thing to see them skipping about on the muck of travelled high-roads. I have known a male to spend most of his time this way, in one spot, for several days in succession."
Annie Lyman Sears of Waltham, Mass., sends an interesting study of a pair of Redstarts which on May 12, 1895, began to build a nest on the bracket above a Venetian iron work lantern hanging before the front door of her home. The female constructed the nest alon£ and, unaided, performed the task of incubation. Miss Sears writes: "It took (as nearly as I could tell) twelve days for the eggs to hatch. After that the male was as busy as the female in supplying the five hungry mouths with food. He never seemed at home on the nest, and after feeding the young birds, would stand on a branch of the lantern watching for his mate to return. When he saw her approaching he would utter a little cry, fly down onto the piazza, or steps and sing. The female, on the contrary, after feeding the little ones, settled down on the nest and stayed till the male brought more food. They brought gnats, flies, green caterpillars, which they sometimes appeared to break up in their own mouths before giving to the young birds. Both birds became very tame, hopping about the chairs and steps and nearly alighting on our persons. The male sang constantly. The young left the nest on June 15, and as late as July 17, presumably the same birds were seen in charge of the male who was still feeding them."
Song. — The song of the Redstart can be readily recognized by those who know it but like so many Warblers' songs of what may be called the weechy type, loses all character when it is reduced to syllables.
REDSTART 293
"Has several distinct songs ; the zee-zee-zee with the sharp, unfinished ending, and the saw-filing one, like the Black and White Creeper's, only more robust in quality, are the two I hear the oftenest." (Farwell, MS.}.
"In some years I have found this species songless soon after the beginning of July. In seasons when it thus becomes silent, singing is resumed in the first part of August and continues for two or three weeks. But the period of July silence is inconstant and sometimes singing is little interrupted through the month. When this is the case singing seems to cease finally at the end of the month, or early in August, and is followed by no supplementary song-period. * * * In the summer a song is commonly heard from the Redstart which is weaker and otherwise different from the normal, and which is probably produced by immature males." (Bicknell.)
"Of all the Wood Warblers I know, the Redstart comes nearest to spoiling the rule that an adult Warbler's song can never be wholly disguised for the practiced human ear. The bird is, indeed, an almost lawlessly versatile songster, and few and far between must be the bird-students who could not be mystified by any of the occasional extreme vagaries of its singing. The fundamental tone-quality varies as widely, though not as commonly, as the form and accentuation. Time after time have I been puzzled by some perfectly new and surprising freak of Redstart song, and that after years of acquaintance with the bird's varied singing. Ranking on the whole among the full-voiced Warblers, and singing commonly in a smooth, clear tone, he will come out sometimes with a bunch of weak, buzzy notes, like an exaggeration of all that is peculiar in the Parula's song, and in almost every detail of form and delivery widely different from a normal Redstart utterance. Again, he will shrill in hair-thin, glassy notes, like a Blackpoll, or loudly wheeze like a Black-throated Blue; and sometimes he will combine one or more of these foreign song-tones in one phrase with his normal, clear, strong notes. As for the variations and strange hybridisms of his phrasing and accenting, they are quite beyond classification or description. One hears a noticeable new one every few days, in summer, if one lives among New Hampshire Redstarts. It is hard even to decide whether the bird should be said to have one main song, or two, or three, or four, or five. But I believe that three are comparatively constant, and could perhaps be traced as the bases of all the variations. To add to the confusion of the matter, the young males, for two years dull-colored, sing almost as freely as their black-and-orange fathers ; but, — especially in the first autumn, —
often with phrases of their own, in addition to more or less imperfect renderings of the adults' phrases. But never in any variation of the Redstarts singing have I heard an unmistakable imitation of other bird-notes, — as sometimes in the cases of the Chestnut-side and the Northern Yellow-throat. He seems merely to be a singer so laxly versatile that he occasionally chances into the song-styles of other Warblers. His two or three call-notes are more constant. The commonest one is easily recognizable, though it has much likeness to the calls of several other Warblers." (Thayer, MS.)
Miss Paddock sends notations of three songs and writes: "The Redstart's voice is shrill and penetrating with a wiry quality. There are two songs, the second less explosive and something like the Chestnut-sided Warbler's second song."
Nesting Site. — The Redstart usually selects an upright crotch from two to thirty feet high in a sapling, the average height being from eight to ten feet. Maples, beeches and elms are frequently chosen but the nest is also placed in other deciduous trees. Burtch (MS.) writes of a nest found June 10, 1900, at Branchport, N. Y., which was saddled on the horizontal branch of a beech twelve feet from the ground.
Nest. — The nest is usually symmetrical in outline and compactly made. It suggests in general appearance the nest of the Yellow Warbler but contains less plant-down, or none at all. In other respects, however, the Redstart's nest is often not to be distinguished from that of D. (estiva. Externally it is composed largely of bits of spiders' webs and silver-gray plant fibers wrapped about firmly woven inner bark shreds and grasses ; the lining consists chiefly of fine grasses, brown root-like fibers, and hairs. In some instances feathers are used in the lining. (Short1.)
Burtch (MS.) describes a nest found at Branchport, N. Y., June i, 1903, as composed of weed bark and dead grass, lined with fine grass and hair. It was handsomely decorated with the white egg
Eggs. — 3 to 5, usually 4. Ground color varies from white to creamy, grayish or greenish white ; the markings consist of fine specks, spots and blotches in various shades of cinnamon-brown, lilac-gray and reddish, with very few under shell markings of lavender. The distribution of the markings is subject to considerable variation ; some types are beautifully wreathed around the large end, with scattering spots over rest of egg, others are quite heavily blotched over most of the great end, and again the egg is evenly sprinkled all over. Size; average, .63x48; extremes, .56x48, .58x46, .70x48, .6o,x.5i. (Figs. 122-124.)
Nesting Dates.— Raleigh, N. C, May 12 (C. W. C.)', Waynesburg, Pa., May 19- June 6 (Jacobs} ; New York City, May 17-June 24 (F. M. C.) ; New Haven, Conn., May 2O-June 27 (Bishop) ; Cambridge, Mass., full sets, first laying, June 2-8 (Brewster) ; Lancaster, N. H., May 3O-June 13 (Spaulding) ; Bangor, Me., June 2-June 30 (Knight) ; Listowel, Ont, June 6- June 18 (Kells) ; Oberlin, O., May 10- June 20 (Jones) ; River Forest, Cook Co., Ills., June I (Gault) ; Petersburg, Mich., May 29 (C. W. C.).
(i) ERNEST H. SHORT, A Study in Orange and Black, (Redstart in W. N. Y.), Oologist, X, 1893, 185. (2) W. L. KELLS, Nesting of Some Canadian Warblers, Ottawa Naturalist, XV, 1902, 227. (3) J. C. WOOD, Some Notes on the Life History of the American Redstart, Bull. Mich. Orn. Club, V, 1904, 33.
SETOPHAGA PICTA P1CTA Swains. Plate XXIII
Distinguishing Characters. — This bird not only differs in color from any known Warbler but the sexes are alike in plumage and the young assumes mature dress the first autumn; all facts which tend to simplify the identification of the species at any season. Length (skin), 4.75; wing, 2.75; tail, 2.50; bill, .35-
Arizona, March 15.
The Bird and its Haunts. — The Painted Redstart was added to our fauna by Major (then Lieutenant) Bendire, near Tucson, Arizona, April 4, 1872. Henshaw, who found it in the same territory, in 1873 and 1874, states that "it appears not to inhabit the high mountains nor the extreme lowlands, but to occupy an intermediate position, and to find the rocky hills covered with sparse growth of oak most congenial to its habits. * * *
"Their motions are almost an exact reflection of those of the common Redstart, which they so much resemble in form. With half shut wings and outspread tail, they pass rapidly along the limbs of trees, now and then making a sudden dart for a passing fly, which secured they again alight and resume their search. They are constantly in motion, and rarely remain in the same tree many moments. It not infrequently may be seen clinging to the trunk of a tree while it seizes a grub or minute insect which its sharp eyes have detected hidden in the bark."
Brewster2 writes that Stephens found this species at an elevation of fully 7,000 feet in the Chiricahua Mountains where it occurred most numerously among the pines ; an experience differing from that of Henshaw, as recorded above.
Howard3 found this Warbler breeding in the Santa Catalinas at between 5,000 and 8,000 feet elevation. "With their wings partly open and tail spread they may be seen hopping about on mossy banks or stumps of large trees, generally in the vicinity of a spring or waterfall ; now and then they will fly up to catch some insect, much after the manner of the Flycatcher."
Nesting Site. — The nest of this species appears to have been first discovered by Herbert Brown in June 1880, in the Santa Rita Mountains of Arizona. (Bryant1.) The following year it was found in the same region by Stephens2, and later the bird was studied by Howard8 and Breninger*. From the researches of these naturalists we learn that, wholly unlike its eastern relative (Setophaga ruticilla], the Painted Redstart places its nest on the ground, preferably on a bank
Howard3 adds, in the vicinity of a spring or waterfall.
Nest. — Brewster2 describes the nest as "large, flat and shallow," and as composed of bark, coarse fibers from weed-stalks, and fine bleached grasses, the latter, with a few hairs forming a simple lining; a description which seems to fit the average nest of this species.
Eggs. — Usually 4. Ground color white, finely dotted, in form of wreath around large end, with reddish brown and lavender gray, and a very few scattering dots over rest of egg. Size; a typical set of 4 measures .6$x.$i, .65x.5i, .66x.5i, .64x.5i. (Figs. 125,126.)
(i) W. E. BRYANT, Nest and Eggs of the Painted Flycatcher (in Arizona), Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club, VI, 1881, 176. (2) WM. BREWSTER, On a Collection Birds lately made by Mr. F. Stephens in Arizona, Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club, VII, 1882, 140. (3) O. W. HOWARD, Summer Resident Warblers of Arizona, Bull. Cooper Orn. Club (=Condor), I, 1899, 65. (4) G. F. BRENINGER, The Painted Redstart (in Arizona), Condor, III, 1901, 147.
The single specimen known is generally considered to be a hybrid between Vermivora pinus and Oporornis formosus. See Langdon Journ. Cine. Soc. Nat. Hist, III, 1880, 119, pi. 6; Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club V, 1880, 208, pi. 4 ; Ridgway, Ibid., 237.
This bird is known to us only from Audubon's plate and description based on two specimens taken by him at Henderson, Kentucky, in May, 1811 (Orn. Biog., i, 308 pi. 60).
This bird is known to us only from the descriptions and figures of Wilson and Audubon. It was described by Wilson under the name Muscicapa minuta. (Am. Orn. VI, 1812, 62), but in 1838 was referred by Bonaparte to the genus Wilsonia. In 1885 Ridgway substituted the name microcephala for that of minuta, the latter proving to be preoccupied.
300 HYPOTHETICAL LIST
Whatever may have been the original of Wilson's Muscicapa minuta there can be no question that no such bird as he described now nests, as he supposed, in New Jersey. Of Kentucky, where Audubon secured his specimen, so positive a statement is perhaps not warranted, the recent discovery in that state of the nest of Bachman's Warbler indicating that our knowledge of its bird-life is still far from complete.
A species of the Mexican tableland which was recorded from "Texas" by Giraud ('Sixteen Species Texas Birds', 1841, pi. 7, fig. i), but the seventy years which have passed since its alleged discovery in what are now the United States make it reasonably sure that Giraud did not get his specimen north of the present Mexican boundary, and there seems to be no further excuse for extending to his record the
Recorded from Texas by Giraud as Parus leucotis ('Sixteen Species of Texas Birds,' 1841, pi. 4, fig. i), but there appear to be no definite records north of Durango and Sinaloa. See remarks under the preceding species.
A species of northeastern Mexico recorded from "Texas" by Giraud ('Sixteen Species of Texas Birds,' 1841, pi. 6, fig. 2), but it appears to be unknown north of Victoria, Tamaulipas. See remarks under the two preceding species.
A species of southern Mexico recorded from "Texas" by Giraud ('Sixteen Species of Texas Birds,' 1841, pi. 4, fig. 2), but it appears to be unknown north of the State of Vera Cruz. See remarks under preceding species.
ESTIVA, DENDROICA ESTIVA, migration of, 18; biography of, 113; figure of, frontispiece; eggs of figured, facing 144; nest of figured, facing 188.
biography of, 103.
American Redstart, biography of, 287 ; figure of, facing 288; eggs of figured, facing 258 ; nest of figured, facing 272.
facing 144.
aurocapillus, Seiurus, biography of, 219; figure of, facing 226; eggs of figured, facing 176; nest of figured, facing 200.
Chestnut-sided Warbler, biography of, 187; figure of, facing 138; eggs of figured, facing 144; nest of figured, facing 188.
Cincinnati Warbler, 299.
citrea, Protonotaria, biography of, 54; figure of, facing 50; eggs of figured, facing 44; nest of figured, facing 58.
Compsothlypis americana usneae, biography of, 104; song, 173; figure of, facing 104; eggs of figured, facing 44; nest of figured, facing 58.
DENDROICA JESTIVA .ESTIVA, migration of, 18; biography of, 113; figure of, frontispiece; eggs of figured, facing 144 ; nest of figured, facing 188.
raphy of, 213 : figure of, facing 214.
Dendroica pensylvanica, biography of, 187 ; figure of, facing 138 ; eggs of figured, facing 144; nest of figured, facing 188.
Dendroica striata, mortality among, 36; biography of, 196 ; figure of, facing 38 ; eggs of figured, facing 144; nest of figured, facing 200. ,
figure of, facing 170.
Hooded Warbler, biography of, 269; figure of, facing 264; eggs of figured, facing 258 ; nest of figured, facing 272.
miniatus, Myioborus miniatus, 300.
mitrata, Wilsonia, biography of, 269; figure of, facing 264; eggs of figured, facing 258; nest of figured, facing 272.
noveboracensis, Seiurus noveboracensis, biography of, 230; figure of, facing 226; eggs of figured, facing 176.
of, 89.
Oven-bird, biography of, 219; figure of, facing 226; eggs of figured, facing 176; nest of figured, facing 200.
Parula Warbler, biography of, 104; song of, 173; figure of, facing 104; eggs of figured, facing 44; nest of figured, facing 58.
pensylvanica, Dendroica, biography of, 187; figure of, facing 138; eggs of figured, facing 144; nest of figured, facing 188.
Prothonotary Warbler, biography of, 54; figure of, facing 50; eggs of figured, facing 44; nest of figured, facing 58.
Protonotaria citrea, biography of, 54; figure of, facing 50; eggs of figured, facing 44; nest of figured, facing 58. pusilla, Wilsonia pusilla, biography of,
of, 261.
Seiurus aurocapillus, biography of, 219; figure of, facing 226; eggs of figured, facing 176; nest of figured, facing 200.
striata, Dendroica, mortality among, 36; biography of, 196; figure of, facing 38; eggs of figured, 144; nest of figured, facing 200.
Sycamore Warbler, biography of, 184. TENNESSEE WARBLER, biography of, 83; figure of, facing 86; eggs of figured, facing 44.
biography of, 104; song of, 173; figure of, facing 104; eggs of figured, facing 44; nest of figured, facing 58.
WARBLERS, distribution of, u; food of, 23; general characters of, 7; generic synopsis of, 38; migration of, 14; mortality among, 34; nesting habits of, 22; plumage of, 7; songs of, 20.
Wilsonia microcephala, 299.
Wilsonia citrina, biography of, 269; figure of, facing 264; eggs of figured, facing 258; nest of figured, facing 272.
Yellow Warbler, migration of, 18; biography of, 113; figure of, frontispiece; eggs of figured, facing 144; nest of figured, facing 188.
| 131,763 | common-pile/pre_1929_books_filtered | thewarblersofnor00chapiala | public_library | public_library_1929_dolma-0019.json.gz:3410 | https://archive.org/download/thewarblersofnor00chapiala/thewarblersofnor00chapiala_djvu.txt |
arDavGOmi88XYqmK | 10.7: Chapter Review - Key Terms | Skip to main content
10.7: Chapter Review - Key Terms
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Key Terms
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absolute cell reference
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one in which the cell reference is fixed, regardless of where you copy the formula
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array
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selection of rows or columns that do not have to be contiguous
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auditing formulas
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process of using Excel tools to monitor and fix errors in worksheets
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average
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number found by adding up a group of values, and then dividing it by the number of values you added up; also called the mean
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background
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canvas that is displayed behind the cell contents of a worksheet
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basic financial functions
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main functions used for calculating loan installments, investment returns, net present value of capital investments, mortgage payment comparisons, and many more real-world applications
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cell range
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selection of rows or columns that is given a name to make it easier for the worksheet designer to find that specific group of cells later
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Cell Style
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tool that lets you select other font sizes and background colors
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comparison operators
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inequality symbols used in math; includes <, >,
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, =, and <>
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complex formula
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one that uses several operators to calculate an output
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Data Table
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scenario-building tool in Excel that lets users choose a set of cells on the spreadsheet, and then outputs different solutions or forecasts depending on different scenarios
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filter
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tool in Excel that lets the user select certain criteria so that only data with that criteria is shown
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Format Painter
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tool that lets you copy a certain range’s formatting and apply it to a new range
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logical functions
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long formulas with embedded logical tests that often use comparison operators to search for delimited data
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MAX
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function that finds the highest value in a dataset
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MIN
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function that finds the lowest value in a dataset
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mixed cell reference
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one that uses a combination of both relative and absolute cell references
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order of operations
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universal law of math used to prescribe the order of doing each calculation in an equation
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PivotTable
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tool in Excel that lets users create interactive charts and tables from raw datasets
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relative cell reference
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one in which the cell reference in a formula or function updates automatically to reference an adjacent cell when you copy that formula or function to another cell
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standard deviation
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common statistical tool used by many data analysts that calculates the variability of the figures in a dataset from the arithmetic mean
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tracing dependent functions
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finding the source of an error in a formula by finding any cells affected by the active cell
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tracing precedent functions
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finding the source of an error in a formula by locating the cells that provide the data to perform the calculation in the active cell | 651 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://workforce.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Workplace_Software_and_Skills_(OpenStax)/10%3A_Advanced_Excel_Formulas_Functions_and_Techniques/10.07%3A_Chapter_Review_-_Key_Terms | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:2395 | https://workforce.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Workplace_Software_and_Skills_(OpenStax)/10%3A_Advanced_Excel_Formulas_Functions_and_Techniques/10.07%3A_Chapter_Review_-_Key_Terms |
iVOlQtZkPS60B3AU | 4: Ethers and Epoxides; Thiols and Sulfides | 4: Ethers and Epoxides; Thiols and Sulfides
We shall begin in a very traditional manner, with a discussion of the nomenclature of ethers. We will then describe how ethers may be prepared in the laboratory, and discuss the relative inertness of these compounds. A discussion of the chemistry of cyclic ethers follows, with particular emphasis on the preparation and reactions of epoxides (cyclic ethers containing a three-membered ring). We will then introduce crown ethers—compounds that consist of large rings containing several oxygen atoms and the spectroscopic properties of ethers. The unit will close with a description of the chemistry of thiols and sulfides, the sulfur-containing analogues of alcohols and ethers.
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- 4.5: Reactions of Ethers - Claisen Rearrangement
- The Claisen rearrangement is a key organic reaction that involves the thermal rearrangement of allyl vinyl ethers to form β-aryl allyl ethers. It's a valuable tool in organic synthesis, enabling the creation of complex molecular structures with high selectivity and efficiency.
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- 4.6: Cyclic Ethers - Epoxides
- Cyclic ethers, specifically epoxides, are organic compounds with a ring structure containing an oxygen atom. Epoxides are characterized by a highly strained, reactive three-membered ring. They find applications in organic synthesis, polymerization, asymmetric synthesis, and biology. Despite their utility, they require careful handling due to their reactivity and potential health hazards.
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- 4.8: Crown Ethers
- Crown ethers are a fascinating class of chemical compounds known for their unique structure and remarkable properties. These molecules consist of a ring-shaped arrangement of oxygen atoms, typically with carbon atoms forming the backbone. The name "crown" comes from their crown-like shape when viewed in three dimensions.
- fulfill all of the detailed objectives listed under each individual section.
- design a multi-step synthesis using one or more of the reactions introduced in this chapter, along with any number of the reactions you have studied to date.
- solve “road-map” problems that may require a knowledge of the chemistry of ethers, epoxides, thiols and sulfides, in addition to any of the material you have studied up to this point in organic chemistry.
- define, and use in context, the key terms introduced in this chapter. | 469 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/can/CHEM_232_-_Organic_Chemistry_II_(Puenzo)/04%3A_Ethers_and_Epoxides_Thiols_and_Sulfides | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:40509 | https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/can/CHEM_232_-_Organic_Chemistry_II_(Puenzo)/04%3A_Ethers_and_Epoxides_Thiols_and_Sulfides |
kf67WeYbNFHb0pxi | 5.4: Spectroscopy in Astronomy | 5.4: Spectroscopy in Astronomy
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Describe the properties of light
- Explain how astronomers learn the composition of a gas by examining its spectral lines
- Discuss the various types of spectra
Electromagnetic radiation carries a lot of information about the nature of stars and other astronomical objects. To extract this information, however, astronomers must be able to study the amounts of energy we receive at different wavelengths of light in fine detail. Let’s examine how we can do this and what we can learn.
Properties of Light
Light exhibits certain behaviors that are important to the design of telescopes and other instruments. For example, light can be reflected from a surface. If the surface is smooth and shiny, as with a mirror, the direction of the reflected light beam can be calculated accurately from knowledge of the shape of the reflecting surface. Light is also bent, or refracted , when it passes from one kind of transparent material into another—say, from the air into a glass lens.
Reflection and refraction of light are the basic properties that make possible all optical instruments (devices that help us to see things better)—from eyeglasses to giant astronomical telescopes. Such instruments are generally combinations of glass lenses, which bend light according to the principles of refraction, and curved mirrors, which depend on the properties of reflection. Small optical devices, such as eyeglasses or binoculars, generally use lenses, whereas large telescopes depend almost entirely on mirrors for their main optical elements. We will discuss astronomical instruments and their uses more fully in Astronomical Instruments. For now, we turn to another behavior of light, one that is essential for the decoding of light.
In 1672, in the first paper that he submitted to the Royal Society, Sir Isaac Newton described an experiment in which he permitted sunlight to pass through a small hole and then through a prism. Newton found that sunlight, which looks white to us, is actually made up of a mixture of all the colors of the rainbow (Figure 5.9).
Figure 5.9 shows how light is separated into different colors with a prism—a piece of glass in the shape of a triangle with refracting surfaces. Upon entering one face of the prism, the path of the light is refracted (bent), but not all of the colors are bent by the same amount. The bending of the beam depends on the wavelength of the light as well as the properties of the material, and as a result, different wavelengths (or colors of light) are bent by different amounts and therefore follow slightly different paths through the prism. The violet light is bent more than the red. This phenomenon is called dispersion and explains Newton’s rainbow experiment.
Upon leaving the opposite face of the prism, the light is bent again and further dispersed. If the light leaving the prism is focused on a screen, the different wavelengths or colors that make up white light are lined up side by side just like a rainbow (Figure 5.10). (In fact, a rainbow is formed by the dispersion of light though raindrops; see The Rainbow feature box.) Because this array of colors is a spectrum of light, the instrument used to disperse the light and form the spectrum is called a spectrometer .
The Value of Stellar Spectra
When Newton described the laws of refraction and dispersion in optics, and observed the solar spectrum, all he could see was a continuous band of colors. If the spectrum of the white light from the Sun and stars were simply a continuous rainbow of colors, astronomers would have little interest in the detailed study of a star’s spectrum once they had learned its average surface temperature. In 1802, however, William Wollaston built an improved spectrometer that included a lens to focus the Sun’s spectrum on a screen. With this device, Wollaston saw that the colors were not spread out uniformly, but instead, some ranges of color were missing, appearing as dark bands in the solar spectrum. He mistakenly attributed these lines to natural boundaries between the colors. In 1815, German physicist Joseph Fraunhofer , upon a more careful examination of the solar spectrum, found about 600 such dark lines (missing colors), which led scientists to rule out the boundary hypothesis (Figure 5.11).
Later, researchers found that similar dark lines could be produced in the spectra (“spectra” is the plural of “spectrum”) of artificial light sources. They did this by passing their light through various apparently transparent substances—usually containers with just a bit of thin gas in them.
These gases turned out not to be transparent at all colors: they were quite opaque at a few sharply defined wavelengths. Something in each gas had to be absorbing just a few colors of light and no others. All gases did this, but each different element absorbed a different set of colors and thus showed different dark lines. If the gas in a container consisted of two elements, then light passing through it was missing the colors (showing dark lines) for both of the elements. So it became clear that certain lines in the spectrum “go with” certain elements. This discovery was one of the most important steps forward in the history of astronomy.
What would happen if there were no continuous spectrum for our gases to remove light from? What if, instead, we heated the same thin gases until they were hot enough to glow with their own light? When the gases were heated, a spectrometer revealed no continuous spectrum, but several separate bright lines. That is, these hot gases emitted light only at certain specific wavelengths or colors.
When the gas was pure hydrogen, it would emit one pattern of colors; when it was pure sodium, it would emit a different pattern. A mixture of hydrogen and sodium emitted both sets of spectral lines. The colors the gases emitted when they were heated were the very same colors as those they had absorbed when a continuous source of light was behind them. From such experiments, scientists began to see that different substances showed distinctive spectral signatures by which their presence could be detected (Figure 5.12). Just as your signature allows the bank to identify you, the unique pattern of colors for each type of atom (its spectrum) can help us identify which element or elements are in a gas.
Types of Spectra
In these experiments, then, there were three different types of spectra . A continuous spectrum (formed when a solid or very dense gas gives off radiation) is an array of all wavelengths or colors of the rainbow. A continuous spectrum can serve as a backdrop from which the atoms of much less dense gas can absorb light. A dark line, or absorption spectrum , consists of a series or pattern of dark lines—missing colors—superimposed upon the continuous spectrum of a source. A bright line, or emission spectrum , appears as a pattern or series of bright lines; it consists of light in which only certain discrete wavelengths are present. (Figure 5.11 shows an absorption spectrum, whereas Figure 5.12 shows the emission spectrum of a number of common elements along with an example of a continuous spectrum.)
When we have a hot, thin gas, each particular chemical element or compound produces its own characteristic pattern of spectral lines—its spectral signature. No two types of atoms or molecules give the same patterns. In other words, each particular gas can absorb or emit only certain wavelengths of the light peculiar to that gas. In contrast, absorption spectra occur when passing white light through a cool, thin gas. The temperature and other conditions determine whether the lines are bright or dark (whether light is absorbed or emitted), but the wavelengths of the lines for any element are the same in either case. It is the precise pattern of wavelengths that makes the signature of each element unique. Liquids and solids can also generate spectral lines or bands, but they are broader and less well defined—and hence, more difficult to interpret. Spectral analysis, however, can be quite useful. It can, for example, be applied to light reflected off the surface of a nearby asteroid as well as to light from a distant galaxy.
The dark lines in the solar spectrum thus give evidence of certain chemical elements between us and the Sun absorbing those wavelengths of sunlight. Because the space between us and the Sun is pretty empty, astronomers realized that the atoms doing the absorbing must be in a thin atmosphere of cooler gas around the Sun. This outer atmosphere is not all that different from the rest of the Sun, just thinner and cooler. Thus, we can use what we learn about its composition as an indicator of what the whole Sun is made of. Similarly, we can use the presence of absorption and emission lines to analyze the composition of other stars and clouds of gas in space.
Such analysis of spectra is the key to modern astronomy. Only in this way can we “sample” the stars, which are too far away for us to visit. Encoded in the electromagnetic radiation from celestial objects is clear information about the chemical makeup of these objects. Only by understanding what the stars were made of could astronomers begin to form theories about what made them shine and how they evolved.
In 1860, German physicist Gustav Kirchhoff became the first person to use spectroscopy to identify an element in the Sun when he found the spectral signature of sodium gas. In the years that followed, astronomers found many other chemical elements in the Sun and stars. In fact, the element helium was found first in the Sun from its spectrum and only later identified on Earth. (The word “helium” comes from helios , the Greek name for the Sun.)
Why are there specific lines for each element? The answer to that question was not found until the twentieth century; it required the development of a model for the atom. We therefore turn next to a closer examination of the atoms that make up all matter.
You can use the Spectrum Constructor to explore the three types of spectra and how they appear through a diffraction grating when the brightness of each wavelength is measured with a spectrometer.
Rainbows are an excellent illustration of the dispersion of sunlight. You have a good chance of seeing a rainbow any time you are between the Sun and a rain shower, as illustrated in Figure 5.13. The raindrops act like little prisms and break white light into the spectrum of colors. Suppose a ray of sunlight encounters a raindrop and passes into it. The light changes direction—is refracted—when it passes from air to water; the blue and violet light are refracted more than the red. Some of the light is then reflected at the backside of the drop and reemerges from the front, where it is again refracted. As a result, the white light is spread out into a rainbow of colors.
Note that violet light lies above the red light after it emerges from the raindrop. When you look at a rainbow, however, the red light is higher in the sky. Why? Look again at Figure 5.13. If the observer looks at a raindrop that is high in the sky, the violet light passes over her head and the red light enters her eye. Similarly, if the observer looks at a raindrop that is low in the sky, the violet light reaches her eye and the drop appears violet, whereas the red light from that same drop strikes the ground and is not seen. Colors of intermediate wavelengths are refracted to the eye by drops that are intermediate in altitude between the drops that appear violet and the ones that appear red. Thus, a single rainbow always has red on the outside and violet on the inside. | 2,589 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://phys.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Astronomy__Cosmology/Astronomy_2e_(OpenStax)/05%3A_Radiation_and_Spectra/5.04%3A_Spectroscopy_in_Astronomy | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:2798 | https://phys.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Astronomy__Cosmology/Astronomy_2e_(OpenStax)/05%3A_Radiation_and_Spectra/5.04%3A_Spectroscopy_in_Astronomy |
NqnW8iTzJLcOOMll | Hymns and Spiritual Songs | C. Butler-Stoney
JESUS triumphant when the storm-clouds break,
And the loud thunder bids the soul awake;
When biting blasts lay earthly projects low,
And one by one the fondest treasures go.
2
Jesus triumphant, through the fleeting years;
Jesus triumphant, spite of blinding tears;
High over all, to hear Thy loving voice,
Which bids the heart look upward and rejoice.
3
Jesus triumphant, when in work for Thee,
Sad and disheartened, no results we see;
When gathered force of evil seems to win,
And work for Christ seems lost in work of sin.
4
Jesus triumphant all along the line;
Triumphant Saviour, all Thy triumph mine;
For since I am a partner in Thy love,
My life on earth is lived through Thee above.
5
Jesus triumphant as I fall asleep,
No fear of death to those whom Thou shalt keep;
Jesus triumphant when the body dies,
And earth in earth, all that is mortal lies.
6
Jesus triumphant when the spirit wings
Upward and heavenward to the King of kings;
And through the last great triumph of Thy grace
Triumphant saints shall see Thee face to face. | 244 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://pressbooks.pub/hymnbook/chapter/jesus-triumphant-when-the-storm-clouds-break/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:96486 | https://pressbooks.pub/hymnbook/chapter/jesus-triumphant-when-the-storm-clouds-break/ |
SqhMovw1m2xQOEgH | 24.4: Aggregate Supply | 24.4: Aggregate Supply
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Introducing Aggregate Supply
Aggregate supply is the total supply of goods and services that firms in a national economy plan to sell during a specific time period.
Learning objectives
- Define Aggregate Supply
Aggregate Supply
In economics, aggregate supply is the total supply of goods and services that firms in a national economy plan to sell during a specific time period. It is the total amount of goods and services that the firms are willing to sell at a given price level in the economy. Aggregate supply is the relationship between the price level and the production of the economy.
Aggregate Supply : Aggregate supply is the total quantity of goods and services supplied at a given price. Its intersection with aggregate demand determines the equilibrium quantity supplied and price.
Short-run Aggregate Supply
In the short-run, the aggregate supply is graphed as an upward sloping curve. The equation used to determine the short-run aggregate supply is: \(\mathrm{Y = Y^* + α(P-P_e)}\). In the equation, Y is the production of the economy, Y* is the natural level of production of the economy, the coefficient α is always greater than 0, P is the price level, and P e is the expected price level from consumers.
The short-run aggregate supply curve is upward sloping because the quantity supplied increases when the price rises. In the short-run, firms have one fixed factor of production (usually capital ). When the curve shifts outward the output and real GDP increase at a given price. As a result, there is a positive correlation between the price level and output, which is shown on the short-run aggregate supply curve.
Long-run Aggregate Supply
In the long-run, the aggregate supply is graphed vertically on the supply curve. The equation used to determine the long-run aggregate supply is: \(\mathrm{Y = Y^*}\). In the equation, Y is the production of the economy and Y* is the natural level of production of the economy.
The long-run aggregate supply curve is vertical which reflects economists’ beliefs that changes in the aggregate demand only temporarily change the economy’s total output. In the long-run, only capital, labor, and technology affect aggregate supply because everything in the economy is assumed to be used optimally. The long-run aggregate supply curve is static because it is the slowest aggregate supply curve.
The Slope of the Short-Run Aggregate Supply Curve
In the short-run, the aggregate supply curve is upward sloping.
Learning objectives
- Summarize the characteristics of short-run aggregate supply
Aggregate Supply
Aggregate supply is the total supply of goods and services that firms in a national economy plan to sell during a specific period of time. It is the total amount of goods and services that firms are willing to sell at a given price level.
Short-run Aggregate Supply Curve
In the short-run, the aggregate supply curve is upward sloping. There are two main reasons why the quantity supplied increases as the price rises:
- The AS curve is drawn using a nominal variable, such as the nominal wage rate. In the short-run, the nominal wage rate is fixed. As a result, an increasing price indicates higher profits that justify the expansion of output.
- An alternate model explains that the AS curve increases because some nominal input prices are fixed in the short-run and as output rises, more production processes encounter bottlenecks. At low levels of demand, large numbers of production processes do not make full use of their fixed capital equipment. As a result, production can be increased without much diminishing returns. The average price level does not have to rise much in order to justify increased production. In this case, the AS curve is flat. Likewise, when demand is high, there are few production processes that have unemployed fixed outputs. Any increase in demand production causes the prices to increase which results in a steep or vertical AS curve.
Short-run Aggregate Supply Equation
The equation used to calculate the short-run aggregate supply is: \(\mathrm{Y = Y^* + α(P-P_e)}\). In the equation, Y is the production of the economy, Y* is the natural level of production, coefficient is always positive, P is the price level, and P e is the expected price level.
In the short-run, firms possess fixed factors of production, including prices, wages, and capital. It is possible for the short-run supply curve to shift outward as a result of an increase in output and real GDP at a given price. As a result, the short-run aggregate supply curve shows the correlation between the price level and output.
Aggregate Supply Curve : This graph shows the aggregate supply curve. In the short-run the aggregate supply curve is upward sloping. When the curve shifts outward, it is due to an increase in output and real GDP.
The Slope of the Long-Run Aggregate Supply Curve
The long-run aggregate supply curve is perfectly vertical; changes in aggregate demand only cause a temporary change in total output.
Learning objectives
- Assess factors that influence the shape and movement of the long run aggregate supply curve
Aggregate Supply
In economics, aggregate supply is defined as the total supply of goods and services that firms in a national economy are willing to sell at a given price level.
Long-run in Economics
The long-run is the conceptual time period in which there are no fixed factors of production; all factors can be changed. In the long-run, firms change supply levels in response to expected economic profits or losses.
Long-run Aggregate Supply Curve
In the long-run, only capital, labor, and technology affect the aggregate supply curve because at this point everything in the economy is assumed to be used optimally. The long-run aggregate supply curve is static because it shifts the slowest of the three ranges of the aggregate supply curve. The long-run aggregate supply curve is perfectly vertical, which reflects economists’ belief that the changes in aggregate demand only cause a temporary change in an economy’s total output. In the long-run, there is exactly one quantity that will be supplied.
Aggregate Supply : This graph shows the aggregate supply curve. In the long-run the aggregate supply curve is perfectly vertical, reflecting economists’ belief that changes in aggregate demand only cause a temporary change in an economy’s total output.
The long-run aggregate supply curve can be shifted, when the factors of production change in quantity. For example, if there is an increase in the number of available workers or labor hours in the long run, the aggregate supply curve will shift outward (it is assumed the labor market is always in equilibrium and everyone in the workforce is employed). Similarly, changes in technology can shift the curve by changing the potential output from the same amount of inputs in the long-term.
For the short-run aggregate supply, the quantity supplied increases as the price rises. The AS curve is drawn given some nominal variable, such as the nominal wage rate. In the short run, the nominal wage rate is taken as fixed. Therefore, rising P implies higher profits that justify expansion of output. However, in the long run, the nominal wage rate varies with economic conditions (high unemployment leads to falling nominal wages — and vice-versa).
The equation used to calculate the long-run aggregate supply is: \(\mathrm{Y = Y^*}\). In the equation, Y is the level of economic production and Y* is the natural level of production.
Moving from Short-Run to Long-Run
In the short-run, the price level of the economy is sticky or fixed; in the long-run, the price level for the economy is completely flexible.
Learning objectives
- Recognize the role of capital in the shape and movement of the short-run and long-run aggregate supply curve
In economics, the short-run is the period when general price level, contractual wages, and expectations do not fully adjust. In contrast, the long-run is the period when the previously mentioned variables adjust fully to the state of the economy.
Aggregate Supply
Aggregate supply is the total amount of goods and services that firms are willing to sell at a given price level.
When capital increases, the aggregate supply curve will shift to the right, prices will drop, and the quantity of the good or service will increase.
Short-run Aggregate Supply
During the short-run, firms possess one fixed factor of production (usually capital). It is possible for the curve to shift outward in the short-run, which results in increased output and real GDP at a given price. In the short-run, there is a positive relationship between the price level and the output. The short-run aggregate supply curve is an upward slope. The short-run is when all production occurs in real time.
Aggregate Supply : This graph shows the relationship between aggregate supply and aggregate demand in the short-run. The curve is upward sloping and shows a positive correlation between the price level and output.
Long-run Aggregate Supply
In the long-run only capital, labor, and technology impact the aggregate supply curve because at this point everything in the economy is assumed to be used optimally. The long-run supply curve is static and shifts the slowest of all three ranges of the supply curve. The long-run curve is perfectly vertical, which reflects economists’ belief that changes in aggregate demand only temporarily change an economy’s total output. The long-run is a planning and implementation stage.
Moving from Short-run to Long-run
In the short-run, the price level of the economy is sticky or fixed depending on changes in aggregate supply. Also, capital is not fully mobile between sectors.
In the long-run, the price level for the economy is completely flexible in regards to shifts in aggregate supply. There is also full mobility of labor and capital between sectors of the economy.
The aggregate supply moves from short-run to long-run when enough time passes such that no factors are fixed. That state of equilibrium is then compared to the new short-run and long-run equilibrium state if there is a change that disturbs equilibrium.
Reasons for and Consequences of Shifts in the Short-Run Aggregate Supply Curve
The short-run aggregate supply shifts in relation to changes in price level and production.
Learning objectives
- Identify common reasons for shifts in the short-run aggregate supply curve, Explain the consequences of shifts in the short-run aggregate supply curve
Aggregate Supply
The aggregate supply is the relation between the price level and production of an economy. It is the total supply of goods and services that firms in a national economy plan on selling during a specific time period at a given price level.
Short-run Aggregate Supply
In the short-run, the aggregate supply curve is upward sloping because some nominal input prices are fixed and as the output rises, more production processes experience bottlenecks. At low levels of demand, production can be increased without diminishing returns and the average price level does not rise. However, when the demand is high, few production processes have unemployed fixed inputs. Any increase in demand and production increases the prices. In the short-run, the general price level, contractual wage rates, and expectations many not fully adjust to the state of the economy.
Shifts in the Short-run Aggregate Supply
The short-run aggregate supply shifts in relation to changes in price level and production. The equation used to determine the short-run aggregate supply is: \(\mathrm{Y = Y^*}\). Y is the production of the economy, Y* is the natural level of production, coefficient α is always positive, P is the price level, and P e is the expected price level.
In the short-run, examples of events that shift the aggregate supply curve to the right include a decrease in wages, an increase in physical capital stock, or advancement of technology. The short-run curve shifts to the right the price level decreases and the GDP increases. When the curve shifts to the left, the price level increases and the GDP decreases.
Any event that results in a change of production costs shifts the short-run supply curve outwards or inwards if the production costs are decreased or increased. Factors that impact and shift the short-run curve are taxes and subsides, price of labor (wages), and the price of raw materials. Changes in the quantity and quality of labor and capital also influence the short-run aggregate supply curve.
Short-run Aggregate Supply : This graph shows the Aggregate Suppy-Aggregate Demand model. In regards to aggregate supply, increases or decreases in the price level and output cause the aggregate supply curve to shift in the short-run.
Key Points
- Aggregate supply is the relationship between the price level and the production of the economy.
- In the short-run, the aggregate supply is graphed as an upward sloping curve.
- The short-run aggregate supply equation is: \(\mathrm{Y = Y^* + α(P-P_e)}\). In the equation, Y is the production of the economy, Y* is the natural level of production of the economy, the coefficient α is always greater than 0, P is the price level, and P e is the expected price level from consumers.
- In the long-run, the aggregate supply is graphed vertically on the supply curve.
- The equation used to determine the long-run aggregate supply is: \(\mathrm{Y = Y^*}\). In the equation, Y is the production of the economy and Y* is the natural level of production of the economy.
- The AS curve is drawn using a nominal variable, such as the nominal wage rate. In the short-run, the nominal wage rate is fixed. As a result, an increasing price indicates higher profits that justify the expansion of output.
- The AS curve increases because some nominal input prices are fixed in the short-run and as output rises, more production processes encounter bottlenecks.
- In the short-run, the production can be increased without much diminishing returns. The average price level does not have to rise much in order to justify increased production. In this case, the AS curve is flat.
- When demand is high, there are few production processes that have unemployed fixed outputs. Any increase in demand production causes the prices to increase which results in a steep or vertical AS curve.
- The long-run is a planning and implementation phase. It is the conceptual time period in which there are no fixed factors of production.
- In the long-run, only capital, labor, and technology affect the aggregate supply curve because at this point everything in the economy is assumed to be used optimally.
- Aggregate supply is usually inadequate to supply ample opportunity. Often, this is fixed capital equipment. The AS curve is drawn given some nominal variable, such as the nominal wage rate.
- In the long run, the nominal wage rate varies with economic conditions (high unemployment leads to falling nominal wages — and vice-versa).
- The equation used to calculate the long-run aggregate supply is: \(\mathrm{Y = Y^*}\). In the equation, Y is the level of economic production and Y* is the natural level of production.
- When capital increases, the aggregate supply curve will shift to the right, prices will drop, and the quantity of the good or service will increase.
- The short-run aggregate supply curve is an upward slope. The short-run is when all production occurs in real time.
- The long-run curve is perfectly vertical, which reflects economists’ belief that changes in aggregate demand only temporarily change an economy’s total output. The long-run is a planning and implementation stage.
- Aggregate supply moves from short-run to long-run by considering some equilibrium that is the same for both short and long-run when analyzing supply and demand. That state of equilibrium is then compared to the new short-run and long-run equilibrium state from a change that disturbs equilibrium.
- In the short-run, the aggregate supply curve is upward sloping because some nominal input prices are fixed and as the output rises, more production processes experience bottlenecks.
- At low levels of demand, production can be increased without diminishing returns and the average price level does not rise.
- When the demand is high, few production processes have unemployed fixed inputs. Any increase in demand and production increases the prices.
- Any event that results in a change of production costs shifts the short-run supply curve outwards or inwards if the production costs are decreased or increased.
Key Terms
- factor of production : A resource employed to produce goods and services, such as labor, land, and capital.
- output : Production; quantity produced, created, or completed.
- supply : The amount of some product that producers are willing and able to sell at a given price, all other factors being held constant.
- aggregate : A mass, assemblage, or sum of particulars; something consisting of elements but considered as a whole.
- long-run : The conceptual time period in which there are no fixed factors of production.
- capital : Already-produced durable goods available for use as a factor of production, such as steam shovels (equipment) and office buildings (structures).
- short-run : When one or more factors are fixed.
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j2MOwmMc_1xdpqGI | 13.12: Reproductive System Worksheet Answers | 13.12: Reproductive System Worksheet Answers
1. Add the labels to the diagram of the reproductive system of a male dog shown below.
2. Fill in the table using the choices in the list below.
| Structure | Description |
|---|---|
| D. Penis | 1. Organ that delivers semen to the female reproductive tract |
| E. Seminiferous tubules | 2. Where sperm are produced |
| C. Vas deferens (sperm duct) | 3. The tube that carries sperm from the epididymis to the urethra. |
| F. Urethra | 4. The tube that carries both sperm and urine down the penis. |
| A. Accessory glands | 5. Organs that contribute 90% of the semen. |
| B. Epididymis | 6. Tubules where sperm are stored. |
3. The diagram below shows a section through a testis.
Colour and label the structures of the diagram.
- 1. Seminiferous tubules in which the sperm are made. Blue
- 2. Collecting ducts where the sperm are stored. Green
- 3. Epididymis in which sperm mature and become motile. Red
- 4. Fibrous coat surrounding and protecting the testis. Brown
- 5. Vas deferens or sperm duct. Yellow
4. The diagram below shows a sperm. Colour and label the following areas.
- a) The DNA-containing area. Brown
- b) The enzyme-containing sac that aids sperm penetration of the egg. Yellow
- c) The midpiece - contains mitochondria for energy for sperm movement. Red
- d) The tail – propels the sperm along the female tract. Blue
5. a) What is the difference between sperm and semen?
- Sperm are the gametes that carry the genetic material (head, midpiece and tail) while semen is the fluid produced by the accessory glands plus the sperm carried in it.
- b) What is the difference between infertility and impotence?
- Infertility is the inability to conceive and have offspring while impotence is the inability to mate.
6. Add labels to the diagram of the female reproductive system below.
7. Fill in the following table with the words from the list below. Some words may need to be used more than once.
| Term | Description |
|---|---|
| F. Uterus | 1. Chamber that houses the developing foetus |
| E. Vagina | 2. Usual site of fertilisation |
| C. Fallopian tube | 4. Duct through which the ovum travels to reach the uterus. |
| D. Cervix | 5. A sphincter muscle between the uterus and the vagina |
| B. Vulva | 6. External genitalia |
| A. Ovary | 7. Where the ova are produced |
8. The diagram below shows an ovary with the stages of development of the ovum during an ovarian cycle.
i) Chose different colours and colour in:
-
- a) The cells that produce oestrogen. Red
- b) The structure that produces progesterone. Yellow
- c) All the ova. blue
ii) In the space provided, name the event shown as “event A’ on the diagram.
9. a) Arrange the following events in the ovarian cycle in the correct order in which they occur. Put the numbers in the correct order in the boxes below.
| 4. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) secreted by the anterior pituitary gland | 6. Ovum develops in the follicle | 7. Oestrogen secreted by follicle cells | 1. Luteinising hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland | 2. Ovulation of mature ovum | 5. Corpus luteum develops | 3. Progesterone secreted by corpus luteum |
10 The diagrams below show different stages in the ovarian cycle.
- i. In the spaces under the diagrams write a few words describing what is happening in diagram above.
- ii. Now show by means of arrows added to the diagram, where the hormones FSH (follicle stimulating hormone), LH (luteinising hormone), oestrogen and progesterone act or are produced.
11. State whether the following statements are true or false. If false write in the correct answer.
- 1. The mixing of foetal and maternal blood in the placenta allows easy transfer of nutrients and oxygen to the foetus.
- F. Although the foetal and maternal blood flow close to each other they do not mix in a healthy placenta.
- 2. Adrenaline cannot easily cross the placenta. T
- 3. Antibodies cannot pass across the placenta from the mother.
- F. Antibodies from the mother do cross the placenta to the foetus.
- 4. Colostrum contains lots of hormones.
- F Colostrum contains antibodies but not hormones .
- 5. Oestrogen stimulates milk “let-down”.
- F Oxytocin from the posterior pituitary gland is the hormone that stimulates milk "let-down"
- 6. Young animals often have to be given iron supplements because milk contains very little iron. T
12. Insert the correct term into the table.
| Term | Description |
|---|---|
| D. Follicle stimulating hormone | 1. The hormone that stimulates the growth of ovarian follicles. |
| A. Progesterone | 2. The hormone that is secreted by the corpus luteum |
| F. Morula | 3. A ball of cells produced by early division of the fertilised egg. |
| G . Blastocyst |
4. The hollow ball of cells produced by later division of the fertilised egg. Embryo transfer is possible at this stage. |
| C. Luteinising hormone | 5. The hormone that changes the empty follicle into the corpus luteum. |
| I. Placenta |
6. The membranes that form around the embryo to allow diffusion of nutrients and oxygen etc. between the foetal and maternal blood systems. |
| H. Implantation | 7. Attachment of the fertilized egg to the uterine lining |
| E. Chorionic gonadotrophin | 8. The hormone that is used in some pregnancy tests. |
| B. Oestrogen | 9. The hormone secreted by the ovarian follicle. |
| J. Colostrum | 10. The first milk. | | 1,274 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Veterinary_Medicine/Anatomy_and_Physiology_of_Animals_(Lawson)/13%3A_Reproductive_System/13.12%3A_Reproductive_System_Worksheet_Answers | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:36824 | https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Veterinary_Medicine/Anatomy_and_Physiology_of_Animals_(Lawson)/13%3A_Reproductive_System/13.12%3A_Reproductive_System_Worksheet_Answers |
wvCTVQpRj-3_l9lZ | 1.7: Discussion Questions | 1.7: Discussion Questions
Why is the United States a leader in entrepreneurship?
2 .What commonalities do the top five countries have that put them in the lead for entrepreneurial ventures?
3 .One of Roxanne Quimby’s motivations in starting businesses included helping employ people in her community. How does or doesn’t this motivation fit in the definition of an entrepreneur as someone who identifies a problem and solves that problem?
4 .What are the similarities and differences between the business ventures of Wander Girls and Roxanne Quimby?
5 .Why is knowing your vision for the future important?
6 .Why should we create goals using the SMART method?
7 .What is the value in using divergent thinking when trying to solve a problem?
8 .How would you explain the concept of an entrepreneurial vision to your college roommate who is a history major?
9 .What is the primary difference between divergent thinking and brainstorming?
10 .Identify five disruptive technologies and the industries that these technologies impact.
11 .In thinking about the future, and your own experiences, what opportunities are there for disruptive technologies in one or two familiar industries?
12 .What is the difference between an entrepreneurial mindset and entrepreneurial spirit?
13 .Describe your own level of entrepreneurial spirit. | 269 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://biz.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Business/Entrepreneurship/Entrepreneurship_(OpenStax)/01%3A_The__Entrepreneurial_Perspective/1.07%3A_Discussion_Questions | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:35440 | https://biz.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Business/Entrepreneurship/Entrepreneurship_(OpenStax)/01%3A_The__Entrepreneurial_Perspective/1.07%3A_Discussion_Questions |
bQZqo1JATzca0THT | 13.1: Math and Art | 13.1: Math and Art
- Identify and describe the golden ratio.
- Identify and describe the Fibonacci sequence and its application to nature.
- Apply the golden ratio and the Fibonacci sequence relationship.
- Identify and compute golden rectangles.
Art is the expression or application of human creative skill and imagination, typically in a visual form such as painting or sculpture, producing works to be appreciated primarily for their beauty or emotional power. -Oxford Dictionary
Art, like other disciplines, is an area that combines talent and experience with education. While not everyone considers themself skilled at creating art, there are mathematical relationships commonly found in artistic masterpieces that drive what is considered attractive to the eye. Nature is full of examples of these mathematical relationships.
Enroll in a cake decorating class and, when you learn how to create flowers out of icing, you will likely be directed as to the number of petals to use. Depending on the desired size of a rose flower, the recommendation for the number of petals to use is commonly 5, 8, or 13 petals. If learning to draw portraits, you may be surprised to learn that eyes are approximately halfway between the top of a person’s head and their chin. Studying architecture, we find examples of buildings that contain golden rectangles and ratios that add to the beautifying of the design. The Parthenon (Figure
), which was built around 400 BC, as well as modern-day structures such the Washington Monument are two examples containing these relationships. These seemingly unrelated examples and many more highlight mathematical relationships that we associate with beauty in artistic form.Golden Ratio
The
golden ratio
, also known as the golden proportion, is a ratio aspect that can be found in beauty from nature to human anatomy as well as in golden rectangles that are commonly found in building structures. The golden ratio is expressed in nature from plants to creatures such as the starfish, honeybees, seashells, and more. It is commonly noted by the Greek letter
ϕ
(pronounced “fee”).
Consider Figure
: Note how the building is balanced in dimension and has a natural shape. The overall structure does not appear as if it is too wide or too tall in comparison to the other dimensions.The golden ratio has been used by artists through the years and can be found in art dating back to 3000 BC. Leonardo da Vinci is considered one of the artists who mastered the mathematics of the golden ratio, which is prevalent in his artwork such as Virtuvian Man (Figure
). This famous masterpiece highlights the golden ratio in the proportions of an ideal body shape.The golden ratio is approximated in several physical measurements of the human body and parts exhibiting the golden ratio are simply called golden. The ratio of a person’s height to the length from their belly button to the floor is ϕ or approximately 1.618. The bones in our fingers (excluding the thumb), are golden as they form a ratio that approximates ϕ . The human face also includes several ratios and those faces that are considered attractive commonly exhibit golden ratios.
If a person’s height is 5 ft 6 in, what is the approximate length from their belly button to the floor rounded to the nearest inch, assuming the ratio is golden?
- Answer
-
Step 1: Convert the height to inches
Step 2: Calculate the length from the belly button to the floor, .
The length from the person’s belly button to the floor would be approximately 41 in.
If a person’s height is 6 ft 2 in, what is the approximate length from their belly button to the floor rounded to the nearest inch if the ratio is golden?
Fibonacci Sequence and Application to Nature
The Fibonacci sequence can be found occurring naturally in a wide array of elements in our environment from the number of petals on a rose flower to the spirals on a pine cone to the spines on a head of lettuce and more. The Fibonacci sequence can be found in artistic renderings of nature to develop aesthetically pleasing and realistic artistic creations such as in sculptures, paintings, landscape, building design, and more. It is the sequence of numbers beginning with 1, 1, and each subsequent term is the sum of the previous two terms in the sequence (1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, …).
The petal counts on some flowers are represented in the Fibonacci sequence. A daisy is sometimes associated with plucking petals to answer the question “They love me, they love me not.” Interestingly, a daisy found growing wild typically contains 13, 21, or 34 petals and it is noted that these numbers are part of the Fibonacci sequence. The number of petals aligns with the spirals in the flower family.
Suppose you were creating a rose out of icing, assuming a Fibonacci sequence in the petals, how many petals would be in the row following a row containing 13 petals?
- Answer
-
The number of petals on a rose is often modeled with the numbers in the Fibonacci sequence, which is 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13,…, where the next number in the sequence is the sum of . There would be 21 petals on the next row of the icing rose.
If a circular row on a pinecone contains 21 scales and models the Fibonacci sequence, approximately how many scales would be found on the next circular row?
Golden Ratio and the Fibonacci Sequence Relationship
Mathematicians for years have explored patterns and applications to the world around us and continue to do so today. One such pattern can be found in ratios of two adjacent terms of the Fibonacci sequence.
Recall that the Fibonacci sequence = 1, 1, 3, 5, 8, 13,… with 5 and 8 being one example of adjacent terms. When computing the ratio of the larger number to the preceding number such as 8/5 or 13/8, it is fascinating to find the golden ratio emerge. As larger numbers from the Fibonacci sequence are utilized in the ratio, the value more closely approaches ϕ , the golden ratio.
The 24th Fibonacci number is 46,368 and the 25th is 75,025. Show that the ratio of the 25th and 24th Fibonacci numbers is approximately ϕ . Round your answer to the nearest thousandth.
- Answer
-
\[\dfrac{75,025}{46,368} = 1.618 \nonumber \]
The ratio of the 25th and 24th term is approximately equal to the value of ϕ rounded to the nearest thousandth, 1.618.
The 23rd Fibonacci number is 28,657 and the 24th is 46,368. Show that the ratio of the 24th and 23rd Fibonacci numbers is approximately \(\mathit{ϕ}\). Round your answer to the nearest thousandth.
Golden Rectangles
Turning our attention to man-made elements, the golden ratio can be found in architecture and artwork dating back to the ancient pyramids in Egypt (Figure 13.6) to modern-day buildings such as the UN headquarters. The ancient Greeks used golden rectangles —any rectangles where the ratio of the length to the width is the golden ratio—to create aesthetically pleasing as well as solid structures, with examples of the golden rectangle often being used multiple times in the same building such as the Parthenon, which is shown in Figure . Golden rectangles can be found in twentieth-century buildings as well, such as the Washington Monument.
Looking at another man-made element, artists paintings often contain golden rectangles. Well-known paintings such as Leonardo da Vinci’s The Last Supper and the Vitruvian Man contain multiple golden rectangles as do many of da Vinci’s masterpieces.
Whether framing a painting or designing a building, the golden rectangle has been widely utilized by artists and are considered to be the most visually pleasing rectangles.
A frame has dimensions of 8 in by 6 in. Calculate the ratio of the sides rounded to the nearest thousandth and determine if the size approximates a golden rectangle.
- Answer
-
8/6 = 1.333; A golden rectangle’s ratio is approximately 1.618. The frame dimensions are close to a golden rectangle.
A frame has dimensions of 10 in by 8 in. Calculate the ratio of the sides rounded to the nearest thousandth and determine if the size approximates a golden rectangle.
Mauritis Cornelis Escher was a Dutch-born world-famous graphic artist and his work can be found in murals, stamps, wallpaper designs, illustrations in books, and even carpets. Over his lifetime, M.C. Escher created hundreds of lithographs and wood engravings as well as more than 2,000 sketches.
Escher’s work is characterized with the infusion of geometric designs that obey most of the mathematical rules. If you study his work closely, you can see where he breaks a mathematical relationship to create famous illusions such as soldiers marching around the top of a square turret where the soldiers appear to be always going uphill but are contained on a single set of stairs in a square. Look closely and the golden ratio as well as golden rectangles abound in Escher’s work.
Like many famous people, M.C. Escher did not find success in his early school years. Before finding success, Escher failed his final school exam and quit a short stint in architecture. Finding a graphic arts teacher who recognized Escher’s talent, Escher completed art school and enjoyed traveling through Italy, where he found much of his inspiration for his work.
Check Your Understanding
- What is the value of the golden ratio to the nearest thousandth?
- What are the first 10 terms of the Fibonacci sequence?
- What is a golden rectangle? | 2,065 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://math.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Applied_Mathematics/Contemporary_Mathematics_(OpenStax)/13%3A__Math_and.../13.01%3A_Math_and_Art | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:43685 | https://math.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Applied_Mathematics/Contemporary_Mathematics_(OpenStax)/13%3A__Math_and.../13.01%3A_Math_and_Art |
QjLWM-noXGuB6Y8h | Animal Physiology | 90 Fluids and Temperatures Glossary
Nephrons: The minute or microscopic structural and functional unit of the kidney.
Peristalsis: The involuntary constriction and relaxation of the muscles of the intestine or another canal, creating wave-like movements that push the contents of the canal forward.
Micturition: The action of urinating.
Retroperitoneal: Situated or occurring behind the peritoneum.
Parenchyma: The functional tissue of an organ as distinguished from the connective and supporting tissue.
Podocytes: Specialized epithelial cells that cover the outer surfaces of glomerular capillaries.
Peritoneal Folds: Omenta, mesenteries and ligaments; they connect organs to each other or to the abdominal wall.
Trigone: A triangular region or tissue, particularly the area at the base of the urinary bladder, between the openings of the ureters and urethra.
Fenestration: Any small opening or pore.
Afferent: Conducting or conducted inward or toward something (for nerves, the central nervous system; for blood vessels, the organ supplied).
Efferent: Conducted or conducting outward or away from something (for nerves, the central nervous system; for blood vessels, the organ supplied).
Osmotic Gradient: The difference in concentration between two solutions on either side of a semipermeable membrane. | 241 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://ua.pressbooks.pub/animalphysiology/chapter/fluids-and-temperatures-glossary/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:30874 | https://ua.pressbooks.pub/animalphysiology/chapter/fluids-and-temperatures-glossary/ |
e1uZcLHjzvEeAAeK | Armageddon—2419 A.D. | Produced by Greg Weeks, Stephen Blundell and the Online
Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
ARMAGEDDON--2419 A.D.
_By Philip Francis Nowlan_
_Here, once more, is a real scientifiction story plus. It is a story
which will make the heart of many readers leap with joy._
_We have rarely printed a story in this magazine that for scientific
interest, as well as suspense, could hold its own with this
particular story. We prophesy that this story will become more
valuable as the years go by. It certainly holds a number of
interesting prophecies, of which no doubt, many will come true. For
wealth of science, it will be hard to beat for some time to come. It
is one of those rare stories that will bear reading and re-reading
many times._
_This story has impressed us so favorably, that we hope the author
may be induced to write a sequel to it soon._
Foreword
Elsewhere I have set down, for whatever interest they have in this, the
25th Century, my personal recollections of the 20th Century.
Now it occurs to me that my memoirs of the 25th Century may have an
equal interest 500 years from now--particularly in view of that unique
perspective from which I have seen the 25th Century, entering it as I
did, in one leap across a gap of 492 years.
This statement requires elucidation. There are still many in the world
who are not familiar with my unique experience. Five centuries from now
there may be many more, especially if civilization is fated to endure
any worse convulsions than those which have occurred between 1975 A.D.
and the present time.
I should state therefore, that I, Anthony Rogers, am, so far as I know,
the only man alive whose normal span of eighty-one years of life has
been spread over a period of 573 years. To be precise, I lived the first
twenty-nine years of my life between 1898 and 1927; the other fifty-two
since 2419. The gap between these two, a period of nearly five hundred
years, I spent in a state of suspended animation, free from the ravages
of katabolic processes, and without any apparent effect on my physical
or mental faculties.
When I began my long sleep, man had just begun his real conquest of the
air in a sudden series of transoceanic flights in airplanes driven by
internal combustion motors. He had barely begun to speculate on the
possibilities of harnessing sub-atomic forces, and had made no further
practical penetration into the field of ethereal pulsations than the
primitive radio and television of that day. The United States of America
was the most powerful nation in the world, its political, financial,
industrial and scientific influence being supreme; and in the arts also
it was rapidly climbing into leadership.
I awoke to find the America I knew a total wreck--to find Americans a
hunted race in their own land, hiding in the dense forests that covered
the shattered and leveled ruins of their once magnificent cities,
desperately preserving, and struggling to develop in their secret
retreats, the remnants of their culture and science--and the undying
flame of their sturdy independence.
World domination was in the hands of Mongolians and the center of world
power lay in inland China, with Americans one of the few races of
mankind unsubdued--and it must be admitted in fairness to the truth, not
worth the trouble of subduing in the eyes of the Han Airlords who ruled
North America as titular tributaries of the Most Magnificent.
For they needed not the forests in which the Americans lived, nor the
resources of the vast territories these forests covered. With the
perfection to which they had reduced the synthetic production of
necessities and luxuries, their remarkable development of scientific
processes and mechanical accomplishment of work, they had no economic
need for the forests, and no economic desire for the enslaved labor of
an unruly race.
They had all they needed for their magnificently luxurious and degraded
scheme of civilization, within the walls of the fifteen cities of
sparkling glass they had flung skyward on the sites of ancient American
centers, into the bowels of the earth underneath them, and with
relatively small surrounding areas of agriculture.
Complete domination of the air rendered communication between these
centers a matter of ease and safety. Occasional destructive raids on the
waste lands were considered all that was necessary to keep the "wild"
Americans on the run within the shelter of their forests, and prevent
their becoming a menace to the Han civilization.
But nearly three hundred years of easily maintained security, the last
century of which had been nearly sterile in scientific, social and
economic progress, had softened and devitalized the Hans.
It had likewise developed, beneath the protecting foliage of the forest,
the growth of a vigorous new American civilization, remarkable in the
mobility and flexibility of its organization, in its conquest of almost
insuperable obstacles, in the development and guarding of its industrial
and scientific resources, all in anticipation of that "Day of Hope" to
which it had been looking forward for generations, when it would be
strong enough to burst from the green chrysalis of the forests, soar
into the upper air lanes and destroy the yellow incubus.
At the time I awoke, the "Day of Hope" was almost at hand. I shall not
attempt to set forth a detailed history of the Second War of
Independence, for that has been recorded already by better historians
than I am. Instead I shall confine myself largely to the part I was
fortunate enough to play in this struggle and in the events leading up
to it.
[Illustration: Seen upon the ultroscope viewplate, the battle looked as
though it were being fought in daylight, perhaps on a cloudy day, while
the explosions of the rockets appeared as flashes of extra brilliance.]
It all resulted from my interest in radioactive gases. During the latter
part of 1927 my company, the American Radioactive Gas Corporation, had
been keeping me busy investigating reports of unusual phenomena observed
in certain abandoned coal mines near the Wyoming Valley, in
Pennsylvania.
With two assistants and a complete equipment of scientific instruments,
I began the exploration of a deserted working in a mountainous district,
where several weeks before, a number of mining engineers had reported
traces of carnotite[1] and what they believed to be radioactive gases.
Their report was not without foundation, it was apparent from the
outset, for in our examination of the upper levels of the mine, our
instruments indicated a vigorous radioactivity.
[1] A hydrovanadate of uranium, and other metals; used as a source
of radium compounds.
On the morning of December 15th, we descended to one of the lowest
levels. To our surprise, we found no water there. Obviously it had
drained off through some break in the strata. We noticed too that the
rock in the side walls of the shaft was soft, evidently due to the
radioactivity, and pieces crumbled under foot rather easily. We made our
way cautiously down the shaft, when suddenly the rotted timbers above us
gave way.
I jumped ahead, barely escaping the avalanche of coal and soft rock, but
my companions, who were several paces behind me, were buried under it,
and undoubtedly met instant death.
I was trapped. Return was impossible. With my electric torch I explored
the shaft to its end, but could find no other way out. The air became
increasingly difficult to breathe, probably from the rapid accumulation
of the radioactive gas. In a little while my senses reeled and I lost
consciousness.
When I awoke, there was a cool and refreshing circulation of air in the
shaft. I had no thought that I had been unconscious more than a few
hours, although it seems that the radioactive gas had kept me in a state
of suspended animation for something like 500 years. My awakening, I
figured out later, had been due to some shifting of the strata which
reopened the shaft and cleared the atmosphere in the working. This must
have been the case, for I was able to struggle back up the shaft over a
pile of debris, and stagger up the long incline to the mouth of the
mine, where an entirely different world, overgrown with a vast forest
and no visible sign of human habitation, met my eyes.
I shall pass over the days of mental agony that followed in my attempt
to grasp the meaning of it all. There were times when I felt that I was
on the verge of insanity. I roamed the unfamiliar forest like a lost
soul. Had it not been for the necessity of improvising traps and crude
clubs with which to slay my food, I believe I should have gone mad.
Suffice it to say, however, that I survived this psychic crisis. I shall
begin my narrative proper with my first contact with Americans of the
year 2419 A.D.
CHAPTER I
Floating Men
My first glimpse of a human being of the 25th Century was obtained
through a portion of woodland where the trees were thinly scattered,
with a dense forest beyond.
I had been wandering along aimlessly, and hopelessly, musing over my
strange fate, when I noticed a figure that cautiously backed out of the
dense growth across the glade. I was about to call out joyfully, but
there was something furtive about the figure that prevented me. The
boy's attention (for it seemed to be a lad of fifteen or sixteen) was
centered tensely on the heavy growth of trees from which he had just
emerged.
He was clad in rather tight-fitting garments entirely of green, and wore
a helmet-like cap of the same color. High around his waist he wore a
broad, thick belt, which bulked up in the back across the shoulders,
into something of the proportions of a knapsack.
As I was taking in these details, there came a vivid flash and heavy
detonation, like that of a hand grenade, not far to the left of him. He
threw up an arm and staggered a bit in a queer, gliding way; then he
recovered himself and slipped cautiously away from the place of the
explosion, crouching slightly, and still facing the denser part of the
forest. Every few steps he would raise his arm, and point into the
forest with something he held in his hand. Wherever he pointed there was
a terrific explosion, deeper in among the trees. It came to me then that
he was shooting with some form of pistol, though there was neither flash
nor detonation from the muzzle of the weapon itself.
After firing several times, he seemed to come to a sudden resolution,
and turning in my general direction, leaped--to my amazement sailing
through the air between the sparsely scattered trees in such a jump as I
had never in my life seen before. That leap must have carried him a full
fifty feet, although at the height of his arc, he was not more than ten
or twelve feet from the ground.
When he alighted, his foot caught in a projecting root, and he sprawled
gently forward. I say "gently" for he did not crash down as I expected
him to do. The only thing I could compare it with was a slow-motion
cinema, although I had never seen one in which horizontal motions were
registered at normal speed and only the vertical movements were slowed
down.
Due to my surprise, I suppose my brain did not function with its normal
quickness, for I gazed at the prone figure for several seconds before I
saw the blood that oozed out from under the tight green cap. Regaining
my power of action, I dragged him out of sight back of the big tree. For
a few moments I busied myself in an attempt to staunch the flow of
blood. The wound was not a deep one. My companion was more dazed than
hurt. But what of the pursuers?
I took the weapon from his grasp and examined it hurriedly. It was not
unlike the automatic pistol to which I was accustomed, except that it
apparently fired with a button instead of a trigger. I inserted several
fresh rounds of ammunition into its magazine from my companion's belt,
as rapidly as I could, for I soon heard, near us, the suppressed
conversation of his pursuers.
There followed a series of explosions round about us, but none very
close. They evidently had not spotted our hiding place, and were firing
at random.
I waited tensely, balancing the gun in my hand, to accustom myself to
its weight and probable throw.
Then I saw a movement in the green foliage of a tree not far away, and
the head and face of a man appeared. Like my companion, he was clad
entirely in green, which made his figure difficult to distinguish. But
his face could be seen clearly. It was an evil face, and had murder in
it.
That decided me. I raised the gun and fired. My aim was bad, for there
was no kick in the gun, as I had expected, and I hit the trunk of the
tree several feet below him. It blew him from his perch like a crumpled
bit of paper, and he _floated_ down to the ground, like some limp, dead
thing, gently lowered by an invisible hand. The tree, its trunk blown
apart by the explosion, crashed down.
There followed another series of explosions around us. These guns we
were using made no sound in the firing, and my opponents were evidently
as much at sea as to my position as I was to theirs. So I made no
attempt to reply to their fire, contenting myself with keeping a sharp
lookout in their general direction. And patience had its reward.
Very soon I saw a cautious movement in the top of another tree. Exposing
myself as little as possible, I aimed carefully at the tree trunk and
fired again. A shriek followed the explosion. I heard the tree crash
down; then a groan.
There was silence for a while. Then I heard a faint sound of boughs
swishing. I shot three times in its direction, pressing the button as
rapidly as I could. Branches crashed down where my shells had exploded,
but there was no body.
Then I saw one of them. He was starting one of those amazing leaps from
the bough of one tree to another, about forty feet away.
I threw up my gun impulsively and fired. By now I had gotten the feel of
the weapon, and my aim was good. I hit him. The "bullet" must have
penetrated his body and exploded. For one moment I saw him flying
through the air. Then the explosion, and he had vanished. He never
finished his leap. It was annihilation.
How many more of them there were I don't know. But this must have been
too much for them. They used a final round of shells on us, all of which
exploded harmlessly, and shortly after I heard them swishing and
crashing away from us through the tree tops. Not one of them descended
to earth.
Now I had time to give some attention to my companion. She was, I found,
a girl, and not a boy. Despite her bulky appearance, due to the peculiar
belt strapped around her body high up under the arms, she was very
slender, and very pretty.
There was a stream not far away, from which I brought water and bathed
her face and wound.
Apparently the mystery of these long leaps, the monkey-like ability to
jump from bough to bough, and of the bodies that floated gently down
instead of falling, lay in the belt. The thing was some sort of
anti-gravity belt that almost balanced the weight of the wearer, thereby
tremendously multiplying the propulsive power of the leg muscles, and
the lifting power of the arms.
When the girl came to, she regarded me as curiously as I did her, and
promptly began to quiz me. Her accent and intonation puzzled me a lot,
but nevertheless we were able to understand each other fairly well,
except for certain words and phrases. I explained what had happened
while she lay unconscious, and she thanked me simply for saving her
life.
"You are a strange exchange," she said, eying my clothing quizzically.
Evidently she found it mirth provoking by contrast with her own neatly
efficient garb. "Don't you understand what I mean by 'exchange?' I mean
ah--let me see--a stranger, somebody from some other gang. What gang do
you belong to?" (She pronounced it "gan," with only a suspicion of a
nasal sound.)
I laughed. "I'm not a gangster," I said. But she evidently did not
understand this word. "I don't belong to any gang," I explained, "and
never did. Does everybody belong to a gang nowadays?"
"Naturally," she said, frowning. "If you don't belong to a gang, where
and how do you live? Why have you not found and joined a gang? How do
you eat? Where do you get your clothing?"
"I've been eating wild game for the past two weeks," I explained, "and
this clothing I--er--ah--." I paused, wondering how I could explain that
it must be many hundred years old.
In the end I saw I would have to tell my story as well as I could,
piecing it together with my assumptions as to what had happened. She
listened patiently; incredulously at first, but with more confidence as
I went on. When I had finished, she sat thinking for a long time.
"That's hard to believe," she said, "but I believe it." She looked me
over with frank interest.
"Were you married when you slipped into unconsciousness down in that
mine?" she asked me suddenly. I assured her I had never married. "Well,
that simplifies matters," she continued. "You see, if you were
technically classed as a family man, I could take you back only as an
invited exchange and I, being unmarried, and no relation of yours,
couldn't do the inviting."
CHAPTER II
The Forest Gangs
She gave me a brief outline of the very peculiar social and economic
system under which her people lived. At least it seemed very peculiar
from my 20th Century viewpoint.
I learned with amazement that exactly 492 years had passed over my head
as I lay unconscious in the mine.
Wilma, for that was her name, did not profess to be a historian, and so
could give me only a sketchy outline of the wars that had been fought,
and the manner in which such radical changes had come about. It seemed
that another war had followed the First World War, in which nearly all
the European nations had banded together to break the financial and
industrial power of America. They succeeded in their purpose, though
they were beaten, for the war was a terrific one, and left America, like
themselves, gasping, bleeding and disorganized, with only the hollow
shell of a victory.
This opportunity had been seized by the Russian Soviets, who had made a
coalition with the Chinese, to sweep over all Europe and reduce it to a
state of chaos.
America, industrially geared to world production and the world trade,
collapsed economically, and there ensued a long period of stagnation and
desperate attempts at economic reconstruction. But it was impossible to
stave off war with the Mongolians, who by now had subjugated the
Russians, and were aiming at a world empire.
In about 2109, it seems, the conflict was finally precipitated. The
Mongolians, with overwhelming fleets of great airships, and a science
that far outstripped that of crippled America, swept in over the Pacific
and Atlantic Coasts, and down from Canada, annihilating American
aircraft, armies and cities with their terrific _disintegrator_ rays.
These rays were projected from a machine not unlike a searchlight in
appearance, the reflector of which, however, was not material substance,
but a complicated balance of interacting electronic forces. This
resulted in a terribly destructive beam. Under its influence, material
substance melted into "nothingness"; i. e., into electronic vibrations.
It destroyed all then known substances, from air to the most dense
metals and stone.
They settled down to the establishment of what became known as the Han
dynasty in America, as a sort of province in their World Empire.
Those were terrible days for the Americans. They were hunted like wild
beasts. Only those survived who finally found refuge in mountains,
canyons and forests. Government was at an end among them. Anarchy
prevailed for several generations. Most would have been eager to submit
to the Hans, even if it meant slavery. But the Hans did not want them,
for they themselves had marvelous machinery and scientific process by
which all difficult labor was accomplished.
Ultimately they stopped their active search for, and annihilation of,
the widely scattered groups of now savage Americans. So long as they
remained hidden in their forests, and did not venture near the great
cities the Hans had built, little attention was paid to them.
Then began the building of the new American civilization. Families and
individuals gathered together in clans or "gangs" for mutual protection.
For nearly a century they lived a nomadic and primitive life, moving
from place to place, in desperate fear of the casual and occasional Han
air raids, and the terrible disintegrator ray. As the frequency of these
raids decreased, they began to stay permanently in given localities,
organizing upon lines which in many respects were similar to those of
the military households of the Norman feudal barons, except that instead
of gathering together in castles, their defense tactics necessitated a
certain scattering of living quarters for families and individuals. They
lived virtually in the open air, in the forests, in green tents,
resorting to camouflage tactics that would conceal their presence from
air observers. They dug underground factories and laboratories, that
they might better be shielded from the electrical detectors of the
Hans. They tapped the radio communication lines of the Hans, with crude
instruments at first; better ones later on. They bent every effort
toward the redevelopment of science. For many generations they labored
as unseen, unknown scholars of the Hans, picking up their knowledge
piecemeal, as fast as they were able to.
During the earlier part of this period, there were many deadly wars
fought between the various gangs, and occasional courageous but
childishly futile attacks upon the Hans, followed by terribly punitive
raids.
But as knowledge progressed, the sense of American brotherhood
redeveloped. Reciprocal arrangements were made among the gangs over
constantly increasing areas. Trade developed to a certain extent, as
between one gang and another. But the interchange of knowledge became
more important than that of goods, as skill in the handling of synthetic
processes developed.
Within the gang, an economy was developed that was a compromise between
individual liberty and a military socialism. The right of private
property was limited practically to personal possessions, but private
privileges were many, and sacredly regarded. Stimulation to achievement
lay chiefly in the winning of various kinds of leadership and
prerogatives, and only in a very limited degree in the hope of owning
anything that might be classified as "wealth," and nothing that might be
classified as "resources." Resources of every description, for military
safety and efficiency, belonged as a matter of public interest to the
community as a whole.
In the meantime, through these many generations, the Hans had developed
a luxury economy, and with it the perfection of gilded vice and
degradation. The Americans were regarded as "wild men of the woods." And
since they neither needed nor wanted the woods or the wild men, they
treated them as beasts, and were conscious of no human brotherhood with
them. As time went on, and synthetic processes of producing foods and
materials were further developed, less and less ground was needed by the
Hans for the purposes of agriculture, and finally, even the working of
mines was abandoned when it became cheaper to build up metal from
electronic vibrations than to dig them out of the ground.
The Han race, devitalized by its vices and luxuries, with machinery and
scientific processes to satisfy its every want, with virtually no
necessity of labor, began to assume a defensive attitude toward the
Americans.
And quite naturally, the Americans regarded the Hans with a deep, grim
hatred. Conscious of individual superiority as men, knowing that
latterly they were outstripping the Hans in science and civilization,
they longed desperately for the day when they should be powerful enough
to rise and annihilate the Yellow Blight that lay over the continent.
At the time of my awakening, the gangs were rather loosely organized,
but were considering the establishment of a special military force,
whose special business it would be to harry the Hans and bring down
their air ships whenever possible without causing general alarm among
the Mongolians. This force was destined to become the nucleus of the
national force, when the Day of Retribution arrived. But that, however,
did not happen for ten years, and is another story.
[Illustration: On the left of the illustration is a Han girl, and on the
right is an American girl, who, like all of her race, is equipped with
an inertron belt and a rocket gun.]
Wilma told me she was a member of the Wyoming Gang, which claimed the
entire Wyoming Valley as its territory, under the leadership of Boss
Hart. Her mother and father were dead, and she was unmarried, so she was
not a "family member." She lived in a little group of tents known as
Camp 17, under a woman Camp Boss, with seven other girls.
Her duties alternated between military or police scouting and factory
work. For the two-week period which would end the next day, she had been
on "air patrol." This did not mean, as I first imagined, that she was
flying, but rather that she was on the lookout for Han ships over this
outlying section of the Wyoming territory, and had spent most of her
time perched in the tree tops scanning the skies. Had she seen one she
would have fired a "drop flare" several miles off to one side, which
would ignite when it was floating vertically toward the earth, so that
the direction or point from which it had been fired might not be guessed
by the airship and bring a blasting play of the disintegrator ray in her
vicinity. Other members of the air patrol would send up rockets on
seeing hers, until finally a scout equipped with an ultrophone, which,
unlike the ancient radio, operated on the ultronic ethereal vibrations,
would pass the warning simultaneously to the headquarters of the Wyoming
Gang and other communities within a radius of several hundred miles, not
to mention the few American rocket ships that might be in the air, and
which instantly would duck to cover either through forest clearings or
by flattening down to earth in green fields where their coloring would
probably protect them from observation. The favorite American method of
propulsion was known as "_rocketing_." The _rocket_ is what I would
describe, from my 20th Century comprehension of the matter, as an
extremely powerful gas blast, atomically produced through the
stimulation of chemical action. Scientists of today regard it as a
childishly simple reaction, but by that very virtue, most economical and
efficient.
But tomorrow, she explained, she would go back to work in the cloth
plant, where she would take charge of one of the synthetic processes by
which those wonderful substitutes for woven fabrics of wool, cotton and
silk are produced. At the end of another two weeks, she would be back on
military duty again, perhaps at the same work, or maybe as a "contact
guard," on duty where the territory of the Wyomings merged with that of
the Delawares, or the "Susquannas" (Susquehannas) or one of the half
dozen other "gangs" in that section of the country which I knew as
Pennsylvania and New York States.
Wilma cleared up for me the mystery of those flying leaps which she and
her assailants had made, and explained in the following manner, how the
inertron belt balances weight:
"_Jumpers_" were in common use at the time I "awoke," though they were
costly, for at that time _inertron_ had not been produced in very great
quantity. They were very useful in the forest. They were belts,
strapped high under the arms, containing an amount of inertron adjusted
to the wearer's weight and purposes. In effect they made a man weigh as
little as he desired; two pounds if he liked.
"_Floaters_" are a later development of "_jumpers_"--rocket motors
encased in _inertron_ blocks and strapped to the back in such a way that
the wearer floats, when drifting, facing slightly downward. With his
motor in operation, he moves like a diver, headforemost, controlling his
direction by twisting his body and by movements of his outstretched arms
and hands. Ballast weights locked in the front of the belt adjust weight
and lift. Some men prefer a few ounces of weight in floating, using a
slight motor thrust to overcome this. Others prefer a buoyance balance
of a few ounces. The inadvertent dropping of weight is not a serious
matter. The motor thrust always can be used to descend. But as an extra
precaution, in case the motor should fail, for any reason, there are
built into every belt a number of detachable sections, one or more of
which can be discarded to balance off any loss in weight.
"But who were your assailants," I asked, "and why were you attacked?"
Her assailants, she told me, were members of an outlaw gang, referred to
as "Bad Bloods," a group which for several generations had been under
the domination of conscienceless leaders who tried to advance the
interests of their clan by tactics which their neighbors had come to
regard as unfair, and who in consequence had been virtually boycotted.
Their purpose had been to slay her near the Delaware frontier, making it
appear that the crime had been committed by Delaware scouts and thus
embroil the Delawares and Wyomings in acts of reprisal against each
other, or at least cause suspicions.
Fortunately they had not succeeded in surprising her, and she had been
successful in dodging them for some two hours before the shooting began,
at the moment when I arrived on the scene.
"But we must not stay here talking," Wilma concluded. "I have to take
you in, and besides I must report this attack right away. I think we had
better slip over to the other side of the mountain. Whoever is on that
post will have a phone, and I can make a direct report. But you'll have
to have a belt. Mine alone won't help much against our combined weights,
and there's little to be gained by jumping heavy. It's almost as bad as
walking."
After a little search, we found one of the men I had killed, who had
floated down among the trees some distance away and whose belt was not
badly damaged. In detaching it from his body, it nearly got away from me
and shot up in the air. Wilma caught it, however, and though it
reinforced the lift of her own belt so that she had to hook her knee
around a branch to hold herself down, she saved it. I climbed the tree
and, with my weight added to hers, we floated down easily.
Life in the 25th Century
We were delayed in starting for quite a while since I had to acquire a
few crude ideas about the technique of using these belts. I had been
sitting down, for instance, with the belt strapped about me, enjoying an
ease similar to that of a comfortable armchair; when I stood up with a
natural exertion of muscular effort, I shot ten feet into the air, with
a wild instinctive thrashing of arms and legs that amused Wilma greatly.
But after some practice, I began to get the trick of gauging muscular
effort to a minimum of vertical and a maximum of horizontal. The correct
form, I found, was in a measure comparable to that of skating. I found,
also, that in forest work particularly the arms and hands could be used
to great advantage in swinging along from branch to branch, so
prolonging leaps almost indefinitely at times.
In going up the side of the mountain, I found that my 20th Century
muscles did have an advantage, in spite of lack of skill with the belt,
and since the slopes were very sharp, and most of our leaps were upward,
I could have distanced Wilma easily. But when we crossed the ridge and
descended, she outstripped me with her superior technique. Choosing the
steepest slopes, she would crouch in the top of a tree, and propel
herself outward, literally diving until, with the loss of horizontal
momentum, she would assume a more upright position and float downward.
In this manner she would sometimes cover as much as a quarter of a mile
in a single leap, while I leaped and scrambled clumsily behind,
thoroughly enjoying the novel sensation.
Half way down the mountain, we saw another green-clad figure leap out
above the tree tops toward us. The three of us perched on an outcropping
of rock from which a view for many miles around could be had, while
Wilma hastily explained her adventure and my presence to her fellow
guard; whose name was Alan. I learned later that this was the modern
form of Helen.
"You want to report by phone then, don't you?" Alan took a compact
packet about six inches square from a holster attached to her belt and
handed it to Wilma.
So far as I could see, it had no special receiver for the ear. Wilma
merely threw back a lid, as though she were opening a book, and began to
talk. The voice that came back from the machine was as audible as her
own.
She was queried closely as to the attack upon her, and at considerable
length as to myself, and I could tell from the tone of that voice that
its owner was not prepared to take me at my face value as readily as
Wilma had. For that matter, neither was the other girl. I could realize
it from the suspicious glances she threw my way, when she thought my
attention was elsewhere, and the manner in which her hand hovered
constantly near her gun holster.
Wilma was ordered to bring me in at once, and informed that another
scout would take her place on the other side of the mountain. So she
closed down the lid of the phone and handed it back to Alan, who seemed
relieved to see us departing over the tree tops in the direction of the
camps.
We had covered perhaps ten miles, in what still seemed to me a
surprisingly easy fashion, when Wilma explained, that from here on we
would have to keep to the ground. We were nearing the camps, she said,
and there was always the possibility that some small Han scoutship,
invisible high in the sky, might catch sight of us through a
projectoscope and thus find the general location of the camps.
Wilma took me to the Scout office, which proved to be a small building
of irregular shape, conforming to the trees around it, and substantially
constructed of green sheet-like material.
I was received by the assistant Scout Boss, who reported my arrival at
once to the historical office, and to officials he called the Psycho
Boss and the History Boss, who came in a few minutes later. The attitude
of all three men was at first polite but skeptical, and Wilma's ardent
advocacy seemed to amuse them secretly.
For the next two hours I talked, explained and answered questions. I had
to explain, in detail, the manner of my life in the 20th Century and my
understanding of customs, habits, business, science and the history of
that period, and about developments in the centuries that had elapsed.
Had I been in a classroom, I would have come through the examination
with a very poor mark, for I was unable to give any answer to fully half
of their questions. But before long I realized that the majority of
these questions were designed as traps. Objects, of whose purpose I knew
nothing, were casually handed to me, and I was watched keenly as I
handled them.
In the end I could see both amazement and belief begin to show in the
faces of my inquisitors, and at last the Historical and Psycho Bosses
agreed openly that they could find no flaw in my story or reactions, and
that unbelievable as it seemed, my story must be accepted as genuine.
They took me at once to Big Boss Hart. He was a portly man with a "poker
face." He would probably have been the successful politician even in the
20th Century.
They gave him a brief outline of my story and a report of their
examination of me. He made no comment other than to nod his acceptance
of it. Then he turned to me.
"How does it feel?" he asked. "Do we look funny to you?"
"A bit strange," I admitted. "But I'm beginning to lose that dazed
feeling, though I can see I have an awful lot to learn."
"Maybe we can learn some things from you, too," he said. "So you fought
in the First World War. Do you know, we have very little left in the way
of records of the details of that war, that is, the precise conditions
under which it was fought, and the tactics employed. We forgot many
things during the Han terror, and--well, I think you might have a lot of
ideas worth thinking over for our raid masters. By the way, now that
you're here, and can't go back to your own century, so to speak, what do
you want to do? You're welcome to become one of us. Or perhaps you'd
just like to visit with us for a while, and then look around among the
other gangs. Maybe you'd like some of the others better. Don't make up
your mind now. We'll put you down as an exchange for a while. Let's see.
You and Bill Hearn ought to get along well together. He's Camp Boss of
Number 34 when he isn't acting as Raid Boss or Scout Boss. There's a
vacancy in his camp. Stay with him and think things over as long as you
want to. As soon as you make up your mind to anything, let me know."
We all shook hands, for that was one custom that had not died out in
five hundred years, and I set out with Bill Hearn.
Bill, like all the others, was clad in green. He was a big man. That is,
he was about my own height, five feet eleven. This was considerably
above the average now, for the race had lost something in stature, it
seemed, through the vicissitudes of five centuries. Most of the women
were a bit below five feet, and the men only a trifle above this height.
For a period of two weeks Bill was to confine himself to camp duties, so
I had a good chance to familiarize myself with the community life. It
was not easy. There were so many marvels to absorb. I never ceased to
wonder at the strange combination of rustic social life and feverish
industrial activity. At least, it was strange to me. For in my
experience, industrial development meant crowded cities, tenements,
paved streets, profusion of vehicles, noise, hurrying men and women with
strained or dull faces, vast structures and ornate public works.
Here, however, was rustic simplicity, apparently isolated families and
groups, living in the heart of the forest, with a quarter of a mile or
more between households, a total absence of crowds, no means of
conveyance other than the belts called jumpers, almost constantly worn
by everybody, and an occasional rocket ship, used only for longer
journeys, and underground plants or factories that were to my mind more
like laboratories and engine rooms; many of them were excavations as
deep as mines, with well finished, lighted and comfortable interiors.
These people were adepts at camouflage against air observation. Not only
would their activity have been unsuspected by an airship passing over
the center of the community, but even by an enemy who might happen to
drop through the screen of the upper branches to the floor of the
forest. The camps, or household structures, were all irregular in shape
and of colors that blended with the great trees among which they were
hidden.
There were 724 dwellings or "camps" among the Wyomings, located within
an area of about fifteen square miles. The total population was 8,688,
every man, woman and child, whether member or "exchange," being listed.
The plants were widely scattered through the territory also. Nowhere was
anything like congestion permitted. So far as possible, families and
individuals were assigned to living quarters, not too far from the
plants or offices in which their work lay.
All able-bodied men and women alternated in two-week periods between
military and industrial service, except those who were needed for
household work. Since working conditions in the plants and offices were
ideal, and everybody thus had plenty of healthy outdoor activity in
addition, the population was sturdy and active. Laziness was regarded as
nearly the greatest of social offenses. Hard work and general merit were
variously rewarded with extra privileges, advancement to positions of
authority, and with various items of personal equipment for convenience
and luxury.
In leisure moments, I got great enjoyment from sitting outside the
dwelling in which I was quartered with Bill Hearn and ten other men,
watching the occasional passers-by, as with leisurely, but swift
movements, they swung up and down the forest trail, rising from the
ground in long almost-horizontal leaps, occasionally swinging from one
convenient branch overhead to another before "sliding" back to the
ground farther on. Normal traveling pace, where these trails were
straight enough, was about twenty miles an hour. Such things as
automobiles and railroad trains (the memory of them not more than a
month old in my mind) seemed inexpressibly silly and futile compared
with such convenience as these belts or jumpers offered.
Bill suggested that I wander around for several days, from plant to
plant, to observe and study what I could. The entire community had been
apprised of my coming, my rating as an "exchange" reaching every
building and post in the community, by means of ultronic broadcast.
Everywhere I was welcomed in an interested and helpful spirit.
I visited the plants where ultronic vibrations were isolated from the
ether and through slow processes built up into sub-electronic,
electronic and atomic forms into the two great synthetic elements,
ultron and inertron. I learned something, superficially at least, of the
processes of combined chemical and mechanical action through which were
produced the various forms of synthetic cloth. I watched the manufacture
of the machines which were used at locations of construction to produce
the various forms of building materials. But I was particularly
interested in the munitions plants and the rocket-ship shops.
Ultron is a solid of great molecular density and moderate elasticity,
which has the property of being 100 percent conductive to those
pulsations known as light, electricity and heat. Since it is completely
permeable to light vibrations, it is therefore _absolutely invisible and
non-reflective_. Its magnetic response is almost, but not quite, 100
percent also. It is therefore very heavy under normal conditions but
extremely responsive to the _repellor_ or anti-gravity rays, such as the
Hans use as "_legs_" for their airships.
Inertron is the second great triumph of American research and
experimentation with ultronic forces. It was developed just a few years
before my awakening in the abandoned mine. It is a synthetic element,
built up, through a complicated heterodyning of ultronic pulsations,
from "infra-balanced" sub-ionic forms. It is completely inert to both
electric and magnetic forces in all the orders above the _ultronic_;
that is to say, the _sub-electronic_, the _electronic_, the _atomic_ and
the _molecular_. In consequence it has a number of amazing and
valuable properties. One of these is _the total lack of weight_. Another
is a total lack of heat. It has no molecular vibration whatever. It
reflects 100 percent of the heat and light impinging upon it. It does
not feel cold to the touch, of course, since it will not absorb the heat
of the hand. It is a solid, very dense in molecular structure despite
its lack of weight, of great strength and considerable elasticity. It is
a perfect shield against the disintegrator rays.
[Illustration: Setting his rocket gun for a long-distance shot.]
Rocket guns are very simple contrivances so far as the mechanism of
launching the bullet is concerned. They are simple light tubes, closed
at the rear end, with a trigger-actuated pin for piercing the thin skin
at the base of the cartridge. This piercing of the skin starts the
chemical and atomic reaction. The entire cartridge leaves the tube under
its own power, at a very easy initial velocity, just enough to insure
accuracy of aim; so the tube does not have to be of heavy construction.
The bullet increases in velocity as it goes. It may be solid or
explosive. It may explode on contact or on time, or a combination of
these two.
Bill and I talked mostly of weapons, military tactics and strategy.
Strangely enough he had no idea whatever of the possibilities of the
barrage, though the tremendous effect of a "curtain of fire" with such
high-explosive projectiles as these modern rocket guns used was obvious
to me. But the barrage idea, it seemed, has been lost track of
completely in the air wars that followed the First World War, and in the
peculiar guerilla tactics developed by Americans in the later period of
operations from the ground against Han airships, and in the gang wars
which, until a few generations ago I learned, had been almost
continuous.
"I wonder," said Bill one day, "if we couldn't work up some form of
barrage to spring on the Bad Bloods. The Big Boss told me today that
he's been in communication with the other gangs, and all are agreed that
the Bad Bloods might as well be wiped out for good. That attempt on
Wilma Deering's life and their evident desire to make trouble among the
gangs, has stirred up every community east of the Alleghenies. The Boss
says that none of the others will object if we go after them. So I
imagine that before long we will. Now show me again how you worked that
business in the Argonne forest. The conditions ought to be pretty much
the same."
I went over it with him in detail, and gradually we worked out a
modified plan that would be better adapted to our more powerful weapons,
and the use of jumpers.
"It will be easy," Bill exulted. "I'll slide down and talk it over with
the Boss tomorrow."
During the first two weeks of my stay with the Wyomings, Wilma Deering
and I saw a great deal of each other. I naturally felt a little closer
friendship for her, in view of the fact that she was the first human
being I saw after waking from my long sleep; her appreciation of my
saving her life, though I could not have done otherwise than I did in
that matter, and most of all my own appreciation of the fact that she
had not found it as difficult as the others to believe my story,
operated in the same direction. I could easily imagine my story must
have sounded incredible.
It was natural enough too, that she should feel an unusual interest in
me. In the first place, I was her personal discovery. In the second, she
was a girl of studious and reflective turn of mind. She never got tired
of my stories and descriptions of the 20th Century.
The others of the community, however, seemed to find our friendship a
bit amusing. It seemed that Wilma had a reputation for being cold toward
the opposite sex, and so others, not being able to appreciate some of
her fine qualities as I did, misinterpreted her attitude, much to their
own delight. Wilma and I, however, ignored this as much as we could.
CHAPTER IV
A Han Air Raid
There was a girl in Wilma's camp named Gerdi Mann, with whom Bill Hearn
was desperately in love, and the four of us used to go around a lot
together. Gerdi was a distinct type. Whereas Wilma had the usual dark
brown hair and hazel eyes that marked nearly every member of the
community, Gerdi had red hair, blue eyes and very fair skin. She has
been dead many years now, but I remember her vividly because she was a
throwback in physical appearance to a certain 20th Century type which I
have found very rare among modern Americans; also because the four of us
were engaged one day in a discussion of this very point, when I obtained
my first experience of a Han air raid.
We were sitting high on the side of a hill overlooking the valley that
teemed with human activity, invisible beneath its blanket of foliage.
The other three, who knew of the Irish but vaguely and indefinitely, as
a race on the other side of the globe, which, like ourselves, had
succeeded in maintaining a precarious and fugitive existence in
rebellion against the Mongolian domination of the earth, were listening
with interest to my theory that Gerdi's ancestors of several hundred
years ago must have been Irish. I explained that Gerdi was an Irish
type, evidently a throwback, and that her surname might well have been
McMann, or McMahan, and still more anciently "mac Mathghamhain." They
were interested too in my surmise that "Gerdi" was the same name as that
which had been "Gerty" or "Gertrude" in the 20th Century.
In the middle of our discussion, we were startled by an alarm rocket
that burst high in the air, far to the north, spreading a pall of red
smoke that drifted like a cloud. It was followed by others at scattered
points in the northern sky.
"A Han raid!" Bill exclaimed in amazement. "The first in seven years!"
"Maybe it's just one of their ships off its course," I ventured.
"No," said Wilma in some agitation. "That would be green rockets. Red
means only one thing, Tony. They're sweeping the countryside with their
dis beams. Can you see anything, Bill?"
"We had better get under cover," Gerdi said nervously. "The four of us
are bunched here in the open. For all we know they may be twelve miles
up, out of sight, yet looking at us with a projecto'."
Bill had been sweeping the horizon hastily with his glass, but
apparently saw nothing.
"We had better scatter, at that," he said finally. "It's orders, you
know. See!" He pointed to the valley.
Here and there a tiny human figure shot for a moment above the foliage
of the treetops.
"That's bad," Wilma commented, as she counted the jumpers. "No less than
fifteen people visible, and all clearly radiating from a central point.
Do they want to give away our location?"
The standard orders covering air raids were that the population was to
scatter individually. There should be no grouping, or even pairing, in
view of the destructiveness of the disintegrator rays. Experience of
generations had proved that if this were done, and everybody remained
hidden beneath the tree screens, the Hans would have to sweep mile after
mile of territory, foot by foot, to catch more than a small percentage
of the community.
Gerdi, however, refused to leave Bill, and Wilma developed an equal
obstinacy against quitting my side. I was inexperienced at this sort of
thing, she explained, quite ignoring the fact that she was too; she was
only thirteen or fourteen years old at the time of the last air raid.
However, since I could not argue her out of it, we leaped together about
a quarter of a mile to the right, while Bill and Gerdi disappeared down
the hillside among the trees.
Wilma and I both wanted a point of vantage from which we might overlook
the valley and the sky to the north, and we found it near the top of the
ridge, where, protected from visibility by thick branches, we could look
out between the tree trunks, and get a good view of the valley.
No more rockets went up. Except for a few of those warning red clouds,
drifting lazily in a blue sky, there was no visible indication of man's
past or present existence anywhere in the sky or on the ground.
Then Wilma gripped my arm and pointed. I saw it; away off in the
distance; looking like a phantom dirigible airship, in its coat of
low-visibility paint, a bare spectre.
"Seven thousand feet up," Wilma whispered, crouching close to me.
"Watch."
The ship was about the same shape as the great dirigibles of the 20th
Century that I had seen, but without the suspended control car, engines,
propellors, rudders or elevating planes. As it loomed rapidly nearer, I
saw that it was wider and somewhat flatter than I had supposed.
Now I could see the repellor rays that held the ship aloft, like
searchlight beams faintly visible in the bright daylight (and still
faintly visible to the human eye at night). Actually, I had been
informed by my instructors, there were two rays; the visible one
generated by the ship's apparatus, and directed toward the ground as a
beam of "carrier" impulses; and the true repellor ray, the complement of
the other in one sense, induced by the action of the "carrier" and
reacting in a concentrating upward direction from the mass of the earth,
becoming successively electronic, atomic and finally molecular, in its
nature, according to various ratios of distance between earth mass and
"carrier" source, until, in the last analysis, the ship itself actually
is supported on an upward rushing column of air, much like a ball
continuously supported on a fountain jet.
The raider neared with incredible speed. Its rays were both slanted
astern at a sharp angle, so that it slid forward with tremendous
momentum.
The ship was operating two disintegrator rays, though only in a casual,
intermittent fashion. But whenever they flashed downward with blinding
brilliancy, forest, rocks and ground melted instantaneously into
nothing, where they played upon them.
When later I inspected the scars left by these rays I found them some
five feet deep and thirty feet wide, the exposed surfaces being
lava-like in texture, but of a pale, iridescent, greenish hue.
No systematic use of the rays was made by the ship, however, until it
reached a point over the center of the valley--the center of the
community's activities. There it came to a sudden stop by shooting its
repellor beams sharply forward and easing them back gradually to the
vertical, holding the ship floating and motionless. Then the work of
destruction began systematically.
Back and forth traveled the destroying rays, ploughing parallel furrows
from hillside to hillside. We gasped in dismay, Wilma and I, as time
after time we saw it plough through sections where we knew camps or
plants were located.
"This is awful," she moaned, a terrified question in her eyes. "How
could they know the location so exactly, Tony? Did you see? They were
never in doubt. They stalled at a predetermined spot--and--and it was
exactly the right spot."
We did not talk of what might happen if the rays were turned in our
direction. We both knew. We would simply disintegrate in a split second
into mere scattered electronic vibrations. Strangely enough, it was this
self-reliant girl of the 25th Century, who clung to me, a relatively
primitive man of the 20th, less familiar than she with the thought of
this terrifying possibility, for moral support.
We knew that many of our companions must have been whisked into absolute
non-existence before our eyes in these few moments. The whole thing
paralyzed us into mental and physical immobility for I do not know how
long.
It couldn't have been long, however, for the rays had not ploughed more
than thirty of their twenty-foot furrows or so across the valley, when I
regained control of myself, and brought Wilma to herself by shaking her
roughly.
"How far will this rocket gun shoot, Wilma?" I demanded, drawing my
pistol.
"It depends on your rocket, Tony. It will take even the longest range
rocket, but you could shoot more accurately from a longer tube. But why?
You couldn't penetrate the shell of that ship with rocket force, even if
you could reach it."
I fumbled clumsily with my rocket pouch, for I was excited. I had an
idea I wanted to try; a "hunch" I called it, forgetting that Wilma could
not understand my ancient slang. But finally, with her help, I selected
the longest range explosive rocket in my pouch, and fitted it to my
pistol.
"It won't carry seven thousand feet, Tony," Wilma objected. But I took
aim carefully. It was another thought that I had in my mind. The
supporting repellor ray, I had been told, became molecular in character
at what was called a logarithmic level of five (below that it was a
purely electronic "flow" or pulsation between the source of the
"carrier" and the average mass of the earth). Below that level if I
could project my explosive bullet into this stream where it began to
carry material substance upward, might it not rise with the air column,
gathering speed and hitting the ship with enough impact to carry it
through the shell? It was worth trying anyhow. Wilma became greatly
excited, too, when she grasped the nature of my inspiration.
Feverishly I looked around for some formation of branches against which
I could rest the pistol, for I had to aim most carefully. At last I
found one. Patiently I sighted on the hulk of the ship far above us,
aiming at the far side of it, at such an angle as would, so far as I
could estimate, bring my bullet path through the forward repellor beam.
At last the sights wavered across the point I sought and I pressed the
button gently.
For a moment we gazed breathlessly.
Suddenly the ship swung bow down, as on a pivot, and swayed like a
pendulum. Wilma screamed in her excitement.
"Oh, Tony, you hit it! You hit it! Do it again; bring it down!"
We had only one more rocket of extreme range between us, and we dropped
it three times in our excitement in inserting it in my gun. Then,
forcing myself to be calm by sheer will power, while Wilma stuffed her
little fist into her mouth to keep from shrieking, I sighted carefully
again and fired. In a flash, Wilma had grasped the hope that this
discovery of mine might lead to the end of the Han domination.
The elapsed time of the rocket's invisible flight seemed an age.
Then we saw the ship falling. It seemed to plunge lazily, but actually
it fell with terrific acceleration, turning end over end, its
disintegrator rays, out of control, describing vast, wild arcs, and once
cutting a gash through the forest less than two hundred feet from where
we stood.
The crash with which the heavy craft hit the ground reverberated from
the hills--the momentum of eighteen or twenty thousand tons, in a sheer
drop of seven thousand feet. A mangled mass of metal, it buried itself
in the ground, with poetic justice, in the middle of the smoking,
semi-molten field of destruction it had been so deliberately ploughing.
The silence, the vacuity of the landscape, was oppressive, as the last
echoes died away.
Then far down the hillside, a single figure leaped exultantly above the
foliage screen. And in the distance another, and another.
In a moment the sky was punctured by signal rockets. One after another
the little red puffs became drifting clouds.
"Scatter! Scatter!" Wilma exclaimed. "In half an hour there'll be an
entire Han fleet here from Nu-yok, and another from Bah-flo. They'll get
this instantly on their recordographs and location finders. They'll
blast the whole valley and the country for miles beyond. Come, Tony.
There's no time for the gang to rally. See the signals. We've got to
jump. Oh, I'm so proud of you!"
Over the ridge we went, in long leaps toward the east, the country of
the Delawares.
From time to time signal rockets puffed in the sky. Most of them were
the "red warnings," the "scatter" signals. But from certain of the
others, which Wilma identified as Wyoming rockets, she gathered that
whoever was in command (we did not know whether the Boss was alive or
not) was ordering an ultimate rally toward the south, and so we changed
our course.
It was a great pity, I thought, that the clan had not been equipped
throughout its membership with ultrophones, but Wilma explained to me,
that not enough of these had been built for distribution as yet,
although general distribution had been contemplated within a couple of
months.
We traveled far before nightfall overtook us, trying only to put as much
distance as possible between ourselves and the valley.
When gathering dusk made jumping too dangerous, we sought a comfortable
spot beneath the trees, and consumed part of our emergency rations. It
was the first time I had tasted the stuff--a highly nutritive synthetic
substance called "concentro," which was, however, a bit bitter and
unpalatable. But as only a mouthful or so was needed, it did not matter.
Neither of us had a cloak, but we were both thoroughly tired and happy,
so we curled up together for warmth. I remember Wilma making some sleepy
remark about our mating, as she cuddled up, as though the matter were
all settled, and my surprise at my own instant acceptance of the idea,
for I had not consciously thought of her that way before. But we both
fell asleep at once.
In the morning we found little time for love making. The practical
problem facing us was too great. Wilma felt that the Wyoming plan must
be to rally in the Susquanna territory, but she had her doubts about the
wisdom of this plan. In my elation at my success in bringing down the
Han ship, and my newly found interest in my charming companion, who was,
from my viewpoint of another century, at once more highly civilized and
yet more primitive than myself, I had forgotten the ominous fact that
the Han ship I had destroyed must have known the exact location of the
Wyoming Works.
This meant, to Wilma's logical mind, either that the Hans had perfected
new instruments as yet unknown to us, or that somewhere, among the
Wyomings or some other nearby gang, there were traitors so degraded as
to commit that unthinkable act of trafficking in information with the
Hans. In either contingency, she argued, other Han raids would follow,
and since the Susquannas had a highly developed organization and more
than usually productive plants, the next raid might be expected to
strike them.
But at any rate it was clearly our business to get in touch with the
other fugitives as quickly as possible, so in spite of muscles that were
sore from the excessive leaping of the day before, we continued on our
way.
We traveled for only a couple of hours when we saw a multi-colored
rocket in the sky, some ten miles ahead of us.
"Bear to the left, Tony," Wilma said, "and listen for the whistle."
"Why?" I asked.
"Haven't they given you the rocket code yet?" she replied. "That's what
the green, followed by yellow and purple means; to concentrate five
miles east of the rocket position. You know the rocket position itself
might draw a play of disintegrator beams."
It did not take us long to reach the neighborhood of the indicated
rallying, though we were now traveling beneath the trees, with but an
occasional leap to a top branch to see if any more rocket smoke was
floating above. And soon we heard a distant whistle.
We found about half the Gang already there, in a spot where the trees
met high above a little stream. The Big Boss and Raid Bosses were busy
reorganizing the remnants.
We reported to Boss Hart at once. He was silent, but interested, when he
heard our story.
"You two stick close to me," he said, adding grimly, "I'm going back to
the valley at once with a hundred picked men, and I'll need you."
CHAPTER V
Setting the Trap
Inside of fifteen minutes we were on our way. A certain amount of
caution was sacrificed for the sake of speed, and the men leaped away
either across the forest top, or over open spaces of ground, but
concentration was forbidden. The Big Boss named the spot on the hillside
as the rallying point.
"We'll have to take a chance on being seen, so long as we don't group,"
he declared, "at least until within five miles of the rallying spot.
From then on I want every man to disappear from sight and to travel
under cover. And keep your ultrophones open, and tuned on
ten-four-seven-six."
Wilma and I had received our battle equipment from the Gear boss. It
consisted of a long-gun, a hand-gun, with a special case of ammunition
constructed of inertron, which made the load weigh but a few ounces, and
a short sword. This gear we strapped over each other's shoulders, on top
of our jumping belts. In addition, we each received an ultrophone, and a
light inertron blanket rolled into a cylinder about six inches long by
two or three in diameter. This fabric was exceedingly thin and light,
but it had considerable warmth, because of the mixture of inertron in
its composition.
[Illustration: The Han raider neared with incredible speed. Its rays
were both slanted astern at a sharp angle, so that it slid forward with
tremendous momentum.... Whenever the disintegrator rays flashed downward
with blinding brilliancy, forest, rocks and ground melted
instantaneously into nothing, where they played upon them.]
"This looks like business," Wilma remarked to me with sparkling eyes.
(And I might mention a curious thing here. The word "business" had
survived from the 20th Century American vocabulary, but not with any
meaning of "industry" or "trade," for such things being purely community
activities were spoken of as "work" and "clearing." Business simply
meant fighting, and that was all.)
"Did you bring all this equipment from the valley?" I asked the Gear
Boss.
"No," he said. "There was no time to gather anything. All this stuff we
cleared from the Susquannas a few hours ago. I was with the Boss on the
way down, and he had me jump on ahead and arrange it. But you two had
better be moving. He's beckoning you now."
Hart was about to call us on our phones when we looked up. As soon as we
did so, he leaped away, waving us to follow closely.
He was a powerful man, and he darted ahead in long, swift, low leaps up
the banks of the stream, which followed a fairly straight course at this
point. By extending ourselves, however, Wilma and I were able to catch
up to him.
As we gradually synchronized our leaps with his, he outlined to us,
between the grunts that accompanied each leap, his plan of action.
"We have to start the big business--unh--sooner or later," he said.
"And if--unh--the Hans have found any way of locating our
positions--unh--it's time to start now, although the Council of
Bosses--unh--had intended waiting a few years until enough rocket ships
have been--unh--built. But no matter what the sacrifice--unh--we can't
afford to let them get us on the run--unh--. We'll set a trap for the
yellow devils in the--unh--valley if they come back for their
wreckage--unh--and if they don't, we'll go rocketing for some of their
liners--unh--on the Nu-yok, Clee-lan, Si-ka-ga course. We can
use--unh--that idea of yours of shooting up the repellor--unh--beams.
Want you to give us a demonstration."
With further admonition to follow him closely, he increased his pace,
and Wilma and I were taxed to our utmost to keep up with him. It was
only in ascending the slopes that my tougher muscles overbalanced his
greater skill, and I was able to set the pace for him, as I had for
Wilma.
We slept in greater comfort that night, under our inertron blankets, and
were off with the dawn, leaping cautiously to the top of the ridge
overlooking the valley which Wilma and I had left.
The Boss scanned the sky with his ultroscope, patiently taking some
fifteen minutes to the task, and then swung his phone into use, calling
the roll and giving the men their instructions.
His first order was for us all to slip our ear and chest discs into
permanent position.
These ultrophones were quite different from the one used by Wilma's
companion scout the day I saved her from the vicious attack of the
bandit Gang. That one was contained entirely in a small pocket case.
These, with which we were now equipped, consisted of a pair of ear
discs, each a separate and self-contained receiving set. They slipped
into little pockets over our ears in the fabric helmets we wore, and
shut out virtually all extraneous sounds. The chest discs were likewise
self-contained sending sets, strapped to the chest a few inches below
the neck and actuated by the vibrations from the vocal cords through the
body tissues. The total range of these sets was about eighteen miles.
Reception was remarkably clear, quite free from the static that so
marked the 20th Century radios, and of a strength in direct proportion
to the distance of the speaker.
The Boss' set was triple powered, so that his orders would cut in on any
local conversations, which were indulged in, however, with great
restraint, and only for the purpose of maintaining contacts.
I marveled at the efficiency of this modern method of battle
communication in contrast to the clumsy signaling devices of more
ancient times; and also at other military contrasts in which the 20th
and 25th Century methods were the reverse of each other in efficiency.
These modern Americans, for instance, knew little of hand to hand
fighting, and nothing, naturally, of trench warfare. Of barrages they
were quite ignorant, although they possessed weapons of terrific power.
And until my recent flash of inspiration, no one among them, apparently,
had ever thought of the scheme of shooting a rocket into a repellor beam
and letting the beam itself hurl it upward into the most vital part of
the Han ship.
Hart patiently placed his men, first giving his instructions to the
campmasters, and then remaining silent, while they placed the
individuals.
In the end, the hundred men were ringed about the valley, on the
hillsides and tops, each in a position from which he had a good view of
the wreckage of the Han ship. But not a man had come in view, so far as
I could see, in the whole process.
The Boss explained to me that it was his idea that he, Wilma and I
should investigate the wreck. If Han ships should appear in the sky, we
would leap for the hillsides.
I suggested to him to have the men set up their long-guns trained on an
imaginary circle surrounding the wreck. He busied himself with this
after the three of us leaped down to the Han ship, serving as a target
himself, while he called on the men individually to aim their pieces and
lock them in position.
In the meantime Wilma and I climbed into the wreckage, but did not find
much. Practically all of the instruments and machinery had been twisted
out of all recognizable shape, or utterly destroyed by the ship's
disintegrator rays which apparently had continued to operate in the
midst of its warped remains for some moments after the crash.
It was unpleasant work searching the mangled bodies of the crew. But it
had to be done. The Han clothing, I observed, was quite different from
that of the Americans, and in many respects more like the garb to which
I had been accustomed in the earlier part of my life. It was made of
synthetic fabrics like silks, loose and comfortable trousers of knee
length, and sleeveless shirts.
No protection, except that against drafts, was needed, Wilma explained
to me, for the Han cities were entirely enclosed, with splendid
arrangements for ventilation and heating. These arrangements of course
were equally adequate in their airships. The Hans, indeed, had quite a
distaste for unshaded daylight, since their lighting apparatus diffused
a controlled amount of violet rays, making the unmodified sunlight
unnecessary for health, and undesirable for comfort. Since the Hans did
not have the secret of inertron, none of them wore anti-gravity belts.
Yet in spite of the fact that they had to bear their own full weights at
all times, they were physically far inferior to the Americans, for they
lived lives of degenerative physical inertia, having machinery of every
description for the performance of all labor, and convenient conveyances
for any movement of more than a few steps.
Even from the twisted wreckage of this ship I could see that seats,
chairs and couches played an extremely important part in their scheme of
existence.
But none of the bodies were overweight. They seemed to have been the
bodies of men in good health, but muscularly much underdeveloped. Wilma
explained to me that they had mastered the science of gland control, and
of course dietetics, to the point where men and women among them not
uncommonly reached the age of a hundred years with arteries and general
health in splendid condition.
I did not have time to study the ship and its contents as carefully as I
would have liked, however. Time pressed, and it was our business to
discover some clue to the deadly accuracy with which the ship had
spotted the Wyoming Works.
The Boss had hardly finished his arrangements for the ring barrage, when
one of the scouts on an eminence to the north, announced the approach of
seven Han ships, spread out in a great semi-circle.
Hart leaped for the hillside, calling to us to do likewise, but Wilma
and I had raised the flaps of our helmets and switched off our
"speakers" for conversation between ourselves, and by the time we
discovered what had happened, the ships were clearly visible, so fast
were they approaching.
"Jump!" we heard the Boss order, "Deering to the north. Rogers to the
east."
But Wilma looked at me meaningly and pointed to where the twisted plates
of the ship, projecting from the ground, offered a shelter.
"Too late, Boss," she said. "They'd see us. Besides I think there's
something here we ought to look at. It's probably their magnetic graph."
"You're signing your death warrant," Hart warned.
"We'll risk it," said Wilma and I together.
"Good for you," replied the Boss. "Take command then, Rogers, for the
present. Do you all know his voice, boys?"
A chorus of assent rang in our ears, and I began to do some fast
thinking as the girl and I ducked into the twisted mass of metal.
"Wilma, hunt for that record," I said, knowing that by the simple
process of talking I could keep the entire command continuously informed
as to the situation. "On the hillsides, keep your guns trained on the
circles and stand by. On the hilltops, how many of you are there? Speak
in rotation from Bald Knob around to the east, north, west."
In turn the men called their names. There were twenty of them.
I assigned them by name to cover the various Han ships, numbering the
latter from left to right.
"Train your rockets on their repellor rays about three-quarters of the
way up, between ships and ground. Aim is more important than elevation.
Follow those rays with your aim continuously. Shoot when I tell you, not
before. Deering has the record. The Hans probably have not seen us, or
at least think there are but two of us in the valley, since they're
settling without opening up disintegrators. Any opinions?"
My ear discs remained silent.
"Deering and I remain here until they land and debark. Stand by and keep
alert."
Rapidly and easily the largest of the Han ships settled to the earth.
Three scouted sharply to the south, rising to a higher level. The others
floated motionless about a thousand feet above.
Peeping through a small fissure between two plates, I saw the vast hulk
of the ship come to rest full on the line of our prospective ring
barrage. A door clanged open a couple of feet from the ground, and one
by one the crew emerged.
CHAPTER VI
The "Wyoming Massacre"
"They're coming out of the ship." I spoke quietly, with my hand over
my mouth, for fear they might hear me. "One--two--three--four,
five--six--seven--eight--nine. That seems to be all. Who knows how
many men a ship like that is likely to carry?"
"About ten, if there are no passengers," replied one of my men, probably
one of those on the hillside.
"How are they armed?" I asked.
"Just knives," came the reply. "They never permit hand-rays on the
ships. Afraid of accidents. Have a ruling against it."
"Leave them to us then," I said, for I had a hastily formed plan in my
mind. "You, on the hillsides, take the ships above. Abandon the ring
target. Divide up in training on those repellor rays. You, on the
hilltops, all train on the repellors of the ships to the south. Shoot at
the word, but not before.
"Wilma, crawl over to your left where you can make a straight leap for
the door in that ship. These men are all walking around the wreck in a
bunch. When they're on the far side, I'll give the word and you leap
through that door in one bound. I'll follow. Maybe we won't be seen.
We'll overpower the guard inside, but don't shoot. We may escape being
seen by both this crew and ships above. They can't see over this wreck."
It was so easy that it seemed too good to be true. The Hans who had
emerged from the ship walked round the wreckage lazily, talking in
guttural tones, keenly interested in the wreck, but quite unsuspicious.
At last they were on the far side. In a moment they would be picking
their way into the wreck.
"Wilma, leap!" I almost whispered the order.
The distance between Wilma's hiding place and the door in the side of
the Han ship was not more than fifteen feet. She was already crouched
with her feet braced against a metal beam. Taking the lift of that
wonderful inertron belt into her calculation, she dove headforemost,
like a green projectile, through the door. I followed in a split second,
more clumsily, but no less speedily, bruising my shoulder painfully, as
I ricocheted from the edge of the opening and brought up sliding against
the unconscious girl; for she evidently had hit her head against the
partition within the ship into which she had crashed.
We had made some noise within the ship. Shuffling footsteps were
approaching down a well lit gangway.
"Any signs we have been observed?" I asked my men on the hillsides.
"Not yet," I heard the Boss reply. "Ships overhead still standing. No
beams have been broken out. Men on ground absorbed in wreck. Most of
them have crawled into it out of sight."
"Good," I said quickly. "Deering hit her head. Knocked out. One or more
members of the crew approaching. We're not discovered yet. I'll take
care of them. Stand a bit longer, but be ready."
I think my last words must have been heard by the man who was
approaching, for he stopped suddenly.
I crouched at the far side of the compartment, motionless. I would not
draw my sword if there were only one of them. He would be a weakling, I
figured, and I should easily overcome him with my bare hands.
Apparently reassured at the absence of any further sound, a man came
around a sort of bulkhead--and I leaped.
I swung my legs up in front of me as I did so, catching him full in the
stomach and knocked him cold.
I ran forward along the keel gangway, searching for the control room. I
found it well up in the nose of the ship. And it was deserted. What
could I do to jam the controls of the ships that would not register on
the recording instruments of the other ships? I gazed at the mass of
controls. Levers and wheels galore. In the center of the compartment, on
a massively braced universal joint mounting, was what I took for the
repellor generator. A dial on it glowed and a faint hum came from within
its shielding metallic case. But I had no time to study it.
Above all else, I was afraid that some automatic telephone apparatus
existed in the room, through which I might be heard on the other ships.
The risk of trying to jam the controls was too great. I abandoned the
idea and withdrew softly. I would have to take a chance that there was
no other member of the crew aboard.
I ran back to the entrance compartment. Wilma still lay where she had
slumped down. I heard the voices of the Hans approaching. It was time to
act. The next few seconds would tell whether the ships in the air would
try or be able to melt us into nothingness. I spoke.
"Are you boys all ready?" I asked, creeping to a position opposite the
door and drawing my hand-gun.
Again there was a chorus of assent.
"Then on the count of three, shoot up those repellor rays--all of
them--and for God's sake, don't miss." And I counted.
I think my "three" was a bit weak. I know it took all the courage I had
to utter it.
For an agonizing instant nothing happened, except that the landing party
from the ship strolled into my range of vision.
Then startled, they turned their eyes upward. For an instant they stood
frozen with horror at whatever they saw.
One hurled his knife at me. It grazed my cheek. Then a couple of them
made a break for the doorway. The rest followed. But I fired pointblank
with my hand-gun, pressing the button as fast as I could and aiming at
their feet to make sure my explosive rockets would make contact and do
their work.
The detonations of my rockets were deafening. The spot on which the Hans
stood flashed into a blinding glare. Then there was nothing there except
their torn and mutilated corpses. They had been fairly bunched, and I
got them all.
I ran to the door, expecting any instant to be hurled into infinity by
the sweep of a disintegrator ray.
Some eighth of a mile away I saw one of the ships crash to earth. A
disintegrator ray came into my line of vision, wavered uncertainly for a
moment and then began to sweep directly toward the ship in which I
stood. But it never reached it. Suddenly, like a light switched off, it
shot to one side, and a moment later another vast hulk crashed to earth.
I looked out, then stepped out on the ground.
The only Han ships in the sky were two of the scouts to the south which
were hanging perpendicularly, and sagging slowly down. The others must
have crashed down while I was deafened by the sound of the explosion of
my own rockets.
Somebody hit the other repellor ray of one of the two remaining ships
and it fell out of sight beyond a hilltop. The other, farther away,
drifted down diagonally, its disintegrator ray playing viciously over
the ground below it.
I shouted with exultation and relief.
"Take back the command, Boss!" I yelled.
His commands, sending out jumpers in pursuit of the descending ship,
rang in my ears, but I paid no attention to them. I leaped back into the
compartment of the Han ship and knelt beside my Wilma. Her padded helmet
had absorbed much of the blow, I thought; otherwise, her skull might
have been fractured.
"Oh, my head!" she groaned, coming to as I lifted her gently in my arms
and strode out in the open with her. "We must have won, dearest, did
we?"
"We most certainly did," I reassured her. "All but one crashed and that
one is drifting down toward the south; we've captured this one we're in
intact. There was only one member of the crew aboard when we dove in."
[Illustration: As the American leaped, he swung his legs up in front of
him, catching the Han full in the stomach.]
Less than an hour afterward the Big Boss ordered the outfit to tune in
ultrophones on three-twenty-three to pick up a translated broadcast of
the Han intelligence office in Nu-yok from the Susquanna station. It
was in the form of a public warning and news item, and read as follows:
"This is Public Intelligence Office, Nu-yok, broadcasting warning to
navigators of private ships, and news of public interest. The squadron
of seven ships, which left Nu-yok this morning to investigate the recent
destruction of the GK-984 in the Wyoming Valley, has been destroyed by a
series of mysterious explosions similar to those which wrecked the
GK-984.
"The phones, viewplates, and all other signaling devices of five of the
seven ships ceased operating suddenly at approximately the same moment,
about seven-four-nine." (According to the Han system of reckoning time,
seven and forty-nine one hundredths after midnight.) "After violent
disturbances the location finders went out of operation. Electroactivity
registers applied to the territory of the Wyoming Valley remain dead.
"The Intelligence Office has no indication of the kind of disaster which
overtook the squadron except certain evidences of explosive phenomena
similar to those in the case of the GK-984, which recently went dead
while beaming the valley in a systematic effort to wipe out the works
and camps of the tribesmen. The Office considers, as obvious, the
deduction that the tribesmen have developed a new, and as yet
undetermined, technique of attack on airships, and has recommended to
the Heaven-Born that immediate and unlimited authority be given the
Navigation Intelligence Division to make an investigation of this
technique and develop a defense against it.
"In the meantime it urges that private navigators avoid this territory
in particular, and in general hold as closely as possible to the
official inter-city routes, which now are being patrolled by the entire
force of the Military Office, which is beaming the routes generously to
a width of ten miles. The Military Office reports that it is at present
considering no retaliatory raids against the tribesmen. With the
Navigation Intelligence Division, it holds that unless further evidence
of the nature of the disaster is developed in the near future, the
public interest will be better served, and at smaller cost of life, by a
scientific research than by attempts at retaliation, which may bring
destruction on all ships engaging therein. So unless further evidence
actually is developed, or the Heaven-Born orders to the contrary, the
Military will hold to a defensive policy.
"Unofficial intimations from Lo-Tan are to the effect that the
Heaven-Council has the matter under consideration.
"The Navigation Intelligence Office permits the broadcast of the
following condensation of its detailed observations:
"The squadron proceeded to a position above the Wyoming Valley where
the wreck of the GK-984 was known to be, from the record of its location
finder before it went dead recently. There the bottom projectoscope
relays of all ships registered the wreck of the GK-984. Teleprojectoscope
views of the wreck and the bowl of the valley showed no evidence of the
presence of tribesmen. Neither ship registers nor base registers showed
any indication of electroactivity except from the squadron itself. On
orders from the Base Squadron Commander, the LD-248, LK-745 and LG-25
scouted southward at 3,000 feet. The GK-43, GK-981 and GK-220 stood
above at 2,500 feet, and the GK-18 landed to permit personal inspection
of the wreck by the science committee. The party debarked, leaving one
man on board in the control cabin. He set all projectoscopes at
universal focus except RB-3," (this meant the third projectoscope from
the bow of the ship, on the right-hand side of the lower deck) "with
which he followed the landing group as it walked around the wreck.
"The first abnormal phenomenon recorded by any of the instruments at
Base was that relayed automatically from projectoscope RB-4 of the
GK-18, which as the party disappeared from view in back of the wreck,
recorded two green missiles of roughly cylindrical shape, projected from
the wreckage into the landing compartment of the ship. At such close
range these were not clearly defined, owing to the universal focus at
which the projectoscope was set. The Base Captain of GK-18 at once
ordered the man in the control room to investigate, and saw him leave
the control room in compliance with this order. An instant later
confused sounds reached the control-room electrophone, such as might be
made by a man falling heavily, and footsteps reapproached the control
room, a figure entering and leaving the control room hurriedly. The Base
Captain now believes, and the stills of the photorecord support his
belief, that this was not the crew member who had been left in the
control room. Before the Base Captain could speak to him he left the
room, nor was any response given to the attention signal the Captain
flashed throughout the ship.
"At this point projectoscope RB-3 of the ship now out of focus control,
dimly showed the landing party walking back toward the ship. RB-4 showed
it more clearly. Then on both these instruments, a number of blinding
explosives in rapid succession were seen and the electrophone relays
registered terrific concussions; the ship's electronic apparatus and
projectoscopes apparatus went dead.
"Reports of the other ships' Base Observers and Executives, backed by
the photorecords, show the explosions as taking place in the midst of
the landing party as it returned, evidently unsuspicious, to the ship.
Then in rapid succession they indicate that terrific explosions occurred
inside and outside the three ships standing above close to their rep-ray
generators, and all signals from these ships thereupon went dead.
"Of the three ships scouting to the south, the LD-248 suffered an
identical fate, at the same moment. Its records add little to the
knowledge of the disaster. But with the LK-745 and the LG-25 it was
different.
"The relay instruments of the LK-745 indicated the destruction by an
explosion of the rear rep-ray generator, and that the ship hung stern
down for a short space, swinging like a pendulum. The forward viewplates
and indicators did not cease functioning, but their records are chaotic,
except for one projectoscope still, which shows the bowl of the valley,
and the GK-981 falling, but no visible evidence of tribesmen. The
control-room viewplate is also a chaotic record of the ship's crew
tumbling and falling to the rear wall. Then the forward rep-ray
generator exploded, and all signals went dead.
"The fate of the LG-25 was somewhat similar, except that this ship hung
nose down, and drifted on the wind southward as it slowly descended out
of control.
"As its control room was shattered, verbal report from its Action
Captain was precluded. The record of the interior rear viewplate shows
members of the crew climbing toward the rear rep-ray generator in an
attempt to establish manual control of it, and increase the lift. The
projectoscope relays, swinging in wide arcs, recorded little of value
except at the ends of their swings. One of these, from a machine which
happened to be set in telescopic focus, shows several views of great
value in picturing the falls of the other ships, and all of the rear
projectoscope records enable the reconstruction in detail of the
pendulum and torsional movements of the ship, and its sag toward the
earth. But none of the views showing the forest below contain any
indication of tribesmen's presence. A final explosion put this ship out
of commission at a height of 1,000 feet, and at a point four miles S. by
E. of the center of the valley."
The message ended with a repetition of the warning to other airmen to
avoid the valley.
CHAPTER VII
Incredible Treason
After receiving this report, and reassurances of support from the Big
Bosses of the neighboring Gangs, Hart determined to reestablish the
Wyoming Valley community.
A careful survey of the territory showed that it was only the northern
sections and slopes that had been "beamed" by the first Han ship.
The synthetic-fabrics plant had been partially wiped out, though the
lower levels underground had not been reached by the dis ray. The forest
screen above it, however, had been annihilated, and it was determined to
abandon it, after removing all usable machinery and evidences of the
processes that might be of interest to the Han scientists, should they
return to the valley in the future.
The ammunition plant, and the rocket-ship plant, which had just been
about to start operation at the time of the raid, were intact, as were
the other important plants.
Hart brought the Camboss up from the Susquanna Works, and laid out new
camp locations, scattering them farther to the south, and avoiding
ground which had been seared by the Han beams and the immediate
locations of the Han wrecks.
During this period, a sharp check was kept upon Han messages, for the
phone plant had been one of the first to be put in operation, and when
it became evident that the Hans did not intend any immediate reprisals,
the entire membership of the community was summoned back, and normal
life was resumed.
Wilma and I had been married the day after the destruction of the ships,
and spent this intervening period in a delightful honeymoon, camping
high in the mountains. On our return, we had a camp of our own, of
course. We were assigned to location 1017. And as might be expected, we
had a great deal of banter over which one of us was Camp Boss. The title
stood after my name on the Big Boss' records, and those of the Big
Camboss, of course, but Wilma airily held that this meant nothing at
all--and generally succeeded in making me admit it whenever she chose.
I found myself a full-fledged member of the Gang now, for I had elected
to search no farther for a permanent alliance, much as I would have
liked to familiarize myself with this 25th Century life in other
sections of the country. The Wyomings had a high morale, and had
prospered under the rule of Big Boss Hart for many years. But many of
the gangs, I found, were badly organized, lacked strong hands in
authority, and were rife with intrigue. On the whole, I thought I would
be wise to stay with a group which had already proved its friendliness,
and in which I seemed to have prospects of advancement. Under these
modern social and economic conditions, the kind of individual freedom to
which I had been accustomed in the 20th Century was impossible. I would
have been as much of a nonentity in every phase of human relationship by
attempting to avoid alliances, as any man of the 20th Century would have
been politically, who aligned himself with no political party.
This entire modern life, it appeared to me, judging from my ancient
viewpoint, was organized along what I called "political" lines. And in
this connection, it amused me to notice how universal had become the use
of the word "boss." The leader, the person in charge or authority over
anything, was a "boss." There was as little formality in his relations
with his followers as there was in the case of the 20th Century
political boss, and the same high respect paid him by his followers as
well as the same high consideration by him of their interests. He was
just as much of an autocrat, and just as much dependent upon the general
popularity of his actions for the ability to maintain his autocracy.
The sub-boss who could not command the loyalty of his followers was as
quickly deposed, either by them or by his superiors, as the ancient ward
leader of the 20th Century who lost control of his votes.
As society was organized in the 20th Century, I do not believe the
system could have worked in anything but politics. I tremble to think
what would have happened, had the attempt been made to handle the A. E.
F. this way during the First World War, instead of by that rigid
military discipline and complete assumption of the individual as a mere
standardized cog in the machine.
But owing to the centuries of desperate suffering the people had endured
at the hands of the Hans, there developed a spirit of self-sacrifice and
consideration for the common good that made the scheme applicable and
efficient in all forms of human co-operation.
I have a little heresy about all this, however. My associates regard the
thought with as much horror as many worthy people of the 20th Century
felt in regard to any heretical suggestion that the original outline of
government as laid down in the First Constitution did not apply as well
to 20th Century conditions as to those of the early 19th.
In later years, I felt that there was a certain softening of moral fiber
among the people, since the Hans had been finally destroyed with all
their works; and Americans have developed a new luxury economy. I have
seen signs of the reawakening of greed, of selfishness. The eternal
cycle seems to be at work. I fear that slowly, though surely, private
wealth is reappearing, codes of inflexibility are developing; they will
be followed by corruption, degradation; and in the end some cataclysmic
event will end this era and usher in a new one.
All this, however, is wandering afar from my story, which concerns our
early battles against the Hans, and not our more modern problems of
self-control.
Our victory over the seven Han ships had set the country ablaze. The
secret had been carefully communicated to the other gangs, and the
country was agog from one end to the other. There was feverish activity
in the ammunition plants, and the hunting of stray Han ships became an
enthusiastic sport. The results were disastrous to our hereditary
enemies.
From the Pacific Coast came the report of a great transpacific liner of
75,000 tons "lift" being brought to earth from a position of
invisibility above the clouds. A dozen Sacramentos had caught the hazy
outlines of its rep rays approaching them, head-on, in the twilight,
like ghostly pillars reaching into the sky. They had fired rockets into
it with ease, whereas they would have had difficulty in hitting it if it
had been moving at right angles to their position. They got one rep ray.
The other was not strong enough to hold it up. It floated to earth, nose
down, and since it was unarmed and unarmored, they had no difficulty in
shooting it to pieces and massacring its crew and passengers. It seemed
barbarous to me. But then I did not have centuries of bitter persecution
in my blood.
From the Jersey Beaches we received news of the destruction of a
Nu-yok-A-lan-a liner. The Sand-snipers, practically invisible in their
sand-colored clothing, and half buried along the beaches, lay in wait
for days, risking the play of dis beams along the route, and finally
registering four hits within a week. The Hans discontinued their service
along this route, and as evidence that they were badly shaken by our
success, sent no raiders down the Beaches.
It was a few weeks later that Big Boss Hart sent for me.
"Tony," he said, "There are two things I want to talk to you about. One
of them will become public property in a few days, I think. We aren't
going to get any more Han ships by shooting up their repellor rays
unless we use much larger rockets. They are wise to us now. They're
putting armor of great thickness in the hulls of their ships below the
rep-ray machines. Near Bah-flo this morning a party of Eries shot one
without success. The explosions staggered her, but did not penetrate. As
near as we can gather from their reports, their laboratories have
developed a new alloy of great tensile strength and elasticity which
nevertheless lets the rep rays through like a sieve. Our reports
indicate that the Eries' rockets bounced off harmlessly. Most of the
party was wiped out as the dis rays went into action on them.
"This is going to mean real business for all of the gangs before long.
The Big Bosses have just held a national ultrophone council. It was
decided that America must organize on a national basis. The first move
is to develop sectional organization by Zones. I have been made
Superboss of the Mid-Atlantic Zone.
"We're in for it now. The Hans are sure to launch reprisal expeditions.
If we're to save the race we must keep them away from our camps and
plants. I'm thinking of developing a permanent field force, along the
lines of the regular armies of the 20th Century you told me about. Its
business will be twofold: to carry the warfare as much as possible to
the Hans, and to serve as a decoy, to keep their attention from our
plants. I'm going to need your help in this.
"The other thing I wanted to talk to you about is this: Amazing and
impossible as it seems, there is a group, or perhaps an entire gang,
somewhere among us, that is betraying us to the Hans. It may be the Bad
Bloods, or it may be one of those gangs who live near one of the Han
cities. You know, a hundred and fifteen or twenty years ago there were
certain of these people's ancestors who actually degraded themselves by
mating with the Hans, sometimes even serving them as slaves, in the days
before they brought all their service machinery to perfection.
"There is such a gang, called the Nagras, up near Bah-flo, and another
in Mid-Jersey that men call the Pineys. But I hardly suspect the Pineys.
There is little intelligence among them. They wouldn't have the
information to give the Hans, nor would they be capable of imparting it.
They're absolute savages."
"Just what evidence is there that anybody has been clearing information
to the Hans?" I asked.
"Well," he replied, "first of all there was that raid upon us. That
first Han ship knew the location of our plants exactly. You remember it
floated directly into position above the valley and began a systematic
beaming. Then, the Hans quite obviously have learned that we are picking
up their electrophone waves, for they've gone back to their old, but
extremely accurate, system of directional control. But we've been
getting them for the past week by installing automatic re-broadcast
units along the scar paths. This is what the Americans called those
strips of country directly under the regular ship routes of the Hans,
who as a matter of precaution frequently blasted them with their dis
beams to prevent the growth of foliage which might give shelter to the
Americans. But they've been beaming those paths so hard, it looks as
though they even had information of this strategy. And in addition,
they've been using code. Finally, we've picked up three of their
messages in which they discuss, with some nervousness, the existence of
our 'mysterious' ultrophone."
"But they still have no knowledge of the nature and control of ultronic
activity?" I asked.
"No," said the Big Boss thoughtfully, "they don't seem to have a bit of
information about it."
"Then it's quite clear," I ventured, "that whoever is 'clearing' us to
them is doing it piecemeal. It sounds like a bit of occasional barter,
rather than an out-and-out alliance. They're holding back as much
information as possible for future bartering, perhaps."
"Yes," Hart said, "and it isn't information the Hans are giving in
return, but some form of goods, or privilege. The trick would be to
locate the goods. I guess I'll have to make a personal trip around among
the Big Bosses."
CHAPTER VIII
The Han City
This conversation set me thinking. All of the Han electrophone
inter-communication had been an open record to the Americans for a good
many years, and the Hans were just finding it out. For centuries they
had not regarded us as any sort of a menace. Unquestionably it had never
occurred to them to secrete their own records. Somewhere in Nu-yok or
Bah-flo, or possibly in Lo-Tan itself, the record of this traitorous
transaction would be more or less openly filed. If we could only get at
it! I wondered if a raid might not be possible.
Bill Hearn and I talked it over with our Han-affairs Boss and his
experts. There ensued several days of research, in which the Han records
of the entire decade were scanned and analyzed. In the end they picked
out a mass of detail, and fitted it together into a very definite
picture of the great central filing office of the Hans in Nu-yok, where
the entire mass of official records was kept, constantly available for
instant projectoscoping to any of the city's offices, and of the system
by which the information was filed.
The attempt began to look feasible, though Hart instantly turned the
idea down when I first presented it to him. It was unthinkable, he said.
Sheer suicide. But in the end I persuaded him.
"I will need," I said, "Blash, who is thoroughly familiar with the Han
library system; Bert Gaunt, who for years has specialized on their
military offices; Bill Barker, the ray specialist, and the best swooper
pilot we have." _Swoopers_ are one-man and two-man ships, developed by
the Americans, with skeleton backbones of inertron (during the war
painted green for invisibility against the green forests below) and
"bellies" of clear ultron.
"That will be Mort Gibbons," said Hart. "We've only got three swoopers
left, Tony, but I'll risk one of them if you and the others will
voluntarily risk your existences. But mind, I won't urge or order one of
you to go. I'll spread the word to every Plant Boss at once to give you
anything and everything you need in the way of equipment."
When I told Wilma of the plan, I expected her to raise violent and
tearful objections, but she didn't. She was made of far sterner stuff
than the women of the 20th Century. Not that she couldn't weep as
copiously or be just as whimsical on occasion; but she wouldn't weep for
the same reasons.
She just gave me an unfathomable look, in which there seemed to be a bit
of pride, and asked eagerly for the details. I confess I was somewhat
disappointed that she could so courageously risk my loss, even though I
was amazed at her fortitude. But later I was to learn how little I knew
her then.
We were ready to slide off at dawn the next morning. I had kissed Wilma
good-bye at our camp, and after a final conference over our plans, we
boarded our craft and gently glided away over the tree tops on a course,
which, after crossing three routes of the Han ships, would take us out
over the Atlantic, off the Jersey coast, whence we would come up on
Nu-yok from the ocean.
Twice we had to nose down and lie motionless on the ground near a route
while Han ships passed. Those were tense moments. Had the green back of
our ship been observed, we would have been disintegrated in a second.
But it wasn't.
Once over the water, however, we climbed in a great spiral, ten miles in
diameter, until our altimeter registered ten miles. Here Gibbons shut
off his rocket motor, and we floated, far above the level of the
Atlantic liners, whose course was well to the north of us anyhow, and
waited for nightfall.
Then Gibbons turned from his control long enough to grin at me.
"I have a surprise for you, Tony," he said, throwing back the lid of
what I had supposed was a big supply case. And with a sigh of relief,
Wilma stepped out of the case.
"If you 'go into zero' (a common expression of the day for being
annihilated by the disintegrator ray), you don't think I'm going to let
you go alone, do you, Tony? I couldn't believe my ears last night when
you spoke of going without me, until I realized that you are still five
hundred years behind the times in lots of ways. Don't you know, dear
heart, that you offered me the greatest insult a husband could give a
wife? You didn't, of course."
The others, it seemed, had all been in on the secret, and now they would
have kidded me unmercifully, except that Wilma's eyes blazed
dangerously.
At nightfall, we maneuvered to a position directly above the city. This
took some time and calculation on the part of Bill Barker, who explained
to me that he had to determine our point by ultronic bearings. The
slightest resort to an electronic instrument, he feared, might be
detected by our enemies' locators. In fact, we did not dare bring our
swooper any lower than five miles for fear that its capacity might be
reflected in their instruments.
Finally, however, he succeeded in locating above the central tower of
the city.
"If my calculations are as much as ten feet off," he remarked with
confidence, "I'll eat the tower. Now the rest is up to you, Mort. See
what you can do to hold her steady. No--here, watch this indicator--the
red beam, not the green one. See--if you keep it exactly centered on the
needle, you're O.K. The width of the beam represents seventeen feet. The
tower platform is fifty feet square, so we've got a good margin to work
on."
For several moments we watched as Gibbons bent over his levers,
constantly adjusting them with deft touches of his fingers. After a bit
of wavering, the beam remained centered on the needle.
"Now," I said, "let's drop."
I opened the trap and looked down, but quickly shut it again when I felt
the air rushing out of the ship into the rarefied atmosphere in a
torrent. Gibbons literally yelled a protest from his instrument board.
"I forgot," I mumbled. "Silly of me. Of course, we'll have to drop out
of compartment."
The compartment, to which I referred, was similar to those in some of
the 20th Century submarines. We all entered it. There was barely room
for us to stand, shoulder to shoulder. With some struggles, we got into
our special air helmets and adjusted the pressure. At our signal,
Gibbons exhausted the air in the compartment, pumping it into the body
of the ship, and as the little signal light flashed, Wilma threw open
the hatch.
Setting the ultron-wire reel, I climbed through, and began to slide down
gently.
We all had our belts on, of course, adjusted to a weight balance of but
a few ounces. And the five-mile reel of ultron wire that was to be our
guide, was of gossamer fineness, though, anyway, I believe it would have
lifted the full weight of the five of us, so strong and tough was this
invisible metal. As an extra precaution, since the wire was of the
purest metal, and therefore totally invisible, even in daylight, we all
had our belts hooked on small rings that slid down the wire.
I went down with the end of the wire. Wilma followed a few feet above
me, then Barker, Gaunt and Blash. Gibbons, of course, stayed behind to
hold the ship in position and control the paying out of the line. We all
had our ultrophones in place inside our air helmets, and so could
converse with one another and with Gibbons. But at Wilma's suggestion,
although we would have liked to let the Big Boss listen in, we kept them
adjusted to short-range work, for fear that those who had been clearing
with the Hans, and against whom we were on a raid for evidence, might
also pick up our conversation. We had no fear that the Hans would hear
us. In fact, we had the added advantage that, even after we landed, we
could converse freely without danger of their hearing our voices through
our air helmets.
For a while I could see nothing below but utter darkness. Then I
realized, from the feel of the air as much as from anything, that we
were sinking through a cloud layer. We passed through two more cloud
layers before anything was visible to us.
Then there came under my gaze, about two miles below, one of the most
beautiful sights I have ever seen; the soft, yet brilliant, radiance of
the great Han city of Nu-yok. Every foot of its structural members
seemed to glow with a wonderful incandescence, tower piled up on tower,
and all built on the vast base-mass of the city, which, so I had been
told, sheered upward from the surface of the rivers to a height of 728
levels.
The city, I noticed with some surprise, did not cover anything like the
same area as the New York of the 20th Century. It occupied, as a matter
of fact, only the lower half of Manhattan Island, with one section
straddling the East River, and spreading out sufficiently over what once
had been Brooklyn, to provide berths for the great liners and other air
craft.
Straight beneath my feet was a tiny dark patch. It seemed the only spot
in the entire city that was not aflame with radiance. This was the
central tower, in the top floors of which were housed the vast library
of record files and the main projectoscope plant.
"You can shoot the wire now," I ultrophoned Gibbons, and let go the
little weighted knob. It dropped like a plummet, and we followed with
considerable speed, but braking our descent with gloved hands
sufficiently to see whether the knob, on which a faint light glowed as a
signal for ourselves, might be observed by any Han guard or night
prowler. Apparently it was not, and we again shot down with accelerated
speed.
We landed on the roof of the tower without any mishap, and fortunately
for our plan, in darkness. Since there was nothing above it on which it
would have been worth while to shed illumination, or from which there
was any need to observe it, the Hans had neglected to light the tower
roof, or indeed to occupy it at all. This was the reason we had selected
it as our landing place.
As soon as Gibbons had our word, he extinguished the knob light, and the
knob, as well as the wire, became totally invisible. At our ultrophoned
word, he would light it again.
"No gun play now," I warned. "Swords only, and then only if absolutely
necessary."
Closely bunched, and treading as lightly as only inertron-belted people
could, we made our way cautiously through a door and down an inclined
plane to the floor below, where Gaunt and Blash assured us the military
offices were located.
Twice Barker cautioned us to stop as we were about to pass in front of
mirror-like "windows" in the passage wall, and flattening ourselves to
the floor, we crawled past them.
"Projectoscopes," he said. "Probably on automatic record only, at this
time of night. Still, we don't want to leave any records for them to
study after we're gone."
"Were you ever here before?" I asked.
"No," he replied, "but I haven't been studying their electrophone
communications for seven years without being able to recognize these
machines when I run across them."
CHAPTER IX
The Fight in the Tower
So far we had not laid eyes on a Han. The tower seemed deserted. Blash
and Gaunt, however, assured me that there would be at least one man on
"duty" in the military offices, though he would probably be asleep, and
two or three in the library proper and the projectoscope plant.
"We've got to put them out of commission," I said. "Did you bring the
'dope' cans, Wilma?"
"Yes," she said, "two for each. Here," and she distributed them.
We were now two levels below the roof, and at the point where we were to
separate.
I did not want to let Wilma out of my sight, but it was necessary.
According to our plan, Barker was to make his way to the projectoscope
plant, Blash and I to the library, and Wilma and Gaunt to the military
office.
Blash and I traversed a long corridor, and paused at the great arched
doorway of the library. Cautiously we peered in. Seated at three great
switchboards were library operatives. Occasionally one of them would
reach lazily for a lever, or sleepily push a button, as little numbered
lights winked on and off. They were answering calls for electrograph and
viewplate records on all sorts of subjects from all sections of the
city.
I apprised my companions of the situation.
"Better wait a bit," Blash added. "The calls will lessen shortly."
Wilma reported an officer in the military office sound asleep.
"Give him the can, then," I said.
Barker was to do nothing more than keep watch in the projectoscope
plant, and a few moments later he reported himself well concealed, with
a splendid view of the floor.
"I think we can take a chance now," Blash said to me, and at my nod, he
opened the lid of his dope can. Of course, the fumes did not affect us,
through our helmets. They were absolutely without odor or visibility,
and in a few seconds the librarians were unconscious. We stepped into
the room.
There ensued considerable cautious observation and experiment on the
part of Gaunt, working from the military office, and Blash in the
library; while Wilma and I, with drawn swords and sharply attuned
microphones, stood guard, and occasionally patrolled nearby corridors.
"I hear something approaching," Wilma said after a bit, with excitement
in her voice. "It's a soft, gliding sound."
"That's an elevator somewhere," Barker cut in from the projectoscope
floor. "Can you locate it? I can't hear it."
"It's to the east of me," she replied.
"And to my west," said I, faintly catching it. "It's between us, Wilma,
and nearer you than me. Be careful. Have you got any information yet,
Blash and Gaunt?"
"Getting it now," one of them replied. "Give us two minutes more."
"Keep at it then," I said. "We'll guard."
The soft, gliding sound ceased.
"I think it's very close to me," Wilma almost whispered. "Come closer,
Tony. I have a feeling something is going to happen. I've never known my
nerves to get taut like this without reason."
In some alarm, I launched myself down the corridor in a great leap
toward the intersection whence I knew I could see her.
In the middle of my leap my ultrophone registered her gasp of alarm. The
next instant I glided to a stop at the intersection to see Wilma backing
toward the door of the military office, her sword red with blood, and an
inert form on the corridor floor. Two other Hans were circling to either
side of her with wicked-looking knives, while a third evidently a high
officer, judging by the resplendence of his garb tugged desperately to
get an electrophone instrument out of a bulky pocket. If he ever gave
the alarm, there was no telling what might happen to us.
I was at least seventy feet away, but I crouched low and sprang with
every bit of strength in my legs. It would be more correct to say that I
dived, for I reached the fellow head on, with no attempt to draw my legs
beneath me.
Some instinct must have warned him, for he turned suddenly as I hurtled
close to him. But by this time I had sunk close to the floor, and had
stiffened myself rigidly, lest a dragging knee or foot might just
prevent my reaching him. I brought my blade upward and over. It was a
vicious slash that laid him open, bisecting him from groin to chin, and
his dead body toppled down on me, as I slid to a tangled stop.
The other two startled, turned. Wilma leaped at one and struck him down
with a side slash. I looked up at this instant, and the dazed fear on
his face at the length of her leap registered vividly. The Hans knew
nothing of our inertron belts, it seemed, and these leaps and dives of
ours filled them with terror.
As I rose to my feet, a gory mess, Wilma, with a poise and speed which I
found time to admire even in this crisis, again leaped. This time she
dove head first as I had done and, with a beautifully executed thrust,
ran the last Han through the throat.
Uncertainly, she scrambled to her feet, staggered queerly, and then sank
gently prone on the corridor. She had fainted.
At this juncture, Blash and Gaunt reported with elation that they had
the record we wanted.
"Back to the roof, everybody!" I ordered, as I picked Wilma up in my
arms. With her inertron belt, she felt as light as a feather.
Gaunt joined me at once from the military office, and at the
intersection of the corridor, we came upon Blash waiting for us. Barker,
however, was not in evidence.
"Where are you, Barker?" I called.
"Go ahead," he replied. "I'll be with you on the roof at once."
We came out in the open without any further mishap, and I instructed
Gibbons in the ship to light the knob on the end of the ultron wire. It
flashed dully a few feet away from us. Just how he had maneuvered the
ship to keep our end of the line in position, without its swinging in a
tremendous arc, I have never been able to understand. Had not the night
been an unusually still one, he could not have checked the initial
pendulum-like movements. As it was, there was considerable air current
at certain of the levels, and in different directions too. But Gibbons
was an expert of rare ability and sensitivity in the handling of a
rocket ship, and he managed, with the aid of his delicate instruments,
to sense the drifts almost before they affected the fine ultron wire,
and to neutralize them with little shifts in the position of the ship.
Blash and Gaunt fastened their rings to the wire, and I hooked my own
and Wilma's on, too. But on looking around, I found Barker was still
missing.
"Barker, come!" I called. "We're waiting."
"Coming!" he replied, and indeed, at that instant, his figure appeared
up the ramp. He chuckled as he fastened his ring to the wire, and said
something about a little surprise he had left for the Hans.
"Don't reel in the wire more than a few hundred feet," I instructed
Gibbons. "It will take too long to wind it in. We'll float up, and when
we're aboard, we can drop it."
In order to float up, we had to dispense with a pound or two of weight
apiece. We hurled our swords from us, and kicked off our shoes as
Gibbons reeled up the line a bit, and then letting go of the wire, began
to hum upward on our rings with increasing velocity.
The rush of air brought Wilma to, and I hastily explained to her that we
had been successful. Receding far below us now, I could see our dully
shining knob swinging to and fro in an ever widening arc, as it crossed
and recrossed the black square of the tower roof. As an extra
precaution, I ordered Gibbons to shut off the light, and to show one
from the belly of the ship, for so great was our speed now, that I began
to fear we would have difficulty in checking ourselves. We were
literally falling upward, and with terrific acceleration.
Fortunately, we had several minutes in which to solve this difficulty,
which none of us, strangely enough, had foreseen. It was Gibbons who
found the answer.
"You'll be all right if all of you grab the wire tight when I give the
word," he said. "First I'll start reeling it in at full speed. You won't
get much of a jar, and then I'll decrease its speed again gradually, and
its weight will hold you back. Are you ready? One--two--three!"
We all grabbed tightly with our gloved hands as he gave the word. We
must have been rising a good bit faster than he figured, however, for it
wrenched our arms considerably, and the maneuver set up a sickening
pendulum motion.
For a while all we could do was swing there in an arc that may have been
a quarter of a mile across, about three and a half miles above the city,
and still more than a mile from our ship.
Gibbons skilfully took up the slack as our momentum pulled up the line.
Then at last we had ourselves under control again, and continued our
upward journey, checking our speed somewhat with our gloves.
There was not one of us who did not breathe a big sigh of relief when we
scrambled through the hatch safely into the ship again, cast off the
ultron line and slammed the trap shut.
Little realizing that we had a still more terrible experience to go
through, we discussed the information Blash and Gaunt had between them
extracted from the Han records, and the advisability of ultrophoning
Hart at once.
CHAPTER X
The Walls of Hell
The traitors were, it seemed, a degenerate gang of Americans, located a
few miles north of Nu-yok on the wooded banks of the Hudson, the
Sinsings. They had exchanged scraps of information to the Hans in return
for several old repellor-ray machines, and the privilege of tuning in on
the Han electronic power broadcast for their operation, provided their
ships agreed to subject themselves to the orders of the Han traffic
office, while aloft.
The rest wanted to ultrophone their news at once, since there was always
danger that we might never get back to the gang with it.
I objected, however. The Sinsings would be likely to pick up our
message. Even if we used the directional projector, they might have
scouts out to the west and south in the big inter-gang stretches of
country. They would flee to Nu-yok and escape the punishment they
merited. It seemed to be vitally important that they should not, for the
sake of example to other weak groups among the American gangs, as well
as to prevent a crisis in which they might clear more vital information
to the enemy.
"Out to sea again," I ordered Gibbons. "They'll be less likely to look
for us in that direction."
"Easy, Boss, easy," he replied. "Wait until we get up a mile or two
more. They must have discovered evidences of our raid by now, and their
dis-ray wall may go in operation any moment."
Even as he spoke, the ship lurched downward and to one side.
"There it is!" he shouted. "Hang on, everybody. We're going to nose
straight up!" And he flipped the rocket-motor control wide open.
Looking through one of the rear ports, I could see a nebulous, luminous
ring, and on all sides the atmosphere took on a faint iridescence.
We were almost over the destructive range of the disintegrator-ray wall,
a hollow cylinder of annihilation shooting upward from a solid ring of
generators surrounding the city. It was the main defense system of the
Hans, which had never been used except in periodic tests. They may or
may not have suspected that an American rocket ship was within the
cylinder; probably they had turned on their generators more as a
precaution to prevent any reaching a position above the city.
But even at our present great height, we were in great danger. It was a
question how much we might have been harmed by the rays themselves, for
their effective range was not much more than seven or eight miles. The
greater danger lay in the terrific downward rush of air within the
cylinder to replace that which was being burned into nothingness by the
continual play of the disintegrators. The air fell into the cylinder
with the force of a gale. It would be rushing toward the wall from the
outside with terrific force also, but, naturally, the effect was
intensified on the interior.
Our ship vibrated and trembled. We had only one chance of escape--to
fight our way well above the current. To drift down with it meant
ultimately, and inevitably, to be sucked into the destruction wall at
some lower level.
But very gradually and jerkily our upward movement, as shown on the
indicators, began to increase, and after an hour of desperate struggle
we were free of the maelstrom and into the rarefied upper levels. The
terror beneath us was now invisible through several layers of cloud
formations.
Gibbons brought the ship back to an even keel, and drove her eastward
into one of the most brilliantly gorgeous sunrises I have ever seen.
We described a great circle to the south and west, in a long easy dive,
for he had cut out his rocket motors to save them as much as possible.
We had drawn terrifically on their fuel reserves in our battle with the
elements. For the moment, the atmosphere below cleared, and we could see
the Jersey coast far beneath, like a great map.
"We're not through yet," remarked Gibbons suddenly, pointing at his
periscope, and adjusting it to telescopic focus. "A Han ship, and a
'drop ship' at that--and he's seen us. If he whips that beam of his on
us, we're done."
I gazed, fascinated, at the viewplate. What I saw was a cigar-shaped
ship not dissimilar to our own in design, and from the proportional size
of its ports, of about the same size as our swoopers. We learned later
that they carried crews, for the most part of not more than three or
four men. They had streamline hulls and tails that embodied
universal-jointed double fish-tail rudders. In operation they rose to
great heights on their powerful repellor rays, then gathered speed
either by a straight nose dive, or an inclined dive in which they
sometimes used the repellor ray slanted at a sharp angle. He was already
above us, though several miles to the north. He could, of course, try to
get on our tail and "spear" us with his beam as he dropped at us from a
great height.
Suddenly his beam blazed forth in a blinding flash, whipping downward
slowly to our right. He went through a peculiar corkscrew-like
evolution, evidently maneuvering to bring his beam to bear on us with a
spiral motion.
Gibbons instantly sent our ship into a series of evolutions that must
have looked like those of a frightened hen. Alternately, he used the
forward and the reverse rocket blasts, and in varying degree. We
fluttered, we shot suddenly to right and left, and dropped like a
plummet in uncertain movements. But all the time the Han scout dropped
toward us, determinedly whipping the air around us with his beam. Once
it sliced across beneath us, not more than a hundred feet, and we
dropped with a jar into the pocket formed by the destruction of the air.
He had dropped to within a mile of us, and was coming with the speed of
a projectile, when the end came. Gibbons always swore it was sheer luck.
Maybe it was, but I like pilots who are lucky that way.
In the midst of a dizzy, fluttering maneuver of our own, with the Han
ship enlarging to our gaze with terrifying rapidity, and its beam slowly
slicing toward us in what looked like certain destruction within the
second, I saw Gibbons' fingers flick at the lever of his rocket gun and
a split second later the Han ship flew apart like a clay pigeon.
We staggered, and fluttered crazily for several moments while Gibbons
struggled to bring our ship into balance, and a section of about four
square feet in the side of the ship near the stern slowly crumbled like
rusted metal. His beam actually had touched us, but our explosive rocket
had got him a thousandth of a second sooner.
Part of our rudder had been annihilated, and our motor damaged. But we
were able to swoop gently back across Jersey, fortunately crossing the
ship lanes without sighting any more Han craft, and finally settling to
rest in the little glade beneath the trees, near Hart's camp.
CHAPTER XI
The New Boss
We had ultrophoned our arrival and the Big Boss himself, surrounded by
the Council, was on hand to welcome us and learn our news. In turn we
were informed that during the night a band of raiding Bad Bloods,
disguised under the insignia of the Altoonas, a gang some distance to
the west of us, had destroyed several of our camps before our people had
rallied and driven them off. Their purpose, evidently, had been to
embroil us with the Altoonas, but fortunately, one of our exchanges
recognized the Bad Blood leader, who had been slain.
The Big Boss had mobilized the full raiding force of the Gang, and was
on the point of heading an expedition for the extermination of the Bad
Bloods.
I looked around the grim circle of the sub-bosses, and realized the fate
of America, at this moment, lay in their hands. Their temper demanded
the immediate expenditure of our full effort in revenging ourselves for
this raid. But the strategic exigencies, to my mind, quite clearly
demanded the instant and absolute extermination of the Sinsings. It
might be only a matter of hours, for all we knew, before these degraded
people would barter clues to the American ultronic secrets to the Hans.
"How large a force have we?" I asked Hart.
"Every man and maid who can be spared," he replied. "That gives us seven
hundred married and unmarried men, and three hundred girls, more than
the entire Bad Blood Gang. Every one is equipped with belts,
ultrophones, rocket guns and swords, and all fighting mad."
I meditated how I might put the matter to these determined men, and was
vaguely conscious that they were awaiting my words.
Finally I began to speak. I do not remember to this day just what I
said. I talked calmly, with due regard for their passion, but with deep
conviction. I went over the information we had collected, point by
point, building my case logically, and painting a lurid picture of the
danger impending in that half-alliance between the Sinsings and the Hans
of Nu-yok. I became impassioned, culminating, I believe, with a vow to
proceed single-handed against the hereditary enemies of our race, "if
the Wyomings were blindly set on placing a gang feud ahead of honor and
duty and the hopes of all America."
As I concluded, a great calm came over me, as of one detached. I had
felt much the same way during several crises in the First World War. I
gazed from face to face, striving to read their expressions, and in a
mood to make good my threat without any further heroics, if the decision
was against me.
But it was Hart who sensed the temper of the Council more quickly than I
did, and looked beyond it into the future.
He arose from the tree trunk on which he had been sitting.
"That settles it," he said, looking around the ring. "I have felt this
thing coming on for some time now. I'm sure the Council agrees with me
that there is among us a man more capable than I, to boss the Wyoming
Gang, despite his handicap of having had all too short a time in which
to familiarize himself with our modern ways and facilities. Whatever I
can do to support his effective leadership, at any cost, I pledge myself
to do."
As he concluded, he advanced to where I stood, and taking from his head
the green-crested helmet that constituted his badge of office, to my
surprise he placed it in my mechanically extended hand.
The roar of approval that went up from the Council members left me
dazed. Somebody ultrophoned the news to the rest of the Gang, and even
though the earflaps of my helmet were turned up, I could hear the cheers
with which my invisible followers greeted me, from near and distant
hillsides, camps and plants.
My first move was to make sure that the Phone Boss, in communicating
this news to the members of the Gang, had not re-broadcast my talk nor
mentioned my plan of shifting the attack from the Bad Bloods to the
Sinsings. I was relieved by his assurance that he had not, for it would
have wrecked the whole plan. Everything depended upon our ability to
surprise the Sinsings.
So I pledged the Council and my companions to secrecy, and allowed it to
be believed that we were about to take to the air and the trees against
the Bad Bloods.
That outfit must have been badly scared, the way they were "burning" the
ether with ultrophone alibis and propaganda for the benefit of the more
distant gangs. It was their old game, and the only method by which they
had avoided extermination long ago from their immediate neighbors--these
appeals to the spirit of American brotherhood, addressed to gangs too
far away to have had the sort of experience with them that had fallen to
our lot.
I chuckled. Here was another good reason for the shift in my plans. Were
we actually to undertake the exterminations of the Bad Bloods at once,
it would have been a hard job to convince some of the gangs that we had
not been precipitate and unjustified. Jealousies and prejudices existed.
There were gangs which would give the benefit of the doubt to the Bad
Bloods, rather than to ourselves, and the issue was now hopelessly
beclouded with the clever lies that were being broadcast in an unceasing
stream.
But the extermination of the Sinsings would be another thing. In the
first place, there would be no warning of our action until it was all
over, I hoped. In the second place, we would have indisputable proof, in
the form of their rep-ray ships and other paraphernalia, of their
traffic with the Hans; and the state of American prejudice, at the time
of which I write held trafficking with the Hans a far more heinous thing
than even a vicious gang feud.
I called an executive session of the Council at once. I wanted to
inventory our military resources.
I created a new office on the spot, that of "Control Boss," and
appointed Ned Garlin to the post, turning over his former responsibility
as Plants Boss to his assistant. I needed someone, I felt, to tie in the
records of the various functional activities of the campaign, and take
over from me the task of keeping the records of them up to the minute.
I received reports from the bosses of the ultrophone unit, and those of
food, transportation, fighting gear, chemistry, electronic activity and
electrophone intelligence, ultroscopes, air patrol and contact guard.
My ideas for the campaign, of course, were somewhat tinged with my 20th
Century experience, and I found myself faced with the task of working
out a staff organization that was a composite of the best and most
easily applied principles of business and military efficiency, as I knew
them from the viewpoint of immediate practicality.
What I wanted was an organization that would be specialized,
functionally, not as that indicated above, but from the angles of:
intelligence as to the Sinsings' activities; intelligence as to Han
activities; perfection of communication with my own units; co-operation
of field command; and perfect mobilization of emergency supplies and
resources.
It took several hours of hard work with the Council to map out the plan.
First we assigned functional experts and equipment to each "Division" in
accordance with its needs. Then these in turn were reassigned by the new
Division Bosses to the Field Commands as needed, or as Independent or
Headquarters Units. The two intelligence divisions were named the White
and the Yellow, indicating that one specialized on the American enemy
and the other on the Mongolians.
The division in charge of our own communications, the assignment of
ultrophone frequencies and strengths, and the maintenance of operators
and equipment, I called "Communications."
I named Bill Hearn to the post of Field Boss, in charge of the main or
undetached fighting units, and to the Resources Division, I assigned all
responsibility for what few aircraft we had; and all transportation and
supply problems, I assigned to "Resources." The functional bosses stayed
with this division.
We finally completed our organization with the assignment of liaison
representatives among the various divisions as needed.
Thus I had a "Headquarters Staff" composed of the Division Bosses who
reported directly to Ned Garlin as Control Boss, or to Wilma as my
personal assistant. And each of the Division Bosses had a small staff of
his own.
In the final summing up of our personnel and resources, I found we had
roughly a thousand "troops," of whom some three hundred and fifty were,
in what I called the Service Divisions, the rest being in Bill Hearn's
Field Division. This latter number, however, was cut down somewhat by
the assignment of numerous small units to detached service. Altogether,
the actual available fighting force, I figured, would number about five
hundred, by the time we actually went into action.
We had only six small swoopers, but I had an ingenious plan in my mind,
as the result of our little raid on Nu-yok, that would make this
sufficient, since the reserves of inertron blocks were larger than I
expected to find them. The Resources Division, by packing its supply
cases a bit tight, or by slipping in extra blocks of inertron, was able
to reduce each to a weight of a few ounces. These easily could be
floated and towed by the swoopers in any quantity. Hitched to ultron
lines, it would be a virtual impossibility for them to break loose.
The entire personnel, of course, was supplied with jumpers, and if each
man and girl was careful to adjust balances properly, the entire number
could also be towed along through the air, grasping wires of ultron,
swinging below the swoopers, or stringing out behind them.
There would be nothing tiring about this, because the strain would be no
greater than that of carrying a one or two pound weight in the hand,
except for air friction at high speeds. But to make doubly sure that we
should lose none of our personnel, I gave strict orders that the belts
and tow lines should be equipped with rings and hooks.
So great was the efficiency of the fundamental organization and
discipline of the Gang, that we got under way at nightfall.
One by one the swoopers eased into the air, each followed by its long
train or "kite-tail" of humanity and supply cases hanging lightly from
its tow line. For convenience, the tow lines were made of an alloy of
ultron which, unlike the metal itself, is visible.
At first these "tails" hung downward, but as the ships swung into
formation and headed eastward toward the Bad Blood territory, gathering
speed, they began to string out behind. And swinging low from each ship
on heavily weighted lines, ultroscope, ultrophone, and straight-vision
observers keenly scanned the countryside, while intelligence men in the
swoopers above bent over their instrument boards and viewplates.
Leaving Control Boss Ned Garlin temporarily in charge of affairs, Wilma
and I dropped a weighted line from our ship, and slid down about half
way to the under lookouts, that is to say, about a thousand feet. The
sensation of floating swiftly through the air like this, in the absolute
security of one's confidence in the inertron belt, was one of
never-ending delight to me.
We reascended into the swooper as the expedition approached the
territory of the Bad Bloods, and directed the preparations for the
bombardment. It was part of my plan to appear to carry out the attack as
originally planned.
About fifteen miles from their camps our ships came to a halt and
maintained their positions for a while with the idling blasts of their
rocket motors, to give the ultroscope operators a chance to make a
thorough examination of the territory below us, for it was very
important that this next step in our program should be carried out with
all secrecy.
At length they reported the ground below us entirely clear of any
appearance of human occupation, and a gun unit of long-range specialists
was lowered with a dozen rocket guns, equipped with special automatic
devices that the Resources Division had developed at my request, a few
hours before our departure. These were aiming and timing devices. After
calculating the range, elevation and rocket charges carefully, the guns
were left, concealed in a ravine, and the men were hauled up into the
ship again. At the predetermined hour, those unmanned rocket guns would
begin automatically to bombard the Bad Bloods' hillsides, shifting their
aim and elevation slightly with each shot, as did many of our artillery
pieces in the First World War.
In the meantime, we turned south about twenty miles, and grounded,
waiting for the bombardment to begin before we attempted to sneak across
the Han ship lane. I was relying for security on the distraction that
the bombardment might furnish the Han observers.
It was tense work waiting, but the affair went through as planned, our
squadron drifting across the route high enough to enable the ships'
tails of troops and supply cases to clear the ground.
In crossing the second ship route, out along the Beaches of Jersey, we
were not so successful in escaping observation. A Han ship came speeding
along at a very low elevation. We caught it on our electronic location
and direction finders, and also located it with our ultroscopes, but it
came so fast and so low that I thought it best to remain where we had
grounded the second time, and lie quiet, rather than get under way and
cross in front of it.
The point was this. While the Hans had no such devices as our
ultroscopes, with which we could see in the dark (within certain
limitations of course), and their electronic instruments would be
virtually useless in uncovering our presence, since all but natural
electronic activities were carefully eliminated from our apparatus,
except electrophone receivers (which are not easily spotted), the Hans
did have some very highly sensitive sound devices which operated with
great efficiency in calm weather, so far as sounds emanating from the
air were concerned. But the "ground roar" greatly confused their use of
these instruments in the location of specific sounds floating up from
the surface of the earth.
This ship must have caught some slight noise of ours, however, in its
sensitive instruments, for we heard its electronic devices go into play,
and picked up the routine report of the noise to its Base Ship
Commander. But from the nature of the conversation, I judged they had
not identified it, and were, in fact, more curious about the detonations
they were picking up now from the Bad Blood lands some sixty miles or so
to the west.
Immediately after this ship had shot by, we took the air again, and
following much the same route that I had taken the previous night,
climbed in a long semi-circle out over the ocean, swung toward the north
and finally the west. We set our course, however, for the Sinsings' land
north of Nu-yok, instead of for the city itself.
CHAPTER XII
The Finger of Doom
As we crossed the Hudson River, a few miles north of the city, we
dropped several units of the Yellow Intelligence Division, with full
instrumental equipment. Their apparatus cases were nicely balanced at
only a few ounces weight each, and the men used their chute capes to
ease their drops.
We recrossed the river a little distance above and began dropping White
Intelligence units and a few long and short range gun units. Then we
held our position until we began to get reports. Gradually we ringed the
territory of the Sinsings, our observation units working busily and
patiently at their locators and scopes, both aloft and aground, until
Garlin finally turned to me with the remark:
"The map circle is complete now, Boss. We've got clear locations all the
way around them."
"Let me see it," I replied, and studied the illuminated viewplate map,
with its little overlapping circles of light that indicated spots proved
clear of the enemy by ultroscopic observation.
I nodded to Bill Hearn. "Go ahead now, Hearn," I said, "and place your
barrage men."
He spoke into his ultrophone, and three of the ships began to glide in a
wide ring around the enemy territory. Every few seconds, at the word
from his Unit Boss, a gunner would drop off the wire, and slipping the
clasp of his chute cape, drift down into the darkness below.
Bill formed two lines, parallel to and facing the river, and enclosing
the entire territory of the enemy between them. Above and below,
straddling the river, were two defensive lines. These latter were merely
to hold their positions. The others were to close in toward each other,
pushing a high-explosive barrage five miles ahead of them. When the two
barrages met, both lines were to switch to short-vision-range barrage
and continue to close in on any of the enemy who might have drifted
through the previous curtain of fire.
In the meantime Bill kept his reserves, a picked corps of a hundred men
(the same that had accompanied Hart and myself in our fight with the Han
squadron) in the air, divided about equally among the "kite-tails" of
four ships.
A final roll call, by units, companies, divisions and functions,
established the fact that all our forces were in position. No Han
activity was reported, and no Han broadcasts indicated any suspicion of
our expedition. Nor was there any indication that the Sinsings had any
knowledge of the fate in store for them. The idling of rep-ray
generators was reported from the center of their camp, obviously those
of the ships the Hans had given them--the price of their treason to
their race.
Again I gave the word, and Hearn passed on the order to his
subordinates.
Far below us, and several miles to the right and left, the two barrage
lines made their appearance. From the great height to which we had
risen, they appeared like lines of brilliant, winking lights, and the
detonations were muffled by the distances into a sort of rumbling,
distant thunder. Hearn and his assistants were very busy: measuring,
calculating, and snapping out ultrophone orders to unit commanders that
resulted in the straightening of lines and the closing of gaps in the
barrage.
The White Division Boss reported the utmost confusion in the Sinsing
organization. They were, as might be expected, an inefficient, loosely
disciplined gang, and repeated broadcasts for help to neighboring gangs.
Ignoring the fact that the Mongolians had not used explosives for many
generations, they nevertheless jumped at the conclusion that they were
being raided by the Hans. Their frantic broadcasts persisted in this
thought, despite the nervous electrophonic inquiries of the Hans
themselves, to whom the sound of the battle was evidently audible, and
who were trying to locate the trouble.
At this point, the swooper I had sent south toward the city went into
action as a diversion, to keep the Hans at home. Its "kite-tail" loaded
with long-range gunners, using the most highly explosive rockets we had,
hung invisible in the darkness of the sky and bombarded the city from a
distance of about five miles. With an entire city to shoot at, and the
object of creating as much commotion therein as possible, regardless of
actual damage, the gunners had no difficulty in hitting the mark. I
could see the glow of the city and the stabbing flashes of exploding
rockets. In the end, the Hans, uncertain as to what was going on, fell
back on a defensive policy, and shot their "hell cylinder," or wall of
upturned disintegrator rays into operation. That, of course, ended our
bombardment of them. The rays were a perfect defense, disintegrating our
rockets as they were reached.
If they had not sent out ships before turning on the rays, and if they
had none within sufficient radius already in the air, all would be well.
I queried Garlin on this, but he assured me Yellow Intelligence reported
no indications of Han ships nearer than 800 miles. This would probably
give us a free hand for a while, since most of their instruments
recorded only imperfectly or not at all, through the death wall.
Requisitioning one of the viewplates of the headquarters ship, and the
services of an expert operator, I instructed him to focus on our lines
below. I wanted a close-up of the men in action.
He began to manipulate his controls and chaotic shadows moved rapidly
across the plate, fading in and out of focus, until he reached an
adjustment that gave me a picture of the forest floor, apparently 100
feet wide, with the intervening branches and foliage of the trees
appearing like shadows that melted into reality a few feet above the
ground.
I watched one man setting up his long-gun with skillful speed. His lips
pursed slightly as though he were whistling, as he adjusted the tall
tripod on which the long tube was balanced. Swiftly he twirled the knobs
controlling the aim and elevation of his piece. Then, lifting a belt of
ammunition from the big box, which itself looked heavy enough to break
down the spindly tripod, he inserted the end of it in the lock of his
tube and touched the proper combination of buttons.
Then he stepped aside, and occupied himself with peering carefully
through the trees ahead. Not even a tremor shook the tube, but I knew
that at intervals of something less than a second, it was discharging
small projectiles which, traveling under their own continuously reduced
power, were arching into the air, to fall precisely five miles ahead and
explode with the force of eight-inch shells, such as we used in the
First World War.
Another gunner, fifty feet to the right of him, waved a hand and called
out something to him. Then, picking up his own tube and tripod, he
gauged the distance between the trees ahead of him, and the height of
their lowest branches, and bending forward a bit, flexed his muscles and
leaped lightly, some twenty-five feet. Another leap took him another
twenty feet or so, where he began to set up his piece.
I ordered my observer then to switch to the barrage itself. He got a
close focus on it, but this showed little except a continuous series of
blinding flashes, which, from the viewplate, lit up the entire interior
of the ship. An eight-hundred-foot focus proved better. I had thought
that some of our French and American artillery of the 20th Century had
achieved the ultimate in mathematical precision of fire, but I had never
seen anything to equal the accuracy of that line of terrific explosions
as it moved steadily forward, mowing down trees as a scythe cuts grass
(or used to 500 years ago), literally churning up the earth and the
splintered, blasted remains of the forest giants, to a depth of from ten
to twenty feet.
By now the two curtains of fire were nearing each other, lines of
vibrant, shimmering, continuous, brilliant destruction, inevitably
squeezing the panic-stricken Sinsings between them.
Even as I watched, a group of them, who had been making a futile effort
to get their three rep-ray machines into the air, abandoned their
efforts, and rushed forth into the milling mob.
I queried the Control Boss sharply on the futility of this attempt of
theirs, and learned that the Hans, apparently in doubt as to what was
going on, had continued to "play safe," and broken off their power
broadcast, after ordering all their own ships east of the Alleghenies to
the ground, for fear these ships they had traded to the Sinsings might
be used against them.
Again I turned to my viewplate, which was still focussed on the central
section of the Sinsing works. The confusion of the traitors was entirely
that of fear, for our barrage had not yet reached them.
Some of them set up their long-guns and fired at random over the barrage
line, then gave it up. They realized that they had no target to shoot
at, no way of knowing whether our gunners were a few hundred feet or
several miles beyond it.
Their ultrophone men, of whom they did not have many, stood around in
tense attitudes, their helmet phones strapped around their ears,
nervously fingering the tuning controls at their belts. Unquestionably
they must have located some of our frequencies, and overheard many of
our reports and orders. But they were confused and disorganized. If they
had an Ultrophone Boss they evidently were not reporting to him in an
organized way.
They were beginning to draw back now before our advancing fire. With
intermittent desperation, they began to shoot over our barrage again,
and the explosions of their rockets flashed at widely scattered points
beyond. A few took distance "pot shots."
Oddly enough it was our own forces that suffered the first casualties in
the battle. Some of these distance shots by chance registered hits,
while our men were under strict orders not to exceed their barrage
distances.
Seen upon the ultroscope viewplate, the battle looked as though it were
being fought in daylight, perhaps on a cloudy day, while the explosions
of the rockets appeared as flashes of extra brilliance.
The two barrage lines were not more than five hundred feet apart when
the Sinsings resorted to tactics we had not foreseen. We noticed first
that they began to lighten themselves by throwing away extra equipment.
A few of them in their excitement threw away too much, and shot suddenly
into the air. Then a scattering few floated up gently, followed by
increasing numbers, while still others, preserving a weight balance,
jumped toward the closing barrages and leaped high, hoping to clear
them. Some succeeded. We saw others blown about like leaves in a
windstorm, to crumple and drift slowly down, or else to fall into the
barrage, their belts blown from their bodies.
However, it was not part of our plan to allow a single one of them to
escape and find his way to the Hans. I quickly passed the word to Bill
Hearn to have the alternate men in his line raise their barrages and
heard him bark out a mathematical formula to the Unit Bosses.
We backed off our ships as the explosions climbed into the air in
stagger formation until they reached a height of three miles. I don't
believe any of the Sinsings who tried to float away to freedom
succeeded.
But we did know later, that a few who leaped the barrage got away and
ultimately reached Nu-yok.
It was those who managed to jump the barrage who gave us the most
trouble. With half of our long-guns turned aloft, I foresaw we would not
have enough to establish successive ground barrages and so ordered the
barrage back two miles, from which positions our "curtains" began to
close in again, this time, however, gauged to explode, not on contact,
but thirty feet in the air. This left little chance for the Sinsings to
leap either over or under it.
Gradually, the two barrages approached each other until they finally
met, and in the grey dawn the battle ended.
Our own casualties amounted to forty-seven men in the ground forces,
eighteen of whom had been slain in hand to hand fighting with the few of
the enemy who managed to reach our lines, and sixty-two in the crew and
"kite-tail" force of swooper No. 4, which had been located by one of
the enemy's ultroscopes and brought down with long-gun fire.
Since nearly every member of the Sinsing Gang had, so far as we knew,
been killed, we considered the raid a great success.
It had, however, a far greater significance than this. To all of us who
took part in the expedition, the effectiveness of our barrage tactics
definitely established a confidence in our ability to overcome the Hans.
As I pointed out to Wilma:
"It has been my belief all along, dear, that the American explosive
rocket is a far more efficient weapon than the disintegrator ray of the
Hans, once we can train all our gangs to use it systematically and in
co-ordinated fashion. As a weapon in the hands of a single individual,
shooting at a mark in direct line of vision, the rocket-gun is inferior
in destructive power to the dis ray, except as its range may be a little
greater. The trouble is that to date it has been used only as we used
our rifles and shot guns in the 20th Century. The possibilities of its
use as artillery, in laying barrages that advance along the ground, or
climb into the air, are tremendous.
"The dis ray inevitably reveals its source of emanation. The rocket gun
does not. The dis ray can reach its target only in a straight line. The
rocket may be made to travel in an arc, over intervening obstacles, to
an unseen target.
"Nor must we forget that our ultronists now are promising us a perfect
shield against the dis ray in inertron."
"I tremble though, Tony dear, when I think of the horrors that are ahead
of us. The Hans are clever. They will develop defenses against our new
tactics. And they are sure to mass against us not only the full force of
their power in America, but the united forces of the World Empire. They
are a cowardly race in one sense, but clever as the very Devils in Hell,
and inheritors of a calm, ruthless, vicious persistency."
"Nevertheless," I prophesied, "the Finger of Doom points squarely at
them today, and unless you and I are killed in the struggle, we shall
live to see America blast the Yellow Blight from the face of the Earth."
THE END.
Transcriber's Note:
This etext was produced from _Amazing Stories_ August 1928.
Extensive research did not uncover any evidence that the U.S.
copyright on this publication was renewed. Minor spelling and
typographical errors have been corrected without note.
End of Project Gutenberg's Armageddon--2419 A.D., by Philip Francis Nowlan | 32,598 | common-pile/project_gutenberg_filtered | 32530 | project gutenberg | project_gutenberg-dolma-0004.json.gz:2610 | https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/32530.txt.utf-8 |
QIWmhwqTV4XmVtnX | Observation and Assessment in Early Childhood Education | 6 Objective versus Subjective Observation Evidence
Intentional teachers must learn how to write objective observations. As you observe, it is best to write down all that you see and hear, and report just the facts. It takes practice to learn how to separate facts from opinions. Here are some helpful tips for you to review:
Table 1.6.1: Objective Observations vs. Subjective Observations
|
Objective Observations
|
Subjective Observations
|
|
Objective observations are based on what we observed using our senses, we record exactly what we see, hear, taste, touch, and smell
|
Subjective observations are often influenced by our past events, personal experiences and opinions, and can be biased based on our cultural backgrounds
|
|
Objective information is based on the facts we gather. If we don’t see it, we don’t report it. We report only details and provide vivid descriptions
|
Subjective information is based on our opinions, assumptions, personal beliefs, prejudice feelings or can be based on suspicions, rumors and guesses
|
|
Results are more likely to be valid and reliable from child to child
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Results are often inconsistent and vary from child to child
|
|
Objective Terms that can be Used:
Seems to be; Appears to
|
Subjective Words to Avoid:
Just; because; but; always, never; can’t; I think; happy, smart, helpful, pretty, angry, shy, likes, loves, hates, sad
| | 296 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://pressbooks.nscc.ca/ece-observation/chapter/objective-versus-subjective-observation-evidence/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:22244 | https://pressbooks.nscc.ca/ece-observation/chapter/objective-versus-subjective-observation-evidence/ |
YhpkDAWLfDDmoVV- | Introduction to Tourism and Hospitality in BC - 2nd Edition | Chapter 11. Risk Management and Legal Liability
11.3 Laws and Regulations
Tort Law and Negligence
Tort law in Canada refers to the “body of the law which will allow an injured person to obtain compensation from the person who caused the injury” (Tort Law, n.d.). Two categories of torts exist: intentional and unintentional. Intentional torts consist of assault, battery, trespass, false imprisonment, nuisance, and defamation. Unintentional torts primarily consist of negligence (Tort Law, n.d.). In tourism, most lawsuits involve negligence, with one party seeking financial compensation.
Take a Closer Look: Crocker v. Sundance Northwest Resorts Ltd.
The ruling in Crocker v. Sundance Northwest Resorts Ltd. provides an examination of the elements of a negligent action. The case describes an incident where a ski/snowboard resort hosted a tubing competition and allowed an intoxicated customer to participate. An accident occurred, and the customer was paralyzed as a result. The resort was found to be negligent as it failed to maintain an appropriate standard of care. Damages were awarded to plaintiff (the person suing) but were reduced for “contributory negligence on behalf of the plaintiff,” which means the injured person was also held partly responsible. The ruling can be found here: Crocker v. Sundance Northwest Resorts Ltd.
Tourism operators must consider their exposure to unintentional torts, primarily negligence. Negligence can be defined as “the omission to do something which a reasonable man, guided upon those considerations which ordinarily regulate the conduct of human affairs, would do, or doing something a prudent and reasonable man would not do” (Cloutier, 2000, p. 13). In other words, if the safety standards of a business fall below an established standard and injury occurs as a result, the injured person may sue for negligence.
Pursuing legal action against an operation for negligence is a process that needs to be initiated by the party who has been injured (plaintiff). To be successful, four elements have to be proved: injury, duty to care, breach in the standard of care, and causation.
The first of these, injury, means that it must be shown that the person suing did, in fact, receive an injury that resulted in damages. This might be physical damage, such as a bodily injury, or it may be damage to property.
The concept of duty to care refers to the relationship between the plaintiff and the defendant, a relationship requiring the defending party to care for the plaintiff. For example, in tourism, duty to care relationships exist between hotels and guests, tour guides and tour participants, and instructors and students. Is it expected that the person or organization in the relationship is responsible for ensuring the other person is safe from reasonable harm.
Take a Closer Look: The Steveston Hotel Case
The Steveston Hotel Case, made famous in 1999, still serves as a warning to establishments serving liquor. A hotel was held liable for 50% of the damages that occurred when it permitted a patron to drive home intoxicated. The case demonstrated that the hotel had a duty of care to stop serving an already intoxicated person, and to prevent the intoxicated party from driving. You can read more details of the case by visiting Hotel Held Liable for Drunk Driving Accident.
Once a duty has been established, the next step is proving negligence is to show that there was a breach in the standard of care. Can it be shown that the defendant failed to work to the recognized standard? The standard may be established by professional organizations or simply by the “reasonable person test,” which is an assessment of what other individuals or operations would have done in the same situation. Tourism operators are responsible for determining what current standards in industry are; not being aware of industry standards is not be an acceptable defence in the courts.
The last element that needs to be proved is causation. This means that there must be a strong link between the actions of the defendant that caused injury to the plaintiff. As an example, if a ski resort failed to clear the ice off its pathways, and a guest fell and was injured on the icy path, it is likely that causation could be proved (Heshka & Jackson, 2011).
Take a Closer Look: Bindseil v. McDonald’s Restaurants of Canada Limited
The ruling in Bindseil v. McDonald’s illustrates the importance of causation. While Mr Bindseil developed colitis (a serious stomach condition) in the time following a meal at a McDonald’s restaurant, he was unable to prove that the meal had caused the colitis because the testimony of his medical experts was countered with experts testifying for McDonald’s. The ruling can be found here: Bindseil v. McDonald’s Restaurants of Canada Limited.
Contract Law
Contracts are frequently used by tourism operators. Common types of contracts include contracts for service, employment agreements, rental agreements, and legal releases [waivers] (Cloutier, 2000). Given the importance of all of these types of agreements, it is vital that operators use documents that are valid and based in contract law. For a contract to be valid and legally enforceable, it must contain all of the following components: an offer and acceptance, consideration, an intent to enter into a legal relationship, and sufficient capacity (understanding) of those involved involved (Longchamps & Wright, 2007). Each of these is described below.
Offer and acceptance means that the “offer” (e.g., a rental car agency will advertise a car for rent) must be clear, unequivocal, and include all of the important and relevant terms in the contract. The acceptance also must be clearly expressed (e.g., the renter agrees to rent the car according to the terms and conditions offered by signing the contract). Once the offer is accepted, it becomes a promise with both parties being bound by the terms of the contract.
Consideration refers to the value that is exchanged between parties in the contract, such as money or services (e.g., the renter pays for use of the rental car). Sometimes consideration is waiving your legal rights for a right to participate in an activity.
Capacity refers to the ability of individuals to enter the contract. If a person signing a contract does not have sufficient capacity, the contract will not be binding. The most common reason for not having sufficient capacity is age. In most cases, a person who has not reached the legal age of majority cannot contract with someone else. Other requirements for capacity include having sufficient mental capacity, and being the authorized signatory (the person with the authority to sign on behalf of an organization) (Longchamps & Wright, 2007).
The implications of contract law to the tourism and hospitality industry are extensive; any contact signed needs to have unambiguous terms, be clearly accepted, have an exchange of value, and be signed by an adult with full mental capacity or by an authorized signatory of the organization. Failing to adhere to any of these conditions will likely result in the contract being considered void.
Waivers
For many tourism operators, waivers are considered a key part of their risk management process. Waivers are particularly important in the adventure, outdoor, and sport tourism sectors where there is a greater risk of personal injury, and have been proven as an effective risk management tool.
Take a Closer Look: Sample Waiver
Waivers are frequently made available by businesses online. To view a sample of a waiver for a snowcat operator on the Valhalla Powdercats website.
A waiver is a form of contract that transfers acceptance of the risk to the participants by requiring them to acknowledge the risks present in the activity. It also requires participants to waive their right to take legal action if an accident occurs. In Canada, these have been repeatedly successful in defending against lawsuits. Despite their effectiveness, there have been cases where waivers have failed to protect an organization, often because the waiver was poorly written or delivered incorrectly (Importance of Waivers in Recreation Programs, n.d.).
To be effective, a waiver should include the following four components:
- It should clearly outline the risks in the activity; this is ‘voluntary acceptance of risk’ in that the signee accepts the risks of the activity.
- It should waive the participant’s right to pursue legal action against the tourism operation in case of negligence; this is a ‘waiver of claims’ in that the signee agrees not to pursue legal action.
- It should be relatively short and easy to read, be easily recognized as a legal document, and include a place for signature that can be witnessed by a company employee. Current best practices indicate a waiver should not be signed by a friend of the signee or another guest.
- It should be signed by participants only when they have been given ample time to read and understand it well in advance of the event or activity. Failure to provide enough time may be interpreted by the courts as signing under duress, which would make the contract void and mean that the waiver could not be used as a defence against negligence
The components above are brief summary of what components should be included in waiver documentation; legal counsel should be sought to draft a waiver for specific operation (Importance of Liability Waivers in Recreation Programs, n.d.; Karroll v. Silverstar Resorts, 1988).
Take a Closer Look: Loychuk v. Cougar Mountain Adventures Ltd.
This case illustrates the effectiveness of a waiver program for a tourism operation. It involves two participants in a zip-line tour in Whistler, BC. A mistake made by an employee of Cougar Mountain Adventures resulted in the participants colliding on the zip-line at high speed. Negligence was admitted, but because of the effectiveness of the waiver in both the way it was drafted and delivered, the courts dismissed the claim. The ruling can be found here: Loychuk v. Cougar Mountain Adventures Ltd.
Statutory Requirements for Tourism and Hospitality in BC
All tourism companies must adhere to the laws in the jurisdiction in which they operate. In BC there are certain statutes (laws) that are particularly relevant to tourism and hospitality. These are outlined in brief below.
Hotel Keepers Act
The Hotel Keepers Act allows an accommodation provider to place a lien on guest property for unpaid bills, limits the liability of the hotel keeper when guest property is stolen and/or damaged, and gives the provider the authority to require guests to leave in the event of a disturbance (Hotel Keepers Act, 1996).
Take a Closer Look: Hotel Keepers Act
The Hotel Keepers Act is posted online as a resource for managers and staff at BC accommodation properties. Take a closer look at the act by visiting Hotel Keepers Act.
Hotel Guest Registration Act
The Hotel Guest Registration Act requires hotel keepers to register guests appropriately, which includes noting a guest’s arrival and departure dates, home address, and type and licence number of any vehicle (Hotel Guest Registration Act, 1996).
Liquor Control and Licensing Act
The sales and service of alcohol in BC hospitality establishments is highly regulated by the provincial government through the Liquor Control and Licensing Branch (LCLB).
Spotlight On: BC Liquor and Cannabis Regulation Branch
The Liquor and Cannabis Regulation Branch (LCRB) is responsible for regulation of liquor service, private and public liquor stores, the importing and manufacture of alcoholic products, and distribution of those products. For more information, visit the Liquor and Cannabis Regulation Branch.
Hospitality operators and their staff must be aware of fundamental requirements of the Liquor Control and Licensing Act, which defines the ways in which alcohol can be made, imported, purchased, and consumed in BC. As these requirements change frequently, it is the responsibility of operators and staff to keep up-to-date on the particulars of liquor legislation.
Take a Closer Look: BC Liquor Law Handbook
The Government of BC has put together a handbook of information regarding the selling of liquor. View Liquor Primary Licence: Terms and Conditions [PDF] online.
Travel Industry Regulation
As part of the Business Practices and Consumer Protection Act, the Travel Industry Regulation outlines the requirements for licensing, financial reporting, and the provision of financial security for travel sales. Additionally, it requires licensed travel agents to contribute to the Travel Assurance Fund, which compensates consumers if a travel provider is unable to provide the purchased product due to insolvency (Travel Industry Regulation, 2009).
Occupiers Liability Act
The Occupiers Liability Act specifies the responsibilities of those that occupy a premise such as a house, building, resort, or property to others on their property. It includes a definition of a premise, as well as the duty of care the occupier has to care for the condition of the premises, activities on the premises, and the conduct of other people (third parties) on the premises. It also outlines when occupiers liability is excluded, such as on Crown land or private roads (Occupiers Liability Act, 1996).
Take a Closer Look: Cempel v. Harrison Hot Springs Hotel Ltd.
The legal ruling in this case highlights the responsibility of a hospitality organization under the Occupiers Liability Act to keep premises in safe condition even for trespassers. Ms. Cempel had trespassed onto hotel property, fell into a particularly dangerous hotspring, and suffered severe burns as result. The hotel was found partly responsible for her injuries and was required to pay damages. The ruling can be found here: Cempel v. Harrison Hot Springs Hotel Ltd.
Resort Associations Act
The Resort Associations Act was developed to provide opportunities to fund a variety of promotional services for a resort community. It outlines the organizational structure for the community and allows funding through member fees for activities such as marketing, planning special events, developing signage, and acting as a central booking agency (Resort Associations Act, 1996). To meet the criteria for this Act, resort areas are required to be within a designated resort region, have alpine ski lift operations, and provide year-round recreational facilities or commercial overnight accommodation (Government of BC, 2015).
Spotlight On: The BC Laws Website
All BC statutes are available online at the BC Laws website, operated by the Government of British Columbia. For more information, visit the BC Laws website.
Assault, battery, trespass, false imprisonment, nuisance, and defamation.
Primarily consist of negligence.
Failing to meet a reasonable standard of care toward others despite being required to do so.
Proof the plaintiff did in fact receive an injury resulting in damage; can be bodily injury or property damage.
The relationship between the plaintiff and defendant (monetary, supervisory, custodial or otherwise) that requires a responsibility on behalf of one party to care for the other.
Failure of a defendant to work to the recognized standard.
A strong link between the actions of the defendant and the injury to the plaintiff.
The ability of a person to enter into a legal agreement; depends on the age and mental state of the person (among other factors).
The value exchanged between parties in the contract (money, services, or waiving legal rights).
A document used as risk management technique where the responsibility for the risk is transferred to the participant through contract and voluntary acceptance of risk.
Requires hotel keepers to register guests appropriately, which includes noting the guest’s arrival and departure dates, home address, and type and licence number of any vehicle.
The BC government agency responsible for legislation and control of alcohol and cannabis sales, service, manufacture, import, and distribution in the province.
Defines the ways in which alcohol can be made, imported, purchased, and consumed in BC.
Part of the BC Business Practices and Consumer Protection Act that outlines the requirements for licensing, financial reporting, and the provision of financial security for travel sales.
Specifies responsibilities for those that occupy a premise such as a house, building, resort, or property to others on their property.
Developed to provide opportunities to fund a variety of promotional services for a community; the act defines what it means to be a resort community. | 3,438 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/nnelsintrotourism/chapter/laws-and-regulations/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:47506 | https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/nnelsintrotourism/chapter/laws-and-regulations/ |
QTv8z89vG8GFeJUf | Proportions of pins used in bridges. By Charles Bender. | Pins Used
A portion of this work without the mathematical deductions was presented to the American Society of Civil Engineers, February 19th, 1873.
It is not the least of the merits of skele ton structures, such as are built by the best American constructors, that any of the parts can be exactly calculated. The determina tion of strains acting in pins is not excepted from this statement, though it is connected with the application of some of the finer laws of the theory of elasticity.
All rules referring to the size of pins can
be immediately deduced from the few physical principles on which the theory of elasticity is based, and without new experi ments. On the contrary, sound practice would have further advanced and mistakes been avoided, if, at least, a scientific exami nation of the subject had been undertaken previous to experiment, in order to arrive at a distinct opinion about what confirma tion by test was required of the theory of elasticity. There are three questions to be examined in the present paper, viz. :
ment in any of its sections.
The solution of the first actually includes also that of the third, but it is more con venient to treat the two separately.
of a truss bridge, represented by Fig. 1.
The originally straight pin M M is rest ing on bored bearing surfaces N N, of a top chord casting, and carries two flat eye bars of the width " b " and the thickness " t " placed outside of the casting. This is the arrangement of any pinned bottom chord, or the chains of a suspension bridge, where the outermost bars produce strains analogous to those borne by the parts here shown.
Under strain, the pin M M will be press ed in to the bearings N N, which are sup posed to be of a length B C=l, and of the depth d. Both bearing surfaces E E, be tween pin and bars, will be compressed, and a greater share of the total pressure absorbed by the parts of the pin closest to the face of the casting. The pressure per square unit at E will be greater than at E, and likewise the pressure at B than at C. The pin is supposed to accurately fit into its bearings, and (for the present) friction between the cylindrical bearing surfaces is disregarded.
So far as the half cylindrical bearing sur face or half circle of any cross section of the pin is concerned, the pressure will not be
any more uniformly distributed than is the case for the different points of lines E F and B C. The pressure of a pin with play first will be concentrated at a point, but under the load a set will take place, and the pressure be more uniformly distributed over the diameter r r. The law of this distribution is very complex, and will not be followed up here. It is sufficient for the present to consider the pressure as being uniformly distributed over the diameter of the pin, which,however,is somewhat less than is actually the case. The diameters of pins found under this supposition will be a little too small; reasons will be given for as suming this basis of the calculation.
It may be added that the strain per square inch will not only decrease in a single ratio with the increase of the pin, but that a larger pin will cause a more uni form distribution of the pressure ; the im portance of the least practicable play in the pin hole is evident.
The pressure per square inch is in direct pro portion to the amount of depression ; conse quently the problem is the same as to find the
curve of depression. The curve itself consists of three parts ; the central part H H is circular, be cause the moment of flexure of H and H is of a constant value ; the part G H, which differs from H H as well as from M G, will be examined first. Take the origin of the co-ordinates in the surface B F, in the original centre line of the pin, which at G has received a depression Y o — and for any subsequent abscisses, has a deflection y.
tive value.
The cross section (Fig. 2) of the pin, represents how the deflection y is composed of two parts : one due to the compression of the pin itself, the other to the compression of the bearing, and fit ting to each other. These partial depressions are
square inch, and E and E are the moduli of ten sile elasticity of the material of which respectively the pin and bearing are composed. The total depression consequently will be :
part of the length of the bar.
The pressure Ax multiplied by the width of the bearing, represents the increment of the shearing force, taken per unit of the abscissa ; it therefore depends simply on the value y, and varies with the abscissa ; the law of the curve will be repre sented by an unknown function of y and X.
expressed by the equation
which expressed in words is — the product of the modulus of elasticity E, the moment of inertia I, of the section of the beam (here a pin), and the second differential coefficient of y is equal to the moment of exterior forces Mx taken at the point of abscisses considered.
. It is known from the elementary theory of elas ticity that the first differential coefficient of Mx is the shearing force for the point whose abscissa is x, and that its differential coefficient— the second differential coefficient of Mz is the increment of the shearing strain.
y = Ax eps+An e-^+Bj cosp x-\-'Bll sinpaj. IV. for which the 4 constants must be determined to suit the conditions of the piece G H of the pin. These are :
The four equations a, 6, c, and d are sufficient to calculate Alf A^ Bt and Bllf so that equation IV. is fully developed, and, according to equation
be found.
This somewhat intricate investigation was neces sary to get an idea how the pressure P will be dis tributed. The subsequent example will illustrate the theory of this —
The lever z is very nearly ^ of tht thickness of the bar = ^". The diameter of pin = 3", so that 1=4. L can be assumed to be = 4", I =1", E = 30000000 Ibs. and a =5".
If the pressure in the pin hole were all the constructor has to provide for, the di mensions of the pin and eye-bar might be determined in several ways. In reality, these dimensions are almost fixed, for, as will be shown, to reduce the flexure of the pin, the bearing surface must be short. The rule may be adopted to make the bearing surface B 0 as long as the eye-bar is thick. In this case, the pressure at B will be 12,115 Ibs. whilst at 0 it is only 9,391 Ibs. per square inch for a 3" pin acted upon by a 3" X 1" eye-bar strained to 10,000 Ibs. per square inch.
The maximum pressure is 21 per cent, greater than it would have been if uni formly distributed. The depression at B is 0.0016" and at 0 0.0012", showing the in fluence of a curvature which hardly can be measured even by very fine tools, and gene rally would escape notice. The rise in the centre of the pin between H and H will be
less than 5 X (0.0016—0.0012) = 0.002" — hence it is unnecessary to provide an upper bearing in the centre of the casting if the pin is nearly of the proper propor tion ; the play in the pin hole usually ex ceeds •£% of an inch, which is more than six times greater than the rise of pin between H and H.
The maximum pressure for the standard bearing length equal to one thickness of the eye-bar was by the foregoing calculation 12,115 Ibs. ; for a badly fitting pin it would be much larger, since then it is not uni formly distributed over the diameter of the pin, but concentrated at one point. But for a well fitting pin of large dameter the pressure of 12,000 Ibs. per square inch is not too large ; and for simplicity, it is well to assume that this pressure is uniformly distributed over the diameter of the pin, until at least the effect of "play "in the hole has been directly determined by a large number of experiments on impact.
The later experiments prove conclusively, that wrought-iron after millions of impacts may break on the side where the strain is
tensile, but never on the side where the strain is compressive. Experiments recent ly made in this country as to the crushing strength of wr ought-iron support this obser vation, the ultimate crushing strength hav ing reached 60,000 Ibs. per square inch. This quite disproves conclusions from older experiments carried up to ultimate strength, which led to the belief that iron under compression is weaker than under tension ; which may perhaps be true for very soft metal. But such iron would not show the same behavior when used in a bridge. A properly proportioned bridge, having no section strained to more than 10,000 Ibs. per square inch, will never break from softness of metal in compression, although it may after the passage of millions of trains by the ultimate failure or wearing out of its tension members. This view was always held by the best engineers on the Continent of Europe, and General Morin repeatedly expressed the opinion laid down here.
engineers, can be calculated ; and "all good ones are calculated so that no detail is strained nearly to the limit of durability.
To prove how specially erroneous are conclusions derived from Hodgkinson's ex periments which refer to alleged differences in the compressive strength of wrought and cast iron, results obtained in Prance, and illustrated by General Morin, may be quo ted.
Two cast-iron beams were made of the same metal and with the same height, length, and area. One of these beams was constructed to suit Hodgkinson' s experi ments with a heavy tension and a light compression flange, the two being in the ration of 4-7 to 1 ; the other had two equal flanges, the web was in both beams of the same thickness. The Hodgkinson beams deflected 2f times more than the plainer one ; this ratio according to the theory be ing exactly as that of the moments of iner tia of the cross sections.
The Hodgkinson beam had to stand pres sures more than 5 times greater than those of the other beam. The same results were ar-
rived at by testing rolled wrought-iron beams with unequal flanges, which, when reversed, gave precisely the same deflections. Thus, these two experiments proved that the rules which Mr. Hodgkinson drew from tests up to ultimate strength were useless, to say the least, for parts strained below the elastic limit of the material. Again, to show how unreliable are rules derived from experi ments carried up to ultimate strength, those of Mr. Fairbairn on a riveted girder are re ferred to. They were such as to expose the material to strains nearly in the same man ner as for a railroad bridge. The girder broke under a strain of not more than 18,347 Ibs. per sq. in. after only 5,175 im pacts, and, of course, on the tensile part.
It must be supposed that this girder was of good workmanship, and at least of the average quality of English iron ; and we know that a good wrought-iron bar does not break under strains of 30,000 Ibs. after 130,000,000 of impacts.
The girder was repaired ; when tested under a strain of 13,000 Ibs. per sq. in., it did not break after 2,720,000 impacts. In
accordance with new experiments, probably this girder would have broken after a suffi cient number of impacts, still, evidently from the first experiments, it actually had less than 60 per cent, of what was thought to be the available area.
Since in such girders generally about 20 per cent, of material is wasted in rivet holes, it may be said, though properly designed and constructed according to the rules de rived from experiments on ultimate strength, that when tested in the same manner as in practice, they have lost more than half of the value of their metal. The failure of the Crumlin Viaduct superstructure is an other and more direct illustration in proof that experiments to the ultimate strength cannot be relied on in deducing rules for the proportions of pins in bridges.
This failure was due to pins proportioned by a rule derived from experiments on the ultimate shearing strength of rivets. Such rules, applicable to boilers or ships where the ultimate strength must be taken into account, cannot be safely used to determine the proper diameter of a pin. One of their
defects is that no allowance is made for pressure in the hole, which frequently is 2 J times the strain calculated to be uniformly distributed over the cross section.
Rivets, on account of friction caused by their heads, transfer a portion of this pres sure to the outer surface at the plates they join together, and therefore do not give strikingly bad results in practice.
place.
The deduction of rules for pins from the condition of rivets is not the only empiricism in regard to the former. In Germany, on occasion of the erection of suspension bridges, Engineer Malberg made trials of links which gave results agreeing with those obtained later in England. Though the German proportions were published, it seems they did not receive attention abroad, or else the English experiments would probably not have been made. As far as value is concerned, neither set of trials should be relied on.
Specifications for our bridges require
consideration only of a maximum direct strain under the heaviest load which the structure may bear. This condition, with reference to pins, can readily be fulfilled by examining analytically the nature of their strains. A pin is nothing but a beam, and since a great variety of experiments, made on beams, prove that within the limits of elasticity the theory adopted is not less cor rect than that of the law of gravitation to the movements of the planets, what re mains to be done is : only to find theoreti cally the maximum strains at different points of the pin. Recourse, however, was had to empirical researches, and tests were made which could not show the nature of the strains under loads such as occur in practice. Thus the first experimental English rule made no allowance for pres sure and flexure, but referred solely for the shearing strain which was supposed to be uniformly distributed over the cross section of the pin. It is plain that at the elastic limit the science of strains ends, since this depends -on the principle, " ut tensio sic vis."
shearing strain of pins.
The rule, moreover, has been frequently misapplied as to pins of suspension bridge chains, which have been considered as sub jected to double shearing, although the outer bars always cause but single shear ing, and also not unfrequently to bottom chord pins, where likewise the outside bars cause but single shearing.
This rule regarding exclusively the shear ing strength of a pin was used until the failure of the Crumlin Viaduct, and ex perience gained with suspension bridges (such as built at Montrose in Scotland, where the pins in a few years cut their way almost through the eyes) caused engineers to make other trials referring to the strength of eyes and the bearing surface of pins. These experiments were with wide and thin bars, as used in suspension bridges, but not in truss bridges, of good design. In this case the eye of the bar, placed between two links or the jaws of the machine, acts on the pin by double shear ; the action is
the same with a bar as wide as the one tested but one half as thick, placed outside of the bottom chord of a truss bridge.
The new rule deduced, fixing the diam eter of the pin from f to f of the width of the eye bar, contains no provision for the thickness of the bar, and applies to the case where the bar is 20 times as wide as thick and the pin is subjected to single shearing. Whether this rule applies to a square bar is more than doubtful for two reasons. First : Under a test up to ultimate strength the pin will flatten, the bearing surface of the eye will be increased and receive a remarkable permanent set, and the now tightly fitting pin will exert a great radial pressure on the pin hole, which causes friction that may be nearly as great as itself, since under high pressure friction increases greatly.
A pin in a bridge is used quite differently ; the bearing surface is much less, the pin hole will flatten but little, and the pin would wear out the hole in a comparatively short time if made to conform solely to experi ments on the ultimate strength. It seems to follow from such experiments that the
pressure on the bearing surface could be considered as uniformly distributed over the semicircular surface instead of through the diameter of the pin. This cannot be cor rect for a pin which in practice has a play of •ffV'h to ^jd of an inch, and which ought not to be pressed more than about 12,000 Ibs. per sq. in. Second : The latest Eng lish rule does not take account of the thick ness of the bar, and of the moment of flex ure to which the pin is exposed. This has been already alluded to, and is really the leading point in determining the size of a pin ; the dimensions which satisfy this con dition will also satisfy the two others.
Having thus explained why experimental reseaches have not as yet established practic able rules for pins, the examination of shear ing strains with reference to pins, a subject which has not been sufficiently discussed in many text-books, will be considered.
The theory of flexure teaches that the shearing strain is not uniformly distributed over the cross section; consequently the
maximum shearing strain must exceed the strains which could exist if uniformly distrib uted. To show the amount of their difference : Figure 3 represents a part of a bent beam ; C E and D Ex must be two imaginary sections across it, and V V, a sur face parallel to the neutral surface G B.
The question is what forces keep the body GDVYi in equilibrium. The mo ment of flexure at A generally differs from
the moment at B, which, in this examina tion, is supposed to be the greater. The consequence is that the maximum strain per square inch at D is greater than at C. These strains per square inch at D and 0 may be represented by the letters Ax and A. The strain per square inch in any point
the same ratio as the point approaches the neutral line. The sum of all the strains of the surface C Y is partly counteracted by those of the surface D Y, the last named sum being the greater. It consequently needs a shearing force S, acting in the di rection of A, to resist the forces in the di rection of AX-
Kepresent by V any distance G Y and by u the width oo, then that for the distance V— VG and the total shearing strain can be represented oy
If the sections C G and D B approach each other closely, the shearing strain must be con sidered as being uniformly distributed over the surface W and the strain per square inch will be;
The values A and Al can be derived from their respective moments M and Mx so that when I rep resents the moment of inertia of the cross-section
lu J
For v = 0, (j will be a maximum, which is the case for the neutral line itself, whilst the integral decreases to nothing at the point D. For a pin, the section is a circle, and u*-}-^ v* =cZ8, d being the diameter of the pin, and the maximum shear ing strain will be found :
The higher and more accurate examina tion proves that the shearing strain also is not uniformly distributed over the lines oo, that the absolute maximum shearing strain is in the centre of the pin, and is exactly If times larger than it would be if the shearing force were uniformly dis tributed over the whole section.
There is but a step from the longitudi nal to the vertical shearing strain. That both are equal in every point of the beam, (on the pin) can readily be seen by con sidering the infinitely small hexahedron of Figure 4.
This body could not remain in equili brium if the horizontal shearing force, a, were not prevented from turning the figure Al3 CMD around point B, by the vertical shearing force a, which works with the lever B A, to turn the figure A B C D the other way. A B being == B C = the units, the vertical and horizontal shearing force must be equal. This law is a general one suitable for any body.
Now it has been proved that the shearing maxima strains which act in the centre of a pin, both horizontally and vertically, are If- times larger than if it were possible to distribute the total shearing force V uni formly over the cross-section. The value V reaches its maximum just at the facing of the casting, and is equal to the total tension of the eye-bar.
How large can the shearing strain o be, without exceeding the ordinary requirement for iron bridges, that no tensile strain shall be greater than 10,000 Ibs. per square inch ? In answering this, attention is called to Figure 4.
tends to slide an infinitely thin slice of a
body along its section, as for instance, the surface A B parallel to C D, into the new position A0 B0. The absolute value of the emplacement A A0 depends on different causes :
Firstly on the shearing strain a itself.
Secondly on the distance A D between ATB and c D, for a surface parallel to C D, midway between A and D would only slide half as far as A B. This law is true, since within the limits of elasticity all displace ments increase in direct and single ratio with the lengths.
Since o is a finite value like G-, the angle A D A0 is also of a definite value. This angle is the test of shearing strain, so that wherever an angle has changed from right, a pair of shearing strains must have caused it.
is called the modulus of shearing elasticity, and represents the weight which, if the limits of elasticity would reach thus far, were sufficient to slide a surface so far that the angle A D A0 would become 45 deg.
A shearing strain can always be resolved into tensions and compressions acting in all possible directions on a point in the interior of a strained body.
In Figure 5, 0 represents a point of a body, A AX the shearing deplacement of the infinitely near point A. 0 x parallel A A! is made first axis of the system of co ordinates.
For a perfectly homogeneous body by experiment and calculation, G is found to =| E, so that the maximum tension which accompanies any shearing strain in such a body (good iron or steel, but not wood) will
Ibs. per sq. in.
It lias been shown that in the centre of any pin the shearing strain is If times greater than if the shearing force were uni formly distributed over the cross section, hence the pin must be proportioned to with stand a uniformly distributed shearing force of If times the actual one ; in other words,
If this condition is observed the tension in the centre of the pin acting at 45 deg. to its axis will be not more than 10,000 Ibs. per sq. in.
This condition determines that in the neutral axis of the pin the shearing strains, tensions, and compressions shall not exceed
The rule would apply if another amount, as 12,000 or 15,000, were prescribed. The limit of shearing strain should in such a case be raised correspondingly, by still making the pin section If times the section of the bar.
It will, however, be seen that considera tion of the shearing strain alone is not suf ficient to properly proportion a pin.
The results obtained thus far depend on the modulus, G being f of E for a homoge neous body as good iron or steel. This as sertion must now be proved. By purely mathematical investigation, Navier, then Cauchy, Dienger, and others found that any pressure on a perfectly homogeneous body is accompanied by an expansion or lateral tension equal to J of the pres sure per sq. in., and the tension accom panied by lateral compression equal to J the value of the tension. Rude exper iments with india-rubber prove the exist ence of lateral compression or tension, and those made by Wertheim and Begnauld
confirm the theory sufficiently, the coeffi cient differing somewhat with the degree of homogeneity of the bodies under test. For iron, Wertheim found J, and sometimes a little more, but not so much as to cause a change in the modulus to exceed 1J per cent. Therefore, without entering into the analytical investigations of Navier, etc., it may be assumed that for well-rolled wrought iron the lateral contraction or expansion is J the longitudinal tension or pressure.
dron, which of infinitely small sides is as sumed to be acted upon by two tensional forces T, equally distributed over the sur faces indicated in the figure by the lines AB and oT>.
The angle BOO was originally 90 deg., but now it is more and the increase may be represented by the letter e. If B 0 C in crease, the angles 0 C B and 0 B C decrease each one-half the amount of E.
The value S can also be found by a second consideration. If the prism A B D is in equilibrium, the force T, will be counteract ed by a shearing force S, and a tensional force perpendicular to diagonal B D.
The projection of the total force acting on the surface, which is represented by the line A B, on the diagonal B D, must equal the total shearing force acting on the sur face of the prism represented by line B D, or
G 4 E 5
This is the equation upon which the rule was based that the section of a pin must be at least If times the section of the bar, to keep the tension caused by the shearing strain below the limit generally prescribed. To many engineers the above deductions may be new, and it is therefore desirable to dwell for a few moments on the conclusions which may be derived therefrom. It has been mentioned that "Wertheim and Eegnauld made several series of experiments, by which they established that the factor of lateral contraction does most sufficiently correspond with the moduli E and G, as found by tensionaland torsional experiments.
The theory of strains has received very valuable proofs by Chief Engineer Woehler, in Germany. He made experiments on impact, on tension, compression, torsion, etc.,
during 12 years. He first established the law that any material may be brSfe&t repeating sufficiently often extensions, which, however, cause strains below the breaking point, and he then determined certain limits of strain within which the material did not break. Further experi ments on torsion and other more direct chearing strains confirmed the same law, but established that this limit must neces sarily be lower then for direct strains.
Cast-steel, cut from railway axles furnish ed by Krupp, has not broken after 40,000,000 impacts, straining the material trans versely to 53,000 Ibs. Nor could this steel be broken by any number of impacts caus ing shearing strains of 42,000 Ibs. per square inch. All strains higher than these produced rupture after a sufficient number of impacts ; and there seemed to exist a cer tain relation between the number of im pacts and the value of the strain. We may therefore call 53,000 Ibs. the limit of dura bility for tensile, and 42,000 Ibs. the limit
reality it was as 1 : 0.793.
The tensile modulus of this steel was ex perimented on, and fixed at 28,725,000 Ibs., while the shearing modulus, found by very careful torsional experiments, was 11,237,000 Ibs. Their ratio, according to theory, ought to be as 5 : 2. — when the result of the experiment proved it to be as 5 : 1.95.
The quoted results refer only to a very small part of the experiments, which were extended to copper, and wrought and castiron of different makes ; all gave results in good harmony with theory, and as they were made to test the material in the same manner as in practice, they prove that, within the limits for which the theory holds good, we can well rely on it with this proviso — that for riveted, forged or machine-worked parts, experiments should be made of each class of material, by which alone a correct idea as to their strength and endurance can be formed. The older ex-
periments, made on strains beyond the limits of durability of the material, or not with acting in the same manner as in prac tice, or carried to the ultimate point of failure, could not possibly lead to any law or reliable formula, because the phenomena beyond the elastic limit cannot be followed up by even the highest analysis, and pos sibly do not conform to any law.
Frequently, as a consequence of the older views, the effects of shearing, torsional, compressive, and tensile strains and strength, are spoken of as so many different pheno mena without relation to each other, while in reality in every point of any strained body there exist shearing, tensile, and com pressive strains at the same time.
Referring to the object of this paper, it may be added that experiments on the ultimate shearing strength show that the results greatly depend on the way they are obtained, in some cases the shearing strength being found as great as the tensile strength, and in other cases only two-thirds of it.
bridge is assumed at 10,000 Ibs. per square inch, the greatest shearing strain ought not to exceed 8,000 Ibs. This is far within the limit of durability of good iron under ten sion, which after 132,000,000 of impacts was established at 33,000 Ibs. per square inch.
Having now determined the fundamental laws of elasticity which enter into the prob lem of the shearing strains in a pin, and also having given the data necessary in estimating the maximum pressure that can be allowed in the pin-hole, a more impor tant consideration remains, the nature of the strain caused by the moment of flexure of the pin is still to be examined.
Attention is called to Figure 1, represent ing the strains upon a pin either in a top chord of a truss bridge, at the exterior links of a bottom chord, or of chain suspen sion bridges. The question is where to find the maximum moment of flexure ?
It is a very common mistake to assume that the maximum moment is in section F B, when, instead, it occurs in section H C. For by reversing Fig. 1 it will be
seen that the problem is the same as if a beam, G G, were loaded on both sides from G to H, leaving a space H H unloaded, and that the two eye-bars form the supports of such a beam.
Consequently the moment must have a constant value from H to H, and the maxi mum moment must exist in any section of the pin between H and H.
The pressure on B C for the present pur pose can be considered as uniformly dis tributed, and the strain of the eye-bar assumed as being concentrated in D, which is in the middle of line M G. The reac tion likewise is then concentrated in the middle of B C, which, according to pre vious considerations, is made to be equal to MG.
In fact the centre of the reactionary forces is a little closer to B than to 0, but the difference is very small, as long as the bearing is not longer than the bar is thick.
This supposition leads to the smallest possible pin, and when the bearing surface is made longer, the pin must be stronger, while the pressure in the pin hole at the
there will be the maximum moment = P . M G = the strain of the eye-bar multi plied by the thickness of the bar as lever.
developed.
This value for any length P of B C would give the exact moment and strain which a pin has to bear, its diameter being assumed previously
M G it is still greater. If tlie size of the pin were calculated under this erroneous sup position, the actual strain would be twice or more than twice as large as was intended. There is no shearing strain and no compres sion by reaction in the section C H and the tension in the uppermost fibres could be used for the determination of the size of pins.
thickness of bar.
These sizes of pins are so large as to ex clude entirely the consideration of shearing strain and of pressure in the pin-hole, but it may be justifiable to permit greater strains from flexure than has been prescribed for the maximum tension of the tie-bar. In-
deed there are reasons for this considera tion. 1st. It is impossible to equally strain all bottom chord bars to exactly the speci fied limit ; some bars will receive tension exceeding 10,000 Ibs. per square inch, as will be explained hereafter. Also when several bars are fixed to the same pin it cannot be expected that they severally will have equal moduli of elasticity, hence the prescribed maximum of 10,000 Ibs. may be exceeded.
2d. The eye-bars have been shaped by a process of manufacture, which under all circumstances somewhat impairs the uni form quality of the iron.
3d. A pin has not been exposed to fire after having been rolled ; if turned to size with good machinery, and by a skilful workman, its quality has not been altered ; hence the iron of which it is made is rnor.e reliable than that of any other part of the structure.
Under these suppositions, it is thought safe to permit a maximum tension of 12,000 Ibs. per square inch, which is not more than
the maximum pressure in the pin-hole as determined in the first part of this paper. The results of the calculation brought to practical dimensions, are represented in the following table :
thickness -J- of their width, or less than this. The use of this rule for a square bar would permit a maximum strain of more than 60,000 Ibs. per square inch, if the condi tions did not change by the action of the nut when a permanent set takes place, and a pin of 1£" diameter for a 2" X 1" bar, would permit a maximum tension of nearly 50,000 Ibs.
the importance of properly proportioned
pins, and that the best American bridge constructors are wise in using dimensions varying but little from those found above.*
Indeed for a considerable time the more scientific engineers of this country have strengthened by degrees their bridge con nections, and by combining practical ex perience with theoretical considerations the theoretical dimensions have been nearly reached. European engineers by using riveted work have not had an opportunity to obtain this result. This affords a reason why in many late books the subject of pins is not treated more scientifically.
The practical bridge builder, when de signing a structure, sometimes finds it diffi cult to fulfil the conditions of theory and manufacture which more or less contradict each other. However, the heavier tie bars which carry the greater part of the dead load are not so much influenced by the live load, which is the really destructive element,
* Mr. Thos. C. Clarke, of Philadelphia, stated in a recent letter to the American Society of Civil Engineers, that in the bridges of the Phoenix Bridge Co., nearly the same diameters as given in the last table are used.
stronger than necessary.
The diameter of top chord pins can be reduced by making them what is called double shearing, a bearing being placed on each side of each bar; the diameter can then be determined as if the bar had only -j-%- at its thickness.
It has been seen how necessary it is to use the proper size of pin in the top chords, which is more especially true for pins bearing more than one bar. In this case the sum of the bending moments produced by the several bars must be introduced in the for mula for the tensile strain by flexure.
Great care is also required in properly proportioning the pins of bottom chords of bridges. Generally here the pin takes hold of the post, directly to it are attached the ties, outside of which the bottom bars are arranged. Here the greatest moment of the pin is near the bottom bar next to the tie. It is an accumulation arising from the some times great number of bars. In order to form a more precise idea of the strains
amine a practical example.
Suppose the three equally strained bot tom bars 3 in-X^ in-> 3 bars 8 in-XH m-> and a tie 3 in-X^ m* are on the same pin on one side of the post of the bridge. The maximum moment will be 5.1 in.X10>000 Ibs., and the maximum tensional strain by flexure 12,100 Ibs., whilst the pressure in the pin hole will be found to be 8,570 Ibs , resulting in a tension of 14,200 Ibs.
Suppose, in reference to the above ex ample, that three 2 in. square bottom bars w^ere counteracted by three If in. square bars and the tie. For a 3 in. pin the ten sile strain by flexure would amount to 25,000 Ibs. Of course neither this nor the above strain of 14,200 Ibs. will really exist in the pin. The fact will be that the pins bend a little toward the centre of the bridge, and the bars near to the centre line of the bottom chord will bear a greater share of the chord strain, relieving the outer bars.
The difference will be the greater, the smaller the pin ; the greater the difference in size of bars, the thicker the bars, and the shorter will be the panels.
The difficulty of reducing the strains of bottom pins to the strain of the bars in creases with the magnitude of the bridge, and may partly be met by increasing the number of flat and thin bars, making up for the difference in tension in two adjoin ing panels rather by the number than by the size of the bars, and especially by using the proper size of pin.
Another way to meet the difficulty con sists in creating two centre lines in the bot tom chord, by placing a proper number of chord bars between the ties, by using two posts, or by constructing a properly built post foot. For small bridges these costly arrangements can be dispensed with. Flat bars, in preference to round or square ones, are in all cases to be recommended. The Baltimore Bridge Company, for instance, always use such, and it seems that other constructors have recently adopted the same, to the exclusion of round bars.
Pins used in chain suspension bridges, the bars being all of equal section, have to resist only a small moment ; their propor tions follow the rule for top pins.
As a conclusion to which the foregoing examination perhaps has led, it may be mentioned that it is easier to calculate the general strains of skeleton structures than to design t details, which, satisfying the practical demands of economical, speedy, and reliable manufacture, are also in harmony with the more subtle ones concerning their proportions.
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HOLLEY. A Treatise on Ordnance and Armor, em bracing descriptions, discussions, and professional opinions concerning the materials, fabrication, re quirements, capabilities, and endurance of European and American Guns, for Naval, Sea Coast, and Iron Clad Warfare, and their Rifling, Projectiles, and Breech-Loading; also, results of experiments against armor, from official records, with an appendix refer ring to Gun Cotton, Hooped Guns, etc., etc. By Alexander L. Holley, B. P., 948 pages, 493 engrav ings, and 747 Tables of Results, etc., 8vo, half roan, xo oo
SIMMS. A Treatise on the Principles and Practice of Levelling, showing its application to purposes of Railway Engineering and the Construction of Roads, &c. By Frederick W. Simms, C. E. From the sth London edition, revised and corrected, with the addi tion of Mr. Laws's Practical Examples for setting out Railway Curves. Illustrated with three Litho graphic plates and numerous wood cuts. 8vo, cloth. $2 50
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THE PLANE TABLE. Its uses in Topographical Surveying, from the Papers of the U. S. Coast Sur vey. Illustrated, 8vo, cloth 200
JEFFER'S. Nautical Surveying: By W. N. Jeffers, Captain U. S. Navy. Illustrated with 9 copperplates and 31 wood cut illustrations. 8vo, cloth 5 oo
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BRUNNOW. Spherical Astronomy. By F. Brunnow, Hh. Dr. Translated by the author from the second German edition. 8vo, cloth 6 50
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COFFIN. Navigation and Nautical Astronomy. Pre pared for the use of the U. S. Naval Academy. By Prof. J. H. C. Coffin. Fifth edition. 52 wood cut illus trations. i2mo, cloth 3 50
CLARK. Theoretical Navigation and Nautical Astron omy. By Lieut. Lewis Clark, U. S. N. Illustrated with 41 wood cuts. 8vo, cloth $3 oo
HASKINS. The Galvanometer and its Uses. A Man ual for Electricians and Students. By C. H. Haskins. 1 21110, pocket form, morocco. (In press)
GOUGE. New System of Ventilation, which has been thoroughly tested, under the patronage of many dis tinguished persons. By Henry A. Gouge. With » many illustrations. 8vo, cloth 200
BECKWITH. Observations on the Materials and Manufacture of Terra-Cotta, Stone Ware, Fire Brick, Porcelain and Encaustic Tiles, with remarks on the products exhibited at the London International Exhi bition, 1871. By Arthur Beckwith, C. E. 8vo, paper 60
MORFIT. A Practical Treatise on Pure Fertilizers, and the chemical conversipn of Rock Guano, Marlstones, Coprolites, and the Crude Phosphates of Lime and Alumina generally, into various valuable products. By Campbell Mornt, M.D., with 28 illustrative plates, 8vo, cloth 20 oa
BARNARD. The Metric System of Weights and Measures. An address delivered before the convoca tion of the University of the State of New York, at Albany, August, 1871. By F. A. P. Barnard, LL.D., President of Columbia College, New York. Second edition from the revised edition, printed for the Trus tees of Columbia College. Tinted paper, 8vo, cloth 3 oo
. Report on Machinery and Processes on the In dustrial Arts and Apparatus of the Exact Sciences. By F. A. P. Barnard, LL.D. Paris Universal Ex position, 1867. Illustrated, 8vo, cloth 5 oo
BARLOW. Tables of Squares, Cubes, Square Roots, Cube Roots, Reciprocals of all integer numbers up frc 10,000. New edition, i2mo, cloth 250
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WILLIAMSON. Practical Tables in Meteorology and Hypsometry, in connection with the use of the Bar ometer. By CoL R. S. Williamson, U. S- A. 410, cloth 2 50
THE YOUNG MECHANIC. Containing directions for the use of all kinds of tools, and for the construc tion of Steam Engines and Mechanical Models, in cluding the Art of Turning in Wood and Metal. By the author " The Lathe and its Uses," etc. From the English edition with corrections. Illustrated, i2mo, cloth i 75
PICKERT AND METCALF. The Art of Graining. How Acquired and How Produced, with description of colors, and their application. By Charles Pickert and Abraham Metcalf. Beautifully illustrated with 42 tinted plates of the various woods used in interior finishing. Tinted paper, 4to, cloth 10 oo
HUNT. Designs for the Gateways of the Southern En trances to the Central Park. By Richard M. Hunt. With a description of the designs. 4to. cloth 500
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PETERS. Notes on the Origin, Nature, Prevention, and Treatment of Asiatic Cholera. By John C. Peters, M. D. Second edition, with an Appendix.
BOYNTON. History of West Point, its Military Im portance during the American Revolution, and the Origin and History of the U. S. Military Academy. By Bvt Major C. E. Boynton, A.M., Adjutant of the Military Academy. Second edition, 416 pp. 8yo, printed on tinted paper, beautifully illustrated with 36 maps and fine engravings, chiefly from photo graphs taken on the spot by the author. Extra cloth $3 50
WOOD. West Point Scrap Book, being a collection of Legends, Stories, Songs, etc., of the U. S. Military Academy. By Lieut. O. E. Wood, U. S. A. Illus trated by 69 engravings and a copperplate map. Beautifully printed on tinted paper. 8vo, cloth 5 oo
WEST POINT LIFE. A Poem read before the Dia lectic Society of the United States Military Academy. Illustrated with Pen-and-ink Sketches. By a Cadet To which is added the song, " Benny Havens, oh 1" oblong 8vo, 21 full page illustrations, cloth 2 50
cloth, flexible i oo
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HAMERSLY. Records of Living Officers of the U. S. Navy and Marine Corps. Compiled from official sources. ^ By Lewis B. Hamersly, late Lieutenant U. S. Marine Corps. Revised edition, 8vo, cloth... 5 oo
MOORE. Portrait Gallery of the War. Civil, Military and Naval. A Biographical record, edited by Frank Moore. 60 fine portraits on steel. Royal 8vo, cloth 6 oo
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sHpuPZapEh5PNGzQ | From College to Career: A Handbook for Student Writers | 54 Understanding the Assignment
Robin Jeffrey; Jenn Kepka; and Melissa Elston
Learning Objectives
- Understand expectations for writing essays in an academic setting.
- Identify the unique requirements for assignments depending on discipline and instructor.
Assignment analysis and drafting
We need to complete one more step in the analysis before we get down to writing the paper itself. However, before we move to this, it’s important to consider whether a paper is what’s being required.
Some faculty may ask for composition that happens not only in writing. Look for prompts that allow for different types of response, like a video, or a slideshow, a collage, or a podcast. This is sometimes referred to as multimodal composition, and you can find more information about how to analyze and respond to these assignments in Chapter 4.
Analyzing the requirements of the assignment
One of the first questions instructors usually get about an assignment is, “How long does it have to be?”, followed swiftly by, “When is it due?” These are important considerations in any assignment, but they shouldn’t define what you write about — until you’ve fully analyzed your assignment.
Once we understand the topic, have a question to answer, and know who we’re writing to and why, it’s time to figure out how much we can say. This is defined both by length requirements and time constraints.
These can take a little unpacking, too.
Considering required length
Some papers will require a set length, say three to five pages or 1,000 words. Almost all word processors will count words, lines, and pages for you. Watch the language of these requirements carefully. Here are some questions to ask about an instructor’s required length:
- For page limits, are the pages single- or double-spaced? (If not, check; most college papers will be double-spaced, but some writing classes, such as business classes, will require different formats).
- Is there a required font size? (If not, assume 12-point font will be used).
- Does the page limit include reference pages? For instance, if I write a three-page paper but have a one-page list of sources, does the instructor consider this a four-page paper or a three-page paper? (Usually, source pages do NOT count into page limits or word counts).
- Does the assignment require any tables, charts, or illustrations, and will they count into the overall length? (Don’t assume that they do!)
- If a paper has only one limit, is it a minimum, maximum, or strict limit? For example, if you’re asked to write a four-page paper, does that mean you have to write AT LEAST four pages, AT MOST four pages, or EXACTLY four pages? It will make a big difference!
Once you’ve figured out how many pages you need, look at the other requirements for the paper. Some papers will ask you to use a specific model for formatting. Sometimes, these will be provided by the instructor. At other times, you’ll be expected to understand how to use a formatting style like MLA (Modern Language Association), APA (American Psychological Association), or Chicago Style.
- You can find resources about each of these three major writing “styles” in online: One very good resource is About Writing, another open (free) text that describes basic research and citation styles. the sidebar. Each type has slightly different formatting requirements, and each type requires a writer to use citations of outside work in a different way.
- If you’re not provided with a certain style to work with, either check with your instructor or default to MLA Style, as it is what’s taught in most writing/English classes.
These styles will tell you where to place page numbers, titles, and headings, and they’ll also tell you what the required margin spacing will be on each page.
Further requirements
The next requirement to consider is whether outside research is required, encouraged, or prohibited. Outside research is any work you need to do beyond your class textbooks and lecture. Considering how much research you’ll need to do is something we’ll discuss later, but it’s important to keep in mind that finding good, college-level sources will require time, as well as a more complex process than you may expect. It’s far more than just a Google search! You’ll also have to leave time to create a works cited page for all of the sources you use.
Using the deadline
Finally, we have to consider our timeline.
Most of us immediately consider the timeline in terms of our own schedule. How soon is the paper due? What do I need to accomplish before then? What else is going on that might slow my work down?
Knowing how long a paper needs to be and how much time we have to work on it can also help us narrow our question. That way, we don’t end up trying to answer a question that’s too big — meaning, a question that could only be answered by writing a book. We may also need to broaden our question sometimes, when the question we’re asking is so short it could be answered in only a few sentences.
Finally, remember to leave yourself not just time to write, but time to research, as well. Planning to complete a paper the night before its due assumes that everything else in your work (and life) will be going perfectly, allowing you uninterrupted time and space to finish the paper. If that’s not how your life usually goes, think about getting started early, and working on a first draft that you make “due” several days in advance, so that there’s always time to correct (and a cushion in case of emergency).
Determining the purpose
The wording of an assignment should suggest its purpose. Any of the following might be expected of you in a college writing assignment:
- Summarizing information
- Analyzing ideas and concepts
- Taking a position and defending it
- Combining ideas from several sources and creating your own original argument.
Understanding how to answer the assignment
College writing assignments will ask you to answer a how or why question – questions that can’t be answered with just facts. For example, the question “What are the names of the presidents of the US in the last twenty years?” needs only a list of facts to be answered. The question “Who was the best president of the last twenty years and why?” requires you to take a position and support that position with evidence.
Sometimes, a list of prompts may appear with an assignment. Remember, your instructor will not expect you to answer all of the questions listed. They are simply offering you some ideas so that you can think of your own questions to ask.
Recognizing implied questions
A prompt may not include a clear ‘how’ or ‘why’ question, though one is always implied by the language of the prompt. For example:
“Discuss the effects of the No Child Left Behind Act on special education programs” is asking you to write how the act has affected special education programs.
“Consider the recent rise of autism diagnoses” is asking you to write why the diagnoses of autism are on the rise.
Recognizing disciplinary expectations
Depending on the discipline in which you are writing, different features and formats of your writing may be expected. In writing studies, we call these features conventions. Always look closely at key terms and vocabulary in the writing assignment, and be sure to note what type of evidence and citations style your instructor expects.
Adapted from About Writing: A Guide by Robin Jeffrey, CC BY 4.0
Adapted from Better Writing from the Beginning by Jenn Kepka, CC BY 4.0 | 1,657 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://utsa.pressbooks.pub/fromcollegetocareer/chapter/understanding-the-assignment/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:95993 | https://utsa.pressbooks.pub/fromcollegetocareer/chapter/understanding-the-assignment/ |
q-mesPDvRXML2_53 | The Human Race | Produced by Chris Curnow, Harry Lamé and the Online
Transcriber’s Notes:
Text in italics in the original work has been transcribed between
underscores, as in _text_. Text printed in small capitals in the
original work has been transcribed in ALL CAPITALS. Superscript
letters have been transcribed as ^{x} for supersctipt x.
Depending on the hard- and software used, not all characters and
symbols used in this text may display properly.
More Transcriber’s Notes may be found at the end of this text.
THE
HUMAN RACE.
_P. Sellier, p.^{t}_
_Imp. Dupuy, 22, R. des Petits Hôtels_
_G. Regamey, lith._
NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN
SOUTH AMERICAN INDIAN
RED RACE]
THE
HUMAN RACE.
BY
LOUIS FIGUIER.
ILLUSTRATED BY
TWO HUNDRED AND FORTY-THREE ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD,
AND EIGHT CHROMOLITHOGRAPHS.
NEW YORK:
D. APPLETON AND CO., BROADWAY.
1872.
LONDON:
BRADBURY, EVANS, AND CO., PRINTERS, WHITEFRIARS.
CONTENTS.
INTRODUCTION.
PAGE
CHAPTER I.--Definition of Man--How he differs from other Animals--
Origin of Man--In what parts of the Earth did he first appear?--Unity
of Mankind, evidence in support--What is understood by species in
Natural History--Man forms but one species, with its varieties or
kinds--Classification of the Human Race 1
CHAPTER II.--General characteristics of the human race--Organic
characteristics--Senses and the nervous system--Height--Skeleton--
Cranium and face--Colour of the skin--Physiological functions--
Intellectual characteristics--Properties of human intelligence--
Languages and literature--Different states of society--Primitive
industry--The two ages of prehistoric humanity 21
THE WHITE RACE.
CHAPTER I.
EUROPEAN BRANCH 41
TEUTONIC FAMILY 41
LATIN FAMILY 66
SLAVONIAN FAMILY 113
GREEK FAMILY 149
CHAPTER II.
ARAMEAN BRANCH 163
LIBYAN FAMILY 163
SEMITIC FAMILY 183
PERSIAN FAMILY 190
GEORGIAN FAMILY 203
CIRCASSIAN FAMILY 203
THE YELLOW RACE.
CHAPTER I.
HYPERBOREAN BRANCH 206
LAPP FAMILY 206
SAMOIEDE FAMILY 209
KAMTSCHADALE FAMILY 209
ESQUIMAUX FAMILY 211
TEMISIAN FAMILY 217
JUKAGHIRITE AND KORIAK FAMILIES 217
CHAPTER II.
MONGOLIAN BRANCH 218
MONGOL FAMILY 218
TUNGUSIAN FAMILY 223
YAKUT FAMILY 223
TURKISH FAMILY 229
CHAPTER III.
SINAIC BRANCH 254
CHINESE FAMILY 256
JAPANESE FAMILY 302
INDO-CHINESE FAMILY 324
THE BROWN RACE.
CHAPTER I.
HINDOO BRANCH 336
HINDOO FAMILY 339
MALABAR FAMILY 354
CHAPTER II.
ETHIOPIAN BRANCH 355
ABYSSINIAN FAMILY 355
FELLAN FAMILY 363
CHAPTER III.
MALAY BRANCH 365
MALAY FAMILY 365
POLYNESIAN FAMILY 380
MICRONESIAN FAMILY 400
THE RED RACE.
CHAPTER I.
SOUTHERN BRANCH 407
ANDIAN FAMILY 407
PAMPEAN FAMILY 419
GUARANY FAMILY 433
CHAPTER II.
NORTHERN BRANCH 452
SOUTHERN FAMILY 452
NORTH-EASTERN FAMILY 460
NORTH-WESTERN FAMILY 492
THE BLACK RACE.
CHAPTER I.
WESTERN BRANCH 495
CAFFRE FAMILY 495
HOTTENTOT FAMILY 498
NEGRO FAMILY 500
CHAPTER II.
EASTERN BRANCH 518
PAPUAN FAMILY 518
ANDAMAN FAMILY 531
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
RED RACE: NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN, SOUTH AMERICAN INDIAN
THE WHITE RACE.
FIG. PAGE
1.--MEN AND WOMEN OF ANATOLIA 5
2.--SAMOIEDES OF THE NORTH CAPE 7
WHITE OR CAUCASIAN RACE: SCANDINAVIAN, GREEK
3.--WAKE OF ICELANDIC PEASANTS IN A BARN 42
4.--WOMEN OF STAVANGER, NORWAY 43
5.--CITIZEN OF STAVANGER 44
6.--COSTUMES OF THE TELEMARK (NORWAY) 45
7.--WOMEN OF CHRISTIANSUND (NORWAY) 46
8.--BOY AND GIRL OF THE LAWERGRAND (NORWAY) 47
9, 10.--SUABIANS (STUTTGARD) 48
11, 12.--SUABIANS (STUTTGARD) 50
13.--BAVARIANS 52
14.--BADENERS 53
15.--ENGLISHMAN 63
16.--DRUIDS, GAULS, AND FRANKS 70
17.--FRENCHMAN 75
18.--CATTLE-DEALER OF CORDOVA 81
19.--NATIVES OF TOLEDO 83
20.--SPANISH PEASANT 84
21.--A MADRID WINE-SHOP 85
22.--SPANISH LADY AND DUENNA 88
23.--THE FANDANGO 89
24.--THE BOLERO 91
25.--FISH VENDORS AT OPORTO 92
26.--ROMAN PEASANT GIRL 94
27.--ROMAN PEASANTS 95
28.--YOUNG GIRL OF THE TRANSTEVERA 96
29.--STREET AT TIVOLI 98
30.--A CARDINAL ENTERING THE VATICAN 99
31.--EXALTATION OF POPE PIUS IX. 100
32.--A MACARONI SHOP AT NAPLES 103
33.--NEAPOLITAN ICED-WATER SELLER 104
34.--NEAPOLITAN PEASANT WOMAN 104
35.--ITINERANT TRADER OF NAPLES 105
36.--AN ACQUAJOLO, AT NAPLES 106
37.--WALACHIAN 108
38.--LADY OF BUCHAREST 110
39.--WALACHIAN WOMAN 111
40.--NOBLE BOSNIAK MUSSULMAN 112
41.--RUSSIAN SENTINEL, RIGA 115
42.--RUSSIAN DEVOTEES, RIGA 117
43.--TRAFFIC IN ST. PETERSBURG 121
44.--A RUSSIAN TAVERN 122
45.--INTERIOR OF AN ISBA 123
46.--LIVONIAN PEASANTS 124
47.--TARTAR OF KASAK 125
48.--TARTAR OF THE CAUCASUS 126
49.--TARTAR OF THE CAUCASUS 127
50.--RUSSIAN NORTH-SEA PILOT 128
51.--OSTIAK HUT 130
52.--ISIGANE OF VOAKOVAR 131
53.--SLAVONIAN PEASANT 132
54.--A PEASANT OF ESSEK 133
55.--HERDSMEN OF THE MILITARY CONFINES 135
56.--WOMAN OF THE MILITARY CONFINES 136
57.--GRÄNZERS, AND THEIR GUARD-HOUSE 138
58.--TSIGANE PRISONER 139
59.--BOSNIAK PEASANT 142
60.--BOSNIAK PEASANT WOMAN 143
61.--BOSNIAK MERCHANT 144
62.--WOMEN OF PESTH 145
63.--HUNGARIANS 146
64.--A HUNGARIAN GENTLEMAN 147
65.--HUNGARIANS 148
66.--GREEKS OF ATHENS 151
67.--A GREEK HOUSEHOLD 153
68.--INTERIOR OF THE AGORA AT ATHENS 156
69.--FÊTE OF THE TEMPLE OF JUPITER, ATHENS 159
WHITE OR CAUCASIAN RACE: GEORGEAN, ARAB
70.--ALBANIAN WOMAN 161
PORTRAIT OF AN ARMENIAN
71.--MOORISH COFFEE-HOUSE AT SIDI-BOW-SAID, NEAR TUNIS 164
72.--GRINDING WHEAT IN THE KABYLIA 169
73.--KABYLE JEWELLERS 171
74.--KOPTS OF THE TEMPLE OF KRANAH 175
75.--A FELLAH WOMAN AND CHILDREN 177
76.--A FELLAH DONKEY BOY 178
77.--A LADY OF CAIRO 181
78.--ALMA OR DANCING GIRL 182
79.--WANDERING ARABS 185
80.--JEW OF BUCHAREST 186
81.--BEYROUT 187
82.--MARONITES OF LIBANUS 189
83.--HADY-MERZA-AGHAZZI 192
84.--PERSIAN TYPES 194
85.--PERSIAN NOBLEMEN 195
86.--PERSIAN WOMEN 196
87.--LOUTY AND BAKTYAN 197
88.--AN ARMENIAN DRAWING-ROOM 200
89.--GEORGIANS 202
THE YELLOW RACE.
90.--LAPLANDERS 207
91.--A LAPP CRADLE 209
92.--SAMOIEDES 210
93.--ESQUIMAUX SUMMER ENCAMPMENT 212
94.--ESQUIMAUX WINTER ENCAMPMENT 213
95.--ESQUIMAUX VILLAGE 214
96.--ESQUIMAUX CHIEF 215
97.--ESQUIMAUX BIRD-CATCHER 216
98.--YOUNG ESQUIMAUX 217
99.--A MONGOL TARTAR 219
100.--BURÏATS ESCORTING MISS CHRISTIANI 222
101.--MANCHÚS SOLDIERS 224
YELLOW OR MONGOLIAN RACE: MONGOLIAN, ESQUIMAUX
102.--YAKUTS 225
103.--A YAKUT WOMAN 227
104.--YAKUT VILLAGERS 230
105.--YAKUT PRIESTS 231
106.--TURCOMAN ENCAMPMENT 234
107.--KIRGHIS FUNERAL RITES 237
108.--A HAREM 241
109.--A HAREM SUPPER 243
110.--TURKISH LADIES VISITING 245
111.--A TURKISH BARBER 249
112.--TURKISH PORTER 251
113.--INDO-CHINESE OF STUNG TRENG 254
114.--INDO-CHINESE OF LAOS 255
115.--A YOUNG CHINESE 257
116.--CHINESE SHOPKEEPER 258
117.--CHINESE LADY 259
118.--CHINESE WOMAN 260
119.--MANDARIN’S DAUGHTER 261
120.--CHINESE BOUDOIR 264
121.--CHINESE SITTING-ROOM 269
122.--OPIUM-SMOKERS 271
123.--CHINESE AGRICULTURE 273
124.--CHINESE FISHING 275
125.--THE CUSTOM-HOUSE AT SHANGHAI 277
YELLOW OR MONGOLIAN RACE: JAPANESE, CHINESE
126.--CHINESE BONZE 281
127.--CHINESE SCHOOLMASTER 283
128.--CHINESE LOCOMOTION 285
129.--A CHINESE PLAY 289
130.--A CHINESE JUNK 291
131.--CHINESE BEGGARS 293
132.--CHINESE PUNISHMENTS 295
133.--CHINESE PUNISHMENTS 296
134.--A CHINESE COURT OF JUSTICE 297
135.--CHINESE SOLDIERS 299
136.--CHINESE TROOPER 300
137.--THE GREAT WALL OF CHINA 301
138.--JAPANESE 304
139.--A JAPANESE FATHER 305
140.--JAPANESE SOLDIER 306
141.--JAPANESE NOBLE 307
142.--JAPANESE PALANQUIN 311
143.--THE TAÏCOON’S GUARDS 315
144.--A LADY OF THE COURT 317
145.--A KAMIS TEMPLE, JAPAN 321
146.--JAPANESE PAGODA 323
147.--BURMESE NOBLES 325
148.--BURMESE LADY 326
149.--WOMEN OF BANKOK 327
150.--SIAMESE DOMESTIC 328
151.--SIAMESE LADIES DINING 329
152.--TOMB OF A BONZE, AT LAOS 330
153.--CAMBODIANS 331
154.--THE PRINCE-ROYAL OF SIAM 333
155.--CHINESE GIRL 334
THE BROWN RACE.
156.--NATIVES OF HYDERABAD 337
157.--A BANIAN OF SURAT 338
158.--AN AGED SIKH 339
159.--A PARSEE GENTLEMAN 341
160.--SIR SALAR JUNG, K.S.I. 343
161.--NAUTCH GIRL OF BARODA 345
162.--A COOLIE OF THE GHATS 347
163.--PAGODA AT SIRRHINGHAM 349
164.--PALANQUIN 352
165.--ABYSSINIAN 355
166.--NOUERS OF THE WHITE NILE 356
167.--A NOUER CHIEF 358
168.--CHIEF OF THE LIRA 359
169.--MALAY “RUNNING A MUCK” 367
170.--MALAY 369
171.--JAVANESE 369
172.--JAVANESE DANCING GIRLS 371
173.--JAVANESE WEDDING 372
174.--DYAKS 377
175.--A DYAK HUT 379
176.--NEW ZEALAND CHIEF 383
177.--NATIVE OF TAHITI 393
178.--NATIVE OF THE SANDWICH ISLANDS 398
THE RED RACE.
179.--HUASCAR, THIRTEENTH EMPEROR OF THE INCAS 408
180.--COYA CAHUANA, EMPRESS OF THE INCAS 409
181.--AN ANTIS INDIAN 411
182.--AN ANTIS INDIAN 412
183.--SUMMER SHED OF THE ANTIS 413
184.--ANTIS INDIANS FISHING 414
185.--PERUVIAN INTERPRETER 415
186.--ARAUCANIAN 417
187.--PECHERAY HUTS 418
188.--PATAGONIAN 422
189.--A PATAGONIAN HORSE SACRIFICE 423
190.--A BOLIVIAN CHIEF 426
191.--A BOAT ON THE RIO NEGRO 429
192.--EXAMINADOR OF CHILI 432
193.--A PARAGUAYAN MESSENGER 437
194.--BRAZILIAN NEGRO 440
195.--INDIAN WOMAN OF BRAZIL 441
196.--NATIVE OF MANAOS, BRAZIL 443
197.--BRAZILIAN NEGRESSES 445
198.--BRAZILIAN DWELLING 446
199.--NEGROS OF BAHIA 447
200.--NATIVES OF FRENCH GUYANA 449
201.--BOTOCUDOS 451
202.--INDIAN OF THE MEXICAN COAST 453
203, 204.--INDIANS OF THE MEXICAN COAST 454
205.--MEXICAN INDIAN WOMAN 456
206.--MEXICAN PICADOR 457
207.--THE ROLDAU BRIDGE MARKET, MEXICO 458
208.--MEXICAN HATTER 459
209.--MEXICAN HAWKER 459
210.--CREEK INDIANS 463
211.--ENCAMPMENT OF SIOUX INDIANS 465
212.--SIOUX WARRIOR 466
213.--A SIOUX CHIEF 467
214.--CROW INDIANS IN COUNCIL 470
215.--PAWNEE INDIANS 473
216.--A CHAYENE (SHIENNES) CHIEF 475
217.--A YUTE CHIEF 477
218.--CHOCTAW INDIANS PLAYING BALL 479
219.--COMANCHE INDIANS 481
220.--A COMANCHE CAMP 482
221.--A BUFFALO HUNT 483
222.--MOHAWK INDIANS 485
223.--FLAT-HEAD INDIANS 487
224.--NAYA INDIANS 489
225.--A CROW CHIEF 491
THE BLACK RACE.
226.--A CAFFRE 496
227.--NATIVE OF THE MOZAMBIQUE COAST 497
228.--THE HOTTENTOT VENUS 499
229.--A ZANZIBAR NEGRO 503
230.--ZANZIBAR NEGRESSES 507
231.--A NEGRO VILLAGE 511
232.--FISHING ON THE UPPER SENEGAL 513
233.--A ZAMBESI NEGRESS 515
BLACK RACE: PAPOUAN, NEGRO OF NEW GUINEA
234.--THAKOMBAU, KING OF THE FIJI ISLANDS 520
235.--NATIVE OF FIJI 521
236.--NATIVE OF FIJI 522
237.--A TEMPLE OF CANNIBALISM 523
238.--A FIJIAN DANCE 525
239.--YOUNG NATIVE OF NEW CALEDONIA 527
240.--NATIVE OF NEW CALEDONIA 529
241.--ENCAMPMENT OF NATIVE AUSTRALIANS 533
242.--NATIVE AUSTRALIAN 535
243.--AN AUSTRALIAN GRAVE 536
THE HUMAN RACE.
INTRODUCTION.
CHAPTER I.
Definition of Man--How he differs from other Animals--Origin of
Man--In what parts of the Earth did he first appear?--Unity of
Mankind, evidence in support--What is understood by species in
Natural History--Man forms but one species, with its varieties or
kinds--Classification of the Human Race.
What is man? A profound thinker, Cardinal de Bonald, has said: “Man is
an intelligence assisted by organs.” We would fain adopt this
definition, which brings into relief the true attribute of man,
intelligence, were it not defective in drawing no sufficient distinction
between man and the brute. It is a fact that animals are intelligent and
that their intelligence is assisted by organs. But their intelligence is
infinitely inferior to that of man. It does not extend beyond the
necessities of attack and defence, the power of seeking food, and a
small number of affections or passions, whose very limited scope merely
extends to material wants. With man, on the other hand, intelligence is
of a high order, although its range is limited, and it is often
arrested, powerless and mute, before the problems itself proposes. In
bodily formation, man is an animal, he lives in a material envelope, of
which the structure is that of the Mammalia; but he far surpasses the
animal in the extent of his intellectual faculties. The definition of
man must therefore establish this relation which animals bear to
ourselves, and indicate, if possible, the degree which separates them.
For this reason we shall define man: _an organized, intelligent being,
endowed with the faculty of abstraction_.
To give beyond this a perfectly satisfactory definition of man is
impossible: first, because, a definition, being but the expression of a
theory, which rarely commands universal assent, is liable to be rejected
with the theory itself; and secondly, because a perfectly accurate
definition supposes an absolute knowledge of the subject, of which
absolute knowledge our understanding is incapable. It has been well said
that a correct definition can be furnished by none but divine power.
Nothing is more true than this, and were we able to give of our own
species a definition rigorously correct, we should indeed possess
absolute knowledge.
The trouble we have to define aright the being about to form the subject
of our investigation is but a forecast of the difficulties we shall meet
when we endeavour to reason upon and to classify man. He who ventures to
fathom the problems of human nature, physical, intellectual or moral, is
arrested at every step. Each moment he must confess his powerlessness to
solve the questions which arise, and at times is forced to content
himself with merely suggesting them. This can be explained. Man is the
last link of visible creation; with him closes the series of living
beings which we are permitted to contemplate. Beyond him there extends,
in a world hidden from our view, a train of beings of a new order,
endowed with faculties superior and inaccessible to our comprehension,
mysterious phalanxes, whose place of abode even is unknown to us, and
who, after us, form the next step in the infinite progression of living
creatures by whom the universe is peopled. Situate, as he is, on the
confines of this unknown world, on the very threshold of this domain,
which his eye, if not his thoughts may not penetrate, man shares to some
extent the attributes belonging to those beings who follow him in the
economy of nature. Doubtless, it is this which makes it so difficult for
us to comprehend the actual essence of man, his destiny, his origin and
his end.
These reflections have been called for in order to supply an explanation
of the frequent admissions of helplessness which we shall be obliged to
make in this cursory Introduction, when we investigate the origin of
man, the period of his first appearance on the globe, the unity or
division of our species, the classification of the human race, &c. If to
many of these questions we reply with doubt and uncertainty, the reader
must not lay the blame at the feet of science, but must search for the
cause in the impenetrable laws of nature.
And first, whence comes man? Wherefore does he exist? To this we can
make no reply, the problem is beyond the reach of human thought. But we
may at least enquire, since this question has been largely debated by
the learned, whether man was at once constituted such as he is, or
whether he originally existed in some other animal form, which has been
modified in its anatomical structure by time and circumstances. In other
words, is it true, as has been pretended by various of our
contemporaries, that man is the result of the organic improvement of a
particular race of apes, which race forms a link between the apes with
which we are familiar and the first man?
We have already treated and discussed this question more fully in the
volume which preceded this. We have shown, in “Primitive Man,” that man
is not derived, by a process of organic transformation, from any animal,
and that he includes the ape not more than the whale among his ancestry;
but that he is the product of a special creation.
Nevertheless, whether its creation be special or the result of
modification, the human species has not always existed. There is, then,
a first cause for its production. What is this? Here is again a problem
which surpasses our understanding. Let us say, my readers, that the
creation of the human species was an act of God, that man is one of the
children of the great arbiter of the universe, and we shall have given
to this question the only response which can content at once our
feelings and our reason.
But let us summon questions more accessible to our comprehension, with
which the mind is more at ease, and upon which science can exercise its
functions. To what period should we refer the first appearance of man
upon the globe? In “Primitive Man” we have answered this question as far
as it can be. We have considered the opinion of some writers who carry
the first appearance of man as far back as the tertiary period.
Rejecting this date on account of the insufficiency of the evidence
produced, we, in common with most naturalists, have admitted, that man
appeared for the first time upon our globe at the commencement of the
quaternary period, that is to say, before the geological phenomenon of
the deluge and previous to the glacial period which preceded this great
terrestrial cataclysm. To fix the birth of man in the tertiary period
would be to travel out of facts now within the ken of science, and to
substitute for observation, conjecture and hypothesis.
By saying that man appeared for the first time upon the globe at the
commencement of the quaternary period, we establish the fact, which is
agreeable to the cosmogony of Moses, that man was formed after the other
animals, and that by his advent he crowned the edifice of animal
creation.
At the quaternary period almost all the animals of our time had already
seen the light, and a certain number of animal species existed, which
were shortly to disappear. When man was created, the mammoth, the great
bear, the cave tiger, and the cervus megaceros, animals more bulky, more
robust and more agile than the corresponding species of our time, filled
the forests and peopled the plains. The first men were therefore
contemporary with the woolly elephant, the cave bear and tiger; they had
to contend with these savage phalanxes, as formidable in their number as
their strength. Nevertheless, in obedience to the laws of nature, these
animals were to disappear from the globe and give place to smaller or
different species, whilst man, persisting in the opposite direction,
increased and multiplied, as the Scripture has said, and gradually
spread into all inhabitable countries, taking possession of his empire
which daily increased with the progress of his intelligence.
In “Primitive Man” we have given the history of the first steps of
humanity.
We have traced the origin and progress of civilization, from the moment
when man was cast, feeble, wretched and naked, in the midst of a hostile
and savage brute population, to the day when his power, resting upon a
firm basis, changed little by little the face of the inhabited earth.
We shall not refer to this at greater length, since in “Primitive Man”
we have treated it fully, and in unison with the actual discoveries of
science. But there is a very different problem to the solution of
which we shall apply ourselves in the following pages. Did man see the
light at any one spot of the earth, and at that alone, and is it
possible to indicate the region which was, so to say, the cradle of
humanity? Or, are we to believe that, in the first instance, man
appeared in several places at the same time? That he was created and has
always remained in the very localities he now inhabits? That the Negro
was born in the burning regions of Central Africa, the Laplander or the
Mongolian in the cold regions to which he is now confined?
[Illustration: 1.--MEN AND WOMEN OF ANATOLIA.]
To this question a satisfactory reply can be given by reference to facts
furnished by natural history. But in seeking a triumph for our opinion
we shall have to combat the arguments of a hostile doctrine. As we said
in the early part of this Introduction, we must ever be prepared to
encounter difficulties, to dissipate uncertainties, and to vie with
other theories in each point of the history of humanity which we may
seek to fathom.
There is a school of philosophers who assert that man was manifold in
his creation, that each type of humanity originated in the region to
which it is now attached, and that it was not emigration followed by the
action of climate, circumstances, and customs which gave birth to the
different races of man.
This opinion has been upheld in a work by M. Georges Pouchet, son of the
well-known naturalist of Rouen. But, one has only to read his essay upon
_la pluralité des races humaines_, to be convinced that the author, like
others of his school, as ardent in demolition as powerless in
construction, having chosen to act the easy part of a critic, exhibits
unprecedented weakness when called upon to supply a system in the place
of that he contradicts.
If there existed several centres of human creation, they should be
indicated, and it should be shown that the men who dwell there
now-a-days have never been connected with other populations. M. Georges
Pouchet preserves prudent silence upon this question; he avoids defining
the locus of any one of these supposed multiple creations. Such a faulty
argument speaks volumes for the doctrine.
We, on our part, think that man had on the globe one centre of creation,
that, fixed in the first instance in a particular region, he has
radiated in every direction from that point, and by his wanderings
coupled with the rapid multiplication of his descendants, he has
ultimately peopled all the inhabitable regions of the earth.
In order to demonstrate the truth of this proposition, we will examine
what takes place in connection with other organized beings, that is to
say, with animals and plants, and then apply this class of facts to man:
this is observation and induction, the only logical process to which we
can here resort.
[Illustration: 2.--SAMOIEDES OF THE NORTH CAPE.]
And what do botanical and zoological geography teach? They show us that
plants and animals have each their native locality, from which they but
seldom depart, and that it would be impossible to cite any plant or
animal which lives indifferently in all countries of the globe, without
having been transported thither by human industry. The earth is, so to
speak, divided into a certain number of zones, which have their
particular vegetable and animal life. These are so many natural
provinces, all of small extent, which represent veritable centres of
creation. The cedar, peculiar to the mountains of Lebanon, existed in
this region alone before it was transported to other climates; and the
coffee-plant had grown only in Arabia, before it was acclimatized in
South America. We could quote the names of many vegetables whose natural
abode is very sharply defined, but these instances are sufficient to
exemplify the general rule of which we treat.
We need hardly say that animals, like plants, are attached to various
localities which they rarely quit with impunity, since they have not the
faculty of acclimatizing themselves at will. The elephant lives only in
India and in certain parts of Africa; the hippopotamus and giraffe in
other countries of the same continent; monkeys exist in very few
portions of the globe, and if we consider their different species, we
shall find that the place of abode of each species is very limited. For
instance, of the larger apes, the orang-outang is found only in Borneo
and Sumatra, and the gorilla in a small corner of Western Africa. Had
man originated in all those places where now his different races are
found, he would stand alone as an exception among organized beings.
Reasoning then by induction, that is, applying to man all that we
observe to obtain generally among beings living on the surface of the
globe, we come to the conclusion that the human species, in common with
every vegetable or animal species, had but one centre of creation.
Can we now extend our investigation and determine the particular spot of
the earth whence man first came? It is probable that man first saw the
day on the plains of Central Asia, and that it was from this point that
by degrees he spread over the whole earth. We shall proceed to state the
facts which support this opinion.
Around the central tableland of Asia, are found the three organic and
fundamental types of man, that is to say, the white, the yellow, and the
black. The black type has been somewhat scattered, although it is still
found in the south of Japan, in the Malay Peninsula, in the Andaman
Isles, and in the Philippines, at Formosa. The yellow type forms a large
portion of the actual population of Asia, and it is well-known whence
came those white hordes that invaded Europe at times prehistoric and in
more recent ages; those conquerors belonged to the Aryan or Persian
race, and they came from Central Asia. We shall see later on, that the
different languages of the globe resolve themselves into three
fundamental forms: _monosyllabic_ languages, in which each word contains
but one syllable; _agglutinative_ languages, in which the words are
connected; and _inflected_ languages, which are the same as those spoken
in Europe. Now, those three general forms of language are, at the
present day, to be met with around the central tableland of Asia. The
monosyllabic language is spoken throughout China and in the different
states connected with that empire. The agglutinative languages are
spoken to the north of this plain, and extend as far as Europe. And,
lastly, inflected languages are found in all that portion of Asia which
is occupied by the white race.
Around the central tableland of Asia, we thus find not only the three
fundamental types of the human species, but the three types of human
speech. Does not this, therefore, afford ground for presumption, if not
actual proof, that man first appeared in this very region which
Scripture assigns as the birthplace of the human race?
It is from this central tableland of Asia, radiating so to say, around
this point of origin, that Man has progressively occupied every part of
the earth.
Migration commenced at a very early period, the facility with which our
species becomes habituated to every climate and accommodates itself to
variations of temperature, taken in connection with the nomadic
character which distinguished primitive populations, explains to us the
displacement of the earlier inhabitants of the earth. Soon, means of
navigation, although rude, were added to the power of travelling by
land, and man passed from the continent to distant islands, and thus
peopled the archipelagos as well as the mainland. By means of transport,
effected in canoes formed from the trunks of trees barely hollowed out,
the archipelagos of the Indian Ocean, and finally Australia, were
gradually peopled.
The American continent formed no exception to this law of the invasion
of the globe by the emigration of human phalanxes. It is a matter of no
great difficulty to pass from Asia to America, across Behring’s Straits,
which are almost always covered with ice, thus permitting of almost a
dry passage from one continent to the other. Thus it is that the
inhabitants of Northern Asia have found their way into the north of the
New World.
This communication of one terrestrial hemisphere with the other is less
surprising when we consider what modern historical works have shown,
namely, that already about the tenth century, which would be nearly 400
years before Christopher Columbus, navigators from the coast of Norway
had penetrated to the other hemisphere. The inhabitants of Mexico and
Chili possess most authentic historical archives, which prove that a
most advanced civilization flourished there at an early period. Gigantic
monuments which still remain, bear witness to the great antiquity of the
civilization of the Incas (Peru) and of the Aztecs (Mexico). It is
reasonable to suppose that the inhabitants of America, who thus advanced
at a rapid pace in the path of civilization, descended from the hordes
of Northern Asia which reached the New World by traversing the ice of
Behring’s Straits.
To explain, therefore, the presence of man upon all parts of the
continent, and in the islands, it is not necessary to insist upon the
existence of several centres, where our species was created. If popular
traditions went to show that all the regions now inhabited have always
been occupied by the same people, and that those who are found there
have constantly lived in the same places, there might be reason to admit
the hypothesis of multiple creations of the human race; but, on the
contrary, traditions for the most part teach us that each country has
been peopled progressively by means of conquest or emigration.
Tradition shows that the nomadic state of existence has universally
preceded fixed settlements. It is, therefore, probable that the first
men were constantly on the move. A flood of barbarians, coming from
central Asia, overflowed the Roman Empire, and the Vandals penetrated
even into Africa. Modern migrations have been conducted on a still
vaster scale, for at the present day we find America almost wholly
occupied by Europeans; English, Spanish and other people of the Latin
race fill the vast American hemisphere, and the primitive populations of
the New World have almost entirely disappeared, annihilated by the iron
yoke of the conqueror.
The continent of Asia was peopled little by little by branches of the
Aryan race, who came down from the plains of Central Asia, directing
their course towards India. As to Africa: that continent received its
contingent of population through the Isthmus of Suez, the valley of the
Nile, and the coasts of Arabia, by the aid of navigation.
There is therefore nothing to show that humanity had several distinct
nuclei. It is clear that man started from one point alone, and that
through his power of adapting himself to the most different climates, he
has, little by little, covered the whole face of the inhabitable earth.
The Bible proclaimed, long before the studies of modern anthropologists
made it known, this principle of the unity of the human species. In like
manner as the Bible opposed its monotheistic cosmogony to the different
cosmogonies of oriental or pagan antiquity, in like manner it opposes to
the erroneous dogmas of the religions and philosophies of antiquity,
this doctrine sublime and simple in itself, that man, the last child of
creation, rules it as its appointed head and by his moral power. Holy
Writ, indeed, says to us: “God has created the whole human race of one
flesh.”[1]
[1] St. Paul at the Areopagus of Athens. Acts of the Apostles, chap.
xvii. v. 26.
There is another problem. Did the white, the yellow, and the black man
exist from the first moment of the appearance of our species upon the
globe, or have we to explain the formation of these three fundamental
races by the action of climate, by any special form of nourishment, the
result of local resources; in other words, by the action of the soil, if
we may use the expression of a conscientious author, M. Trémaux?[2]
[2] Origine et transformation de l’homme et des autres êtres. 1 vol.
in 18. Paris, 1865.
Innumerable dissertations have been written with a view of explaining
the origin of these three races, and of connecting them with the climate
or the soil. But it must be admitted that the problem is hardly capable
of solution. The influence which a warm climate exercises upon the
colour of the skin is a well known fact, and it is a matter of common
observation that the white European, if transported into the heart of
Africa, or carried to the coast of Guinea, transmits to his descendants
the brown colour which the skin of the Negro possesses, and that in
their turn the offspring of Negroes, who have been brought into northern
countries, become as they descend, paler and paler and end by being
white. But the colour of the skin is not the only characteristic of a
race; the Negro differs from the white, less by the colour of his skin,
than by the structure of the face and cranium, as also by the proportion
of his members to one another. Is it not, moreover, a fact that the
hottest countries are inhabited by people with white skins? Such for
instance are the Touaricks of the African Sahara, and the Fellahs of
Egypt. On the other hand, men with black faces are found in countries
enjoying a mean temperature, as for instance, the inhabitants of
California on the coast of the Pacific Ocean.
Let us conclude that science is unable to explain to us the difference
which exists between the different types of the human species, that
neither the temperature nor the action of the soil furnish an
explanation of this fact, and that we must limit ourselves to noting it,
without further comment, in spite of the mania which prompts the savants
of our day in a desire to explain everything.
We have now another question to consider. Should these white, yellow, or
black men, to whom we must add, as we shall see later on, those who are
brown and red, all of whom differ one from another in the colour of
their skin, in height, in their physiognomy, and in their outward
appearance, be grouped into different species, or are we to regard them
merely as varieties of species--that is to say, _races_? To fully
understand this question and to form a judgment of what will result from
it, we must ascertain what is understood in natural history by the word
_species_, and by the word _race_ or _variety of species_. We will
therefore commence by explaining the meaning of species in zoology.
The hare and the rabbit, the horse and the ass, the dog and the wolf,
the stag and the reindeer, &c., are not likely to be taken one for
another. Yet how greatly do dogs differ among themselves in size, in
colour, and in their proportions. What a difference there is between the
mastiff and the Pyrenean dog! The same observation applies to horses.
How different we find in size and outward appearance the large Normandy
horse, the London dray horse, or the omnibus horse of Paris, and the
small Corsican or Shetland horses which we can carry in our arms! And
yet no one is mistaken in them: whether he differ in size, or in the
colour of his hair, we always recognise a horse, and never mistake him
for an ass; in the mastiff as well as in the bulldog, we shall always
recognise a dog. However greatly a rabbit may vary in size and colour,
it will never be taken for a hare. The Breton cow, slight and frail, is
nevertheless as much a cow in the eyes of a farmer, and the rest of the
world, as a full-sized Durham. The same reflection applies with equal
force to birds. The turkey which exists in the wild state in America,
certainly differs very much from the black or white turkey acclimatized
in Europe; but there is no mistake that both of them are turkeys, and
nothing else.
The vegetable kingdom will furnish us with similar facts. Take, for
instance, the cotton plant on its native soil in America, and you will
find that it differs from the cotton plant cultivated in Africa and
Asia. The coffee plant of the South American plantations is not similar
to the same shrub which exists in Arabia, whence it came in the first
instance. Wheat varies with latitude to a most extraordinary extent, &c.
The cotton plant, however, is always the cotton plant, whatever be the
soil upon which it grows; the coffee plant and wheat are always the same
vegetables, and one is not liable to be deceived in them. The action of
climate and soil upon vegetables, these same causes taken in connection
with nutrition upon animals, and finally the mixture which has taken
place between different individuals, explain all these differences,
which affect the external appearance, but not the type itself.
We mean by _species_, when applied either to animals or vegetables, the
fundamental type, and by _variety_ or _race_ the different beings which
result from the influence of climate, of nutriment, and of mixture with
individuals of the same species. The _species dog_ gives birth to the
_varieties_ or _races_ known under the names of bull-dog, spaniel,
mastiff, &c. The _species horse_ gives birth to the _races_ or
_varieties_ known under the names of the Arabian, English, Normandy,
Corsican, &c. The _species turkey_ produces the varieties known as the
wild turkey, the black and the white turkey. In the vegetable kingdom,
the _cotton plant species_ produces the American and the Indian cotton;
the _bramble_ produces the innumerable varieties which are known to us
as rose-trees.
But, the reader will say, how are we to distinguish race from species,
and does there exist any practical means of deciding whether the animal
under consideration belongs to a species or a race? We reply that such a
means does exist, which enables us to speak with certainty in every
case. It is of importance that this should be made known in order that
every one may test it for himself.
Take the two animals in question, unite them, and if that connexion of
the sexes results in the production of another individual, capable of
reproduction, this will indicate race or variety. If, however, the union
of the two individuals is unproductive, or the offspring is itself
barren, this will indicate two individuals of different species.
In spite of observations and experiments made in the course of many
thousand years, reproduction has never been procured by mixture of a
rabbit with a hare, a wolf with a dog, a sheep with a goat. It is true
that hybrids are obtained between the horse and she-ass, and between the
ass and the mare, but it is well known that the individuals produced by
this mixture, namely, the quadrupeds termed _mules_, are barren animals,
incapable of reproduction with one another.
This rule is not confined to the animal kingdom, but it obtains also
among vegetables. You can obtain artificial production from a pear tree
by applying, with suitable precautions, the pollen of the flowers of one
pear tree to the stamens of those of another. Fruit will be formed, and
the seed which that produces will in its turn be productive. But if you
attempt to perform the same operation between a pear tree and an apple
tree, you will obtain no result whatever. This, again, is the practical
method which enables botanists to distinguish varieties from species.
The test of artificial fecundation between one plant and another, which
it is desired to distinguish as regards their species, serves to solve
the difficulties which are met in attempting to determine the position
of a plant in botanical classification.
The word _species_ therefore is not a fictitious term, a conventional
expression invented by the learned to designate the classifications of
living beings. A species is a group arranged by Nature herself.
Fruitfulness or barrenness in the products of the mixture are the
characteristics which Nature attaches to variety or to species; those
groups therefore appear to us as though they had a substantial
foundation in the laws which govern living beings, and we do but render
in speech what we observe in Nature.
When, moreover, we reflect, we easily understand that if Nature had not
instituted species the most complete disorder would have reigned
throughout living creation. By intermixture the animal kingdom would
have been overrun by _mongrels_ who would have confused every type, thus
permitting of no discernment in this crowd of incoherent products. The
whole animal kingdom would have been given over to inextricable
confusion. In like manner, if plants had been capable of infinite
variety through the mixture of different species, brought about by the
industry of man, or by the effect of the wind bearing through the air
the fertilizing pollen, there would be nought but trouble and disorder
among the vegetable population of the globe.
Species therefore has a necessary, providential, and fixed existence.
Impossibility of union is the distinctive qualification which nature
assigns to this group of living beings. Reproduction is possible only
between members of the same species, and the differences produced in
their offspring by the soil, nutriment and surrounding circumstances,
determine what we call race, or variety.
The principle which we have just enunciated, will in its application to
man enable us to decide whether the individuals that people the globe,
belong to different species of men, or simply to _races_ or _varieties_;
in other words, whether the human species is unique, and whether the
different human types known to us, the white, black, yellow, brown and
red-man, belong or not to _races_ of the human species.
The reply to this question will doubtless have been anticipated. If we
apply the rule stated above, all men that inhabit the globe belong to
one and the same species, since it is a fact that men and women,
whatever be their colour, can marry, and their offspring is always
reproductive. The Negro and white female by their union produce
mulattoes; mulattoes and mulattresses are reproductive, as are also
their descendants--marriages between members of the red or brown races
are fruitful, and, what is more, the fecundity of the descendants of
mongrels is superior to that of men and women of the same colour.
Unless, therefore, we regard men as a solitary exception among all
living beings, unless we withdraw them from the operation of the
universal laws of nature, we must come to the conclusion that they do
but form a certain number of races of one and the same species, and all
descend from one primitive unique species.
Men are brothers in blood: this principle of universal fraternity
imposed by nature, may be placed side by side with the corresponding
maxim suggested by the moral sense.
Those who deny the unity of the human species, _polygenists_, or
supporters of the plurality of human kind, base their arguments in
favour of there being more than one species, upon the assertion that the
distinction between the Negro and the white man is too great to permit
of their possibly being classed together. But, between the lap-dog and
the mastiff, the wild and tame rabbit, the spaniel and the greyhound, or
the Shetland and Russian horse, there is a much greater difference than
exists between the Negro and the white man. We are unable to state
exactly, or to explain with any degree of accuracy, how it is that man,
as he was first created, has given birth to races so widely different as
the white, black, yellow, brown, and red which people the earth at the
present day. We can but furnish a general explanation of what we see in
the widely varying conditions of existence, and in the opposite
character of the media through which man, for ages past, has dragged his
existence, frequently with much difficulty and uncertainty. If the dog,
the horse, the rabbit, and the turkey, through the agency of human
industry applied to them during a period of scarcely two thousand years,
have given birth to so many varieties, how much more would man, whose
appearance upon the globe is of such antiquity that we cannot assign to
it even approximatively a date--man, whose fate it has been to pass
through so many different climates, such various physical and social
positions, expect to see his own type become modified and transformed?
We should, with more reason, feel surprised at finding that the
differences between one variety and another are not much wider than they
appear to be.
In order to avoid this argument, there remains to the supporters of the
plurality of human kind no alternative but to regard man as an exception
in nature; to assert that he has laws peculiar to himself, and that the
principles which pervade the life of plants and animals can in no way
apply to him. But man, who is an organized and living being, and is
furnished with a body that differs but little from that of any
mammiferous animal, is, so far as concerns his organization, subject to
the universal laws of nature, and that of intermixture among the rest.
It is therefore impossible to admit the question of exception raised by
those who deny the unity of the human species.
The principle that the human species is one, and what follows as a
natural conclusion, namely, that all men who inhabit the earth are but
races or varieties of this one species, will, therefore, appear to the
reader to be satisfactorily established.
These different races which originate in one species, the primitive type
having been modified by the operation of climate, food, soil,
intermixture and local customs, differ, it must be admitted, to a
marvellous extent, in their outward appearance, colour and physiognomy.
The differences are so great, the extremes so marked and the transitions
so gradual, that it is well-nigh impossible to distribute the human
species into really natural groups from a scientific point of view, that
is to say, groups founded upon organic characteristics. The
classification of the human races has always been the stumbling block of
anthropology, and up to the present time the difficulty remains almost
undiminished.
A cursory examination of the various classifications which have been
brought forward by the most important of those who have essayed the task
will make this truth apparent to all.
Buffon, in his chapter upon _man_; a work which we can always read again
with admiration and advantage, contents himself with bringing forward
the three fundamental types of the human species which have been known
from the first under the names of the white, black and yellow race. But
these three types in themselves do not exemplify every human
physiognomy. The ancient inhabitants of America, commonly known as the
_Red-Skins_, are entirely overlooked in this classification, and the
distinction between the Negro and the white man cannot always be easily
pointed out, for in Africa the Abyssinians, the Egyptians, and many
others, in America the Californians, and in Asia the Hindoos, Malays and
Javanese are neither white nor black.
Blumenbach, the most profound anthropologist of the last century, and
author of the first actual treatise upon the natural history of man,
distinguished in his Latin work, _De Homine_, five races of men, the
Caucasian, Mongolian, Ethiopian, Malay and American. Another
anthropologist, Prochaska, adopted the divisions pointed out by
Blumenbach, but united under the name of the _white race_, Blumenbach’s
Caucasian and Mongolian groups, and added the _Hindoo race_.
The eloquent naturalist Lacépède, in his _Histoire naturelle de
l’Homme_, added to the races admitted by Blumenbach the _hyperborean
race_, comprising the inhabitants of the northern portion of the globe
in either continent.
Cuvier fell back upon Buffon’s division, admitting only the white, black
and yellow races, from which he simply derived the _Malay_ and
_American_ races.
A naturalist of renown, Virey, author of _l’Histoire naturelle du Genre
humain_, _l’Histoire naturelle de la Femme_, and of many other clever
productions upon natural history and particularly anthropology, gave
much attention to the classification of the human races. But he was not
favourable to the unity of our species, being led to entertain the
opinion that the human species was twofold. This was the starting point
of an erroneous deviation in the ideas of naturalists who wrote after
Virey. We find Bory de Saint Vincent admitting as many as fifteen
species of men, and another naturalist, Desmoulins, doubtless influenced
by a feeling of emulation, distinguished sixteen human species, which,
moreover, were not the same as those admitted by Bory de Saint Vincent.
This course of classification might have been followed to a much greater
extent, for the differences among men are so great, that if strict rule
is not adhered to, it is impossible to fix any limit to species. Unless
therefore the principle of unity has been fully conceded at starting,
the investigation may result in the admission of a truly indefinite
quantity.
This is the principle which pervades the writings of the most learned of
all the anthropologists of our age, Dr. Pritchard, author of a _Natural
History of Man_, which in the original text formed ten volumes, but of
which the French language possesses but a very incomplete translation.
Dr. Pritchard holds that all people of the earth belong to the same
species; he is a partisan of the unity of the human species, but is not
satisfied with any of the classifications already proposed, and which
were founded upon organic characteristics. He, in fact, entirely alters
the aspect of the ordinary classifications which are to be met with in
natural history. He commences by pointing out three families, which, he
asserts, were in history the first human occupants of the earth: namely
the _Aryan_, _Semitic_, and _Egyptian_. Having described these three
families, Pritchard passes to the people who, as he says, radiated in
various directions from the regions inhabited by them, and proceeded to
occupy the entire globe.
This mode of classification, as we have pointed out, leaves the beaten
track trodden by other natural historians. For this reason it has not
found favour among modern anthropologists, and this disfavour has
reacted upon the work itself, which, notwithstanding, is the most
complete and exact of all that we possess upon man. Although it has been
adopted by no other author, Pritchard’s classification of the human race
appears to us to be the most sound in principle.
M. de Quatrefages, in his course of anthropology at the Museum of
Natural History, Paris, makes a classification of the human race based
upon the three types, white, yellow and black; but he appends to each of
these three groups, under the head of _mixed races attached to each
stem_, a number of races more or less considerable and arbitrary which
were excluded from the three chief divisions.
The classification of M. de Quatrefages will be found in his _Rapport
sur les progrès de l’Anthropologie_, published in 1867.[3] It is
extremely learned and well worked out, but a classification which
entirely passes by the simple mode of reasoning we shall adopt in the
following pages.
[3] In 4º forming part of the _Rapports sur les progrès des Sciences
et des Lettres en France_, published under the auspices of the
Minister of Public Instruction.
The classification of the human race which we propose to follow,
modifying it where in our opinion it may appear to be necessary, is due
to a Belgian naturalist, M. d’Omalius d’Halloy. It acknowledges five
races of men: the white, black, yellow, brown and red.
This classification is based upon the colour of the skin, a
characteristic very secondary in importance to that of organization, but
which yet furnishes a convenient framework for an exact and methodical
enumeration of the inhabitants of the globe, permitting a clear
consideration of a most confused subject. In the groups, therefore,
which we shall propose, the reader will fail to find a truly scientific
classification, but will meet with merely such a simple distribution of
materials, as shall permit us to review methodically the various races
spread over every portion of the Earth’s surface.
CHAPTER II.
General characteristics of the human race--Organic characteristics--
Senses and the nervous system--Height--Skeleton--Cranium and face--
Colour of the skin--Physiological functions--Intellectual
characteristics--Properties of human intelligence--Languages and
literature--Different states of society--Primitive industry--The two
ages of prehistoric humanity.
Before entering upon a minute description of each of the human races, we
shall find it well to lay before the reader a generalization of the
characteristics which are common to all.
Since man is an intelligent being, living in an organized frame, our
attention has to be directed to the consideration of his organs and
intellect, that is, in the first place, we must investigate the
physical, in the second, the intellectual and moral elements of his
constitution.
The physical characteristics bear but secondary importance among those
of the human race. Man is a spirit which shines within the body of an
animal, and the only difficulty is to ascertain in what manner the
organism of the mammalia is modified in order to become that of man; to
compare the harmony of this organism with the object in view, namely the
exercise of human intellect and thought. We shall see that the organs of
the mammalia are greatly modified in the human subject, becoming, either
on account of their individual excellence or the harmony of their
combination, greatly superior to the associations of the same organs
among animals.
Let us first consider the brain and organs of sense. When we examine the
form and relative size of the brain in ascending the series of
mammiferous animals, we find that this organ increases in volume, and
progresses, so to say, toward the superior characteristics which it is
to display in the human species. Disregarding certain exceptions, for
the existence of which we cannot account, but which in no way alter the
general rule, the brain increases in importance from the zoophyte to the
ape. But, in comparing the brain of the ape with that of man, an
important difference becomes at once apparent. The brain of the gorilla,
orang-outang, or chimpanzee, which are the apes that bear the greatest
resemblance to man, and which for that reason are designated
_anthropomorphous_ apes, is very much smaller than that of man. The
cerebral lobes in man are much longer than in the anthropomorphous apes,
and their vertical measure is out of all proportion with the height of
the cerebral lobes in apes; this is what produces the noble frontal
curve, one of the characteristic features of the human physiognomy. The
cerebral lobes are connected behind with a third nervous mass called the
_cerebellum_. The large volume of these three lobes, the depth and
number of convolutions of the encephalic mass, and other anatomical
details of the brain, upon which we are unable here to treat at greater
length, place the brain of man very far above that of the animal nearest
to him in the zoological scale. These differences bear witness in favour
of man to an unparalleled intellectual development, and we should be
better able to measure these differences, were we able to show in what
the cerebral action consists, but this we are utterly unable to do.
The senses, taken individually, are not more developed in man than they
are in certain animals; but in man they are characterised by their
harmony, their perfect equilibrium, and their admirable appropriation to
a common end. Man, it will at once be admitted, is not so keen of sight
as the eagle, nor so subtle of hearing as the hare, nor does he possess
the wonderful scent of the dog. His skin is far from being as fine and
impressionable as that which covers the wing of a bat. But, while among
animals, one sense always predominates to the disadvantage of the rest,
and the individual is thus forced to adopt a mode of existence which
works hand in hand with the development of this sense, with man, all the
senses possess almost equal delicacy, and the harmony of their
association makes up for what may be wanting in individual power. Again,
the senses of animals are employed only in satisfying material
necessities, while in man, they assist in the exercise of eminent
faculties whose development they further.
Let us consider shortly in detail our senses.
Man is certainly better off, as regards the sense of sight, than a large
majority of animals. Instead of being placed upon different sides of his
head, looking in opposite directions, and receiving two images which
cannot possibly be alike, his eyes are directed forwards, and regard
similar objects, by which means the impression is doubled. The sense of
sight thus brings to his conceptions a complete image and solid idea of
what surrounds him; it is his most useful sense, the more so when it is
guided in its application by a clear intellect.
The sense of touch in man reaches a degree of perfection which it does
not attain in animals. How marvellous is the sense of touch when
exercised by applying the extremities of the fingers, the part of the
body the best suited to this function, and how much more wonderful is
the organ called the hand, which applies itself in so admirable a manner
to the most different surfaces whose extent, form, or qualities, we wish
to ascertain!
A modern philosopher has attributed to the hand alone our intellectual
superiority. This was going too far. We find enthusiasm allied with
justice in the views expressed in the excellent pages which Galen has
consecrated to a description of the hand, in his immortal work _De usu
partium_.
“Man alone,” says Galen, “is furnished with hands, as he alone is a
participator in wisdom. The hand is a most marvellous instrument, and
one most admirably adapted to his nature. Remove his hand, and man can
no longer exist. By its means he is prepared for defence or attack, for
peace or war. What need has he of horns or talons? With his hand, he
grasps the sword and lance, he fashions iron and steel. Whilst with
horns, teeth and talons, animals can only attack or defend at close
quarters, man is able to project from afar the instruments with which he
is armed. Shot from his hand, the feathered arrow reaches at a great
distance the heart of an enemy, or stops the flight of a passing bird.
Although man is less agile than the horse and the deer, yet he mounts
the horse, guides him, and thus successfully hunts the deer. He is
naked and feeble, yet his hand procures him a covering of iron and
steel. His body is unprotected against the inclemencies of climate, yet
his hand finds him a convenient abode, and furnishes him with clothing.
By the use of his hand, he gains dominion and mastery over all that
lives upon the earth, in the air, or in the depths of the sea. From the
flute and lyre with which he amuses his leisure, to the terrible
instruments by means of which he deals death around him, and to the
vessel which bears him, a daring seaman, upon the bosom of the deep--all
is the work of his hand.
“Would man without hands have been able to write out the laws which
govern him, or raise to the gods statues and altars? Without hands could
he bequeath to posterity the fruit of his labours, and the memory of his
deeds? Could he (had man been created handless) converse with Socrates,
Plato, Aristotle, and the different great men, children of bygone ages?
The hand is then the physical characteristic of man, in like manner as
intelligence is his moral characteristic.”
Galen, having shown in this chapter the general formation of the hand
and the special disposition of the organs which compose it; having
described the articulations and bones, the muscles and tendons of the
fingers; and having analyzed the mechanism of the different movements of
the hand, cries, full of admiration for this marvellous structure:
“In presence of the hand, this marvellous instrument, cannot we well
treat with contempt the opinion of those philosophers who saw in the
human body merely the result of a fortuitous concourse of atoms! Does
not everything in our organization most clearly give the lie to this
false doctrine? Who will dare to invoke chance in explanation of this
admirable disposition? No, it is no blind power that has given birth to
all these marvels. Do you know among men a genius capable of conceiving
and executing so perfect a work? There exists not such a workman. This
sublime organization is the creation of a superior intelligence, of
which the intellect of man is but a poor terrestrial reflection. Let
others offer to the Deity reeking hecatombs, let them sing hymns in
honour of the gods; my hymn of praise shall be the study and the
exposition of the marvels of the human frame!”
The sense of hearing, without attaining in man the perfection which it
reaches in certain animals, is nevertheless of great delicacy, and
becomes an infinite resource of instruction and pure enjoyment. Not only
are differences of intonation, intensity, and timbre, recognised by our
ear, but the most delicate shades of rhythm and tone, the relations of
simultaneous and successive sounds which give the sentiment of melody
and harmony, are appreciated, and furnish us with the first and most
natural of the arts--music. Thus the perfection and delicacy of our
senses, which permit of our grasping faint and slightly varying
impressions, the harmony of these senses themselves, their perfect
equilibrium, their capability of improvement by exercise, place us at a
considerable distance above the animal.
Let us now pass to the bony portion of the human body, and consider
first of all the head. The head is shared by two regions, the cranium
and the face. The predominance of either of these regions over the
other, depends upon the development of the organs which belong to each.
The cranium contains the cerebral mass, that is, the seat of the
intellect; the face is occupied by the organs appertaining to the
principal senses. In animals, the face greatly exceeds the cranium in
extent; the reverse is, however, the case with man. It is but rarely
that with him the face assumes importance at the expense of the
cranium--in other words, that the jaws become elongated, and give to the
human face the aspect of a brute.
We find in works upon anthropology some expressions which call for an
explanation here; they are frequently employed, since they enable us to
express by a single term the relation which exists between the
dimensions of any particular skull. The term _dolichocephalous_ (from
the Greek δολιχος, long, κεφαλη, head,) is applied to a cranium which is
elongated from front to rear, or, to express the idea numerically, the
cranium whose longitudinal diameter bears to its vertical diameter the
proportion of 100 to 68. A short cranium is styled _brachycephalous_
(from βραχυς, short, κεφαλη, head,) which term is applied when the
relation between the longitudinal and vertical diameters is 100 to 80.
The attribute of length or shortness of the cranium is of less
importance than is generally believed. All Negroes, it is true, are
_dolichocephalous_; but it must not be supposed from this that the
production backwards of the cranium is an indication of inferiority;
since in the white race, heads are sometimes very long and sometimes
very short. The North Germans are _dolichocephalous_; those inhabiting
Central Germany being _brachycephalous_. This characteristic cannot
therefore be regarded as a criterion of intellectual excellence.
There is in the human face an anatomical characteristic of greater
importance than any taken from the elongation of the cranium; that is,
the projection forwards, or the uprightness of the jaws. The term
_prognathism_ (from προ, forward, and γναθος, jaw,) is applied to this
jutting forward of the teeth and jaws, and _orthognathism_ (from ορθος,
straight, γναθος, jaw,) to the latter arrangement.
It was long admitted that prognathism, or projection of the jaws, was
peculiar to the Negro race. But this opinion has been forced to yield to
the discovery, that projecting jaws exist among people in no way
connected with the Negro. In the midst of white populations this
characteristic is frequently met with; it is occasionally found among
the English, and is by no means rare at Paris, especially among women.
Prognathism would appear to be characteristic of a small European race
dwelling to the south of the Baltic Sea, the Esthonians, and which
itself is but the residue of the _primitive Mongolian_ race to which we
have alluded in our work, “Primitive Man,” as being the first race
which, according to M. Pruner-Bey, peopled the globe. It is probably the
mixture of Esthonian blood with that of the inhabitants of Central
Europe, which causes the appearance in our large cities of individuals
whose faces are prognathous.
We cannot close our remarks upon the face without speaking of a curious
relation between it and the cranium, which has been much abused; we
allude to the _facial angle_. By _facial angle_ is meant the angle which
results from the union of two lines, one of which touches the forehead,
the other of which, drawn from the orifice of the ear, meets the former
line at the extremity of the front teeth.
The Dutch anatomist Camper, after having compared Greek and Roman
statues, or medals of either nationality, assumed that the cause of the
intellectual superiority which distinguished Greek from Roman
physiognomies was to be found in the fact, that, with the Greeks, the
facial angle is larger than in Roman heads. Starting with this
observation, Camper pursued his enquiries until it occurred to him to
advance the theory that the increase of the facial angle may be taken in
the human race as a sign of superior intelligence.
This observation was correct, insomuch as it separated men from apes,
and carrion birds from other birds. But its application to different
varieties of men, as a measure of their various degrees of intelligence,
was a pretension doomed to be sacrificed to future investigations. Dr.
Jacquart, assistant-naturalist in the Museum of Natural History at
Paris, calling to his aid an instrument he invented, by which the facial
angle is rapidly measured, has, in our day, made numerous studies of the
facial angle of human beings. M. Jacquart found that this angle cannot
be taken as a measure of intelligence, for he observed it to be a right
angle in individuals, who, with respect to intelligence, were in no way
superior to others whose facial angle was much smaller. M. Jacquart went
so far as to show, that, in the population of Paris alone, the facial
angle varies between much wider proportions than those imposed by Camper
as characteristic limits of human varieties.
The measure of the facial angle, therefore, is far from bearing the
importance which has long been ascribed to it; but this does not go to
prevent its application, with advantage, in ordinary cases, when races
of men are required to be distinguished from one another.
Erect carriage is another of the characteristics which distinguish the
human species from all other animals, including the ape, by whom this
position is but rarely assumed, and then accidentally and unnaturally.
Everything in the human skeleton is calculated to ensure a vertical
posture. In the first place, the head articulates with the vertebral
column at a point so situated that, when this vertebral column is erect,
the head, by means of its own weight, remains supported in equilibrium.
Besides this, the shape of the head, the direction of the face, the
position of the eyes, and the form of the nostrils, all require that man
should walk erect on two feet.
If our body were intended to assume a horizontal position, everything
connected with it would be out of place: the crown of the head would be
the most advanced part, and this would operate most detrimentally to the
exercise of sight; the eyes would be directed toward the earth; the
nostrils would open backward; the forehead and the face would be
beneath the head. Moreover, the whole muscular system and all the
tendons are, in man, auxiliary to erect posture, without mentioning the
curves which occur in the vertebral column, and the exceptional
formation of the limbs, &c.
J. J. Rousseau was, therefore, very far from right, when he contended
that man was born to go on all fours.
The height of men, as well as the colour of their skin, are
characteristics which must not be overlooked, since they are of
importance as distinctive attributes of different races.
And first, with regard to height, the differences which this incident
may present in the human species have been greatly exaggerated. Much
allowance must be made in admitting what has been written with respect
to dwarfs, and what has been alleged concerning giants. The Greeks
believed in the existence of a people they called _Pygmies_, but whose
place of abode they always omitted to point out. These were very small
people, who were entirely hidden from view when they entered a field of
standing wheat, and who passed much of their time in resisting the
attacks of Cranes. The same fable was revived in more modern times, with
reference to a people supposed to live in the island of Madagascar, who
were styled _Kymes_. But Pygmies and Kymes are equally fabulous.
Antiquity tells us of giants, but without forming them into a separate
race. It is rather in modern times that the existence of races of human
giants has been put forward. In the sixteenth century, when Magellan had
doubled Cape Horn and discovered the Pacific Ocean, a companion of this
navigator, Pigafetta, gave an altogether extraordinary description of
the Patagonians, or inhabitants of the Tierra del Fuego. He made giants
of them. One of his successors, Leaya, adding yet more to the height of
the Patagonians, assigned to these men a stature of from three to four
metres.
Modern travellers have reduced to accurate proportions the exaggerated
statements of ancient navigators. The French naturalist Alcide d’Orbigny
actually measured a large number of Patagonians, and found that their
height, on an average, was about 1^{m.}73.
This, then, is about the limit of the height which is reached by the
human species.
With reference to the extreme of smallness we are able to arrive at
this by referring to the Bushmen who inhabit Southern Africa. An English
traveller, Barrow, measured all the members of a tribe of Bushmen, and
found that their average height was 1^{m.}31.
The human species, therefore, varies in height to the extent of about
0^{m.}42, that is to say, the difference between the height of the
Patagonians and that of the Bushmen. It is well to make this observation
whilst we are upon this subject, since the supporters of the theory of a
plurality of human races have invoked these differences in height in
support of the multiplicity of the races of humanity. It is clear that,
among animals, races vary in height to a much greater extent than they
do with man; there is, by comparison, a much greater difference in size
between a mastiff and a dog of the Pyrenees, than there is between a
Bushman and a Patagonian.
As regards the colour of the skin of the human race, we find it
necessary to say a few words, since we propose to take this as the basis
of our classification.
The colour of the skin is a very convenient characteristic to fix upon
in order to identify the various races, since this quality is peculiarly
adapted to suggest itself through the eye. Its scientific importance
must, however, by no means be exaggerated. Certain individuals, though
they be members of the White or Caucasian Race, may yet be very darkly
tinted. Arabs are often of a brown colour, which nearly approaches
black, and yet they possess the finest marks of the White or Caucasian
Race. The Abyssinians, although very brown, are not black. The American
Indians, whom we rank as members of the Red Race, often have dark brown
or almost black skins. Among members of the White Race in northern
latitudes, especially women, the skin has often a yellowish tint. We
must add that the colour of the skin is often difficult to fix, since
the shades of colour merge into one another. All this must be said in
order to show how difficult it is to form natural groups of the
innumerable types of our species.
It would be for us now to speak of the physiological characteristics of
the human race; but our consideration of this subject will be limited to
a few words, since the condition of physiological functions is almost
identical among all men, whatever be their race.
There is, nevertheless, an important difference, well worthy of note,
presented by the nervous system when we compare the two extremes of
humanity, namely, the Negro and the white European. In the white man,
the nervous centres, that is the brain and spinal cord, are of much
greater volume than they are in the Negro. In the latter the expansions
from these nervous centres, that is, the nerves properly so called, have
relatively a greater volume.
A similar difference, quite on a par with this, exists in the
circulatory system. In the white man, the arterial system is more
developed than the venous; the reverse is the case with the Negro.
Lastly, the blood of the Negro is more viscous, and of a deeper red than
that of the white man.
With the exception of these general differences, the great physiological
functions proceed in the same manner among all races of men. The
differences are not remarked except when secondary functions are
compared, but these differences then assume proportions of some
consideration.
Climate, customs, and habits are the causes of these variations in the
secondary functions, which at times become so similar as to permit of
confusion in the most opposite races. Let a member of the white race be
thrown into the midst of wild Indians, become a prisoner of the
red-skins, and share their warlike existence in the midst of forests, we
shall see that the sense of sight, as also that of hearing, will attain
in this individual the same perfection which they enjoy in his new
companions. It is by virtue of the prodigious flexibility of our
organism, and of our powers of imitation and assimilation, that the
physiological functions of secondary importance become capable of such
modification.
The intellectual and moral characteristics are those which take the lead
in man. Not only are we unable to pass them over in silence in the
general study of the human race, but much more importance must be
assigned to them than to mere corporeal characteristics. If the
naturalist, when he studies an animal, makes a point, when he has
described his structure and organism, of considering his habits and
manner of life, how much more should he, when treating of man, dwell
upon his intellectual faculties, the stamp which so truly identifies our
species.
Man makes use of language as the means of expressing his intelligence.
If man is provided with the power of speech, which he has in common with
no other animal, it is owing to the fact that in him intelligence is
infinitely more developed than in the animal. It is through the
simultaneous concurrence of all his senses that the faculty of speech is
manifested in man; and the proof of this is, that through the absence of
one of his senses, he loses this faculty. What is meant by a person born
dumb? It is an individual similar in all respects to speaking man, but
differing from him in this, that he came into the world perfectly deaf.
The primary absence of the power of hearing has paralysed the child’s
intelligence with special reference to his imitative faculty, and in
fact, the person called _deaf and dumb_ is originally simply a person
_born deaf_.
Language, then, is but the expression of the highest intelligence.
“Animals have a voice,” says Aristotle, “but man alone speaks.” Nothing
can be truer than this statement of the immortal Greek philosopher.
It is well known how the languages and dialects spoken in the world have
multiplied; and, indeed, nothing is more difficult than to classify all
the languages and dialects that exist. This difficulty becomes more
insurmountable when we consider that languages vary in course of time to
a very considerable extent. The French of Rabelais and Montaigne, who
wrote at the time of the Renaissance, is not very intelligible to us,
and that of French chroniclers at the time of St. Louis can only be
understood by studying it specially and with a dictionary. Modern
Italians read Dante with great difficulty, and the same may be said for
the English as regards their great writer Shakespeare. Languages then
alter very rapidly, even though the people themselves remain stationary.
The alterations are much more serious and rapid when two peoples
amalgamate.
These considerations are sufficient to convey an idea of the problem
which scholars have propounded in wishing to ascertain the language of
primitive humanity. It may be said that such a problem is incapable of
solution. We must therefore despair of finding the mother tongue, and
limit ourselves to those which are her offspring.
Upon a comparison of these last, it has been decided to assign to three
fundamental groups all the languages which have been, and are still,
spoken on the earth; these are, as we have already said, _monosyllabic_,
_agglutinative_ and _inflected languages_.
Chinese is the most decided example of a _monosyllabic_ language. Each
word comprises but one syllable, and has an absolute meaning in itself.
Recourse must be had to the complicated combination of a quantity of
utterances in order to impress all modifications of thought, all
distinctions of time, place, person, condition, &c. One marvels to hear
that the Chinese language comprehends such an immense number of words,
that the life of a single man of letters is not sufficiently long to
allow of his learning all. This apparent wealth is but the most utter
poverty. This language, whose vocabulary is infinite, is simply
detestable. To its imperfection must be attributed the smallness of the
progress which the people of Asia have made in the direction of
intelligence and commerce.
_Agglutinative_ languages, which are spoken by Negroes, as also by many
people of the yellow race, are the first degree of perfection in human
speech. In these the word is no longer unique; variable terminations
attached to each word modify the primitive expression. They contain
_roots_ and words whose function it is to modify these roots.
The third and last degree of perfection in human speech is found in
_inflected languages_. Those languages are so called, in which the same
word is capable of modification a great number of times, in order to
express the different shades of thought, and to translate changes of
time, person, or place. Inflected languages are made up of a series of
different terms, the number of which is by no means large, but the
modification of which, by means of adjuncts, or through the position
they occupy, are indeed innumerable. All European languages, and those
spoken in Asia by people of the white race, are inflected.
If spoken language is the first element which served to constitute human
societies, fixed, that is _written_ language, has been the fundamental
cause of their progress. By means of writing, one generation has been
enabled to hand down to the other the fruits of their experience and
investigation, and thus to lay the foundation of primitive science and
history.
The first forms of writing were mere mnemonic signs. Stones cut to a
certain fashion, pieces of wood to which a conventional form had been
imparted, and such like, were the first signs of written language. One
of the most curious forms of mnemonic writing has been met with both in
the Old and New Worlds; it consisted in joining little bundles of cord
of different colours, in which were tied knots of various kinds. Whoever
ties a knot in his handkerchief in order to recall to mind some fact or
intention, makes use, without knowing it, of the primitive form of
writing.
An advance in writing consisted in representing pictorially objects
which it was wished to designate. The wild Indians of North America
still make use of these rough representations of objects, as a means of
imparting certain information.
This very system is rendered more complete, when the design is
supplemented by a conventional idea. If prudence is indicated by a
serpent, strength by a lion, and lightness by a bird, we here at once
recognize writing properly so called. This last form of writing is known
as the _symbolical_ or _ideographic_.
Symbolical writing existed among the ancients. The hieroglyphics which
are engraved upon the monuments of ancient Egypt, and those which have
been found upon Mexican remains, belong to symbolical writing.
And yet this is not writing in the true sense of the word, which does
not exist until the conventional signs, of which use is made, correspond
with the words or signs of the language spoken, and can actually replace
the language itself.
By the _alphabet_, is meant the collection of conventional signs
corresponding to the sounds which form words. The _alphabet_ is one of
those inventions which have called for the greatest efforts of the human
mind, and it is not without good reason that Greek mythology deified
Cadmus, the inventor of letters. The same admiration for the inventors
of alphabets is, moreover, exhibited among all ancient nations.
It is not only through its immense superiority as regards extent and
power, that the intelligence of man is distinguished from that of the
brute; there is an attribute of intelligence which is strictly peculiar
to our species. This is the faculty of abstraction, which permits of our
collecting and placing together the perceptions of the mind, by that
means arriving at general results. It is through this power of
abstraction, that our intellect has created the wonders which are
familiar to all; that the arts and sciences have been brought to light
and fostered by society.
In connection with the faculty of abstraction, we must allude to the
moral sense, which is a deduction from that same property. The moral
sense is a special attribute of human intelligence, and it may be said
that through this attribute, man’s intellect is distinguished from that
of animals; for this characteristic is most truly peculiar to the mind
of man, and is nowhere found among animals.
Among all people, and at all times, the difference between good and
evil, truth and falsehood, has been recognized. The abstract idea of
moral good and moral evil may certainly differ in different people: one
may admire, what the other detests; in one nation, that, may be held in
good repute, which, in another, is a criminal offence; yet, after all,
the abstract notion of evil and good, does not cease to exist.
Observance of the right of property, self-respect, and regard for human
life, are to be found among all nationalities. If man, in his savage
state, occasionally casts aside these moral notions, it is in
consequence of the social condition of the tribe to which he belongs,
and must be regarded in connexion with the customs of war and the
feeling of revenge. But, in a state of tranquillity and peace, which
condition the philosopher and student must presuppose in framing their
arguments, the notion of evil and good is always to be found. The forms
which the feeling of honour dictates, vary for example in the white man
and the savage, but the feeling itself is never eradicated from the
heart of any.
The religious feeling, the notion of divinity, is another characteristic
which has its origin in the faculty of abstraction. This sentiment is
indissolubly allied to human intelligence. Without wishing, with an
eminent French anthropologist, M. de Quatrefages, to make of
_religiosity_ a fundamental attribute of humanity, and a natural
characteristic of our species, we may say that all men are religious,
that they acknowledge and adore a Creator, a Supreme God. Whether the
statement that certain people, such as the Australians, Bushmen, and
Polynesians, are atheists, as we are assured by some travellers, and
whether the reproaches bestowed upon them in consequence of this, are
well-founded, or whether it is the fact that the travellers who bore
this testimony understood but little of the language and signs of these
different people, as has been suggested by M. de Quatrefages, are
matters of relatively slight importance. The state of brutality of
certain tribes, buried in the midst of inaccessible and savage
countries, and the intellectual imperfection which follows, concealing
from them the notion of God, are nothing when compared with the
universality of religious belief which stirs in the hearts of the
innumerable populations spread over the face of the earth.
Language and writing gave birth to human associations, and later on, to
civilization, by which they were transformed. It is curious to follow
out the progressive forms of human association, and point out the stages
which civilization has passed through in its forward march.
Primitive societies assumed three successive forms. Men were in the
first instance, _hunters_ and _fishers_, then _herdsmen_, and lastly
_husbandmen_. We say, populations were first of all _hunters_ and
_fishers_. The human race then inhabiting the earth, was but small in
number, and this explains it. A group of men gaining their livelihood
simply by hunting and fishing, cannot be composed of a very large number
of individuals. A vast extent of territory is required to nourish a
population, which finds in game and fish its sole means of subsistence.
Moreover, this manner of living is always precarious, for there never is
any certainty that food will be found for the morrow. This continual
preoccupation in seeking the means of subsistence, brings man nearer to
the brute, and hinders him from exercising his intellect upon ennobling
and more useful subjects. Hunting is, moreover, the image of warfare,
and war may very easily arise between neighbouring populations who get
their living in the same manner. If in these eventual collisions,
prisoners are taken, they are sacrificed in order that there may be no
additional mouths to feed.
So long, therefore, as human societies were composed only of hunters and
fishers, they were unable to make any intellectual progress, and their
customs, of necessity remained barbarous. The death of prisoners was the
order of battle.
Societies of _herdsmen_ succeeded those of hunters and fishers. Man
having domesticated first the dog, then the ox, the horse, the sheep or
the llama, by that means ensured his livelihood for the morrow, and was
enabled to turn his attention to other matters besides the quest of
food. We therefore see pastoral societies advancing in the way of
progress, by the improvement of their dress, their weapons, and their
habitations.
But pastoral communities have also need of large tracts of country, for
their herds rapidly exhaust the herbage in one region, and they must
therefore seek farther for pastures, in order that they may be sure of
their food, when that is confined to flesh and milk. Pastoral
populations were therefore of necessity nomadic.
In their reciprocal migrations, pastoral tribes frequently came into
collision, and found it necessary to dispute by armed force the
possession of the soil. War ensued. Since the prisoners taken could be
maintained with comparative ease by the conqueror on condition of their
lending assistance, they were forced to become slaves, and it is thus
that the sad condition of slavery, which was later on to extend in so
aggravated a degree as to develop into a social grievance, had its
origin.
The third form of society was realized as soon as man turned his
attention to agriculture, that is, when he began to make plants and
herbage, artificially produced, an abundant and certain source of
nourishment.
Agriculture affords man certain leisure time and tends to soften his
manners and customs. If war breaks out, its episodes are less cruel in
themselves. The captive can, without actually being reduced to slavery,
be added to the number of those who labour in the fields, and in return
for a consideration contribute to the wellbeing of the tribe. The Serf
here takes the place of the slave; a form of society, composed of
masters and different degrees of servants, becomes definitely organized.
Agricultural people, being relieved from the preoccupations of material
existence, are enabled to foster their intelligence, which becomes
rapidly more abundant. It is thus that civilization first took root in
human society.
These then are the three stages, which, in all countries, mankind have
of necessity passed through before becoming civilized. The progress from
one stage to the next has varied in rapidity in proportion to
circumstances of time and place, and of the country or hemisphere.
Nations, whom we find at the present day but little advanced in
civilization, were on the other hand originally superior to other
nations we may point to. The Chinese were civilized long before the
inhabitants of Europe. They were building superb monuments, were engaged
in the cultivation of the mulberry, were rearing silkworms,
manufacturing porcelain, &c., at the very time when our ancestors, the
Celts and Aryans, clothed in the skins of wild beasts, and tattooed,
were living in the woods in the condition of hunters. The Babylonians
were occupied with the study of astronomy, and were calculating the
orbits of the stars two thousand years before Christ; for the
astronomical registers brought by Alexander the Great from Babylon,
refer back to celestial observations extending over more than ten
centuries. Egyptian civilization dates back to at least four thousand
years before Christ, as is proved by the magnificent statue of Gheffrel,
which belongs to that period, and which, since it is composed of
granite, can only have been cut by the aid of iron and steel tools, in
themselves indicators of an advanced form of industry.
This last consideration should make us feel modest. It shows that
nations whom we now crush by our intellectual superiority, the Chinese
and Egyptians, perhaps also the old inhabitants of Mexico and Peru, were
once far before us in the path of civilization.
It is quite clear that manufactures have tended to hasten the progress
of civilization. It is well worthy of remark that, according as the
matter composing the material of these manufactures has undergone
transformation, so the condition of society has progressed. Two mineral
substances were the objects of primitive manufactures: stone and metal.
Civilization was rough-hewn by instruments made of stone, and has been
finished by those composed of metal. Modern naturalists and
archæologists are therefore perfectly right in dividing the history of
primitive man into two ages: the stone age, and the metal age.
In our work “Primitive Man,” we have followed step by step the course
and oscillations of the primitive manufactures of different peoples. We
have first seen that man being without any other instrument of attack or
defence save his nails and teeth, or a stick, made use of stones, and
formed them into arms and tools. We then saw that he made himself master
of fire, of which he alone understands the use. We then saw him, with
the aid of fire, supply the heat which in cold climates the sun denied,
create during the night artificial light, and add to the insufficiency
of his form of diet, not to speak of the numerous advantages which his
industry enabled him to gain by the application of heat.
As man progressed, the instrument formed merely of stone trimmed to
shape no longer sufficed him; he polished it, and even commenced to
adorn it with drawings and symbols. Thus the arts found their origin.
Metals succeeded stone, and by their use a complete revolution was
effected in human societies. The tool composed of bronze enabled work to
be done, which was out of the question when the agent was stone. Later
on iron made its appearance, and from that time industry progressed with
giant strides.
We have no occasion here to revert to the history of the development of
the industry of man in prehistoric times. We shall confine ourselves to
pointing out that this part of our subject is treated at full length in
our work on “Primitive Man.”
To summarize what we have said: if man, in his bodily formation, is an
animal, in the exalted range of his intellect, he is Nature’s lord.
Although we show that in him phenomena present themselves similar to
those which we encounter in vegetables and plants, yet we see him by his
superior faculties, extend afar his empire, and reign supreme over all
that is around him, the mineral as well as the organized world. The
faculties which properly belong to human intelligence and distinguish
man from the brute, namely, the abstractive faculties, make him the
privileged being of creation, and justify him in his pride, for, besides
the physical power which he is able to exert on matter, he alone has the
notion of duty and the knowledge of the existence of a God.
After these general considerations we proceed to the description of the
different races of men.
We have said that we shall adopt in this work the classification
proposed by M. d’Omalius d’Halloy, modifying it to meet our own views.
We shall therefore describe in their order:
1. _The White Race._
2. _The Yellow Race._
3. _The Brown Race._
4. _The Red Race._
5. _The Black Race._
We would call special observation to the fact that these epithets must
not always be taken in an absolute sense. The meaning they intend to
convey is that each of the groups we establish is composed of men, who
considered as a whole, are more white, yellow, brown, red, or black,
than those of other races. The reader must therefore not be surprised to
find in any given race men whose colour does not agree with the epithet
which we here employ in order to characterize them. In addition to that,
these groups are not founded solely upon the colour of the skin; they
are derived from the consideration of other characteristics, and, above
all, from the languages spoken by the people in question.
THE WHITE RACE.
This race was called by Cuvier the _Caucasian_, since that writer
assigned to the mountains of the Caucasus the first origin of man. It is
now frequently known as the _Aryan_ race, from the name formerly
bestowed upon the inhabitants of Persia. The _Caucasian_ or _Aryan_ race
is admittedly the original stock of our species, and it would seem that
from the region of the Caucasus, or the Persian shores of the Caspian
Sea, this race has spread into different parts of the earth, peopling
progressively the entire globe.
The beautiful oval form of the head is a mark which distinguishes the
_Caucasian_ or _Aryan_ race of men from all others. The nose is large
and straight: the aperture of the mouth moderate in size, enclosed by
delicate lips; the teeth are arranged vertically: the eyes are large,
wide open, and surmounted by curved brows. The forehead is advanced, and
the face well proportioned: the hair is glossy, long, and abundant. This
race it is from which have proceeded the most civilized nations, those
who have most usually become rulers of others.
We shall divide the White Race into three branches, corresponding to
peoples who at the first successively developed themselves in the
north-west, the south-east, and north-east of the Caucasus. These
branches are the _European_, _Aramean_, and _Persian_. This
classification is based upon geographical and linguistic considerations.
M. d’Omalius d’Halloy admits a fourth branch, the _Scythian_, which we
reject, since the people which it comprises belong more properly to
the Yellow Race or to the Aramean branch of the White Race.
[Illustration: SCANDINAVIAN
GREEK
WHITE OR CAUCASIAN RACE]
CHAPTER I.
EUROPEAN BRANCH.
What we have just said with regard to the civilization and power of the
white race applies with most force to the peoples who form the European
branch.
Proceeding upon considerations grounded chiefly upon language, we
distinguish among the peoples forming the European branch, three great
families: the _Teutonic_, _Latin_ and _Slavonic_, to which must be added
a smaller family, the _Greek_.
Although great differences exist between the languages spoken by the
peoples composing these four families, these languages are all in some
manner connected with Sanskrit, that is the language used in the ancient
sacred books of the Hindus. The analogy of European languages with
Sanskrit, added to the antiquity evidenced by the historical records of
many Asiatic nations, and notably of the Hindus, brings us to the
admission that Europeans first came from Asia.
TEUTONIC FAMILY.
The people comprised in the Teutonic family are those who possess in the
highest degree the attributes of the white race. Their complexion, which
is clearer than that of any other people, does not appear susceptible of
becoming brown, even after a long residence in warm climates. Their
eyes are generally blue, their hair is blond; they are of a good height
and possess well proportioned limbs.
From the very earliest times recorded in history, these people have
occupied Scandinavia, Denmark, Germany and a portion of France. They
have also developed themselves in the British Isles, in Italy, Spain,
and the north of Africa: but in these last named countries they have
eventually become mixed with people belonging to other families. What is
more, these same people form at the present day the most important part
of the white population of America and Oceanica, and have reduced into
subjection a large portion of Southern Asia.
We shall divide the Teutonic family into three leading groups: the
_Scandinavians_, _Germans_, and _English_.
[Illustration: 3.--WAKE OF ICELANDIC PEASANTS IN A BARN.]
_Scandinavians._--The Scandinavians have preserved almost unaltered the
typical characteristics of the Teutonic family. Their intelligence is
far advanced, and instruction has been spread among them to such an
extent, that they have given a strong impulse to scientific progress.
The ancient poems of the Scandinavians, which go back as far as the
eighth century, are celebrated in the history of European literature.
The Scandinavians comprise three very distinct populations: the Swedes,
Norwegians, and Danes. To this group must be added the small population
of Iceland, since the language spoken by them is most similar of all to
the ancient Scandinavian.
The Feroë Isles are also inhabited by Scandinavians, and many Swedes are
also met with on the coasts of Finland. But in other countries, to which
in former times the Scandinavians extended their conquests, they have,
in general, mingled with the peoples they subjected.
[Illustration: 4.--WOMEN OF STAVANGER, NORWAY.]
The _Icelanders_ are of middle height and only of moderate physical
power. They are honest, faithful, and hospitable, and extremely fond of
their native country. Their productions are small in extent, as they
understand little more than the manufacture of coarse stuff and the
preparation of leather.
We give here some types of these people.
Fig. 3 is a wake of the peasants.
The Norwegians are robust, active, of great endurance, simple,
hospitable, and benevolent.
In Norway few differences are found in the manners and customs of the
different classes of society. Customs here are truly democratic, the
peasant plays the chief part in the affairs of the country. The popular
diet dictates its will to the government.
[Illustration: 5.--CITIZEN OF STAVANGER.]
M. de Saint Blaise in his work, _Voyage dans les Etats Scandinaves_,
describes the Norwegian as a rough and moody but reliable character. One
thing which struck him was the absence of sociability between the two
sexes. They marry usually before attaining twenty-five years of age,
when the woman devotes herself entirely to her husband and household
affairs.
When the two sexes meet at meals, they separate immediately the repast
is at an end. The result of this is a too familiar manner, an absence
of constraint among the men, and a neglect in the dress of the women
which contrasts strongly with their natural grace.
[Illustration: 6.--COSTUMES OF THE TELEMARK (NORWAY).]
In figures 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8, we give types of the inhabitants of Norway.
The _Danes_ (the old _Jutes_ or _Goths_) are a people proud of their
race, and full of valour and stubbornness. The men are tall and strong;
the women slender and active. Their hair is blond, their eyes are blue,
and their complexion ruddy. The children are fresh and rosy, the old men
lithesome and erect in their walk. Their voices are good and vigorous,
they speak in an energetic manner. We encounter in Denmark a strange
mixture of democratic and feudal customs: perpetual entails are
contrasted with laws whose object is equality. The working classes have
an ardent desire to possess land in their own right.
[Illustration: 7.--WOMEN OF CHRISTIANSUND (NORWAY).]
There are in Denmark three classes of peasantry: those who possess both
house and garden, those who possess merely a house, and those who only
rent apartments. The first of these furnish their board with rich plate
and utensils; their wives and children go to work in the fields
decorated with rings and bracelets.
The people therefore enjoy a considerable amount of comfort. Add to this
a general degree of instruction, which extends even to the peasant’s
cottage, and which embraces notions of agriculture, geography, history
and arithmetic. The civilization of Denmark is, therefore, very
considerable, and certainly greater than that of France, England, Spain,
and Italy.
Drunkenness is rarely met with in Denmark, and marriage is considered
sacred.
The marriages of the Fionian peasants last seven days. They dance and
make merry three days before and three days after that on which the
marriage takes place. The ceremony is performed amid a flourish of
trumpets. The bridegroom is elegantly dressed, the bride still more so;
she wears, moreover, a kind of diadem in which flowers are seen mingling
with gold.
[Illustration: 8.--BOY AND GIRL OF THE LAWERGRAND (NORWAY).]
_Germans._--When wandering as nomadic tribes in the woods, that is, at
the time of the Roman Empire, the ancient inhabitants of Germany much
resembled their neighbours, the Gauls. They were men of large stature
and vigorous frame, with white skins. Their hair, however, was usually
red, while among the Gauls the ruling colour was blond. Their head was
large, with a broad forehead and blue eyes. But the modern descendants
of the old inhabitants of Germany have undergone many modifications,
which would render it difficult at the present day, to find, in the
greater portion of that country, general characteristics based upon the
structure of the head, and the colour of the eyes or hair.
The modern inhabitants of Germany, the Germans, occupy a very large
portion of Germany proper and of Eastern Prussia, as well as a broad
band of country to the right of the Rhine. They are found also in
different parts of Hungary, Poland, Russia, and North America. The
Germans of the East and South having mixed much with the peoples of
Southern Europe, do not represent exclusively the Teutonic type; some of
them are met with who have brown hair and black eyes.
[Illustration: 9, 10.--SUABIANS (STUTTGARD).]
We give in the accompanying illustrations (figs. 9 to 14) some types and
costumes of the inhabitants of Germany proper (Baden, Würtemberg, Suabia
and Bavaria). The national costumes of Alsace are also shown.
We shall borrow from a work, published in 1860 under the title “_Les
Races Humaines et leur Part dans la Civilisation_,” by Dr. Clavel, an
interesting description of the customs of modern Germany:--
“Impinging, at its south-western frontier, upon the Latin world, at its
south-eastern frontier, upon the Slavonian world, and at its northern
frontier, upon Scandinavia, Germany,” says Dr. Clavel, “does not admit
of any very distinct definition. Throughout the whole periphery of this
country there exists no identity either of customs, language, or
religion. Its provinces on the frontiers of Denmark are half
Scandinavian; those bordering on Russia or Turkey are half Slavonic;
those which are neighbours of Italy or France are half Latin: the
provinces which together represent the frontiers of Germany, form a zone
more mixed and various than is possessed by the frontiers of any other
nationality.
“It is only toward the centre of the country that we find in all its
purity the blond Germanic type, the feudal organization and the numerous
principalities which are its consequences. It is here that we find the
conditions of climate which appear to produce this race with blue eyes,
red and white complexion, tall figures, and full, powerful frames.
“Whilst the Latin, glorying in the light of heaven, enlarges his
windows, builds open terraces, and clears his forests that he may plant
vineyards in their stead; the German loves above all things shade and
mystic retreats. He hides his house in the midst of trees, limits his
windows in size, and lines his streets with leafy elms; he reveres, nay,
almost worships his old oak trees, endows them with soul and language,
and makes of them the abode of a Divinity.
“In order thoroughly to enter into the German genius, we must wander
among the paths of their old forests, observe and analyze carefully the
effects of light and shade, springing up in ubiquitous confusion,
intersecting confined and narrow perspectives, lending isolated objects
a brightness vividly contrasting with the neighbouring obscurity,
changing even the appearance of the face in their alternations, and
forming dark backgrounds, illuminated by prismatic tints and glowing
sunbeams. Pausing beneath the venerable trees, we must listen to sounds,
re-echoed a thousand times, then dying away among the thickets, to give
place to the rustling of aspen leaves, to the sighing of the firs, or to
the harmonious murmurs of rivulets which force their way amid the flags
and water-lilies. We must inhale the air scented with the pungent odour
of fallen leaves, or the exhilarating scent of the wild cherry blossom.
It is only then that we come to appreciate the love of nature and the
druidical tone which pervade German literature; we understand Goethe’s
passion for natural history; the poem of Faust becomes full of meaning;
a feeling of melancholy creeps over the mind and leads us to the
contemplation of things that are soft, sad, mysterious, fantastic,
irregular, and original.
[Illustration: 11, 12.--SUABIANS (STUTTGARD).]
“Being brought thus in contact with nature, the German is natural and
primitive; he sympathizes with the world’s infancy. He easily goes back
to the past and the consideration of olden times; but it is not in him
to anticipate the future, and he regards progress with distaste. If he
advances towards equality and unity, it is the ideal of the Latins which
impels him. There is in him a resistance which forms part of his patient
and cold nature. His movements are sluggish. His language is hardly
formed. His literature, overflowing with imagination, is wanting in
elegance and purity, it is not ripe enough for prose and unfit to form a
book.
“The plastic arts of Germany also possess the simplicity and variety
which are produced by imagination; but they are wanting in proportion,
in purity of style and elegance; they are capable of arranging neither
lines nor colours; their productions often verge on the grotesque, or
are marked by heaviness or pedantry, and they clearly are not the work
of children of the sun.
“The Germans possess an ear which appreciates sound in a wonderful
manner, and reduces with ease to melody the fleeting impressions of the
Soul.
“. . . . He who possesses a strong and enduring constitution brings to
his means of action energy of will. His projects are neither frivolously
conceived, nor abandoned without good reason, and they are often
followed out in spite of a thousand obstacles. This patient and
continuous activity on the part of the Germans enables them to succeed
in all forms of industry, in spite of their subdivision and other
hindrances resulting from their political constitution.
“When men are laborious, patient, and frugal, we may expect to see
family life become strongly organized, and exercise a decisive influence
upon national customs.
“Love, whose duty it is to bring together the sexes into a united
existence, is in Germany, neither very positive, nor very romantic; it
is dreamy in its character. It seeks its _object_ in youth and speedily
finds it; faithfulness is then observed until the time for marriage
arrives.
“Early engagements being admitted by custom, betrothed couples are seen
together, arm in arm, among the crowd at public or private festivals, or
in lonely woods, or in twilight seclusion. Pleasure and pain they share
with one another, happy in the conviction that their hearts beat in
unison, and in the repetition, over and over again, of tender
assurances. The calmness of their temperament and the certainty of
belonging to one another some day, diminish the danger of these long
interviews. The young man respects the girl who is to bear his name and
rule his home with her virtuous example; she, on her part, shrinks from
a seduction which would dishonour her and compromise her future life.
“Such customs cannot but meet with approbation. They assure the future
of a woman, and save her from coquetry. They form a man for the
performance of his duties as head of a family, make him thoughtful for
the future, save him from licentiousness, which wears out the heart as
well as the constitution, and lastly, render his love permanent by
reducing it to habit.
“When the wedding-day, looked forward to for so many years, arrives, the
characters of man and woman have taken their respective stamp. The young
people know each other; they have no ground for suspecting deceit, for
the singleness of their heart admits of only one affection.
[Illustration: 13.--BAVARIANS.]
“Everything here contributes to heighten the dignity of woman. From her
girlhood, and during the years in which her beauty is blossoming, she
feels herself an object of devotion--she is _mistress_. Whatever she
grants, however slight the favour may be, acquires a high value. The
offering sanctified by her kiss is far more costly than gold; the riband
she has worn becomes equal to a decoration.”
This picture of German customs has special reference to the inhabitants
of Central Germany, the Austrians.
[Illustration: 14.--BADENERS.]
It is in the central portion of Germany that we meet with this patient
activity, and the gentle manners described by Dr. Clavel. But these
qualities are far from being the attributes of the inhabitants of the
North and West. The Germans of the North and West appeared in their true
character during the war of 1870, when a series of deplorable fatalities
and mournful inconsistencies had delivered up unhappy France to the
mercy of the invader. We then learnt how to appreciate this reputation
for good-nature, simplicity, and gentleness, which was commonly attached
to the inhabitants of the Ultra-Rhenic countries. The good-nature
developed itself into an undisguised ferocity, the simplicity into dark
duplicity, and the gentleness into haughty and brutal violence. The
hated and jealous fury of the Prussians, who rushed upon France with the
avowed intention of reducing her to impotence, and erasing her, if
possible, from the rôle of nations; their cold-blooded cruelties and
shameless rapine, are so impressed upon the minds of all Frenchmen, that
we need not recall them. Prussian barbarity attained the level of that
practised by the Vandals in the second century.
Our scholars have found some difficulty in explaining the anomaly which
existed between the ferocious conduct of the German armies, and the very
opposite reputation enjoyed by our neighbours beyond the Rhine.
Accustomed to regard the Germans as peaceful and gentle, sentimental and
dreamy, we, in France, were painfully surprised to find facts contrast
so cruelly with an opinion so generally entertained. An ethnological
work, published in 1871 by M. de Quatrefages in the “_Revue des Deux
Mondes_,”[4] has afforded a scientific explanation of this anomaly.
[4] Issue of Feb. 15th.
M. de Quatrefages has shown, by considerations at once linguistic,
geological, ethnological, and historical, that the Prussians, properly
so called, that is, the inhabitants of Pomerania, Mecklenburg,
Brandenburg, and Silesia, have but little in common with the German
race--that they are not, in fact, Germans, but result from a mixture of
Slavonians and Finns with the primitive inhabitants of those countries.
The Finns overran, at a very early period, Pomerania and
Eastern-Prussia; later on, the Slavonians conquered the same territory,
as well as Brandenburg and Silesia. Certain Germanic tribes--to which
add the results of a French immigration into Prussia, which took place
under Louis XIV., after the revocation of the edict of Nantes--must be
joined to the stock of Slavonians and Finns, in order to make up the
Prussian race as it at present exists. The northern Slavonians possessed
a well-known coarseness of manner, and were of large stature and
powerful constitution. The Finns, or primitive inhabitants of the shores
of the Baltic, were characterized by cunning and violence, united to an
extraordinary tenacity. The modern Prussians revive all these ancestral
defects.
M. Godron, a naturalist of Nancy, who has very successfully studied the
German race, says, “The Prussians are neither Germans nor Slavonians:
they are Prussians!” This fact is now clearly shown by the
investigations of M. de Quatrefages. From an ethnological point of view,
the Prussians are very different from the German populations, who are
now subjected to the rule of the Emperor William under the pretext of
German unity.
Two different written languages exist among the German people; that of
the Netherlands and German.
The Netherland language has given birth to three dialects--_Dutch_,
_Flemish_, and _Frieslandic_.
The Dutch, in the seventeenth century, were the greatest maritime
commercial people in the world, and founded at that period a certain
number of colonies.
The Dutchman is by nature reserved and silent. Simplicity is the marked
feature of his character. He possesses patriotic feeling in a high
degree, and is capable of enthusiasm and devotion in the defence of his
strange and curious territory, preserved from the sea by dykes and
formidable constructions, and irrigated by innumerable canals, which
form the ordinary means of communication, and which link together the
seas and the rivers, as well as the towns.
_English._--The English may be considered as resulting from a mixture of
the _Saxons_ and _Angles_ with the people who inhabited the British
Isles before the Saxon invasion.
Whence came and who were the _Angles_ and _Saxons_?
According to Tacitus, the Angles were a small nation inhabiting the
regions next the ocean. The Saxons, according to Ptolemy, dwelt between
the mouths of the Elbe and Schleswig. About the fifth century after
Christ, the Angles and Saxons invaded the British Isles, and mingled
with the inhabitants, who then comprised Celts, Latins, and Arameans.
During the ninth, tenth, and eleventh centuries, fresh invasions of
Great Britain, by the Normans and Danes, added to this blood, already so
mixed, another foreign infusion.
From this medley of different peoples has sprung the English nation, in
whom are found at the same time, the patient and persevering character,
the serious disposition, and the love of family life, introduced by the
Saxons, and which is the peculiarity of the German nature, combined with
the lightness and impressionability of the Celt.
The physical type which is the result of this mixture, that is, the
English type, corresponds with the combination of races we have
specified. The head is in shape long and high, and is in this respect to
be distinguished from the square heads of the Germans, particularly
those of Suabia and Thuringia. The English generally possess a clear and
transparent skin, chestnut hair, tall and slender figures, a stiff gait,
and a cold physiognomy. Their women do not offer the noble appearance
and luxurious figure of the Greek and Roman women; but their skins
surpass in transparency and brilliancy those of the female inhabitants
of all other European countries.
We borrow a few pages from the work of Dr. Clavel upon “_Les Races
Humaines et leur Part dans la Civilisation_,” in order to convey an
exact knowledge of the nature and customs of our neighbours across the
Channel:--
“When he examines,” says Dr. Clavel, “the geographical position of
England, a land possessing a humid rather than a cold climate, the
observer pictures to himself beforehand that he is about to meet a
people of imperious appetite, of a vigorous circulation, of a powerfully
organized locomotive system, and a sanguineo-lymphatic temperament. The
power of the digestive functions shows that the nervous system is unable
to obtain dominion, and that there is a lack of sensibility: the
frequent fogs, which destroy the perfumes of the earth, the stormy
winds of the ocean, and the absence of wine, announce a poverty of
sentiment and inspiration, and of the arts founded upon them.
“The level plains, which are as a rule met with in England, are not
favourable to the development of the lower extremities, and it is a fact
that the power of the English lies, not so much in the legs, as in the
arms, shoulders, and loins. The fist is an Englishman’s natural weapon,
either for attack or defence; his popular form of duel is boxing, while
the foot plays an important part in the form of duel which, in France,
bears the characteristic name of _Savate_.
“This power in the upper regions of the body gives to an Englishman a
peculiar appearance. In view of his brawny shoulders, his thick and
muscular neck, and broad chest, we rightly divine the ready workman, the
daring seaman, the indefatigable mechanic, the soldier who is ready to
die at his post but who bears up with difficulty against forced marches
and hunger. His blond or reddish hair, his white skin and grey eyes,
bespeak the mists of his country; the barely marked nape of his neck,
and the oval form of his cranium, indicate that Finn blood flows in his
veins; his maxillary power, and the size of his teeth, evidence a
preference for an animal diet. He has the high forehead of the thinker,
but not the long eyes of the artist.
“The insular position of England, its excellent situation upon the
Atlantic, its numerous and magnificent seaport towns, its watercourses
and the facilities for conducting its internal navigation, all suggest a
large maritime commerce and the habits which accompany it. But neither
the soil, the climate, nor the geographical position, can account for
the aptitudes imported by different races.
“The Englishman is two-fold--Celt and German--and it is only a
superficial examination which can confound them.
“The Celt, whom in the absence of precise notions of an earlier
population we have come to consider as indigenous, resembles the
Neo-Latin races, and, above all, the French. He rarely exists
collectively, except in Ireland, and some mountainous districts of Wales
and Scotland. His cranium and features indicate artistic aptitudes. He
prefers Christianity in the Anglican Catholic form. Like the old Gauls,
he delights in wine, laughter, gaming, dancing, conversation, raillery,
and fighting. He is spirited and fond of joking, frank and hospitable;
but his versatility renders him incapable of steadily pursuing an
enterprise to the end, of careful reflection, or of thought for the
future. Through his powerlessness to combine his powers and act
collectively, he has become a prey to enemies, who were superior to him
neither in number, courage, nor even in intelligence. Old and joyous
England and Ireland became subject to the Dane, the Saxon, and the
Norman: they lost their proverbial gaiety, their bards, their democratic
tendency, and their civilization.
“The physical and moral differences between the modern conquerors of
England were but slight. They all came from the coasts of the Baltic
Sea, and all possessed the elementary characteristics of the German and
Scandinavian, and the aptitudes which they inherited from the old Sea
Kings. They had, moreover, strength, which bade them regard conquest as
a right, and take what they desired; pride, which bade them hold up
their head even against the storm; individual initiative, which
demanded, above all things, personal liberty; a tenacity, that nothing
discouraged; an intelligence, capable of every subtlety; a general
sensuality, which converted the bodily necessities into a means of
enjoyment; a lack of sentiment, which pre-supposed a want of aptitude
for art; and, lastly, a temperament which was calm and robust under all
circumstances.
“This type, which is still found among all branches of society, not
excepting the aristocracy, has been modified by its combination with the
Celtic element, but it still remains predominant. The Saxon, as a rule,
absorbs or destroys the other races; we may say, he drinks in their
vitality, but is unable to assimilate himself to their temperament.
“We must, therefore, expect to find the customs of England proper, more
Scandinavian than Celtic. The pleasures of olden time have fallen off;
the merry gossips of those days find no place but in literature;
raillery, when it comes from Saxon lips, is armed with sharp teeth, and
tears away the morsel it attacks.
“When intelligence is averted from the ideal, and constantly directed
towards the positive matters of life, it acquires the habit of
considering in all things the question of profit and loss; it becomes
averse to waste, which destroys property unprofitably, and loves order,
without which, material prosperity is impossible; it guides the organic
forces to productive industry, agriculture, and commerce, where they
are fostered and matured; and last of all, to speculation, which
anticipates the greater part of the fruits of commerce, agriculture, and
manufacture. The Saxon finds everywhere the means of speculating, aided
in his manœuvres by the intricacy of his commercial laws. As a
consequence of his phlegmatic temperament, he gives way neither to the
snares of enthusiasm, nor to the deceptions of discouragement. He
reasons aright, both for the present and the future. In dealing craftily
with his antagonist, he is well able to guard himself against the
weaknesses of feeling. His face rarely betrays his convictions, and his
features are devoid of the mobility which would prove disadvantageous.
“Thus it is that the Englishman joins subtlety to will; hence his
practical power. Being strong and able, he acquires a confidence in
himself which easily degenerates into pride, and saves him from
smallness of character. He is neither obsequious, nor prone to flattery;
he casts on one side the refinements of politeness, which he regards as
humiliating in one who employs them; he keeps his word, and considers
that he would be dishonoured in breaking it; but he makes the best of
all his advantages. For him, life is a struggle for triumph, without
regard for those who are unable to contend, and who succumb in the
attempt. He asks no pity, and gives but little; he cannot be called
cruel, for cruelty is a form of weakness; but he does not hesitate to
oppress an enemy, when to do so would be productive of material
advantage. In attaching to an Englishman the characteristic of
individual initiative, which is met with among all the branches of the
Germanic tree, we rightly expect to find him fond of liberty, without
which his powers would have no vent.
“But this liberty would soon lead him to destruction, did he not join to
it the spirit of propriety, and temper it with the love of order, which
he acquires in his industrial and commercial pursuits.
“. . . . His arts are wanting neither in talent, observation, delicacy,
nor humour; they represent men and things with the most scrupulous
accuracy; but they lack feeling, warmth, and ideality; they know not how
to bring the passions into play, and are unable to soar above the
descriptive. His stage is a failure, as is his music, both in themselves
pure creations of feeling; and his architecture is governed by the
nature of materials, and the application of his buildings to the needs
of life. This rage for practical convenience, which makes the London
houses so unsightly, has also been instrumental in simplifying his
language to amphibology, and curtailing the accent to such an extent as
to create discord. When harmony in the means of expressing thought is
wanting, the art of talking well is no longer exercised in conversation,
but becomes concentrated in discourse. There is scarcely an intermediate
between the latter form of speech, and incorrect conversation among
individuals. The result of this is, that the Englishman, on almost every
occasion, expresses himself in speeches, which are listened to and
commented upon with an imperturbable patience, but which have the grave
fault of imparting to social relations a tone of pedantry and stiffness.
As soon as that exists, there is no longer any room for fun and humour.
Following out the spirit of formality, many things become no longer
permissible, or cannot be dealt with except by reference to strict
rules. Propriety, therefore, includes, over and above pure politeness, a
number of conventionalities which in themselves constitute nothing less
than a social tyranny. An act, which, everywhere else, would be regarded
as perfectly natural, easily becomes food for scandal; and in society,
by far the greater number of those one meets abstain from action,
speech, or gesticulation. An icy reserve is the tone generally assumed.
“In such society as this, indiscretion and flippancy are almost out of
the question. But, although the English scorn a lie, they cannot speak
the whole truth: they find it necessary to reserve a portion, and
frequently the most important part. The result is a peculiar form of
hypocrisy which bears the name of cant, and which is really the bane of
English society. Owing to this, social life is enclosed in a circle of
intolerance which imparts to it a painful uniformity. Each person is
obliged to do as every one else, to such an extent, that in the land of
liberty, the spirit is oppressed and dejected to a degree suggestive of
suicide. Hence it is that so many English, in order to escape spleen,
are forced to leave their country.
“The Englishwoman is tall, fair, and strongly built. Her skin is of
dazzling freshness; her features are small and elegantly formed; the
oval of her face is marked, but it is somewhat heavy toward the lower
portion; her hair is fine, silky, and charming; and her long and
graceful neck imparts to the movements of her head a character of grace
and pride.
“So far, all about her is essentially feminine; but upon analyzing her
bust and limbs, we find that the large bones, peculiar to her race,
interfere with the delicacy of her form, enlarge her extremities, and
lessen the elegance of her postures and the harmony of her movements.
“Woman moves about two centres, which are the head and the heart. The
latter deals with bodily grace, roundness and delicacy of form,
inspiration in feeling, devotion in love, sympathy, a manifold and
undefinable seductiveness, a sort of divine radiance, which is grace,
tenderness, and all that is charming. The former supplies intelligence,
spirit, animation, and consistency of action.
“If all we see in an Italian or Spanish woman tells of the supremacy of
heart, which Lord Byron loved so much, all in the Englishwoman reveals
mental superiority. Her physical and mental powers are well balanced.
“There are few mental occupations in which a daughter of Great Britain
cannot engage. She acquires knowledge with facility; she writes with
elegance, and would be capable at a stretch of improvising a speech; she
is witty and even brilliant; capable of dealing with abstract sciences;
she can contend with the other sex in sagacity and depth; yet her
conversation does not captivate. She lacks a thousand feminine
instincts, and this lack is revealed in her toilette, the posture she
assumes, and in her actions and movements. She rarely possesses musical
taste. Her language and song do not captivate the ear; her appreciation
of colour, form, and perfume, are at fault. She loves what is striking,
and instead of attaining harmony, revels in discord.
“No aristocracy, can, with reference to ability, be compared with that
of England. Having ensured the influence of wealth by seizing the land,
and substituting in its possession the son for the father, by virtue of
the right of primogeniture, it has given the legislative power to the
proprietors of the soil, through the medium of a House of Peers, whose
prerogatives and domains pass to the eldest son, and of a House of
Commons, the right to elect whose members is centred chiefly in the
tenants of large proprietors. Where the nobility enjoy such privileges,
royalty necessarily assumes a dependent position, and becomes merely an
instrument. Positions of influence in the administration, the army, the
magistracy, and the church, fall of right to families of distinction,
who dispose of all the strength of the country, and apply it for the
benefit of their own caste. Taxation is organized in such a manner as to
weigh chiefly upon the lower classes, while the produce falls to the
advantage of the privileged class as emoluments.
“. . . Before the British aristocracy could attain the importance it now
possesses, many conquests were necessary, to which the substance of
Spain, Portugal, Holland, and of a hundred and thirty millions of
Indians, has fallen a prey. The attainment of this object, has,
moreover, forced fifteen millions of English people to exist upon a
daily stipend, when there is any stipend at all; and, to aid it, the
cannon has opened the frontiers of China to the opium trade, and to the
products of manufactures which must either sell or succumb. The only
material compensation for all these evils, is, that immense power is
given to wealth. The cultivation of luxury, in every form, has increased
tenfold the number of objects to be provided. The houses are crowded
with a number of articles of furniture, the use of which is a science in
itself; the tables are loaded with an infinite variety of dishes,
fruits, plate, and glass; stuffs of a thousand different shades are
offered to the caprice of fashion, to be used either in adorning the
person, or in the decoration of apartments; but for all that, the house
is neither more beautiful nor more wholesome as an abode, the table is
not more hospitable or more joyous, nor is the dress more elegant or
warm; comfort stifles what is merely beautiful, which wealthy men always
associate with a large outlay.
“Among the English aristocracy we must expect, neither the exquisite
elegance of the Latin aristocracy, nor the appreciation of art, which,
in Italy, and even in France, gives birth to so many marvels.
“Wealth has been able to accumulate in the galleries of private persons,
pictures and statues, the work of other nations, but has been quite
unable to raise up a school of architecture, of painting, or of
sculpture; or even to assign a single division to music. Workers and
statesmen abound in England; but the condition of artists is bad in the
extreme. A great poet emerges from the ranks of the nobility, and
employs his talent in scourging the aristocracy, and laying bare the
customs of his country. Eminent writers assign a philosophic value to
the romance of gentle blood, and paint in the blackest colours the
mercantile and feudal genius.
[Illustration: 15.--ENGLISHMAN.]
“The men of iron, who have transformed England into a sort of freehold,
seem to think themselves altogether different from the rest of humanity;
they pass through the midst of other populations without being
influenced by the contact, or modifying the etiquette which rules their
excesses at table and in drinking, and which governs field sports and
courtship. A word or gesture is sufficient to mark its author as of low
breeding, and to jar upon the nerves of the nobility, which are
susceptible of still greater irritation, when writers of ability venture
to speak of lords as of simple mortals; but this scandal has been
obviated in the _fashionable_ novel, in which, amid a halo of ennui,
aristocratic decorum shines forth.
“All this is productive of a meditated coldness and repulsive pride,
which renders expansion and joviality impossible. Moral oppression and
ennui permeate their whole life, and in the end render existence
insupportable. These rich and powerful men become the victims of
_spleen_.
“Those who find no relief in political struggles, seek in foreign
countries change and diversion; the more robust share their time between
the table, their horses, and their dogs; they drink to a frightful
extent; they unearth the fox, and follow him on horseback, clearing
every object although at the risk of their neck, or else they travel a
hundred leagues to see a thorough-bred horse run, and to risk upon him
what would make the fortune of ten plebeians.
“Such a life as this can be led only in the country. It must therefore
be noticed that the English nobility pass nine months out of the year at
their country seats, in the exercise of the gorgeous hospitality which
is met with in all large oligarchies, and cultivating there the comforts
of ease to a degree bordering on fanaticism.
“Beneath the shade of feudality, exists a class of farmers,
manufacturers, merchants, capitalists, and speculators, which consoles
itself for the humiliations it experiences by those which, in its turn,
it imposes on the lower classes. This middle class, oppressed by that
above, and menaced by that below it, presents a singular mixture of
timidity and resolution. Its existence, ever precarious, makes it easily
susceptible of alarm, ready to yield to the terms of the powerful, or to
assume any character. Its enthusiasm and admiration are inexhaustible,
when it foresees, in the conduct of its superiors, some gain to itself;
but the resistance it offers is most powerfully adroit when public
affairs tend to do it harm. Danger hardly ever takes it by surprise, as
its signs are seen from afar and anticipated.
“One would almost expect to find Israelitish traits of character in
people who make the Bible their book of books; who, while undergoing
extortion, still retain the feeling of dignity, who are passionately
fond of money and whatever conduces to its possession; who risk that
they may gain, and compensate one chance of loss by three chances of
profit; who respect the letter of the law more than its intention, and
who employ commercial uprightness as a clever means of making a fortune.
“In the middle class, the British aristocracy finds a means of keeping
under the proletarian class, true representatives of the old Celts.
These unfortunate men are reproached, with drunkenness, to which they
fly as a means of forgetting their misfortunes; with brutality, which
exhibits itself in blows, injuries, prize fights, and cock-fighting;
with coarse sensuality, which feeds upon meat and beer; with
selfishness, which extends even to the glasses of drinkers; and lastly,
with stronger criminal desires than are met with among other civilized
nations.
“But in spite of these vices, the sad fruit of misery, wretchedness, and
ignorance, they possess substantial virtues. The English workman has in
his heart an innate feeling of generosity. He is gentle to the weak, and
rude to the strong. Goodness charms him, and whatever is generous is
sure to meet with his support. Although blinded by self-interest to the
point of being altogether without a notion of justice, he can hardly be
accused of avarice, since he gives cheerfully. His friendship is firm,
although by no means demonstrative; he keeps his word, and despises an
untruth. Reverses redouble instead of causing him to abate his efforts;
he never despairs of what he undertakes, since he is ready to sacrifice
all for success, even his life. He has none of the sordid vanities which
stain the intermediate classes. For his country, which is to him less a
mother than a step-mother, he entertains an inexhaustible affection. To
her he devotes his whole existence; he is rewarded by his own admiration
of her, and deludes himself so far as to call her ‘Jolly Old England.’”
Transplanted into the New World, the Englishman has already assumed a
type varying somewhat from that we have described--the _Yankees_, as the
Indians call them, that is to say, the _silent men_ (Ya-no-ki), have
lost in North America the general character and physiognomy which they
possessed in the mother-country. A new type, moral and physical,
approaching more to that of the Southern Red Indians, has been formed
among the inhabitants of North America, which type is exaggerated
towards the West, where men are rougher and coarser than in the North.
LATIN FAMILY.
The _Latin family_ originated in Italy, whence it extended its conquests
over a large portion of Europe, Asia, and Africa, thus forming the Roman
empire. At the present time the Latin languages are spoken only in
certain portions of this vast empire, namely, in Italy, Spain, France,
and some other countries in the south-east of Europe.
The people who belong to the Latin family are, in general, of a middle
stature, with black hair and eyes, and a complexion susceptible of
turning brown under the sun’s action; but they present many variations.
They speak numerous dialects, which frequently become confounded one
with another.
Among the people who form the Latin family are separately classed: the
_French_, the _Spaniards_, the _Italians_, and the _Moldo-Walachians_.
_French._--The Franks proceeded from the mixture of the Gauls with the
ancient inhabitants of the land, that is, the people who in olden times
were indifferently called _Aquitanians_ or _Iberians_, and of whom a few
are still to be found in the Basque inhabitants of the lower regions of
the Pyrenees, recognized at once by their language, which is that of the
old Iberians.
But who were these Gauls, who, by combination with the national blood of
the Iberians, formed the Franks?
The Gauls were a branch of the _Celts_ (or _Gaels_), an ancient race of
men, who coming from Asia, at an early period overran and occupied a
portion of Western Europe, more particularly that portion which now
forms Belgium, France as far as the Garonne, and a part of Switzerland.
Later on, the Celts or _Gaels_ extended their conquests as far even as
the British Isles. It was in the twelfth or tenth century before Christ
that they invaded Gaul, and subdued the indigenous Iberian population.
Of their Asiatic origin the Celts preserved no more than a few dogmas of
Eastern worship, the organization of a priestly sect, and a language,
which, through its close connection with the sacred language of the
Indian Brahmins, reveals the kinship which united these people with
those of Asia.
The Celts were a nomadic people, and lived essentially by hunting and
pasturage. The men were very tall: their height being, it has been
asserted, from six to seven feet. Many tribes dyed their skin with a
colour extracted from the leaf of the woad. Others tattooed themselves.
Many adorned their arms or breasts with heavy chains of gold, or clothed
themselves in tissues of bright colours, analogous to the Scotch tartan.
Later on they gave themselves up to greater luxury. Above their tunic
they wore the _saya_, a short cloak, striped with purple bands and
embroidered with gold or silver. Among the poorer classes this _saya_
was replaced by the skin of some animal, or by a cloak of coarse and
dark-coloured wool. Others wore the _simar_, which is analogous to the
modern blouse or the _caraco_ of the Normandy peasants. The second
article of dress worn by the Gaelic men, was a tight and narrow form of
trouser, the _braya_. The women wore an ample puckered tunic with an
apron. Some restricted their dress to a leathern bag.
Their weapons consisted of stone knives, axes furnished with sharp flint
or shell points, clubs, and spears hardened in the fire. Celtic stone
hatchets are common in the West of France.
The Celts were warlike and bold. They marched against the enemy to the
sound of the _karnux_, a sort of trumpet, the top of which represented a
wild beast crowned with flowers. As soon as the signal was given, the
front rank threw itself stark naked and impetuously into the struggle.
Leading a wandering form of life, the Celts constructed no fixed
habitations. They moved from one pasturage to another in covered
waggons, erecting simple cabins, which they abandoned after a few days.
They sometimes took shelter in caves, sleeping upon a little straw, or
the skins of animals spread upon the earth. More frequently, however,
they ate and slept under the open sky. Fond of tales and recitations,
they appear to have been inquisitive and garrulous. Their habits were
peaceful.
A branch of the Celtic family, the _Cymris_, who, like their
predecessors, originally came from Asia, overran the fertile plains
which extend from the moorlands at Bordeaux to the mouth of the Rhine,
their course being arrested toward the west only by the ocean, toward
the east by the Vosges, and toward the south-east by the mountains of
Auvergne and the last ridges of the Pyrenees and the Cevennes. The
_Cymris_, or Belgians, brought with them the simplicity of the north,
and having built towns, called upon the Gaels to join them.
These two groups, distinct in themselves although of the same race,
lived apart in some countries, while in others they held supremacy. The
Irish and the Highlanders of Scotland were _Gaels_. The _Gaelic_ element
also predominated in Eastern France. The inhabitants of Wales, Belgium,
and Brittany belonged to the Cymrian branch; but the Romans confounded
these two races under the general name of _Britons_ in Great Britain,
and _Gauls_ in Gaul.
We will briefly review the physical types, manners, and customs of the
Gauls.
At the time when Julius Cæsar invaded and conquered the Gauls, they were
distinguished as the northern, north-eastern, western, and southern
Gauls. The first were remarkable for the abundance and length of their
hair; hence their name of _long-haired Gauls_. Those of the south and
south-east were known as the _braya-wearing Gauls_.
The Gauls used artificial means of giving to their hair a bright red
colour. Some allowed it to fall around their shoulders; others tied it
in a tuft above the head. Some wore only thick mustachios, others
retained the whole beard.
When arming for battle, the Gauls donned the _saya_. They used arrows,
slings, one-edged swords in iron or copper, and a sort of halberd, which
inflicted terrible wounds. A metal casque, ornamented with the horns of
the elk, buffalo, or stag, covered the head of the common soldier, that
of the rich warrior being adorned with flowing plumes, while figures of
birds or wild beasts were wrought upon the crest. The buckler was
covered with hideous figures. Beneath a breast-plate of wrought-iron the
warrior wore a coat of mail, the produce of Gallic industry. He further
adorned himself with necklaces; and the scarves of the chiefs glittered
with gold, silver, or coral. The standard consisted of a wild boar,
formed of metal or bronze, and fixed at the end of a staff.
The Gauls dwelt in spacious circular habitations, built of rough stones,
cemented together with clay, or composed of stakes and hurdles, filled
up with earth within and without. The roof, which was ample and solid,
was composed of strong planks cut into the form of tiles, and of stubble
or chopped straw kneaded with clay.
The wealthy Gaul, besides his town residence, possessed a country house.
His wooden tables were very low, and in them excavations were made which
answered the purpose of plates and dishes. The guests sat upon trusses
of hay or straw, upon hassocks formed of rushes, or forms with wooden
backs. They slept in a kind of press, formed of planks, similar to those
which are met with in some cottages of Brittany and Savoy. They had
earthen vessels, of delicate grey or black pottery, more or less
ornamented, and brazen vases. They used horns as drinking-vessels.
The Gauls ate little bread, but a great deal of roast or boiled meat. As
a rule, they tore with the teeth pieces which they held in their hands.
The poor drank beer, or other less costly beverages; the rich, aromatic
wines.
The beauty of the Gallic women was proverbial. The elegance of their
figure, the purity of their features, and the whiteness of their skins,
were universally admired. To captivate these fierce men they made
abundant use of coquetry. In order to heighten the freshness of their
complexions, they bathed themselves with the foam of beer, or chalk
dissolved in vinegar. They dyed their eyebrows with soot, or a liquid
extracted from a fish called _orphi_. Their cheeks they coloured with
vermilion, and dressed their hair with lime in order to make it blond,
and covering it with network, let it fall behind, or else turned it up
crestwise. They wore as many as four tunics, one above the other, veiled
their head with part of their cloak, and wore a mitre or Phrygian
head-dress.
Any ordinary person who died was interred in a manner suitable to their
sex and condition, with arrow-heads, hatchets, flint knives, necklaces,
rings, bracelets, articles of pottery, &c. The grave was marked by an
unhewn stone, which was surrounded with herbs, moss, or flowers. These
tombstones were raised up in the plains, by the way-side, and amid the
deep shade of the forests. They were guarded by a statue of Tentates,
one of whose cheeks was painted white, the other black.
When a chief died, his body was burnt. In order to do this, the body was
placed upon a pile of resinous wood, with his weapons of war and of the
chase, his charger and dogs, and sometimes even, his slaves. While the
flames devoured the body, the bystanders uttered loud cries, and the
warriors clashed their shields. The half-calcined bones were enclosed in
an urn of coarse earth, rudely ornamented with a few engravings or
figures in bas relief. This urn was then deposited beneath a tumulus
covered with turf. In southern Gaul it was placed beneath a funeral
column.
In order to render complete the idea which we should wish to convey of
the outward appearance of the Gauls, we must say a few words about the
Druids.
The Druids were the priests of the Gauls, a clergy powerful by reason of
their political duties and judicial functions. The Druids led a solitary
life in the depth of oak forests and in secluded caves. They wore a
distinctive dress, their robes reaching down to the ground. During
religious ceremonies they covered their shoulders with a species of
white surplice, and upon their pontifical dress was displayed a crescent
which had reference to the last phase of the moon. Their feet were
furnished with pentagonal wooden sandals; they allowed their hair to
grow long, and shaved off their beards. In their hand they carried a
sort of white wand, and suspended from their neck an amulet of oval
shape set in gold.
We said the Franks proceeded from the mixture of the Gauls with the
Iberian natives of the country, joined later on to the Romans, the
Greeks, and more recently still to the Alanians, the Goths, the
Burgundians, and the Suevians. Having spoken of the Gauls, we shall now
proceed to describe the Franks.
The Frank was tall in height, with a very white skin, blue sparkling
eyes, and a powerful voice. His face was shaven, save upon the upper
lip, which earned a heavy mustachio. His hair, of a beautiful blond
colour, was cut behind, and long in front. His dress was so short as not
to cover his knees, and fitted tightly, showing plainly the form of the
body. He wore a shoulder-belt, ornamented with nails, and plates of
silver or inlaid metal. From his girdle hung an iron knife, an axe with
short handle and heavy keen iron head (battle-axe), a very sharp
ponderous sword, and a pike of medium length, the stout point of which
was armed with several barbs or sharp teeth, turned back as in a
fish-hook. Before going to battle, the Frank dyed his hair red. The hair
itself was frequently held together by a golden net, or a copper
circlet; at other times he dressed himself with the spoils of wild
beasts.
[Illustration: 16.--DRUIDS, GAULS, AND FRANKS.]
We are able to extract from historical recitals an exact idea of the
Frankish woman. She was powerful, and wore a long robe of dark colour,
or bordered with purple. Her arms were left uncovered, and her head was
wreathed with flowering broom. Her looks, sometimes fierce, bespoke
masculine vigour and a character which did not shrink from sanguinary
conflict.
The Celtic and Iberian languages gradually disappeared among the Franks,
being replaced by Latin dialects.
The Gauls and Franks, who were subdued by the Romans, received into
their blood the Latin element, which rapidly increased. Restrained for a
while by the invasions of tribes from the north and east, by Asiatic
hordes of Mongolian race, among which we may name the Huns; the Latin
element again assumed the ascendant at the commencement of the sixteenth
century; men and manners, language and art, bore witness more and more
to Latin influence: the fair hair and white skin of the Frank
alternating with the black locks and brown skin of the Latin people.
Thus it is that the French lost the athletic frame and vigorous limbs of
the Gaul, gaining in their stead the suppleness and agility of southern
nations. Thus also the French language became gradually formed, modified
from Latin dialects.
The existence of a single written language renders it difficult to mark
the characteristic distinctions among the French of the present day. We
may however, distinguish the _French properly so called_, who inhabit
the lower district of the Loire, and whose dialects are most akin to the
written language; the _Walloons_, in the north, whose pronunciation
somewhat approaches that of Teutonic nations; and the _Romanians_, in
the south, where the dialects become confused with those of the
Spaniards and Italians. The French of the interior are those who most
resemble the Celts; those of the south possess the vivacity of the
ancient Iberians or Basques; and those of the north have suffered still
more from Teutonic influence, the effect of which is more especially
appreciable in Normandy.
Owing to the diversity of his origin, and the different races of men
which have been moulded into his type, not omitting also the effect
attributed to the great geological variety of the soil of France, where
samples of all parts of the earth are to be found, the Frenchman,
considered organically, possesses no peculiar physiognomy, which
nevertheless does not prevent the complete identification of his French
nationality.
From a physical point of view, and setting aside certain extremes, it
may be said that the Frenchman is characterised, not so much by special
features, as by the mobility and expression of these features. He is
neither large nor small, yet his body is in all respects well
proportioned; and although he may not be capable of developing great
muscular action, he is fully qualified to contend successfully against
fatigue and long journeys. Agile and nervous, as prompt in attack as in
parrying a blow, full of expedient, supple, and cheerful, skilful both
physically and morally, this is the character we shall easily recognise
in our typical soldier of the next page.
Considered intellectually, the Frenchman is distinguished by a readiness
and activity of conception which is truly unsurpassed. His comprehension
is quick and sound. A halo of feeling surrounds this intellectual
activity. Add to this a very fair amount of reason, solid judgment, and
a veritable passion for order and method, and you have the French
character.
To this combination of various qualities must be referred the respect
which the French nation entertain for science and art, the admirable
order which is found in their museums, and the excellent preservation of
their historical monuments. This also goes to explain their excellent
organization for public instruction, both in art and science, the
forbearing and kindly tone of their philosophy, which above all things
seeks the practical rules which govern human action, their excellent
judicial system and admirable civil code, which has been copied more or
less by all the nations of the New or Old Worlds.
Although the Frenchman respects science, loves the arts, and takes an
interest in the productions of thought, it must be admitted that he is
loth to take any personal part in them. He is glad to make use of the
practical applications of science, and gratefully acknowledges the
service they render him; but he shuns the idea of studying the sciences
as such, and the very name of _savant_ conveys to his mind a tiresome
person. The sciences, which at the end of the last century brought so
much honour to France, now languish. Scientific careers are avoided, and
in the country of Lavoisier, Laplace, and Cuvier, science is visibly on
the decline.
To make science palatable to French readers, the edge of the cup must be
coated with honey, and the preceptor must clearly comprehend what dose
of the sweetened beverage he may administer, so as not to overtax the
powers or present humour of his patient.
We may say the same of the liberal arts. The Frenchman takes delight in
artistic works, in fine monuments and buildings, costly statuary,
magnificent pictures, engravings, and all the productions of high art;
but he does nothing whatever to encourage them. France is at the present
day at the head of the fine arts, and her school of painting is without
a rival; and yet her artists, whether they be painters or sculptors,
must seek elsewhere an outlet for their talents.
In France, the people are content with rendering a formal homage to the
merit of their works of art, and leave to the government the task of
encouraging and propagating them.
This encouragement consists in an annual exhibition of their paintings
and sculptures, entry to this exhibition being obtained only by payment.
When it is over, the various works are returned to their authors, and
medals of different value assist the public to appreciate the excellence
of their productions.
In France, then, the people are, properly speaking, neither studious nor
artistic: they merely profess great esteem for the arts and sciences,
and render them homage without the least wish to know more of them or an
attempt to further their cultivation.
A very excellent quality of the French nation is its sociability. Whilst
the English and Germans shut themselves up in their houses with
misanthropical concern, the Frenchman prefers to share his dwelling, to
inhabit a sort of hive, in which the same roof shelters a large number
of individuals of all ages and conditions. He can thus perform and
exchange many services, and, while living his own form of existence,
enjoy that of others. See how, in French villages, the houses are
grouped together or placed back to back, or, in the large towns, those
houses where fifty lodgers hardly separated from one another by a scanty
partition, have one common domestic, the porter, and you will at one
recognize the instinct of sociability, and external affability, which is
peculiar to the French nation. The readiness which each manifests to
render the little services of life, to aid a wounded person, or assist
in extricating his neighbour from embarrassment, are all signs of the
same praiseworthy spirit of sociability.
[Illustration: 17.--FRENCHMAN.]
The delicacy of feeling and thought, the extraordinary taste for order
and method, and the love of art, which characterize the French nation,
are all to be encountered in their various industrial products. A
feeling for art is essentially characteristic of French industry, and
gives it that well-known good taste, distinction, and elegance, which
are so justly appreciated.
Although he is neither student nor artist, the Frenchman knows therefore
perfectly how to call science and art to his aid, demand their
co-operation and inspiration, and transfer them with advantage into
practice. Thanks to his instinct for order and method, he succeeds in
drawing material profit from studious or sentimental subjects.
Having considered the bright side of the French nation, we will now see
where they are deficient.
It is a recognized fact, that, among the French, one-third of the men
and more than half the women can neither read nor write: this is
equivalent to saying, that of the thirty-eight millions of individuals
composing the population of France, fifteen millions can neither read
nor write.
The French peasant does not read, and for a very good reason. On Sunday
he has read to him extracts from the Almanack of Pierre Larrivay, of
Matthieu Laensberg, or some other prophet of the same cloth, who
foretells what is about to happen on each day of the year; and this is
as much as he wants. La Bruyère drew of the French peasant in the time
of Louis XIV. a forcible and sinister picture, which in many cases is
true even at the present day: in the course of two centuries, the
subject has altered but little.[5]
[5] “We meet with certain wild animals, male and female, scattered
over the country, black, livid, and dried up by the sun, attached
to the soil which they turn and rummage about with an insuperable
obstinacy; they seem to utter articulate sounds, and when they get
upon their legs, show a human face. And in fact, these, it seems,
are men.”
The French artisan reads very little. Works of popular science, which
for some years past have happily been edited in France, are not read, as
is imagined, by the working classes: those who seek works of this class
are persons who have already received a certain amount of instruction,
which they desire to increase by extending it to other branches of
knowledge; these, for the greater part, include school-children, and
persons, belonging to the different liberal professions, or engaged in
commerce.
The bourgeois, who has some spare time, devotes a portion of it to
reading, but he does not read books. In France, books are objects of
luxury, used only by persons of refinement. The crowd, when they see a
man go by with a book under his arm, regard him with respectful
curiosity. Enter the houses, even those of the most wealthy, and you
will meet with everything which is necessary for the comforts of life,
every article of furniture which may be called for, but you will seldom
or never find a library. Whilst in Germany, England, and Russia, it is
thought indispensable, in France a library is almost unknown.
The French bourgeois reads only the papers. Unfortunately, French
journals have always been devoted to politics. Literature and art,
science and philosophy, nay, even commercial and current affairs, that
is, all which go to make up the life and interests of a nation, are
excluded with most jealous care from the greater part of the French
journals, to make way for political subjects. Thus it is that politics,
the most superfluous and barren of subjects, have become among the
French the great and only object of consideration.
The press which indulges in _light_ literature is much worse. Its
articles are founded on old compilations. The bons-mots of the Marquis
of Bièvre are borrowed from _Bièvriana_, and laid at the door of M. de
Tillancourt; then Mlle. X. des Variétés is made the heroine of an
anecdote borrowed from the _Encyclopediana_, and the trick is complete.
The paper is sold at a sou, and is not worth a liard.
The papers are the chief means by which the French bourgeois stuff their
heads with emptiness.
The weakness of instruction in France becomes still more apparent by
comparison with that of other nations. Traverse all Switzerland, and in
every house you will find a small library. In Prussia it is a most rare
matter to find a person who cannot read; in that country instruction is
obligatory. In Austria every one can read. In Norway and Denmark, the
lowest of the peasantry can read and write their language with accuracy;
while in the extreme north, in Iceland, that country given up to the
rigours of eternal cold, which is, as it were, a dead spot in nature,
prints are numerous. We need not say that the English and Americans are
far in advance of the French as regards instruction. Nay, more, all the
Japanese can read and write, as also all the inhabitants of China
proper.
Let us hope that this sad condition of things will change, when, in
France, gratuitous and obligatory instruction has become the law.
Uninstructed and unambitious of learning, timid artisan and plodding
husbandman though he be, the Frenchman has yet one ruling virtue. He is
a soldier; he possesses all the qualities necessary for war--bravery,
intelligence, quickness of conception, the sentiment of discipline, and
even patience when it is called for. If in 1870 a combination of
deplorable fatalities forced the French to yield to the dictates of a
people, who even yet wonder at their victory, the reputation of the
French soldier for bravery and intelligence has in no way suffered by
this unforeseen check. The day for revenge upon the barbarians of the
north will come sooner or later.
Another peculiarity of the French nation is their spirit of criticism
and satire. If, in the days of Beaumarchais, everything in France closed
with a song, nothing at the present day is complete without a joke.
There is nothing which the French spirit of satire has not turned to
ridicule. In the art of the pencil it has created _la charge_, namely,
the caricature of what is beautiful, and the hideous exaggeration of
every physical imperfection; on the stage it has introduced _la
cascade_, a public parody bringing before the audience in an absurd
manner, history, literature, and men of distinction; in the dance, it
has given birth to the obscene and nameless thing which is composed of
the contortions of fools, and which with strangers passes as a national
dance.
The French woman is perfectly gifted in what concerns intelligence; she
possesses a ready conception, a lively imagination, and a cheerful
disposition. Unfortunately, the burthen of ignorance presses sorely
upon her. It is a rare thing for a woman of the people to read, as only
those of the higher classes have leisure, during their girlhood, to
cultivate their minds. And yet even they must not give themselves up too
much to study, nor aspire to honour or distinction. The epithet _bas
bleu_ (blue stocking) would soon bring them back to the common crowd--an
ignorant and frivolous feminine mass. Molière’s lines in _Les Femmes
Savantes_, which for two centuries have operated so sadly in
disseminating ignorance throughout one half of French society, would be
with one voice applied to them.
With this ill-advised tirade, persons who think themselves perfectly
right, stifle the early inclinations of young girls and women, which
would induce them to open their minds to notions of literature, science,
and art.
A question was once put forward whether we should permit our young women
to share the education which the University affords to young men. We are
speaking of the courses which were to have been held by the college of
professors, according to the plans proposed by M. Duruy. But this
attempt at the intellectual emancipation of young girls was very soon
suppressed. Being barely tolerated at Paris, these courses were soon
interdicted in the departmental towns, and woman soon returned to the
knee of the church, or, in other words, was brought back to ignorance
and superstition.
This want of instruction in the French woman is the more to be
regretted, since, to an excellent intellectual disposition, she adds the
irresistible gifts of grace and physical charms. There is in her face a
seduction which cannot be equalled, although we can assign her
physiognomy to no determinate type. Her features, frequently irregular,
seem to be borrowed from different races; they do not possess that unity
which springs from calm and majesty, but are in the highest degree
expressive, and marvellously contrived for conveying every shade of
feeling. In them we see a smile, though it be shaded by tears; a caress,
though they threaten us; and an appeal when yet they command. Amid the
irregularity of this physiognomy the soul displays its workings.
As a rule, the French woman is short of stature, but in every proportion
of her form combines grace and delicacy. Her extremities and joints are
fine and elegant, of perfect model and distinct form, without a
suspicion of coarseness. With her, moreover, art is brought wonderfully
to assist nature.
There is no place in the world where the secret of dress is so well
understood as in France, or where means are so admirably applied to the
rectification of natural defects of form or colour. Add to this a
continual desire to charm and please, an anxious care to attract and
attach the hearts of others through simplicity or coquetry, good will or
malice, the wish to radiate everywhere pleasure and life, the noble
craving to awake grand or touching thoughts, and you will understand the
universal and charming rule which woman has always held in France, and a
great portion of the influence which she perforce retains over men and
things.
All these qualities, which distinguish the women of the higher classes
in France, are met with also among those of the working classes. Their
industrious hands excel in needlework. They make their own clothing, and
that of their children; look to the household linen, make their own
bonnets, and most effectually cause elegance and taste to thrive in the
heart of poverty. The correctness of their judgment, their tact and
delicacy, and their rare penetration, are of valuable assistance in
commercial matters, where their just appreciation affords most useful
aid to their husbands and children. In retail trade especially, do these
qualities shine forth--order, sagacity, and patience. Their politeness
and presence of mind charm the purchaser, who always finds what he
wants, and is always in good humour with himself and the articles he
obtains.
The French women excel in household duties and in bringing up their
children. These graceful and sweet young girls become mothers whose
patience is inexhaustible, and make of their home the most perfect
resting-place, and the best refuge from the sufferings and hardships of
life.
_Hispanians._--Under this name we include the Spaniards and Portuguese.
The Hispanians result from the mixture of the Latins, with the Celts,
whom they succeeded in Spain, and with the Teutons, who drove out the
Romans.
Washed on three sides by the sea, divided from France on the north by
the Pyrenees, and from Africa on the south by a narrow stretch of sea,
Spain is crossed by ranges of mountains, which, by their various
intersections, form valleys permitting only of difficult communication
with each other. The mountains of Spain are one of the principal causes
of the richness of this country. They contain a variety of precious
metals, and the streamlets which flow from their summits fertilize the
valleys and develop into large rivers.
[Illustration: 18.--CATTLE-DEALER OF CORDOVA.]
The climate of Spain indicates the vicinity of Africa. The air during
winter, is cold, dry, and sharp: during the summer it is scorching. The
leaves of the trees are stiff and shining, the branches knotty and
contorted, the bark dry and rugged. The fruits mingle with their perfume
a sharp and acid flavour: the animals are lean and wild.
Nature therefore in Spain is somewhat violent and rude, and this
characteristic is peculiar to the people of the country.
The Spaniard, like the African, is in general of moderate height. His
skin is brown, and his limbs are muscular, compact, and supple. In a
moral sense, passion with him obtains the mastery; indeed it is quite
impossible for him to master or dissemble his feelings. He is not afraid
to allow their workings to become evident, but, in their display, if
they meet with curiosity or admiration, he passes all bounds and becomes
a perfect spectacle. A Spaniard always allows his feelings to be plainly
perceptible.
This habitual weakness for scenic display which in a people possessing
evil instincts would be excessively inconvenient, produces in the
Spaniard the best results, since at heart he is full of generosity and
nobleness. It endows him with pride, from which spring exalted feelings
and good actions; emulation, which prompts him to outdo himself; a moral
tone, generosity, dignity, and discretion. Nowhere are better understood
than in Spain the regard due to age or sex, and the respect called for
by rank or position.
The love of distinction, place, and grade is an inevitable consequence
of this state of feeling.
The pride of the Spaniard renders him very tenacious as regards his
honour. He brooks not insult, and seeks to requite it with bloodshed.
His hand flies to the sword which is to avenge his honour, or the knife
which is to settle his disputes (fig. 19).
In Spain arms are carried by all, and their habitual contact--too much
neglected in other countries--imparts to each the desire for glory or
the hope of playing a leading part in the world.
Such being his disposition, the Spaniard cannot fail to make an
excellent soldier. Besides having taste and aptitude for the use of
arms, he is vigorous, agile, and patient; and therefore worthy to be
named honorably in comparison with the French soldier. It is, however,
difficult to preserve discipline among these fiery and independent men.
They are not always easy to command in time of regular warfare, and when
times become troublesome, they become rapidly converted into guerillas,
a term which is almost synonymous with brigand.
[Illustration: 19.--NATIVES OF TOLEDO.]
The use of arms being familiar to every Spaniard, there is a great
temptation to use them, and passion frequently creates an opportunity.
Therefore it is that Spain is essentially a land of civil war.
[Illustration: 20.--SPANISH PEASANT.]
On the most simple question arising, the peasant seizes his gun and
rushes to an ambuscade, or joins a band of insurgents.
[Illustration: 21.--A MADRID WINE-SHOP.]
Political insurrections are an amusement to this impressionable and
hasty people. In the twinkling of an eye bands of armed men overrun the
country. The great want of discipline among the soldiers and
non-commissioned officers, conduces to desertion to these irregular
bodies, and the result is that unhappy Spain is continually in a state
of local insurrection, the suppression of which invariably leads to
bloodshed without producing any permanent settlement.
The passion which a Spaniard evinces in all he does, is not wanting in
his religion. His piety is exalted, and the violence to which this piety
frequently leads him, has had mournful results. It is this religious
fury which accounts for the cruelty of the Spaniards to the Saracens and
Jews; and which, later on, lit the faggots of the Inquisition, and
produced the most savage intolerance. Spain has burnt, in the name of a
God of peace and love, thousands of innocent creatures; and for the
honour and good of the Catholic faith, has proscribed, strangled, and
tortured.
This passionate exaggeration of Catholicism has proved the ruin of Spain
in modern times. It is marvellous to see how this nation, so powerful in
the sixteenth century, and which, under Charles V., dictated laws to all
Europe, has fallen; until at the present day, it ranks among the states
of the lowest class in this part of the world. But it will be seen that
the multiplication of convents, both for men and women, has had the
effect of rapidly depopulating the country; that the proscription of the
Moors, the Jews, and lastly, of the Protestants, has proved destructive
of productive industry; that the courts of the Inquisition, and the
auto-da-fé, have led to a feeling of sadness and mistrust among the
people; that the abuse of religion and its symbols, has produced a
bigotry which can be likened only to idolatry; and that the fear of
offending an intolerant and self-asserting religion, has arrested all
moral progress, and effectually set aside all development of science,
which of necessity presupposes free investigation.
This is how progress, activity, and thought, have met with their end,
and how material prosperity has become extinguished in that portion of
Europe, most marvellously endowed with natural gifts. Thus it is that
commerce has become a bye-word in a land, whose geographical position is
unrivalled, and which possessed in the New World the most flourishing
and powerful colonies; and that literature and science, the two great
words which indicate liberty and progress, have fallen away in the home
of Michael Cervantes.
How is Spain to recover her former splendour? What remedies must be
applied to these crying evils? We reply, religious toleration, and
political liberty.
The type of the Spanish woman is so well known, that we need hardly
recall it. She is generally brunette, although the blond type occurs
much more frequently than is usually supposed. The Spanish woman is
almost always small of stature. Who has not observed her large eyes,
veiled by thick lashes, her delicate nose, and well-formed nostrils. Her
form is always undulating and graceful; her limbs are round and
beautifully moulded, and her extremities of incomparable delicacy. She
is a charming mixture of vigour, languor, and grace.
Love is the great object of the Spanish woman. She loves with passion
but with constancy, and the jealousy she feels is but the legitimate
compensation for the attachment she bestows.
The Spanish woman, faithful as a wife, is an excellent mother. Few women
can equal her as a nurse, or in the attention and patience which are
called for by the care of children. The mother lavishes upon her young
family her whole life, and if she fails to instruct them, it is, alas!
that she lacks the power to do so; for she is no better educated than
the French woman, and, as regards ignorance, is a meet companion for her
in every respect.
We have said that, in France, women exercise a very manifest influence
upon the course of events. The Spanish woman is not, however, in
possession of this useful influence. She commands the attention of those
around her only during the short period of her beauty. When, arrived at
maturity, her judgment formed by experience, and her views enlarged by
observation or practice, she might soothe the passion of her friends,
assist them with her counsel, or unite them around her hearth, the
Spanish woman retires into obscurity, and the knowledge she has gained
is lost to society.
Having thus given a general view of Spanish manners, we will say
something with respect to the most characteristic physiognomies of this
country.
[Illustration: 22.--SPANISH LADY AND DUENNA.]
The Moorish type is met with in a marked degree in the province of
Valencia. The peasants have swarthy complexions. Their head-dress
consists of a handkerchief in bright colours, rolled around the head and
rising to a point: strongly reminding the observer of the turban worn by
Eastern nations. They sometimes wear, in addition to this, a hat formed
of felt and black velvet, with the edges turned up. On fête-days they
don a waistcoat of green or blue velvet, with numerous buttons formed of
silver or plated copper. In lieu of trowsers, they wear full drawers of
white cloth, which reach as far as the knees, and are kept up by a broad
belt of silk or brightly striped wool. The hose consist of gaiters, kept
in place by means of a broad blue riband wound round the leg. A long
piece of woollen material, striped with bright colours, is thrown over
the shoulders or wound round the body: this is the cloak.
[Illustration: 23.--THE FANDANGO.]
The peasants are to be seen to best advantage in the market-place,
whither they bring their oranges, grapes, and dates.
The women of Valencia are sometimes of remarkable beauty. Their black
hair is rolled into bunches above the temples, and carried to the back
of the head, where it forms an enormous chignon, through which passes a
long needle of silver-gilt.
In some of the preceding cuts we have given the costumes of the
inhabitants of Valencia, Xeres, Cordova, Toledo, and Madrid, as also
types of Spanish physiognomy.
In Spain, dancing is a national feature. The dance scarcely varies in
different provinces, but generally reflects the character of the people,
who accompany it with songs and national melodies. They can hardly have
enough of singing and dancing the Fandango (fig. 23), and the Bolero
(fig. 24).
Portugal abuts on Spain, and its people merit some portion of our
consideration.
The Portuguese women are frequently pretty, and sometimes actually
beautiful. They have abundant hair, their eyes are earnest, soft, and
penetrating, and their teeth excellent. Their feet are rather large, but
their hands are very delicate. Their forms are well set, and strongly,
though somewhat sturdily built; their joints are small, their complexion
sallow, their movements are confident. Their well shaped heads are well
placed, and the modest ease with which they wear the short jupon and
broad felt hat, imparts to these articles of dress a certain elegance.
The inhabitants of Ponte de Lima are of small stature, and possess fine
vigorous forms. The country people are worthy of special notice, they
make brave and steady soldiers, who are easily amenable to discipline,
and robust and intelligent workmen.
[Illustration: 24.--THE BOLERO.]
There is nothing very noteworthy about the dress of the peasantry,
except as regards that of the women. The petticoat is plaited, short,
and sometimes rolled up, so as to expose to view their legs, which are
usually bare. The bodice, which is furnished with two or three silver
buttons, displays the form. Being separated from the petticoat, it
permits the chemise to puff out around the body, while the sleeves of
that garment are wide and usually worn turned up. The head-dress
consists of a large black felt hat, frequently adorned with bows of
ribbon, and almost always furnished with a white kerchief, the folds of
which fall down over the neck and shoulders. Long earrings, and even
necklaces and chains of gold, complete the picturesque costume in which
yellow, red, and bright green, predominate.
[Illustration: 25.--FISH-VENDORS AT OPORTO.]
The streets of Oporto are much enlivened by the appearance of the
peasants in their various brilliant dresses, who there vend oranges,
vegetables, cheese, or flowers.
Fig. 25 represents the costume of fishmongers at Oporto.
_Italians._ No part of Europe can be compared with Italy, for softness
of climate, clearness of the sky, fertility of the soil, and pureness of
the atmosphere. The soil, which is very undulating, is watered by
numerous streams, and permits largely of cultivation; while the
mountains conceal precious metals, and beautiful marbles. No country is
better protected by nature.
On the north arises a broad barrier of stupendous mountains, while the
remaining sides are protected by the sea. Along the coast are vast
ports, with good harbours; and lastly, this portion of Europe alone has
the advantage of offering ready access to both Asia and Africa.
The fertility of the soil, the mild temperature, and the large variety
of natural productions which furnish good food, all indicate that Italy
should possess a fine, vigorous, and intelligent population. And,
indeed, the Italians possess these qualities.
We shall first examine rather more closely, the origin of this people,
and the differences they present in various parts of the peninsula.
The Latin family which gave its name to the human group with which we
are now concerned, had Italy for its home. In Italy, therefore, we
should expect to meet with it. But we should be deceived were we to
expect to find the pure Latin type among the modern Italians. The
barbarian invasions in the north, and the contact with Greeks and
Africans in the south, have wrought much alteration in the primitive
type of the inhabitants of Italy. Except in Rome, and the Roman
Campagna, the true type of the primitive Latin population is hardly to
be found. The Grecian type exists in the south, and upon the Eastern
slope of the Apennines, while in the north, the great majority of faces
are Gallic. In Tuscany and the neighbouring regions are found the
descendants of the ancient Etruscans.
What most interests us is the primitive Latin population. This is met
with, as we have said, in and around Rome, and in order to find it we
must go there.
The features of the early Latin people can be imagined without
difficulty, by reference to busts of the first Roman emperors. We may
thence arrive at the following characteristic features, as probably
those of the ancient Italian races. The head is large, the forehead of
no great height, the vertex (summit of the cranium) flattened, the
temporal region protruding, and the face proportionally short. The
nose, which is divided from the forehead by a marked depression, is
aquiline; the lower jaw is broad, and the chin prominent.
[Illustration: 26.--ROMAN PEASANT GIRL.]
The modern population of Rome, without absolutely reproducing these
features, still retain their beautifully pure characteristic lines.
[Illustration: 27.--ROMAN PEASANTS.]
In fig. 27, which represents a group of peasant men and women of Rome,
we easily recognize these celebrated types of countenance, so familiar
to every artist. The distinguishing marks will be easily seen in the
Roman peasants, who, quitting their native country, seek their
livelihood in France as models.
[Illustration: 28.--YOUNG GIRL OF THE TRANSTEVERA.]
As one of these types taken from nature, we would call the reader’s
attention to fig. 28, which represents a young Roman girl from the
quarter on the banks of the Tiber called Transtevera, and also to fig.
29, which is a faithful portrait of peasants from around Rome.
It would be a fruitless task, were we, in studying the modern Romans, to
seek among them traces, more or less eradicated, of the old Roman blood.
In a population which has been so degraded, oppressed, and polluted as
this, by ages of slavery and obscurity, we should find nought but
disturbance and chaos. We can make no reference to family life in this
land of convents and celibacy, nor speak of intellectual faculties in a
country where we see a jealous tyranny narrowing the minds of the
inhabitants, and an authority that is seated in the blackest darkness,
moulding body and mind in ignorance of morality and education. We should
need the greatest power of penetration to find, in the effeminate and
degenerate population of Modern Rome, the genius of the ancient
conquerors of the world.
There are, however, reasons for hoping, that Rome, being now released
from Papal authority, and having, since the year 1871, become the
Capital of Italy and the residence of King Victor-Emmanuel, will
gradually cease to feel the preponderance of the sacerdotal element.
Young Romans playing the favorite Italian game, _la mora_, with its
usual accompaniment of gesticulations and shouts, is a very common
street scene. The two persons playing this game raise their closed fists
in the air, and then, in letting them fall, open as many fingers as they
may think proper. At the same time they call out some number. The winner
is he, who, by chance, calls out the number represented by the sum of
all the fingers exhibited by the two players. If, for example, I call
out _five_, and at the same time open two fingers, whilst my adversary
displays three, which added to mine make _five_, the number called by
me, I am winner. The arms of the two players are raised and lowered at
the same time, and the numbers are called simultaneously, with great
rapidity and regularity, producing a very singular result and one
incomprehensible to a stranger.
_La mora_ is played all over Italy.
But it is not alone in the city of Rome that the characteristic features
of the ancient Latin race are to be found; the traveller passing through
the suburbs of the capital of the Christian World, Frascati or Tivoli,
will still encounter vestiges of the old Latins hidden beneath the sad
garments of misery. (Fig. 29.)
[Illustration: 29.--STREET AT TIVOLI.]
It may be said that Rome at the present day is a vast convent. In it the
ecclesiastical population holds an important position and plays an
important part. This, it is, which imparts to the Eternal City its austerity, not to say,
its public sadness and moral languor. We shall therefore close our
series of picturesque views of the inhabitants of Modern Rome, by
glancing at the costumes of the principal dignitaries of the
ecclesiastical order, their representation in fig. 30 being followed by
the reproduction of a well-known picture, representing the _Exaltation
of Pio IX._ (fig. 31).
[Illustration: 30.--A CARDINAL ENTERING THE VATICAN.]
The Latin type, which physically if not morally is met with in a state
of purity at Rome, and in the Roman Campagna, has, on the other hand,
undergone great modification in the provinces of the North, as well as
in those of Southern Italy. Let us first consider the Northern
provinces.
Northern Italy, endowed to perfection with natural advantages, washed by
two seas, watered by the tributaries of a large river, possessing land
of extraordinary fertility, nourishes a race in which the Latin blood
has mingled with that of the German and Gaul. In Tuscany and the
neighbourhood are, as we have said, the descendants of the old
Etruscans, and further north are the offspring of Germanic and Gallic
races.
The designs which adorn the Etruscan sarcophagi, originally brought, it
is said, from Northern Greece, have preserved the physical form and
appearance of these people. They are bulky, and of heavy make.
The men wear no beard, and are clothed with a tunic which in some cases
is thrown over the back of the head. Some hold in the left hand a small
goblet, and in the right, a bowl. They repose in an easy posture,
resting the body on the left side, as do also the women. The women wear
a tunic, sometimes fastened below the breast by a broad girdle, which is
furnished with a circular clasp, and a peplum which in many cases covers
the back of the head. They hold in one hand an apple, or some fruit of
the same appearance, and in the other a fan. This is the portrait of the
Etruscan which has been handed down to us.
Tuscany, of all Italy, is that portion which most strongly represents
the mildness, the order, and the industrious activity of modern Italy.
The natural richness of the soil is there enhanced by a capable system
of cultivation. The arts peacefully flourish in this land of great
painters, sculptors, and architects. The habits of the people, both of
the upper and lower classes, are gentle and peaceful. There is here a
state of general prosperity added to a fair amount of education. The
poor man here, does not, as in other countries, foster a complaining and
hostile feeling against the rich; all entertain a consciousness of their
own dignity; all are affable and polite. The general good feeling is
manifested in word and deed, and the religious tone is moderate and
tolerant. Women are loved and respected, and this respect corresponds in
religion with the worship of the Virgin.
[Illustration: 31.--EXALTATION OF POPE PIUS IX.]
At Florence and in Tuscany we meet that Italian urbanity, which, by the
French, who are unable to understand it, is improperly termed
obsequiousness. This attribute of the Italian is very far from servile;
it comes from the heart. A universal kindly feeling welcomes the
stranger, who experiences much pleasure among this conciliatory and
friendly people, and with difficulty tears himself away from this happy
country, where all seem bathed in an atmosphere of art, sentiment, and
goodness.
Southern Italy will show us a very different picture from that we have
just described. The proximity to Africa has here much altered the
physical type of the inhabitants, while the yoke of a long despotism has
much lowered the social condition, through the misery and ignorance it
has produced. The mixture of African blood has changed the organic type
of the Southern Italian to such an extent, as to render him entirely
distinct from his northern compatriots; the exciting influence, which
the mate has over the senses, imparting to his whole conduct a peculiar
exuberance. Hence there is much frivolity and little consistency in his
character.
In the town and neighbourhood of Naples we meet a combination of the
features we have just considered. Let us betake ourselves for a moment
thither, and take a rapid view of the strange population, which from
early dawn is to be met in the streets, singing, begging, or going about
their day’s work.
Fig. 32 shows us a shop of dealers in macaroni in the market-place
(_mercatello_), and fig. 33 the indispensable water-carrier.
The most favourable time for examining the great variety of types which
unite in the population of Southern Italy, is on the occasion of the
public festivals which are so numerous at Naples. This curious mixture
may be investigated in the crowds of people who frequent the festival of
Piedigrotta, where are to be found examples of every Greek and Latin
race.
[Illustration: 32.--A MACARONI SHOP AT NAPLES.]
Here are to be seen the Procidan women (isle of Procida, near Naples),
who still retain the ancient simar, the kerchief which falls loosely
around the head, and the classic profiles with straight noses (fig. 34).
In Southern Italy, these daughters of ancient Greece still wear the
golden diadem and silver girdle of Homer’s matrons. The Capuan woman
throws around her head a veil similar to that of the sibyls and vestals.
The Abruzzan women wear their hair in knots in the manner shown in Greek
statues. The men of these parts, moreover, clothe themselves in
sheepskins during the winter, and wear sandals, fastened with leathern
thongs. The Etruscans, the Greeks, the Romans, and even the Normans,
have left their traces in this country, whose population forms such a
curious mixture.
[Illustration: 33.--NEAPOLITAN ICED-WATER SELLER.]
[Illustration: 34.--NEAPOLITAN PEASANT WOMAN.]
Not less remarkable are, in this beautiful country, the peasantry of the
mountains and the sea-coast. The most varying forms and the richest
colours are to be met with, from the coarse cloth drawers and shirt of
the fisherman, to the brilliant costume of certain of the Abruzzi, from
the Phrygian cap of the Neapolitans to the peaked hat of the
Calabrians--a slender, tall, and sunburnt people.
In the midst of this motley assemblage of every variety of dress and
colour, the graceful _acquajolo_ (fig. 36), that is, the stall of the
dealer in oranges and iced water, forms a most picturesque object.
[Illustration: 35.--ITINERANT TRADER OF NAPLES.]
_Walachians._--From the consideration of the types of mankind in Italy,
we naturally pass to those of their neighbours, the inhabitants of
Walachia and Moldavia.
Under the title, _Walachians_ or _Moldo-Walachians_, are comprehended
the people of Walachia, Moldavia, and some of the neighbouring
provinces.
The Walachians proceed from the fusion of the Roman colonies,
established by Trajan, and of some Greek settlements, with the ancient
Slavonic inhabitants of these countries. The language of this people
corresponds with their triple origin, for it possesses the
characteristics of Latin, Greek, and Slavonic.
[Illustration: 36.--AN ACQUAJOLO, AT NAPLES.]
Walachia and Moldavia form the ancient _Dacia_. The Walachians,
originally subject to the kingdom of Bulgaria and to that of Hungary,
formed, in 1290, an independent state, the first prince of which was
called _Rodolph the Black_. About 1350 one of their colonies occupied
Moldavia under the leadership of a prince named Dragosch. But the
Walachian state was never very firmly constituted, and in 1525 the
battle of Mohacz reduced it finally under Turkish rule. The Turks did
not disturb the internal government of the Walachians, but obliged their
prince (_hospodar_) to pay an annual tribute to the Porte, and to
maintain Turkish garrisons in all their strongholds. But Walachia, being
situated between the Ottoman empire on one side, and Hungary, Poland,
and Russia, on the other, became the scene of most of the struggles
between its formidable neighbours. It was trampled over by both
Christian and Mussulman, and this terrible situation resulted in ruin
and exile to its unfortunate inhabitants. The hospodars who occupied the
thrones of Walachia and Moldavia were appointed by the court of
Constantinople, who sold this dignity to the highest bidder. The
hospodars were then only a species of pacha; their court was formed
after the pattern of those of the Byzantine emperors, but they did not
possess the military power of the Turkish pachas.
This situation has changed since 1849, when a treaty was concluded
between the Porte and Russia. By the terms of this treaty, the dignity
of hospodar was maintained during the lifetime of its possessor. New
events have happened, and, since the year 1860, the political protection
of the Danubian Principalities is shared between Russia, the Porte,
Prussia, and Austria. The Prince of Hohenzollern, who now occupies the
throne of Moldo-Walachia, is of Prussian birth.
The two principalities of Moldavia and Walachia enjoy their nationality
and independence on condition of paying a yearly tribute to the Porte.
None of their forts are now to receive a Turkish garrison.
The prince is assisted by a council formed of the leading boyards, and
this council forms a high court of appeal for judicial affairs. In
modern times, Couza was the best known prince of Walachia, although
political events or popular discontent led to his early fall.
The public safety is attended to by a sort of indigenous police,
commanded by the head _spathar_.
[Illustration: 37.--WALACHIAN.]
The inhabitants of Walachia are remarkable for patience and resignation;
without these qualities, it would have fared hard with them during the
calamities which have at all times befallen their country. They are men
of a mild, religious, and sober temperament. But, since they are unable
to enjoy the result of their labour, they do as little work as possible.
The milk of their kine, pork, a little maize, and beer of an inferior
quality, with a woollen dress, is all they require. On fête days,
however, the peasants appear in brilliant costumes, which we represent
here (figs. 37, 38, 39).
“The Walachians,” says M. Vaillant, “are generally of considerable
height, well-made, and robust; they have oblong faces, black hair, thick
and well-arched eyebrows, bright eyes, small lips, and white teeth. They
are merry, hospitable, sober, active, brave, and fitted to make good
soldiers. They profess Christianity according to the rites of the Greek
church. This people, which has so long inhabited countries devastated by
warfare, shows at the present time a strong disposition to develop
itself.”
Towns are rare in Walachia, the country being still far in arrear of the
surrounding civilization, in consequence of its political subordination
to Turkey, and its bad internal organization. The country of the Danube,
indeed, has practically but one large town, that is, Bucharest. There
are thus, in this land, no centres from whence light could emanate; it
is in an incomplete state of civilization, which can be improved only by
an internal revolution, or by the collision which, sooner or later, must
come, of its powerful adjacent empires.
[Illustration: 38.--LADY OF BUCHAREST.]
[Illustration: 39.--WALACHIAN WOMAN.]
“However,” says Malte-Brun, “nature seems to await human industry with
open arms; there are few regions upon which she has lavished her gifts
as she has here. The finest river in Europe bathes the southern frontier
of these provinces, and opens a way into fertile Hungary, and the whole
Austrian empire, offering, moreover, a communication between Europe and
Asia, by the Black Sea; but this is all in vain, for hardly a single
vessel glides over its waves. Its rocks, its shoals, the Turkish
garrisons on its banks, and above all, the plague, inspire fear. Other
fine rivers flow from the summit of the Carpathian mountains, and fall
into the Danube; but they serve only to supply fish during Lent, and,
being left to themselves, menace the surrounding country, which, if
better regulated, they would fertilize. The Aluta, Jalovitza, and
Ardschis, are navigated only by flat-bottomed boats. Immense marshes
encumber the low parts of Walachia, and their exhalations produce a
continuance of bilious fevers. The most superb forests, in which
splendid oaks grow side by side with beeches, pines, and firs, cover not
only the mountains, but many of the large islands in the Danube. These,
instead of being used in the construction of fleets, merely furnish the
wood used in paving the streets or roads; for idleness and ignorance
find no means of raising the blocks of granite and marble, of which the
Carpathians offer such abundance. The summit of Mount Boutchez attains a
height of more than six thousand feet, and all the mineral wealth of
Transylvania seems to take its origin in Upper Walachia. Copper mines
have been opened at Baya di Roma, and iron mines in the district of
Gersy, one especially in the neighbourhood of Zigarescht, where a bed
of rocks presents the phenomenon of an almost continual igneous
fermentation.
[Illustration: 40.--NOBLE BOSNIAK MUSSULMAN.]
“The Aluta and other rivers bring down nuggets of gold, which are
collected by the Bohemians, or Ziguans, and which indicate the presence
of mines as rich as those of Transylvania; but no one thinks of looking
for them. Only the salt quarries are worked, among which that of _Okna
Teleago_ furnishes 150,000 cwt. per annum. The climate, notwithstanding
two months of hard winter and two months of excessive heat, is more
favourable to health and agriculture than that of any of the adjacent
countries. The pastures, filled with aromatic plants, supply nourishment
even to the herds of neighbouring provinces, and could support even more
than these. The wool of their sheep has already attained considerable
value. It is estimated that Walachia contains two and a half millions of
sheep, which are of three-fold variety--the _zigay_, with short and fine
wool; the _zaskam_, with long coarse wool; the _tatare_, which forms a
mean between the two foregoing varieties. Horses and oxen are exported.
Fields of maize, wheat, and barley; forests of apple, plum, and cherry
trees; melons and cabbages, excellent, although enormous, bear witness
to the productive nature of the soil. Many of its wines sparkle with a
generous fire, and with care might be brought to equal the well-known
Hungarian vintages. A thousand other natural advantages are found there,
but they are of little avail to a people without energy or
enlightenment.”
SLAVONIAN FAMILY.
This family comprehends the _Russians_, _Finns_, _Bulgarians_,
_Servians_, and _Bosniaks_, that is to say, the inhabitants of Slavonia;
and the _Magyars_, or _Hungarians_, the _Croats_, the _Tchecks_, the
_Poles_, and the _Lithuanians_, that is, the people who inhabit the
countries intervening between the Baltic and Black Seas.
Before describing these people individually, we shall give in a general
manner the characteristics of the family to which they all belong.
The Slavonian family includes the European peoples who have preserved in
the greatest perfection the type of the primitive Aryan race. They are
tall, vigorous, and well made, and while in this respect they recall the
Caucasian type, they yet possess the most distinct marks of the
Mongolian type. The cheek bones are high, the nose is depressed at the
root, and turned up towards the extremity, which is almost invariably
thick. The oval form of the cranium is very marked; the chest is of
considerable capacity, and the shoulders and arms are large, but the
lower extremities are in proportion much smaller.
Mr. William Edwards has thus described the organic type of the
Slavonians:--
“The form of the head, viewed from the front, represents pretty nearly a
square, since the height is about equal to the breadth, while the top is
perceptibly flattened, and the direction of the jaw is horizontal. The
nose is less long than the space between its basis and the chin: from
the nostrils to the root, it is almost straight, that is, there is no
decided curve; but if such curve were appreciable, it would be slightly
concave, so as to give the tip a tendency to rise; the lower portion is
rather broad, and the extremity rounded. The eyes, which are slightly
hollow, are exactly in the same line, and if they present any marked
characteristic, it is that they are rather small in proportion to the
head. The eyebrows, which are scanty, are nearly contiguous at the inner
angle, whence they are directed obliquely outwards. The mouth, which is
small with thin lips, is much nearer the nose than the chin. A singular
characteristic which must be taken in connection with the above, and
which is very general, consists in the absence of beard except upon the
upper lip.”
It has been said that the Slavonians of the present day are the old
Scythians mixed with the Sarmatians, but their origin is not so simple
as this. These people originally bore the name of _Venedians_ or
_Servians_. They occupied, at the commencement of the Christian era, the
banks of the Danube and Hungary proper, whence they extended as far as
the Dnieper and the Baltic. Their name of _Servians_ is derived from a
people mentioned by Ptolemy, under the name of Σερϐοι, who dwelt in the
regions around the Baltic (_Palus-Meotis_), and belonged to the
Sarmatian nation. The Sarmatians advanced by degrees from the banks of
the lower Don, which was their country, to the centre of Poland, where
they mixed with the Venedians. The Sarmatians were allied to the
Scythians of Europe, who were an Indo-European nation, considered by
Diodorus of Sicily, and Pliny, to have come originally from Media.
[Illustration: 41.--RUSSIAN SENTINEL, RIGA.]
It will be seen that the rather complicated pedigree of the Slavonians,
is connected with gradual displacements of Asiatic populations. This
then explains the fact that they possess the Caucasian type in a
remarkable degree of purity, but altered by the admixture of Mongolian
blood.
A certain love of separatism, and a tendency to rebel under the yoke of
authority, have been the misfortune of these people. At an early period
they separated into rival nationalities, possessing but little capacity
for self-government. Anarchy was their political condition, and to this
must be attributed the misfortunes of Poland and Hungary, nations which,
at the present day, are almost effaced from the Map of Europe.
The Slavonians occupy a large portion of Eastern Europe; formerly they
had advanced as far as the centre of Germany. The descendants of the
German Slavonians are found in the Venedians of Lusatia, the Tchecks or
inhabitants of Bohemia, and the inhabitants of Carinthia and Carniola.
The purest type of the Slavonian race is to be found in the Servians,
inhabitants of Servia, Herzegovina and Hungarian Slavonia. The Bosniaks
and Montenegriners are also Slavonians. They formerly sent to Croatia
colonists under the name of Uscoks (emigrants.)
The Croats are Slavonians who descended, about the ninth century, from
the region of the Carpathians in Illyria, and who absorbed the previous
original Pannonian and Dalmatian population.
A branch quite distinct from this great race, and which might be
considered as forming a separate stock, is represented by the
Lithuanians, a people whose mild and indolent nature would seem to imply
a mixture at some remote period, with Finn, or, perhaps also, with
Gothic blood.
Russia is occupied at the present day by a Slavonian race mixed with the
Scandinavians and the primitive inhabitants of the soil. The Slavonians
who occupied Poland spread from the banks of the Dnieper to the foot of
the Oural mountains, while the immigration of the Varegians, a
Scandinavian people, brought a northern influence into this country.
These Varegians absorbed the Slavonians whom they found in this
country, and the Tchoudans who had summoned them. Under this twofold
action arose the Russian nation, which is mentioned by Greek writers for
the first time in 839, and the elements of which were subsequently
modified in various respects by the infusion of Turkish and Mongolian
blood. Russia took its name from the country situate around Upsal, which
was the native district of the Scandinavian emigrants (Rios-Lagen, the
Ruotsimaa of the Finns).
[Illustration: 42.--RUSSIAN DEVOTEES, RIGA.]
The population of Russia Major appears to be chiefly composed of a
Finnish-Slavonic race. Among the inhabitants of Russia Minor (Cossacks
of the Ukraine), the Polish element predominates. Among these Russians
we shall find the stock of those who established themselves farther
north in Russia Major, the population of which eventually absorbed them.
The Bielo-Russians, or inhabitants of White Russia, who occupy the
greater portion of the provinces of Mohilew, Minsk, Witepsk, Grodno, and
Wilna, constitute a race intermediate between the Russians and the
Poles.
The latter first appear in history with the dynasty of the Piasts, about
860. The Slovachians, who extend to the north-west of Hungary as far as
Austrian Galicia, belong, as well as the Tchecks, to this same Polish
branch. The Ruthenians, settled to the north of Transylvania, proceeded
from the mixture of the first Slavonians established in this country
with the Poles who emigrated in the twelfth century from Galicia or Red
Russia.
Such is the vast collection of populations united under the name of the
Slavonian family.
It is difficult to analyze the habits of a race, which, for centuries,
has been divided between oppression and slavery. We will, however,
endeavour to do so, and shall commence with the Northern Slavonians.
The Northern Slavonian is, in general, gentle and patient. His sweet
toned language caresses the ear and the mind with expressions full of
tenderness. He treats his wife and children with the greatest kindness.
Like the Arab, he loves a life of wandering and adventure beneath the
open sky, and, like the Arab, he can bear the greatest fatigue. On
horseback he crosses plains covered with snow, as the Arab crosses the
burning sands of the desert. Music has a very moving effect on the
Slavonian. It forms a means of translating his tenderness and his
melancholy; it responds to the vague and cloudy impressions, to the
yearnings, of his swelling heart. The Slavonian peasants cultivate the
voice, and men, rough and coarse in many other respects, compose
melodies full of sentiment. The auditors press around the singer, like
the shepherds of ancient Arcadia, and tears of emotion and pleasure are
seen rolling down the unkempt beards of these poor Danubians.
The Slavonians are less sensible to linear than to musical harmony. Thus
it is that Russian architecture can do no more than imitate the
monuments of France and Italy. On the other hand, the taste for colour
attains with them a considerable development, a fact which is evidenced
by the colours of their materials and furniture, and the decoration of
their apartments. The sense of ornament is to be met with in the lowest
villages of Russia, and the peasant who constructs his house with the
rough-hewn trunks of trees, does not omit to paint and carve his door,
window, and roof.
This explains how the serf, when taken from his plough, is able, after a
very short apprenticeship, to reproduce the delicate and artistic work
of the Parisian jeweller.
We see, therefore, that the artistic aptitudes of the Slavonian are well
developed, and that this race, in order to arrive at excellence in art,
only requires the conditions of political liberty and individual
independence.
From a moral aspect, the Northern Slavonian obeys, above all, the
inclination of his heart, rather than of his reason. Nor must the
Russian be looked to for personal initiative, or philosophical or social
innovations. He does not possess the instinct of liberty, but he has, in
a high degree, sympathy, collective action, and the equalizing
tendencies which are its consequences.
This sentimental supremacy is manifested in the Orthodox religion which
prevails in Russia, which imposes with authority its decisions, and the
precepts of which are addressed less to the reason than to blind faith.
By referring to this feeling of sympathy, we are enabled to furnish an
explanation of the facility with which an immense population, with bad
police arrangements, bad administration, and without good means of
communication, acts collectively, accepting the same faith, and obeying
the same law. The minds of all in Russia seem to obey one single will
and inspiration.
The Slavonian republics flourished from the sixth to the seventh
century, during which time these people were happy, wealthy, and
tranquil. Art and science flourished there under the shelter of
municipal liberty. But, although well formed for peace, they did not
possess the element of centralization which was necessary to enable them
to withstand foreign aggression. They at last became a prey to the
Mongolians and Germans, who brought with them a feudal form of
government, and banished all prosperity by destroying the democratic
element of equality. The inhabitants of Novgorod were reduced to an
actual state of slavery, and Poland, devoted to deplorable political
institutions, became, from that moment, a prey to the anarchy which was
to bring about its fall.
Russia took its origin from the submission of the Slavonian populations
of the north, to the despotic centralization so powerfully organized by
Peter the Great and his successors.
The Slavonians of the South, that is, the inhabitants of Slavonia,
Servia, Bulgaria, Carniola, &c., differ sensibly from those of the
North. A dry and mountainous country, filled, nevertheless, with sweet
odours, a burning sun, a clear sky, and the various products of the
soil, have rendered the race of Southern Slavonians dark, wiry, active,
warlike, and chivalrous. Few men are stronger, physically or morally,
than the Slavonians of the Ottoman Empire.
The deplorable Turkish administration has been unable to change the
precious qualifications of this people. Though continually beaten down
with the sword, they always rise again; the least hope of independence
nerves their hearts. The hospitality of the Southern Slavonians, their
language brimming with poetry, and their national songs, all impart to
them a fine and beautiful character. It may be safely affirmed that a
brilliant civilization will arise among these people as soon as they are
released from the Turkish yoke.
We will now shortly consider the principal populations whom we have
classed under the Slavonian family.
_Russians._--The Russians form the most important branch of this
family. They may be subdivided into _Russians properly so called_,
_Rousniaks_, and _Cossacks_.
The Russians, properly so called, inhabit, almost exclusively, the
central portion of Russia, and are, moreover, disseminated throughout
all the rest of the Russian Empire, the immense extent of which is well
known. In the Asiatic and American portions of this vast empire, they
form, not the majority, but the ruling section of the population.
Figs. 43 and 44 will convey an idea of the Russian physiognomy in the
capital of the empire, St. Petersburg; fig. 43 represents the dress of
the townspeople, and the sledge which takes the place of the carriage
during the long winters of this latitude; fig. 44 represents the
interior of an inn.
[Illustration: 43.--TRAFFIC IN ST. PETERSBURG.]
In Russian, the term _isba_ is applied to the dwellings of the
peasantry, which are almost always constructed of wood. A Russian
village usually consists of only one street, lined with isbas, more or
less ornamented, according to the taste or fortune of the proprietor.
The houses are almost always similar. Figure 45 shows the interior of
this house.
[Illustration: 44.--A RUSSIAN TAVERN.]
In these houses everything is made of wood, except that portion which
surrounds a gigantic stove kept alight during the whole winter. The
furniture consists of forms placed along the walls, and which serve as
beds for the whole family, who in winter however sleep upon the stove.
To the ceiling are suspended the provisions and candles. In the corner
of every room is an image of the Virgin Mary. Instruments of labour,
cooking utensils, and domestic animals mingle, within the isba, in
picturesque disorder.
[Illustration: 45.--INTERIOR OF AN ISBA.]
The Russian peasant is intelligent, brave, hospitable, affable, and
benevolent; but he is wanting in cleanliness, and indulges to excess in
malt spirit. He wears a shirt of cotton-stuff, usually red, falling over
capacious trousers, which are tucked into heavy boots.
His outer clothing consists of the _touloupa_, formed of a sheep’s skin
with the wool on, and worn with this next the body. His low crowned hat
has a broad turned up rim. The hat worn by peasants in the neighbourhood
of Moscow is pointed and almost without a rim.
The women wear boots like the men: they also wear the touloupa, with a
shawl and kerchief over the head and shoulders. It is only on fête days
that this wretched costume gives place to aprons and shawls, of bright
colour, and even embroidered in gold and silver. The head-dresses are
elegant, and vary in the different provinces.
[Illustration: 46.--LIVONIAN PEASANTS.]
The pleasures of a Russian peasant are always of a serious character.
The quick and sparkling expansion and gaiety of Southern populations are
unknown to the inhabitants of these frozen regions.
M. d’Hearyet, who has travelled in the Russian provinces of the Baltic,
informs us, that at Riga the houses are comfortable and well appointed;
that immense stoves preserve a temperature of 68° or more in vast
apartments, guarded from without by double windows and double doors:
that persons leaving the house envelop themselves in a fur robe, which
leaves no form distinguishable, so that it is difficult to say whether
the individual in question is a man or woman: that at night, the bed is
small, low, furnished with one or two leathern mattresses and some
sheets a little larger than napkins. They live in a hot-house
atmosphere, the air of which is not often enough renewed.
[Illustration: 47.--TARTAR OF KASAK.]
The Cossacks form in Russia rather a military caste than a distinct
people. They seem to be descended from the Rousniaks mixed with other
people, chiefly Circassians. They frequently have longer faces, more
prominent noses, and are of greater height, than the Russians properly
so called. Their principal settlement is upon the banks of the lower
portion of the Don. They, however, rarely possess a fixed residence,
since the Cossacks, spread throughout the entire Russian Empire, act as
light cavalry and border troops.
[Illustration: 48.--TARTAR OF THE CAUCASUS.]
Figures 48 and 49 represent different types, taken from Nature, of
Cossacks who live in the Caucasus, along the frontiers which bound the
Southern portion of the Russian possessions.
_Finns._--The Finns form small scattered populations which extend from
the Baltic sea to the east of the Obi. The Finns are regarded as the
remains of people once far more numerous, who have been conquered,
repressed, carried off, or driven back by Slavonians, Turks, and
Mongolians. They lead the life of hunters and husbandmen, rather than
that of warriors and nomads. Reddish, or, frequently red hair, a scanty
beard, a complexion marked with red patches, bluish or grey eyes, sunken
cheeks, prominent cheek-bones, a large occiput, and an angular frame
possessing less beauty than that of the Europeans and Arameans, have
been regarded as the original characteristics of the Finns: but in a
large number of these people these characteristics are more or less
modified. Among them are distinguished the _Ostiaks_, the _Vogouls_, the
_Finns of Siberia_, the _Finns of Eastern Russia_, and the _Finns of the
Baltic_.
The Finns of Siberia form two groups; one in the South, the other in the
North.
[Illustration: 49.--TARTAR OF THE CAUCASUS.]
The former is composed of certain people known under the names of the
Teleouts, Sagaïs, and Kachintz, whose language bears some general
affinity to Turkish dialects; these give themselves up to hunting,
fishing, and agriculture, and are subject to the Russian Empire.
The Northern group is formed of two people: the _Ostiaks_ and the
_Vogouls_ who have retained Finnish dialects.
[Illustration: 50.--RUSSIAN NORTH-SEA PILOT.]
The Vogouls form only a very insignificant population dwelling east of
the Oural, and have undergone such mixture with the Turks and Mongolians
as to have adopted to a great extent their characteristics.
The Ostiaks who dwell upon the banks of the Obi appear to have preserved
in much greater perfection the characteristics of the Finns. They are a
people devoted to hunting and fishing, with red hair, very uncivilized,
and partly idolatrous.
Madame Eva Felinska, during an exile in Siberia, inspected, as far as
possible, the Ostiak huts. These habitations were so foul, and gave
forth such putrid miasmas, that, notwithstanding her curiosity, this
lady was unable to remain in them more than a minute.
The Ostiaks cover their skins with a layer of rancid fat, over which
they wear a reindeer skin. They eat uncooked fish or game, this being
their ordinary food. But from time to time they go with large buckets of
bark to Berezer, where they collect, and devour as delicacies, the
refuse of the kitchens. Fig. 51 represents an Ostiak hut.
The Finns of Eastern Russia comprise the _Baskirs_, the _Teptiars_, and
the _Metscheriaks_ of the Southern Oural: three small peoples who speak
Turkish dialects mingled with Finnish words, and who exist in very much
the same way. The Baskirs are the most numerous; they are engaged in
rearing horses and bees. Like the Cossacks they furnish bodies of
cavalry to the Russian army.
The Finns of the Volga comprise the _Tchouvachians_, _Tcheremissians_
and _Moadueinites_, who likewise speak dialects interspersed with
Turkish words: a short time since they turned their attention to
husbandry.
Certain populations scattered through the governments of Perm, Vologda,
Orenburg, and Viatka, are the remains of a people of some consideration,
formerly independent, civilized, and commercial, whom the Russians
subdued, and to a large extent absorbed: these are the _Permians_.
The Finns of the Baltic, or Finns properly so called, have been long
under the rule of Teutonic nations, and have generally preserved the
characteristics of the family we have described above. Among them are
distinguished the _Livonians_, _Esthonians_, _Ischorians_, _Kyrials_,
_Ymes_ or _Finlanders_, and _Quaines_, who are respectively the remains
of the ancient inhabitants of Livonia, Esthonia, Ingria, Finland, and
Carelia, where they are now mixed with the Slavonians and Teutons.
During the last century the Quaines pushed forward to the extremity of
Norwegian Lapland, of which they at present form the principal
population.
[Illustration: 51.--OSTIAK HUT.]
_Bulgarians_, _Servians_, and _Bosniaks_ or inhabitants of
_Flavinia_.--In order to describe these, we need do no more than refer
to the general facts which have been stated above with reference to the
Southern Slavonians. We will merely borrow a few descriptions and
illustrations from the work of M. George Perrot, a French writer,
“_Voyage chez les Slaves du Sud_,” published in 1870, and well known on
account of the excellent history it contains of his travels in Asia
Minor.
[Illustration: 52.--ISIGANE OF VOAKOVAR.]
M. George Perrot travelled through Slavonia, Croatia, Bosnia, and the
strip of territory recently cleared to serve as a frontier to the
Mussulman possessions, and which bears the name of _Military Confines_.
[Illustration: 53.--SLAVONIAN PEASANT.]
M. George Perrot first of all gives us some types of the inhabitants of
Slavonia, which we shall reproduce here. Figure 54 represents a peasant
from the neighbourhood of Essek, a town of Slavonia.
[Illustration: 54.--A PEASANT OF ESSEK.]
While halting at the borough of Vouka, situated a few leagues from
Essek, M. George Perrot thus describes the peasants of these parts.
“The majority of the men around us have hair which is blond or of
different shades of chestnut. Although much burnt by the sun, they are
not generally so dark as the Magyars. Many of the women, who are tall
and slender, are really beautiful. Their eyes especially, which are
bright and sparkling, and sometimes blue, though more frequently of a
dark grey, are charming. The lower portion of their face is less
agreeable; the chin is usually prominent, and the lips are rather thick.
“Their costume recalls that met with in the East. The men wear a slouch
hat of black felt with the edges turned up, a linen shirt, and full
trousers down to the ankle; this in hot weather, when they are in
working order, forms the whole dress. One or two loungers, who joined
us, were more completely dressed than this.
“They wore large boots of thick leather, and over the shirt a waistcoat
of blue cloth, adorned in front, with white metal buttons, and behind,
with embroidery in yellow or white. On another occasion, when we were on
the boat, we saw some men who, in addition to this, wore, over the
waistcoat, a short cape or half-cloak, which did not fall lower than the
waist, and of which, as a rule, the sleeves were allowed to hang loose.
In winter, they add to these, warm robes of sheepskin or large mantles,
which put me in mind of the rough overcoats worn by our waggoners.
“As to the women, they make me think of the Albanians of Attica. This
fine September afternoon, they are wearing a long chemise, embroidered
with eyelet holes and coloured patterns; this chemise, which leaves the
neck very open, would reach to the ground, but in order to permit of
freer movement in the fields or at home, it is hitched up, and supported
by a coloured girdle, wound two or three times round the body; being
thus held up, the chemise forms elegant and symmetrical folds, falling
in front as low as the ankle, while behind, it extends to about half way
down the calf of the leg. Over the head is thrown, in various fashions,
a kerchief, which is usually white, but which on festive occasions is
embroidered with silver and gold; the ends of this fall down the back,
or over the bosom, as may suit the taste of the wearer. When the best
dress is donned, a cloth apron, the colour and pattern of which bear a
resemblance to the carpets which I have met with in Servia and Bosnia,
hangs down to the knees; over the chemise is worn a species of waistcoat
without sleeves, and ornamented with gold or silver embroidery. In
winter, they guard against the cold by wearing over all a thick overcoat
of sheepskin. All the garments worn by the women are worked by their own
hands and busy fingers, during the long winter evenings.”
[Illustration: 55.--HERDSMEN OF THE MILITARY CONFINES.]
M. George Perrot remained for rather a long period in the provinces now
called the _Military Confines_ or _Frontiers_, and he describes the
miserable state in which the Slavonian peasantry exist there, where
they are obliged to live side by side with wild hordes of Mussulman
soldiers or pandours.
Figure 55 shows peasants of these districts returning from pasture.
[Illustration: 56.--WOMAN OF THE MILITARY CONFINES.]
Figure 56 is given by the author as a type of the Slavonian women who
inhabit the Military frontiers.
Let us quote a few more of this traveller’s impressions.
“What struck me in all the villages of the Confines through which I
passed, were the guard stations, before which loitered, or slept beside
their guns, suspended on the wall, five or six _Gränzer_. In summer,
they wear merely their trousers and shirt of coarse white cloth, and
sometimes a sort of brown jacket with red facings, which they also wear
for field work. In winter they are seen enveloped in their large hooded
cloaks of red cloth; and, thus equipped and armed, guard their flocks on
the moors. The state furnishes them, for exercise and service, with guns
similar to those used by regiments of the line; but when not on duty,
many of them prefer long guns of Albanian manufacture or shape, with
swallow-tailed stocks. These guns are transmitted from father to son for
several generations. Besides these, they wear in their girdles, one or
two pistols, and a kind of dagger with a bone handle inlaid with coral
or glass. In this guise they have rather the appearance of Bosniak
_bachibozouks_, than of civilized subjects of His Majesty Francis
Joseph, constitutional Emperor of Austria, and King of Hungary. Their
uniform, consisting of a blue trouser fitting close to the leg, and a
vest of black or white wool, is only produced on field days, or in war.
“But what is it that these sentinels are guarding? This is just what I
have never been able to understand. No enemy, from Belgrade to Sissek,
was threatening; and these villages are exposed to no more disorder than
those of the neighbouring provinces, where they dispense with all this
armed exhibition. This, therefore, is another of the useless and
erroneous consequences of the military régime: here are hands taken day
after day from their labour in the fields, and with no greater advantage
than that of acquiring the habits of idleness and drunkenness, usually
contracted during the period of barrack-room inactivity.”
In Fig. 57 we represent one of the military stations of the Confines,
with the guards belonging to it, called Gränzers.
[Illustration: 57.--GRÄNZERS AND THEIR GUARD-HOUSE.]
“All those who have lived for some time among the Gränzers, have been
struck with their indolent apathy, their careless and continued
idleness. For whose sake should they exhaust themselves with work? Under
the rules of their community, their wives and children are almost beyond
want. As regards themselves, to-morrow they may be torn from their
orchards and fields, to encounter death in Italy, or on some other
frontier; would it not be madness to expose themselves to privation
and fatigue in view of a future upon which they have no means of
reckoning? Besides this, does their property, which they can neither
render as valuable as they wish, nor sell or bequeath as they may think
proper, belong to them sufficiently to give them any pleasure or profit
in its improvement? They have maxims which accurately indicate their
character; ‘Go late to the field and return early, so as to avoid the
dew;--if God does not aid, what is the use of working?’ Being accustomed
to rely only, as they say, ‘Upon God and the Emperor,’ they refuse to
recognize the advantages to be gained from any modern invention, better
tools, or more advanced methods of cultivation. ‘Thus I found it, and
thus I will leave it,’ is a saying of which they often make use in
speaking of their patrimonial domain.
[Illustration: 58.--TSIGANE PRISONER.]
“The only thing which, in spite of all the shackles which enchain and
benumb their limbs, would have been able to arouse their minds and
impart to them some desire for progress, is instruction. But ignorance
is profound in the Military Confines; the regimental schools that exist
are very insufficient both in number and quality; in certain districts,
especially in Southern Croatia, the villages are so distant from one
another, that the children, who do not dwell in the borough where the
school is, are unable, without difficulty, to go there at any time.
Besides, why should the government do much as regards instruction? It is
clear, that, if the people of the Confines were better taught, they
would be less resigned to their hard lot. If it rested entirely with the
government, the schoolmaster would be entirely banished from these
parts.
“Upon the banks of the Danube and of the Save, where the Confines abut
upon the river, which is continually traversed by packet-boats,
travellers, and merchandize, the people of the frontiers have
nevertheless daily communication with the inhabitants of the
neighbouring provinces, and even with strangers. This contact somewhat
opens their minds and suggests new ideas; but it is chiefly in Southern
Croatia, in the districts called Banal and Karlstadt, that the
characteristic features of the _Gränzer_ are most frequent and striking.
There commences, south-east of Karlstadt, what is termed the
_dry-frontier_; this is no longer a water-course such as the Danube or
Save, but a line purely conventional, forming the boundary between
Austria and Turkey.
“Surprises and hand to hand combats were recently matters of frequent
occurrence upon this frontier, which is more difficult to define and to
preserve; at the commencement of this century, certain forts, and other
places, such as Zettin, which the Turks assaulted in 1809 and 1813, were
still the subject of dispute. Here, moreover, the Frontier territory is
no longer from fifteen to twenty kilometres, but from five to six
myriametres broad; the people subject to the military régime, here,
therefore, form a more homogeneous and compact mass. Cases of armed
brigandage, and assassinations, which were very common in the whole of
this country, are now becoming rarer; but theft is the crime which
requires most frequent punishment. The ancestors of the _Gränzers_ lived
chiefly by plunder, and such habits are not removed in a day.”
M. Perrot made a journey in Bosnia, down the course of the river Save.
He stopped in a borough of this province, of which he speaks thus:--
“After a visit to the Bosniak priest, we wandered about the town, where
we made several small purchases with a view to smuggling. I replenished
my pouch with a Bosnian tobacco which is by no means so good as that of
Macedonia. I purchased a rug such as are worked also by the women of
Slavonia and the Military Confines: this is not, like the tissues of
Persia and Anatolia, thick and soft, but a rather thin and dry quality
of cloth.”
Here, also, in designs and in combination of colour, are found the same
innate taste, and the same boldness which is met with usually in
oriental workmanship. The Slavonian women, in Austria as in Turkey,
would be no unworthy rivals of the Turcoman women, who, in the
neighbourhood of Smyrna, and from the high meadow-lands of the Taurus
down to the low deserts of Persia, execute, beneath their black tents of
goat or camel hair, those marvellous pieces of needlework, for which, at
the present time, we pay so high a price.
The inferiority of the products of this domestic industry in Turkey in
Europe, is attributable to the fact, that, here the women being within
comparatively easy distance of large markets, filled with European
wares, are enabled to procure there wools suited to their wants, already
dyed by industrial processes: but it will be understood that the colours
thus obtained, which are produced with a view to cheapness and variety,
are far from possessing the fresh and durable tints of those colours,
few in number, always the same, and almost all obtained from the animal
and vegetable worlds, the secret of which has been handed down in the
bazaars of the East, and under the tents of the nomadic tribes, from the
time when Nineveh, Babylon, Susa, Tyre, and Sidon, were at the height of
their prosperity.
“Our purchases at an end, we returned along the banks of the Save, and,
while the ferry was attempting to pass a herd of bullocks, which had
just been purchased in Bosnia, I amused myself by noting the picturesque
mixture of costumes and types which the bank, on which were most of the
market people, offered.
[Illustration: 59.--BOSNIAK PEASANT.]
“Here was a jobbing blacksmith, who had set up his shop in the open air,
hammering and putting in order the pots which were brought to him; or
sharpening with his hammer, the points of long iron clamps, used to
connect the rafters of houses. His arrangements were most primitive. Two
vertical posts supported a horizontal piece, upon which worked the
lever, by means of which the bellows were set in motion. In front of the
orifice by which the air escaped, a small anvil was fixed in the ground.
Around the proprietor, seated on the ground, a number of tools were
scattered. The long shirt and puffed out trousers of the blacksmith
appeared white by comparison with his skin, although he had probably
worn them for some weeks; his chest and arms were bronze coloured.
[Illustration: 60.--BOSNIAK PEASANT WOMAN.]
[Illustration: 61.--BOSNIAK MERCHANT.]
“A little further on, the most motley groups attracted and retained my
notice. Here were Mussulmans, Bosniaks, Pandours guarding the market,
their attitudes and costumes carrying me right away to the East, and
recalling very old recollections. One of them wore a white turban, which
displayed a mass of plaited hair falling down his neck; he stood erect,
his hand supporting the butt end of his gun, which rested on his
shoulder. A tapestried mantle, adorned with long flocks of wool, which
is peculiar to the frontiers of the two countries, was thrown over his
shoulders. At his side was another Bosniak, who leant against a wall,
clad in a long cloak of red wool; his feet were shod with sandals of
tanned leather. Here a rich landowner of the neighbourhood, whose name I
really forget, was causing his servants to remove the cattle he had not
succeeded in selling: there peasants were remounting their horses, whose
gay and picturesque harness I much admired.”
[Illustration: 62.--WOMEN OF PESTH.]
Figures 59 and 60 represent, according to M. Perrot, a Bosniak peasant
man and woman, and figure 61, a Bosniak merchant.
The Magyars are the natives of Hungary. The chief population of this
country is composed of a people who came from Asia under the name of
Magyars, and who were, it would seem, a tribe of the Huns. Hungary is
believed to have been populated by some of the savage companions of
Attila, the terrible king of the Huns, known as the “Scourge of God.”
[Illustration: 63.--HUNGARIANS.]
The Magyars are distinct from other people in their language and
costumes.
They are of medium height, with black hair. Their character is warlike,
and their state of civilization is superior to that of the other
branches of the Slavonian family.
In his “Causeries Géographiques,” (from Paris to Bucharest,) M. Duruy
has imparted to us his impressions on a journey to Pesth in 1861. The
population appeared to him superb.
[Illustration: 64.--A HUNGARIAN GENTLEMAN.]
The women were remarkable through their brightness and decided
attractions. In dress, they do not differ much from the men. A chemise
gathered in at the neck, with full sleeves richly embroidered, and
slightly tightened at the wrists, which are covered with lace ruffles; a
jacket body, either red, black, or green, embroidered at the back with
fringes and silver buttons, sets off a slender and supple form. A light,
very ample, but often rather short petticoat; a silken or velvet scarf
thrown over one shoulder à la hussarde; the national high brimmed hat
surmounted by a plume of feathers as head-dress; well turned feet and
ankles, in embroidered shoes, or sometimes in little spurred boots of
red morocco, form the Hungarian costume, represented in figs. 63, 64 and
65.
[Illustration: 65.--HUNGARIANS.]
The markets which are held on the quays, have also peculiar features.
You see there, says M. Duruy, groups which call to mind the savage
hordes of Attila. M. Duruy almost believed he saw one of the companions
of the “Scourge of God.” This was apparently a kind of peasant,
flat-nosed, round-eyed, with large projecting cheekbones, and hanging
mustachios. He was dark, and dressed in a vest of sheepskin, and
breeches of coarse cloth, supported at the waist by a scarf falling over
his heavily-shod and spurred boots. A large hat, with the edges turned
up, covered his head, and beneath it hung two long plaits of hair. The
Magyar language is energetic, full of similes, and filled with guttural
aspirations which seem derived from the Arabic, while certain soft and
caressing intonations remind us of the Italian idiom. National feeling
is brisk in the towns and throughout the country. In the latter, it is
kept alive by Bohemian songs, and by stories told by the heads of
families during the long winter evenings.
About the other races composing the Slavonian family, namely, the
Croats, the Tchecks, the Lithuanians, and the Poles, we have nothing
particular to remark.
In general, what we have said at the commencement of this chapter,
applies to them with but little modification.
THE GREEK FAMILY.
The Greek family comprises the Greeks and the Albanians. These races
derive their origin from the ancient tribes known under the name of
Pelasgians. The ancient Greeks founded many colonies on the shores of
the Mediterranean.
In the fourth century before Christ, led by Alexander, they subdued part
of Asia, and carried their victorious arms into Egypt. But these
conquests were ephemeral. The Greek empire was in its turn subjugated by
other races, of whom the principal were the Romans, the Slavonians, and
the Scythians.
In the present day the Greeks compose but a scanty population,
concentrated in the Morea, or scattered in the neighbouring districts.
The majority of the people of this race who inhabit the Asiatic
continent have adopted even the language of their neighbours, and are
merely reputed Greeks because they profess the Greek form of the
Christian religion.
The ancient Greeks, civilized by intercourse with Egyptian colonists,
already afforded an example of advanced culture, at a time when the
other European and Asiatic nations were still immersed in barbarism.
In spite of the misfortunes of a social decay destined to terminate in
many centuries of subjection, the Greeks have preserved up to our own
day the physical characteristics of their ancestors. Everyone knows that
the most beautiful development of the brow, the finest shape of the
human head, is that we find traced in the sculpture of ancient Greece.
It had been supposed that the magnificent heads with the noble outlines,
admired in the statues of the Greeks, were not the exact reproduction of
nature, and that some features had been exaggerated in the direction of
ideal beauty. But, in our own day, the skulls of ancient Greeks have
been found whose proportions and whose general outlines demonstrate,
that, among the artists of ancient Greece, sculpture did not surpass
nature, but restricted its inspiration to types who actually lived.
The Apollo Belvidere can therefore be considered as a model, but
slightly idealized by art, of the general physiognomy of the ancient
Greeks. In his “Travels in the Morea,” M. Pouqueville gives a
description of the physiognomy of the present Greeks, which enables us
to judge of the surprising persistence of the most beautiful types, even
in the midst of a social condition so deeply modified.
“The inhabitants of the Morea,” says M. Pouqueville, “are generally tall
and well made. Their eyes are full of fire, their mouth is admirably
well formed and full of the most beautiful teeth. The women of Sparta
are fair, slender, and dignified in carriage. The women of Taygetus have
the gait of Pallas . . . . The Messenian girl is conspicuous for her
plumpness; she has regular features, large eyes, and long black hair;
the damsel of Arcadia, hidden under her coarse woollen garments,
scarcely allows the regularity of her figure to be perceived . . . .”
Here, besides, are the characteristics displayed in their sculpture, and
which, according to what we have said, may really be considered those of
the Greek type.
A high forehead, rather a wide distance between the eyes, with the
slightest possible depression at the top of the nose; this last
straight or slightly aquiline; large eyes, opening widely and surmounted
by a scarcely arched eyebrow; a short upper lip, a small or medium sized
mouth delicately cut; and a prominent and well rounded chin.
Fig. 66 represents the Greeks of Athens; fig. 67 a Greek family and the
interior of a house at Athens.
[Illustration: 66.--GREEKS OF ATHENS.]
To give an idea of modern Greek manners and types, we will borrow a few
lines from an interesting work by M. Prout, “Journey to Athens,”
published in “Le Tour du Monde” in 1862. Let us first listen to this
traveller speaking to us of the inhabitants of Greece:--
“If Fallmeseyer is to be believed, there are no more Greeks in Greece,
only Slavonians; it is beyond doubt that the inhabitants of Thrace and
of Macedonia cannot boast so immaculate an origin as the mountaineers of
Olympus or of Magnus; but it is equally certain that from Cape Malea to
the Black Sea, and from Smyrna to Corfu, there are ten million
individuals who speak Greek, mixed up with a population speaking
Slavonic, and that in the plains of Athens, we easily distinguish the
Albanian with the narrow temples and the prominent nose, from the Greek
with the wide forehead and the high cheek-bones, although their dress is
exactly the same. To converse for an hour with the latter is sufficient
to satisfy all doubt as to the authenticity of his origin.
“His qualities of mind have remained the same as in the days of Homer:
he has still the same aptitude for thorough and rapid comprehension, the
same facility of graceful and metaphorical expression. These qualities
give to the Greeks so great a superiority over the other races of the
East, that they are liked by none of them. The Turks reproach them with
being suspicious and dissimulating, because they have opposed craft to
force; the Levantines accuse them of dishonesty in commercial
transactions, because they themselves have taken lessons of them, and
have often surpassed their instructors.
“There is no greater bond of sympathy between them and the other nations
on the shores of the Mediterranean. Serious and deliberate in
disposition, the tone of their mind is foreign alike to raillery and to
the rapidity of dramatic intensity. Their grief pursues a peaceful and
elegiac course; it is with them a latent sorrow, and not a sharp crisis
leading to the ecstasies of madness. Whilst Cupid’s weapons, in Naples
or in Venice for instance, inflict terrible wounds, the arrows of the
Athenian god neither keep his victims from repose nor from the pursuit
of business. The Greeks have preserved their tragic intonation, and are
the true children of that wild Orestes who died at more than eighty
years of age from the effects of an accident. In their minds, action
always takes its course with deliberation and gravity, not without a
certain amount of colouring, but never widely straying from reality;
interrogating and holding council with itself, and taking time for
reflection before making its decision.
[Illustration: 67.--A GREEK HOUSEHOLD.]
“It is astonishing to meet with these analytical and foreseeing
tendencies, even among the most ignorant. Above all nations they best
understand the art of listening, and whilst saying a great deal are the
smallest talkers in the world.
“Everybody is familiar with the Greek dress: the short pelisse, the
skirt, which goes by the name of fystan, the small fez with its tufted
tassel falling on the nape of the neck of the wearer, and the
embroidered gaiter fitting tight to the leg. The sailors, instead of the
fystan, wear a very wide pair of trousers, and stockings instead of
gaiters. In winter the talagani, a long close-fitting cloak of lambskin,
is added to the rest of the dress. The Greeks, generally speaking, tall
slender men of regular features, wear this national costume in a very
dashing manner. Young Greece carries its dandyism a little to extremes
by over pinching its waist, and exaggerating the width of its skirts.
During the winter of 1858 it was the fashion to wear the entire beard. I
trust that this fancy, which gave them the appearance of sappers in
petticoats, has disappeared; the finely trimmed mustachios, revealing
the lips, are better suited to their delicately chiselled features as
well as to their refined and fanciful style of dress. But alas! Athens
every day sees the pure gold of its ancient costume bartered for the
dross of modern broadcloth fresh from the shelves of the tailor’s shop.
Athens now boasts seventy tailors and fifty shoemakers who make in the
French style, whilst only six of the former, and three of the latter
still work in the spirit of their national traditions. There are
sixty-two shops for the sale of female attire, but only three or four
ladies are to be seen still faithful to their national dress (I except
the maids of honour to the Queen, who wear it by order), and even in
their case one half has disappeared. The corsage cut down upon the neck
and the taktikios (cap) of Smyrna still remain; but the long narrow
skirt has allowed itself to become swollen by the insinuating arts of
conspiring crinoline. The style of dress in the islands is more
commonplace, but the great quantity of garments worn one over the other
remind one of the childish simplicity of the outlines of our own peasant
women. I much prefer, in spite of its stiffness, the long Albanian robe
worn by the women of the interior.
“It is particularly at Agora that specimens of all the peasantry of the
neighbourhood may be seen walking about in their picturesque costumes.
“This Agora is not the ancient Agora of Ceramica; it is a market-place,
composed of worm-eaten sheds roofed in with ragged cloths, in which are
exhibited produce of all sorts, from the bursting figs of Asia Minor to
the patent preparations of Parisian perfumers.
“On each side of this market-place stands a spectre of antiquity, the
tower of the Winds, or clepsydrum of Andronicus, an octagonal monument
engraved with passably mediocre figures, and the portico of Minerva
Archigetis. Archæologists after noticing the first, hasten across the
spacious vestibule to visit the second, but those, who are indifferent
alike to the criticisms of Martius and of Leake, prefer to pause on the
threshold of the market, particularly in the early morning when the
peasantry,
‘Seated in their chariots of Homeric pattern,
Like the ancient Isis on the basso-relievos of Egina,’
pour in from the highways from Thebes and Marathon. I have said that the
men were distinguished for regular symmetry of countenance; but the
peasant women are simply ugly. Of middle height, robust, and sunburnt,
they have no feminine attributes, in the meaning we give to the word. In
commercial circles and among the Phanariots, who come principally from
Asia, where the race has remained pure, there are, on the contrary, many
really beautiful women to be seen. Oriental languor gives them a charm
unknown in our country; but they walk badly, and are wanting in that
elegance of style which French women possess in such a high degree.
“They are rarely to be seen walking out, they seldom leave their houses
where they busy themselves with domestic occupations, and employ their
leisure in reading romances, principally translated from the French.
“Although class distinctions are gradually disappearing, there are still
in Athens two distinct sets of society; the Phanariot, and the Greek,
properly so called; the first already quite Europeanized, the second on
the high road to become so. The Phanariot ladies are well educated and
speak French admirably. The others, whose information is extremely
limited, have an instinctive good sense and a tact never at fault, by no
means one of the least subjects of surprise to foreigners.
[Illustration: 68.--INTERIOR OF THE AGORA AT ATHENS.]
“. . . I have heard it said that the price of the honesty of an English
trader was a hundred pounds sterling, and that that of his Greek brother
was less. Both are absurd statements. It is impossible to draw a hard
and fast line in such matters; opportunity makes the thief. Strangers
are everywhere the natural prey of the sharper, but not more so at
Athens than in any other part of the world. The only difference is that
in that city they are more easily taken in, on account of the
complication of the currency, this complication being another instance
of Bavarian error. Rothschild made an offer to the council of regency to
effect a loan payable in coin similar to that struck at the French mint.
The council decided that it was more ingenious, and above all more
archaic, to shut their eyes to all known standards, and to reintroduce
the drachma with its ancient weight. These badly executed coins were
exported in ingots, and hopeless calculations about the smallest
transaction are the result; calculations in which the Austrian coins,
ugly and disagreeable to the touch, play the principal part, to be
finally parted with, with a sense of relief, to the trader, to whatever
nation he may happen to belong.
“To have done with the subject of Greek probity, which has been so much
called into question; in the country the inhabitants are avaricious
because they are poor, but they are honest. Travellers who jump to a
conclusion from their experience of inn-keepers, porters, cabmen, &c.,
come to a wrong decision. These classes are everywhere the same. In
Athens alone a remarkable self-possession, with a dignified manner, is
found, instead of the familiar impudence of Italian facchini, or the
deceitful suavity of German attendants. It is worthy of remark that one
is never assailed in the streets with the importunity of beggars. These
are few in number, for with the Greeks it is a sacred family duty to
assist its impoverished members, and the few that do beg, shrink from
publicity. The streets of Athens have a peculiar physiognomy. The
stranger notices there neither the noisy disturbance of the highways of
Naples, nor the methodical activity of those of London. They are rather
to be compared with those of some of the provincial towns of France,
where the leisured citizens stroll about, and retail to one another the
gossip of the hour, remaining apparently permanent fixtures of the
pavement. Athens has, on the whole, the appearance of a city where time
dies hard; the male population encamp themselves during the day in the
sunshine of the streets; the shopkeepers while away the hours, one foot
within, and the other without their doorsill; and their customers
intermingle the tedious arithmetic of barter with familiar conversation,
or buttonhole the passer to gossip about the mutual acquaintance that
has just passed. Alexander’s establishment, amongst others, is one of
the principal head-quarters of news.
“Linger for an hour in front of the café of _Beautiful Greece_, where
Hermes Street and Eolus Street intersect one another, you will see the
whole Athenian world pass before you; the nearest lounger will tell you
their names. Here comes the politician who is still in the market, there
goes the statesman who has already obtained his price. That is Canaris,
whose reputation is European, although his person is so puny: there are
Chriesis, Métaxas, Mavrocordato, Rangabé, Miaouli, the celebrities of
yesterday and to-day. This man, treading as gingerly as if he stepped
upon eggs, and throwing uneasy glances around him, is a Chiotian. As he
passes, your cicerone scowls, for the Chiotians are not exactly beloved.
Popular tradition declares that the Island of Scios was formerly settled
by Jews, but this is erroneous, although the Chiotians have a Jewish
appearance, and, like the children of Israel, are very successful in
banking and commerce. Commercial aptitude has always been, in ancient
times as well as to-day, the basis of the national character of the
Chiotian. ‘Two reasons,’ says M. Lacroix, ‘explain this tendency. The
position of Scios, situated in the midst of the sea, between Europe and
Asia, upon the great maritime highway of ancient commerce, naturally
disposed its inhabitants to become traders; while the nature of their
island, whose stony soil is little suited to agriculture, rendered such
a means of livelihood in part a necessity to them.’
“As the trader of Scios can be recognised by his appearance, so the
Ionian islander can be distinguished by his speech. The torrent of his
eloquence is heard towering above the voices of every group. I have a
great admiration for the Ionians. I do not say that human perfection is
to be found in these numerous islands, but wonderful natural qualities,
in unison with the healthy civilization bequeathed to them by the
Italian republics, are to be seen there. It is but the other day that
the ingenious combination of Mr. Gladstone gave Europe an idea of the
dignity of their character, the extent of their patriotism, and the
wisdom of their mind. To this Greek good sense they add the fire of the
Italian. Active, intelligent, good hearted and honest in their dealings,
they attract at once the sympathies of all.
[Illustration: 69.--FÊTE OF THE TEMPLE OF JUPITER, ATHENS.]
“This admixture of which the Athenian population is composed is a
curious study.
“On the Sunday, everybody leaves the cross roads in front of the
_Beautiful Greece_ to frequent the esplanade of Patissia (a corruption
from Pachiscliah); the men stroll about talking together, and the women,
abandoning their household gods for this day only, follow a few paces
behind them. The crowd walks round and round a kiosk till a military
band placed there has finished playing, and then goes home; not into the
house, however, but into the streets, for during the warm summer nights
nearly everybody sleeps _al fresco_. These sleepers advertise their
presence by a continual hum, which is a kind of internal monologue, an
echo of the day’s conversation, for the Greeks still remain the wittiest
and the most eloquent chatterers in the world.”
We place side by side with the Greeks the Albanians, whose language has
some relation to Greek. Concentrated in the mountains of their country,
they appear to be the lineal representatives of the ancient inhabitants
of these districts. They are the descendants of the ancient Illyrians,
mixed up with the Greeks and the Slavonians. Restricting themselves
almost exclusively to the profession of arms, the Albanians constitute
the best soldiers of the Ottoman army. Their numbers scarcely reach two
millions, although Albania is of great extent and contains several
rather important towns.
Albania, part of Turkey in Europe, bounded on the north by Montenegro,
Bosnia, and Servia, on the east by Macedon and Thessaly, on the south by
the kingdom of Greece, on the west by the Adriatic and Ionian seas,
constitutes the pachaliks of Janina, Ilbessan and Scutari. It possesses
three seaports, Durazzo, Avlona, and Parga. The most important towns are
Scutari, Akhissar, Berat, and Arta.
Semi-barbarians, partaking more of the pirate and the brigand than of
the cultivator and the labourer, the Albanians pass their lives in a
state of petty warfare among themselves.
_P. Sellier, p.^{t}_
_Imp. Dupuy, 22, R. des Petits Hôtels_
_G. Regamey, lith._
GEORGEAN
ARAB
WHITE OR CAUCASIAN RACE]
They professed Christianity up to the fifteenth century, but after
having under Scanderbeg gloriously resisted the Turkish invasion, they
were forced to submit to the victorious Ottomans, who compelled the
Albanians to embrace the religion of Mahomet. In some parts of Albania
the Greek church still survives. In the north, between the sea and the
black Drin, the courageous tribe of the Mirdites practise the Roman
Catholic religion and enjoy liberty.
[Illustration: 70.--ALBANIAN WOMAN.]
Fig. 70 represents the Albanian costume.
[Illustration: PORTRAIT OF AN ARMENIAN.]
CHAPTER II.
ARAMEAN BRANCH.
Cuvier has thought fit to give the name of Aramean (derived from the
ancient appellation of Syria) to the race of people who inhabit the
south-west of Asia and the north of Africa. Since primeval historic
times, the Aramaic race developed itself in the south-west of Asia and
the north of Africa, and it has remained there up to our own day. It
also extended its settlements to the south of Europe, where it became
assimilated to the inhabitants of that part of the world.
At a period when Europeans were immersed in the depths of ignorance, the
Arameans successfully cultivated science and art. But later, whilst
progress was making rapid strides amongst the Westerns, the Arameans on
the contrary came to a halt; so that the civilization of these Asiatic
races is still pretty much the same as it was two thousand years ago.
Christianity sprang up amidst the Arameans, but it made few converts.
Mahometanism and Buddhism attracted nearly the whole of this numerous
race.
Four leading divisions are recognised among the Arameans: the Libyans,
the Semitics, the Persians, and the Georgians and Circassians.
THE LIBYAN FAMILY.
The _Libyan Family_ is composed of the _Berbers_ and the _Egyptians_.
[Illustration: 71.--MOORISH COFFEE-HOUSE AT SIDI-BOW-SAID, NEAR TUNIS.]
The _Berbers_.--The Berbers are the race which from very ancient times
inhabited the mountains of the Atlas chain, or wandered amidst the
deserts of the Sahara. The Berbers are split up into a great number of
tribes, of whom the four principal are, the Kabyles, the Shellas, the
Touariks and the Tibbous.
The traveller in Kabylia is struck with admiration, for its lofty
mountains, the gentle and pleasing undulations of its plains, and its
valleys interlaced with the windings of countless streams. Its
inhabitants are pastoral, agricultural, and laborious. The headdress of
their women is fashioned to suit their habit of carrying on their head
jars of great weight. They balance these by rigidly straightening their
waists, round which they wind, some score of times, a girdle of coarse
woollen cords. Their garment is simply a piece of woollen cloth fastened
together by a couple of pins over the bosom.
The Kaybles are not, like the real Arabs, nomadic. They remain, on the
contrary, faithful to one spot. Whilst the Arab inhabits a tent,
removable at will, and in accordance with the requirements of his
family, the Kabyle lives in a stone dwelling, and his homestead is a
regular village. In truth, the Kabyle is not an Arab; he is of African
origin, a Berber, somewhat modified by the different races that have in
turn settled on the African shores of the Mediterranean, but whose
customs and physical characteristics have always remained the same.
The Roman armies subdued the Kabyles dwelling on the Mediterranean
coasts, and drove them into the mountains. The principal aim of the
successive Roman governors in Africa, was to drain the country of its
resources to supply the insatiable requirements of Rome, and the
extravagant liberality continually lavished on its citizens by the
Emperors of this capital of the world. Rome thus accepted from Africa
but slaves and labourers. Those of the conquered, who were unwilling to
pass under the heavy yoke of the Roman governors, abandoned the plains
and retired to the mountains, inaccessible retreats, whose ravines and
forests offered innumerable obstacles to the cruelty of centurions, and
the rapacity of prætors. At a future period, led by enterprising
chieftains, they sallied forth from these natural fortresses to assail
and ultimately to definitively repulse the Roman power.
To give an idea of the Kabylia of to-day, and of its organization, we
will quote a few details from “An Excursion to great Kabylia,” published
in 1867, in “Le Tour du Monde,” from the pen of Commandant Duhousset, an
officer in the French army.
“In Kabylia,” he says, “the household composed of the members of one
family is termed _kharouba_; each kharouba forming part of the village
or _déhera_, elects one of its members as a _dhaman_ to represent it at
the municipal council, and to defend its interests: in a word, to be
responsible for it.
“The different déheras are further united together under the name of
_arch_.
“In each village authority is administered by an _amin_, elected by
turns from each kharouba. It is the duty of this official to watch over
the execution of the written laws, drawn up under the name of _khanoun_,
and which are merely the recital of the customs handed down from time
immemorial in Kabylia.
“The amin can pronounce no judgment, inflict no fine, without consulting
the assembly (_djemaa_) of his assistants or dhamans, always chosen from
the notabilities of the village. This tribunal chooses a secretary
(_khodja_) intrusted with the duty of keeping a public register of its
deliberations, and of carrying on all correspondence with the French
authorities. The labours of the khodja are remunerated with perquisites
of figs, olives, &c.
“The supreme command of the tribe is delegated by the French to an
_amin-el-oumena_, whose principal duty is the superintendence of his
tribe in all matters concerning public order. He is not allowed to
interfere in the internal policy of the villages, which govern
themselves, each according to its own interpretation of the khanoun.
“The djemaa possesses a municipal fund, kept in the hands of an _ouhil_
(manager). This fund is supplied by the fines inflicted by the municipal
council and the native officials, and by the rates levied on marriages,
births, and deaths.
“Each village is divided into two factions, or _soff_, generally
hereditary foes. It is easy to imagine the serious nature of the
outrages on public tranquillity, committed by these irreconcilable
neighbours, when their mutual interests are at stake.”
The elections are a constant source of disturbance in the Kabyle
villages.
The way in which these villages are laid out, their dwellings
overlooking one another, makes these struggles very sanguinary ones.
Some of the more lofty houses have crenelated parapets, the remainder
are loopholed, and the _djama_ (mosque) becomes, on account of the
military importance of its upper storey, a regular fortress, assuring
the victory to its fortunate possessors.
Everybody knows that the French conquered Kabylia in 1857. What most
contributed to the submission of the Kabyles, was the promise made to
them to respect their customs and their communal elections. This promise
was kept, and the respect shown to their local usages not a little
contributed to consolidate the French conquest.
The Kabyle villages, seen from a distance, look picturesque, but on
mixing with their inhabitants and entering their houses, the charm
vanishes. The question immediately suggests itself how it is possible
for any human beings to dwell in the midst of such universal neglect,
and of such hideous filth.
“Every Kabyle,” says M. Duhousset, “is revoltingly dirty: there are no
baths to be found in the whole of Kabylia of the Djujina. The children
receive no care. The result of this neglect is frequent ophthalmia,
sometimes complete blindness; they are also often subject to cutaneous
diseases, or worse hereditary affections, which these mountaineers hand
down from generation to generation, continuing to exist in spite of them
. . . . . the women, good mothers who suckle their children up to three
or four years of age . . . . the men, industrious workmen and good
agriculturists.”
The Kabyles are independent in disposition, observant by nature, and
fond of labour: but they are inclined to be avaricious, revengeful, and
quarrelsome. Some of their villages, as we have shown, are divided into
two hostile camps, and in many cases, part of the communal land is set
apart for warlike encounters, where all differences are settled by the
yataghan and the matchlock. Divorce is one of the sores of Kabyle
society.
It is well known that Kabylia is a rich, tranquil country, addicted to
industry, and possessing a numerous population. But a few statistics
will here have a peculiar interest.
There are in France eight departments with a smaller population than
Kabylia; these are, according to M. Duhousset, the Basses-Alpes, the
Hautes-Alpes, the Cantal, Corsica, Lozére, the Basses-Pyreneés, the
Hautes-Pyreneés, and Tarn-et-Garonne. Three departments are smaller in
extent; the Rhône, the Seine, and Vaucluse.
The average population of France is 67-963/1000 inhabitants to every
square kilometre; that of Kabylia is 67-723/1000. Looking, however, at
the average population to every kilometre in each separate department,
it appears that twenty-eight have a larger average than Kabylia, one an
equal, and fifty-seven a smaller one. The agricultural productions of
Kabylia are the ordinary fruits of African culture, especially the fig
and the olive, to which must be added large crops of wheat. Figs are the
principal article of food of the inhabitants, and olives the staple of
their agricultural industry.
During harvest-time the Kabyles cover their heads with an immense straw
hat of a pointed shape, with a huge brim, fourteen inches in width,
shading their face. A shirt, leaving the arms and legs bare, and a
leather apron, similar to that worn by our blacksmiths, constitute their
dress. They reap their corn and barley in small handfuls at a time, and
very close to the ground, with a sickle. The thrashing and winnowing is
roughly done by oxen. M. Duhousset, who witnessed the harvest and the
grinding of the corn, gives the accompanying sketch (fig. 72) of the
Kabyle flour-mills. Their olive-mill is very similar to that used in the
south of France, only their grindstones are turned by women, who fill
the part assigned by us to horses or to a steam-engine.
In Kabylia particular care is bestowed on the cultivation of the fig,
the principal article of food of the whole country. M. Duhousset took
particular notice of the artificial fecundation of the fig-tree, a
curious operation totally unknown in France.
The fig-tree, as well as the date-tree, is artificially fecundated in
Kabylia; in the case of the latter the male flower is merely
superimposed on the female blossoms to impregnate them; but with the
former it is insects that carry the fertilizing dust. This process is
termed _caprification_.
“Caprification,” says M. Duhousset, “has been practised from time
immemorial by all the inhabitants on the Mediterranean coast. This
curious and important process seemed to me to deserve a special
investigation. I have, therefore, collected a quantity of more or less
plausible details and explanations of the manner in which it is carried
out, and the advantages derived from this mode of cultivation.
“The _dokhar_ is the fruit of the wild fig-tree. It is small,
flavourless, and bitter. It is not a very eatable species, and is not
cultivated for the sake of food. It is precocious, and becomes ripe when
the other figs, still green, have not yet attained their maturity. The
tree which produces them--the caper fig-tree--yields two or three crops
in the year; but it is only the first that is generally made use of.
[Illustration: 72.--GRINDING WHEAT IN THE KABYLIA.]
“When quite ripe, the dokhar is gathered, and arranged in small bunches
(_moulak_) on a string. These strings are suspended to the boughs of the
female fig-tree, towards the end of June in the plains, towards the end
of July on the mountains. From the stem of each dokhar, when dry, issue
a quantity of small winged insects, which introduce themselves into the
fruit on the tree, instil a new life into it, and prevent it from
falling.
“These insects, agents of this fecundation, are produced and developed
in the fruit of the wild fig-tree, and leave it, as soon as arrived at
maturity, to attach themselves to the female fig-tree. Their body is
hairy, like that of the bee, which is known to fulfil an analogous
mission towards certain flowers.
“These insects are of two kinds, black and red. The first, smaller than
the second, do not carry like the latter a sting in their abdomen. The
natives assert that the black insect alone plays a useful part in the
caprification of the fig--the part played by the wind, the bird, or the
hand of man in the instance of the date. A long experience attributes to
it the privilege of preserving the figs from perishing and falling
before they have become ripe. This custom has given rise to the
well-known Kabyle proverb, ‘He who is without dokhar is without figs.’
The abundance of figs in every locality and under every difference of
climate depends upon that of the dokhar. Sometimes, however, the latter,
although plentiful, gives birth to but a small number of these
preserving insects, as in 1863, when the crop was poor, the dokhar
having produced but few insects.
“The Kabyles are convinced that one of these insects can preserve
ninety-nine figs, but that the hundredth becomes its tomb. This is
possibly only a popular prejudice; but it is as well to cite it. Truth
among primitive people becomes sometimes crystallized in the shape of a
superstition, and the inexplicable pervades everything.
“Caprification takes place at least once a year. When the dokhar is
abundant it is prudent to repeat the process several times at short
intervals, and it is most important that it should be performed at the
proper moment, either in the autumn or in the spring, or the crop may
become seriously endangered and partly lost.
“A rule generally observed in the villages where the dokhar flourishes,
is, that no one may sell it, under a penalty of a fine of two pounds, to
a stranger, or even to an ally, before the gardens of his own locality
have been copiously provided with the precious preservative.
“Previous to our rule the Kabyle tribes were continually at enmity with
one another, and the sale of the dokhar was then suspended and forbidden
between them. As the fig is the principal and indispensable food of the
inhabitants, this prohibitory measure was the surest means of starving
the enemy, or at least of occasioning him serious inconvenience. It is,
therefore, probable that the different tribes frequently came to open
blows in order to procure by bloodshed what they were unable to obtain
by purchase.”
Copper and iron are rather abundantly found in Kabylia, and its
inhabitants are expert in extracting these metals from their ores.
However, they are beginning to import metal goods from Europe.
[Illustration: 73.--KABYLE JEWELLERS.]
With tools of their own manufacture, or with those of foreign
importation, the Kabyles make a great many useful and important
articles. Jewellers and armourers are frequently found in their
villages.
Fig. 73, from a sketch by M. Duhousset, represents the workshop of a
Kabyle jeweller. The lathe of the Kabyle workman is used to make the
wooden vases and the numerous utensils sold by the Kabyles all along the
African coast. It is sufficiently noteworthy that the Kabyle turner only
uses the vertical lathe, and seems ignorant of the horizontal one so
convenient and so generally used in Europe.
The _Shellas_ dwell to the west of the Atlas, while the Kabyles are
found to the east of these mountains. The former are tillers of the
soil, laborious and poor. They are generally independent.
The _Touariks_ are a people distinct from the two preceding ones. They
are nomadic. They wander in the desert of Sahara, and make continual
raids into Egypt to carry off slaves. M. Henri Duveyrier, who has
published a detailed account of the Touariks of the North, declares that
they are hospitable and humane. They are generally considered to consist
of rather formidable tribes, accustomed to scour the desert, stop
caravans and plunder the laggards. At any rate, it is a known fact that
an ill-starred traveller, Miss Tinné, who had courageously explored
parts of Asia and Africa, was assassinated in the desert in 1869 by some
Touariks.
In French Africa the generic name of Moor is given to the Mussulman
population (the Turks excepted) inhabiting Barbary and Sahara; but in
reality this name is only rightly applicable to two particular classes.
The first of these is partly composed of the inhabitants of the towns,
often supposed to be the descendants of the ancient natives of the
country, that is to say of the Libyan family, but seeming on the
contrary to be principally of Arab origin. The second comprises the
tribes, most of them nomadic, who dwell in the south-west of Sahara, and
who belong to either the Berber or the Arab race.
The _Egyptians_. We now proceed to speak of the Egyptians, that
unchanging race which seems to slumber on, embalmed on a conservative
soil, a vast hypogeum, where, for thirty centuries, generations, both of
human beings and of domestic animals, have succeeded generations without
any perceptible alteration. The work of Herodotus, the dialogues of
Lucian, and the writings of Ammianus Marcellinus, teach us that the
ancient Egyptians, similar in all respects to those of our own day, had
a brown coloured skin. Two contracts of sale, dating back from the time
of Ptolemy, give us particulars of the parties to it. The vendor is
called μελαγχρως (dark brown), and the buyer μελιχρως (honey coloured).
From all the documents and evidence we possess, it appears that several
varieties in the colour of the skin existed among the ancient Egyptians,
but that there was always one predominant hue. Paintings are found in
the temples and the tombs, where the persons represented have a copper
coloured, reddish, or light chocolate complexion. The faces of the women
are sometimes of a yellower tint, merging into fawn colour.
Another faithful representation of the features of the ancient Egyptians
is found in those of their paintings and sculptures that have descended
to our own time. Their physiognomy shows a peculiar and remarkable type,
as does also the shape of their bodies. According to Denon (Travels in
Egypt), the ancient inhabitants of the kingdom of the Pharaohs had full
but refined and voluptuous figures, calm and serene faces, soft and
rounded features, long almond shaped eyes, half closed, languishing, and
raised at the outer corner, as if the glare and heat of the sun
habitually fatigued them. Round cheeks, thick and prominent lips, a
large but smiling mouth, and a dark reddish copper tinted complexion,
completed the peculiar expression of their countenance.
Blumenbach, after examining a large number of mummies, and comparing
them with the productions of ancient art, established three leading
types of ancient Egyptians, including, with more or less deviation, all
individual casts of face; the Ethiopian, the Indian, and the Berber
type. The first is distinguished by a prominent jaw and a thick lip, by
a broad flat nose, and by protruding eyes. This type coincides with the
description given by Herodotus and other Greek writers, who assign to
the Egyptian a black complexion and woolly hair. The second type is
widely different. The nose is long and narrow, the eyelids are thin,
long, and slanting obliquely from the top of the nose towards the
temples; the ears are set high in the head, the body is short and
slight, and the legs are very long. This picture resembles the Hindoos
from beyond the Ganges.
Such were the ancient people of Egypt. Its inhabitants of to-day are
difficult to class from an ethnographic point of view. They must not be
confounded, as is often done, with the Arab race. The present Egyptians
are the old indigenous or Berber race, modified by its fusion with new
elements. This old indigenous race is still to be met with in the
country, sparsely strewn, but quite recognizable. It is this small part
of the population which bears the name of Kopts.
The Kopts, a race preserved by their religion from miscegenation, but
feebly represent the primitive Egyptians; for ancient Egypt was
conquered and subjugated, first by the Arabs, then by the Persians, then
by the Greeks and Romans, and lastly by the Mussulmans.
The Kopts (fig. 74) are generally above the middle height; they are
robust in stature, and the colour of their skin is a dull red. They have
a broad forehead, a rounded chin, full cheeks, a straight nose with
strongly curved nostrils, large brown eyes, a narrow mouth with thick
lips and white teeth, high projecting ears, and extremely black beards
and eyebrows. The striking resemblance of the Kopts to ancient Egyptian
sculpture is a sufficient proof that this group of mankind is really the
remnant of the ancient stock of Egypt, slightly altered by mixture with
the other races that have successively occupied their country.
The Kopts became Christians in the second century. In the seventh
century, at the time of the conquest of Egypt by the Arabs, the Kopts
numbered 600,000. To-day they only amount to 150,000, of whom 10,000
reside in Cairo. They venerate St. Mark as their principal patron. They
go to communion regularly every Friday, lead a very austere life, and
allow their priests to marry.
The Kopts have black eyes, and, in general, curly hair. Morose,
taciturn, and dissimulating, they cringe to their superiors, hate their
equals, and are arrogant to their inferiors. They excel as accountants
in all kinds of business. They carry on exclusively certain industries,
such as the manufacture of mills, of apparatus for irrigation, and of
jewellery.
The Koptic language is the ancient language of the Pharaohs, mixed with
words from the Greek and other tongues. It is written in the Greek
character. It is no longer grammatically taught, and is but little
spoken. It is, however, still used in their form of worship.
[Illustration: 74.--KOPTS OF THE TEMPLE OF KRANAH.]
The Kopts enjoy rather a bad reputation in Egypt. Accomplices in the
Arab invasion, and therefore tolerated by the followers of Mahomet, they
were employed by the Mamelukes to collect the taxes. Thieves and
mendicant monks abound amongst them. Fig. 74 represents Koptic priests
before the temple of Kranah.
The most unfortunate portion of the Egyptian population, the peasants
and the labourers, the same workmen who have been so useful in
constructing the Suez Canal, are called Fellahs.
From an ethnographic point of view, the Fellahs are descended from the
primitive indigenous inhabitants, modified by admixture with the Arabs.
Although they speak the Arab tongue, the coarseness of their features
keeps them distinct from the Arabs. The soil of Egypt thus supports a
singular admixture of races, and it is impossible now-a-days to point
out one single pure type. This is a result of the miserable political
state of the country. From the very first, Egypt has always been the
prey of alien conquerors, who have succeeded one another in one long
roll, each in their turn adding some new feature to those of the
original inhabitants of the country. In “Travels in Egypt,” by Messrs.
Cammas and Lefèvre, published in the “Tour du Monde,” we read the
following observations on the Fellahs:--
[Illustration: 75.--A FELLAH WOMAN AND CHILDREN.]
“The Fellahs have but a feeble conception of the dignity of man and of
their own value; the only answer they give to blows is a complaint.
Sometimes, indeed, they rebel like a flock of sheep, but with a
conviction that their effort will be of no avail. It is thus, at the
times of conscription, they resist the soldiery; but after a few have
been killed, the rest allow themselves to be huddled on board the
man-of-war, in which they are taken down the Nile to Cairo, the women
and the young girls following them for some miles along the banks with
cries and lamentations. A Fellah’s existence is not essentially more
unhappy than that of our peasant hinds. His disposition is rather
cheerful than melancholy; and every circumcision, every marriage, is the
excuse for a holiday, shared by the whole village. Their songs and
their dances are redolent of the spontaneous mirth instinctive in
negroes. But with everything to render life agreeable, the consciousness
of rights and obligations, that something that constitutes the freeman
and the citizen, is wanting in them. The Fellah is fond of his home and
of his hamlet; but Egypt is for him neither a nation nor a fatherland.
It is astonishing at first sight to notice this degradation of the human
species, so sad to behold; however, if the oppressive tyranny of the
Mamelukes, the deep degradation of Egypt under the Greek and Roman
dynasties, and the old caste law, condemning the mass of the population
to the slavery of the soil, are remembered, it is easy to understand why
the Fellah, ground down under the sway of the Pharaohs, stupefied under
that of the Romans, and crushed by Mussulman fatalism, is slow to
respond to the efforts and to the intellectual tendencies of the
government of Saïd Pacha. Since the Arab conquest, the soil has been
legally the property of the sultans, the emirs, and the beys. The feudal
system that once theoretically existed amongst us was rigorously carried
into practice in Egypt. The whole of the crop harvested by the Fellahs
passed, with the exception of a modicum necessary for their absolute
existence, into the granaries of the land-owners. Now-a-days the Viceroy
has abandoned the practice of monopoly; he is anxious to change
arbitrary rights into regular taxes; he has yielded his just claims to
the labourer, and assured to the peasant his right of succession to the
fields he has watered with the sweat of his toil. But it takes a long
interval to blot out the horrible stamp of their past slavery.
[Illustration: 76.--A FELLAH DONKEY BOY.]
“The sailors of the Nile, sons and relations of the Fellahs, resemble
them in their ignorance, in their humility, in their contempt for life,
and in their natural disposition to laughter, to song, and to the dance.
But their wits are becoming sharpened by perpetual contact with
strangers; and their minds are busy on many things undreamt of by the
Fellah.”
The same travellers tell us, in speaking of Egyptian marriages:--
“Marriage in Egypt is not a public act strictly registered by the law.
When the bridegroom and the bride’s parents have come to an
understanding, when the sum to be paid by the husband has been agreed
upon (the wife brings no dower), the celebration of the union takes
place before two witnesses. Sometimes the cadi is apprized; but this is
a formality that is often neglected. In such a union, without any
ulterior guarantee, the wife is but a purchased slave. When the husband
tires of her he sends her back; she can only claim a divorce on one
single ground, for a reason considered by us also as a serious injury.
No legal notice is taken of the birth of children, who are consequently
placed in a precarious position until they are old enough to look after
themselves. Their death is easily concealed; and they occasionally
perish by the hand of one of the other wives, rivals of their mother. A
common custom allows the Nile sailors to have two wives, one at Girgeh,
for instance, and another at Assouan. The husband passes a month with
each of them in turns, as his business allows him. He brings with him a
few piastres, a piece or two of blue cotton stuff, often some little
seaman’s venture, that the wife proceeds to dispose of on his departure.
He receives in exchange the products of the place, that in turn go to
swell the trade of the other wife. We had on board a cargo of
earthenware, salt, and pipes. The sailors disembarked them here and
there as they went up the river, expecting to find on their return
stores of tobacco, dates, and horse-trappings. Polygamy looked at in
this light is productive; but it loses ground notwithstanding every day,
not amongst the poor only, but amongst the rich, who have in most cases
but one legitimate wife at a time. Besides, there is but one real cause
for polygamy--the premature old age of the women. When the men give up
the practice of marrying mere children, who become rapidly worn out by
the fatigues of precocious maternity, polygamy will cease to exist.”
Fig. 77 represents the dress of a Cairo lady.
[Illustration: 77.--A LADY OF CAIRO.]
Almas, or Egyptian dancing-girls, are now-a-days scarcely more than a
name in the country. It is difficult to find even one or two in Cairo.
The last specimens are restricted to the town of Esneh.
The travellers from whom we have taken the above details, visited the
town of Esneh, and there saw the dancing-girls. They give the following
sketch of them.
“We were conducted into a building of forbidding aspect. The
dancing-girls were grouped together in the midst of the apartment. They
were all plain enough in the face, but young and well made. The hope of
large gains had induced them to take extra pains with their dress. I
still see their low-necked vests, their wide silk pantaloons, fastened
above the hips with dazzling waistbands; their inner tunic of gauze or
flesh-coloured muslin; some with naked feet, others with long red or
yellow Turkish slippers. Most of them wore necklaces and bracelets, and
small coins hanging over their foreheads; whilst at the back of their
heads hung a small silk handkerchief, carelessly thrown on. The dance
began with a series of attitudes, beseeching and graceful, then rapidly
grew animated, till it expressed a pitch of deep passion. Their bosoms
remained immovable, while they moved the rest of their bodies as if in a
frenzy. A distribution of olives, of liqueurs, and a shower of small
coins, won us a thousand blessings, and brought our evening to a
dignified close. The almas do not meet every day with such a windfall;
and if they dance during the winter, they do not sing in the summer. The
population amidst which they live cannot afford to remunerate their
talents. Well versed in poses plastiques, but incapable of all work,
they are reduced to all sorts of expedients, and to loans, which make
them the slaves of the usurers. Their time is spent in smoking, in
drinking aquavitæ, and in consuming the omnipresent coffee. The miseries
of such an existence daily decrease the number of almas, who, in the
time of the Mamelukes, were to be found everywhere in Egypt. Esneh is
their last refuge, and was, no doubt, their birthplace.”
[Illustration: 78.--ALMA OR DANCING-GIRL.]
THE SEMITIC FAMILY.
We have already said that the races who composed the Aramean branch
kindled in Asia, at an early period in history, the torch of
civilization. This observation is more particularly applicable to the
nations of the Semitic family, of whom we are now going to speak. It is
from this family, in fact, that sprang the nations so well known in
ancient history, under the name of Assyrians, Hebrews, Phœnicians and
Carthaginians. Conquered by other races, the Assyrians, the Hebrews, the
Phœnicians, and the Carthaginians have successively disappeared and are
now almost entirely replaced by the Arabs.
We unite to the Semitic family the Arabs, the Jews, and the Syrians.
_The Arabs._--The Arabs constitute the principal population of modern
Arabia; they also form a great part of the inhabitants of Egypt, Nubia,
Barbary, and Sahara. They extend into Persia, and even into Hindostan.
Some of the Arabs are shepherds (Bedouins), others cultivate the soil;
the former are nomadic, the latter sedentary. The Bedouins, children of
the desert, perpetual wanderers, active and very temperate, are smaller
and of a more slender appearance than the others, and support with ease
the fatigues and privations of their mode of life. The agricultural
Arabs, or _fehles_, are taller and more robust. The former have a wild
and suspicious cast of countenance. The characteristics of the Arab race
are, a long face, with a high-shaped head; an aquiline nose, nearly in a
line with the forehead; a retreating and small mouth; even teeth; the
eye not at all deep set, in spite of the want of prominence of the brow;
graceful figures, formed by the small volume of fatty matter and
cellular tissue, and by the presence of powerful but not largely
developed muscle; a keen wit; a lively intelligence; and a deep and
persevering mould of character. These characteristics show that they
possess a remarkable superiority over other races, and Baron Larrey has
found fresh evidence of this superiority in the shape of their head, in
the convolutions of their brain, in the consistency of their nervous
tissue, in the appearance of their muscular fibre and their bony
structure, and in the regularity and perfect development of their heart
and arterial system.
We see therefore that the Arab type is really an admirable one. This
type, consistent and well defined as a whole, has, however, undergone
considerable modifications under the influence of divers causes. The
colour of their skin varies a good deal: their complexion is sometimes
as white as that of Europeans of the most northern countries. In Yemen,
Arab women have been noticed whose complexion was a deep yellow. In that
portion of the valley of the Nile contiguous to Nubia, the Arabs are
black. In this same valley of the Nile, above Dengola, the _Shegya_
Arabs are jet black, a bright clear black, a colour which the English
traveller Waddington thought the most beautiful that could be chosen for
a human creature.
“These men,” says Waddington, “entirely differ from negroes in the
brilliancy of their colour, in the quality of their hair, in the
regularity of their features, in the gentle expression of their limpid
eyes, and by the softness of their skin, which in this respect is not at
all inferior to that of Europeans.”
Amongst the Arabs who dwell in more temperate climates, hair more or
less fair, and blue or grey eyes have been observed. As a contrast, in
the Libyan desert, tribes have been met with whose hair was woolly and
nearly analogous to that of negroes. Taken altogether, the nomadic
Arabs, who have faithfully adhered for many centuries to the same mode
of life, exhibit, in spite of varying climates, the original mould of an
exceptional beauty.
Fig. 79 shows a tent of nomadic Arabs.
_The Jews._--Among the lesser nations with an affinity to the Semitic
family, there is one remarkable by its historical importance, and by the
manner in which it has managed to preserve its original type during the
eighteen centuries in which it has been scattered all over the whole
world: we mean the Jews or Israelites.[6]
[6] French politeness has made between these two words a distinction
which is too odd to allow us to pass it over. In France, a rich
Jew is called an _Israelite_, a poor Israelite is called a _Jew_.
The Messrs. Rothschild are _Israelitish_ bankers; but if by some
impossibility they lost their millions and went to live at
Frankfort, in the Jew’s quarter, in the old family house, which is
still there, and which we have seen, they would become, like their
ancestors, _Jewish_ traders.
[Illustration: 79.--WANDERING ARABS.]
The Jews have preserved much of their own peculiar physiognomy. They are
distinguished from the nations among whom they are dispersed, by
peculiar features easily recognized in many paintings of the great
masters. Still they have ended by adopting more or less the
characteristics of the nations with whom they have long resided. Under
the sole influence of external circumstances and mode of life, the
medley of races amongst which they have existed has little by little
altered their national type. In the northern parts of Europe the Jews
have a white skin, blue eyes, and fair hair. In some portions of Germany
many are to be seen with red beards; in Portugal they are
tawny-coloured. In those districts of India where they have been long
settled, in Cochin for instance, on the Malabar coast, they are black,
and resemble the natives so exactly in complexion that it is often
difficult to distinguish them from the Hindoos.
[Illustration: 80.--JEW OF BUCHAREST.]
Fig. 80 represents a Jew of Bucharest.
_Syrians._--The ancient Syrians have, as a rule, become absorbed in the
races who have conquered them; their language, however, is still spoken
by the Christian population of Mesopotamia and Chaldea, the Sourianis
and the Yakoubis or Chaldeans.
Beyrout, at the foot of the mountains of Libanus (fig. 81), is a town
and port which is the commercial centre of all Syria. Thither Libanus
sends its wine and its silks; Yemen, its coffee; Haman, its corn;
Djebaïl and Lattakiah, their pale-coloured tobaccos; Palmyra, its
horses; Damascus, its arms; Bagdad, its costly stuffs; and all Europe,
the countless productions of its industry.
[Illustration: 81.--BEYROUT.]
The very first glance at Beyrout shows how commerce prospers in that
town. The Maronite in his gloomy and coarse garments, the Druze in his
white or parti-coloured turban, armed with the most costly weapons, the
Arab displaying his picturesque rags, the Turk, the Greek, the Jew, and
the Armenian, all hurry to and fro, jostling one another in the crowd.
It is a regular Babel of language and costume: in which, however, the
Christian element predominates.
But the streets of Beyrout, like all those of Eastern towns, are not in
unison with such a brilliant panorama.
The houses are massive shells of stone; the streets are narrow and
steep, communicating sometimes by tunnelled passages; some of the
broader ones are occupied by _cafedjis_, inside which squatting Arabs
tranquilly smoke their chibouks, sheltered from the rays of the sun by
awnings of coarse rush-matting hung above their heads. In the middle of
the street the children roll about in the dust.
The _Maronites_ and the _Druzes_ are two lesser nations of Libanus,
speaking, however, like most modern Syrians, the Arabic tongue.
The Maronites are an influential but ignorant people. They derive their
origin from a Christian monk of the name of Maroun, who lived towards
the close of the sixth century, and died in the odour of sanctity. A
convent was founded to honour his memory. A century later, one of his
disciples, John the Maronite, espoused the quarrel of the Latin
Christians against those of Greek descent, at that time making much
headway in Libanus. The latter drew their inspiration from
Constantinople; the Maronites, on the contrary, imbibed theirs from
Rome. A religious pretext was made use of to hide political differences.
John the Maronite armed his mountaineers, led them against the enemy,
and seized the whole of Libanus right up to the walls of Jerusalem.
Keeping within their mountains, although comparatively few in number,
the Maronites preserved for a long time their independence. It was not
until 1588 that they were conquered by Ibrahim, Pacha of Cairo, and
forced to pay a yearly tribute, which they still continue to do.
[Illustration: 82.--MARONITES OF LIBANUS.]
In spite of this the Maronites, like all mountaineers, have kept their
desire for independence. Persecuted by their masters, the Mussulmans;
and by the Druzes, rivals raised up against them by the English,
jealous, according to the French, of the latter’s influence in Libanus;
on bad terms with the Ansarieh or Mutualis; they still manage, the spade
in one hand and the sword in the other, to cultivate and defend the
inheritance of their fathers.
Ignorant as they are, the Maronites are the only educated race in the
country. The magnificent convents which exist in the districts of the
Maronites, are full of ancient manuscripts and modern Arab writings.
Fig. 82 represents a Maronite convent in Libanus.
The Druzes are schismatic Mussulmans, as the Maronites are sectarian
Christians. They are inclined to cultivate the soil, but are naturally
warlike. Every Druze is a ready-made soldier, hospitable, if you will,
but quite as capable of fighting, when the opportunity offers, as the
best guérilléros in Europe.
THE PERSIAN FAMILY.
The white races who come from the south-east of the Caucasus are
generally classed in the European branch, because the languages of both
are somewhat similar, and have both some affinity with Sanscrit. But
these races have a much greater resemblance to the Arameans than to the
Europeans. Like the Arameans, the nations of the Persian family early
acquired a certain degree of civilization, to which they have since
added.
The races belonging to the Persian family have a white skin, black eyes
and hair, and are of middle height. They inhabit not only Persia, but
Armenia, Turkistan, and some portions of Hindostan.
Five well-defined divisions can be made in the races that constitute
this family: 1st, the Persians, properly so called, or the _Tadjiks_;
2nd, the Afghans; 3rd, the Kurds; 4th, the Armenians; 5th, the small
tribe of the Ossetines.
_The Persians._--A great part of Persia is still occupied by tribes who
wander about the country, living in tents, and forcing their slaves and
servants to till the soil. But many of these tribes are aliens to the
Persian race. The pure race of Persians only inhabits towns and their
immediate neighbourhood. These Tadjiks or thoroughbred Persians were
formerly much more numerous than they are now. The north-east of the
kingdom of Iran is the land of their ancestors. All ancient writers have
spoken of the primitive Persians (Medes and Persians) as a singularly
fine and well made race. Ammianus Marcellinus speaks of Persia as a
country renowned for the beauty of its women (ubi feminarum pulchritudo
excellit), and all the old authors describe the Persians as men of a
tall stature and a handsome countenance.
The figures we find in the numerous ancient sculptures on Persian
monuments, at Istakhar, at Persepolis, at Ekbatana, and in many other
places, confirm in every respect this evidence. In the basso-relievos
from Nineveh in the Palace of the Louvre, in Paris, the refined features
and the good looks which distinguished the men of that ancient city are
at once recognizable. The type is a noble and dignified one, and shows
traces of much reflection and intelligence.
The Tadjiks, or modern Persians, are likewise extremely handsome. They
possess a great regularity of feature, an oval countenance, luxuriant
hair, large and well defined black eyebrows, and that soft dark eye held
in such high estimation by Easterns.
The Tadjiks are cheerful, witty, active, frivolous, idle, and vicious;
fond of luxury, dress, and display. They possess a literature, and their
language, remarkable for its flowery and ornamental diction, is spoken
not only in Persia, but by the upper classes in a large portion of
Hindostan.
Persia (the kingdom of Iran) is governed by a king (shah) who exercises
almost absolute authority and who resides at Teheran. The heir to the
throne is the eldest son of the king’s eldest son, according to an
ancient Russian custom.
The twelve provinces of which the kingdom is composed are administered
by a governor (beglebeig), who delegates his authority to a lieutenant
(kakim). The towns are ruled over by a special governor, by a police
inspector, and by a first magistrate. Every village elects a ruler
(ketlkhoda). The legislation of Persia, differing in little from that of
Turkey, is based on the Koran.
The kingdom of Persia can send into the field 150,000 soldiers; but its
permanent army does not exceed 10,000 men, among whom exist as a
special corps, the shah’s guards (gholaums). Persia has a small merchant
navy.
[Illustration: 83.--HADY-MERZA-AGHAZZI.]
Manufactures do not seem to succeed in Persia. This country, formerly
the centre of a large commerce, now imports almost everything, and only
manufactures articles of primary necessity.
India, Russia, and Afghanistan supply the Persians with most of their
manufactured goods.
Persia, having been often invaded and occupied by foreigners, has
necessarily a very mixed population. This consists of four classes:
1. The nobility, who fill all public posts.
2. The citizens of the towns, comprising the clergy, and the scholastic
profession, who are a mixture of Persians, Turks, Tartars, Georgians,
Armenians, and Arabs.
3. The peasants, belonging to the old Persian stock.
4. The nomadic or pastoral tribes, composed of Persians, to whom must be
added the remnant of the ancient conquering classes of this country. It
is from this last class that spring the soldiers and all the military
clique who constitute in Persia a real hereditary autocracy.
The religion of the ancient Persians was that of Zoroath, that is to
say, necromancy. In the third and fourth centuries of the Christian era,
Christianity made many converts in this land, although at that time it
was occupied by the Arabs. But from the commencement of the fifth
century the kings of Persia devoted their energies to crushing it out of
their country, and Mahometanism is now the predominant religion. A new
sect, the _sosists_, taking rise in a province in Persia (Kerman), has
made many converts throughout the kingdom. The votaries of this new
creed are deists, who only accept the Koran as a book of moral precepts,
and who repudiate the religious dogma that Mahomet drew from it.
Fig. 84 represents several Persian types; fig. 85 gives an idea of the
costly dress of the Persian nobility.
[Illustration: 84.--PERSIAN TYPES.]
The author of a “Journey in Persia,” Count de Gobineau, has well
described the internal life of the Persians. We will make a few
extracts from his interesting book. Let us read, for instance, the
chapter in which is described _A dinner in Ispahan_. “The table,” M. de
Gobineau tells us, “laid for twenty guests, was almost lost in the
immense size of the place. The front of the theatre was open, supported
by ten lofty columns painted in light colours; the large curtain in use,
white, with black designs embroidered on it, was stretched like an
awning over the nearest part of the gardens. The guests overlooked a
large fountain of running water and vast beds of plane trees. Numerous
servants in motley dresses, and armed each according to his own fancy
(some of them carried a complete arsenal), stood in groups at the end
of the terrace, or handed round the dishes, helping the guests. The
table had been laid out with the help of the European servants, a little
in the European manner, and a good deal according to Persian customs.
Its centre was occupied by a perfect forest of vases and cups, made of
wood, or of blue, white, or yellow and red glass, and filled with
flowers. The novelty of the thing to our hosts, lay in the spoons and
forks: when by good fortune, they managed to impale a piece upon their
fork and carry it to their mouths without pricking themselves, it was
the signal for a burst of compliments. Their appetites were a little
eccentric. One of them filled his plate with mustard, and declared he
had never tasted anything half so good. As their parade was greater than
the results, we begged them to help themselves in their own way. After
much hesitation, they consented to hold on to the fork with the left
hand while they picked up their food with the right.
[Illustration: 85.--PERSIAN NOBLEMEN.]
“In the midst of the meal we heard a jingle of silvery bells, and saw
four young boys, dressed as women, in pink and blue dresses spangled
with tinsel, enter. They were dancers. They wore little gilt caps, from
beneath which their long hair fell over their shoulders. The musicians
were seated on the ground: one played on a kind of mandolin, another on
a hand drum, and a third performed on an instrument with a quantity of
strings stretched across a table, from which he drew, with some little
sticks, sounds similar to those of the harp.”
M. de Gobineau tells us that Ispahan contains many men learned in
various branches, rich and prosperous merchants, and men of property who
live on their incomes. The town may be compared in size and tranquillity
to Versailles.
Another chapter of M. de Gobineau’s book is worth reading, that headed
“Betrothal, Divorce, and a Persian Lady’s Day.”
The betrothed are usually very young. The youth is from fifteen to
sixteen years of age, and the girl from ten to eleven. It is unusual to
find a woman of three-and-twenty who has not had at least a couple of
husbands, and often many more, so easily are divorces obtained. The
women are kept strictly secluded in one of the inner apartments or
_enderoun_, that is to say, no outsider, no stranger to the family, is
allowed to enter it. But they are quite at liberty to go out from
morning till night, and often indeed from night to morning. In the first
place they go to bathe. They go to the bath with an attendant who
carries a box full of toilet necessaries and the requisite articles of
dress, and it is at least four or five hours before they return from it.
After that they pay visits which they make to one another, and which
occupy a similar interval. Their last method of killing time is the
pilgrimage they make to the graves of their kindred, which are at no
great distance in the midst of pretty scenery.
All Persian women are so carefully veiled, and dressed so similarly, as
to their out-door garments, that it is impossible for the most practised
eye to distinguish one from the other. Besides paying visits, the
excursion to the bath, the shopping in the bazaar, and their
pilgrimages, the women go out of doors when it pleases them, and the
streets are full of them. Unfortunately Persian women are rather in the
habit of looking upon themselves as inferior irresponsible beings.
Absolute mistresses at home, they are extremely passionate and violent,
and their tiny slipper, furnished with a sharp iron point half an inch
long, often leaves very disagreeable marks on their husbands’ faces.
[Illustration: 86.--PERSIAN WOMEN.]
The Persian in his turn spends half his time in the bazaar, and the
remainder in paying and receiving visits. This is how they take place.
[Illustration: 87.--LOUTY AND BAKTYAN.]
The intending visitor sets out on horseback accompanied by as many of
his servants as he can collect, the _djelodar_, with the embroidered
saddle-cloth across his shoulders, at his horse’s head; and behind him
the _kalyaudjy_ (musician) with his instrument. When he reaches the door
he wishes to stop at, he dismounts. He then, with his servants in front
of him, traverses one or two passages, invariably low and dark, and
sometimes one or two courts, before reaching the apartments of the
master of the house. If his visitor is of higher rank than himself, the
host comes to the door to receive him. If they are equals, he sends his
son or one of his young relations to do so. The opening courtesies are
extremely flowery, such as “How came your lordship to conceive the
compassionate idea of visiting this lowly roof?” &c.
When they reach the drawing-room, they find all the men of the family
standing in a row against the wall bowing to the new-comer. As soon as
every one is seated, the visitor inquires of the master of the house,
“If, by the will of God, his nose is fat.” The latter replies: “Glory be
to God! it is so, by means of your goodness.” This same question is
sometimes repeated three or four times running. After a few moments of
conversation, tea, coffee, and sherbet are handed round. The great charm
of this rather frivolous gossip is its exaggeration, and the witty and
amusing turn given to it.
The Persians have a peculiar taste for calligraphy. Painting is an
almost unknown art amongst them. They possess, however, a certain amount
of artistic instinct, as is shown by the richness and elegance of some
of their monuments.
Fig. 87 shows the reader other types of Persian costume worn by
different classes. The Louty and the Baktyan represented in this sketch
are members of a nomadic tribe, enjoying rather a bad reputation.
The _Afghans_ inhabit the mountainous region lying to the north of the
lowlands of the Punjaub, that is to say, the basin of the Indus. Their
climate is a charming one. The Afghans are fine muscular men with a long
face, high cheek-bones and a prominent nose. Their hair is generally
black. Their skin, according to the part of the country they inhabit, is
dark, tawny, or white. They are an unpolished, warlike race, differing
in customs and in language both from the Persians and the natives of
India. They are subdivided into many tribes or clans.
The _Beloochees_, addicted to pastoral life, and primitive in their
habits, move about from place to place, dwelling in tents which are
constructed of felt on a slight framework of willow. They wander, with
their flocks, about the table lands surrounding Kelat. They are to be
found in nearly the whole of that part of eastern Persia, which, lying
between Afghanistan to the north and the Indian Ocean to the south,
stretches westwards from the Indus to the great Salt Desert. They speak
a dialect derived from the Persian.
[Illustration: 88.--AN ARMENIAN DRAWING-ROOM.]
The _Brahnis_ are nomadic tribes found in the colder and more elevated
parts of the high grounds comprised within the above geographical
limits. They are short and thickset, with round faces and flat features,
and brown hair and beards. The Beloochees, who live in lower and warmer
regions, are, on the contrary, fine tall men, with regular features and
an expressive physiognomy. But those who dwell in the lowlands, close to
the Indus, have a darker and almost black skin. The Brahnis bear the
same relation to the Hindoos of the Punjaub that the Beloochees do to
the Persians.
The _Kurds_, who occupy the lofty mountainous region, intersected by
deep valleys, which is situated between the immense table land of Persia
and the plains of Mesopotamia, are a semi-barbarous people, very
different from the descendants of the Medo-Persians, though also sprung
from an Aryan root. They are tall, with coarse features. Their
complexion is brown, their hair is black, their eyes small, their mouth
large, and their countenances wild looking.
The _Armenians_ of both sexes are remarkable for their physical beauty.
Their language is nearly allied to the oldest dialects of the Aryan
race, and their history is connected with that of the Medes and Persians
by very ancient traditions. They have a white skin, black eyes and hair,
and their features are rounder than those of the Persians. The luxuriant
growth of the hair on their faces distinguishes them from the Hindoos.
Fig. 88 represents a drawing-room in an Armenian’s house at Soucha.
The climate of Armenia is generally a cold one; but in the valleys and
in the plains the atmosphere is less keen and the soil very fertile.
Crops of wheat, wine, fruit, tobacco, and cotton are very plentiful
there. Mines of gold, silver, copper, iron, and lead are found there,
but these are but little worked. Armenian horses have the reputation of
being the best bred in western Asia. Cochineal, an important production
of this country, is very plentiful at the foot of Ararat. Excellent
manna is found in the same districts. Armenian floreals are very
abundant.
Armenia nowadays constitutes the pachaliks of Erzeroum, Kars, and
Dijar-Bekr in Asiatic Turkey. Besides its indigenous population, it is
inhabited by Turks, Kurds, Turcomans, and the remnants of other nations
who formerly made raids into their country. The Armenian is
distinguished by his serious, laborious, intelligent, and hospitable
disposition. He is very successful in business. Fond of the traditions
of his forefathers, and attached to his government, he has a good deal
of sympathy with Europeans. He becomes easily accustomed to European
customs, and learns our languages with little difficulty.
The Christian religion has always been followed in Armenia, and
Armenians are much attached to their church. But this is divided into
several sects. The Gregorian (the creed founded by Saint Gregory), the
Roman Catholic, and the Protestant religions are all to be found in
Armenia. The head of the first, which is the most numerous (it musters
about four million worshippers), resides at Etchmiadzia, in Russian
Armenia. There is another patriarch, who is nearly independent, at Cis,
the ancient capital of the kingdom of Cilicia. The patriarch of the
Catholics, who are fifty thousand in number, resides at Constantinople;
but a second patriarch (_in partibus_), whose jurisdiction extends over
Syria, Cilicia, and a part of Asia Minor, dwells on Mount Libanus. The
Roman Catholics of Russian Armenia belong to the see of the Metropolitan
residing in St. Petersburg. The head of the Protestant church, which
contains from four to five thousand souls, dwells at Constantinople.
The _Ossetines_, who are the last branch of the Aryan race in Asia,
inhabit a small portion of the chain of the Caucasian mountains,
populated for the most part by races distinct from the Indo-Europeans.
They resemble the peasants of the north of Russia; but their customs are
barbarous, and they are given to pillage.
M. Vereschaguine met with the Ossetines in his travels in the Caucasian
provinces. A Cossack, with whom he had some trouble, belonged to this
race. The villages of the Ossetines lie on the slopes of the mountains.
On each side of the Darial Pass lofty walls, flanked by towers, are to
be seen, reminding the spectator of the days of brigandage.
The Ossetine, contrary to the customs of all the other tribes of the
Caucasus and of the Trans-Caucasus, uses beds, tables, and chairs. He
seats himself, like most Europeans, without crossing his legs.
THE GEORGIAN FAMILY.
The _Georgian_ Family is gathered together on the southern slope of the
Caucasus. The beauty of the Georgian women is proverbial. M. Moynet, in
his “Journey to the Caspian and the Black Seas,” tells us that they
deserve all their reputation. Their physiognomy is as calm and regular
as that of the immortal type handed down to us in the ancient statuary
of Greece. A head-band of bright colours in the shape of a crown, and
from which hangs a veil passing under the chin, forms their head-dress.
Two long plaits of hair fall behind, reaching nearly to their feet.
Nothing can be imagined more graceful or more dignified than this
head-dress. A long ribbon of the gayest hues serves them for a sash, and
falls down the front of their dress to the ground. Out of doors they
wrap themselves up in a flowing white cloth, which shields them from the
sun, and which they wear with much grace.
[Illustration: 89.--GEORGIANS.]
The men are also generally handsome. They have preserved the Caucasian
type untouched and unaltered. They wear rich dresses, embroidered with
gold and silver, and carry costly, sparkling arms. They are brave and
chivalrous, and are passionately fond of horses.
THE CIRCASSIAN FAMILY.
The _Circassian_ Family, collected in the Caucasian mountains, is
composed of a population distinguished for their bravery, but very
feebly civilized. The Circassian type has in the whole of the East a
great reputation for beauty, and it deserves it. Most Circassians have a
long oval face, a thin straight nose, a small mouth, large dark eyes, a
well-defined figure, a small foot, brown hair, a very white skin, and a
martial appearance.
In affinity with the Circassians are the _Abases_, who speak a dialect
akin to Circassian. They are semi-barbarous, and live on the produce of
their herds and from the spoil of their brigandage. Their features show
no sign of Circassian grace. They have a narrow head, a prominent nose,
and the lower half of their face is extremely short.
The _Mingrelians_, inhabitants of Mingrelia, a little kingdom on the
shores of the Caspian Sea, resemble the Georgians in physical
appearance, in manners, and in customs.
THE YELLOW RACE.
The Yellow Race has also been called the _Mongol Race_, from the
well-defined features of one of the families it comprises.
The principal characteristics which distinguish the individuals and the
families belonging to the Yellow race, are, high cheekbones, a
lozenge-shaped head, a small flat nose, a flat countenance, narrow
obliquely-set eyes, straight coarse black hair, a scanty beard, and a
complexion of a greenish hue.
However, all the members of the yellow race do not exhibit these
distinct features. Sometimes they show but a few of them, whilst others
of their characteristics would seem to identify them with the Caucasian
group. It is thus very difficult to make the proper divisions in this
race.
We will separate it into three branches--the Hyperborean, the Mongolian,
and the Sinaic branches.
CHAPTER I.
HYPERBOREAN BRANCH.
The Hyperborean branch is composed of the various races inhabiting the
districts in the vicinity of the North Pole, small in stature and
possessing the principal characteristics of the Yellow Race.
The people belonging to the Hyperborean branch are nomadic, and their
only domestic animals are the dog and the reindeer. They are spread over
a vast surface, but are few in number. They support themselves by
hunting and fishing. They are passionately fond of strong drinks, and
their civilization is of a very rudimentary character.
Some of these people might perhaps be more properly classed under the
Mongolian branch. Possibly some even should be classified in the White
Race, for they have lost, under the influences of climate and of their
mode of life, the distinguishing characteristics of the Yellow Race. As
it is very difficult to make a natural classification of these people,
we will retain that set up by M. D’Omalius d’Halloy.
This naturalist distinguishes, amid the people who compose the
Hyperborean branch, seven families, taking the affinities of language as
a basis. These are the _Lapp_, the _Samoiede_, the _Kamtschadale_, the
_Esquimaux_, the _Ienissian_, the _Jukaghirite_, and the _Koriak_
families.
THE LAPP FAMILY.
The Laplanders are thin and short, but pretty strong and active. Their
head is disproportionately large. They have a round skull, wide
cheek-bones, the broad flat Mongol nose, a protruding forehead, and
goggle eyes. Their complexion is a yellowish brown, and their hair is
usually black. This curious race of men is divided into two distinct
classes, the nomadic Laplander and the sedentary Laplander.
[Illustration: 90.--LAPLANDERS.]
The sole property of the former is his herd of reindeer. He takes these
to the high grounds, and after spending the months of June, July, and
August there, returns in September to his winter quarters. In his
journeys to and fro, he uses the reindeer as beasts of burden. When the
ground is covered with snow, he harnesses these useful quadrupeds to his
sledge. (Fig. 90.)
Dogs are also used as draft animals in Lapland. On the borders of the
scanty forests of Lapland and Siberia, the inhabitants of these
barbarous countries may often be seen gliding rapidly by on a sledge
drawn by dogs.
The usual life of the nomadic Laplander is about as wretched as can well
be imagined. A tent stretched on four uprights is his abode summer and
winter. The fire-place is in the middle of the tent, and the smoke
escapes through an opening in the top. Five or six reindeer skins
stretched round the fire form the beds of the whole family, to which the
surrounding smoke serves as the only curtain. Their furniture consists
of an iron pot and a few wooden pails. The Laplander carries in his
pocket a horn spoon and a knife. He often, instead of wooden pails,
makes use of the bladders of the reindeer. In them he carries the milk
mixed with water which is his daily beverage. Whenever he sets out on a
journey, he harnesses a pair of reindeer to his sledge.
This nomadic race, which formerly occupied a part of Sweden, is now much
diminished in numbers. Thirty years ago their number, counting all that
could be found in Russian, Norwegian, and Swedish Lapland, only came to
twelve thousand.
The sedentary Laplander is usually some poor reindeer proprietor, who
having ruined himself, and being unable to continue the life of a
wandering herdsman, becomes a beggar or a servant. If he has still a
little money left, he settles down on the sea coast, and turns
fisherman, while his wife spins wool. His existence in the midst of men
of a different race is then a solitary one. He is a regular pariah,
despised by both Swede and Norwegian. His hut, his dress, his customs,
are all different to those of the people amongst whom he has taken
shelter. His children are not allowed to marry into any of the
neighbouring families, and he is utterly and entirely alone amid
strangers.
In his “Travels in the Scandinavian States,” M. de Saint-Blaize tells us
how he suddenly fell in with an encampment of Laplanders in the night
time. A hundred deer, whose immense antlers, interlaced the one with the
other, produced the effect of a little forest, were grouped around the
camp fires. Two young Laplanders and some dogs watched over the safety
of the whole. Hard by were the tents. An old Laplander and his wife
offered the traveller some reindeer milk. It was very oily, and reminded
him of goat’s milk.
The same traveller tells us that when on a journey a Laplander’s wife
gives birth to a child, she places it in a piece of hollow wood with the
opening fenced in with wire to give play to the baby’s head. This log
with its precious contents is then placed on the mother’s back and she
rejoins the rest. When they halt, she hangs this kind of wooden
chrysalis to the bough of a tree, the wire protecting the child from the
teeth of wild animals (fig. 91).
[Illustration: 91.--A LAPP CRADLE.]
THE SAMOIEDE FAMILY.
The Samoiedes are a wandering race, spread over both sides of the great
Siberian promontory ending in Cape North. Some of their tribes are also
to be met with pretty far to the west, to the east, and to the south of
this region. They support themselves by hunting and fishing on the
borders of the Frozen Ocean. They bear much resemblance to the Tunguses
of whom we shall speak later. Their face is flat, round and broad, their
lips are thick and turned up, and their nose is wide and open at the
nostrils. Their hair is black and coarse, and they have but little on
their face. Most of them are rather under the middle size, well
proportioned and rather thick set. (Fig. 92.) They are wild and restless
in disposition.
THE KAMTSCHADALE FAMILY.
We can only just make a note of the Kamtschadales, with whom the
navigators of the Arctic seas have been for a long time acquainted. They
inhabit the southern portion of the peninsula that bears their name.
They are short men with a tawny skin, black hair, a meagre beard, a
broad face, a short flat nose, small deep-set eyes, scanty eyebrows,
immense stomachs, and thin legs.
[Illustration: 92.--SAMOIEDES.]
More to the South, in the Kourile Islands, and on the adjacent
continent, we meet with a race differing widely from the preceding one.
They are the inhabitants of these islands, and are called _Aïnos_. They
are of short stature, but their features are regular. The most
remarkable of their physical characteristics is the extraordinary
development of their hair. They are the hairiest of men, and it is this
peculiarity that makes us allude to them. Their beards cover their
breasts, and their arms, neck, and back are covered with hair. This is
an exceptional peculiarity, particularly with men of the Mongol type.
The language spoken by the Aïnos, is strikingly like that spoken by the
Samoiedes and by some of the inhabitants of the Caucasus. Their bodies
are well formed and their disposition is gentle and hospitable. They
live by hunting and fishing.
THE ESQUIMAUX FAMILY.
Greenland and most of the islands adjacent to this portion of the
American continent are inhabited by a people that have received the
common name of Esquimaux and who constitute a very numerous family.
The principal and the most numerous tribes of the Esquimaux family
belong to the American continent. But as they are quite distinct from
the other inhabitants of this continent, and as they have a much greater
resemblance to the people of Northern Asia, and to the Mongols, it is
here that we mention them.
The head of the Esquimaux has a more pyramidal shape than that of the
Mongols of Upper Asia. This is owing to the narrowing of the skull. Such
an outward sign of degradation reveals at once the moral and social
inferiority of these poor people. Their eyes are black, small and wild,
but show no vivacity. Their nose is very flat, and they have a small
mouth, with the lower lip much thicker than the upper one. Some have
been seen with plenty of hair on their face. Their hair is usually
black, but occasionally fair, and always long, coarse, and unkempt.
Their complexion is clear. They are thick-set, have a decided tendency
to obesity, and are seldom more than five feet in height.
During a journey undertaken by Dr. Kane of New York to the 82nd degree
of northern latitude, this bold explorer spent more than a year amongst
the Esquimaux who live at Etah, the nearest human abode to the North
Pole. Men, women, and children, covered only by their filth, laid in
heaps in a hut, huddled together in a kind of basket. A lamp, with a
flame sixteen inches long produced by burning seal oil, warmed and
lighted the place. Bits of seal’s flesh, from whence issued a most
horrible ammoniacal odour, lay upon the floor of this den.
Fig. 93 represents the summer encampment of a tribe of Esquimaux, and
fig. 94 a winter one. Fig. 95 represents a village, that is to say, a
collection of huts made of blocks of snow which shelter from the
excessive cold these disinherited children of Nature.
[Illustration: 93.--ESQUIMAUX SUMMER ENCAMPMENT.]
The seals from the bay of Reusselaer provide the Esquimaux with food
during the greater part of the year. More to the south, as far as
Murchison’s channel, the whale penetrates in due season. The winter
famine begins to cease when the sun reappears. January and February are
the months of hardship; during the latter part of March the spring
fisheries recommence, and with them movement and life begin anew. The
poor wretched dens covered with snow are then the scenes of great
activity. The masses of accumulated provisions are then brought out and
piled up on the frozen ground: the women prepare the skins to make shoes
of, and the men make a reserve store of harpoons for the winter. The
Esquimaux are not lazy. They hunt with a good deal of pluck, and are
often forced to hide their game in excavations that the wild beasts may
not get at it. Their consumption of food is very great. They are large
eaters, not from greediness, but of necessity, on account of the extreme
cold of these high latitudes.
[Illustration: 94.--ESQUIMAUX WINTER ENCAMPMENT.]
Fig. 96 represents, according to Doctor Kane, the chief of an Esquimaux
tribe.
Doctor Hayes, in his “Journey to the Open Sea of the North Pole,”
published in 1866, has described the Esquimaux type. A broad face, heavy
jaws, prominent cheek bones, a narrow forehead, small eyes of a deep
black, thin long lips, with two narrow rows of sound teeth, jet-black
hair, a little of it on the upper lip and on the chin; small in stature
but stoutly built, and a robust constitution of a vigorous kind; such
are the distinguishing characteristics of the people of the far north.
The Esquimaux style of dress seemed, to the learned traveller, pretty
much the same for both sexes; a pair of boots, stockings, mittens,
trousers, a waistcoat, and an overcoat. The father-in-law of one of his
travelling companions wore boots of bearskin coming up to the knee,
whilst those of his wife reached much higher, and were made of seal
leather. Their trousers were made of sealskin, their stockings of
dogskin, their mittens of sealskin, and their waistcoat of kidskin with
the fur inside.
[Illustration: 95.--ESQUIMAUX VILLAGE.]
The overcoat, made of the skin of the blue fox, does not open in front,
but is put on like a shirt. It ends in a hood covering the head like the
cowl of a monk. The women cut their coat to a point, in order to confine
their hair, which they gather together on the top of the head, and tie
up in a knot as close and as hard as a stone, by means of untanned
straps of sealskin. This is shown in fig. 93.
[Illustration: 96.--ESQUIMAUX CHIEF.]
Seal-hunting is the chief occupation of the Esquimaux. The seal is a
providential animal to the wild inhabitants of the shores of the Frozen
Ocean of America, as the reindeer is the godsend of the Laplanders,
inhabitants of the shores of the same seas in the north of Europe.
[Illustration: 97.--ESQUIMAUX BIRD-CATCHER.]
The eggs of the seabirds, particularly of the penguin, are a second
source of food to these people. The Esquimaux run all sorts of risks to
gather the eggs of these birds on the steep and giddy cliffs where their
nests are found (fig. 97).
The Esquimaux can only count up to ten, the number of their fingers.
They have no system of notation, and can assign no date to past events.
They have no annals of any kind or sort, and do not even know their own
age.
TEMISIAN FAMILY.
A people more generally known under the name of _Ostiaks_ of _Temisia_.
They speak a very different language from that of the Ostiaks of the Obi
whom we have already mentioned as belonging to the White Race.
JUKAGHIRITE AND KORIAK FAMILIES.
These are wandering people, becoming more and more absorbed in the
Russian population. They live on the shores of Behring’s Straits, or in
the interior, and much resemble the Samoiedes in their customs and in
their language.
[Illustration: 98.--YOUNG ESQUIMAUX.]
CHAPTER II.
MONGOLIAN BRANCH.
The peoples belonging to this ethnologic branch exhibit the
characteristics of the Yellow Race in the most prominent manner. They
are fond of a nomadic life, and have at different periods made wide
conquests; but they have, as a rule, become absorbed in the races they
have overcome. The Mongols are still, however, the rulers of the Chinese
Empire. They belong either to the Buddhist or to the Mahometan faith.
This branch is divided into three great families, analogous with the
differences in their language: the _Mongols_, the _Tunguses_, and the
_Turks_. We may add to them a fourth family, the _Yakuts_, for these
latter possess the physical characteristics of the Yellow Race, and
speak a Turkish dialect.
THE MONGOL FAMILY.
The most decided features of the Yellow Race are particularly prominent
in the _Mongol_ family. Its members have a larger head, a flatter face
and nose, and smaller eyes than those of the other families. They have a
broad chest, a very short neck, round shoulders, strong thick-set limbs,
short bow-legs, and a brownish-yellow complexion. The most nomadic of
the Mongol family live under the rule of the Russian and the Chinese
Empires.
Fig. 99 represents a Mongol Tartar.
Three principal nations are to be found in this family: the Kalmuks, the
Mongols proper, and the Burïats.
_Kalmuks._--M. Vereschaguine, in his “Journey in the Caucasian
Provinces,” has described the nomadic Kalmuks whom he met with on the
frontier separating the Caucasus from the district of the Cossacks of
the Don. Travelling villages are found on these dreary and monotonous
steppes. The habitations of which these villages are composed consist of
tattered tents. These contain, mixed up in an incredible confusion,
boxes, cases, lassoes, saddles, and heaps of rags. A hearth is the only
sign of a fireplace. During the heat of summer, the children of both
sexes, up to the age of ten, run about almost entirely naked. In winter,
in the midst of their terrible snowstorms, and when the thermometer is
below zero, they remain for days together huddled up in their tents
beneath heaps of their clothing.
[Illustration: 99.--A MONGOL TARTAR.]
A Kalmuk’s dress consists of a shirt, of a _bechmet_, of a wide pair of
trousers, of red leather boots, and of a square cloth cap with a broad
border of sheepskin fur, generally ornamented with an immense knob on
the top. The more wealthy wear into the bargain an ample and lengthy
dressing-gown. The women do not, like the men, wear a belt round their
shirt; their hair falls from beneath their cap in several plaits tied up
with ribbons of different colours.
Cunning, trickery, fraud, and theft, are the staple occupations of these
nomadic tribes. The mother supports her child without the father
troubling himself about it, and it grows up in a state of neglect.
The food of the Kalmuks is extremely primitive. Boiled flour, diluted
with water and cooked up with pieces of horseflesh, forms the staple of
their culinary art. They are fond of tea, and drink a great deal of it,
but they season it so highly as to entirely lose its flavour. They are
downright drunkards into the bargain, and in this respect the women and
the children are not a whit behind the men. They sometimes spend whole
days in gambling with greasy and ill-assorted cards.
The Kalmuks are capital horsemen. They also breed and break-in camels,
which they sell in the Tiflis market.
_Mongols proper._--The Mongols proper, or the Eastern Mongols, wander in
the steppes of Mongolia. They are divided into numerous tribes, of which
the most important have received the name of _Khalkas_.
Mongolia may be divided into two parts, as distinct by their political
proclivities as by the nature and produce of their soil.
The southern part, an arid district, is only inhabited in the vicinity
of the Chinese frontier, where numerous tribes of Mongol origin, direct
tributaries of the Chinese Empire, are to be found. The northern
division, entirely populated by Khalkas tribes, is fertile.
The Khalkas are subdivided into two castes: the Buddhist priests, and
the black men who allow their hair to grow. The latter possess an
aristocracy, leading like the rest a pastoral life, from whom are
selected the chiefs of the tribes, chosen by election. The Khalkas could
bring into the field at least fifty thousand horsemen; but they are
wretchedly armed with worthless Chinese double-edged sabres. These are
notched or spiral-shaped. Their other weapons are short spears, arrows,
matchlocks with queer-shaped breeches, shields stuffed with sheets of
leather, and coats of wire mail.
The life of a wandering Khalkasian is very uneventful. He begins his day
by going round his flocks, and mounted on a horse which is never
unsaddled, and which has spent the night fastened to a stake at the door
of his tent, he gallops after the animals that have strayed away; then
he bends his steps to a neighbouring camp to gossip with the herdsmen it
contains. Returning home, he squats in his tent for the remainder of the
day, and kills time by sleeping, drinking tea diluted with milk or
butter, or by smoking his pipe; while his wives draw water, milk the
cows, collect fuel, make cheese, or prepare wool and the skins of
various animals for clothes and shoes.
The Khalkas, hospitable and sober, possess the primitive virtues of the
Yellow Race; but they are unacquainted with either commerce or
manufactures. The only things they produce are felt stuffs, a little
embroidery, and some poorly tanned skin and leather. They dispose of
their raw produce to Russian and Chinese traders, who cheat them as much
as they can. The payments are made in blocks of tea, five blocks being
an equivalent to one ounce of Chinese silver. This tea is composed of
the coarsest kind of leaf and of the small twigs of the herb.
The dull and contemplative existence of the Khalkasian has few events to
interrupt it. It is broken only by a pilgrimage, by a funeral followed
by long festivities, by the arrival of a few travellers, or by a
marriage. This last is, as among the ancient patriarchs, only a species
of barter in which the girl is sold by her father to the highest bidder,
and is an excuse for a week’s rejoicing, in which all concerned revel in
orgies of meat, tobacco, and rice brandy.
_The Burïats._--Miss Lisa Christiani, in the course of her travels in
eastern Siberia, received the chiefs of some Burïat tribes who had made
known their desire to pay her their respects. She met on the following
day, on the banks of the Selinga, an escort, sent by the Burïats in her
honour, composed of three hundred horsemen, dressed in splendid satin
robes of various colours, and wearing pointed caps trimmed with fur;
they carried bows and arrows in their shoulder-belts, and bestrode
richly caparisoned horses (fig. 100). It was in this manner the
traveller made her first acquaintance with this tribe.
[Illustration: 100.--BURÏATS ESCORTING MISS CHRISTIANI.]
At the time Miss Christiani fell in with them, the Burïats were
celebrating the obsequies of one of their principal chiefs. The
travellers were present at the funeral service and ceremonies, which
were performed in a Mongol temple, and afterwards at the games which
took place according to their ancient custom. These games included
archery, wrestling, and horse and foot races. A banquet followed, at
which roast mutton, cheese, cakes, and even some capital Champagne were
served to the guests.
The Burïats number about thirty-five thousand men, dwelling in the
mountains to the north of Baïkal. Their herds and flocks constitute
their wealth. Their religion is _Shamanism_, a species of idolatry very
prevalent amongst the inhabitants of Siberia. Their supreme God inhabits
the sun; he has under his command a host of inferior deities. Amongst
these barbarous people woman is considered an unclean and soulless
being.
THE TUNGUSIAN FAMILY.
The Tungusian family consists of two divisions: the Tunguses to the
north, and the Manchús to the south-east.
The _Tunguses_.--The Tunguses, who are scattered in Siberia from the Sea
of Okhotsk to Ienissia and to the Arctic Ocean, are nomadic, and live on
the produce of their hunting and fishing. Daouria to the north of China
is their native country. Those who live under the Russian government are
classified, according to the domestic animals constituting their
principal resources, as dog Tunguses, horse Tunguses, and reindeer
Tunguses.
The nomadic Tunguses of Daouria were described at the close of the last
century by the Russian naturalist Pallas, the same who found on the
shores of the Lena the antediluvian mammoth, still covered with its skin
and coat of hair, the discovery of which caused so much excitement in
Europe.
_Manchús._--Fig. 101 represents the type of this race. We do not think it
necessary to speak of them.
THE YAKUT FAMILY.
The countenance of the _Yakuts_ is still flatter and broader than that
of the Mongols. Their long black hair flows naturally round their head,
while but little grows on their faces: they keep one tress very long, to
which they tie their bow to keep it dry when they are obliged, in the
course of their wanderings or whilst out hunting, to swim across deep
rivers.
[Illustration: 101.--MANCHÚS SOLDIERS.]
_P. Sellier, p.^{t}_
_Imp. Dupuy, 22, R. des Petits Hôtels_
_G. Regamey, lith._
MONGOLIAN
ESQUIMAUX
YELLOW OR MONGOLIAN RACE]
We will take a few details about the country of the Yakuts and its
inhabitants from the interesting travels of Ouvarouski, republished in
the “Tour du Monde.” The land of the Yakuts has two different aspects.
To the south of Yakutsk, it is covered with lofty rocky mountains; to
the west and to the north, it is a plain on which grow thick and bushy
trees. It contains numberless streams of considerable depth and width.
The inhabitants, however, content themselves with boats made of planks
or wooden and bark canoes, only capable of holding two or three persons.
The reindeer is the principal means of conveyance used by the Yakuts.
[Illustration: 102.--YAKUTS.]
The severity of the cold is very great in this country--greater,
perhaps, than in any other part of Siberia. Its population is not more
than two hundred thousand. The Yakuts (figs. 102 and 103) are stoutly
made, though only of middle height. Their countenance is rather flat,
and their nose is of a corresponding width. They have either brown or
black eyes. Their hair is black, thick, and glossy. They never have any
on their faces. Their complexion is between white and black, and changes
three or four times a year; in the spring, from the action of the
atmosphere; in the summer, from that of the sun; and in winter, from the
cold and from the effects of the heat of their fires. They would make
bad soldiers, as their peaceful disposition forbids them from ever
fighting; but they are active, lively, intelligent, and affable. In
their encampments their provisions are at the service of every traveller
who seeks their hospitality. Let his stay last a week, or even a month,
there is always more than enough for both himself and his horse. They
are fond of wine and tobacco, but they endure hunger and thirst with
remarkable patience. A Yakut thinks nothing of working for three or four
days without either eating or drinking.
But let us quote Ouvarouski, the author of the description of the
customs of the Yakuts.
“The land of the Yakuts,” says this traveller, “is so extensive that the
temperature varies very much. At Olekminsk for instance, wheat thrives
capitally, because there the white frost comes late; at Djigansk on the
contrary, the earth always remains frozen two spans below the surface,
and the snow begins to fall in the month of August.
“The Yakuts are all baptised in the Russian faith, two or three hundred
of them perhaps excepted. They obey the ordinances of the church and go
annually to confession, but few receive the sacrament, because they are
not in the habit of fasting. They neither go out in the morning nor
retire to rest at night without saying their devotions. When chance has
befriended them, they thank the Lord; when misfortune overtakes them,
they regard it as a punishment inflicted by the Almighty for their sins,
and, without losing heart, patiently await better times. In spite of
these praiseworthy sentiments they still preserve some superstitious
beliefs, particularly the custom of prostrating themselves before the
devil. When long sicknesses and murrains prevail, they cause their
shamans to practise exorcisms and sacrifice cattle of a particular
colour.
“The Yakuts are very intelligent. It is sufficient to hold an hour or
two’s conversation with one of them to understand his feelings, his
disposition, and his mind. They easily comprehend the meaning of
elevated language, and guess from the very beginning what is about to
follow. Few even of the most artful Russians are able to deceive a
Yakut of the woods.
[Illustration: 103.--A YAKUT WOMAN.]
“They honour their old men, follow their advice, and consider it wrong
and unjust to offend and irritate them. When a father has several
children, he gets them married one after the other, builds a house for
them next to his own, and shares with them his cattle and his property.
Even when separated from their parents their children never disobey
them. When a father has but one son he keeps him with him, and only
separates from him if he loses his wife and marries a second who brings
him other children.
“The wealth of a Yakut is estimated in proportion to the number of
cattle he possesses; the improvement of his herds is his first thought,
his principal wish; he never thinks of putting by money till he has
succeeded in this object.
“Anger is acclimatized among all nations; the Yakut is no stranger to
it, but he easily forgets the grudge he may owe to any one, provided the
latter acknowledges his wrong and confesses himself to blame.
“The Yakuts have other failings, which must not be attributed to an
innate bad disposition. Some of them live on stolen cattle, but these
are only the needy; when they have taken enough to feed them two or
three times from the carcase of the stolen beast, they abandon the rest;
this shows that their only motive is hunger, from which they have
suffered perhaps for months and years. Besides when the thief is caught,
their princes (kinæs, from the Russian kniaz) have him whipped with
rods, according to ancient custom, before everybody. The man who has
undergone this punishment carries its degradation with him to the day of
his death. His evidence can never be again listened to, and his words
are of no weight in the assemblies where the people meet to deliberate.
He can be chosen neither as prince nor as _starsyna_ (from the Russian
_starchina_, ancient). These customs prove that theft has not become a
profession among the Yakuts. The thief is not only punished, but never
regains the name of an honest man.
“Let a Yakut once determine to master some handicraft, and he is sure to
succeed. He is at one and the same time a jeweller, a tinker, a farrier,
and a carpenter; he knows how to take a gun to pieces, how to carve
bone, and, with a little practice, he can imitate any work of art he has
once examined. It is a pity that they have no instruction to teach them
the higher arts, for they are quite capable of executing extraordinary
tasks.
“They are wonderful shots. Neither cold nor rain, neither hunger nor
fatigue, can stop them in the pursuit of a bird or an animal. They will
follow a fox or a hare for two entire days without minding their own
fatigue, or the exhaustion of their horse.
“They have a good deal of taste and inclination for trade, and are so
well up in driving a hard bargain for the smallest fox or sable skin,
that they always get a high price for it.
“The gun-stocks that they manufacture, the combs they cut and ornament,
are works of great finish. I may also remark that their oxhide leather
bottles never get foul, even if they are left for ten years full of
liquid.
“Many of the Yakut women have pretty faces; they are cleaner than the
men, and like the rest of their sex are fond of dress and fine things.
Nature has not left them without charms. They cannot be called bad,
immoral, or light women. They pay the same honour to their father and
mother, and to the aged parents of their husband, as they do to the
Deity. Their head and their feet they never allow to be seen stripped.
They never pass the right side of the hearth, and never call their
husbands’ relations by their Yakut names. The woman who is unlike this
description is looked upon as a wild beast, and her husband is
considered extremely unlucky.”
Fig. 104 represents a Yakut village and villagers.
The Yakuts profess Shamanism, an idolatrous religion practised by the
Finns, by the Samoiedes, by the Ostiaks, by the Burïats, by the
Teleouts, by the Tunguses, and by the inhabitants of the Pacific
islands. Shamanists worship a supreme being, the creator of the world,
but indifferent to human actions. Under him are male and female gods:
some good, who superintend the government of the world, and the
destinies of humanity; the others evil, the greatest of whom (Chaïtan,
Satan) is considered to be nearly as powerful as the supreme Being.
Religious veneration is also paid to their ancestors, to heroes, and to
their priests, called _Shamans_; these latter in their ceremonies
practise a great deal of sorcery.
Fig. 105 represents some of these Shamans.
THE TURKISH FAMILY.
The people belonging to the Turk or Tartar family succeeded in founding,
in very ancient times, a vast empire which included a part of central
Asia from China up to the Caspian Sea. But the Turks, attacked and
conquered by the Mongols, were subdued and driven back towards the
south-west, that is to say to the south of Europe. There they became in
their turn conquerors, and overcame, after laying it waste, a portion
of Southern Europe.
[Illustration: 104.--YAKUT VILLAGERS.]
The Turks had originally red hair, greenish-grey eyes, and a Mongolian
cast of countenance. But these characteristics have disappeared. It is
only the Turks who now-a-days dwell to the north-east of the Caucasus
who possess the characteristics of the Mongols. Those who are settled to
the south-west exhibit the features peculiar to the white race, with
black hair and eyes. The fusion of the former with the Mongols, of the
second with the Persians and the Arameans, explain these modifications.
The Turks, more than all nations, manifest the deepest zeal for
Mahometanism, and show the greatest intolerance for the followers of
other creeds.
[Illustration: 105.--YAKUT PRIESTS.]
The Turkish family comprises rather a large number of races. We shall
consider here only the _Turcomans_, the _Kirghis_, the _Nogays_, and the
_Osmanlis_.
The _Turcomans_.--The Turcomans wander in the steppes of Turkestan,
Persia, and Afghanistan. They stray as far as Anatolia to the west. The
tribes who dwell in this last district have the shape and the physical
characteristics of the White Race; those who inhabit Turkestan show in
their physiognomy the admixture of Mongol blood.
The Turcoman is above the middle height. He has not strongly developed
muscles, but he is tolerably powerful and enjoys a robust constitution.
His skin is white; his countenance is round; his cheek bones are
prominent; his forehead is wide, and the development of the bony part of
the skull forms a kind of crest at the top of the head. His
almond-shaped and nearly lidless eye is small, lively, and intelligent.
His nose is usually insignificant and turned up. The lower part of his
face retreats a little, and his lips are thick. He has scanty
moustachios and beard, and his ears are large and protruding.
The Turcoman’s dress consists of wide trousers falling over the foot and
tight at the hips, and of a collarless shirt open at the right side down
to the waist, falling, outside the trousers, halfway down the thigh.
Outside these an ample coat is fastened round the waist by a cotton or
wool belt. It is open in front and slightly crossed over the chest. Its
sleeves are very long and very wide, a little skull-cap is worn instead
of the hair, and is covered with a kind of head-dress called talbac,
made of sheep skin, in the shape of a cone with a slightly depressed
summit. His shoes are a sort of slipper, or simply a sandal of camel or
horse skin fastened to the foot by a woollen cord.
The type is more strongly defined in the Turcoman women than in the men.
Their cheek bones are more prominent, and their complexion is white.
Their hair is generally thick but very short; and they are obliged to
lengthen their tresses with goat-hair loops and strings, to which they
fasten glass beads and silver pearls.
We will not describe their dress, but will only observe that they wear a
round cap on their head, to which they fasten a silk or cotton veil
falling backwards. The whole is surrounded by a kind of turban of the
breadth of three fingers, on which are some little squares of silver.
One end of the veil is brought under the chin from right to left, and is
fastened, by a little silver chain ending in a hook, on the left side of
the face.
Trinkets, necklaces, bracelets, and chains play such a prominent part in
the adornment of the Turcoman women, that a dozen of them together
drawing water make as much tinkling as the ringing of a small bell.
The men wear no ornament.
Fig. 106 represents a camp of nomadic Turcomans.
M. de Blocqueville, who published in 1866, in the “Tour du Monde,” the
curious account entitled “Fourteen months’ captivity among the
Turcomans,” describes as follows the habits of these tribes:--
“The Turcomans keep close to their tent a sheep or a goat, which they
fatten and kill on special occasions. The bones are taken out and the
meat is cut up and salted; some of it is dried and acquires a high
flavour much liked by the Turcomans; the rest, cut into smaller pieces
and placed in the animal’s paunch, is kept to make soup out of. They
collect the bones and other leavings, and stew them down in a pan so as
to have some broth to offer on festival occasions to their friends and
neighbours. The intestines fall to the children’s share, who broil them
on the coals and spend whole days in sucking and pulling about this
half-cleansed offal.
[Illustration: 106.--TURCOMAN ENCAMPMENT.]
“. . . . . . Women are treated with more consideration by the Turcomans
than by other Mussulmans. But they work hard, and every day have to
grind the corn for the family food. Besides this, they spin silk, wool,
and cotton; they weave, sew, mill felt, pitch and strike the tents, draw
water, sometimes do some washing, dye woollen and silk stuffs, and
manufacture the carpets. They set up out of doors, in the fine weather,
a very primitive loom made of four stakes firmly fixed in the ground,
and, with the assistance of two large cross pieces on which they lay the
woof, begin the weaving, which is done with an iron implement composed
of five or six blades put together in the shape of a comb. These
carpets, generally about three yards long and a yard and a half wide,
are durable and well made. Every tribe or family has its own particular
pattern, which is handed down from mother to daughter. The Turcoman
women are necessarily endowed with a strong constitution to be able to
bear all this hard work, during which, they sometimes suckle their
children, and only eat a little dry bread, or a kind of boiled meat with
but little nourishment in it. It is especially turning the grindstone
that wears them out and injures their chest.
“In their rare intervals of leisure they have always got with them a
packet, of wool or of camel’s hair, or some raw silk, that they spin
whilst they are gossiping or visiting their neighbours; for they never
remain quite idle like the women of some Mussulman countries.
“The man has also his own kind of work; he tills the soil, tends the
crops, gets in the harvest, takes care of the domestic animals, and
sometimes starts on plundering expeditions in order to bring home some
booty. He manufactures hand-made woollen rope; cuts out and stitches
together the harness and clothing of his horses and camels; attempts to
do a little trade, and in his leisure moments makes himself caps and
shoes, plays on the doutar (an instrument with two strings), sings,
drinks tea, and smokes.
“These tribes are very fond of improving themselves, and of reading the
few books that chance throws into their hands.
“As a rule the children do not work before their tenth or twelfth year.
Their parents up to that age make them learn to read and write. Those
who are obliged to avail themselves of their children’s assistance
during the press of summer labour, take care that they make up for lost
time in the winter.
“The schoolmaster, mollah (priest or man of letters), is content to be
remunerated either in kind, with wheat, fruit or onions; or in money,
according to the parents’ position. Each child possesses a small board,
on which the mollah writes down the alphabet or whatever happens to be
the task; this is washed off as soon as the child has learned his
lesson.
“The parents satisfy themselves that their children know their lessons
before they set out for school: the women in particular are vain of
being able to read. The men sometimes spend whole days in trying to
understand books of poetry which come from Khiva or Boukhara, where the
dialect is a little different to their own.
“The Turcoman mollahs spend some years in these towns to enable
themselves to study in the best schools.
“All these tribes are Mahometan and belong to the Sunnite sect. The only
external difference between them and the Persians of the Schiite sect,
who recognise Ali as Mahomet’s only successor, consists, as is well
known, in their mode of saying their devotions and of performing their
ablutions.
“Whilst at their prayers, they keep their arms crossed in front of them
from the wrist upwards only, instead of keeping them by their side like
the Persians.
“Although they follow pretty regularly the precepts of their religion,
they show less fanaticism and ostentatious bigotry than most other
Easterns whom I have seen. For instance, they will consent to smoke and
eat with Jews.
“Every Turcoman has an affection for his tribe, and will devote himself,
if need be, for the common weal. Their proper and dignified manners are
far beyond a comparison with those of their neighbours--even the
inhabitants of Boukhara and Khiva, whose morals have become corrupted to
a painful degree. I have seldom seen quarrels and disturbances amongst
the Turcomans. Sometimes I have been present at very lively and animated
discussions, but I never heard any low abuse or bad language as in other
countries. They are less harsh towards their women, and show them more
consideration and respect than do the Persians.
“When strangers are present, the women pass an end of their veil under
their chin and speak in a low voice, but they are saluted and respected
by the visitors, and enter into conversation with them without any harm
being thought of it.
“A woman can go from one tribe to another, or make a journey along an
unfrequented road, without having to fear the least insult from any one.
“When a Turcoman pays a visit he makes his appearance in one invariable
manner. He lifts the door of the tent, bowing as he enters, then comes
to a stop and draws himself up to his full height: after a pause of a
few seconds, during which he keeps his eyes fixed on the dome of the
tent, probably to give the women time to cover their chins, he quietly
pronounces his salutation without making the slightest gesture. After
exchanging civilities and inquiries about the health of relations and
friends, the master of the tent begs the visitor to take a seat on the
carpet beside him. The wife then offers him a napkin with a little
bread, or bread and water, or some sour milk, or a little fruit. The
stranger discreetly only takes a few mouthfuls of what is offered to
him.”
[Illustration: 107.--KIRGHIS FUNERAL RITES.]
The _Kirghis_.--The Kirghis (fig. 107) are a nomadic tribe. They inhabit
the tract of country situated on the frontiers of the Russian and
Chinese empires. They wander to and fro on wide spreading plains from
lake Baikal to the borders of the Siberian steppes.
They travel armed, and always prepared, either for war or for the chase.
As wild beasts attack men when by themselves, they nearly always travel
on horseback in troops.
For the matter of that, the Kirghis never get off their horses. All
business is settled, and all merchandise is bought and sold, on
horseback. There is in a town, by name Shouraïahan, where the sedentary
Kirghis reside, a market-place where buyers and sellers do all their
business without leaving the saddle. The Kirghis are much below the
middle height. Their countenances are ugly. Having scarcely any bridge
to their nose, the space between their eyes is flat and quite on a level
with the rest of their face. Their eyes are long and half closed, the
forehead protrudes at the lower part, and retreats at the top. Their big
puffy cheeks look like two pieces of raw flesh stuck on the sides of
their face. They have but little beard, their body is not at all
muscular, and their complexion is a dark brown.
The Kirghis are something like the Uzbeks, a race whom we can only just
mention, but the latter, living in a temperate climate, are tall and
well made, while the former, under the influence of a rigorous one, are
short and stunted.
Both these people possess a certain kind of civilization in spite of
their nomadic habits. In the districts in which they are in the custom
of travelling, they have established relays of horses, a very necessary
adjunct to their mode of life.
The _Nogays_.--The Nogays, who once constituted a powerful nation on the
shores of the Black Sea, are now scattered among other peoples. Many of
them still wander in nomadic tribes, on the steppes between the banks of
the Volga and the Caucasian mountains. Others who have settled down are
tillers of the soil or artisans. Such are those to be met with in the
Crimea or in Astracan. M. Vereschaguine came across some Nogays on the
Caucasian steppes. This Russian traveller says that they are peaceful
and laborious, and more capable of becoming attached to the soil than
the Kalmuks, whom they resemble a great deal in their mode of life and
in their habits and customs.
The _Osmanlis_.--The most important members of the Turkish family are
now the Osmanlis. The Osmanlis were the founders of the Turkish Empire
and the conquerors of Constantinople.
A tendency to a nomadic mode of life is a strong instinct with this
race. It degenerated as soon as it settled down anywhere, and this
perhaps is the cause of the decline of the Turkish nation, which at
present inhabits south-eastern Europe and Asia Minor.
The residence in Europe and the civilization of the Osmanli Turks date
from the Hegira of Mahomet in the seventh century after Christ.
Physically speaking, their outlines would seem to ally them to the
Caucasian race. This was the reason that they were so long classified
among the White or Caucasian race; but most modern anthropologists place
them in the Yellow Race.
The head of the Osmanli Turks is nearly round. The forehead is high and
broad: the nose is straight, without any depression at its bridge or
widening at the nostrils.
The Turkish head does not resemble the European head. It has a peculiar
abrupt elevation of the occiput. Its proportions, however, are very
good. Mongol descent can be traced in its shape, but scarcely in a
perceptible manner, if the features of the face alone are to be taken
into account.
The Turks, in general, are tall, well made, robust men, with a rough but
often noble physiognomy, a slightly tawny complexion, and brown or black
hair. Their carriage is dignified, and their natural gravity is still
further increased by the ample folds of their dress, by their beard, by
their moustachios, and by that imposing head-dress, the turban. They are
the most recent of all the races of Asian descent who have become
Europeanized, and they still preserve, especially in Turkey in Asia, the
habits, the costumes, and the belief that distinguished them three
centuries ago.
Now, as then, the Turks, like Easterns in general, restrict themselves
to a frugal and principally vegetable diet. They drink no wine. Bodily
exercises, such as riding on horseback and the use of arms, develop
their strength. Their hospitality is dignified and ceremonious. They are
small talkers, are much given to devotion, at least to its outward and
visible signs; and they dwell in quiet unpretending houses surrounded by
gardens. The Turk is a stranger to the feverish life of our European
capitals. Lazily reclining on his cushions, he smokes his Syrian
tobacco, sips his Arabian coffee, and seeks from a few grains of opium
an introduction into the land of dreams.
Such is Turkish life among the higher classes. The common people and the
labourers have none of these refinements of existence. Yet the lower
classes are less unhappy in Turkey, and in the East in general, than are
those of European nations. Eastern hospitality is not an empty word. A
wealthy Mussulman never sends empty away the wretched who seek his
assistance. Besides, it takes so little to support these temperate
healthy people, and the earth so plentifully supplies vegetable produce
in the East, that poor people can always find food and a roof to cover
them. The Caravanserai are public inns where travellers and workmen are
lodged for nothing; and the hospitality shown to the unfortunate
wayfarer by the country land-owners is really patriarchal.
Polygamy is less in vogue in Turkey and in the East than is supposed. A
Turkish woman being a very expensive luxury, that is to say, being in
the habit of doing nothing and of spending a great deal, it is only very
rich Mussulmans that can allow themselves the pleasure of supporting
more than one wife. Sometimes, indeed, the bride’s parents insert a
clause in the marriage contract, by which the husband gives up his right
as a Mahometan to possess four wives.
Besides their legitimate wives, the wealthy and the great keep a
collection of Georgian and Circassian slaves in the lonely sets of
rooms, closed by Eastern jealousy to all prying eyes, which are called
_harems_ and not _seraglios_. It is only within these isolated
apartments that Turkish women, whether wives or concubines, allow their
faces and arms to be seen. Out of doors they are always wrapped up in a
triple set of veils, which conceal their features from the keenest eye.
Mahomet permitted women to abstain from taking part in public prayer in
the mosques. It is therefore only in the interior of the harem that any
gathering of Mussulman women can take place. It is there, too, that they
give one another parties and entertainments.
[Illustration: 108.--A HAREM.]
An erroneous impression of the Turkish woman’s position is prevalent in
Europe. Many European women would be glad to exchange their lot in life
and their liberty for the supposed slavery of the Turkish women. Of
course we are only alluding here to their material position, and not
speaking from a moral point of view.
The Turkish lady is born to total and complete idleness. A young girl
who, at fourteen years of age, can not only sew fairly, but can actually
read, is considered a very well educated person. If she can also write,
and is acquainted with the first one or two rules of arithmetic, she is
quite learned. The woman of the middle classes never condescends to
trade, she is always idle. Even the poor woman rarely works, and then
only when it suits her.
The Turkish woman then, to whatever class she may happen to belong, is a
votary of the far niente. To drive away ennui, the wealthier make or
receive visits or frequent parties. In the harems of the rich, each lady
receives her friends in her own room. There they talk, sing, or tell one
another stories. They listen to music, they go to pantomimes, to dances,
and walk in the gardens. They pass the long hours agreeably by taking
baths together, by swinging in hammocks, by smoking the narguilhé, and
by giving elegant little dinner parties.
An evening party in a harem (la Kalva) is rather a rare occurrence, for
night festivities are not among Mussulman habits. No man is present at
these parties. As the guests arrive, the lady of the house begs them to
be seated, and places them side by side on a divan with their legs
crossed under them, or leaning on one knee. Coffee and a tchibouk with
an amber mouthpiece are handed round. Small portions of fruit jelly are
served on a silver embossed dish. Each guest, after a little ceremonious
hesitation, helps herself with the only spoon in the dish, and which
everybody uses. Each then puts her lips to a large tumbler of water
which follows the jelly.
General and animated conversation then begins. The maids of the lady of
the house seat themselves so that every one can see them, and begin to
sing, accompanying themselves on the harp, on the mandolin, on little
kettledrums, or on tambourines. Afterwards other young girls go through
a kind of pantomimic dance. When the music and the dances are over, they
play games of cards, and the party winds up with a supper (fig. 109).
Pleasure out of doors has other attractions. The Turkish ladies of the
middle class frequent the bazaars and pay one another visits.
There are three kinds of these visits: visits that have been announced
beforehand, unexpected visits, and _chance_ visits. The last are the
most curious. Several ladies collect together and go about in the
different quarters of the town, paying visits to people whom they have
never seen (fig. 110).
[Illustration: 109.--A HAREM SUPPER.]
Walking parties in Constantinople are regular picnics. On Sundays and
Fridays people leave town provided with all sorts of refreshments. The
sultans have constructed on some of the public walks overhanging
terraces, which overlook pieces of water and form level plots of ground.
Tumblers and conjurors, musicians and dancers give performances on these
terraces. Picturesque knots of women clad in their white _yaschmacs_,
which cover the whole face and only reveal the nose, are to be seen
there. Long flowing overdresses of a thousand different hues envelope
the rest of their figure.
The Turk may be lazy, but he is not at all unsociable, and many of his
characteristics indicate a great deal of gentleness. Like the Indians
and the ancient Egyptians, the Turks, and Easterns in general, have a
great repugnance to the killing of animals. Dogs and cats abound and
swarm in the streets of the large towns, but no measures are ever taken
to prevent the multiplication and the running wild of these animals. In
Constantinople flocks of pigeons fly hither and thither and levy, on the
barges laden with wheat, a species of black mail that no one disputes
with them. The banks of the canals are thickly peopled with aquatic
animals, and their nests are safe even from the hands of children, in
our country such cruel enemies to their broods. This forbearance is
extended even to trees. If it is true that in China the law requires
every land owner who fells a tree to plant one in its stead in another
spot, it is equally true in Turkey that custom forbids an avaricious
land owner from depriving either town or country of useful and wholesome
shade. The wealthy townsmen make it a point of honour to embellish the
public promenades with fountains and with resting places, both of which,
on account of the frequency of ablutions and of prayers required by the
Mahometan religion, are indispensable. Those who can only perceive in
the Turkish nation coarseness, ignorance, and ferocity, have been
deceived by the pride natural to a Mussulman, which is made the more
offensive by his silent and sometimes abrupt manners; but the basis of
the Mussulman character contains nothing to offend. The Turks are only
what it is possible for them to be with their lamentable institutions
and their faulty laws.
[Illustration: 110.--TURKISH LADIES VISITING.]
Their law we know is simply despotism, which is carried out from the
sultan down to the lowest official, unchecked by any guarantee of equity
or of justice to individuals. The sultan (_padishah_, meaning great
lord) appoints and dismisses at pleasure every dignitary and every
official: he is the master of their fortunes and of their life. But
anarchy is rife in the kingdom, and the sultan’s authority is not always
obeyed. Pachas have attacked and annihilated the troops sent to drive
them from their governorships; others have been known to dispatch to
Constantinople the head of the general sent to crush and degrade them.
The pachas are the governors of the provinces. Their rank is reckoned by
the number of their standards or tails. They unite under one head the
military and civil power, and by a still greater abuse, they are deputed
to collect the taxes. They would be absolute sultans in their own
provinces if the law did not leave the judicial authority in the hands
of the _cadis_ and the _naïbs_.
A pacha with three tails has, like the sultan, the power of life and
death over all the agents he employs, and even over all who threaten
public safety. He keeps up a military force, and marches at their head
when called on by the sultan. A pacha has under his orders several
_beys_, or lieutenant-governors.
The interior organization of Turkey may be described as a military
despotism. The Turkish nation continues to administer its conquest as if
it were a country taken by assault; it leads the life of an army
encamped in the midst of a conquered state. Everybody and everything is
the property of the sultan. Christians, Jews, and Armenians are merely
the slaves of the victorious Ottoman. The sultan graciously allows them
to live, but even this concession they are obliged to purchase by paying
a tribute, the receipt for which bears these words: “In purchase of the
head.”
The same principle is carried out in regard to land. The Turks have no
proprietary rights; they merely enjoy the usufruct of their possessions.
When they die without leaving a male child, the sultan inherits their
property. Sons can only claim a tenth part of their paternal
inheritance, and the fiscal officials are ordered to put an arbitrary
value on this tenth part. The officers of the State do not even enjoy
this incomplete right; at their death everything reverts to the sultan.
Under such laws, it is not to be wondered at if nobody cares to
undertake expensive and lasting works. Instead of building, people
collect jewels and wealth easy to carry off or to conceal.
The sultan, like a man embarrassed with such an abuse of power, shifts
the cares of government on to the shoulders of the grand vizier.
The grand vizier is the lieutenant of the sultan. He is the
commander-in-chief of the army, he manages the finances, and fills up
all civil and military appointments.
But if the power of the grand vizier is limitless, his responsibility
and the dangers he incurs are equally great. He must answer for all the
State’s misfortunes and for all public calamities. The sword is always
suspended over his head. Surrounded by snares, exposed to all the tricks
of hatred and envy, he pays with the price of his life the misfortune of
having displeased either the populace or the highest officials. The
grand vizier has to govern the country, with the assistance of a state
council (_divan_) composed of the principal ministers. The _reiss
effendi_ is the high chancellor of the empire, and the head of the
corporation of the _kodja_, or men of letters. This corporation, which
has managed to acquire a great political influence, contains at the
present time some of the best informed men of the nation. The duty of
watching over the preservation of the fundamental laws of the empire is
entrusted to the _ulema_, or corporation of theological and legal
doctors.
These laws are very short: they consist only of the Koran, and of the
commentaries on the Koran drawn up by ancient pundits. The members of
this corporation bear the title of _ulemas_, or _effendis_. They unite
judicial to religious authority; they are at the same time the
interpreters of religion, and the judges in all civil and criminal
matters.
The _mufti_ is the supreme head of the ulema. He is the head of the
church. He represents the sultan’s vicar, as caliph or successor to
Mahomet. The sultan can promulgate no law, make no declaration of war,
institute no tax, without having obtained a _fetfa_, or approval from
the mufti.
The mufti presents every year to the sultan the candidates for the
leading judicial magistracies; these candidates are chosen from the
members of the ulema. The post of mufti would be an excellent
counterpoise to the authority of the sultan, if the latter had it not in
his power to dismiss the mufti, to send him into exile, and even to
condemn him to death.
The foregoing political and judicial organization seems at first sight
very reasonable, and would appear to yield some guarantee to the
subjects of the Porte. Dishonesty unfortunately prevents the regular
progress of these administrative institutions. The venality of
officials, their greed and their immorality, are such, that not the
smallest post, not the slightest service, can be obtained without making
them a present. Places, the judges’ decisions, and the witnesses’
evidence are all bought. False witnesses abound in no country in the
shameless way they do in the Turkish empire, where the consequences of
their perjury are the more frightful, since the cadi’s decision is
without appeal. Justice is meted out in Turkey as it was meted out three
hundred years ago among the nomadic tribes of the Osmanlis. After a few
contradictory pieces of evidence, after a few oaths made on both sides,
without any preliminary inquiry, and without any advocates, the cadi or
simply the naïb, gives a decision, based upon some passage of the Koran.
The penal code of this ignorant and hasty tribunal merely consists in
fining the wealthy, in inflicting the bastinado on the common people,
and in hanging criminals right out of hand.
Yet Turkey possesses a kind of system of popular representation. The
inhabitants of Constantinople elect _ayams_, real delegates of the
people, whose business it is to watch over the safety and the property
of individuals, the tranquillity of the town, to oppose the unjust
demands of the pachas, the excesses of the military, and the unfair
collection of taxes. These duties are gratuitously performed by the most
trustworthy men among the inhabitants. The ayams undertake all appeals
to the pacha, when there exist any just grounds of complaint, and if he
does not satisfy them, they carry their appeal to the sultan.
Every trade and handicraft in Turkey possesses a kind of guild or
corporation which undertakes to defend the rights of the association and
of its individual members. The humblest artisan is protected in all
legal matters by this corporation. It is unnecessary to say that the
corporation enforces its rights before the judges by pecuniary means.
[Illustration: 111.--A TURKISH BARBER.]
It is a great mistake to imagine that the Mussulman religion
predominates in Turkey. In Turkey in Europe, not more than a quarter of
the population profess the creed of Mahomet. The remainder are
Christians, subdivided into the leading sects of that faith. The Greeks,
the Servians, the Walachians, and the inhabitants of Montenegro belong
to the eastern Greek Church. The Armenians are numerous, and are the
more powerful on account of their known character for austerity and
honesty. Other religious communities, such as the Jakobites, called
_Kopts_ in Egypt, the Nestorians, and the Maronites, have some
influence, from the unity which reigns among their different sects; the
Druzes, for instance, defy the Mahometans to their very face. There are
more Jews in Turkey in Europe, than in any other country.
All these brotherhoods, excepting the Druzes and the Maronites, were
formerly deprived of the free right of worship, were liable to marks of
ignominy, and were handed over, defenceless, to injustice. But in the
beginning of our century, an edict of the sultan declared all his
subjects, regardless of their religion, equal in the eyes of the law.
Mahometanism, which prevails in Turkey, and in the greater portion of
the East, dates from the 610th year of our era. Its principal doctrines
are purification, prayer, and fasting. The fasting takes place in the
month of _Ramazan_, a month which is the Mussulman’s Lent, and during
which all food must be abstained from in the daytime. It is followed by
the festival of _Beyram_, during which the faithful are allowed to make
up for their preceding abstinence. A _legal charity_ is instituted by
their creed. It consists in giving every year to the poor a fortieth
part of their movable property. Another religious injunction is the
pilgrimage to Mecca, which every Mussulman is obliged to undertake at
least once in his lifetime.
Their devotions take place five times a day. Friday is the day of rest
for the Mahometans, as Sunday is that of the Christians, and Saturday
that of the Jews.
Mahometanism has inherited from the ancient Arabs the practice of
circumcision. Mussulmans are forbidden to drink intoxicating drinks, but
are allowed to marry four wives, and to make concubines of their female
slaves. Their religion deprives them of all liberty of will, as it tells
them that everything that can happen, either for evil or for good, is
settled beforehand. It is this fatalism that paralyzes all individual
enterprise, and prevents the march of progress.
Mahometanism has not been more exempt than other creeds from schisms,
which have brought to pass religious wars always so terrible in their
consequences.
Its precepts, which have their advantages from a religious point of
view, have many disastrous consequences when we regard mankind’s
physical constitution. The interdict on the use of wine, for instance,
has given rise to the secret consumption of alcoholic drinks, and to the
public use of opium.
[Illustration: 112.--TURKISH PORTER.]
The Turks, although their literary civilization is still in its infancy,
possess a system of public education. The mosques of Constantinople, of
Broussa, and of Adrianople, have colleges attached to them. Young men
are sent from all parts of the Mussulman empire to these colleges, where
they receive some amount of education. When they have finished their
course of study, in which the commentaries on the Koran play the
principal part, and when several examinations have tested their
proficiency, the pupils receive the title of _mudir_ or professor. All
civil and judicial posts are monopolized by this educated class.
But in Turkey, what knowledge there is, remains absorbed among a small
quantity of individuals; no channel exists for the free
intercommunication of ideas.
Their _kodjas_, or writers, have indeed given their fellow countrymen a
large number of works, much esteemed by them--works on the Arabic and
Persian languages, on philosophy, on morality, on Mussulman history, and
on the geography of their country. But these writings, whatever their
value, never reach the mass of the nation. There are but few printing
presses in Turkey; the copyist’s art, such as it existed in Europe in
the middle ages, still flourishes there. The state of literature in
Turkey shows us what modern civilization would have become in Europe,
without the assistance of the printer.
With this general want of literary and scientific knowledge, we
naturally expect to find Turkey far behindhand in art, in manufactures,
and in agriculture. The latter, in fact, is in a sad state throughout
the whole extent of the Ottoman empire. Manufactures exist in a few
towns; in Constantinople, in Salonica, in Adrianople, and in Rustchuk.
Their principal manufactures are carpets, morocco leather, a little
silk, thread and swords. Their commerce consists in the export of their
raw produce; such as wool, silk, cotton, leather, tobacco, and metals,
particularly copper; wine, oil, and dried fruit are also largely
exported. The Turks are good cloth manufacturers, gunsmiths, and
tanners. Their works in steel and copper, and their dyes, are equal to
the best articles of European manufacture.
The Greeks, who are very numerous in Turkey, follow all kinds of trades
and callings. They make the best sailors of the Ottoman empire, while
the Armenians are its keenest traders. The latter travel all over the
interior of Asia and India; they have branch establishments and
correspondents everywhere. Most of them, while pursuing some mechanical
art, are at the same time the bankers, the purveyors, and the men of
business of the pachas, and other great officials. Jews show in a less
favourable light in Turkey than in Europe; any business suits them, if
they can make something out of it.
Figs. 111 and 112 represent two common Turkish types--a barber and a
street porter.
CHAPTER III.
SINAIC BRANCH.
The nations belonging to the Sinaic branch (from the Latin _Sinæ_,
Chinese) have not the features of the Yellow Race so well defined as
those belonging to the Mongolian branch. Their nose is less flattened,
their figures are better, and they are taller. They early acquired
rather a high degree of civilization, but they have since remained
stationary, and their culture, formerly one of the most advanced in the
world, is now very second rate compared to the progress made by the
inhabitants of Europe and America. Chemical and mechanical arts were
early practised and carried very far by nations belonging to the Sinaic
branch. Living under a despotic government, and accustomed to abjectly
cringe to those in authority, this race developed a peculiar taste for
ceremony and etiquette. Their language is monosyllabic, their writing is
hieroglyphic, and these facts perhaps account for the scant progress
made by their civilization in modern times.
[Illustration: 113.--INDO-CHINESE OF STUNG TRENG.]
The Sinaic branch comprises the Chinese, the Japanese, and the
Indo-Chinese families.
[Illustration: 114.--INDO-CHINESE OF LAOS.]
THE CHINESE FAMILY.
The Chinese, amongst whom, out of all the Yellow Race, civilization was
the first to develop itself, have the following characteristic features.
Width and flatness in the subocular part of the face, prominent cheek
bones, and obliquely set eyes. Their features as a whole partake of the
type of the Mongol race: that is to say, they have a broad coarse face,
high cheek bones, heavy jaws, a flat bridge to their nose, wide
nostrils, obliquely set eyes, straight and plentiful hair, of a brownish
black colour with a red tint in it, thick eyebrows, scanty beards, and a
yellowish red complexion.
They constitute the principal population of the vast empire of China,
and extend even further. Many have settled in Indo-China, in the islands
of the Straits, and in the Philippine islands. China in four thousand
years has been governed by twenty-eight dynasties. The emperor is merely
an ornamental wheel in the mechanism of the Chinese government, the
councillors possessing the real power. Centralization plays a powerful
part in the administrative organization of the country. The emperor’s
authority is founded on a secular and patriarchal respect, boundless in
its influence. Veneration for old age is a law of the state. Infirm old
men, too poor to hire litters, are often seen in the streets of Pekin,
seated in little hand carriages, dragged about by their grandchildren.
As they pass, the young people about receive them respectfully, and
leave off for the moment their play or their work. The government
encourages these feelings by giving yellow dresses to very old men. This
is the highest mark of distinction a private individual can receive, for
yellow is the colour reserved for the members of the imperial family.
Their respect for their ancestors is also carried very far by the
Chinese. They practise a kind of family worship in their honour.
[Illustration: 115.--A YOUNG CHINESE.]
There are many different creeds in China. The Buddhist faith, so widely
spread in Asia, is the most general; but the higher classes follow the
precepts of Confucius. But great religious toleration exists in the
Celestial Empire. The men of the higher classes affect a well founded
contempt for the external forms of worship, and the mass of the people
do not attach much importance to them. Many widely differing creeds are
seen side by side throughout the whole empire.
[Illustration: 116.--CHINESE SHOPKEEPER.]
The Buddhist priests are called Bonzes.
[Illustration: 117.--CHINESE LADY.]
The position of women is in China a humble one. She is considered
inferior to man, and her birth is often regarded as a misfortune. The
young girl lives shut up in her father’s house, she takes her meals
alone, she fulfils the duties of a servant and is considered one. Her
calling is merely to ply the needle and to prepare the food. A woman is
her father’s, her brother’s, or her husband’s property. A young girl is
given in marriage without being consulted, without being made acquainted
with her future husband, and often even in ignorance of his name.
The wealthy Chinese shut their wives up in the women’s apartments. When
their lords and masters allow them to pay one another visits, or to go
and see their parents, they go out in hermetically closed litters. They
live in a wing of the building, reserved for their use, where no one can
see them.
[Illustration: 118.--CHINESE WOMAN.]
It is otherwise amongst the poorer classes. The women go out of doors
with their face uncovered; but they pay dearly for this privilege, for
they are nothing but the beasts of burden of their husbands. They age
very rapidly.
Polygamy exists in China, but only on sufferance. A man of rank may have
several wives, but the first one only is the legitimate one. Widows are
not allowed to remarry. Betrothals often take place before the future
husband and wife have reached the age of puberty. A betrothed girl who
loses her betrothed can never marry another.
[Illustration: 119.--MANDARIN’S DAUGHTER.]
A marriage ceremony at Pekin takes place as follows. The bride goes in
great state to the dwelling of the bridegroom, who receives her on the
threshold. She is dressed in garments embroidered with gold and silver.
Her long black tresses are covered with precious stones and artificial
flowers. Her face is painted, her lips are reddened, her eyebrows are
blackened, and her clothes are drenched with musk. Many of the Chinese
women have the complexion and the good looks of Creoles; a tiny well
shaped hand, pretty teeth, splendid black hair, a slender supple figure,
and obliquely set eyes with a piquancy of expression that lends them a
peculiar charm. The drawback to their appearance is their lavish use of
paint, and their small crippled feet.
The Tartar and Chinese ladies composing the court of the Empress, as
well as the wives of the officials residing in the capital, do nothing
to distort their feet, except to wear the theatrical buskin, in which it
is very difficult to walk. But a Chinese woman of good middle class
family would think herself disgraced, and would have a difficulty in
getting a husband, unless she had crippled her feet. This is what is
done to give them a pleasing appearance. The feet of little girls of six
years of age are tightly compressed with oiled bandages; the big toe is
bent under the other four, which are themselves folded down under the
sole of the foot. These bandages are drawn tighter every month. When the
girl has grown up, her foot presents the appearance of a closed fist.
Women with their feet mutilated in this manner walk with great
difficulty. They move about with a kind of skip, stretching out their
arms to keep their equilibrium.
Another of their conventional points of beauty is to wear their
finger-nails very long. For fear of breaking them they cover them with
little silver sheaths, which they also use as ear-picks.
A quantity of toilet accessories gives a peculiar appearance to the
costume of the inhabitants of the Celestial Empire. Fans, parasols,
pipes, snuff-boxes, tobacco-pouches, spectacle cases, and purses, are
all hung at the girdle by silken strings. The use of the fan is common
to both sexes, of all classes.
The _kang_, at once a bed, a sofa, and a chair; some mats stretched upon
the floor; and a few chairs or stools with cushions on them, are to be
found in every room of a Chinese house. The interior of these dwellings
is a true citadel of sloth. The Chinaman squatted on his mat, dallying
with his fan and smoking his pipe, is amused at the European who
actually takes the trouble to use his legs.
To give a more exact idea of domestic Chinese life, we will give a few
extracts from the interesting travels of M. de Bourboulon, a French
consul in China, travels edited by M. Poussielgue, and published in the
“Tour du Monde” in 1864.
“A Chinese palace,” says M. Poussielgue, “is thus laid out: more than
half the site is taken up with alleys, courts, and gardens crowded with
rock-work, rustic bridges, fishponds full of gold fish, aviaries stocked
with peacocks, golden pheasants, and partridges from Pe-tche-li, and
especially a quantity of painted and varnished porcelain and earthenware
jars, containing miniature trees, vines, jessamines, creepers and
flowers of all kinds. The principal room on the ground floor opens on to
the garden; a piece of open trellis work separates it from the sleeping
apartment. The ground floor also comprises the dining-room, the kitchen,
and sometimes a bath-room. When there is a second story, called _leou_,
it contains beds and lumber rooms. The entrance-hall is invariably
sacred to the ancestors and to the guardian spirits of the family. In
every room the _kang_, which serves as a bed, a sofa, or a chair; and
thick mats, laid upon the floor, are to be met with. The actual
furniture is scanty; a few chairs and stools made of hard wood, with
cushions placed on them; a small table in red lacquer work; an incense
burner; some gilt or enamelled bronze candlesticks; flower stands and
baskets of flowers; some pictures drawn on rice paper; and finally the
inevitable tablet inscribed with some moral apothegm, or a dedication to
the ancestors of the master of the house. There are no regular windows;
a few square openings, pierced in the side wall where the rooms open on
a court or garden, or inserted beneath the double beams supporting the
roof where the apartment might be overlooked from the street or from the
neighbouring houses, allow a dim light to penetrate through the cross
laths of their wooden lattices which serve as fixed blinds to them
(figs. 120 and 121).
“The wealthy, abandoning themselves to a luxurious idleness, spend half
their existence in these secluded chambers; it is almost impossible for
a European to procure admittance to them, for communicative as the
Chinese are in business, at festivals, or at receptions, they are
extremely reserved on all points concerning their domestic life.
[Illustration: 120.--CHINESE BOUDOIR.]
“Physical idleness is carried to an enormous extent in China; it is
considered ill bred to take walks, and to use the limbs. Nothing
surprises the natives more than the perpetual craving for exercise that
characterizes Europeans. Squatted on their hams, they light their pipe,
toy with their fans, and jeer at the European passers-by, whose firm
measured footsteps carry them up and down the street. It is necessary to
make excuses for coming neither on horseback nor in a palanquin, when
paying an official visit, for to do so on foot is a sign of but little
respect for the person visited.
“The palanquin is in constant use. Large depôts of these, where one can
always be hired at a moment’s notice, are established in Peking. A
palanquin carried by six coolies costs about a piastre per day; with
four coolies half a piastre; with only two, a hundred sapecas. The
French Legation keeps twenty-four palanquin porters, dressed in blue
tunics with tricolor collars and facings. Palanquins are usually open
both in front and behind; they have a small window at the side, and a
cross plank on which the passengers sit.
“The rage for gambling is one of the curses of China; a curse that has
begotten a thousand others, in all ranks and at all ages. One meets in
the streets of Peking a quantity of little itinerant gaming stalls;
sometimes consisting of a set of dice in a brass cup on a stand,
sometimes a lottery of little sticks marked with numbers, shaken up by
the croupier in a tin tube. We saw crowds round these sharpers, and the
passing workman, yielding to the irresistible temptation, loses in an
hour his day’s hard earnings. The coolies attached to the French army
used to thus lose their month’s pay the day after they got it; some of
them having pledged their clothes to the croupiers, who do a little
pawnbroking into the bargain, had to make their escape amid the jeers of
the mob, and used to return to camp with nothing on but a pair of
drawers.
“Cock and quail fighting are still practised as an excuse for gambling
by the Chinese, who stake large sums on the result. The wealthy and the
mercantile classes are just as inveterate gamesters as the common
people; they collect in the tea-houses and spend day and night in
playing at cards, at dice, at dominos, and at draughts. Their cards,
about five inches long, are very narrow, and are a good deal like ours,
with figures and pips of different colours marked on them. The game most
in vogue seems to be a kind of cribbage. Their draughtsmen are square,
and the divisions of the board are round. Their dominos are flat, with
red and blue marks. They play at draughts also with dice, a sort of
backgammon. Professional gamblers prefer dice to any other game, as it
is the most gambling of all. When they have lost all their money, they
stake their fields, their house, their children, their wives, and, as a
last resort, themselves when they have nothing else left, and their
antagonist agrees to let them make such a final stake. A shopkeeper of
Tien-tsin, who was minus two fingers of his left hand, had lost them
over the dice box. The women and children are fond of playing at
shuttlecock; it is their favourite game, and they are very expert at it.
The shuttlecock is made of a piece of leather rolled into a ball, with
one or two metal rings round it to steady it; three long feathers are
stuck into holes in these rings. The shuttlecock is kept up with the
soles of their slippers, which they use instead of battledores; it is
very seldom allowed to fall.
“Gambling, which paralyzes labour, is one of the permanent
causes of their pauperism, but there is another, still more
disastrous--dissipation. The thin varnish of decency and restraint with
which Chinese society is covered, conceals a widespread corruption.
Public morality is only a mask worn above a deep depravity surpassing
all that is told in ancient history, all that is known of the dissipated
habits of the Persians and Hindoos of our own day.
“Drunkenness, as understood in Europe, is one of the least of their
vices. The use of grape wine was forbidden, centuries ago, by some of
their emperors, who tore up all the vine trees in China. This
interdiction having been taken off under the Manchú dynasty, grapes are
grown for the use of the table, but the only wine that is drunk is rice
wine or _samchow_. A spirit as strong as our brandy is extracted from
this as well as from coarse millet seed. It induces a terrible form of
intoxication. The abuse of it by our soldiers in the Chinese campaign
caused a great deal of fatal dysentery in the army.
“The tea-houses also sell alcoholic liquor, but the eating-houses and
the taverns drive the largest trade in it.
“We cannot speak of the process of the manufacture of tea, nor of the
vast amount of labour it employs: the subject properly belongs to
southern China; we will only say that the use of tea is as common in the
north as in the south. The moment you enter a house, tea is offered to
you--it is a sign of hospitality to do so. It is given to you in
profusion; the moment your cup is empty, a silent attendant fills it,
and your host will not permit you to mention the subject of your visit
till you have drunk a certain quantity. The tea-houses are as numerous
as cafés and taverns in France; the elegant manner in which they are
furnished, and their high charges, distinguish some from others. The
rich trader and the idle man of fashion, not caring to mix with the
grimy handed workman or the coarse peasant, only frequent those houses
that have a fashionable reputation. Tea-houses can be recognized by the
large range at the end of their rooms, fitted up with huge kettles and
massive tea pots, with ovens and stoves supplying with boiling water
immense caldrons as big as a man. A singular kind of time-piece is
placed above the range; it is made of a large moulded bar of incense
divided off by equidistant marks, so that the lapse of hours can be
measured by its combustion. The Chinese can thus literally use the
expression, “consuming the time.” Morning and evening the rooms are full
of customers, who for two sapecas, the price of entrance, can sit there
and discuss their business, play, smoke, listen to music, or amuse
themselves by looking at the feats of tumblers, jugglers, and athletes.
For the two sapecas they have also the right to drink ten cups of tea
(certainly extremely small ones), with which, on trays covered with
cakes and dried fruits, a crowd of waiters keep running to and fro.
“One day,” says a letter of M. X., a French officer in the 101st
Regiment of the Line, “we determined to dine _à la chinoise_ in a
Chinese eating-house. Our coolies arranged beforehand that the price was
to be two piastres a head, a large sum for this country, where
provisions are so cheap. As a preparation for dinner, we had to thread
our way through a labyrinth of lanes, crowded with dens in which
crouched thousands of ragged beggars, poisoning the atmosphere with
their exhalations. At the entrance to the open space in front of the
eating-house stood a quantity of heaps of refuse, composed of old
vegetable stalks, rotten sausages, and dead cats and dogs, and in every
hole and corner a mass of filth as disagreeable to the nose as to the
eye. It required a strong stomach to retain an appetite after running
the gauntlet of such a horrible mess. A few tea drinkers and card
players were seated at the door, and seemed to care very little for the
pestilential character of the neighbourhood. We tried to be equally
courageous, and after admiring two immense lanterns which adorned the
entrance, and the sign inscribed in big letters, ‘The three principal
Virtues,’ we ventured to hope that honesty would prove one of them, and
that the tavern keeper would give us our money’s worth.
“Our entry into the principal room created a little excitement, for,
accustomed as the Chinese are to see us, we still, in the quarters of
the town where Europeans seldom venture, cause a certain amount of
curiosity, not unmixed with alarm. Two square tables surrounded by
wooden benches, on which had been placed, as a particular favour, some
stuffed cushions, had been prepared for us. The waiters thronged round
us with red earthen tea-pots, and white metal cups; there were no
spoons; boiling water was poured on a pinch of tea leaves, placed at the
bottom of the cups, and we were obliged to drink the infusion through a
small hole in the lid. When we had got through this ordeal like regular
Chinamen, we called for the first course, which consisted of a quantity
of wretched little lard cakes, sweetened with dried fruit; and for
_hors-d’œuvre_, a kind of caviare made of the intestines, the livers,
and the roes of fish pickled in vinegar, and some land shrimps cooked in
salt water; these were really nothing but large locusts. This dish,
however, found in most warm countries, was not at all bad. We did not
get along very well with the first course, which was immediately
followed by the second. The waiters placed on the table some plates, or
rather saucers, for they were no bigger, and some bowl-shaped dishes,
full of rice dressed in different ways with small pieces of meat
arranged in pyramids on top of it. Chop-sticks accompanied these savoury
dishes. What were we to do? Nobody but a regular Chinese can help
himself with these two little bits of wood, one of which is usually held
stationary between the thumb and the ring finger, while the other is
shifted about between the fore and middle fingers. The natives lift the
saucers to their lips, and swallow the rice by pushing it into their
mouth with the chop-sticks, but we tried to accomplish this in vain, and
all the more so, that our fits of laughter prevented us from making any
really earnest attempt. It was, however, impossible for us to compromise
the dignity of our civilization by eating with our fingers like savages,
and happily one of our number, with more forethought than the rest, had
brought with him a travelling case holding a spoon, and a knife and
fork. We then each in turn dipped the spoon into the bowls before us,
with an amount of suspicion, however, that prevented the proper
appreciation of the highly flavoured messes they contained. At last some
less mysterious dishes, in quantity enough to satisfy fifty people, made
their appearance; chickens, ducks, mutton, pork, roast hare, fish and
boiled vegetables. White grape wine and rice wine were at the same time
handed to us in microscopic cups of painted porcelain. None of the
beverages were sweet, not even the tea, but to make up for it they were
all boiling hot. The meal was brought to a close by a bowl of soup,
which was really an enormous piece of stewed meat swimming about in a
sea of gravy.
[Illustration: 121.--CHINESE SITTING-ROOM.]
“Satiated rather than satisfied, we should have preferred some more
Chinese dishes; some swallows’ nests, or a stew of _ging-seng_ roots,
but it appears that such delicacies as these must be ordered for days
beforehand, and paid for by their weight in gold. We swallowed a glass
of tafia, a liquor which is becoming quite fashionable in Chinese
eating-houses, and lighting our cigars looked about us. The day was
drawing to a close; the tavern rooms, which were at first nearly empty,
were filling with customers, who after furtively scanning us, betook
themselves to their usual occupations. The waiter kept calling out in a
loud voice the names and the prices of the dishes that were ordered, and
these were repeated by an attendant standing at the counter behind which
sat the master of the place. Some shop-keepers were playing at pigeon
fly; one held up as many of the fingers of both hands as he thought fit,
his antagonist had to guess immediately how many, and to hold up
simultaneously exactly the same number of his own. The loser paid for a
cup of rice wine.
“The room was beginning to reek with a nauseous odour, in which we
recognised the smell of opium smoke. It was the hour for that fatal
infatuation. Smokers with sallow complexions and hollow eyes, began to
disappear mysteriously into some closets at the end of the room. We
could see them lying down on mat beddings, with hard horsehair pillows.”
Fig. 122 shows one of these closets kept for the use of opium-smokers.
The utensils and paraphernalia necessary for the preparation and
lighting of the opium pipe, lie on the table.
Agriculture has in China reached a remarkable degree of perfection. It
is the great source of the wealth of the country; it is the progress it
has attained that allows the Celestial Empire to support such an immense
population in a relatively confined area. The profession of
agriculturist is consequently held in great respect. We will quote M.
Poussielgue on the subject:
“Towards the end of March, 1861,” says that writer, “Prince Kong, the
Imperial regent, proceeded in great state to the Temple of Agriculture,
on the outskirts of the Chinese part of the town of Peking, and, after
offering sacrifices to the guardian Deity of mankind, who encourages
their labour by giving them the gifts of the earth, put his own hand to
the plough, and turned up several furrows; a crowd of notabilities,
ministers, masters of the ceremonies, the great officers of state, three
princes of the Imperial family, and a deputation of labourers
accompanied the Emperor’s representative. As soon as Prince Kong had
finished ploughing the plot of ground reserved for him, and marked out
with yellow flags, the three Imperial princes, followed by the nine
chief dignitaries of the empire, took their turn at the plough, till the
whole field was covered with furrows, in which mandarins of lesser rank
scattered the seed, whilst labourers covered with rakes and rollers the
sacred germs entrusted to the ground. During the whole ceremony, choirs
of music made the air resound with their harmony.
[Illustration: 122.--OPIUM-SMOKERS.]
“This intellectual patronage, this ennobling of agriculture, has had
immense results. No country in the world is cultivated with so much
care, or perhaps, with more success than China. It does not contain a
square inch of waste ground.
“In the province of Pe-tche-li, where land is very much cut up into
small lots, agricultural operations are conducted on a limited scale,
but the intelligent manner in which they are carried out, makes up for
the inconveniences of this parcelling out. But few villages are seen
there, but in compensation for their absence a quantity of farms and
farm-houses nestle here and there under the shade of lofty trees. The
buildings take up but little room, and so economical are the peasants of
the soil, that they place their hayricks and their wheat sheaves on the
flat roofs of their dwellings. Fig. 123 represents their system.
“If, however, they are saving of the soil, they are not sparing of
pains. Thanks to the abundance and cheapness of labour, they have been
able to adopt a system of cultivating the earth in alternate rows, and
thus never to let the ground lie fallow, but to have a succession of
crops during the whole summer. Between the rows of the sorgho (_holcus
sorghum_), which reaches a height of ten or twelve feet, they sow a
plant of lesser growth, the smaller kind of millet, which thrives in the
shade of its gigantic neighbour. When they have reaped the sorgho, the
millet, exposed to the rays of the sun, ripens in its turn; they plant
rows of beans in the midst of their maize fields, and the former ripens
before the latter, of slower growth, is big enough to choke them. They
plant the earth they dig out of their draining trenches with castor-oil
or cotton plants, whose large green leaves make a kind of hedge to the
cornfields. And when the soil is barren and full of stones they plant it
with the resinous pine, or with the _cathsé_, an oily plant that
flourishes on the poorest ground.
“Nothing is more stirring than the picture presented by the wide plains
of Pe-tche-li at harvest time. The toil of the husbandman has brought
forth its fruit; the crops of all kinds fill to overflowing the
granaries; threshers, winnowers and reapers, with crowds of gleaning
women and children, fill the air with their joyous songs, as half
stripped beneath the glowing sun, with their pig-tails wound around
their heads, they zealously toil on from daybreak to night fall, only
leaving off for a few moments to swallow an onion or two, or a handful
of rice, to take a few whiffs at their pipe, or to vigorously fan
themselves when the heat becomes unbearable, and the perspiration is
running down their stalwart limbs.
[Illustration: 123.--CHINESE AGRICULTURE.]
“Water in this province is as little neglected as the land:
“Pisciculture is practised on a large scale and in the most intelligent
manner. When spring returns, a quantity of vendors of fish spawn
perambulate the country to sell this precious spat to the pond owners.
The eggs, fecundated by the milt, are carried about in small barrels
full of damp moss. These spawn-sellers are followed by hawkers of young
fry, skilful divers who catch in very fine nets the new born fish
reposing in the holes in the river beds. These fry are reared in special
ponds, and disseminated when they have grown bigger in the lakes and
larger pieces of water. The Chinese have succeeded in rearing and
preserving in artificial basins the most interesting and most productive
species of their rivers. In the immense lakes close to the Temple of
Heaven at Peking, they rear gold fish, a kind of bream weighing
sometimes as much as twenty-five pounds, carp, and the celebrated
_kia-yu_, a domestic fish. Morning and evening the keepers bring herbs
and grains for the fish, which greedily eat them, and which soon reach a
considerable size, thanks to this fattening diet. A lake managed in this
way is a greater source of revenue to its owner than the most fruitful
fields.
“The sea-shore at the mouth of the Peï-ho is covered with parks to hold
the fish at low water. These are made of several lengths of blue cotton
stuff stretched on a cane framework, which is fastened to a quantity of
small stakes. This framework folds in any direction like the leaves of a
screen. A drag net is also used by the inhabitants of the coast. Soles,
sea toads, bream, gold fish, whiting, cod and a quantity of other fish
are caught in the gulf of Pe-tche-li. Many cetaceous fish are also found
there, dolphins, several kinds of sharks, amongst them the tiger shark
(_Squalus tigrinus_), whose striped and spotted skin is used in several
manufactures, and a large species of turtle.
[Illustration: 124.--CHINESE FISHING.]
“River fishing, with which we are better acquainted, is followed in
several ingenious fashions. There is trained cormorant fishing, fly
fishing, harpoon fishing, rod fishing, and net fishing; dams are also
placed across the streams at the travelling periods of migratory fish.
The Pei-ho, crowded with fishermen, presents a most lively appearance;
on its surface you see large boats containing whole families; the women
occupied in mending the nets, in making osier fishing-rods, in cleaning
and salting the day’s catch, and in carrying in vases the fish they wish
to keep alive; the little children, with their waists girdled with a
life belt of pigs’ bladders, running about and climbing like cats up the
masts and the rigging; the men dropping their large nets perpendicularly
into the water, and easily raising them again by a piece of ingenious
mechanism consisting of a wooden counterpoise on which they lean the
whole weight of their body (fig. 124), others watching their nets lying
at the bottom of the stream, their whereabouts indicated by the wooden
floats that are bobbing up and down here and there; others again
descending the river with the current and harpooning the larger fish
with a harpoon fastened to the wrist by a strong cord. To avoid alarming
their prey, they have invented a kind of raft, made of a couple of beams
fastened together with wooden rungs ladderwise; the stem is pointed, and
in the stern, which is square, a paddle is kept with which they steer
themselves. By a wonderful piece of equilibrium they manage to keep in
an upright position, their feet on different rungs, with one hand
stretched out grasping the harpoon, and their head extended to catch a
sight of the fish as it sleeps in the sunshine on the top of the water.
It is a stirring sight to see five or six fishermen abreast, descending
with the current on these frail barks. They wear a broad-brimmed straw
hat, and their clothing consists of a waterproof jerkin of woven cane,
and a pair of drawers made of small pieces of reed stitched together.
Their naked arms and legs are muscular and bronzed, their countenance is
resolute, and its calm expression shows that they are inured to danger.
Although it often happens that the harpooned fish, more powerful than
the harpooner, makes the latter lose his balance and tumble into the
water, when his only means of safety lie in cutting the rope fastened to
his wrist to save himself from being dragged under, accidents are seldom
heard of, for all are excellent swimmers. At night a strange noise is
heard on the river, lighted up with resin torches; the fishermen rush
about the stream beating wooden drums to drive the fish towards the
spots where they have stretched their nets.”
Living is very cheap in China, owing to the skill of the agricultural
labourers and that of the artisans and mechanics. A whole family can
cook its meals with one or two pounds of dried grass, which costs about
a penny a pound. Fire-places are very little used, except in the more
northern provinces; but warm clothing is worn when the climate makes it
necessary. The dwellings have a low pitch, so that with the coal found
in many of the provinces, with the prunings of the trees, and with the
roots of the mountain shrubs, their inhabitants can cheaply procure the
fuel necessary to warm themselves with.[7]
[7] Simon, Report of the Acclimatization Society, March, 1869.
There is a great scarcity of forests in China, as the country has been
entirely denuded to support its teeming population. Grazing fields are
equally scarce, so that butcher’s meat, beef or mutton, is dear. The
inhabitants however get along without it, thanks to the numerous
streams, rivers, lakes, and canals which intersect China, and swarm with
fish. Fishing does not take place in the streams of running water alone.
Fish are caught in the rice fields, and even in the pools caused by the
heavy rains, so rapid is the production of these animals.
[Illustration: 125.--THE CUSTOM-HOUSE AT SHANGHAI.]
A kind of fish exists in China which multiplies at such an astonishing
rate, that it produces two broods in a month, this fish is consequently
not more than a penny and the dearest tenpence a pound. All kinds of
fisheries are carried on--net, rod, otter and cormorant fishing. It is
thus that animal food for four hundred millions of inhabitants is
provided.
Pigs, ducks, and chickens are also a great resource. Pork has become
such a general article of food, that its cost is higher than that of
beef, although the latter is much the scarcest.
The ducks are found in flocks of three or four thousand on the lakes and
pieces of water. They are watched by children in a kind of small canoe.
Sometimes the drakes bring the ducklings to the water, keeping guard
over them from the bank, and recalling them when necessary with a sharp
piercing cry which the young ones perfectly understand.
There is a large trade in ducks. They dry them by putting them between a
couple of planks like plants; and they are sent in this guise to the
most remote parts of the empire. Dogs of a particular breed, reared for
the market in the southern provinces, are prepared in the same way, but
only for the consumption of the very poorest classes. Goats and sheep
are also rather largely made use of for food, but not to such an extent
as pigs, ducks and chickens.
It may be seen therefore that the Chinese have learnt how to supply the
place of the larger kind of butcher’s meat.
Vegetables however form the staple of their food. This explains how it
is possible for four hundred millions of inhabitants to exist in a
country whose acreage is not more than four or five times that of
France. Chinese horticulture contains eighty different kinds of
vegetables, and out of these eighty, at least twenty-five constitute a
direct article of food for man. But the most precious of all is rice,
and the Chinese spare no pains in perfecting its cultivation. In aid of
this cultivation they have sacrificed their forests, dug immense lakes,
and even pierced lofty mountains. For its sake they collect the water of
both stream and river, and direct its course from the mountain’s foot
over the soil they wish to irrigate. Perhaps no greater or more
grandiose work exists in the whole world than the gigantic hydraulic
system which, throughout the whole of China, from the west to the sea
coast, directs the flow of its waters, and pours them over the fields of
every tiller of its soil.
This great work was carried out four thousand years ago, but public
gratitude has not forgotten its promoter. They still point out not far
from Ning-po, the field where the little peasant used to work who after
accomplishing his enterprise became the great emperor Yu. All the
inhabitants of the canton where he was born are considered as his
descendants or as those of his family, and are exempt from taxation; and
the anniversary of his birth is celebrated every year in a special
temple with as much zeal as if the benefits he has bestowed were things
of yesterday.
The Chinese do their best not only for rice, but for every kind of
produce, or to put it better, for the earth itself, the earth that
brings it forth. Agriculture to the Chinese is more than a calling, it
is almost a religion. The Chinaman repeats to himself these words of the
old Persian law: “Be thou just to the plant, to the bull, and to the
horse; nor be thou unmindful of the dog. The earth has a right to be
sown; neglect it and it will curse thee, fertilize it and it will be
grateful to thee. It says to him who tills it from the right to the
left, and from the left to the right, may thy fields bring forth of all
that is good to eat, and may thy countless villages abound with
prosperity.” It adds again, “Labour and sow: the sower who sows with
purity obeys the whole law.”
When the earth therefore does not produce abundant crops, the Chinese
lay the blame on themselves. They purify themselves and fast. Confucius,
besides, has said: “If you wish for good agriculture, be of pure
morals.”[8]
[8] Simon, Report of the Acclimatization Society, March, 1869.
The soil in China yields as much as ten thousand pounds of rice to
every acre. Such a result says a great deal for their rural morals.
While occupied in making the earth yield so plentifully, they have no
time for evil thoughts or actions. A moralist has said, “There can be no
cultivation without public order. Justice is begotten of the furrow.
Ceres, who at Thebes and at Athens brought men together and made the
laws, is the reflecting mind of men who till the soil.”[9] How could
Chinese agriculture be possible without a system of law, when for the
success of its rice fields it is so dependent on water, which is so
easily cut off, for the very essence of its fruitfulness. The
uninterrupted distribution of its waters, in the midst of such an
immense rural population, is a symptom of great honesty and fairness
among the inhabitants of the Celestial Empire.
[9] Simon, Report of the Acclimatization Society, March, 1869.
Thus we see that patience, gentleness, justice and benevolence are the
predominant Chinese qualities. The Chinese have been often reproached
with being atheists; but the _devotion of labour_, the purifications and
the atonements to which they submit at the smallest warning from Heaven,
free them from this reproach.
The Bonzes, the priests of the Buddhist faith, are treated by the
Chinese with great respect. If this nation is not really a very
religious one, at least it venerates and respects the ministers of
religion.
Fig. 126 shows the usual dress of the Bonzes.
Education is widely spread in China; schools abound there. Chinese
literature, without possessing very numerous works worthy of
remembrance, has produced a good deal worthy of esteem.
The Theatre is a recreation much sought after by the people and by the
educated classes.
_P. Sellier, p.^{t}_
_Imp. Dupuy, 22, R. des Petits Hôtels_
_G. Regamey, lith._
JAPANESE
CHINESE
YELLOW OR MONGOLIAN RACE]
We will make a few extracts on these points from the travels of M. de
Bourboulon, edited by M. Poussielgue, which we have already quoted:
“Their Book of Rites,” says M. Poussielgue, “directs that the education
of the child of wealthy parents shall commence from the hour even of its
birth, and bids the mother take great precautions in choosing its
nurses, whom it only tolerates. A child is weaned the moment it can lift
its hand to its mouth. At six years of age the elementary principles of
arithmetic and geography are taught him; at seven he is separated from
his mother and sisters, and no longer allowed to take meals with
them; at eight the usages of politeness are instilled into him; the
following year he is taught the astrological calendar; at ten he is sent
to a public school, where the master teaches him to read and write and
to calculate; between the ages of thirteen and fifteen he receives music
lessons and sings moral maxims instead of his hymns; at fifteen come
gymnastics, the use of arms, and riding; finally at twenty years of age,
if he is considered worthy of it, he receives the virile cap, and
changes his cotton clothing for silk garments and furs; he is also
generally married at this age.
[Illustration: 126.--CHINESE BONZE.]
“The Chinese schoolmasters (fig. 127) are rejected men of letters who
have not succeeded in passing the examinations for civil employment.
They make their scholars call out their lessons in a loud voice, and
seem to have long since appreciated the value of the system of mutual
instruction. They chastise culprits with their pigtails and with
cat-o’-nine-tails, striking them heavy blows on the hands and on the
back. Moral penalties are also inflicted; a writing fastened to his back
holds up the idle schoolboy to public contempt. The poorest class of
children are taught gratuitously in the schools.
“The importance attached by the Chinese to the writing, the reading, the
grammar, and the thorough knowledge of their language, springs from its
inherent difficulties.
“The ancient Chinese writing was ideographic, that is to say, it
represented objects by drawn characters, similar to the Egyptian system
of hieroglyphics, instead of being phonetic, that is, composed of signs
corresponding with the sounds of the spoken language. Their primitive
characters, two hundred and fourteen in number, were rough figures
imperfectly representing material objects. Ideographical writing, the
use of which by semi-barbarous peoples is easily explained, must be
rather awkward for civilized men desiring to express abstract ideas. The
Chinese have ingeniously modified their characters, so as to render them
capable of satisfying the wants of their growing civilization. Anger was
represented by a heart under a bond, a sign of slavery; friendship by
two pearls exactly alike; history, by a hand holding the emblem of
equity. As it was soon found that these ingenious figures were no longer
sufficient, they were combined in an infinite number of ways; they were
altered and multiplied to such an extent, that it takes all the science
of an old man of letters to recognize the designs of the primitive
writing in the present characters, which are more than forty thousand in
number. It is in this way that their modern writing was gradually
formed, an emblematic writing which does not correspond with the spoken
language, the one solitary exception to the rule among all civilized
nations.
“It is therefore easily to be understood that to read and write the
Chinese language is a science exacting severe study from natives of the
country, as well as from foreigners: besides, even its grammatical rules
vary very much. There are three kinds of style: the ancient or sublime
style, used in the old canonical books; the academical style, which is
adopted for official and literary documents; and the common style.
[Illustration: 127.--CHINESE SCHOOLMASTER.]
“The Chinese attach much importance to an elegant handwriting, a clever
calligrapher, or to use their own expression, a clever brush, is worthy
of their admiration. Captain Bouvier and one of the interpreters of the
French legation, were one day paying a visit to Tchong-louen, one of
the leading officials of Peking; his son, a mandarin with the blue
button, a young man of twenty-two, and already father of a child--that
is to say of a son, for girls do not count for anything--was present in
the reception-room. Tchong-louen, wishing to give an idea of his son’s
precocious accomplishments to his visitors, sent for a large cartoon in
which the youth had traced in splendid outlines, the word _longevity_,
and showed it to them with as much pride as if it had been the
certificate of some noble action or a literary work. The rooms of every
house contain similar cartoons, hung upon their walls as we in Europe
hang paintings.
“The appearance of Chinese writing is very odd; the characters are
placed one under the other in vertical lines, and run from right to
left; in a word, on this point as in many others, the Chinese proceed in
a manner diametrically opposed to ours. The position in which the
characters are placed is besides very important; for instance, the
Emperor’s name must be written with two letters higher than the others,
to omit this would be to commit treason. Everybody is familiar with
Chinese or Indian ink. It is with this substance, diluted in water and
used with a brush, that the Chinese trace the letters of their writing,
holding their hands perpendicularly, instead of placing them
horizontally, on the paper.
“Their spoken language is much less difficult; it is composed of
monosyllables, the union of which, in an infinite number of ways,
expresses every possible idea. I must not forget the accents which give
a difference of tone and expression to the monosyllabic roots. The
language of the south differs sufficiently from that of the north to
prevent the natives from understanding one another without the
assistance of the brush. Moreover, every province has its particular
dialect.
“In spite of the difficulties presented by the reading and writing of
the Chinese character, China is doubtless the land in which primary
instruction is most widely spread. Schools are found even in the
smallest hamlets whose rustics deprive themselves of some of their
gains, in order to pay a schoolmaster. It is very seldom you meet with
an entirely uneducated Chinese. The workmen and the peasants are capable
of writing their own letters, reading the government bills and
proclamations, and making notes of their daily business. Teaching in the
primary schools has for its basis, the San-tse-king, a sacred book
attributed to a disciple of Confucius, which sums up in a hundred and
sixty-eight lines all acquired knowledge and science. This little
encyclopædia, properly explained and commented on by the teacher,
suffices to give Chinese children a taste for positive knowledge, and
even to give them the desire of acquiring a wider education. There are
also colleges in the large towns where the children of the men of
letters and of the mandarins receive a complete education. Such among
others is the Imperial College at Peking.
[Illustration: 128.--CHINESE LOCOMOTION.]
“The citizens of the Celestial Empire enjoy thorough liberty of the
press, but at their own risk and peril. The government, which has no
right to forbid any publication, revenges itself afterwards by
inflicting the bastinado on the authors of the pamphlets and the
virulent satires that daily appear attacking it. A great quantity of
small portable printing-presses exists among private individuals who
both use and abuse them. There is no country in the world where the
walls are so thickly covered with bills and advertisements.
“The Chinese have practised the typographical art from time immemorial;
but as their alphabet is composed of more than forty thousand letters,
they could not make use of moveable type; they restricted themselves
therefore to carving on a piece of hard board the characters they
required, to wetting these characters with ink and to striking off a
number of copies, by applying different sheets of paper to the board.
Their binders, in opposition to ours, make these leaves up into a volume
by fastening them together by their edges. A note in the preface
generally mentions the place where the boards that printed the first
edition of the work have been deposited.
“There are in Peking several daily papers, amongst others the _Official
Gazette_, a government print, the subscription for which is a piastre
quarterly. This print, published in pamphlet shape, is a rectangular
publication containing a dozen pages, with a likeness of the philosopher
Meng-tsen on the cover. It contains a summary of all public matters, and
all leading events, the petitions and memorials addressed to the
Emperor, his decrees, the edicts of the viceroys of the provinces,
judicial ceremonies and letters of pardon, the custom-house tariffs, the
court circular, the news of the day, fires, crimes, &c., and finally the
incidents, fortunate or unfortunate, of the war against the rebel
Tae-pings. It even acknowledges the Imperial defeats, a piece of
frankness worthy of notice by the official organs of Europe and
America.
“The Chinese have a traditional and quasi-religious respect for the
preservation of all printed and written papers; they are carefully
collected and burnt when read, so as to put them beyond the reach of
profanation. It is even asserted that societies exist who pay porters to
go from street to street with enormous baskets to pick up fragments.
These new kind of rag-gatherers are paid for saving the waifs and strays
of human thought.
“Art like literature has been carried to some extent in an utilitarian
and manufacturing sense. But imaginative art, the ideally beautiful, is
a thing a Chinese does not understand.
“While acknowledging the skill with which the Chinese have written on
social economy, on philosophy, on history, and on all moral and
political science based on experience and logic, we must note the
scarcity of their purely literary works. It must not however, be
concluded that China, unlike every civilized country, does not possess
plenty of poets, novelists and dramatic authors; but their little
esteemed and badly remunerated productions are ephemeral. To-day an ode,
something appropriate to the moment, is written, it is recited or played
in the midst of applause, and to-morrow nothing remains of it.
“Theatrical propensities are nevertheless very strongly developed among
the Chinese, and the cause of this forgetfulness, this neglect is that
they are ashamed of attaching too much importance to a futile amusement.
The managers of the theatres are generally the authors of the pieces
they represent, or at any rate they modify them according to the
exigencies of the actors and the suitability of the costumes. There are
no permanent or authorized theatres in Peking: the government only
allows their temporary construction in the open spaces of the town for a
limited period during public festivals. Theatrical representations,
however, take place in many of the tea-houses, which are analogous to
our music-halls, and in nearly all the dwellings of the wealthy, who,
every time they hire a company of actors to celebrate a family
anniversary, take care, with an eye to popularity, to allow the public
free ingress into that part of their house reserved for the auditorium.”
“I have just been present,” relates M. Trèves, “at a theatrical
representation given by the secretary of state Tchong-louen in the
gardens of his palace in the Tartar town, in honour of the new year. The
theatre was something like those constructed in Paris on the esplanade
of the Invalides on the occasion of the Emperor’s fête: it was an ample
quadrilateral building in the shape of a Greek temple, supported on
either side by four columns painted in sky-blue, golden, and scarlet
stripes, and with a proscenium covered with carvings and decorations.
The stage, much wider than it was deep, was a wooden platform raised
about six feet above the level of the rest of the building. An immense
screen shuts off the back passages, where the actors dress themselves
and get themselves up. There was no scenery, only two or three chairs
and a carpet. The circular hall reserved for the audience, very large in
proportion to the stage, was paved with white marble; it was not roofed
in, and the only shelter for the spectators was the shade cast by the
large trees of the garden (fig. 129).
“We took our places on a reserved platform, placed expressly for us in
front of the stage; on either side were boxes with bamboo blinds whence
the wives of our host and those of his guests looked on at the play: to
prevent their being seen, they wore veils of silk net. The guests of
lower rank were seated in the first row, on chairs grouped round small
tables capable of accommodating four or five people. Behind them I could
see a swarm of human heads; these were the public who crowded and
pressed together to enjoy the spectacle for which they were indebted to
the munificence of the illustrious Tchong-louen. At Peking as in Paris,
the common people willingly undergo for the sake of amusement the
fatigue of standing, without any means of resting themselves, for hours
together. A few indulgent fathers had two or three children perched upon
their backs, and upon their shoulders, but I could not see a single
woman.
“At a signal given from our dais, the orchestra, placed at one wing of
the stage, and consisting of two flutes, a drum and a harp, began a
charivari which took the place of an overture; then the screen opened,
and the actors all appeared in their ordinary dress, and after bowing so
deeply that their foreheads touched the ground, their leader advanced to
the edge of the stage and commenced a pompous recital of the dramas they
were going to perform.”
Here the writer gives a description of the pieces represented, which
were kinds of allegories and historical pageants. Besides these regular
theatrical representations, there are in Peking many acrobatic troops,
male and female rope-dancers, and itinerant circuses.
[Illustration: 129.--A CHINESE PLAY.]
Marionettes, absolutely identical with those in Europe, are seen in
China. Which nation is their inventor? The name by which they have
passed from time immemorial in France, _ombres chinoises_, seems to
prove that their origin is Chinese. Hidden by ample drapery of blue
cotton stuff, the man who moves the puppets stands on a stool. A case
representing a little stage is placed on his shoulders and rises above
his head, while his hands work without revealing the mechanical means he
uses to impart the movements of players to these tiny automatons.
We will end our account of the Chinese with a glance at their
administration of justice and their judicial forms. We again quote from
M. Poussielgue:
“There is a direct relation in China between the penal judicial code and
family organization. If the Emperor is the father and the mother of his
subjects, the magistrates who represent him are also the father and
mother of those they rule over. Every outrage against the law is an
outrage upon the family. Impiety, one of the greatest crimes foreseen
and punished by the law, is really nothing but a want of respect for
parents. This is how the penal code defines impiety. ‘He is impious who
insults his nearest relations, or he who brings an action against them,
or who does not go into mourning for them, or who does not venerate
their memory, or he who is wanting in the attention due to those to whom
he owes his existence, by whom he has been educated, or by whom he has
been protected and assisted.’ The punishments incurred for the crime of
impiety are terrible; we intend to speak of them later.
“In thus carrying the feeling of what is due to family ties into the
region of politics, the Chinese legislators have created a governmental
machinery of prodigious power, which has lasted for thirty centuries,
and which, neither the numerous revolutions and dynastic changes,
neither the antagonism of the northern and southern races, neither the
immense territorial extent of the empire, neither religious scepticism,
nor finally the selfish creed of materialism developed to excess by a
decayed and stationary civilization, have been able to destroy, or even
seriously to disturb.
[Illustration: 130.--A CHINESE JUNK.]
“Amongst the supreme courts that sit at Peking, is the Court of Appeal
or Cassation (Ta-li-sse). Next to it come the assizes held in the chief
towns of each province, and presided over by a special magistrate
bearing the title of Commissary of the Court of Offences. A second
magistrate of inferior rank exercises the duties of public accuser at
these assizes. In towns of second and third importance inferior
tribunals exist which have but one judge, the mandarin or the
sub-prefect of the department. The punishments that can be awarded by
the latter are limited; when the crime deserves a greater chastisement,
the prisoner is sent to the assizes held in the chief town of his
province: if this tribunal sentences him to death, the proceedings must
be sent to the Court of Appeal at Peking, where a final decision is
pronounced at the autumn sittings. Thus no provincial tribunal has the
power of sentencing a prisoner to death; although in special cases, such
as an armed insurrection, a governor can be invested with extreme power,
similar to that conferred in Europe by martial law. Finally there are in
every part of the empire, courts of information where the sub-prefect,
in the course of his quarterly circuit, has to hear what is taking
place, decide differences, and deliver moral lectures to the public; but
this excellent institution has fallen into disuse in consequence of the
relaxation of governmental authority and the carelessness of the
mandarins.
“The result of this judicial organization is that the sub-prefect is
invested with the entire correctional power within the limits of his
civil jurisdiction, a very faulty state of things, which has been the
cause of enormous abuses.
“There are no advocates in China, and, as has been seen, very few
judges. Consequently the mode of administering justice is very summary,
and the guarantees enjoyed by a prisoner amount to nothing. His friends
or relations can, it is true, plead in his favour, but it is of no use,
unless it happens to suit the mandarin at the head of the tribunal. As
for the witnesses, they are liable to be flogged with a rattan,
accordingly as their evidence is agreeable or not. Generally speaking,
the long-winded witnesses are the most disagreeable to the mandarin who
has a mass of matters to settle, and whose time does not allow him to
enter into petty details. In point of fact the prisoner’s acquittal or
condemnation depends upon the subaltern officers of the court, who
prepare the proceedings in a manner favourable to the prisoners or the
reverse, accordingly as they have received more or less money from his
friends.
“If there is something to be praised in Chinese jurisprudence, the way
in which the punishments are carried out is on the contrary shocking.
Man is considered as a being sensitive only to physical agony and to
death; Chinese legislators have not sought to restrain him by his
honour, by his pride in himself, nor even by his self interest. The
penal code consists mainly of the bastinado, inflicted with a thick
bamboo cane, with the thick end or the thin one, and consisting of from
ten up to two hundred blows, as the crime is trifling or serious, or as
the object stolen is of little or of great value. The bastinado is given
immediately in presence of the tribunal. The most common punishments,
are, after the bastinado, the cangue, the pillory, imprisonment and
perpetual exile into Tartary for mandarins who have committed political
offences. We have mentioned that the High Court of Appeal alone can
decide on a death sentence; but the sufferings inflicted by the orders
of the inferior tribunals are so horrible, the executioners are so
ingenious in varying the tortures without causing death, the management
of the prisons is so hateful, and finally a man sentenced to the cangue,
the pillory, or the cage is exposed to such horrible anguish, that when
the death-warrant arrives from Peking, the unfortunate wretch goes
cheerfully to the scaffold, as if his last day were really the day of
his deliverance.
[Illustration: 131.--CHINESE BEGGARS.]
“Capital punishment, horribly varied in bygone days, is now only
inflicted in three ways; strangulation, decapitation, and the slow death
by stabbing.
“Strangulation is effected by means of a silken cord that two
executioners pull at each end, or by an iron collar tightened by a
screw, very much like the _garote_ at present used in Spain.
Strangulation by the silken cord, is reserved for the princes of the
Imperial family; the iron collar is used to destroy, in the silence of
the prison, those whose death it is desired to conceal.
“In public, the only mode of execution is decapitation, applied to all
vulgar crimes. The preparations for this mode of death are very simple,
and its action very rapid, owing to the temper and weight of the swords,
and the skill of those who wield them. The guillotine never attained the
lightning-like rapidity of the satellites of the dreaded Yeh, the
viceroy from whom the Anglo-French delivered the province of Canton;
they could strike off a hundred heads in a few moments. Their master
used to boast that their skill was derived from a hundred thousand
subjects of experiment he had furnished them with in less than two
years.
“The slow death of stabbing is inflicted for the crimes of treason,
parricide, and incest. The preparation for this mode of punishment must
double the miseries of the condemned convict. Securely tied to a post,
his feet and hands fastened with ropes, his head is placed in a kind of
pillory, while the magistrate delegated to witness the execution of the
sentence, draws from a covered basket a knife, on the handle of which is
written the part of the body in which it is to be inserted. This
horrible torture is continued until chance selects the heart, or some
other vital part. We hasten to add, that generally the convict’s
friends purchase the connivance of the magistrate, who takes care to
draw at the very first venture, the knife intended for the mortal blow.
“It is little wonder that the Chinese accustomed to such penalties, and
to the hideous and frequent spectacles they afford, should early become
inured to the idea of death, and that even their women and children
should possess in the highest degree the passive courage which enables
them to meet it with calmness. For many of these poor people, death is
only the welcome termination of a miserable and painful existence.
“I had the curiosity to be present at one of the last sittings of the
Court, and at my request a place was reserved for me, where I could see
without being seen.
[Illustration: 132.--CHINESE PUNISHMENT.]
“The hall of justice had nothing remarkable in an architectural sense.
It was surrounded by a lofty wall, nearly as high as the principal
edifice. The first court is enclosed by buildings used as prisons. I saw
some boxes made of enormously thick bamboo bars placed at a little
distance apart, in which prisoners were shut up during the night.
“In this court a crowd of wretched creatures with emaciated limbs, livid
faces, and barely covered with a few loathsome rags, lay sweltering in
the sun. Some were fastened by the foot with an iron chain to a weight
so heavy, that they were unable to stir it, and staggered round it like
caged wild beasts, continually turning in a space of a few feet. Others
had their arms and legs shackled together, so that they could only move
about in short jumps, which must have been very painful to judge by the
expression of their faces.
[Illustration: 133.--CHINESE PUNISHMENTS.]
“One of these prisoners had his left hand and right foot fastened in a
board a few inches in width; a policeman dragged him forward by an iron
chain fastened to a heavy collar clasped round his neck, whilst another
flogged him from behind, to make him go on. This wretched creature crept
along with great difficulty on the leg that was still free, his body
bent double in the most painful position (fig. 132).
“In another corner of the court, other prisoners were undergoing the
punishment of the cangue. I also saw a painful sight, a thief buried
alive in a wooden cage.
[Illustration: 134.--A CHINESE COURT OF JUSTICE.]
“Imagine a heavy tub upside down, under which a human being is made to
crouch; his head and his hands are slipped through three round holes,
made so excessively tight that he cannot remove them; the weight of the
cage presses on his shoulders, whatever movement he makes he must carry
it about with him. When he wishes to rest, he can only crouch upon his
knees in a most fatiguing position; when he wishes to take exercise, he
can hardly lift the weight of the tub (fig. 133). One shrinks from
attempting to realize the existence of a man condemned to a month of
such a punishment. The miserable sufferer I saw, being unable to either
eat or drink by himself, his wife had undertaken to help him; she was
standing close to the cage feeding him with rice and some little pieces
of pork, which she pushed into his mouth with chop-sticks. From time to
time, she wiped with an old piece of cloth the livid countenance of her
husband, which was running down with perspiration, whilst her little
child, slung to her back with a strap, smiled in its utter ignorance of
misery, and played with the curls of its mother’s flowing hair. This
sight affected me deeply, and I hurried on to avoid making a protest
against such atrocity.
“The entrance to the hall of justice is embellished with an external
portico, on which some mythological scenes are painted in glowing
colours.
“Presently the folding gates opened with a loud creaking, and admitted
the crowd that had gathered in the first court. At the end of the large
hall on a raised daïs, I perceived Tchong-louen in his ceremonial
costume, surrounded with his councillors and the subaltern officers of
justice. In front of him, on a table covered with a red cloth, were the
records of criminal proceedings, brushes and saucers for the Indian ink,
a bookcase containing the codes and the books of jurisprudence that
might have to be consulted, and a large case full of painted and
numbered pieces of wood. Behind the mandarin stood his fan-bearer, and
two children richly dressed in silk, who held over his head the insignia
of his dignity. On the twelve stone steps that ascended to the dais were
posted, first, the executioner, conspicuous for his wire hat, and his
red dress. He leant his right hand upon an enormous rattan cane, while
his left wielded a curved sword; then came his assistants and the
jailors carrying different instruments of torture which they clashed
noisily together, whilst continuing at measured intervals to utter
horrible yells, intended to throw terror into the minds of the
prisoners. All round the hall stood police soldiers, in the red
tasselled Manchú cap, armed with a short spear, and with two swords
sheathed in the same scabbard. Red draperies inscribed with various
sentences, and lanterns representing different monsters were hung around
the walls. In short, the whole scene was got up to impress the eager and
curious mob, which crowded thickly beneath the overhanging side
galleries, with the imposing spectacle of the symbols of justice, as
represented in fig. 134.
“I witnessed from the place reserved for me behind the judgment seat the
trial of half a score of robbers. I will not attempt to describe the
scenes of torture that followed their repeated denials of guilt. When a
prisoner persisted in asserting his innocence, the judge tossed to the
executioner one of the painted sticks or counters lying in the case on
the table before him, and on which was marked the number of blows or the
description of torture to be inflicted. This was immediately carried
into effect under the eyes of the judge and registrars who made careful
notes of the half avowals uttered by the victim in the midst of his
screams of agony.”
[Illustration: 135.--CHINESE SOLDIERS.]
Military matters are but little attended to in China. This sceptical and
timorous nation is no believer in military glory and power. Our
campaigns in China showed the value of a Chinese army. General Cousin
Montauban, since Count de Palikao, cut numbers of them to pieces, after
one or two skirmishes, in which the Chinese fled as hard as they could
the very moment they perceived a uniform.
[Illustration: 136.--CHINESE TROOPER.]
A nation of four hundred million inhabitants was conquered by six
thousand Frenchmen. The unworthy cowardice of the Chinese explain the
fact that they have always been an easy prey to conquerors.
In Chinese military matters we will restrict ourselves to reproducing
their uniforms. Fig. 135 represents that of their infantry, and fig. 136
that of their mounted troops.
[Illustration: 137.--THE GREAT WALL OF CHINA.]
The real army of the Chinese nation is the care with which it holds
itself aloof from foreigners, and the manner in which it forbids them
access to its territory. Retrenched behind its wall, it is happy in its
own way and does without soldiers. The system seems a good one, since it
has succeeded for so many centuries.
The wall of China, which rigorously excludes all strangers from the
empire, is no mere metaphor. It is a solid reality. Fig. 137 gives a
view of the Great Wall taken near Peking.
The Marquis de Moges, an attaché of the embassy when M. Gros was French
Ambassador in China, has wittily summed up, in his account of his
travels, the contrast between Chinese and Western civilization. “In
China,” he says, “the magnetic needle points to the south;--the cardinal
points are five in number;--the left hand is the place of
honour;--politeness requires you to keep your head covered in the
presence of a superior, or in that of a person whom you wish to
honour;--a book is read from right to left;--fruit is eaten at the
beginning of dinner and soup at its close;--at school, children learn
their lessons aloud and repeat them all together;--their silence is
punished as a sign of idleness;--and finally, a title of nobility
conferred upon a man for some signal service rendered to the state, does
not descend to his posterity, but goes backwards and ennobles his
ancestors.”
THE JAPANESE FAMILY.
Japan, consisting of a large island, that of Nipon, and seven other
smaller islands, of which the principal are Yesso, Sitkokf, and
Kiousiou, is inhabited by an industrious and intelligent people. The
Japanese, whilst resembling the Chinese in many points, differ from them
in many others, and are far superior in a moral point of view to the
inhabitants of the Celestial Empire.
The written character of Japan is the same as that of China, and its
literature is not a distinctive one, but entirely Chinese. The two
creeds of Buddha and of Confucius prevail in Japan as they do in China.
The worship of these creeds is carried on in both countries in similar
pagodas, and their ministers are the same bonzes with shaven heads and
long gray robes. The buildings and the junks of both nations are
identical. Their food is the same, a diet of vegetables, principally
rice, and fish, washed down by plenty of tea and spirit. The coolies
carry their loads in exactly the same manner in Japan and in China, at
Nangasaki and at Peking, and make the streets resound with the same
shrill measured cries. The Japanese women wear their hair as the Chinese
women used to do before they adopted the fashion of pig-tails, and the
townspeople in Yeddo, as in Nankin, seclude themselves in their houses,
which are impervious both to heat and cold.
But the resemblance stops there. The Japanese, a warlike and feudal
nation, would be indignant at being confounded with the servile and
crafty inhabitants of the Celestial Empire, who despise war, and whose
sole aim is commerce. A Chinaman begins to laugh when he is reproached
with running away from the enemy, or when he is convicted of having told
a lie; such matters give him little concern. A Japanese sets a different
value on his life and on his honour; he is warlike and haughty. A
Japanese soldier always confronts his enemy. To deprive him of his sword
is to dishonour him, and he will only consent to take it back stained
with the life-blood of his conqueror. The duello, unknown in China, is
carried out in a terrible fashion among the Japanese. The islander of
Nipon disembowels himself with a thrust of his own sword, and dares his
adversary to follow his example. The Chinese race live in a state of
disgusting and perpetual filth; every Japanese, on the contrary, without
distinction of rank or fortune, takes a warm bath every other day. Of a
jovial and frank disposition, and of great intelligence, they are always
desirous of knowing what is going on in the world, and ever anxious to
learn; whilst the Chinese, on the other hand, shut themselves up behind
their classic wall, and recoil from everything that is strange to them.
These characteristics show that the Japanese are a far superior race to
the Chinese.
A few peculiarities, more especially found in the inhabitants of the sea
coasts, the fishermen and the sailors, separate the Japanese physical
type from that of the Chinese. The former are small, vigorous, active
men with heavy jaws, thick lips, and a small nose, flat at the bridge,
but yet with an aquiline profile. Their hair is somewhat inclined to be
curly.
The Japanese are generally of middle height. They have a large head,
rather high shoulders, a broad chest, a long waist, fleshy hips, slender
short legs, and small hands and feet. The full face of those who have a
very retreating forehead and particularly prominent cheek-bones is
rather square than oval in shape. Their eyes are more projecting than
those of Europeans, and are rather more veiled by the eyelid. The
general effect is not that of the Chinese or Mongolian type. The
Japanese have a larger head than is customary with individuals of these
races, their face is longer, their features are more regular, and their
nose is more prominent and better shaped.
They have all thick, sleek, dark black hair, and a considerable quantity
of it on their faces. The colour of their skin varies according to the
class they belong to, from the sallow sunburnt complexion of the
inhabitants of southern Europe to the deep tawny hue of that of the
native of Java. The most general tint is a sallow brown, but none remind
you of the yellow skin of the Chinese. The women are fairer than the
men. Amongst the upper and even the middle classes, some are to be met
with with a perfectly white complexion.
Two indelible features distinguish the Japanese from the European type.
Their half-veiled eyes, and a disfiguring hollow in the breast, which is
noticeable in them in the flower of their youth, even in the handsomest
figures.
[Illustration: 138.--JAPANESE.]
Both men and women have black eyes, and white sound teeth. Their
countenance is mobile and possesses great variety of expression. It is
the custom for their married women to blacken their teeth. The national
Japanese costume is a kind of open dressing gown (fig. 138), which is
made a little wider and a little more flowing for the women than for the
men. It is fastened round the waist by a belt. That, worn by the men, is
a narrow silk sash, that, by the women, a broad piece of cloth tied in a
peculiar knot at the back.
The Japanese wear no linen, but they bathe, as we have said, every other
day. The women wear an under-garment of red silk crape.
[Illustration: 139.--A JAPANESE FATHER.]
In summer, the peasants, the fishermen, the mechanics and the Indian
coolies follow their calling in a state of almost complete nudity, and
the women only wear a skirt from the waist downwards. When it rains they
cover themselves with capes made of straw, or oiled paper, and with hats
made, shield shape, of cane bark. In winter the men of the lower classes
wear, beneath their _kirimon_ or dressing-gown, a tight fitting vest and
pair of trousers of blue cotton stuff, and the women one or more wadded
cloaks. The middle classes always wear a vest and trousers out of doors.
Figs. 138, 139, 140, and 141 represent different Japanese types.
Their costume generally differs only in the material of which it is
made. The nobility alone have the right to wear silk. They only wear
their costlier dresses on the occasions of their going to court or when
they pay ceremonial visits. All classes wear linen socks and sandals of
plaited straw, or wooden shoes fastened by a string looped round the big
toe. They all, on their return to their own house, or when entering that
of a stranger, take off their shoes, and leave them at the threshold.
[Illustration: 140.--JAPANESE SOLDIER.]
The floors of Japanese dwellings are covered with mattings, which take
the place of every other kind of furniture.
A Japanese has but one wife.
The Japanese have a taste for science and art, and are fond of music and
pageants. Their manufactures are largely developed. They make all sorts
of fine stuffs, work skilfully in iron and copper, make capital
sword-blades, and their wood carvings, their lacquer-work, and their
china, enjoy a wide reputation.
Political power is divided between an hereditary and despotic governor,
the _Taïcoon_, and a spiritual chief, the _Mikado_.
The creed of Buddhism, that of the _Kamis_, and the doctrines of
Confucius equally divide the religious tendencies of the Japanese.
[Illustration: 141.--JAPANESE NOBLE.]
We will give a few details on the interesting inhabitants of Japan, from
the account of a visit to that country written by M. Humbert, the Swiss
plenipotentiary there, which was published in 1870 under the title of
“Japan.”
M. Humbert was present at the ceremonies which took place on the
occasion of an official visit paid by the Taïcoon to the Mikado, and he
gives the following account of it:--
“While I was in Japan, it happened that the Taïcoon paid a visit of
courtesy to the Mikado.
“This was an extraordinary event. It made a great sensation, inspired
the brush of several native artists, and gave resident foreigners a
chance of seeing a little more clearly into the reciprocal relation of
the two powers of the empire. Their respective position is really one of
considerable interest.
“In the first place, the Mikado has over his temporal rival the
advantage of birth and the prestige of his sacred character. Grandson of
the Sun, he continues the traditions of the gods, the demi-gods, the
heroes, and the hereditary sovereigns who have reigned over Japan in an
uninterrupted succession since the creation of the empire of the eight
great islands. Supreme head of their religion, under whatever form it
may present itself to the people, he officiates as the sovereign pontiff
of the ancient national creed of the Kamis. At the summer solstice, he
offers sacrifices to the earth; at the winter solstice, to heaven. A god
is specially deputed to watch over his precious destiny; from the shrine
of the temple he inhabits at the top of Mount Kamo, in the neighbourhood
of the Mikado’s residence, this deity watches night and day over the
Daïri. And finally at the death of a Mikado, his name, which it has been
ordained shall be inscribed in the temples of his ancestors, is engraved
at Kioto, in the temple of Hatchiman; and at Isyé, in the temple of the
Sun.
“It is indubitably from heaven that the Mikado, both theocratic emperor
and hereditary sovereign, derives the authority which he exercises over
his people. Though now-a-days, it must be acknowledged, he scarcely
knows how to employ it. However, from time to time it seems proper to
him to confer pompous titles, which are entirely honorary, on a few old
feudal nobles who have deserved well of the altar. Sometimes also he
allows himself the luxury of openly protesting against those acts of the
temporal power, which seem to infringe on his prerogatives. This is the
course he took with special reference to the treaties made by the
Taïcoon with several western nations; it is true that he finally
sanctioned them, but that was because he could not help himself.
“Now the Taïcoon, as everybody knows, is the fortunate successor of a
common usurper. In fact, the founders of his dynasty, subjects of the
then Mikado, robbed their lord and master of his army, his navy, his
lands, and his treasure, as if they were desirous of depriving him of
any subject of earthly anxiety.
“Possibly the Mikado was too ready to fall in with their plans. The
offer of a two-wheeled chariot drawn by an ox, for his daily drive in
the parks of his residence, doubtless a considerable privilege in a
country where nobody uses a conveyance, should not have persuaded him to
sacrifice the manly exercises of archery, hawking, and hunting the stag
or wild boar. He might likewise, without making himself absolutely
invisible, have spared himself the fatigue of the ceremonious receptions
where, motionless on a raised platform, he accepts the silent adoration
of his courtiers prostrated at his feet. The Mikado, now, they say, only
communicates with the exterior world through the medium of the female
attendants intrusted with the care of his person. It is they who dress
and feed him, clothing him daily in a fresh costume, and serving his
meals on table utensils fresh every morning from the manufactory which
for centuries has monopolized their supply. His sacred feet never touch
the ground; his countenance is never exposed in broad daylight to the
common gaze; in a word, the Mikado must be kept pure from all contact
with the elements, the sun, the moon, the earth, mankind, and himself.
“It was necessary that the interview should take place at Kioto, the
holy town which the Mikado is never allowed to leave. His palace, and
the ancient temples of his family are his sole personal possessions
there, the town itself being under the rule of the temporal emperor; but
the latter dedicates its revenues to the expenses of the spiritual
sovereign, and condescends to keep up a permanent garrison within its
walls for the protection of the pontifical throne.
“The preliminaries on both sides having been carried out, a proclamation
announced the day when the Taïcoon intended to issue forth from his
capital, the immense and populous modern town of Yeddo, the
head-quarters of the political and civil government of the empire, the
seat of the Naval and Military Schools, of the Interpreters’ College,
and of the Academy of Medicine and Philosophy.
“He was preceded by a division of his army equipped in the European
manner, and, while these picked troops, infantry, cavalry, and
artillery, were marching on Kioto by land along the great Imperial
highway of the Tokaïdo, the fleet received orders to set sail for the
inland sea. The temporal sovereign himself, embarked in the splendid
steamer, the _Lycemoon_, which he had purchased of the firm of Dent and
Co. for five hundred thousand dollars. Six other steamers escorted him;
the _Kandimarrah_, notorious for its voyage from Yeddo to San-Francisco
to convey the Japanese embassy sent to the United States; the sloop of
war, the _Soembing_, a gift from the King of the Netherlands; the yacht
_Emperor_, a present from Queen Victoria; and some frigates built in
America and in Holland to orders given by the embassies of 1859 and
1862. Manned entirely by Japanese crews, this squadron left the bay of
Yeddo, doubled Cape Sagami and the promontory of Idsou, crossed the
Linschoten straits, and coasting along the eastern shores of the island
of Awadsi, dropped its anchors in the Hiogo roadstead, where the Taïcoon
disembarked amid larboard and starboard salutes.
“His state entry into Kioto took place a few days later, with no
military parade but that of his own troops, as the Mikado possesses
neither soldiers nor artillery, with the exception of a body-guard of
archers, recruited from the families of his kinsmen or of the feudal
nobility. Indeed, he can hardly afford even on this moderate scale, the
expenses of his court; and his own revenue being insufficient, he is
obliged to accept with one hand an income the Taïcoon consents to pay
him out of his own private purse, and with the other, the amounts that
the brethren of a few monastic orders yearly collect for him, from
village to village, in even the furthest provinces of the empire.
Another circumstance that assists him to support his rank, is the
disinterested abnegation of many of his high officials. Some of them
serve him with no other remuneration but the free use of the costly
regulation dresses of the old imperial wardrobe. On their return home,
after doffing their court costume, these haughty gentlemen are not
ashamed to seat themselves at a weavers’ loom or an embroidery frame.
More than one piece of the rich silk productions of Kioto, the handiwork
of which is so much admired, has issued from some of the princely
houses, whose names are inscribed in the register of the Kamis.
[Illustration: 142.--JAPANESE PALANQUIN.]
“These drawbacks did not prevent the Mikado from inaugurating the day
of the interview, by exhibiting to his royal visitor the spectacle of
the grand procession of the Daïri. Accompanied by his archers, by his
household, by his courtiers, and by the whole of his pontifical staff,
he left his palace by the southern gateway, which, towards the close of
the ninth century, was decorated by the historical compositions of the
celebrated painter-poet, Kosé Kanaoka. He descended along the boulevards
to the suburb washed by the Yodogawa, and returned to the castle through
the principal streets of the town.
“The ancient insignia of his supreme power were carried in state at the
head of the procession; the mirror of his ancestress Izanami, the
beautiful goddess who gave birth to the sun in the island of Awadsi; the
glorious standard, the long paper streamers of which had waved above the
heads of the soldiery of Zinmou the conqueror; the flaming sword of the
hero of Yamato, who overcame the eight-headed hydra to which virgins of
princely blood used to be sacrificed; the seal that stamped the first
laws of the empire; and the cedar wood fan, shaped like a lath and used
as a sceptre, which for more than two thousand years has descended from
the hands of the dead Mikado to those of his successor.
“I will not stop to describe another part of the pageant, intended
doubtless to complete and enhance the effect of the rest, namely the
banners embroidered with the armorial bearings of all the ancient noble
families of the empire. Perhaps they were intended to remind the
Taïcoon, that, in the eyes of the old territorial nobility, he was
nothing but a _parvenu_; if so, the _parvenu_ could smile complacently
at the thought, that the whole of the Japanese grandees, the great as
well as the lesser daïmios, are, nevertheless, obliged to pass six
months of the year, at his Court in Yeddo, and offer him their homage in
the midst of the nobles of his own creation.
“The most numerous and the most picturesque ranks of the procession were
those of the representatives of all the sects who recognise the
spiritual supremacy of the Mikado. The dignitaries of the ancient creed
of the Kamis are scarcely distinguishable, as to dress, from the high
officials of the palace. I have already described their costume, it
reminds the spectators that the Japanese possessed originally a religion
without a priesthood. Buddhism, on the contrary, which came from China,
and rapidly spread throughout the empire, has an immense variety of
sects, rites, orders, and brotherhoods. The bonzes and the monks
belonging to this faith composed in the procession endless ranks of
devout-looking individuals, with the tonsure or with entirely shaven
heads, some of them uncovered, and some wearing curiously shaped caps,
mitres, and hats with wide brims. Some of them carried a crozier in
their right hand, others a rosary, others again, a fly-brush, a
sea-shell, or a holy water sprinkler made of paper. They were dressed in
cassocks, surplices, and cloaks of every shape and hue.
“Behind them came the household of the Mikado. The pontifical body-guard
in their full dress, aim beyond everything at elegance. Leaving
breast-plates and coats of mail to the men-at-arms of the Taïcoon, they
wear a little lacquer-work cap, ornamented on both sides with rosettes,
and a rich silk tunic trimmed with lace edgings. The width of their
trousers conceals their feet. They are equipped with a large curved
sabre, a bow, and a quiver full of arrows.
“Some of the mounted ones had a long riding-whip fastened to their wrist
by a coarse silken cord.
“A great deal of brutality is too often hidden beneath this imposing
exterior. The wildness and the dissipation of the young nobles of the
Japanese pontifical court have supplied history with pages recalling the
worst period of papal Rome, the days of Cæsar Borgia. Conrad Kramer, the
envoy of the Dutch West Indian islands to the court of Kioto, was
allowed to be present in 1626 at a festival held in honour of a visit of
the temporal emperor to his spiritual sovereign. He relates that the
following day, corpses of women, young girls, and children, who had
fallen victims to nocturnal outrages, were found in the streets of the
capital. A still larger number of married women and maidens, whom
curiosity had attracted to Kioto, were lost by their husbands and
parents in the turmoil of the crowded streets, and were only found a
week or a fortnight later, their families being utterly unable to bring
their abducers to justice.
“Polygamy being a legal institution for the Mikado only, it was perhaps
natural for him to make some display of his prerogative. It costs him
sufficiently dear. It is the abyss hidden with flowers that the first
usurpers of the imperial power dug for the feet of the successors of
Zinmou. It is easy to imagine the cynical smile on the lips of the
Taïcoon as he saw the long row of the equipages of the Daïri making its
appearance.
“A pair of black buffaloes, driven by pages in white smocks, were
harnessed to each of these cumbrous vehicles which were made of precious
woods and glistened with coats of varnish of different tints. They
contained the empress and the twelve other legitimate wives of the
Mikado seated behind doors of open latticework. His favourite
concubines, and the fifty ladies of honour of the empress followed close
behind, in covered palanquins.
“When the Mikado himself leaves his residence, it is always in his
pontifical litter. This litter, fastened on long shafts, and borne by
fifty porters in white liveries, can be seen from a long distance off
towering above the crowd. It is constructed in the shape of a _mikosis_,
the kind of shrine in which the holy relics of the Kamis are exposed. It
may be compared to a garden summer-house, with a cupola roof with bells
hanging all round its base. On the top of the cupola there is a ball,
and on top of the ball there is a kind of cock couchant on its spurs,
with its wings extended and its tail spread: this is meant as a
representation of the mythological bird known in China and Japan under
the name of Foô.
“This portable summer-house, glistening all over with gold, is so very
hermetically closed that it is difficult to believe that any body could
be put inside it. A proof, however, that it is really used for the high
purpose attributed to it, is that on each side of it are seen walking
the women who are the domestic attendants of the Mikado. They alone have
the privilege of surrounding his person. To the rest of his court as
well as to his people, the Mikado remains an invisible, dumb, and
inapproachable divinity. He kept up this character even in the interview
with the Taïcoon.
“Amongst the group of buildings that constitute the right of Kioto to be
styled the pontifical residence, there is one that might be called the
Temple of Audience, for it is constructed in the sacred style of
architecture peculiar to the religious edifices of the faith of the
Kamis, and it bears like them the name of Mia. Adjoining the apartments
inhabited by the Mikado, it stands at the bottom of a large court paved
and planted with trees, in which are marshalled the escorts of honour on
high and solemn festivals.
“A detachment of officers of the artillery and of the body-guards of the
Taïcoon (fig. 143), and several groups of dignitaries of the Mikado’s
suite drew up successively in this open space.
“The women had retired to their own apartments.
[Illustration: 143.--THE TAÏCOON’S GUARDS.]
“Deputations of bonzes and different monastic orders occupied the
corridors along the surrounding walls. Soldiers of the Taïcoonal
garrison of Kioto, posted at intervals, kept the line of the avenue
which led to the broad steps reaching up to the front of the building.
Up this avenue the courtiers of the Mikado, clad in mantles with long
trains, passed with measured tread, majestically ascended the steps, and
placed themselves right and left on the verandah with their faces turned
towards the still closed doors of the great throne room. Before taking
up their position they took care to lift the trains of their mantles and
throw them over the balustrade of the verandah, so as to display to the
crowd the coats of arms which were embroidered on these portions of
their garments. The whole verandah was soon curtained with this
brilliant kind of tapestry.
“Presently the sound of flutes, of sea-shells and of the gongs of the
pontifical chapel, proceeding from the left wing of the building,
announced that the Mikado was entering the sanctuary. A deep silence
fell upon the crowd. An hour passed away in solemn expectation, whilst
the preliminaries of the reception were being performed. Suddenly a
flourish of trumpets announced the arrival of the Taïcoon. He advanced
up the avenue on foot and without any escort; his prime minister, the
commanders in chief of the army and navy, and a few members of the
council of the Court of Yeddo, walked at a respectful distance behind
him. He stopped for a moment at the foot of the great staircase, and
immediately the doors of the temple slowly opened, gliding from right to
left in their grooves. He then ascended the steps, and the spectacle
which had held in suspense the expectation of the multitude at last
unveiled itself to their eyes.
“A large green awning of cane-bark fastened to the ceiling of the hall,
hung within two or three feet of the floor. Through this narrow space,
could be perceived a couch of mats and carpets, on which the broad folds
of an ample white robe spread themselves out. This was all that could be
seen of the spectacle of the Mikado on his throne.
“The chinks in the plaits of the cane awning allowed him to see
everything without being seen. Wherever he directed his gaze, he
perceived nothing but heads bent before his invisible majesty. One
alone remained erect on the summit of the stairs of the temple, but it
was one crowned with the lofty golden coronet, the royal symbol of the
temporal head of the empire. And even he too, the powerful sovereign
whose might is boundless, when he had reached the last step, bent his
head, and sinking slowly, fell on his knees, stretched his arms forward
towards the threshold of the throne-room, and bowed his forehead to the
very ground.
“From that moment, the ceremony of the interview was accomplished, the
aim of the solemnity was gained. The Taïcoon had openly prostrated
himself at the feet of the Mikado.
[Illustration: 144.--A LADY OF THE COURT.]
“The interview at Kioto, had for its result two facts. By the first, the
bending of the knee, the temporal sovereign showed that he continued to
be the traditional obedient son of the high pontiff of the national
religion; but, by the second, that is to say by accepting this act of
homage, the theocratic emperor formally recognised the representative of
a dynasty sprung from a source alien to the only legitimate one.”
As the art of war is of some importance in Japan, we quote a few details
from M. Humbert, on the equipments and the uniforms of the Taïcoon’s
soldiers.
“The common soldiers are,” M. Humbert tells us, “inhabitants of the
mountains of Akoui. They return to their homes after a short service of
two or three years. Their uniform is made of blue cotton stuff, striped
with white across the shoulders, and consists of a tight-fitting pair of
trousers, and a shirt like that worn by the followers of Garibaldi. They
wear cotton socks, leather sandals, and a waist-belt supporting a large
sword in a japanned scabbard. Their cartridge-pouch and their bayonet
are slung to their right side by a baldric. Their get-up is completed by
a pointed hat, sloping at the sides, and made of lacquered cardboard;
but they only wear it when on guard or at drill.
“As for the muskets of the Japanese troops, they have all, it is true,
percussion-locks, but they vary both in calibre and in make, according
to where they happen to come from. I saw four different kinds in the
racks of some barracks at Benten, which a Yakounine did me the favour to
show me. He showed me first a Dutch sample musket, and then one of an
inferior quality manufactured in some workshops that had been started in
Yeddo to turn out arms copied from this sample; he then pointed out an
American gun; and finally, a Minié rifle, the use of which a young
officer was teaching a squad of soldiers in the barrack-yard.”
The dress of the Japanese soldiery is curious in this respect, that it
reproduces and preserves the whole military paraphernalia of European
feudal times. A helmet, a coat-of-mail, a halberd, and a two-handed
sword, such are the equipment of the better class of soldiery.
Fencing is held in high esteem in the Japanese army. The men are very
clever at this exercise, which keeps up their vigour and their skill.
Even the women practise it. Their weapon is a lance with a bent piece of
iron at the end of it. The ladies learn how to use it in a series of
regular positions and attitudes. The Japanese Amazons can also skilfully
make use of a kind of knife, fastened to the wrist with a long silken
string. When they have hurled this weapon at the head of their enemy,
they draw it back again by means of the cord. The men also hurl the
knife, but without fastening it to their wrist, and in the same way as
they practise throwing the knife in Spain.
The Japanese nobles carry very costly weapons. The temper of their
sword-blades is matchless, and their sword-hilts and scabbards are
enriched with finely chased and engraved metal ornaments. But the chief
value of their swords lies in their great age and reputation. In old
families, every sword has a history and tradition of its own, whose
brilliancy corresponds with the blood it has shed. A maiden sword must
not remain so in the hand of its purchaser. Till an opportunity turns up
of dyeing it with human blood, its possessor tries its prowess on living
animals, or better still, on the corpses of executed criminals. The
executioner, having obtained permission, hands him over two or three
dead bodies. Our Japanese then proceeds to fasten them to crosses, or on
trestles, in a courtyard of his house, and practises cutting, slashing,
and thrusting, till he has acquired enough strength and skill to cut a
couple of bodies in two at one stroke.
The sword, in Japan, is the classical, the national weapon.
Nevertheless, in process of time, it will have to give way to the new
improved firearms. In spite of the traditional prestige with which the
Japanese nobility still endeavour to surround the former old-fashioned
weapon; in spite of the contempt they affect for military innovations;
the rifle, the democratic arm of arms, is becoming more and more used in
Japan. This weapon will inaugurate a social revolution that will put an
end to the feudal system. The rifle will cause an Eastern ’89 in Japan.
We have said that two creeds are followed in Japan, the Buddhist faith
and the religion of the Kamis. The latter, with its ancient rites, has
been replaced, however, nearly throughout the empire by the former.
We quote some of M. Humbert’s remarks on Buddhism.
“Our imagination can hardly conceive,” says this traveller, “that
nearly a third of the human race has no religious belief but that of
Buddhism, a creed without a God, a faith of negation, an invention of
despair.
“One would wish to persuade oneself that the multitudes who follow its
doctrines, do not understand the faith they profess, or at least refuse
to admit its natural consequences. The idolatrous practices engrafted on
the book of its law seem in fact to bear witness that Buddhism has
neither been able to satisfy or destroy the religious instinct innate in
man, and germinating in the bosoms of all nations.
“On the other hand, it is impossible not to recognize the influence of
the philosophy of final annihilation in many of the habits and customs
of Japanese life. The Irowa teaches the school children that life
disappears like a dream, and leaves no trace behind. A Japanese, arrived
at man’s estate, sacrifices with the most disdainful indifference his
own life or that of his neighbour, to appease his pride, or for some
trifling cause of anger. Murders and suicides are of such every-day
occurrence in Japan, that there are few families of gentle birth who do
not make it a point of honour to boast at least one sword that has been
dyed in blood.
“Buddhism is, however, superior in some respects to the creeds it has
dethroned. It owes this relative superiority to the justice of its
fundamental axiom, which is an avowal of a need for a redeeming
principle, grounded on the double fact of the existence of evil in the
nature of man, and of an universal state of misery and suffering in the
world.
“The promises of the religion of the Kamis had all reference to this
life. A strict observance of the rules of purification would preserve
the faithful from the five great ills, which are the fire of heaven,
sickness, poverty, exile, and early death. The aim of their religious
festivals was the glorification of the heroes of the empire. But were
patriotism idealized and exalted into a national creed, it would still
be true that this natural feeling, so precious and so appropriate, could
never suffice to satisfy the soul and answer its every craving. The
human soul is more boundless than the world. It needs a belief to raise
it beyond the earth. Buddhism to a certain extent met these aspirations
which had been hitherto neglected. This circumstance alone will explain
the success with which it is propagated, in Japan and elsewhere, by the
mere force of persuasion. At all events we may well believe that it is
not its abstract and philosophical form that has made it so popular, and
nothing is a better proof of this than its present state.
“The bonzes Sinran, Nitziten, and twenty or thirty others, have made
themselves a reputation as founders of sects, each of which is
distinguished by some peculiarity worthy of rivalling the ingenious
invention of Foudaïsi.
[Illustration: 145.--A KAMIS TEMPLE, JAPAN.]
“Thus one particular brotherhood has a monopoly of the patronage of the
great family rosary. It must be explained that a Buddhist rosary can
only exercise its power if its beads are properly enumerated. Now in a
numerous family there is no guarantee against errors being committed in
the use of the rosary; whence the inefficiency it is sometimes accused
of. Instead of indulging in recrimination, however, the plan pursued is
to send for a bonze of the Order of the Great Rosary to set matters
right again.
“This good man hastens up with his instrument, which is about as big as
a good-sized boa-constrictor, and places it in the hands of the family
kneeling in a circle, whilst he himself, standing in front of the shrine
of the domestic idol, directs operations with a bell and a small hammer.
At a given signal, father, mother, and children, intone with the whole
force of their lungs the prayers agreed upon. The small and the large
beads of the rosary and the strokes of the hammer fall with a cadenced
rhythm that inspires them. The rosary ring grows excited, their cries
become passionate, their arms and hands work like machinery, the
perspiration streams down them, and their bodies get stiff with fatigue.
At last the close of the ceremony leaves everybody breathless,
exhausted, but radiant with happiness, for the interceding gods must be
satisfied!
“Buddhism is a flexible conciliating, insinuating religion, which
accommodates itself to the bent and the habits of the most different
races. From the very first, the bonzes in Japan managed to get
themselves entrusted with some of the shrines and small chapels of the
Kamis, in order to protect them in the enclosures of their sanctuaries.
They hastened to add to their ceremonies symbols borrowed from the
ancient national faith; and in short, for the purpose of better fusing
the two creeds, they introduced into their temples, Kamis deities
invested with the titles and attributes of Hindoo divinities, and at the
same time, Hindoo gods transformed into Japanese Kamis. There was
nothing inadmissible in these exchanges, which were explained in the
most natural manner by the dogma of transmigration. Thanks to this
combination of the two creeds, which received the name of
Rioobou-Sintoo, Buddhism has become the prevalent religion of Japan.
“. . . . Within their temples the bonzes officiate at the altar, in the
sight of the people, beyond the sanctuary which a veil separates from
the crowd. The latter are only directly addressed by them in preaching,
and only on the special festivals consecrated to this practice.
“They are only allowed to go in procession at certain periods of the
year, and then only in the presence of the government officials who
superintend public pageants.
[Illustration: 146.--JAPANESE PAGODA.]
“The pastoral portions of their duty have been cut down to such narrow
limits, that I can only find one word to apply to the duties that
remain. They are simply the duties of a mute. In fact, the bonzes
perform the sacramental ceremonies that the Japanese of all sects are
accustomed to see accompany the last moments of the dying. They arrange
the funeral procession, and provide, according to the wishes of the
relatives of the deceased, for the burial or for the burning of his
remains, and for the consecration and protection of his tomb.”
THE INDO-CHINESE FAMILY.
The people of Indo-China, whom we consider to belong to the Yellow Race,
have a darker complexion than the Chinese and the Japanese. Their
stature is smaller, and their civilization is less developed. They are
generally of an indolent disposition.
To this group belong the Burmans, the Annamites and the Siamese.
The _Burmans_ and the _Annamites_.--The Burmese are a nation which has
made a good deal of progress in civilization. In this respect the
Annamites are not behind them. The physical, moral, and political
characteristics of these two nations have no particular point of
interest to engage our attention. We content ourselves with showing the
reader (figs. 147 and 148) the types and the costumes of the inhabitants
of the Burmese Empire.
The _Siamese_.--The population of the kingdom of Siam, which amounts to
nearly five millions, scarcely includes two millions of Siamese.
The Siamese, according to the travelling notes of M. Henry Mouhot, a
French naturalist, are easily recognized by their effeminate and idle
appearance, and by their servile physiognomy. Nearly all have rather a
flat nose, prominent cheek-bones, a dull unintelligent eye, broad
nostrils, a wide mouth, lips reddened by their habit of chewing betel,
and teeth as black as ebony. They all keep their heads entirely shaved,
except just on the top, where they allow a tuft to grow. Their hair is
black and coarse. The women wear the same tuft, but their hair is finer
and carefully kept. The dress of both men and women is by no means an
elaborate one.
Figs. 149, 150, and 151 give an exact idea of the type and mode of dress
of the Siamese. A piece of cloth, which they raise behind, and the two
ends of which they fasten to their belt, is their only garment. The
women wear besides a scarf across their shoulders. Apart from the
delicacy of her features, a Siamese girl of from twelve to twenty need
but little envy the conventional models of our statuary.
[Illustration: 147.--BURMESE NOBLE.]
The Siamese are passionately fond of trinkets. Provided they glitter,
it matters little whether they are real or false. They cover their women
and their children with rings, bracelets, armlets, and bits of gold and
silver. They wear them on their arms, on their legs, round their necks,
in their ears, on their bodies, on their shoulders, everywhere they can
place them. The king’s son is so covered with them, that the weight of
his clothes and jewellery is heavier than that of his body.
The greatest conjugal harmony seems to prevail in Siamese families. The
wife is not kept secluded as in China, but shows herself everywhere. As
a shadow to this picture, we must add that parents have a right to sell
their children as slaves.
[Illustration: 148.--BURMESE LADY.]
The Siamese have retained intact all the superstitions of the Hindoos
and the Chinese. They believe in demons, in ogres, in mermaids, &c. They
have faith in amulets, philtres, and in soothsayers. They support a
king, a court, and a seraglio, with its numerous progeny. A second king
possesses also his palace, his army, and his mandarins. Between these
two kings and the people intervene twelve different ranks of princes,
several classes of ministers, five or six of mandarins, and an endless
series of governors and lieutenant-governors, all equally incapable and
rapacious.
[Illustration: 149.--WOMEN OF BANKOK.]
Like all degraded and servile nations, the inhabitants of Siam devote a
great part of their existence to games and amusements.
[Illustration: 150.--SIAMESE DOMESTIC.]
[Illustration: 151.--SIAMESE LADIES DINING.]
M. Mouhot visited Udeng, the present capital of Cambodia. The houses of
this town are made of bamboo, sometimes of planks. The longest street is
nearly three-quarters of a mile long. The tillers of the soil and the
hard-working classes, as well as the mandarins and the other employés
of the government, dwell in the suburbs of the town. M. Mouhot met at
every moment mandarins in litters or in hammocks followed by a swarm of
slaves each carrying something; some, a red or yellow umbrella, the size
of which is an indication of the rank and quality of its owner; others,
boxes of betel. Horsemen, mounted on small active horses caparisoned in
a costly manner and covered with little bells, and followed by a pack of
slaves begrimed with dust and sweat, often took their turn in the
panorama. He also noticed some light carts drawn by a couple of small
but swift oxen. Elephants too, moving majestically forwards with
outstretched ears and trunk, and stopped occasionally by the numerous
processions which were wending their way to the pagodas to the sound of
boisterous music.
[Illustration: 152.--TOMB OF A BONZE, AT LAOS.]
The town of Bankok, the capital, was formerly called Siam, whence the
name of the country.
[Illustration: 153.--CAMBODIANS.]
An absolute sovereign, looked upon as the incarnation of Buddha, rules
over the kingdom of Siam, which is divided into four provinces; Siam,
Siamese Laos, Siamese Cambodia, and Siamese Malacca. At one time a
tributary of the Burmese Empire, the kingdom of Siam recovered its
independence in 1759, and in 1768 even increased its territory by
conquest.
There are scarcely any manufactures in Siam, but commerce still
flourishes there, although less vigorously than formerly. The Siamese
exchange their agricultural produce, their wood, their skins, cotton,
rice, and preserved fish, with the Chinese, the Annamites, the Burmese,
and especially with the English and Dutch possessions. Elephant’s tusks
are also an important article of barter, and elephant-hunting is the
calling of many of the natives.
The country is rather fertile. It is an immense plain, hilly towards the
north, and intersected by a river, the Meinam, on the banks of which are
placed its principal towns. Bankok is situated on this river, not far
from its mouth in the gulf of Siam, and is consequently the principal
port of the whole kingdom, the head-quarters of its entire trade. The
periodical overflowings of the Meinam fertilize the whole of its basin.
Art and science are not entirely neglected in the kingdom of Siam. It is
one of the few Asiatic countries which possess a literature of its own
and some artistic productions.
Although the Buddhist religion prevails in Siam and is the state
religion, yet different sects are tolerated there, and Christianity can
reckon two thousand five hundred disciples.
Fig. 154 represents the young prince-royal.
The Stieng savages are subjects of the king of Siam. Their stature is a
little above the average. They are powerful, their features are regular,
and their well-developed foreheads show intelligence. Their only
clothing is a long scarf. They are so much attached to their mountains
and forests, that when away from their own country they are frequently
seized with a dangerous kind of home-sickness.
[Illustration: 154.--THE PRINCE-ROYAL OF SIAM.]
These Siamese aliens of civilization work in iron and ivory; and make
hatchets and swords which are sought after by collectors. Their women
weave and dye the scarves they wear. They cultivate rice, maize,
tobacco, vegetables, and fruit-trees. They possess neither priests nor
temples, but they acknowledge the existence of a Supreme Being. The time
they can spare from their fields they devote to hunting and fishing.
Indefatigable in the chase, they penetrate with extraordinary rapidity
the densest jungles. The women appear to be as active and as untiring as
the men. They use powerful cross-bows with poisoned arrows to shoot the
elephant, the rhinoceros, and the tiger. They are fond of adorning
themselves with imitation pearls of a bright colour, which they make
into bracelets. Both sexes pierce their ears, and widen the hole every
year by inserting in it pieces of bone and ivory.
[Illustration: 155.--CHINESE GIRL.]
THE BROWN RACE.
With M. d’Omalius d’Halloy we class in the Brown Race a great variety of
peoples who have nothing in common but a complexion darker than that of
the White and Yellow races, and whom we are led to believe the product
of the mixture of these two with the Black Race. This theory accounts
for one portion of the Brown Race possessing White characteristics,
while the other has a greater resemblance to the Yellow Race.
The Brown Race forms three branches or geographical groups, viz.--
1. The Hindoo branch.
2. The Ethiopian branch.
3. The Malay branch.
We will proceed to describe the principal peoples belonging to these
three branches.
CHAPTER I.
HINDOO BRANCH.
The peoples composing the Hindoo branch have been frequently classed in
the White Race. In fact, their shape, their language, and their
institutions partly correspond to those of Europeans and Persians, but
their darker and sometimes black skins distinguish them from either.
The civilization of the Hindoos was, in the earliest historic times,
already far advanced; but for many centuries it has remained stationary,
or has gone backwards.
Most Hindoos practise the creed of Brahma, a religion sprung up in their
own land. A few have embraced Mahometanism, others have become
Buddhists.
The most striking feature of Hindoo society is its division into castes.
These castes, originating ages and ages ago, have always been the
principal obstacles to the development of civilization. How can
progress, talent, or remarkable works be expected from men whom society
forbids ever to emerge from the conditions of their birth?
These castes are four in number. The _Brahmin_ caste, whose members are
devoted to the practice of religious rites, to the study of the law, and
to teaching. The _Rajpoots_ or _Cshatriyas_, who are professional
soldiers. The _Banians_, who are agriculturists, cattle breeders, and
traders. Lastly, the _Sudras_, who follow various callings, and who are
subdivided into many sub-castes corresponding to as many different
handicrafts.
Each caste has its peculiar religious observances. Its members cannot
intermarry with those of other castes, and must always follow the
profession in which destiny has placed their parents.
The descendants of those, who, by improper marriages or otherwise, have
forfeited their caste, form an inferior caste, known under the name of
_Varna-Sancára_. Finally below even this last division come the
_Pariahs_, beings cursed by destiny, who exist in the most deplorable
state of moral abjection.
[Illustration: 156.--NATIVES OF HYDERABAD.]
The Hindoos are well made, but their limbs are far from robust. They
have small hands and feet, a high forehead, black eyes, well arched
eyebrows, fine bright black hair, and a more or less brown skin, which,
in the south of India, and particularly among the lowest classes, is
sometimes black. Ethnologically speaking, there are two families in the
Hindoo branch:--the _Hindoo_ family, and the _Malabar_ family.
[Illustration: 157.--A BANIAN OF SURAT.]
HINDOO FAMILY.
The _Hindoo_ family constitutes the greater part of the population of
northern Hindostan. The dialects spoken in this country have generally
some relation to Sanskrit. The colour of the skin, in the higher
classes, is fair enough, but becomes darker among the lower castes.
[Illustration: 158.--AN AGED SIKH.]
Among the people belonging to the Hindoo family we may name the Sikhs, a
warlike people, remarkable for the beauty of their oval countenances;
the Jats, the Rajpoots, and the Mahrattas; the Bengalese, a peaceful
people, devoted to trade, and the Cingalese, or inhabitants of the
island of Ceylon.
An accomplished traveller, M. Alfred Grandidier, has published in the
“Tour du Monde,” in 1869, the account of a “Voyage dans l’Inde.” We
learn from him a few general facts that perfectly sum up the social
condition of the India of to-day, especially that of the central portion
of the peninsula, for it would perhaps be difficult to generalize on the
manners and customs of the whole of India, of which the population
amounts to more than a hundred and eighty millions, and the superficies
to that of the whole of continental Europe with the exception of Russia.
India is, in fact, divided into three distinct basins; that of the
Indus, that of the Ganges, and the plain of the Deccan, constituting
Central India. This last is classic India, that is to say, the only part
of the country thoroughly known to Europeans. M. Grandidier’s travels
were in the Deccan, to which refer the remarks we are about to quote:--
“The Hindoos of the Deccan,” says M. Grandidier, “resemble the Aryan
(Caucasian) race in the oval shape of their head, in the formation of
their cranium, and in their facial angle. They are distinct from it,
however, in colour. Their bodies are frail; the low caste native is thin
and slight, but makes up for his lack of strength by his activity and
lightness. His skin varies from a light copper colour to a dark brown;
his hair is a fine glossy black, and grows plentifully on his face.
“Gentle and timid, the Hindoo is wanting in perseverance and firmness;
gifted with a rapid comprehension, he is yet incapable of any sustained
effort. A double yoke, from time immemorial, has weighed him down; caste
distinctions and a foreign sway have made him a flexible creature,
possessing more prudence and cunning than energy and uprightness; more
keenness of wit than nobility of soul.
[Illustration: 159.--A PARSEE GENTLEMAN.]
“A lively imagination, never subdued by a rational education, has
brought him under the influence of the gross superstitions sanctioned by
the Hindoo religion, with its train of ignoble divinities. The timidity
of his character has preserved him from the violent fanaticism of the
Mussulman, but his religion is very dear to him, and the belief of the
lower classes is at least a sincere one.
“Sivaism, to which belong most of the inhabitants of the Deccan, is so
priceless in their eyes, that they value it far beyond their lives. They
repose an ardent and lively faith in the most absurd doctrines. This
form of religion pleases their imagination by its fantastic dreams and
by its poetic materialism, and its ceremonies amuse them, while
gratifying their passions.
“The paucity of their wants tends to render them improvident, and their
lively and childish imagination, feeding on the smallest and vaguest
facts, which they poetise and exaggerate in their own manner, develops
in them a dreamy and indolent mode of life.
“Their doctrine of metempsychosis still further increases the natural
tendency of their mind, and helps to cause their almost incredible
mental inaction, which nothing can surprise or stimulate. The only lever
that can move the masses must be one attacking their religious faith.
“The dress of the Hindoos is the _dhoti_, a long scarf of cloth rolled
round the figure, passing under the legs and fastened behind the back.
This garment leaves the legs and the upper part of the body uncovered.
The upper classes wear a short shirt (_angaskah_) and a long white robe
(_jamah_). Their head is always covered with a turban, of different size
and colour, according to their caste. Few Hindoos wear shoes, sandals
being in almost universal use. The women wear the _choli_, a little
jacket with short sleeves, just covering the bosom, which it supports,
and the _sari_, a large piece of cloth which they fold around them, and
throw coquettishly over the shoulder or the head. This graceful drapery
recalls the chlamyde worn by the Diana of Gabies.
“This dress of the Hindoos is, as a rule, tasteful, and suited to the
climate and to their mode of life. Although each caste, each sect, has
its own particular method of wearing it, it is still, all over India,
the most uniform and the most characteristic feature of the population.
“Both sexes are passionately fond of jewellery; women of the very
poorest class often wear gold rings set with pearls in their noses.
Their arms are covered with silver, copper, and glass bracelets. The
large toes of their feet are adorned with rings, and their legs with
heavy metal bangles. As for their ears, they literally droop beneath the
weight of the golden earrings with which they are laden; and their lobes
are pierced with large holes, often nearly an inch in diameter, into
which are introduced gold ornaments in the shape of small wheels,
replaced on working days by pieces of rolled leaves. This custom has
actually reached Polynesia.
[Illustration: 160.--SIR SALAR JUNG, K.S.I.]
“Hindoos turn all their little capital into jewellery. This habit
springs from a medley of vanity and superstition, the latter leading
them to consider trinkets as talismans against spells and witchcraft.
“It was also, under the ancient Mogul dynasty, a means of preserving
their property from the rapacity of Mussulman tyrants, whose religion
forbade them to appropriate women’s chattels.
“The Hindoos are very tenacious of their prerogatives, and India has
frequently been convulsed by sanguinary struggles occasioned by some one
of its castes refusing to conform to traditional custom. Terrible
conflicts have, ere now, been caused by an inferior caste attempting to
wear slippers of a certain shape, the privilege of a higher one, or
because it wished to use, in its religious rites, certain musical
instruments hitherto reserved for the worship of the superior
divinities.
“The Hindoos may lay claim to a refined politeness and elegant manners;
but the smallest concession in the respect to which their social
position entitles them, the least relaxation in the prescribed etiquette
are considered a sign of weakness and an avowal of inferiority.
“The conversational formulæ used towards a native vary according to his
station. Nothing is easier than to affront their susceptibility. Never
speak to an Oriental of his wife or of his daughters. To do so, is
contrary to custom. To use the left hand in bowing, in eating, or in
drinking, is to offer an insult; the right hand alone is reserved for
the higher uses, and the left, the ignoble hand, is used for ablutions.
“In Europe, it is a sign of respect to uncover the head, in the East, to
take off the turban is a disrespectful act. On entering a house,
conversely to us, they keep their heads covered, but leave their shoes
at the threshold. This habit seems to me a most sensible one. A white
cloth is stretched on the floor of their apartments, on cushions placed
on which they sit cross-legged. It appears to me that shoes were
invented to preserve the feet from the roughness of the ground, from the
mud and from the dust of the roads. Are they not then objectionable, or,
at any rate, useless in the interior of a well-kept house?
“When paying a visit, the Hindoo waits until his host bids him adieu.
They very properly suppose that a visitor can be in no hurry to leave
the friend whom he has purposely come to see. The host, on the contrary,
may have urgent business claiming his immediate attention. The forms of
this dismissal vary:--‘Come and see me often,’ or ‘Remember that you
will always be welcome.’ Presents of flowers and fruit generally
terminate these visits, and betel is invariably handed round.
“The usual food of the Hindoo is very simple, and their meals are of but
short duration. Rice boiled in water, and curry (a compound of
vegetables, ghee--a sort of clarified butter, spices, and saffron),
sometimes eggs or milk, a little fish, and occasionally coarse meal
cakes, bananas, and the fruit of the bread tree, form the morning and
evening meal of rich and poor. The leaves of the banana tree are used
instead of plates and dishes. In eating vegetables and rice, fingers are
used instead of spoons and forks; and the meat is torn by the teeth in
default of the absent knife. An European is rather likely to be
disgusted with the sauce trickling down the chins and the fingers of the
guests at a Hindoo meal. Water is the prevailing drink, and but little
use is made of arrack (a spirit extracted from the palm tree).
[Illustration: 161.--NAUTCH GIRL OF BARODA.]
“Faithful observers of their religious injunctions, which forbid them to
touch animal food under pain of being excluded from society and from the
bosom of their families, the high caste natives never eat meat; as for
the Pariahs, they eat all kinds of animals, and are very fond of arrack.
“Betel is incessantly used all over India. In hot countries, where the
inhabitants lead a sedentary life, their digestion becomes sluggish, and
can neither receive nor absorb the same quantity of nourishment as it
does in Northern countries. The vegetable diet of the Hindoos is not
very rich in azotic matter, and its continual use would cause an
internal formation of gas, without the alkaline stimulant used by all
the inhabitants of India to prevent its development. This stimulant is
the astringent areca nut, which they chew with a little lime placed on a
betel leaf.
“This mixture dyes the lips and the tongue red; it is pernicious in its
effect on the teeth, but it is certainly useful to the digestive
functions.
“Tobacco, rolled in a green leaf and lighted like a cigarette, is the
universal method of smoking.
“Many different languages are spoken in India. Philologists have
enumerated as many as fifty-eight, but not more than ten have an
alphabet and literature of their own. Sanskrit, a dead language, is more
or less mixed with all the dialects of India. In the north it forms
their incontestable basis, but in the south it is merely grafted on to
pre-existing tongues, and frequently but faint traces are found of it.
All the alphabets seem to have been invented separately, but they have
been improved by the regular and philosophical arrangement of the
_Devanagri_. This is the name of the Sanskrit alphabet, the most perfect
of all. The living languages have a very simple grammatical
construction.
“Hindostani, which is spoken in the province of Agra, is the most
cultivated and the most generally employed of all Indian languages. It
has received a large Persian element since the Mussulman conquest.
Besides the local dialect of each district, Hindostani is everywhere
spoken by the educated classes, and by all professing the Mussulman
faith.
[Illustration: 162.--A COOLIE OF THE GHATS.]
“The ties of caste replace in India the ties of family. Hindoos love
their wives and children; but this affection is subordinated to their
caste duties. Expulsion from the family is principally caused by
violation of religious ordinances or by the illicit connection of high
caste women with men of a lower rank. The Brahmins and the Sudras, and
even the Pariahs themselves, are divided into a number of sub-castes, a
member of one of which can neither eat, drink, nor intermarry with one
of another. If a Hindoo becomes degraded, if he loses his caste, he is
disowned by his relations; his wife is considered a widow, his children
orphans; he must expect no assistance, no pity, from those who hitherto
have surrounded him with the most considerate care.
“Europeans are ranked with Pariahs on account of their daily habit of
eating beef. It is true that the Brahmins consent to shake hands with an
European, but on their return home after doing so, their first care is
to undress and perform their ablutions so as to purify themselves from
the stain of such an impure contact; it is even asserted by them that
the mere gaze of a Pariah is enough to cause contamination.
“Every village in the Deccan is composed of two parts, separated by an
interval of a few yards. These are two distinct quarters, one reserved
for the men of caste, the other, surrounded by hedges, allotted to the
Pariahs. These miserable beings are not allowed to enter the streets of
the village without the consent of the inhabitants, and they must only
presume to draw water in the wells set aside for their particular use.
Where the Pariahs have no special wells, they place their _chatties_ by
the well-sides of the men of caste, and await humbly and patiently the
alms offering of a few glasses of water. It is always the women that
attend to this household care.
“The higher castes often make the Pariahs presents, which they
invariably place on the ground, for fear of contracting by mere physical
contact the moral leprosy with which in their eyes the Pariahs are
affected. A person of caste never accepts a gift from the hands of a
Pariah.
“If on the one hand the high-caste natives are physically and
intellectually superior to the Pariahs; on the other hand the latter are
more laborious, more docile, and more accessible to European influence.
In the Presidency of Madras they constitute the best and the most solid
nucleus of the native English army.
“If I wished to enumerate all the subdivisions of caste based on the
conduct, the calling, and the occupation of every one, if I described
in detail the clothes and the ornaments which vary ad infinitum
according to caste, if I attempted to recite all the existing prejudices
about food and the daily minutiæ of life, I should fill several volumes.
“The same tendencies are met with everywhere. The desire of making a
figure in the world, and the ambition for command without having taken
the necessary trouble to become worthy of it. Yet the existence of caste
has always prevented the formation of a really homogeneous nation. Caste
is the cause of the sharp rivalries, the endless hostilities, that have
always been fatal to national independence, and facilitated the
invasions of strangers.
[Illustration: 163.--PAGODA AT SIRRHINGHAM.]
“Besides the social consequences we have mentioned, the Hindoos believe
in religious ones. Their different castes cannot here below receive the
same education, nor be initiated into the same mysteries. These
differences, according to the dogmas of _Siva_, are to extend into the
next world.”
The preceding paragraphs refer to the inhabitants of the Deccan. It
would be too tedious to describe the other populations of the peninsula,
the Bengalese, the Rajpoots, the Mahrattas, &c. We will merely say a few
words about the Cingalese, or inhabitants of the island of Ceylon.
The Cingalese are entirely Indian in figure, in language, in manners, in
customs, in religion and in their government. Their features are not
widely different from those of Europeans, but they differ from them in
their colour, in their height, and in the proportions of their bodies.
The hue of their skin varies from light brown to black. Black is the
usual colour for their eyes and hair. They are shorter than Europeans,
but well made, with well defined muscles. Their chests and their
shoulders are broad, their hands and feet small. Their hair grows in
large quantity and to great length, but they have little on their faces.
Their women are, as a rule, well made.
The attractions which a lady ought to combine in order to be a perfect
beauty are, according to a Kandian fop, as follow: her hair should be as
bushy as the tail of a peacock, long enough to reach the knees, and
gracefully curled at the ends; her eyebrows arched as the rainbow, eyes
blue as sapphires, and her nose like a hawk’s beak; her lips must vie
with coral in redness and lustre, and small, even, and closely-set
teeth, resembling jessamine buds, should complete the picture.
Ceylon, as everybody knows, is indebted for its great prosperity to its
coffee plantations, a large trade being carried on between the English
and its inhabitants, who enjoy a well-earned reputation as cultivators
of that shrub.
“The Kandians,” says M. Alfred Grandidier, “possess more robust
constitutions, less feeble limbs, and features not so effeminate as
their countrymen of the coast; their lusty shoulders, broad chests, and
short but muscular legs, are a proof of the effect which climate can
produce on the development of the human frame.
“The habits of the mountaineers have undergone scarcely any change in
consequence of the foreign influences which have impressed a complex
character upon the manners of the people nearer the sea. Their primitive
customs, originated by the imperious necessities of life, are still
found in existence among them; and they have none of the timidity and
servility which are the attributes of the dwellers in the maritime
districts. The feudal state in which they have long lived has preserved
in them an energy and independence rare among Indian populations. The
configuration of the country enabled them, in fact, to retain their
freedom more easily than their brethren of the northern plains, either
when aggression came from their own ruler or from foreign intruders;
but, nevertheless, that indolence still prevails among them which comes
naturally to every people who are not obliged to contend against any
material obstacle in order to supply themselves with the necessities of
life. The tyranny of their masters, whether chiefs or kings, has
unhappily accustomed them to hypocrisy, and made them vindictive.
“Whilst the Cingalese of the coast have applied themselves to trade and
industry, those of the high regions always show repugnance to such
occupations. They have invariably shunned any connection with
foreigners; and so great, even at the present day, is their desire to
withdraw as much as possible from association with the English settlers,
that they conceal their villages in the middle of the jungle, and at a
distance of some hundreds of yards from the least frequented paths. A
rice-field in the midst of forests, or a glimpse of the tall tops of
cocoa-trees, alone indicate the presence of human beings in places that
would otherwise be thought uninhabited. In countries like these, where
nature has accumulated so many of her treasures, the relations of man
with man, which assuredly conduce to the happiness of all, are not
indispensable; and the natives love a solitude, where they enjoy
benefits of every kind in profusion.
“The Cingalese of the hills have a traditional respect for their chiefs,
and a deep attachment to ancient usages. Their costume differs from that
of the inhabitants of the plains, insomuch that they do not habitually
wear the vest, this garment being, in fact, exclusively reserved for
their nobles, who assume it on grand occasions; their hair is allowed to
grow to its full length, and is not confined by a comb. Sumptuary laws
and religious injunctions settle in other respects the clothing suitable
to each class, the greater part of these laws being, to the present day,
still in force among the Kandians, in spite of the abolition of castes
which has been decreed by the English administration.
“The length of the frock-like petticoats worn by men and women both in
the high and low lands, and which seem to be the part of the national
costume to which the greatest importance is attached, was formerly
proportioned according to the social position of the individual.
[Illustration: 164.--PALANQUIN.]
“The pariahs were not permitted to let this skirt come lower than the
knee, and males and females of inferior caste had the breast uncovered.
Among the chiefs themselves a difference existed, and still exists, as
to the method of wearing the _comboy_. After rolling it twice or three
times round the hips and legs, they form with it round the waist a more
or less bulky girdle, the dimensions of which depend upon their rank.
The nobles are also distinguished from the lower orders by their
extraordinary headgear, consisting of a sort of round, flat, white linen
cap, like that worn by the Basque peasantry, while the lower classes
merely surround the head with a silk handkerchief, leaving none of it
bare except the top. The king alone possessed the privilege of wearing
sandals. Prohibitions, such as one against wearing gold and silver
chains or ornaments, are still scrupulously observed by the Kandians,
who strenuously resist any encroachments of the inferior castes.”
M. Guillaume Lejean has published some interesting particulars of his
travels in Cashmere and the Punjaub. It is not our intention to follow
the learned wanderer in his rapid journeys across Hindostan, but we
should like to draw attention to a novel opinion which has been
expressed by him as to the ethnology of the Indian population.
M. Lejean believes that he has re-discovered in Hindostan the Aryans,
that is to say, the primitive people from whom the Aryan or Caucasian
race is descended. The features of these peoples, our own genuine
ancestors, are regular and of an European type. Their complexion is not
browner than that of the inhabitants of Provence, Sicily, or Southern
Spain. This statement does not apply to the lower castes, whose skin
grows darker and darker, until it reaches the sooty tint of the Nubian.
The country people have long and slightly wavy hair, blacker and more
brilliant than jet. Though not effeminate in appearance, the race is
deficient in muscular vigour, an effect attributed by the traveller to
the torrid heat of the climate. The women are generally of middle
height, with pleasing but expressionless countenances of little
originality; their eyes are large, black, and submissive, and their
hands delicately beautiful.
In the opinion of M. Lejean, the fine, symmetrical heads, small,
well-formed hands, and regular features of the natives of Scinde, remind
one completely of the white European race, and allow us to identify the
inhabitants of that part of Asia with the ancient Aryans, who were the
colonizers of primitive Europe, and who springing, as is said, from the
regions of Persia, spread themselves over our own continent and that of
Asia.
This is an opportune moment for alluding to a race, sprung seemingly
from Hindoos of the lower classes, which had probably abandoned its own
land, and from which those detached groups that traverse the entire
globe, without ever fixing themselves anywhere, or ever losing their
peculiar characteristics, derive their origin. Under this category come
the wandering tribes, commonly known in different languages, as Gipsies,
Bohemians, Zingari, Gitanos, &c., who wander over countries either as
beggars or in pursuit of the lowest callings. These Gipsies and
Bohemians, who are especially numerous in the South of France, and enjoy
a considerable repute as horse-clippers and tinkers, who are invariably
vagrants, and now and then thieves, appear to be descended from
low-caste Hindoos. They are travelling Pariahs. Such, at least, is the
opinion entertained by some modern ethnologists.
MALABAR FAMILY.
The Malabar Family inhabiting the Deccan differs in many respects from
the Hindoo, and the peoples included in it are very dark and sometimes
black in complexion. This branch is divided into three principal
divisions: the _Malabars_ proper, who dwell in the country of that name;
the _Tamuls_, in the Carnatic; and the _Telingas_, in the north-east.
Neither the language nor the customs of the tribes composing this group,
exhibit peculiarities sufficiently important to induce us to stop to
describe them.
CHAPTER II.
ETHIOPIAN BRANCH.
The African populations which we class with the Brown Race have a
resemblance in the formation of the body to those of the White Race, but
their skin is darker in colour, being intermediate between that of the
Negro and that of the White. The natives constituting this branch have
never attained to any appreciable degree of civilization, and there is a
complete void of positive notions as to their origin or migrations,
while even the different languages in use among them, are partly unknown
to us. We shall distinguish in the Ethiopian branch, two great families,
the _Abyssinian_ and the _Fellan_.
ABYSSINIAN FAMILY.
[Illustration: 165.--ABYSSINIAN.]
That portion of Eastern Africa which bears the name of Abyssinia,
contains several tribes, speaking different languages. These tribes are
ranked by many ethnologists as belonging to the White Race, and their
complexion, though darker invariably than that of the European, is
fairer than that of the negro. Their hair, which is generally frizzled,
their lips usually thick, and their nose less flat than that of the
Negro, are so many characteristics which assign to them a place
intervening between the Black and the White races. These tribes
doubtless spring from a union of black inhabitants, aborigines of the
country, with the Orientals who conquered them.
[Illustration: 166.--NOUERS OF THE WHITE NILE.]
We shall instance among the principal groups belonging to this family,
the _Abyssinians_, the _Barabras_, the _Tibbous_, and the _Gallas_,
about any of whom, with the exception of the first named, little is as
yet known.
_Abyssinians._--Most authors place this people in the White Race and the
Semitic family. There is, in fact, reason to believe that Abyssinia was
many times overrun, and perhaps civilized, by the nations of Western
Asia; but the colour of their skin, which is very much darker than that
of the Arameans, is a proof that the conquerors intermarried with the
conquered, and that from this union the present Abyssinian race has
sprung.
According to Dr. Rüppel, there are two predominant types existing among
the people of this country, the more widely spread approaching to that
of the Arabs, while the second approximates closely to the Negro.
The Abyssinians forming the first group, are finely formed, showing
resemblance to the Bedouins in feature and expression of countenance.
Their peculiar characteristics are, an oval face, a long, thin, finely
cut nose, a well proportioned mouth with lips of moderate thickness,
lively eyes, regular teeth, slightly crisp or smooth hair, and a middle
stature. Most of the people dwelling on the high mountains of Samen, and
the plains surrounding Lake Tzana, belong to this branch, which also
includes the _Falæshas_, or Jews, the _Garnants_, who are idolators, and
the _Agows_.
The second type is chiefly distinguishable by a shorter and broader
nose, slightly flattened; thick lips; long eyes, with little animation
in them; and very curly and almost woolly hair, which is so close, that
it stands straight out from the head. A portion of the population along
the coast, in the province of Hamasen and other neighbouring districts,
belongs to this second group.
The results of Baron Larrey’s comparison of the Abyssinian with the
Negro, are, that the eyes of the former are larger and of a more
agreeable look, and have the inner angle slightly more inclined. In the
Abyssinian the cheek-bones and the zygomatic arches are more prominent
than in the Negro; the cheeks form a more regular triangle with the
angle of the mouth and the corner of the jaw; the lips are thick without
being turned out like a Negro’s; the teeth are handsome, well set and
less projecting; and the alveolar ridges are not so prominent. The
complexion of the Abyssinian is not so black as that of the Negro in the
interior of Africa. Baron Larrey adds, that the features which he has
described above, belonged to the genuine Egyptians of olden times, and
that they are to be found in the heads of Egyptian statues, and above
all in that of the Sphinx.
[Illustration: 167.--A NOUER CHIEF.]
[Illustration: 168.--CHIEF OF THE LIRA.]
In the account which he published in 1865, of his journey through
Abyssinia two years previously, M. Guillaume Lejean has given
considerable information as to this part of Africa and its inhabitants,
and the victorious enterprise undertaken by England in 1866, afforded an
opportunity of establishing the accuracy of the French traveller’s
statements.
At the moment when the British expedition was directed against him, the
army of the Abyssinian potentate, the Negus Theodorus, numbered about
40,000 men. The infantry carry a spear, shield, and long curved sabre,
and they attack their enemy impetuously at close quarters. The light
cavalry is excellent. The horsemen, when charging, let go their bridles,
fight with both hands, and guiding and urging their horses with leg and
knee only, make them perform the most prodigious feats. Each man has a
sword and two lances; the latter always hit the mark, and their wound is
deadly. They are used like javelins, and are about two yards long. Every
horseman is followed by an attendant retainer, whose duty it is to dash
among the enemy, sword in hand, in order to recover his master’s weapon,
and bring it back to him. These horsemen charge headlong against an
infantry square, making their horses bound into its midst over the heads
of the soldiers, and then backing them in order to break its formation.
The skirmishers are Tigré mountaineers, of cool, resolute courage, and
their aim is remarkably good.
The Emperor Theodorus seldom occupied his palace. His real capital was
his camp, which he kept incessantly moving from one end of his dominions
to the other. He maintained strict discipline in his household and on
his staff, among the members of which the bastinado was often liberally
used.
Two fifths of the Abyssinian population are in the service of the
wealthier classes, and probably there is no country in the world where
servitude is more widely spread. A person possessed of an income equal
to £160 a year, keeps at least eight dependants. M. Lejean had no fewer
than seventeen attendants during his journey, and his travelling
companion, an Englishman, as many as seventy.
The religion of this country forms a rare exception in Africa, as the
inhabitants are Christians. The head of the Abyssinian church is styled
the “Abouna,” and his theocratic powers are almost boundless. King and
pontiff entertain a mutual hatred of one another, each dreading his
rival and keeping close watch upon his movements. Whichever of the two
possesses greater courage and energy gains the upper hand.
Monks and priests are common in Abyssinia.
The natives take a decoction of _kousso_ once a month as a cure for the
tapeworm. The fact is, that in consequence of some local circumstances,
the meat used in the country is full of cysts, which, getting into the
stomach along with the food, generate in the intestines this troublesome
guest that must be got rid of from time to time. This remedy for
tapeworm has been recently introduced into Europe.
_Barabras._--The Barabras are the natives of Nubia. They occupy that
part of the valley comprised between the southern frontier of Egypt and
Sennaar, that is to say, Nubia.
This race differs widely from the Arabs, and all adjoining nations. They
dwell on the banks of the Nile, and, wherever the soil is found
favourable, plant date trees, sink wells for irrigation, and sow various
kinds of leguminous plants.
Blumenbach was forcibly struck with the resemblance of the Barabras to
the figures and paintings to be met with on the different monuments of
ancient Egypt. This people, like the Egyptians, have a reddish black
skin, but of a much darker tint. The characteristic features of the pure
Barabras are oval and somewhat long faces, with aquiline noses, very
well formed and slightly rounded towards the point, lips thick without
being protruding, a receding chin, thin beard, animated eyes, very curly
but never frizzled hair, a body perfectly in proportion and usually of
the middle height, and lastly a bronze-coloured skin.
The Barabras are classed in three groups, each of which has a dialect of
its own, namely, the _Noubas_ or _Nubians_, the _Kenous_, and the
_Dongoulahs_; all of whom inhabit the Nile valley.
According to Burckhardt the Noubas differ in many respects from the
Negroes, especially in the softness of their skin, which is very smooth
and flexible, while the palm of a genuine Negro’s hand is rough and as
hard as wood. Their noses, too, are less flat, their lips less thick,
and their cheek-bones less prominent than those of a Negro. Pritchard’s
opinion is that the Barabras probably migrated from Kordofan.
A description of this race is also to be found in the “Voyage en
Egypte,” by MM. Henri Cammas and André Lefèvre, by whom the country was
explored in 1860, and from its pages we take the following extract:--
“We are in Nubia, and Arabic is no longer spoken. The inhabitants,
though usually inoffensive, have nevertheless a warlike gait; the dagger
hanging by a strap to their arm, their ironwood bow and their buckler of
crocodile hide are the tokens and protectors of their liberty. Their
rulers obtain nothing from them except by force.
“The moment the river recedes, these vigorous husbandmen dispute with it
for the fertilizing slime which suffices for a fourfold harvest.
“Do not imagine that they labour: it is enough for them when they have
sown pinches of corn in shallow holes, for nature does all the rest.
“So favoured a climate, as may well be imagined, does not impose on the
Nubian the inconvenience of having to wear clothing. The majority carry
nothing more upon them than a few weapons and their dusky skins. The
women’s costumes are oddly fashioned. They stain their lips and twist
their hair into numberless tiny plaits, which are not re-made every day.
Egyptian females would look on them as indecent, for allowing the lower
part of the face to be seen; and more than that even, the girls, up to
the time of their marriage, wear no covering beyond a narrow girdle. The
villages are rather near each other, and seldom consist of more than
fifteen or twenty earthen huts, having flat roofs thatched with palm
branches. In front of the cabins are ranged, as at Dolce for instance,
large jars, in which the corn is kept stored.
“Ruins belonging to all ages and every ancient divinity are to be found
in Nubia.”
The inhabitants of Eastern Nubia are merely wandering tribes who
traverse the country included between the Nile and the Red Sea; the
dwellers in the northern part are known as the _Ababdehs_.
The _Bicharyehs_ spread themselves as far as the Abyssinian frontiers,
and the _Hadharebs_ are still more to the south, reaching to Souakin on
the Red Sea. The _Souakins_ belong to the last-named race.
The Bicharyehs are savage and inhospitable, and it is asserted that they
drink the still warm blood of living animals. They are chiefly nomadic,
and maintain themselves on the flesh or the milk of their flocks. All
travellers agree in representing them as fine men with regular features,
large, expressive eyes, light, elegant frames, and a dark
chocolate-coloured complexion. Their method of wearing the hair is very
curious. Those who possess it in sufficient length to reach below the
ear, allow it to hang in straight, tangled locks, each of which
terminates in a curl. This headgear is impregnated with grease, and is
so much matted that there would be a difficulty in getting a comb
through it. They refrain, besides, from touching it, and in order not to
spoil its arrangement are always provided with a bit of pointed stick,
like a large needle, which they put into requisition whenever scratching
becomes necessary.
The head-dress of the Souakins is equally extraordinary, and the
scratching pin is also an obligatory accompaniment of their toilet.
The Ababdehs have hair from two and a half to three inches long; their
lips are slightly thick, their noses rather long, and in complexion they
are almost black. They are nomadic, and live in the same way as the
Bedouins.
_Tibbous._--The Tibbous, who wander over the country to the east of the
Sahara, have been looked upon as belonging to the Berber family, but
their complexion is darker and they do not speak the Arab tongue. Their
noses are aquiline, their lips but slightly thick, they have intelligent
faces, and are of slender build. Their activity is very great and they
are addicted to robbing caravans.
_Gallas._--The Gallas are strangers to civilization, the majority
scattered over the plains which extend to the south of Abyssinia,
leading a pastoral and nomadic life. They are divided into a great many
independent tribes, being kept united, however, by origin and language.
They are warlike, cruel, and given to plunder. Their colour is very
handsome and their hair usually curly or woolly; they have coarse, short
features and large lips. Islamism has been embraced by a few tribes, but
the greater number remain attached to the old African Paganism.
FELLAN FAMILY.
The _Fellans_, who are also called Fellatahs, Pouls, or Peuhls, have not
been long known except by some tribes who inhabit Senegambia and who
sometimes penetrated the Soudan. Their skin is extremely dark, inclining
sometimes to a reddish, and sometimes to a copper colour, but being
never really black; they have rather long hair, smooth and silky; their
nose is not flattened; the shape of their face is oval; their stature
tall and slight; the extremities of the limbs delicate and small; their
step light and commanding.
We class among the Fellan family the people dwelling in the western part
of Africa, such as the inhabitants of Nigritia and Bambara.
The capital of Nigritia, Sego or Segou, is a tolerably large town
situated on the Niger.
Probably many other nations of Western Africa ought to be placed side by
side with the Fellans and a comparison should also be established
between them and the people of Madagascar, the _Owas_.
All these races differ from the Negroes, although dwelling on the
confines of the country belonging to the latter branch, with which some
authors erroneously confound them, but the physical characteristics that
mark them as distinct are well-established.
CHAPTER III.
MALAY BRANCH.
This branch approaches closely to the Indo-Chinese. The races composing
it are of medium height, regularly made and with well-proportioned
limbs; their skin varies from an olive-yellow to a brown hue, and their
hair is smooth, black, or occasionally brown. They appear susceptible of
civilization and are often divided into regular nations.
Dumont d’Urville has distinguished among these races three divisions
which he has designated by the appellations of _Malays_, _Polynesians_,
and _Micronesians_; and these groups will be treated here as so many
families.
MALAY FAMILY.
The Malay family, which inhabits Malaysia and the peninsula of Malacca,
is made up of a vast number of nations, the widely varied
characteristics of which partake more or less of those of the
Indo-Chinese, the Hindoos, and even the Negroes. We shall specify in
this family the Malays, Javanese, Battas, Bugs, or Bougis, the
Macassars, Dyaks, and Tagals.
_Malays._--The Malays constitute the most numerous and remarkable branch
of this family. They are spread over the peninsula of Malacca, the
islands of Java, Borneo, Sumatra, and Celebes, and in the Moluccas,
etc. This group of islands was formerly known as the Indian Archipelago,
and owes its name of Malaysia to the naturalist Lesson.
The chief characteristics of the Malays are a lithe and active body,
medium stature, somewhat slanting eyes, prominent cheekbones, a flat
nose, smooth glossy hair, and a scanty beard. Their limbs are elegantly
formed and their hair is black and curling. The flatness of their noses
is attributable to an artificial cause, as, immediately on the birth of
an infant, this feature is compressed until the cartilage is broken, for
a broad flat face is considered a point of beauty, and a projecting nose
would be looked on as a snout. Their lips are deformed by the inordinate
chewing of the betel leaf, and become ultimately repulsive in appearance
on account of their exaggerated redness and the extravasated blood
beneath their surface. The yellow colour of their skin is heightened
still more by artificial means, for it is regarded as an attraction, and
is the aristocratic tint; daily rubbing with henna or turmeric bring it
to a saffron tinge. The natural complexion of the women is pale and
dull; brown is predominant among the men. The princes and dignitaries
stain a dark yellow every part of the body exposed to view.
A Malay’s clothing is of a very light description, consisting, both for
men and women, of two large pieces of stuff skilfully arranged and
confined at the waist by a scarf. Princes and moneyed persons alone wear
a kind of drawers.
The indolence of the Malays is excessive. With the exception of the
slaves, no one works. They are in fact an utterly demoralized people;
murder, pillage, and outrage are familiar to them, they possess neither
honour nor gratitude, and have no respect for their pledged word. Play
is with them a passion, a frenzy. They gamble away their property, their
wives and children, everything, in fact, except their own persons. They
are victims of opium and the betel plant. Nevertheless some laws have
existence among them, for murder and robbery are punishable by fines and
corporal punishments.
The Malays of the Malacca peninsula are not, like the inhabitants of the
Archipelago, violent, passionate, and lazy. They are an energetic,
provident, trading, industrious race, but quite as rapacious and as
tricky as the others. Like the inhabitants of Malaysia, too, they are
prone to vengeance, and when under the influence of opium this sentiment
becomes inflamed, and turns into a kind of fury, directed not only
against the person of the offender but also against harmless passers-by.
The Malay who is a prey to this double paroxysm of opium and frenzy,
snatches up a sharp weapon, dashes forth furiously, shouting “Kill!
Kill!” and strikes everyone who crosses his path.
[Illustration: 169.--MALAY “RUNNING A MUCK.”]
The police of the country employ a small body of very strong and active
men whose special duty it is to seize these raging maniacs. They hunt
the miserable wretch through the streets, and having caught him by the
neck in a kind of fork, throw him on the ground and pin him there until
a sufficient reinforcement arrives to enable them to tie him hand and
foot, when he is brought before a court of justice and nearly always
sentenced to death (fig. 169).
_Javanese._--These people, who inhabit the island of Java, are rather
light in complexion, and bear a close resemblance to the Indo-Chinese.
For the following information about the population of this wonderful and
splendid country, we are indebted to M. de Molins, who made a stay of
two years there, and whose notes have been arranged and published by M.
F. Coppée, in the “Tour du Monde.”
The stranger traversing Batavia, the chief town of Java, cannot be an
uninterested observer of the motley crowd perpetually renewing itself
before his eyes. Among the numberless half-clothed men he sees none but
brawny shoulders and wiry, muscular frames. He is struck by the dull,
dark brown complexion of the Indian, whose hue appears to vary with the
district where he happens to be located; for his skin which seems
brick-red on the sea coast assumes a violet and pinkish tinge near
masses of vegetation, and becomes almost black in a dusty region. The
perfectly naked children gambolling in the full rays of the sun look
like fine antique bronzes, so graceful are their attitudes and so
faultless their mould. The Malay in his turban, tight-fitting green
vest, and grey petticoat striped with whimsical patterns, has quite a
handsome head. His face is oval with eyes of almond shape and a thin,
straight nose; the mouth is shaded by a slight, glossy black moustache
and his high broad forehead is admirably formed. All do not perhaps
possess so many advantages, but they are without exception finely made,
with beautiful black, smooth, and silky hair.
The Javanese wear hats of bamboo, the plaiting of which is perfect.
These are of all patterns, large and small, round, pointed, or made in
the shape of shields, extinguishers, or basins. Their costume varies;
some of the men wear Arab vests and wide trousers; some would be naked
but for a sort of drawers; while a few swathe their loins in a piece of
Indian calico which displays the form; and others are clad in a very
narrow petticoat that produces a most picturesque effect. The natives
make all their garments out of a broad piece of stuff manufactured in
the country, the devices and colours of which manifest extraordinary
variety and astonishing taste.
The women’s head-dress consists of a handkerchief which is tied and
arranged in a more or less artistic manner.
_P. Sellier, p.^{t}_
_Imp. Dupuy, 22, R. des Petits Hôtels_
_G. Regamey, lith._
POLYNESIAN
MALAY
BROWN RACE]
At Sourabaya the traveller mingled in the throng, composed of a
sprinkling of Chinese, Malays, and natives of Madura, but throughout
which the Javanese element predominated. The typical costume of the
country may be said to consist of the long-folded _sahrong_, a very
close-fitting vest, and a kind of sunshade on the head, covered in blue
cloth interwoven with gold and silver thread, and lined with red. The
colours used here are not very gaudy, and the priests may at once be
recognized by their ample turbans and white muslin vests. A few
palanquins were moving about through the crowd; those of the Javanese
are formed of a hammock suspended from a bamboo cross-stick and
sheltered from the rays of the sun by a little roof of bamboo or
palm-leaf matting. Long boats laden with cargo and having gracefully
curved prows were passing up and down the river.
On fête days all the components of this motley multitude are drawn
together by the performances of the Javanese bayaderes, or dancing girls
(fig. 172).
[Illustration: 170.--MALAY.]
When visiting the cemetery M. de Molins saw the native Prince of
Soerabaya, who had come there to pray at the tomb of his forefathers.
His excessively simple costume was only distinguished from that of
ordinary Javanese by a loop of diamonds stuck in the very small turban
enveloping his head, and by a beautiful gold clasp fastening the belt of
his sahrong.
[Illustration: 171.--JAVANESE.]
In the Javanese _Kampong_ our traveller saw copper articles; such as
betel-roll boxes, bowls, and water vases; which were ornamented in
charming and fantastic taste with engraved arabesques representing the
flowers, fruits, and animals of the country; and he was struck with
surprise at the goldsmiths being able to form such marvellous trinkets
with tools of the most primitive description. He went to see one of the
large manufactories where are made the curious sahrongs worn by the
inhabitants, the shades of colour in which rival those of the most
valuable cashmeres in brilliancy, harmony, and richness. The process of
making these fabrics is a slow and difficult one. A fine sahrong is
worth more than £4 and does not exceed two and a half yards in length by
one yard in width.
[Illustration: 172.--JAVANESE DANCING GIRLS.]
In one of his excursions M. de Molins met a wedding procession. The
happy couple, who belonged to two equally rich families, were in a very
pretty palanquin surmounted by a canopy ornamented with palm leaves and
a trellis-work of bamboos and reeds. The garments of the newly married
pair were of red silk brocaded with gold embroidery, and their heads,
necks, arms and hands were covered with jewellery. Children ran
alongside and in front shouting and making the air resound with the
noise of gongs, tom-toms, and cymbals (fig. 173). Four men in yellow
breeches, with blue and white girdles, their hips adorned by long
pointed strips of blue and yellow silk, and their heads bound with a
tightly-fitting turban of the same colours, carried at the end of long
poles, bright, waving bouquets made of tiny rosettes of blue, yellow,
and white paper attached to thin canes. Relatives, friends, and all
those who expected to partake of the repast which was generously
provided, followed the palanquin.
Ceremonies of different kinds precede this solemn procession; and for
several days before it takes place the betrothed couple are obliged to
submit to a public exhibition and general hubbub, and are condemned to
remain nearly completely motionless and in almost total abstinence, lest
they should in any way damage their clothes.
This marriage festival is the grand occasion for displaying all the
resources of Javanese culinary art. The fruits are served at the
beginning of the banquet, and steamed rice only slightly cooked forms
the principal dish.
The feast would be a sorry one, if the bill of fare did not include
pickles, salt fish dried in the sun while alive, half-hatched eggs also
salted, a hash of meats perfumed with roses and jessamine, the seeds of
various plants, and slices of cocoa-nut rolled in pimento. The first
time a European tastes these dishes he feels a dreadful sensation of
burning, which passes from the mouth to the stomach and seems to be ever
increasing. But people soon appear to grow accustomed to these spicy
ragouts; and M. de Molins says that in a short time this kind of
cookery, which greatly tends to stimulate the appetite, becomes
indispensable.
[Illustration: 173.--JAVANESE WEDDING.]
During this gentleman’s stay at Soerabaya, the Dutch Governor-General of
Java was there on his tour of inspection of the island, which takes
place every five years. High festivities had been ordered for the
reception of this exalted personage, and M. de Molins gives us a sketch
of the princes who were present at a grand revel. The skin of many was
blue; their perfectly delicate and regular features bore the melancholy,
stamp peculiar to Orientals, and their movements were full of ease and
grace. Their sahrong, woven in silk of the most beautiful shades, was
fastened at the waist by a flowing girdle that fell over extremely tight
pantaloons, and sparkled with gold embroidery; their chest, shoulders,
and arms were left naked, and had been thickly coated with
saffron-coloured powder for the occasion. Their head-gear consisted of a
truncated cone, either blue, red, or black, braided with gold or silver
lace; and their ears were adorned with a kind of wing, in goldwork of
the most exquisite finish and lightness. The princes were accompanied by
the officers of their suite, among whom the Umbrella-Bearer was
conspicuous. The enormous sunshades carried by those functionaries bear
a double resemblance to a shield and a lance, and are at once
warlike-looking and foppish. They are gilt or silvered, green, blue, or
black, and produce the most uncommon effect.
_Battas._--The Battas, who inhabit the island of Sumatra, exhibit a very
singular mixture in their habits, as they unite with ideas of order and
civilization practices quite as ferocious as those of the most savage
people.
_Bougis and Macassars._--The Bougis and Mankasses (Mangkassars, which
Europeans have turned into Macassars) occupy the Celebes Islands, and
are renowned for their courage.
The former nation is looked on as the most ancient and enlightened race
in the Celebes group. Not only have they a secret and sacred language,
but a second idiom which is familiar to all classes, and in addition a
written tongue. They possess a system of writing, and even a literature.
These men are upright, faithful to their promise, and thoroughly loyal
in diplomatic and commercial dealings. Their mere word is of more value
than the most solemn oaths of the inhabitants of Java, Sumatra, and
Borneo.
_Tagales._--The Tagales and Bissayes who dwell in the Philippines, the
former in Luzon, and the latter in the centre group, speak dialects very
different from those of the Malays, properly so-called. The anonymous
author who has described the voyage of the Austrian frigate Novara, has
supplied us with some details as to the varied and amusing aspect of the
population of Manilla, the chief town of Luzon.
The _padres_, in long black soutanes, and spout-shaped felt hats, stroll
under the shade of the palm trees; Christian Brothers jostle
Confraternities of the Virgin and Fathers of the Conception and of the
Nativity. Make way for grey, yellow, and brown-frocked monks, and for
those who discipline themselves with hair shirts and whips!
Galley-slaves, chained two and two, are quietly moving hither and
thither with pails of water. Charming senoritas, mostly Spanish
half-bloods, with mantillas falling like a cascade of black lace along
their raven and glossy tresses, in which green leaves and scarlet
blossoms intertwine, compel us to admire their listless mien and their
well-arched eyebrows shading their almond-shaped eyes. After the
half-breeds, come the native Tagales, of pure or of mixed blood; Chinese
women; and little negresses selling fruit and bouquets, or lounging
about with cigarettes in their mouths.
The Tagales whom M. de Molins saw at Manilla, were small and weak. Their
faces were by no means disagreeable, their colour a little lighter than
that of other Malays, and their hair black without being woolly. The
combinations of this race with the Negroes and Chinese, appeared to him
most interesting.
Many travellers have described the natives of the Philippines. They are
well-made men, of elegant, easy figure, and medium stature. Their feet
and hands are small, exhibiting extreme delicacy at the point where they
join the limbs. They have oval faces, with small but regular noses,
well-coloured lips, and teeth that are long and white until they become
spoiled by chewing the betel-leaf. The men’s hair is silky and curled;
that of the women, soft, fine, and glossy.
The brown tint of the complexion is very changeable among these
islanders, varying from the dark shade which belongs to those living in
the open air, such as fishermen, hunters, and tillers of the soil, to
the fair skins of the upper and sedentary classes. That portion of the
people which has not been subjected to foreign influence is ingenious,
industrious, and active. The men are warlike, and make excellent
boat-builders. Their junks made of plaited bamboo, and manned by a
couple of hundred warriors and rowers, spread such powerful sails and
possess such speed, that they are the envy of the Spanish ship-builders.
_Dyaks._--There are some tribes living in the vicinity of the people of
whom we have just spoken and especially in the interior of the countries
of which the Malays occupy the coasts, who are generally distinguished
by the name of _Alfusus_. They have been often regarded as members of a
separate stock, and a connexion has even been traced between them and
the black race, but the greater part of these tribes ought to be
considered as forming part of the Malay family. Among them are the
_Dyaks_, a numerous people inhabiting the interior of Borneo, and the
_Turajas_ who dwell in the Celebes Islands.
The Dyaks (fig. 174) have well-made bodies, and the women’s faces are
mild and agreeable in expression, but the men’s far from attractive. The
constant warfare which they carry on with the Malays of the coast may be
the cause why their features become ultimately so changed under the
combined influences of fear, passion, and revenge.
The Dyaks who occupy the plains, and those living on the borders of
rivers or in the woods, may be separately classed. Both groups are of
similar stature, possess features alike, and the same lank, black hair,
with large curls, which is however never woolly or frizzled; but those
occupying the dense forests rising from the river banks have fairer
complexions. Mutual hatred has been sworn between the two races, and
they abandon themselves to incessant conflicts, and have ever to be on
their guard against terrible surprises in which many heads are cut off.
No Dyak would venture to present himself to a girl, without being able
to show her the head of an enemy who had been overcome and sacrificed by
him. A warrior’s renown depends on the number of heads he has acquired,
and skulls dried in the fire form the ornaments and trophies of his hut.
These cutters off of heads are very cleanly, and bathe twice a day
regularly. They have extremely severe laws, by which murder, outrage,
and robbery are punished in the same way. They profess great veneration
for old age as well as towards the dead. Their chronological system is
based upon the _yongas_, or ages, as among the Hindoos, and they believe
the present to be the age of misfortune. Their notion is, that some day
during an eclipse of the sun or moon, a dragon will devour the stars;
consequently whenever such phenomena occur, they make a terrific uproar
in order to scare the monster away, a proceeding which has been
invariably successful!
In her travels along the rivers Lappas and Kapouas (western side of
Borneo) Madame Ida Pfeiffer visited a tribe of independent Dyaks, who
are called “Head-Cutters” by the English and Dutch. She saw an immense
cabin about sixty yards long, in the verandah of which fabrics made of
cotton or of plaited bark of trees, splendid mats and baskets of every
shape and size, were displayed. Drums and gongs hung on the walls, and
large piles of bamboos, bags of rice, and dried pork, showed that the
Dyaks had exhibited all their wealth for the occasion.
Nor were their own persons by any means forgotten. They had loaded their
necks down to the breast with glass beads, bears’ teeth, and shells;
brass rings covered the lower part of their legs, reaching half-way to
the knee, their arms were adorned in the same way to the shoulders, and
similar decorations were in their ears. Some wore a sort of red stuff
cap, embellished with pearls, shells, and little flat bits of brass;
others had wound round their heads a fillet formed of a piece of bark,
the deeply fringed ends of which stuck out like feathers. A man decked
out in this fashion, covered with ornaments from head to foot, presents
a rather comical appearance.
The women had fewer adornments; they wore no earrings, nor bears’ teeth
collars; a few displayed some glass beads; but more were satisfied with
an incalculable number of brass or leaden rings.
Madame Pfeiffer, while among the Dyaks, witnessed a sword-dance, which
was executed in the most skilful and elegant manner.
This travelled lady also visited another tribe located higher up the
river, where she observed the same things, and in addition saw two human
heads lately cut off. When showing them to Madame Pfeiffer, the Dyaks
spat in their faces, and the children cuffed them, and spat on the
ground.
[Illustration: 174.--DYAKS.]
The shocking custom of decapitation owes its origin to superstition. If
a rajah falls ill, or sets out on a journey among another tribe, he and
his subjects undertake to sacrifice a human head in case of his recovery
or safe return; and should he die, they chop off a skull or two. The
heads which they have sworn to immolate must be obtained at any cost.
The Dyaks hide themselves in the long jungle grass, behind felled
branches of trees, or under the dry leaves, and lie in wait for entire
days. If anybody, man, woman, or child, comes in sight, they shoot a
poisoned arrow at him, and rush like tigers on their prey. At one blow
the head is severed from the body, and placed in a little basket
reserved for this purpose, and ornamented with human hair.
These assassinations frequently give rise to bloody wars; for the tribe,
a member of which has been thus sacrificed to the law of chance, takes
up arms, and never lays them down until the most terrible reprisals have
been exacted. Severed heads are borne back in triumph and solemnly hung
up in the place of honour, the retaliation being celebrated by
festivities which last for a month.
On one occasion, when Madame Pfeiffer had been received with profuse
respect by a tribe, she found a freshly cut off head suspended over her
bed, along with others already dried. She could not close her eyes. She
felt in a perfect fever at being thus encompassed by frenzied men, at
being smothered by the odour of these human remains, and at being lulled
to rest by the sinister sound of skulls jangled together by the wind.
Yet in spite of chopped-off heads and festoons of human skulls, this
lady considers the Dyaks to be honest, prudent, and endowed with some
good qualities. She places them higher in the scale than the other
tribes with which she had an opportunity of coming in contact. Their
domestic life, which is truly patriarchal in its nature, is alluded to
by her with pleasure, as are also their morality, the love they bear
their offspring, and the respect evinced by the children towards their
parents.
The independent Dyaks are richer than those living subservient to the
Malay yoke. They cultivate rice, maize, tobacco, and sometimes the sugar
cane; find in the woods Dammana resin which answers lighting purposes,
and gather large harvests of sago, yams, and cocoa-nuts. Some of these
productions are exchanged by them for pearl beads, brass, salt, and
cloth. Their houses, or huts, are clean and well-kept (fig. 175).
A Dyak can take to himself as many wives as he pleases, but he usually
contents himself with one, whom he treats well and does not burden with
work. Their habits are purer and better than those of the Malays. They
have no system of writing. Madame Pfeiffer did not see among them either
temples or idols, priests or religious sacrifices.
[Illustration: 175.--A DYAK HUT.]
POLYNESIAN FAMILY.
The tribes included by Dumont d’Urville under the name of Polynesians
inhabit the entire eastern part of Oceania, namely, the Sandwich
Islands, the Marquesas, the Friendly and Society groups, the Low
Archipelago, New Zealand, etc.
The people of all these bear the closest affinity to each other. Their
complexion is olive, verging on brown, but not copper-coloured; they are
tall in stature, and have sinewy limbs, high foreheads, black, lively,
and expressive eyes, and but slightly flattened noses. Their lips are
generally larger than those of the whites, but they nevertheless have
handsome mouths and splendid teeth. Their hair is black and frizzled.
Throughout the whole vast expanse occupied by them they speak the same
language.
Most of the tribes belonging to the Polynesian family are thorough
savages, but their stock is diminishing day by day, and the final result
of neighbouring civilization will be to replace the native element by
European races. Meanwhile, the most cruel customs prevail among them,
and even cannibalism is practised by some.
“Taboo” holds universally an important place among the populations of
Oceania.
This word expresses a state of interdiction, during which the object
struck with it is placed under the immediate control of the divinity. No
man can infringe upon its power without becoming exposed to the most
disastrous consequences, that is, unless he has impaired its action by
certain formalities.
Thus, the piece of ground consecrated to a god, or which has become the
burial place of a chief, is “tabooed,” and they place under the same
spell a canoe which they desire to render safer for long voyages. To
fight in a spot subjected to “taboo” is forbidden, and in order to
prevent certain productions from becoming scarce, they are placed under
similar protection. Anyone guilty of robbery or other crime, commits a
fault against “taboo,” and the man who touches the dead body of a chief
or anything he was in the habit of wearing, falls under a like ban,
which time alone can remove, etc.
We shall allude chiefly to the aborigines of New Zealand, giving also
some details about the natives of the Sandwich Islands, as well as about
the Tongas, or Friendly Islanders.
_New Zealanders._--The inhabitants of New Zealand, sometimes designated
by the name of Maoris, are tall, robust, and of athletic frames. Their
stature is generally from five feet seven inches to five feet eight
inches, seldom lower, and their skin scarcely differs in colour from
that of the people of the South of Europe. The expression of their
countenance almost always indicates a gloomy ferocity. The face is oval,
the forehead narrow, the eye large, black, and full of fire. The nose is
sometimes aquiline, but oftener broad and flat, the mouth wide, the lips
big, and beneath them rows of small, beautifully enamelled teeth.
The New Zealanders wear their hair long and falling in scattered locks
over the face; chiefs alone take the trouble to comb it back on the head
in a solitary tuft. It is rough and black, and seems occasionally
reddish, because some individuals sprinkle it with powdered ochre.
Women who are not slaves possess strong vigorous figures, and are rarely
under five feet and a few inches in height. The young girls have a broad
face, masculine features, coarse lips frequently stained black by
tattooing, a large mouth, flat nose, and uncombed hair hanging about
them in disorder. Their bodies are disgustingly filthy, and impregnated
with an odour of fish or of seal oil, which is revolting in the extreme.
They possess a few advantages as a set-off against the repulsiveness of
this picture. The teeth of a New Zealand female are of excessive
whiteness, and her black eyes beam with intelligence and fire, but
household work and the birth of a family soon cause these attractions to
disappear. The women have, moreover, the most deeply-rooted dirty
habits. A thick layer of mud covers their bodies, which are nearly
always smeared with seal or porpoise oil. Both sexes are capital
swimmers.
There is little difference between the costume worn by males and
females. The natives know how to weave very elegant textures from the
fibres of the _Phormium tenax_ (or New Zealand flax), and a broad mat
of this material floats carelessly over their shoulders and body, while
another is wrapped round the waist, descending to the knee. In winter
they throw over the former garment a thick, heavy cloak generally made
from the peelings of a kind of osier, but which, in the case of chiefs,
consists of dogskins sewn together. These fabrics are also varied in
design, some being smooth and without any pattern, while others are
covered with very delicate ornamentation. The slave girls stick
unthreshed slips of the _Phormium tenax_ in their skirts, thus giving
immoderate fulness to their bodies.
A warrior’s rank and bravery are denoted by a great number of little
pins made of bones or green talc, which are worn across the breast at
the edge of the matting. The original use of these articles was to
scratch the head and kill the insects on it.
Like all the other races, the New Zealanders have a fancy for personal
ornaments. They like to stick plumes in their hair, and a tuft of soft
white feathers is thrust into the ears. Their unkempt locks are seldom
covered by any kind of head-dress; but Lesson, the naturalist, from whom
we derive these details, saw a few young girls in whom a coquettish
taste was more developed, and who wore graceful wreaths of green moss.
The women adorn themselves with shell necklaces, from which little dried
hippocamps are sometimes suspended. They are very fond of blue glass
beads of European make. The most precious ornament of this people,
however, consists of a green talc fetish, which hangs on the breast
attached to some portion of a human bone. There are religious ideas
connected with this amulet, and it is worn by men only.
One of the Zealanders’ superstitions is to fasten a shark’s sharp tooth
to one of their ears, with the point of which the women lacerate their
bosoms and faces when they happen to lose a chief or one of their
relations. The greatest value attaches to these objects when they have
been handed down from ancestors, and have become “tabooed,” or sacred;
the happiness of a native’s whole existence seems bound up in their
possession; yet they are rated as completely worthless when derived from
a slain enemy.
Tattooing plays an important part among the New Zealanders, and they
submit annually to the painful operation which it requires. This marking
usually covers the face all over, and, as it is renewed very often,
produces deep furrows stamped in regular rings, that impart the oddest
expression to the countenance. Circles, one within the other, are also
punctured on the lower part of the loins, and the women have a broad
zone of lozenge-shaped figures engraved round their waist. Deep black
lines are cut in the lips, and a design like a spear-head is traced at
the angles of the mouth and in the middle of the chin. The young men
draw large flies on their noses, staining them black, and the girls
sketch similar insects in blue. None but slaves and persons of the
lowest class are without tattooing of some sort, and it is considered a
downright disgrace to have the skin in its natural state.
[Illustration: 176.--NEW ZEALAND CHIEF.]
In a region subject to the terrible storms of the Southern Hemisphere,
the dwellings ought to be, and are in fact, small and low. Villages are
never found in a plain, because there they might be surprised and
pillaged, but are situated in steep localities difficult of access; the
huts cannot be entered except on all fours; families sheltered by them,
sleep huddled together on the straw in a narrow space; and there is no
furniture inside, beyond a few carved boxes, and some red wooden vessels
thickly covered with designs.
The industry for which these islanders are chiefly noted, is the
manufacture of matting; we have already alluded to the beautiful
materials made from the fibres of the _Phormium tenax_ by the women and
girls.
The soil of New Zealand does not, like that of Equatorial Asia, furnish
a large supply of edible substances. The basis of the inhabitants’ food
consists of the root of a fern tree, resembling our _Pteris_, which
covers all the plains. The natives catch a large quantity of fish in the
bays along the coast, and dry or smoke the greater portion of it, in
order to guard against famine in time of war, and to be provided with
sustenance whenever the fury of the elements makes it impossible for
them to launch their boats. Europeans have introduced several vegetables
among them, which grow readily in the easily tilled and fertile land.
Their cookery is as simple as their food; they drink nothing but pure
water, and hate strong liquors. Their victuals are laid on the ground,
and each one eats with his fingers; the warriors, however, sometimes use
instruments, made of human bones, and Lesson bought from one of them a
four-pronged fork, fashioned from the large bone of a man’s right arm,
minutely carved, and adorned with many raised ornaments in
mother-of-pearl.
New Zealand canoes are remarkable for the carving which embellishes
them. Most of these boats are hollowed from the trunk of a single tree,
and are generally about forty feet long. Lesson measured a specimen,
made in this way from one piece, the depth of which was three, the
breadth four, and the length sixty feet. They are painted red, and have
their sides festooned with birds’ feathers. The stern rises to a height
of about four feet, and is covered with allegorical carvings; the prow
exhibits a hideous head, with mother-of-pearl eyes and a tongue
protruding to an inordinate extent, in order to show contempt for an
enemy. These canoes are capable of holding about forty warriors. The
oars are sharp pointed, and can be used, in case of need, as weapons
against an unforeseen attack. The sails consist of reed mats, coarsely
woven, and triangular in shape.
Although they are eminently warlike, the New Zealanders possess no great
variety of destructive implements. Arrows are unused by them: a
_paton-paton_, or tomahawk, of green talc, which is fastened to the
wrist by a strap of hide, is the weapon above all others with which they
smash or scalp the skull of their enemy. They rush headlong one against
the other, and conquer by dint of sheer weight and force. The badge
which betokens a priest’s functions is a heavy whalebone stick, covered
with carvings. Their _tokis_ are hatchets, also made of talc, with
carefully worked handles decorated with tufts of white dog’s hair. A
great many of their clubs are of extremely hard polished red wood.
In latter days the numerous tribes inhabiting the islands resorted to by
English and American whalers, receive firearms in exchange for the fresh
provisions with which they supply the European vessels.
The chant of the New Zealanders is solemn and monotonous, made up of
hoarse, drawling, and broken notes. It is always accompanied by
movements of the eyes and well-practised gestures that are very
significant. Most of those chants turn upon licentious subjects. Their
dance is a pantomime in which the performers seldom move from one place,
and consists of postures and motions of the limbs, executed with the
greatest precision. Each dance has an allegorical meaning, and is
applicable to declarations of war, human sacrifices, funerals, &c.
The only musical instrument that Lesson saw in the hands of the New
Zealanders was a tastefully worked wooden flute. The language of these
tribes is harsh: some poems of high antiquity have been transmitted to
them by oral tradition. They possess a religion, a form of worship,
priests, and ceremonials. Marriages are made by purchase; a chief who
had some dealings with the crew of the ship to which Lesson belonged,
had bought his wife for two firelocks and a male slave.
The friendship which the aborigines of the same tribe entertain for each
other is very warm, and Lesson has depicted for us the strange manner in
which they evince it. When one of them came on board, and met there an
intimate whom he had not seen for some time, he went up to him in solemn
silence, applied the end of his own nose against that of his friend’s,
and remained in that attitude for half an hour, muttering some confused
sentences in a doleful tone. They then separated, and remained for the
rest of the time like two men utter strangers to each other. A similar
formality was observed by the women among themselves.
No race cherishes the desire of avenging an insult longer than that of
which we are sketching an account; consequently, eternal hatreds and
frequent wars desolate their islands.
The loss of a chief is deeply felt by the whole tribe. The funeral
obsequies last for several days: should the deceased be of high rank,
captives are sacrificed who will have to attend him in the other world,
and the women, girls, and female slaves tear their bosoms and faces with
sharp sharks’ teeth. Each tribe forms a sort of republic. The districts
are ruled by a chief who has a special kind of tattooing, and who is the
most generally esteemed for bravery, intrepidity, and prudence.
Lesson declares that the New Zealanders are openly and cynically
cannibals; that they relish with extreme satisfaction the palpitating
flesh of enemies who have fallen at their hands, and regard as a
festival the day on which they can gorge themselves with human flesh. A
chief expressed to Lesson the pleasure which he experienced in eating
it, and indicated the brain as being the most delicate morsel, and the
buttock as the most substantial.
After a victory the bodies of the chiefs who have been killed in the
fight are prepared for serving up at this horrible banquet. The head
belongs to the victor, the fleshy parts are eaten by the men of the
tribe, and the bones are distributed among them to be made tools of.
Common warriors are scalped, chopped into pieces, roasted, and devoured.
Their heads, if they had any reputation, are sold to the Europeans in
exchange for a little powder.
A chief’s head is preserved. If the victorious clan wishes to make peace
it sends this trophy to the defeated tribe. In case the latter raises
loud shouts, a reconciliation will take place, but should it preserve a
gloomy silence, it is a sign that preparations are being made to avenge
the chief’s death, and hostilities are recommenced. When a tribe has
regained the head of its chief it preserves it religiously and venerates
it; or else, knowing that it will bring a respectable sum, sells it to
the Europeans.
M. Hochstetter during a recent voyage visited these same islanders. A
chief of Ohinemuta, named “Pini-te-Kore-Kore” came to see the
travellers. He was attired in European fashion, wore a cloak and straw
hat, and carried a white banner which bore in blue letters the
inscription, “Sancta Maria, ora pro nobis.” He was a Christianized
chief, and modified as to exterior appearance. He had been brought up at
the missionary school, was about thirty years of age, and tattooed only
on the lower part of the face. He had acquired much from his French
masters both in manner and demeanour, and being extremely communicative
gave M. Hochstetter some curious particulars about the horrible wars to
which his forefathers had devoted themselves.
For the last thirty years the conflicts have not been carried on as they
were formerly, that is to say, they consist no longer in a series of
duels, as it were, but of musketry firing kept up by bodies of troops,
from a distance, in the European style.
The traveller had occasion to pay a visit to the Maori king
“Potateau-te-Whero-Whero,” before the door of whose dwelling was posted
a solitary sentinel clad in a blue uniform cloak with red facings and
brass buttons, forming the whole guard of the palace. About twenty
persons were assembled in a hut, where his Majesty, who was blind and
bent double, sate upon a straw mat. His face, though overloaded with
tattooings, was fine and regular, and a deep scar on his forehead
bespoke him as a warrior who had taken part in severe battles. He was
wrapped in a blanket of a dark brown colour. Like Homer’s Nausicaa, the
daughters of this supreme chief of a proud and warlike race were engaged
in washing. His son, seated near him, was a young man with black and
sparkling eyes.
The Maori tribes had risen in rebellion a few years previously, with a
desire of founding a national government as soon as they had recovered
their independence. But the natives were overcome after much bloodshed,
and fell again under the yoke of their former ruler.
_Tongas._--The inhabitants of the Tonga or Friendly Islands resemble
Europeans, but their physiognomy presents such varied expressions that
it would be difficult to reduce them to a characteristic type. At the
first glance flatness of the nose seems a distinguishing mark of their
race, but according as we examine a large number of individuals we find
the different shapes of that organ grow more numerous. It is the same
with the lips, which are sometimes fleshy and sometimes thin. The hair
is black; but brown and light chestnut are also to be met with. The
colour of the complexion is equally changeable. Women and girls of the
better classes who avoid the rays of the sun are but little coloured;
the others are more or less dark.
The population of these islands has been carefully described by Dumont
d’Urville in an account of the voyage which he made in command of the
_Astrolabe_, during the years 1826, 1827, 1828, and 1829.
“The natives of the Tonga Islands,” he says, “are in general tall,
well-made, and of good proportions. Their countenances are agreeable and
present a variety of features that may be compared with those observable
in Europe. Many have aquiline noses and rather thin lips, while the hair
of nearly all is smooth. Finally, the colour of their skin is only
slightly dark, especially among the chiefs. Women may be seen whose tall
stature, stately step, and perfect forms are united to the most delicate
features and a nearly white or merely dusky complexion.”
Cook and Forster had previously affirmed that the women of the Tonga
Islands might serve as models for an artist.
In their first dealings with Europeans these aborigines displayed
themselves in the most favourable light. Tasman, Cook, Maurelle, and
Wilson bore witness to their gentleness, politeness, and hospitality;
Cook even gave the name of “Friendly” to their islands. The crew of the
_Astrolabe_ was at first led astray by these appearances; but the
natives gave many and repeated proofs that at the very moment when they
were overpowering the navigators with caresses and marks of friendship,
they were meditating how to attack and plunder them.
These men are also endowed with a force of character and energy by no
means common. Their bravery often approaches the most reckless temerity,
and they do not recoil an inch from the greatest danger. They possess,
nevertheless, a general tone of suavity and courtesy, and a natural ease
of manner, which no one would in the least expect to find among a people
verging so closely upon the savage state. Their intelligence is more
developed than that of the Tahitians. They treat their wives with
kindness, have great love for their children, and profess deep respect
for old age.
They make canoes which are remarkable for their proportions and the
elegance and finish of their handiwork; carve whales’ teeth for
necklaces, and incrust their various instruments with the same material;
know how to construct houses, as well as stone vaults for the burial of
their chiefs; and trace delicate chasings on their clubs with a
sharpened nail fastened in a handle. The culinary art has advanced to a
higher degree among them than among any other of the Polynesian
islanders. They prepare from thirty to forty different dishes,
consisting of pork, turtle, fowl, fish, bread-fruits, bananas,
cocoa-nuts, &c., mixed according to certain processes, and dressed in
different methods. The peasants till the land by means of stakes
flattened and sharpened at the extremity, and furnished a little way
from the end with a stirrup for supporting the foot.
The manufacture of cloth, mats, and reed baskets is the special
occupation of the women. In order to make the cloth in most common use,
they take a certain quantity of the inner bark of the paper-mulberry
tree properly prepared, beat it flat, stain it with different vegetable
colours, and print patterns of all kinds upon it. Mats of the finest
quality are woven from leaves of the Pandanus; others, stronger, are
made from the bark of a kind of banana-tree; those resembling horsehair
are worn by the common people in the canoes to protect them against wet.
Mattings of other descriptions, ornamented in different patterns, and
formed from the young leaves of the cocoa-tree, are used to preserve
the walls of their buildings against the inclemencies of the weather.
Women of a certain rank amuse themselves by making combs, the teeth of
which are formed from the ribs of cocoa-leaves. The manufacture of
thread appertains to females of the lower classes, and the material for
it is extracted from the bark of the banana-tree.
These islanders tattoo their bodies in various places, especially the
lower part of the stomach and the thighs, with designs which are really
elegant and present a vast variety of patterns, but they leave the skin
in its natural state. Their tattooing never exhibits deep incisions and
does not seem to be a sign of distinction or of warlike prowess. The
women only tattoo the palms of their hands.
Their houses are neatly and solidly built; the master and mistress sleep
in a division apart, while the other members of the family lie upon the
floor without having any fixed place. The beds and their covering are
composed of matting.
The clothing of the men, like that of the women, consists of a piece of
cloth six feet square, which envelopes the body in such a way as to make
a turn and a half round the loins, where it is confined by a belt.
Common people are satisfied with wearing an apron of foliage, or a bit
of narrow stuff like a girdle.
The natives of the Friendly Islands bathe every day. Their skin,
besides, is constantly saturated with perfumed cocoa-nut oil. When
preparing themselves for a religious feast, a general dance, or a visit
to the residence of a personage of high rank, they cover themselves with
oil in such profusion that it drips from their hair.
The ornaments of both sexes consist of necklaces composed of the red
fruit of the Pandanus, or fragrant flowers. Some of them hang from their
necks little shells, birds’ bones, sharks’ teeth, and pieces of carved
and polished whalebone or of mother-of-pearl, and high up on the arm
they wear bracelets of the last material or of shells. They have also
mother-of-pearl or tortoise-shell rings, and hanker greatly after glass
beads, especially those of a blue colour. The lobe of their ears is
pierced by large holes for the reception of small wooden cylinders about
three inches in length, or of little reeds filled with a yellow powder
used by the women as paint.
They have flutes and tom-toms for beating time. The most ordinary form
of the former instrument is a piece of bamboo closed at both ends and
pierced by six holes, into which they blow with the right nostril while
the left is stopped with the thumb.
Their chants are a kind of recitative which has for its subject some
more or less remarkable event; or else consist of words intended to
accompany different descriptions of dances or ceremonies.
The inhabitants of these islands recognize a host of divinities, who
possess among themselves various degrees of preeminence. Of these gods,
those of elevated rank can dispense good or evil in proportion to their
relative powers. According to the natives’ notion the origin of these
divine beings is beyond the intelligence of man, and their existence is
eternal.
“Taboo” reigns as despotically in these islands as it does in New
Zealand.
There is a barbarous ceremony in use here, by which a child is strangled
as an offering to the gods and to gain from them the cure of a sick
relation; the same rite also takes place when a chief inadvertently
commits a sacrilege which might draw down the anger of the divinities
upon the whole nation.
In other cases, they cut off a joint of the little finger in order to
obtain the recovery of a parent who is ill, and consequently crowds of
people may be seen who have lost in succession the two joints of the
fourth finger of each hand, and even the first joint of the next.
Charms and signs occupy a prominent place in the religion of this
people. Dreams are warnings from the divinity; thunder and lightning are
indications of war or of some great catastrophe.
Sneezing is an act of the worst possible omen. A chief was near clubbing
to death a traveller who had sneezed in his presence at the moment when
the native was going to fulfil his duties at his father’s tomb.
_Tahitians._--Tahiti and the whole group of the Society Islands
are almost exclusively inhabited by the same branch of the
Malaysio-Polynesian race. The people of these islands have become
celebrated in France by the charming and interesting accounts of their
manners and habits, which have been published by Bougainville. We have
taken the details which follow from Lesson, the naturalist, who made a
somewhat lengthened stay in this island.
The natives of Tahiti are all, with scarcely an exception, very fine
men. Their limbs are at once vigorous and graceful, the muscular
projections being everywhere enveloped by a thick cellular tissue, which
rounds away any too prominent development of their frames. Their
countenances are marked by great sweetness, and an appearance of good
nature; their heads would be of the European type but for the flatness
of the nostrils, and the too great size of the lips; their hair is black
and thick, and their skin of light copper-colour and very varying in
intensity of hue. It is smooth and soft to the touch, but emits a
strong, heavy smell, attributable, in a great measure, to incessant
rubbings with cocoa-nut oil. Their step wants confidence, and they
become easily fatigued. Dwelling on a soil where alimentary products,
once abundantly sown, harvest themselves without labour or effort, the
Tahitians have preserved soft effeminate manners, and a certain
childishness in their ideas.
The seductive attractions of Tahitian women have been very charmingly
painted by Bougainville, Wallis, and Cook, but Lesson assures us, on the
contrary, that they are extremely ugly, and that a person would hardly
find in the whole island thirty passable faces, according to our ideas
of beauty. He adds, that after early youth all the females become
disgusting, by reason of a general flabbiness, which is all the greater
because it usually succeeds considerable stoutness. There is room for
believing that the good looks of the race have deteriorated in
consequence of contagious diseases since the first European navigators
landed in this island, a very fortunate one in the magnificence of its
vegetation and the mildness of its temperature.
Tahitian girls before marriage have full legs, small hands, large
mouths, flattened nostrils, prominent cheek-bones and fleshy lips; their
teeth are of the finest enamel, and their well-shaped prominent eyes,
shaded by long, fringed lashes, and sheltered by broad black eyebrows,
beam with animation and fire. Too early marriage and suckling, however,
very soon destroy any charms which they may possess. Their skin is
usually of a light copper-colour, but some are remarkable for their
whiteness, particularly the wives of the chiefs.
Family ties are very strong among the Tahitians. They have great love
for their children, speak to them with gentleness, never strike them,
and taste nothing pleasing without offering them some of it.
The women manufacture cloth, weave mats or straw hats, and take care of
the house. The men build the huts, hollow canoes, plant trees, gather
fruits, and cook the victuals in underground ovens. Essentially
indolent, the Tahitians generally go to bed at twilight.
[Illustration: 177.--NATIVE OF TAHITI.]
All the members of the family live huddled together in the same room, on
mats spread upon the ground; chiefs, alone, reposing upon similar
textures stretched on frames. The siesta is also one of their habits,
and they invariably sleep for three hours after noon.
Flesh-meat, fruits, and roots constitute their usual sustenance; but
the basis of their food is the fruit of the bread-tree. They venerate
the cocoa-tree.
Their ordinary drink is pure water. They have an unrestrained fancy for
European garments, and seek by every imaginable means to get themselves
coats, hats, silk cravats, and especially shirts. But as they do not
possess sufficient of our manufactures to dress themselves completely in
our style, they frequently exhibit a sort of motley attire. The women
when within-doors are almost naked; some pieces of cloth, skilfully
arranged and half-covering their bosoms, form a kind of tunic, while
their feet are bare. They have a great liking for chaplets of flowers,
and bright blossoms of the _Hibiscus Rosa sinensis_, or China rose,
adorn their foreheads. They pass through the lobe of their ears the long
tube of the white and perfumed corolla of the _gardenia_, and protect
their faces from the fiery rays of the sun with small leaves of the
cocoa-tree.
The chief employment of the Tahitians is the manufacture of cloth. By
very simple means they form fabrics from various barks, with which they
clothe themselves in a manner as ingenious as it is comfortable. The
paper-mulberry tree, the bread-tree, the _Hibiscus tiliaceus_, &c., are
the plants of which they generally use the inner bark. They dye these
stuffs with the red juice extracted from the fruit of a species of
fig-tree, or in canary-yellow.
Their garments are not the only things which these people embellish in
brilliant colours and with different patterns. They have a passionate
love for tattooing, but, nevertheless, do not bear a single device on
their faces. The parts on which they trace indelible marks are the legs,
arms, thighs and breast. Everything leads to the conclusion that
tattooing, which is forbidden by the missionaries under the severest
penalties, was, and is doubtless still, the symbol of each individual’s
functions and the emblazonment of the armorial bearings of families, for
its designs are always varied.
The Tahitians of former days constructed canoes ornamented with very
carefully executed emblematic carvings, but since iron tools have taken
the place of their imperfect implements, they do not give signs of the
same pains in adorning their workmanship. Their ancient weapons are also
greatly neglected since they have acquired firearms. Heretofore, they
had long spears with pointed ends, slings formed from the husk of the
cocoa-nut, basalt axes of perfect shape, and files made out of the
rasp-like skin of a skate.
They have a passionate love for dancing. The instrument they use for
beating the measure is a drum, the cylinder of which consists of a trunk
of a tree scooped very thin. The dog-skins which constitute the
drum-head are stretched by ribbons of bark. They blow with the nose into
a little reed flute having three holes at its open end, and one only at
that which is furnished with a diaphragm, and produce deep, monotonous
tones from it.
The Tahitians are hospitable, and display great civility in guiding
travellers in the middle of the woods, and in their mountains.
Christianity has modified their habits a little. They attend the
Protestant churches because they are obliged to do so, but they have
little religion. Among themselves property is sacred; that of strangers
is, however, eagerly coveted.
We cannot dwell here upon the sanguinary human sacrifices which their
priests formerly commanded the natives of this island to offer up, nor
upon their coarse mythology. The English missionaries of the Reformed
Church have long since caused these fiendish customs to disappear.
_Pomotouans_--The Pomotouans, who inhabit the low, flat islands known to
geographers and mariners by the name of the Dangerous Archipelago, are
constituted in a physical point of view like the Tahitians, to whom they
bear a close resemblance, but they do not possess the benevolent
character nor the affectionate manners of the latter. Their look is
fierce, and the play of the features savage. They cover their bodies and
faces with tattooing, the figures of which consist of lozenges and
numerous circles, and their nakedness seems quite to disappear beneath
the mass of these designs. As the islands they inhabit are poor in
alimentary productions, they only think of repelling by force any
navigators who attempt to enter into communication with them. Deriving
as they do their daily sustenance from the sea, they are daring sailors
and skilful fishermen. They form, from a very hard wood, javelins that
are sometimes fifteen feet long, and ornament them with carvings
executed with much taste; their paddles are also engraved in very
graceful patterns, as well as their axes, which are cut with coral. The
women wear on their throats pieces of mother-of-pearl, which are shaped
round and notched at the edges, making brilliant and elegant necklaces.
Our spirituous liquors are frantically sought after by the natives.
_Marquesans._--The aborigines of the Marquesas are closely allied to
those of the Society Islands, having similar features and a colour which
presents like varieties. Cook affirmed that they excelled perhaps all
the other races in the nobleness and elegance of their forms, and the
regularity of their lineaments. The men are tattooed from head to foot
and appear very brown, but the women, who are only lightly marked, the
children, and the young people, who are not so at all, have skins as
white as many Europeans. The men are in general tall, and wear the beard
long and arranged in different ways. Their garments are identical with
those of the Tahitians, and made from stuffs of the same materials.
_Sandwichians._--The colour of this people is that of Siena clay,
slightly mixed with yellow. Their hair would be magnificent if they
allowed it to grow, for it is as black and shining as jet. Their manners
are pleasing. They usually shave the sides of the head, allowing a tuft
to grow on the top, which extends down to the nape of the neck in the
form of a mane. Some, however, preserve their hair entire, and let it
float in very gracefully twisted locks about their shoulders. Their eyes
are lively and full of expression; their nose slightly flat and often
aquiline; their mouth and lips moderately large. They have splendid
teeth, and it is consequently a great pity when they extract a few on
the death of a friend or benefactor. Their chests are broad, but their
arms show little muscle, while the thighs and legs are sinewy enough,
and their feet and hands excessively small. They all tattoo their bodies
or one of their limbs with designs representing birds, fans,
chequer-work, and circles of different diameters. The same superstition
that deprives them of their teeth at the death of a relation or of a
friend also imposes upon them the obligation of cauterizing every part
of their bodies with a red-hot iron.
The women are not so well-made as the men, and their stature is small
rather than tall, but their ample shoulders, and the smallness of their
hands and feet, are generally admired. They have a great love for
coronets of green leaves. Princesses and ladies of high rank have
reserved to themselves the exclusive right of wearing flowers of
_vacci_ passed through a reed. Hardly any of them use more than one
earring, but they have a passion for necklaces, and make them of flowers
and fruits.
These details are derived from Jacques Arago, who published under the
title, “_Voyage autour du Monde_,” an account of the long and remarkable
journey which he made in 1817, and the three following years, on board
the French corvettes, _L’Uranie_ and _La Physicienne_, commanded by
Freycinet.
In a letter dated from Owhyhee, as was also that from which the
preceding information has been taken, the same traveller gives us the
following sketch of the “palace” of the Sovereign of the Sandwich
Islands, as well as of its occupants.
It was a miserable thatch hut, from twelve to fifteen feet in breadth,
and about five-and-twenty or thirty feet long, with no means of entrance
but a low, narrow door. A few mats were spread within, on which some
half-naked colossi--generals and ministers--were lying. Two chairs were
visible, destined on ceremonial days for a huge, greasy, dirty, heavy,
haughty man--the king. The queen, but half-dressed, was a prey to the
itch and other disgusting maladies. This tasteful and imposing interior
was protected by walls of cocoa leaves and a sea-weed roof, feeble
obstacles to the wind and rain.
M. de la Salle in his account of the voyage of the _Bonite_ (1836 and
1837), states that the natives of the Sandwich Islands generally possess
good constitutions; that their slender and well-formed figures are
usually above middle height, but far from equalling that of the chiefs
and their wives, who seem from their tall stature and excessive
corpulence to have a different origin from the common people. These
exalted personages appear in fact to be descended from a race of
conquerors, who, having subjugated the country, established there the
feudal system by which it is still oppressed. The same author adds that
the Sandwichians have mild, patient dispositions, are dexterous and
intelligent, and capable of bearing fatigue with ease.
Such is the state of misery in which the lower classes live, that the
unfortunate wretches have scarcely what will keep them from dying of
starvation. This distress is not the result of idleness alone; the ever
increasing exactions of the chiefs harass and discourage the labourer.
The voyagers in the _Bonite_ when drawing near the Sandwich Islands,
could think of nothing but the pictures of them which Captain Cook has
left us; of those wild, energetic, kind, simple men; those warriors in
mantles of feathers; those women full of grace and voluptuousness; of
whom the English explorer has given the most alluring descriptions. They
were first pleased by the neat and elegant shapes of the canoes as well
as by the expertness of the swimmers. They beheld the islanders as naked
as in the days of Cook, without any other attire than the traditional
“maro;” but these men did not now come, by way of salute, to crush their
noses against those of their visitors; they were profuse of handshaking
all round, in the English fashion, and affected the airs of gentlemen.
Bananas, potatoes, and other fresh provisions had been brought on board
by them, but when, as in olden times, they were offered necklaces,
bracelets, and ear-rings, the savages no longer showed the genuine
admiration and fierce eagerness which were looked for from them. After a
disdainful glance thrown at the beads, they asked for clothes and iron.
These men had ceased to be the artless islanders of the time of Captain
Cook!
[Illustration: 178.--NATIVE OF THE SANDWICH ISLANDS.]
One of the officers of the _Bonite_, M. Vaillant, was invited to come on
shore by a district chief, named Kapis-Lani, who happened to be a woman.
Her toilet did not in the least resemble that of the natives, consisting
of a white muslin robe confined at the waist by a long blue riband, a
silk kerchief rolled about her neck, and a head-dress of hair fastened
by two horn combs.
The former customs of the inhabitants of the Sandwich Islands have been
completely modified, from every point of view, by the English
missionaries, who, in order to gain their object have availed themselves
of the weapon heretofore so powerful in the hands of priests and of
kings,--“taboo.”
Formerly, when a ship arrived, a multitude of women used to come to take
it by assault, either in canoes or swimming, contending among
themselves, _per fas et nefas_, for the bounties of the strangers: the
missionaries declared the sea “tabooed” for the softer sex.
In order to restrain the laxity of morals, wives were proclaimed
“tabooed” for everyone except their husbands, and unmarried girls
“tabooed” for all. It was necessary to proscribe the passion for strong
drinks, and consequently brandy, wine, and other liquors were struck
with the same interdiction.
We should add that these reformers did not limit themselves to the moral
authority of “taboo,” but supported it by the stick and hard labour on
the roads.
By such means they have succeeded in altering the external and public
behaviour of the natives, but not in uprooting vice among them.
We shall borrow a few features from the picture which M. Vaillant has
sketched of his walk in a village of Hawaii.
Scarcely had he arrived when he heard himself called from the interior
of a large cabin in which were assembled about thirty persons, who
invited him to enter.
The dwelling was built of straw, and along its walls calabashes,
cocoa-nuts, and a few fishing utensils were to be seen hanging in
confusion.
A single apartment usually answered all purposes, but it was separated
into two parts. Some mats spread upon the ground at one side indicated
where the occupants slept; the ground opposite was bare, and in the
latter division the hearth was placed.
The officer seated himself on the matting in the same way as his hosts,
who surrounded him and overpowered him with questions. Men and women,
moreover, without giving a thought to decency or the civilization
introduced by the English missionaries, put themselves perfectly at
their ease, and were content with the very simple attire of their
forefathers; the “maro” formed the whole extravagance of their toilette.
The most apparent result of the efforts of the missionaries is that the
natives of the Sandwich Islands are for the most part able to read and
write. These perfectly naked savages possess a prayer-book, a treatise
on arithmetic, and a bible.
Any little presents which people liked to offer them were accepted by
the women with gratitude; after a few coquettish advances, in case a
person pressed them closely, they uttered slowly and distinctly, the
word, “taboo.”
When out-of-doors their costume consisted of a piece of cloth which they
draped around them not ungracefully; but they did not appear very pretty
to the eyes of the voyagers in the _Bonite_.
The governor of Hawaii, Kona-Keni, was a man of goodly presence and
pleasing face; his height was almost gigantic and his corpulence
enormous, so much so that he could scarcely support himself upon his
legs. His wife received M. Vaillant. She reclined on a heap of mats
forming a bed raised a foot above the ground, and was covered from head
to foot in a loose gown of blue brocaded silk. Her proportions also were
immense. Laid heavily on the piled-up mats her prodigious mass reminded
him of a seal basking in the sun. Around the bed of the lady paramount,
were ranged, squatted on mats, the numerous dames forming the court of
Kona, and who were clad in loose robes of cotton stuff with coloured
flowers. Their head-dresses consisted of hair only, in the American
style. Two of them were provided with fly-flappers, which they waved
incessantly round Kona’s head. The governor wore a straw hat, a vest and
shirt of printed calico, gray trowsers, and had his neck bare.
_P. Sellier, p.^{t}_
_Imp. Dupuy, 22, R. des Petits Hôtels_
_G. Regamey, lith._
ABYSSINIAN
HINDOO
BROWN RACE]
MICRONESIAN FAMILY.
The Micronesian Family inhabits the small islands lying to the
north-west of Oceania, that is to say the archipelagos of the Marianne
(or Ladrone) Islands, as well as of the Caroline and Mulgrave groups,
&c. According to Dumont d’Urville these tribes differ from those
dwelling in the east by having a darker skin, thinner face, less widely
opened eyes, more slender forms, and altogether distinct dialects, which
vary from one group to another. Their manners are gentle. They do not
recognize “taboo.”
We shall avail ourselves of some interesting details which Lesson has
given of the Caroline islands, mentioning in the first place what he has
told us concerning the Gilbert group.
A solitary canoe containing three men ventured to approach his corvette,
and it was only after prolonged hesitation that these individuals made
up their minds to go on board. They had lank and miserable limbs; a dark
colour, and broad, coarse features; their hair was cut close by means of
a shell, and neither beard nor moustache was apparent. The only covering
they wore was a little round cap of plaited dry leaves of the cocoa
tree, and a roughly-made mat with a hole in the middle, for the
protection of the shoulders and breast. Their stomachs were bound round
with twists of a rope formed from the husk of cocoa-nuts.
Lesson and his companions were the first Europeans whom the natives of
the island of Oualan had seen. They made a ring round the voyagers,
touched them with their hands, and overwhelmed them with questions. This
race is generally of low stature. The men have high and narrow
foreheads, thick eyebrows, small oblique eyes, broad noses, large
mouths, white teeth, and bright red gums. Their black unfrizzled hair is
long, and their beard far from abundant. They possess rounded and
well-formed limbs, and a hard, light bronze-coloured skin. They are
spiritless and effeminate.
The women and young girls have agreeable countenances, their black eyes
being full of fire, and their mouths furnished with superb teeth; but
their figures are badly formed, and they have hips of immoderate size.
They go about in almost complete nudity. Both sexes have a habit of
making a large hole in the right ear, for the purpose of placing in it
everything that people give them, and sometimes articles very unfit for
earrings, such as bottles. Girls usually fill it with bouquets of
_pancratium_, a plant of the amaryllis family, and often detach a few of
these sweet-smelling flowers, and try to put them into a traveller’s
ears, while smiling graciously. The men also wear chaplets of brilliant
flowers or arum stalks.
These aborigines do not make use of any kind of garments as a protection
against the frequent rains of their climate, but they shield their heads
from the sun with a broad arum leaf.
The chiefs seem to try not to expose themselves so much to the
influences of the heat, and are whiter and better made than the other
islanders. The patterns of their tattooing are their sole mark of
distinction; they fasten feathers, however, in the knot which confines
their hair, and whenever persons give them nails they stick them around
their forehead, arranging them regularly like a diadem. The women
appeared chaste; nay more, the men were anxious to keep them out of the
strangers’ sight, a feeling all the more remarkable because quite at
variance with the usual habits of the South Sea Islanders.
Oualan was governed at that time by one chief only, whom the people
encompassed with extraordinary reverence, never pronouncing his name
without veneration.
The prerogatives of the chiefs appear to rest upon religious ideas. They
differ in general from the people by an erect carriage, a more imposing
and solemn manner, as well as by the better executed tattooing which
indicates their rank. A great many chiefs rule in the districts of the
island, and appear to hold absolute rights over property, and, it may
be, over persons.
As regards industry, the only manufactures for which the natives of
Oualan are remarkable are cloth and canoes. They draw threads from the
leaves or the stems of the wild banana tree (_Musa textilis_), which
they know how to dye in red, yellow, or black, and with which they make
stuffs that are not greatly inferior to European textures.
They build their boats with hatchets formed of stone or shell, and
notwithstanding the imperfection of these implements, give to their work
a finish of finical nicety. The body of the canoe is hollowed from a
single tree, sometimes a very big one. They polish the wood with
trachyte, or by means of large rasps made from the skin of the
sea-devil. These little vessels are propelled by oars, without either
sails or masts.
Lesson, in alluding to the people of the Mac-Askill Islands, who bear
the closest analogy to the inhabitants of Oualan both in physical
characteristics and the state of their industry, remarks on the taste
which some savages display for flowers as an adornment of the person.
There were young females in these islands who wore on their heads crowns
of _Ixora_, the corollas of which are a brilliant crimson; a few had
passed through the holes in their ears leaves of flowers exhaling the
fragrant odour of violets, and white blossoms were twined in the hair of
others. These ornaments, adds the learned traveller, possessed a charm
more easy to feel than to express.
THE RED RACE.
This race is sometimes designated as the American, because in the
fifteenth century it formed in itself alone almost the whole population
of the two Americas. But Europeans, and especially the English of the
United States, constitute, at present, the greatest part of the
inhabitants of America. They have to a certain extent monopolised the
name of “Americans,” so much so that people generally call the nations
of the Red Race _Indians_, a title which was given to them by the
Spaniards, in the time of Christopher Columbus, in consequence of that
strange mistake of the great Genoese navigator, who discovered the New
World without knowing it, that is to say, while imagining that he had
simply found a new passage by which to reach the “Great Indies,” in
Asia.
The denomination of _Red Race_ is, besides, a defective one, in so much
that several tribes ranked in this group have no shade of red in their
colour. This division is, in fine, rather imperfect from an ethnological
point of view, but it possesses the advantage of fixing geographically
the _habitat_ of the nations included in it.
The _American Indians_ approach closely to the Yellow Race belonging to
Asia, in their hair, which is generally black, rough, and coarse, in
the scarceness of their beard, and in their complexion, which varies
from yellow to a red copper colour. Among one portion of them the very
prominent nose and large open eyes recall to mind the White Race. Their
forehead is extremely retreating, but no other race have the back part
of the head more developed, or broader eye-sockets. Though usually
hospitable and generous, they are cruel and implacable in their
resentments, and make war for the most frivolous causes. Two of these
nations, the primitive Mexicans and Peruvians, had formerly founded wide
empires, and had attained a somewhat advanced civilization, though lower
than that of Europeans of the same epoch. But these monarchies having
been swept away by their Spanish conquerors, progress was checked. The
Indians who escaped the destruction of their race, and submitted to the
victors, are now no better than husbandmen or artisans, while as for
those that remained independent, they wander in the woods and the
prairies, and are the last representatives of man in the savage or
semi-savage state. They live in the forests and savannahs, on the
produce of their hunting and fishing; their wives are kept by them in a
state of the greatest abjectness, and are loaded with the heaviest
labour; while certain tribes still continue to offer human sacrifices to
their idols.
A fact which deserves notice is, that the Indians who were already
settled and who were husbandmen when the Spaniards arrived, speedily
submitted to the strangers, but never has it been found possible to tame
those who have shown themselves, from the fifteenth century to this day,
rebels to foreign influence, and who have preferred to become masters of
the forest solitudes rather than accept the yoke and customs of the
Europeans. Moreover, the number and population of the wild tribes of the
two Americas diminish every year, especially in the north, a result
attributable to their continual wars, the ravages of the small-pox, and,
above all, to the fatal passion of these savage nations for brandy.
Anthropologists have taken great trouble to discover the real origin of
the Indians of America, and to establish their affinity with the other
human families, but up to the present their studies have led to no
satisfactory result. The Indians cannot be accurately brought into
connection with either the White, Yellow, or Brown Race; nor on the
other hand can the mingling of these three groups be explained, nor the
American Indian be recognized as a determinate original type.
The great differences, both in the shape of the skull and the colour of
the skin, which are known to exist among the Indian tribes, proclaim
numerous crossings. Many circumstances prove that in very remote times
some Europeans made their way into America by the north, and that they
found there one or many native races, whom they partially overcame, and
with whom they are mingled to the present day. The degree of
civilization that had been reached by the Mexicans and Peruvians of old,
when Columbus landed in the New World; the American tradition which
holds that the founders of their empires were foreigners; the existence
on the Northern continent of ruins announcing a state of things at least
as far advanced as that of the _Nahuath_ and the _Quichuas_, (the former
Mexicans and Peruvians); such are the facts which establish that a
blending formerly took place between the primitive Indians and Northern
Europeans.
The shape of the body peculiar to the Indians of the north-east, has
equally led to the supposition that they reckon some Europeans among
their ancestors, an idea which appears all the more admissible, because
in the tenth century the ancient Scandinavians undoubtedly had relations
with America.
Consequently, the original race which has peopled the Western Hemisphere
is almost impossible to be traced. Probably the population which existed
in the New World before the arrival of the Europeans was made up of
several types different from those that are extant at present in the
other regions of the globe, types having a great tendency to modify
themselves, and which were obliterated whenever they came in contact
with the races of Europe. But to re-ascend back to this primordial
population would now be impossible.
In commenting on the tribes of the Red Race, we shall separate the
Indians who inhabit North America from those dwelling in the southern
continent, for certain characteristics mark these two groups; in other
words, we shall distinguish in the Red Race two divisions--the southern
branch and the northern branch.
CHAPTER I.
SOUTHERN BRANCH.
The nations of the southern branch of the Red Race have affinity to
those of the Yellow Race. Their complexion, which is often yellowish or
olive, is never so red as that of the northern Indians; their head is
usually of less length and their nose not so prominent, while they
frequently have oblique eyes.
We intend to divide this branch into three families, named respectively
the _Andian_, _Pampean_, and _Guarani_.
ANDIAN FAMILY.
This family contains three different peoples:--firstly, the _Quichuas_;
secondly, the _Antis Indians_; and thirdly, the _Araucanians_.
The characteristics which the tribes belonging to this group possess in
common are an olive-brown complexion, small stature, low retiring
forehead, and horizontal eyes, which are not drawn down at the outer
angle. They inhabit the western parts of Bolivia, Peru, and the State of
Quito. These countries were completely subjugated by the Spaniards in
the sixteenth century, and the natives converted to Christianity.
We shall notice in the first division, _Quichuas_ or ancient _Incas_,
the _Aymaras_, the _Atacamas_, and the _Changos_.
_Quichuas_ or _Incas_.--The Quichuas were the principal people of the
ancient empire of the Incas, and they still constitute almost half the
free Indian population of South America. In the fifteenth century the
Incas were the dominant race among the nations of Peru, speaking a
language of their own, called Quichu.
The former Incas, those who lived before the Spanish invasion, were
possessed of a certain degree of civilization. They had calculated
exactly the length of the solar year, had made rather considerable
progress in the art of sculpture, preserved memorials of their history
by means of hieroglyphics, and enjoyed a well-organized government and a
code of good laws. Orators, poets, and musicians were to be found among
them, and their figurative melodious language denoted prolonged culture.
Their religion was impressed to the highest degree with a devotional
character. They recognized a God, the supreme arbiter and creator of all
things. This divinity was the sun, and superb temples were raised by
them to its honour. Their religion and their manners breathed great
sweetness. The fierce Spanish conquerors encountered this mild,
inoffensive race, and never rested until they had annihilated with fire
and sword these unsophisticated, peaceable men, who were of more worth
than their cruel invaders.
[Illustration: 179.--HUASCAR, THIRTEENTH EMPEROR OF THE INCAS.]
Figs. 179 and 180 represent types of Incas drawn from the genealogical
tree of the imperial family, which was published in the “_Tour du
Monde_,” in 1863.
According to Alcide d’Orbigny, the naturalist, who has given a perfect
description of this race, the Quichuas are not copper-coloured, but of a
mixed shade, between brown and olive; their average height is not more
than five feet two inches, that of the females being still lower. They
have broad, square shoulders, and an excessively full chest, very
prominent, and very long. Their hands and feet are small. The cranium
and features of this people are strongly characteristic, constituting a
perfectly distinct type, which bears no resemblance to any but the
Mexican. The head is oblong from front to back, and a little compressed
at the sides; the forehead slightly rounded, low, and somewhat
retreating; yet the skull is often capacious, and denotes a rather large
development of the brain. The face is generally broad; the nose always
prominent, somewhat long, and so extremely aquiline, as to seem as if
the end were bent over the upper lip, and pierced by wide very open
nostrils. The size of the mouth is large rather than moderate, and the
lips protrude, although they are not thick. The teeth are invariably
handsome, and remain good during old age. Without being receding, the
chin is a little short; indeed it is sometimes slightly projecting. The
eyes are of moderate size and frequently even small, always horizontal,
and never either drawn down or up at their outer angle. The eyebrows are
greatly arched, narrow, and thin. The colour of the hair is always a
fine black, and it is coarse, thick, long, and extremely smooth and
straight, and comes down very low at each side of the forehead. The
beard is limited to a few straight and scattered hairs, which appear
very late across the upper lip, at the sides of the mouth, and on the
point of the chin. The countenance of these men is regular, serious,
thoughtful, and even sad, and it might be said that they wish to
conceal their thoughts beneath the still, set look of their features. A
pretty face is seldom seen among the women.
[Illustration: 180.--COYA CAHUANA, EMPRESS OF THE INCAS.]
An ancient vase has been found on which is a painting of an Inca, who is
in every way so entirely like those of the present day as to prove that
during four or five centuries the lineaments of these people have not
undergone any perceptible alteration.
The _Aymaras_ bear a close resemblance, so far as physical
characteristics are concerned, to the Quichuas, from whom, however, they
are completely separated by language.
They formed a numerous nation, spread over a wide expanse of country,
and appear to have been civilized in very remote times. We may consider
the Aymaras as the descendants of that ancient race which, in far-off
ages, inhabited the lofty plains now covered by the singular monuments
of Tiagnanaco, the oldest city of South America, and which peopled the
borders of Lake Titicaca.
The Aymaras resemble the Quichuas in the most remarkable feature of
their organization, namely the length and breadth of the chest, which,
by allowing the lungs to attain a great development, renders these
tribes particularly suited for living on high mountains. In the shape of
the head and the intellectual faculties, as well as in manners, customs,
and industry, both peoples may be compared, but the architecture of the
monuments and tombs of the former race diverges widely from that of the
Incas.
Two nations inferior in numbers to those of which we have just spoken,
may be mentioned here; they are the _Atacamas_, occupying the western
declivities of the Peruvian Andes, and the _Changos_, dwelling on the
slopes next the Pacific. Both one and the other are like the Incas in
physical characteristics, but the colour of the skin of the Changos is
of a slightly darker hue, being a blackish bistre.
_Antis._--The Antis Indians comprise many tribes, namely, the Yuracares,
Mocéténès, Tacanas, Maropas, and Apolistas, races which inhabit the
Bolivian Andes. Their complexion is lighter than that of the Incas, they
have not such bulky bodies, and their features are more effeminate.
The account which M. Paul Marcoy has given in the “_Tour du Monde_” of
his travels across South America from the shores of the Pacific to those
of the Atlantic, is accompanied by several sketches representing Antis
Indians and some wandering hordes which belong to the same group; and we
have reproduced a few of these drawings in our pages, the first two
(figs. 181 and 182) being types of the heads of these people. We also
derive from the same source the following details as to this race.
The Antis is of medium stature and well-proportioned, with rounded
limbs. He paints his cheeks and the part round his eyes with a red dye,
extracted from the rocou plant, and also colours those parts of his body
exposed to the air with the black of genipa. His covering consists of a
long, sack-shaped frock, woven by the women, as is also the wallet, in
the shape of a hand bag, carried by him across his shoulder, and
containing his toilet articles, namely:--a comb made with the thorns of
the Chouta palm; some rocou in paste; half a genipa apple; a bit of
looking-glass framed in wood; a ball of thread; a scrap of wax; pincers
for extracting hairs, formed of two mussel-shells; a snuff-box made from
a snail’s shell, and containing very finely ground tobacco gathered
green; an apparatus for grating the snuff, made of the ends of reeds or
two arm bones of a monkey, soldered together with black wax at an acute
angle; sometimes, a knife, scissors, fish-hooks, and needles of
European manufacture.
[Illustration: 181.--AN ANTIS INDIAN.]
Both sexes wear their hair hanging down like a horse’s tail, and cut
straight across just over the eyes. The only trinket they carry is a
piece of silver money flattened between two stones, which they pierce
with a hole and hang from the cartilage of their nostrils. For ornaments
they have necklaces of glass beads, cedar and styrax berries, skins of
birds of brilliant plumage, tucana’s beaks, tapir’s claws, and even
vanilla husks strung upon a thread.
[Illustration: 182.--AN ANTIS INDIAN.]
The Antis almost always build their dwellings on the banks of a
water-course, isolated and half hidden by a screen of vegetation. The
huts are low and dirty, and pervaded by a smell like that of wild
beasts, for the air can scarcely circulate in them. In the fine season
of the year sheds take the place of closed-up huts (fig. 183).
The weapons used by the Antis are clubs and bows and arrows. Fishermen
capture their prey in the running streams with arrows barbed at the
ends, or having three prongs like a trident. Other darts, with
palm-points or bamboo-heads, are employed by the hunter for birds and
quadrupeds.
The Antis occasionally poison the waters of the creeks and bays by means
of the _Menispermum cocculus_. The fish become instantaneously
intoxicated; they first struggle, then rise belly uppermost, and come
floating on the surface, where they are easily taken with the hand (fig.
184).
The earthenware of this people is coarsely manufactured, and is painted
and glazed. They live in families, or in separate couples, and have no
law beyond their own caprice. They do not elect chiefs, except in time
of war, and to lead them against an enemy. The girls are marriageable at
twelve years of age, and accept any husband who seeks them, if he has
previously made some present to their parents. They prepare their lord
and master’s food, weave his clothes, look after and gather in the crops
of rice, manioc, maize, and other cereals; carry his baggage on a
journey, follow him to battle, and pick up the arrows which he has
discharged; they also accompany him in the chase or when fishing, paddle
his canoe, and bring back to their dwelling the booty gained from an
enemy, and the game or fish which has been killed; and yet,
notwithstanding this severe work and continual bondage, the women are
always cheerful.
[Illustration: 183.--SUMMER SHED OF THE ANTIS.]
They use a large earthen vessel to cook the fish caught in the nearest
stream, or the game killed in the adjoining forest.
[Illustration: 184.--ANTIS INDIANS FISHING.]
When one of this nation dies, his relatives and friends assemble in his
abode, seize the corpse (which is wrapped in the loose sack-like frock
usually worn,) by the head and feet, and throw it into the river. They
then wreck the dwelling, break the deceased’s bow, arrows, and pottery,
scatter the ashes of his hearth, devastate his crops, cut down to the
ground the trees which he has planted, and finally set fire to his hut.
The place is thenceforth reputed impure, and is shunned by all
passers-by; vegetation very soon reasserts its sway, and the dead is for
ever effaced from the memory of the living.
[Illustration: 185.--PERUVIAN INTERPRETER.]
These people who thus treat their dead so badly, profess an equal
disdain for the aged, for whom they reserve the refuse of their food,
their worn-out rags, and the worst place at the hearth.
Their religion is a jumble of theogonies, in which however are
recognizable a notion of the existence of a supreme God, the idea of the
two principles of good and evil, and finally, a belief in reward or
punishment on leaving this life.
The manners of these tribes are, as may be seen, a somewhat singular
medley; free will is the ruling law and, as it were, the wisdom of their
race, which lives unfettered in the bosom of nature.
The Antis Indians have a soft smooth idiom, which they speak with
extreme volubility in a low, gentle tone that never varies.
_Araucanians._--These tribes spread themselves over the western slopes
of the Andes, from 30 degrees south latitude to the extremity of Tierra
del Fuego, and also occupy the upper valleys and plains situate to the
east of the Cordilleras.
The Araucanians constitute two nations, namely, the people who properly
bear that name, indomitable warriors, whose heroism is celebrated in the
history of the Spanish conquest of Peru: and the _Pecherays_, who
inhabit the most southern link of the American mountain chain.
According to A. d’Orbigny, both these races present a great similitude
as regards their physical characteristics, which consist of a head that
is large in proportion to the body, a round face, prominent cheekbones,
a broad mouth, thick lips, a short, flat nose, wide nostrils, a narrow
retiring forehead, horizontal eyes, and a thin beard.
Fig. 186 is a representation, after Pritchard, of one of those
Araucanian Indians who may be considered as forming the least barbarous
of the independent native tribes of South America.
These people do not, in fact, lead the nomadic existence of Indians.
Being protected by thick forests from the attacks and invasions of the
Americans, they build what are real houses with wood and iron, and
their customs denote a rudimentary civilization.
A Périgueux attorney has rendered the Araucanian nation celebrated in
France. He had succeeded in getting himself chosen as its king, and when
chased away by the Peruvians came to relate his Odyssey in Europe,
returning afterwards to reconquer his unstable throne. Orélie, the First
of the name, has according to rumour recovered at present his lofty
position among the Indians of Araucania. We wish him a tranquil reign.
[Illustration: 186.--ARAUCANIAN.]
The _Pecherays_ inhabit the coast of Tierra del Fuego and both shores of
the Straits of Magellan. The life they lead and the ice covering all the
interior of the hilly country they occupy, force them to remain
exclusively on the borders of the sea.
Their colour is olive or tawny; they are well built but of clumsy
figure, and their legs bowed, from continually sitting cross-legged,
give them an unsteady gait. Their pleasant natural smile gives
indication of an obliging disposition.
Being essentially nomadic, they do not form themselves into communities,
but move about in small numbers, by groups of two or three families,
living by hunting and fishing, and changing their resting-place as soon
as they have exhausted the animals and shell-fish of the neighbourhood.
Dwelling in a region which is split up into a multitude of islands, they
have become navigators, and continually traverse every shore of Tierra
del Fuego as well as of the countries situated to the east of the
strait. They build large boats, twelve to fifteen feet long and three
feet broad, from the bark of trees, with no other implements than shells
or hatchets made of flint.
[Illustration: 187.--PECHERAY HUTS.]
Their huts (fig. 187) are covered over with earth or sealskins and some
fine morning the whole family will abandon them and take to their canoes
with their numerous dogs. The women ply their oars, while the men hold
themselves in readiness to pierce any fish they perceive, with a dart
pointed by a sharpened stone. When in this way they arrive at another
island, the women, having placed their little vessel in safety, start
in search of shell-fish and the men go hunting with the sling or the bow.
A short stay is followed by a fresh departure.
These poor people are thus incessantly exposed to the dangers of the sea
and the inclemency of the seasons, and yet they are, it may be said,
without clothing. The men’s shoulders are barely covered with a scrap of
sealskin, whilst the whole apparel of the women consists in a little
apron of the same material.
Notwithstanding this rude existence, the Pecherays display some
coquetry. They load their necks, arms, and legs with gewgaws and shells,
and paint their bodies, and oftener their faces, with different designs
in red, white, and black. The men occasionally ornament their heads with
bunches of feathers. All wear a kind of boot made of sealskin.
Like all other tribes who subsist by hunting, the Pecherays have among
themselves frequent quarrels, and even petty wars, that last only a
short time but are continually renewed.
They share their food with their faithful companions, the dogs; it
consists of cooked or raw shell-fish, birds, fish, and seals, and they
eat the fat of the latter raw. They do not, like the inhabitants of the
North Pole, pass the most rigorous period of the winter underground, but
pursue their labours in the open air, protecting themselves as best they
can against the cold which prevails on these shores, notwithstanding the
deceitful name of Tierra del Fuego. This “Land of Fire,” by reason of
its proximity to the South Pole, is, during the greater part of the
year, a region of ice.
The women are subjected to the roughest labours. They row, fish, build
the cabins, and plunge into the sea, even during the most intense cold,
in their search for the shell-fish attached to the rocks.
The language of the Pecherays resembles that of the Patagonians and the
Puelches in sound, and that of the Araucanians in form. Their weapons
and their religion, as well as the paintings on their faces, are also
those of these three neighbouring nations.
PAMPEAN FAMILY.
The rather numerous tribes of South America who compose this family are
frequently of tall stature, with arched and prominent foreheads
overhanging horizontal eyes which are sometimes contracted at the outer
angle. They inhabit the immense plains or _Pampas_, situated at the foot
of the eastern slope of the Andes. They rear great numbers of horses,
and consequently the men, like the tribes who roam over the steppes of
Asia, are nearly always mounted.
The peoples comprised in this family are: the _Patagonians_, properly so
called; the _Puelches_, or the tribes of the Pampas to the south of the
La Plata river; the _Charruas_, in the vicinity of Uruguay; the _Tobas_,
_Lenguas_, and _Machicuys_, who occupy the greater part of Chaco; the
_Moxos_, the _Chiquitos_, and the _Mataguayos_; and finally the famous
_Abipones_; the centaurs of the New World. We can only speak of some of
these groups.
_Patagonians._--Under this name we include, besides the Patagonians
proper, several other nomadic races resembling them, who are found, some
to the north, and others to the south, of the La Plata. The latter
wander over the pampas which stretch from that river as far as the
Straits of Magellan; while the northern tribes, who bear a physical
resemblance to the genuine Patagonians, inhabit that portion of the
country comprised between the Paraguay river and the last spurs of the
Cordilleras, and which stretches northward as far as the twentieth
degree of latitude, including the inland plains of the province of
Chaco.
The Patagonians are the nomads of the New World. They furnish the
horsemen who scour its vast arid tracts, living under tents of skins, or
who hide in its forests, in huts covered with bark and thatch. Haughty
and unconquered warriors, they despise agriculture and the arts of
civilization, and have always resisted the Spanish arms.
These savages have darker skins than most of those in South America.
Their complexion is an olive-brown; and among the men composing them we
find the tallest stature as well as the most athletic and robust frames.
The tribes dwelling furthest south are the tallest, and the height of
the others diminishes as the Chaco region is approached.
As has been stated in the introduction to this work, the stature of this
people has been heretofore greatly exaggerated. M. Alcide d’Orbigny,
who resided for seven months among many distinct divisions of the
Patagonians, measured several individuals in each. He assures us that
the tallest of all was only five feet eleven inches in height, and that
the average is not above five feet four.
M. Victor de Rochas, in the account he has given of his voyage to
Magellan’s Straits, has proved in a similar manner that the stature of
the Patagonians is by no means extraordinary. He found them possessed of
a brown complexion; coarse straight black hair, little beard; serious
countenances--those of the men being manly and haughty, and the women’s
mild and good--and regular but coarse features. The hands and feet of
the females were small.
Broad, robust bodies, stout limbs, and vigorous constitutions
characterise all the tribes in question, the women as well as the men.
The Patagonians proper have large heads and wide flat faces with
prominent cheek-bones.
Among the nations of Chaco, which we shall speak of further on, the eyes
are small, horizontal, and sometimes slightly contracted at the outer
corner; the nose is short, flat and broad, with open nostrils; the mouth
big, the chin short, and the lips thick and prominent; they have arched
eyebrows, little beard, long straight black hair, and gloomy
countenances, frequently of ferocious aspect.
Though the languages of these races are essentially distinct, they have
a certain analogy between themselves; all are harsh, guttural, and
difficult of pronunciation.
The details which follow are derived from the narrative of a traveller,
M. Guinard, who spent three years in captivity among the Patagonians.
Fate threw him into the hands of the tribe of the Poyuches, who wander
along the southern bank of the Rio Negro, from the neighbourhood of
Pacheco Island.
Whether these nomadic Indians live in the vicinity of the Spanish
Americans or in the solitudes of Patagonia, beneath the outlying woody
spurs of the Cordilleras, or on the bare, wild soil of the Pampas, they
lead identically the same life. Their occupations are the chase, tending
their domestic animals, horsemanship, and the use of the lance, the
sling, and the lasso.
Their dwellings consist of hide tents, carried by these savages from
place to place in their migrations. Their costume is composed of a piece
of some sort of stuff with a hole in the middle to pass the head
through, and their waist is girt by another fragment of smaller size. A
cloth rag is tied round their head, separating the hair in front, and
allowing it to fall in long waves over the shoulders. They carefully
pluck the hair from every part of their bodies, without even sparing the
eyebrows. Their faces are painted with volcanic earths which the
Araucanians bring them, the colours varying according to taste, but red,
blue, black, and white have the preference. The women wear a frock with
holes for their heads, arms, and legs; they pull out their hair and
eyebrows like the men, and paint their faces, the strange and hard
expression of which is enhanced by ornaments of coarse beads. Bracelets
and square ear-rings complete their toilette. They can throw the lance
and the lasso with as much ease as the men, and ride on horseback like
them. M. Guinard learned how to manage the horses and use the weapons of
this people, for they made him join in their nandu and _guanaco_ hunts.
[Illustration: 188.--PATAGONIAN.]
The chief occupation of these Indians is, in fact, the chase, and they
devote themselves to it all through the year. The _Chen-elches_, one of
the Patagonian tribes, who have no horses, pursue their game on foot.
[Illustration: 189.--A PATAGONIAN HORSE SACRIFICE.]
On their return from hunting the Patagonians abandon themselves to
gambling and debauchery. They cheat at play and become intoxicated to
madness, when they fight among themselves with fury. Two religious
festivals are observed by them during the year, on which occasions they
dance and indulge in fantastic cavalcades.
A custom of piercing their children’s ears exists among these people,
and the ceremony which then takes place is analogous to that of baptism.
The child is laid on a horse, which has been thrown down by the chief of
the family or tribe, and a hole is solemnly bored through the little
lobe of his ear.
Let us add that the existence of a new-born infant is submitted to the
consideration of the father and mother, who decide upon its life or
death. Should they think fit to get rid of it, it is smothered, and its
body carried a short distance, and then abandoned to wild dogs and birds
of prey. If the poor little one is judged worthy to live, its mother
nurses it until it is three years old, and at four years of age its ears
are solemnly pierced, as described above.
The Patagonians in their religious ceremonials, sacrifice to the Deity a
young horse and an ox given by the richest among them. When these
animals have been thrown on the ground, with their heads turned towards
the east, a man rips open the victim (fig. 189), tears out the heart and
sticks it, still palpitating, on the end of a spear. The eager and
curious crowd, with eyes fixed on the blood flowing from the gash, draw
auguries, which are almost always to their own advantage, and then
retire to their abodes, under the belief that God will favour their
undertakings.
Marriage among these nations is a traffic, a barter of various articles
and animals for a wife. The woman, moreover, is burdened with work,
whilst the man takes his ease, whenever he is not hunting or engaged in
minding the cattle.
The Patagonian who dies in his own home is buried with pomp. His body,
covered with his handsomest ornaments, and with his weapons laid beside
it, is stretched on a winding-sheet of skins. They then wrap it in these
skins and tie it on the back of his favourite horse, whose left leg they
break. All the women of the tribe join the wives of the deceased and
utter piercing shrieks. The men, having painted their hands and faces
black, escort the body as far as the place of burial, where horses and
sheep are sacrificed to serve as food for the dead during his journey
into the next world.
_Tobas_, _Lenguas_, and _Machicuys_.--These three tribes, which must, as
we have said, be included in the Pampean family, are termed collectively
the Indians of the Grand Chaco, or Great Desert. It will not be
uninteresting, in order to give an example of the customs of the wild
South American races, to quote here some pages in which an account of
his visit to the Grand Chaco nations is related by Dr. Demersay in his
travels in Paraguay.
“Reduced at the present day to very small numbers and, indeed, almost
extinct, the remnant of the Lengua nation,” says Dr. Demersay, “lives to
the north of the river Pilcomayo, in union and amalgamated with the
Emmages and Machicuys, within a short distance of the Quartel. Their
actual enemies are the Tobas, who are allied to the Pitiligas, Chunipis
and Aguilots, and who constitute a numerous horde on the other side of
the Pilcomayo.
“The remnants of the Lenguas are more especially joined and mingled with
the Machicuys: in fact, they no longer form more than a dozen families,
and the Mascoyian cacique is theirs as well.
“There are _payes_ or doctors, among the Lenguas, who administer nothing
to a sick person beyond water or fruit, and who practise suction with
the mouth for wounds and sore places. They interlard this operation with
juggleries and songs, accompanied by gourds (_porongos_), shaken in the
invalid’s ears. These porongos are filled with little stones, and make a
deafening clatter. The payes are also sorcerers, and read the future as
well as heal the sick.
“Some girls, but the custom is not general, tattoo themselves in an
indelible way at the age of puberty, an event which is always marked by
rejoicing. This festival consists of a family gathering, during which
the men intoxicate themselves with brandy, if they can obtain some by
barter, or with a fermented liquor (_chicha_) extracted from the fruit
of the _algarobo_.
“The tattooing of the women consists of four narrow and parallel blue
lines, which descend from the top of the forehead to the end of the
nose, but are not continued on the upper lip, as well as of irregular
rings traced on the cheeks and chin as far as the temples.
[Illustration: 190.--A BOLIVIAN CHIEF.]
“Both sexes pierce their ears when extremely young, and pass through
them a bit of wood, the width of which they keep incessantly increasing,
so that towards forty years of age the holes are of enormous dimensions.
I measured several of these orifices, and found their average length to
be two inches and a half, whilst their diameter was somewhat less
considerable. The pieces of wood are solid, irregularly rounded, and
about an inch and three-quarters in thickness at their widest part. The
Lenguas often replace them by a long fragment of the bark of a tree,
rolled spirally like a wire spring. This ear-ring is called a _barbote_.
“The Lenguas comb their hair, which they cut at the top of the forehead,
forming a lock which is drawn backwards, passing over the left ear,
until it falls into the mass collected and tied behind with a riband or
a woollen string. This body of hair, which is always black, straight,
and generally very fine and even silky, then falls between the
shoulders. The women do not always dress their hair in this way; I saw
many who allowed it to hang in loose disorder. Moreover, though they may
sometimes comb it, no one can say that these people take care of their
hair; their extreme filthiness argues to the contrary, for nothing can
possibly be seen dirtier than this nation, which in this respect closely
resembles the others.
“The weapons of the Lenguas consist of a bow and arrows, which they
carry behind their backs bound up in a hide; they have also an axe,
called by them _achagy_, borne in a similar manner. They carry in their
hand a _mahana_, or staff, made of hard, heavy wood; and to these is
also added a spear tipped with iron, and they sometimes have the _bolas_
and the lasso. They are excellent horsemen, riding barebacked with their
wife and children, all on the same animal, and all, women and men,
sitting in the same way. They use no bit, contenting themselves with a
piece of stick; they make reins from the fibres of the _caraguata_.
“Their olive brown colour, darker than that of the Tobas, their
prominent cheek-bones, small eyes, broad flat faces, slightly depressed
noses, wide mouths, and large lips, give to the countenance of these
savages a peculiar look which is not a little enhanced by a pair of ears
that come down to the base of the neck, and with some individuals as far
as the collar bone. The Lenguas, like all Indians, become hideous as
they grow old.
“A few weeks had passed since my excursion in this direction, when, as I
was returning to Assumption from a fresh journey into the interior of
the country, I heard that the Quartel had been the object of a
completely unforeseen attack on the part of the Chaco tribes, and that,
after an encounter in which two Indians had lost their lives, the troops
had been able to recover the stolen cattle and to take some prisoners,
who were immediately sent on to the capital, where they were confided to
the keeping of the guard at the cavalry barrack near the arsenal and
port. A more favourable opportunity could not have offered for
continuing and completing my ethnological studies, so the next day I
hastened to the building.
“On arriving there I found a dozen Indians loaded with irons, seated
here and there in the centre of a narrow court. They were covered with
dirty European garments, in tattered _ponchos_, or draped in antique
fashion with wretched blankets. Two boys, one eight and the other
fifteen years old, were among the prisoners, and all seemed sad and
dejected. They preserved a profound silence, which I had some trouble to
make them break.
“Side by side with the Lenguas, whom I had seen at the Quartel, there
were some Tobas and Machicuys; but although known to the first, my
interpreter questioned them in vain as to the motive of their attack.
“The Tobas are generally of tall and erect stature. I measured three of
them, and found their height to be respectively, 5 feet 10¼ inches, 5
feet 8½ inches, and 5 feet 6¼ inches. Their muscular system is
developed, and their well-formed limbs, like those of all the other
nations of the Chaco, are terminated by hands and feet which would cause
envy to an European.
“They have an ordinary forehead, which is not retreating; lively eyes,
larger than those of the Lenguas, and narrow thin eyebrows. The iris is
black, and they do not pluck out their eyelashes. Their long regular
nose is rounded at the end, where it becomes slightly enlarged, and
their mouth, which is a little turned up at the angles, is better
proportioned and smaller than that of the Lenguas, and is furnished with
fine teeth, which are preserved to a very advanced age. They are also
without prominent cheek-bones, and their faces are not so broad as that
of the other nation.
[Illustration: 191.--A BOAT ON THE RIO NEGRO.]
“The Tobas seem to have renounced the use of the barbote, which at the
time of Azara they still wore, and none of them had any scar on the
lower lip. Their ears were not pierced. They allow their hair to grow,
letting it float freely without being tied; a few, however, cut it
straight across the forehead, a habit which is even practised by some of
the women.
“The colour of their skin is an olive brown, not so dark as that of the
Lenguas, and contains no yellow tint; but I confess to the great
difficulty there is in expressing shades so varied in hue.
“Nothing could draw the prisoners from their taciturnity; their
countenances remained impassive, cold, and serious during all our
questioning. A winning smile and interesting face are attributed by some
travellers to the women while still young; but their features
deteriorate at an early age, and, like the men, they grow into repulsive
ugliness. Their breasts, which are of moderate size and well formed at
first, lengthen to such an extent as to enable them to suckle the
children carried on their backs.
“The Toba nation occupies, or, to speak more accurately, overruns a
considerable extent of the Chaco plains. We meet its members on the
banks of the Pilcomayo, from its mouth to the first spurs of the Andes,
where they come in contact with the Chiriguanos, with whom they are
often at war.
“Being usually nomadic, the Tobas occupy themselves in fishing and
hunting; their weapons consist of arrows, _makanas_, long spears with
iron points, and the _bolas_. Some of their tribes, more settled in
their habits, add the produce of agriculture to that of the chase, by
cultivating maize, manioc, and potatoes.
“The children of both sexes wear no covering; men and women roll a piece
of cloth round their loins, or envelope themselves in a cloak made from
the skins of wild animals. Necklaces and bracelets of glass beads or
small shells form the ornaments of the females, while in some tribes the
men twine round their bodies long white rows of beads, composed of
little fragments of shells rounded like buttons, and strung together at
regular intervals.”
_Machicuys._--Dr. Demersay does not share the opinion expressed by M.
d’Orbigny that the Machicuys may be nothing more than a tribe of the
Tobas, whose language they perhaps speak. According to the first-named
traveller, the tongues of the two nations are different, and other
distinctions separate them.
“The Machicuys,” says Dr. Demersay, “are more sedentary in their habits,
are greater tillers of the soil, and are endowed with less fierce
manners than the Lenguas, but they resemble them in the extraordinary
dimensions of the lobe of the ears as well as in their weapons and
method of fighting. Azara says that they differ in the shape of their
barbote, which is said to resemble that of the Charruas. To reiterate an
observation we have already made, we say that none of the Machicuys we
have seen showed any marks of the opening intended for the reception of
this savage ornament, which they are abandoning, after the example of
the Brazilian Botocudos, whilst certain tribes of the ancient continent
religiously preserve it. In the same way the Berrys, a black nation on
the borders of the Saubat, a tributary on the right bank of the Nile,
pierce their lower lip, in order to insert a piece of crystal more than
an inch long.
“In height, formation, and proportions the Machicuys are similar to the
Lenguas, and like them they have small eyes, broad faces, large mouths,
flat noses, and wide nostrils. Their hair is allowed to hang loosely,
and its thick curls partly cover their faces and fall on their
shoulders.
“The language of these nations, like that of all the Indians of the
Chaco, is strongly accentuated and full of sounds that require an effort
to be forced from the nose and throat; it contains double consonants
extremely difficult to pronounce.”
_Moxos_ and _Chiquitos_.--The interior and, to some extent, central
regions of South America lying north of the Chaco, have been called by
the Spaniards the “Provinces of the Moxos and Chiquitos,” from the names
of the two principal families of Indian race living in these countries.
The Moxos inhabit vast plains, subject to frequent inundations and
overrun by immense streams, on which they are constantly obliged to
navigate in their boats. They are the ichthyophagists of the river
districts of the interior.
The land of the Chiquitos is a succession of mountains inconsiderable in
height, covered with forests and intersected by numerous small rivers.
They are husbandmen and have fixed abodes.
[Illustration: 192.--EXAMINADOR OF CHILI.]
The Chiquitos live in clans, each of which has its own little village.
The men go about naked, but the women wear a flowing garment, which they
like to ornament. These Indians are gifted with a happy disposition and
amiable manners; they are sociable, hospitable, inclined to gaiety, and
passionately fond of dancing and music. They have become permanently
converted to Christianity. Their physical characteristics include a
large and spherical head, almost always circular, a round, full face,
prominent cheekbones, a low, arched forehead, a short nose, slightly
flattened and with narrow nostrils, small horizontal eyes, full of
expression and vivacity, thin lips, fine teeth, a mediocre mouth, little
beard, and long black, glossy hair, which does not whiten in extreme old
age, but grows yellow.
The manners of the Moxos are strongly analogous to those of the
Chiquitos. Their colour is an olive brown, and their stature of the
average height. They have not very vigorous limbs, their nose is short
and not very broad, their mouth of medium size, their lips and
cheekbones but little prominent; their face is oval or round, and their
countenances mild and rather merry. This race dwells on the confines of
Bolivia, Peru, and Brazil.
Before the conquest these tribes were established on the banks of the
rivers and lakes. They were fishers, hunters, and more especially
agriculturists. The chase was a relaxation for them; fishing a
necessity; husbandry afforded them provisions and drinks. Their customs,
however, were barbarous. Superstition made a Moxos sacrifice his wife in
case she miscarried, and his children if they happened to be twins. The
mother rid herself of her offspring _if it wearied her_. Marriage could
be dissolved at the will of the parties to it, and polygamy was
frequent. These Indians were all, more or less, warriors; but tradition
and writings have only preserved for us the memorials of one single
nation, the members of which were cannibals and devoured their
prisoners. The counsels of the missionaries have modified the manners of
this people, without removing all its savage usages.
Both the Moxos and the Chiquitos have broad shoulders, extremely full
chests, and most robust bodies.
Each of these two races includes a certain number of hordes which we see
no necessity for alluding to particularly here, for their half wild
habits resemble those of the tribes we have just commented on; and for
similar reasons we shall pass over in silence the other races ranked in
the Pampean family, and whose names have been enumerated in a preceding
page.
GUARANY FAMILY.
The _Guarany Family_ is spread over an immense space, from the Rio de La
Plata as far as the Caribbean Sea. Its principal characteristics consist
of a yellowish complexion, a little tinged with red, a middle stature, a
very heavy frame, a but slightly arched and prominent forehead, oblique
eyes turned up at the outer angle, a short, narrow nose, a
moderate-sized mouth, thin lips, cheekbones without much prominence, a
round, full face, effeminate features, and a pleasing countenance.
D’Orbigny has established two divisions only in this family, namely, the
_Guaranis_ and the _Botocudos_.
_Guaranis._--At the period of the discovery of South America, all that
portion of the continent lying to the east of the Paraguay and of a line
drawn from the sources of that river to the delta of the Orinoco, was
inhabited by numberless indigenous nations, belonging to two great
families. One of these families was that of the Guaranis, diffused over
the whole of Paraguay, and allied with the wild tribes of Brazil; the
other included the races occupying the more northern provinces, and
extending to the gulf of Mexico. The Indians appertaining to both these
families strongly resemble each other in features as well as complexion,
and d’Orbigny attributes to them the same physical type, one marked by a
yellowish colour, medium height, foreheads that do not recede, and eyes
frequently oblique and always raised at the outer angle.
The entirely exceptional aptitude which the Guarany nation has evinced
for entering on the path of social improvement, renders it one of the
most interesting in South America. The _Southern Guaranis_, or natives
of Paraguay, include at the same time the tribes who have submitted to
the sway of the missions, in the establishments which the Jesuits have
formed in the country, and others who still roam in freedom throughout
the forests of that province. Besides the Guaranis, properly so called
who are all Christians, and inhabit thirty-two rather extensive villages
situated on the borders of the Parana, the Paraguay, and the Uruguay
rivers, there exists a certain number of wild hordes belonging to the
same race, who remain hidden in the depths of the woods. These tribes
bear names derived in most instances from those of the rivers or
mountains in whose vicinity they dwell, and among the principal of them
are mentioned the _Topas_, _Tobatinguas_, _Cayuguas_, _Gadiguès_,
_Magachs_, etc.
M. Demersay, who has visited the Jesuit establishments in Paraguay, also
traversed the forests inhabited by the wild races of which we are
speaking, and the results of his observations were published by him in
the “Tour du Monde” in 1865. We shall avail ourselves here of those
parts of his narrative which refer to the savage nations of Paraguay.
“The history of the American races,” says M. Demersay, “might be
comprised in a few pages. Some have accepted the semi-servitude which
the conquerors imposed on them; the others, more rebellious, preferred
to struggle, and have been destroyed; those who still struggle will also
perish. The nations which chose subjection rather than death, have, by
mingling their blood in strong proportions with that of the Europeans,
only disappeared as a race in order to enter as an integral and
sometimes dominant element into the American nationalities. The great
family of the Guaranis forms the most striking example of this intimate
fusion offered to the notice of the ethnologist.
“But in its midst, side by side with the unsubdued hordes of the Grand
Chaco, so remarkable for their fine proportions, there exists yet
another tribe, small in numbers, whose ranks grow thinner every day, and
which on the eve of its disappearance, has bequeathed intact to the
present generation, along with its complete independence, its creeds,
its customs, and the glorious traditions of its ancestors.
“At the time of their discovery, the _Payaguas_, as this valiant race is
called, were divided into two tribes, the _Gadiguès_ and the _Magachs_,
who lived on the banks and numerous islands of the Rio Paraguay, towards
21° and 25° S. latitude. Their dwelling places were by no means fixed;
masters of the river and jealous of its control, they started from Lake
Xarayes, and made distant excursions on the Parana as far as Corrientes
and Santa Fé on one side, and to Salto Chico on the other.
“A rather rational etymology which has been proposed for the name of
these Indians, is that of the two Guarany words ‘pai’ and ‘aguaà,’ which
signify, ‘tied to the oar,’ a meaning quite in unison with their
habits. In the term ‘Paraguay,’ applied as the denomination of the
river, before it became the name of the province, some have wished to
perceive a corruption of ‘Payagua,’ a likely enough derivation, and one
which seems to us highly admissible.
“Whatever there may be in this supposition, the value of which we shall
not discuss here, this unconquered and crafty nation was during two
centuries the most redoubtable adversary of the Spaniards. The writers
on the conquest, the works of Azara, the ‘Historical Essay’ of Funes,
and numerous documents preserved in the archives of Assumption, contain
a recital of their daring enterprises.
“. . . What their numbers were in the first half of the XVIth century it
is impossible to say with certainty; but the old narratives, which do
not seem on this point to deserve the reproach of exaggeration more than
once and with justice attributed to them, estimate them as no fewer than
several thousand combatants. In Azara’s time the entire tribe scarcely
reckoned a thousand souls, and at the present day it cannot count two
hundred.
“Their stature is remarkable, and unquestionably surpasses that of most
nations of the globe. The measurements of eight individuals, taken at
random, would justify the application of this epithet to the Payaguas,
as they gave me an average of 5ft. 9in. The women’s height is no less
striking: that of four females over twenty was--the first and second, 5
feet; the third, 5 feet 2 inches, and the fourth, 5 feet 3¾ inches; or
an average of 5 feet 1¼ inches. Many conclusions may be drawn from this
double series of measurements. On comparing the average stature of the
Payaguas with that of mankind in general, which physiologists agree in
fixing at about 5 feet 6 inches, it will be seen that the difference in
favour of the former is no less than 3 inches. And further, if we place
in comparison the measurements taken by accurate travellers of the races
which pass for the tallest on the globe, of the Patagonians for
instance, we find that their average height as stated by M. d’Orbigny is
5 feet 7 inches. Consequently the Payaguas actually surpass by two
inches the height of a race which has from time immemorial been regarded
as fabulously tall.
“The Payaguas are invariably lanky, none but the women ever showing
signs of corpulence. Their shoulders are broad and the muscles of their
chests, arms, and backs display a development produced by constant use
of the oar, for they live in their canoes; but, as a species of
compensation, the predominance of the proportions of the upper limbs
causes the lower extremities to appear slight and meagre.
[Illustration: 193.--A PARAGUAYAN MESSENGER.]
“Their skin, smooth and soft to the touch, like that of the natives of
the New Continent, is of an olive-brown shade, which it would be
difficult to define more accurately. It seems somewhat lighter than that
of the Guaranis, and does not exhibit the same yellowish or Mongolian
tints.
“The Payaguas carry their massive heads erect, and have an abundant
supply of long, straight, or slightly curly hair, which they cut across
the foreheads, and never comb, allowing it to grow and fall about them
in disorder. The young warriors alone partly gather it at the back of
the crown where it is tied by a little red string, or by a strap cut
from a monkey skin. A similar custom obtains among the Guatos of Cuyaba,
who, we may say incidentally, have more resemblance to this nation than
to the Guaranis, though a learned classification has placed them side by
side with the latter. Their small, keen eyes, a little contracted but
not turned up at the outer angle, have an expression of cunning and
shrewdness, and the lines of the long slightly rounded nose recall the
Caucasian conformation to the mind. Their cheekbones are but little
prominent; their lower lip protrudes beyond the upper, thus imparting to
their grave and impressive countenances an expression of scornful pride,
well in keeping with the character of this unsubdued race.
“The women when young are well-proportioned without being slight, but
they fatten early, their features become deformed, and their figures
grow squat and dumpy. To atone for this, however, their hands and feet
always retain a remarkable smallness, although they walk barefooted and
take no care whatever of their persons. I have also observed this
delicate formation, a distinction which European ladies covet so much,
among the tribes of the Chaco, who are, with the Payaguas, the finest in
America. Their hair is allowed to float about the shoulders and is never
confined.
“A young girl on emerging from childhood undergoes tattooing. By means
of a thorn and the fruit of the genipa, a bluish streak, about half an
inch wide, is drawn perpendicularly across the forehead and down the
nose as far as the upper lip; and when she marries this stripe is
prolonged over the under lip to below the chin. Its shades vary from
violet to a slate-coloured blue, and its marks are indelible. Some women
add other lines to this, as well as designs traced with the flaming tint
of the _urucu_; this latter fashion, however, though general half a
century ago, and which Azara describes minutely, has become more and
more uncommon.
“The Payaguas go about naked in their tents (_toldos_), but out of doors
they wear a small cotton garment encircling them from the pit of the
stomach to just below the knee. This piece of cloth which they lap round
their bodies in the style of the _chiripa_ of the creoles, is one of the
few productions of their ingenuity. Its manufacture devolves upon the
women, and they make it with no other help than that of their fingers,
without using either shuttle or loom. Some others content themselves
with a short shirt, devoid of collar or sleeves, rather like the _tipoy_
of the Guarany. Nevertheless the use of clothing seems to become every
day more familiar to all of them; and amongst those I saw roaming
through the streets of Assumption not one was satisfied, as in former
times, with covering his limbs with paintings representing vests and
breeches.
“Other ancient customs have also disappeared, such as that which the men
had of wearing, as the case might be, either the _barbote_ or a little
silver rod analogous to the _tembeta_ of the wild Guaranis or Cayaguas.
Others are only resumed at rare intervals or at certain epochs, on which
solemn occasions long tufts of feathers fixed on the top of the head are
seen to reappear, and all manner of fanciful patterns tattooed in bright
colours on face, arm, and breast; as well as necklaces of beads or
shells, and lastly bracelets of the claws of _capivaras_, rolled round
wrist and ankle. But the tradition of this elaborate ornamentation has
been religiously preserved by the _paye_ or medicine-man of the tribe.
“The Payaguas live on the left bank of the Rio Paraguay. They never take
up their abode on the opposite side, where the Indians of Chaco, with
whom they are always at war, would not be slow to attack them. Their
principal hut (_tolderia_) is erected on the river’s edge, and consists
of a large oblong cabin from twelve to fifteen feet high, and made with
bamboos laid on forked poles and covered over with unplaited cane mats.
Jaguar or capivaras’ skins are spread on the ground for beds, and
weapons and fishing and household utensils hang on the posts sustaining
the frail roofing of the dwelling, or lie pell-mell with earthen
vessels, in a corner.
“. . . The very limited occupation of this people constitutes
nevertheless their sole resource, for they are perfectly ignorant of
husbandry, and cultivate neither maize, potatoes, nor tobacco. They are
fishermen, spend their lives on the water, and become early in life very
expert sailors. Sometimes they are to be seen in the stern of a canoe,
letting it float with the current while watching their lines; at
another, standing upright in a row, they bend to their oars in good time
and make the little craft fly along with the swiftness of an arrow.
Their boats are from five to a little over six feet in length, and
between two and a half to three feet wide; they are hollowed from the
trunk of a _timbo_, and terminate in a long tapering point at each end.
[Illustration: 194.--BRAZILIAN NEGRO.]
“Their paddles are sharpened like lances, and form in their hands very
formidable weapons, to which must be added bows and arrows, as well as
the _macana_. They are cruel in warfare, and grant no quarter except to
women and children. Their method of fighting shows no peculiarity. They
attack the Indians of the Chaco by falling upon them unawares and
endeavouring to surprise them, but they take good care not to move far
from the rivers, for those tribes of famous horsemen would soon overcome
them in the open country.
[Illustration: 195.--INDIAN WOMAN OF BRAZIL.]
“This nation, as the reader has doubtless surmised, lives in a state of
absolute liberty and complete independence of the government of the
Paraguayan Republic, which imposes neither tax nor statute labour upon
it, but on the contrary pays the Payaguas for any services that are
exacted of them, whether as messengers on the river or as guides in the
expeditions directed against the wild hordes that wander along the right
bank.
“. . . Being desirous to become acquainted with, and to be able to
sketch at my ease, in the midst of all the savage luxury of his garb,
the individual who was entrusted with these functions, I contrived to
get him to come to my house arrayed in the emblems of his high dignity
and accompanied by some other Indians. The promise of a certain quantity
of his beloved liquor, coupled with the prospect of an evening’s
drunkenness, speedily got the better of his reluctance.
“On the day named the paye came to see me. He was an old man, somewhat
bent with years, but with nothing repulsive in his countenance,
notwithstanding the disfiguration of the features, which is always
premature and so remarkable among the natives. His hair was still black
and confined in a fillet bordered with beadwork, over which was a tuft
of feathers, while nandu plumes waved behind his head; a necklace of
bivalve shells was on his neck, and from it hung, as a trophy, a whistle
made from the arm-bone of an enemy. He was quite naked beneath his
sleeveless and collarless vest which consisted of two jaguar-skins, and
wore strings of capivaras’ claws round his ankles. Finally, his right
hand contained an elongated gourd, and he held in his left a long tube
of hard wood, which I had some difficulty in recognizing as a pipe.
“The curtain rises. The sorcerer gave the pipe to his companion, whose
duty consisted in lighting it, and, taking it again, inhaled several
puffs which he blew noisily into the calabash through the orifice bored
in it; then, without removing it from his lips, he began shouting,
sometimes slowly and sometimes rapidly, uttering alternately the
syllables ‘ta, ta’, and ‘to, to, to’, with extraordinary, inexpressible,
reiterations of voice and piercing yells. He gave way at the same time
to violent contortions, and executed a measured series of leaps, now on
one foot, and now on both joined together. This performance did not last
any length of time, and on a pretext of fatigue he was not long without
coming to a stand-still. A bumper was indispensable in order to set him
on his legs again, and the monotonous chant immediately recommenced.
“My drawings being finished, I at last broke up the sitting to the
general satisfaction of my guests, and dismissed them, having first
purchased his pipe and whistle from the paye. The former article was
made of hard and heavy wood and covered with regular tracings engraved
on the surface with a good deal of skill. It was about a foot and a half
long, ornamented with gilt nails, and pierced by a tube which was
widened at one end and terminated at the other by a mouth-piece. This
pipe is also to be found among other neighbouring nations, as well as
among the Tobas and Matacos on the banks of the Pilcomayo. It gives an
idea of those enormous cigars made from a roll of palm or tobacco
leaves, which played so important a part in Brazil, in the ceremonies of
the Tupinambas, and among the Caraibs of the Antilles, on all occasions
when the question of peace or war had to be decided, when the shades of
ancestors were to be conjured up, etc., and which the first navigators
mistook for torches.”
[Illustration: 196.--NATIVE OF MANAOS, BRAZIL.]
The _Western Guaranis_ include the tribes known by the names of
Guarayis, Chiriguanos, and Cirionos, the first of which have been
converted by the Jesuits. Between the province of the Chiquitos and that
of the Moxos there are still some hordes of wild Guarayis. The
uncivilized Chiriguanos are barbarians, very formidable to their
neighbours. The natives of a hundred and sixty villages of the Andes,
comprised between the great Chaco river and that of Mapayo, in the
province of Santa Cruz de la Sierra, speak the Guarany language in all
its purity. The barbarous Cirionos, among whom a dialect of that tongue
is in use, dwell to the north of Santa Cruz.
The _Eastern Guaranis of Brazil_ include the Brazilian aborigines. The
general language of the country does not seem to differ more from
Guarany, than Portuguese does from Spanish. The _Caryis_, _Tameyi_,
_Tapinaquis_, _Timmimnes_, _Tabayaris_, _Tupinambis_, _Apontis_,
_Tapigoas_, and several other tribes occupy the maritime districts
situated to the south of the mouth of the Amazon, speaking the _Tupi_
tongue with little or no alteration.
During their voyage to Brazil, of which an account was published in the
“Tour du Monde,” in 1868, M. and Madame Agassiz visited many Indian
tribes, and examined their habitations in the midst of the woods. We
extract a few pages from their description.
“We arrive at the _sitio_,” writes Madame Agassiz, “and disembark. These
dwellings are usually located on the banks of a lake or river, within a
stone’s throw of the shore in order that fishing and bathing may be
better within reach. But this one was more retired, being placed at the
extremity of a pretty by-path winding beneath the trees, and on the
summit of a little hill, the slopes of which at the other side plunged
into a broad and deep ravine through which flowed a rivulet. The ground
beyond rose undulating in uneven lines, on which an eye accustomed to
the uniformly flat country of the upper Amazon cannot rest without
pleasure. Wait for the time of the rains, and the brook, swollen by the
increase of the river, will almost bathe the foot of the house, which,
from the top of the little eminence, at present commands the valley and
the embanked bed of the tiny stream. Great, consequently, is the
difference between the appearance of the same places in the dry and the
wet seasons. The residence consists of several buildings, the most
remarkable of which is a long open hall in which the _brancas_ (whites)
of Manaos and of the neighbourhood dance when they come, as is not
infrequent, to spend the night at the sitio, in high festivity.
[Illustration: 197.--BRAZILIAN NEGRESSES.]
“I learned these particulars from the old Indian lady who did me the
honours of the house. A low wall, from three to four feet in height,
skirted this shed. At its sides and along the whole length were placed
raised wooden seats, and both ends were closed from floor to roof by
thick blinds made of glittering palm-leaves, as fine as they were
handsome, and of a pretty straw colour. In a corner we found an immense
embroidery loom (Penelope’s was doubtless like it), which was occupied
at the moment by a hammock of palm fibre, an unfinished work of the
‘senhora dona’, or mistress of the house, who allowed me to see the way
in which she used the machine. She squatted herself on a little low
bench, in front of the frame, and showed me that the two rows of cross
threads were separated by a thick piece of polished wood in the shape of
a flat rule. The shuttle is thrown between these two threads and the
woof is drawn close by a sharp blow of the thick rule. I was then led to
admire some hammocks of various colours and textures which were being
arranged for the accommodation of the visitors, and whilst the men set
off to bathe in the brook, I went through the rest of the lodge with our
hostess and her daughter, a very pretty Indian. The direction of
everything devolves on the elder of the two ladies; the master is
absent, as he holds a captain’s commission in the army operating against
Paraguay.
[Illustration: 198.--BRAZILIAN DWELLING.]
“On the same carefully-kept piece of ground where the hall I have
described is situated, there are several _casinhas_ or small buildings,
more or less close to each other, which are covered with thatch, and
merely consist of a single apartment (fig. 198). Then comes a larger
cottage, with earthen walls and bare floor, containing two or three
rooms, and with a wooden verandah in front. This is the private abode of
the senhora. A little lower down the hill is the manioc sifting-house,
with all its apparatus. No place could be better kept than the courtyard
of this sitio, where two or three negresses have just been set to work
with brooms of thin branches in their hands.
[Illustration: 199.--NEGROS OF BAHIA.]
“The manioc and cocoa plantation surrounds these buildings, with a few
coffee trees peeping out here and there. There is a difficulty in
judging of the extent of these farms, as they are irregular, and
comprise a certain variety of plants; manioc, cocoa, coffee, and even
cotton being cultivated together in confusion. But this part of the
estate, like all the rest of the establishment, seemed larger and better
cared for than those usually seen. As we were departing, our Indian
hostess brought me a nice basket filled with eggs and _abacatys_, or
alligator’s pears, according to the local name. We returned home just in
time for the ten o’clock meal, which draws everyone together, both
idlers and workers. The sportsmen had returned from the forest, laden
with tucanas, parrots, paroquets, and a great variety of other birds,
while the fishermen brought fresh treasures for M. Agassiz.
“We left the dinner-table, and while taking coffee under the trees, the
president proposed an excursion on the lake at sunset. . . . . The
little craft glided between the glowing sunset and the glitter of the
deep sheet of water, seeming to borrow its hues from each. It rapidly
drew near, and was soon quite close, when a burst of joyous shouts broke
forth, and was merrily responded to by us. Then side by side the two
boats descended the stream together, the guitar passing from one to the
other, as Brazilian songs alternated with Indian airs. Nothing could
possibly be imagined bearing the national impress more strongly marked,
more deeply imbued with tropical tints, more characteristic, in fine,
than this scene on the lake. When we arrived at the landing-place the
rosy and gold-tinged mists had become transformed into a mass of white
or ashen-grey vapour, the last rays of the sun were fled, and the moon
was shining at its full. In ascending the gentle slope of the hill,
someone suggested a dance on the grass, and the young Indian girls
formed a quadrille. Although civilization had mingled its usages with
their native customs, there were yet many original traits in their
movements, and this conventional dance was deprived of much of its
artificial character. At length we returned to the house, where dancing
and singing recommenced, whilst groups seated on the ground here and
there laughed and chatted, all, men and women, smoking with the same
gusto. The use of tobacco, almost universal among females of the lower
class, is not altogether confined to them. More than one senhora
delights to puff her cigarette as she rocks in her hammock during the
warm hours of the day.” Fig. 200 represents some natives of French
Guyana, who closely resemble the Brazilian negroes we have just
mentioned.
[Illustration: 200.--NATIVES OF FRENCH GUYANA.]
The _Ouragas_ are affiliated to the Brazilio-Guarany race, with a few
other tribes very closely allied to them. They form one of the nations
most widely spread over the northern parts of South America. They were
formerly in possession of the banks and islands of the Amazon river for
a distance of five hundred miles from the mouth of the Rio Nabo.
The Caribbee race has a close affinity to the Guarany. The Indians who
have given their name to this group, one of the most numerous and
extensively scattered of the southern continent, are those celebrated
Caribs who in the sixteenth century occupied all the islands from Porto
Rico to Trinidad, and the whole of the Atlantic coast comprised between
the mouth of the Orinoco and that of the Amazon, that is to say, as far
as the Brazilian frontier.
The _Tamanacs_ belong to the same family, and live on the right bank of
the Orinoco, but their numbers are at the present day greatly reduced.
The same remark applies to the _Arawacs_ or _Araocas_, to the
_Guaranns_, who are said to build their houses upon trees, to the
_Guayquerias_, _Cumanogots_, _Phariagots_, _Chaymas_, &c. Humboldt has
written of the latter:--
“The expression of countenance of the Chaymas, without being harsh and
fierce, has in it something sedate and gloomy. The forehead is small and
but little prominent; the eyes are black, sunken, and lengthy, being
neither so obliquely set nor so small as those of the Mongolian race.
Yet the corners perceptibly slant upwards towards the temples; the
eyebrows are black or dark brown, thin, and not much arched; the lids
fringed with very long eyelashes; and their habit of drooping them, as
if heavy with languor, softens the women’s look and makes the eye thus
veiled appear smaller than it really is.”
The Botocudos (fig. 201) who dwell round the Rio Doce, in Brazil, have
been cannibals, and are still to the present day the most savage of all
Americans. They wear collars of human teeth as ornaments. Perpetually
wandering and completely naked, they take a pleasure in adding to their
natural ugliness, and impart a more repulsive appearance to their
countenances by a habit they have of slitting their under lip and ears,
in order to introduce “barbotes” into the openings thus made.
[Illustration: 201.--BOTOCUDOS.]
In his “Travels in Brazil,” M. Biard saw some Botocudos. One, who seemed
to him to be the chief, carried, like his companions, in an opening in
the lower lip, a “barbote” consisting of a bit of wood somewhat larger
than a five-shilling piece. He made use of this projection as a little
table, cutting up on it, with the traveller’s knife, a morsel of smoked
meat which had then only to be slipped into his mouth. This method of
utilizing the lip as a table struck M. Biard as thoroughly original. The
comrades of this Botocudos had also large pieces of wood in the lobes of
their ears.
CHAPTER II.
NORTHERN BRANCH.
The members of the _North American Branch_ present more decided
differences among themselves than those in the southern division, so far
as race is concerned, but their characteristics are merged one in the
other. Nevertheless, the populations inhabiting respectively the south,
the north-east, and the north-west can be considered as forming so many
distinct families, which we shall pass in review in succession.
SOUTHERN FAMILY.
The southern family of the Northern Branch still preserves much
resemblance to the families of the southern branch which we have just
been considering. The complexion of its members is rather fair, the
forehead depressed, and the figure tolerably well proportioned.
This group embraces a great number of tribes speaking different
languages, peculiar to the central part of the northern continent. The
principal among these nations are the _Aztecs_, or primitive Mexicans,
and the _Moya_ and _Lenca_ Indians.
_Aztecs._--When the Spaniards landed in Mexico, they found there a
people whose customs were far removed from those of savage life. They
were very expert in the practice of different useful and ornamental
arts, and their knowledge was rather extensive, but thorough cruelty
could always be laid to their charge.
The Aztecs were intelligent and hard-working cultivators. They knew how
to work mines, prepare metals, and set precious stones as ornaments.
Superb monuments had been erected by them, and they possessed a written
language which preserved the memorials of their history. Those who dwelt
in the region of the present Mexico were advanced in the sciences; they
were profoundly imbued with the sentiment of religion; and their sacred
ceremonies were full of pomp, but accompanied by expiatory sacrifices
revolting in their barbarism. They carried their annals back to very
remote antiquity. These annals were traced in historical paintings, the
traditional explanation of which was imparted by the natives to some of
their conquerors, as well as to a few Spanish and Italian ecclesiastics.
[Illustration: 202.--INDIAN OF THE MEXICAN COAST.]
The principal events recorded in these archives relate to the
migrations of three different nations, who, leaving the distant regions
of the north-west, arrived successively in Anahuac. They were the
_Toltecs_, _Chichimecas_, and _Nahuatlacas_, divided into seven distinct
tribes, one of which was that of the Aztecs, or Mexicans. The country
whence the first of these people came was called Huehuetlapallan, and
they commenced their exodus in the year 544 of our era. Pestilence
decimated them in 1051, and they then wandered southwards, but a few
remained at Tula. The Chichimecas, a barbarous race, arrived in Mexico
in the year 1070, and the incursion of the Nahuatlacas, who spoke the
same language as the Toltecs, took place very soon afterwards. The
Aztecs, or Mexicans, separated themselves from the other nations, and in
1325 they founded Mexico. In a word, the former inhabitants of Mexico
were immigrants from a country situated towards the north, on the
central plateau of Anahuac, and their successive migrations had
continued during several centuries long prior to the discovery of
America by the Europeans.
[Illustration: 203, 204.--INDIANS OF THE MEXICAN COAST.]
The ancient portraits of the Aztecs and the faces of some of their
divinities are remarkable for the depression of the forehead, from which
results the smallness of the facial angle--a peculiarity which appears
to have belonged to the handsome type of the race.
The aboriginal Mexicans of our own time are of good stature and well
proportioned in all their limbs. They have narrow foreheads, black eyes,
white, well-set, regular teeth, thick, coarse, and glossy black hair,
thin beards, and are in general without any hairs on their legs, thighs,
or arms. Their skin is olive coloured, and many fine young women may be
seen among them with extremely light complexions. Their senses are very
acute, more especially that of sight, which they enjoy unimpaired to the
most advanced age.
The native Indians forming part of the Mexican population are
characterized by a broad face and flat nose, recalling somewhat the
lineaments of the Mongolian cast of countenance. They may be judged of
from Figs. 202, 203, 204, and 205, which represent aborigines of the
interior and coast of Mexico.
M. Roudé, who has published the narrative of his travels in the state of
Chihuahua, brought back accurate drawings illustrative of the usages and
customs of the population of the Mexican capital.
The ladies envelope themselves very gracefully in their _rebosso_, with
which they cover the head, partly hiding the face, and only allowing
their eyes to be seen. Among the wealthy this _rebosso_ is generally of
black or white silk, embroidered with designs in bright and gaudy
colours. Women of the lower classes wear a _rebosso_ of blue wool dotted
with little white squares. Their petticoat is short, and its lower part
embroidered with worsted work. The favourite colour for this latter
garment among common people is glaring red.
[Illustration: 205.--MEXICAN INDIAN WOMAN.]
The men’s costume (fig. 206) is richer and more varied than that of the
women. On Sundays it is laced with silver; white trowsers are
indispensable, and they are covered by another pair made of leather,
open along the sides from the waist downwards, and ornamented with a
row of silver buttons. A China crape sash is wound round the waist, and
the vest is of deerskin or velvet with silver embroidery. The sombrero
has a very broad brim, is made of straw or felt, and decorated with a
thick twisted band of black velvet or of silver gilt lace. The _sarapé_
is spangled with striking colours and with varied patterns, and the men
possess a special talent for draping themselves gracefully in it.
[Illustration: 206.--MEXICAN PICADOR.]
The place above all others where the popular life of the inhabitants of
Mexico should be studied is in the markets (fig. 207). There may you see
Indians, creoles, and foreigners, beggars in rags and rich citizens,
black frock coats, embroidered deerskin jackets, threadbare uniforms,
soldiers, muleteers, porters, monks of all shades, shod and shoeless
Carmelites, all elbowing each other fraternally. There Basil throws the
lengthening shadow of his fantastic head-gear on the wall of the
neighbouring church; there dealers in hats, poultry, or wooden trays
offer their wares to buyers; there pretty fruit and flower girls, tidy
servant maids of some decent house, or winsome _Chinas_ with sparkling
eyes, pass to and fro draped in their rebossos. They bear on the
upturned palms of the left hand, on a level with the shoulder, and in
the most artistic manner, a basket full of green plants, or the graceful
red earthenware _cantaro_ painted and glazed, and filled with water.
Through this noisy crowd the water-carrier (_aguador_), clothed in
leather, treads his way with short steps, bearing on his back an
enormous red earthen jar, fastened by means of two handles and a broad
strap to his forehead, which is protected by a little cap of leather;
another band passing across the top of the crown supports a second and
much smaller pitcher, hanging before him at his knees.
[Illustration: 207.--THE ROLDAU BRIDGE MARKET, MEXICO.]
If a person wishes to become acquainted with Mexico, it is among the
lower orders that he must study the country. The people are good; eager
for knowledge, notwithstanding the want of instruction, and full of
energy in spite of their long bondage. He need be on his guard against
the higher classes only, a small minority spoiled by the priests, whose
influence is all-powerful. The ignorance of the monks, who swarm in this
land, is doubled by an intolerable vanity that inspires them with
antipathy to all progress.
[Illustration: 208.--MEXICAN HATTER.]
The people of Mexico are very simple in their habits. Broth (_pilchero_)
and the national dish, _frijoles_ (beans), form the ordinary fare of the
middle class, to which a stew of spiced duck is sometimes added. They
allay their thirst with pure water, contained in an immense glass, which
holds from one to two quarts. This flagon is placed in the centre of
the table, and is the only one that appears on the board, from which
decanters and bottles, and very often even knives and forks, are
banished. Each in turn steeps his lips in this cup, returning it to its
place or passing it to his neighbour. Besides, Mexicans in general do
not drink except at the end of the meal. In the evening the circle is
swelled by a few friends; guitars are taken down from the wall, and some
simple ballads are sung to mournful airs, or they dance to the same
measure.
[Illustration: 209.--MEXICAN HAWKER.]
The Aztecs, or primitive Mexicans, like their predecessors, the Toltecs,
were, as we have said, strangers in Anahuac. Before their arrival this
plateau had been inhabited by different races, some of which had
acquired a certain degree of civilization, whilst others were utterly
barbarous. The Aztecs spread themselves extensively in Central America.
The _Olmecas_ are mentioned among the most ancient tribes, and they are
supposed to have peopled the West India Islands and South America. This
nation shared the soil of Mexico with the _Xicalaucas_, _Coras_,
_Tepanecas_, _Tarascas_, _Mixtecas_, _Tzapotecas_, and the _Othomis_.
The last named and the _Totonacs_ were two barbarous races occupying the
country near Lake Tezcuco, previously to the coming of the Chichimecas.
Whilst all the other known languages of America are polysyllabic, that
of the Othomis is monosyllabic.
Farther to the north, and beyond the northern frontiers of the Mexican
empire, dwelt the _Huaxtecas_. The _Tarascas_ inhabited the wide and
fertile regions of Mechoacan, to the north of Mexico, and were always
independent of that kingdom. Their sonorous and harmonious tongue
differed from all the others. In civilization and the arts they advanced
side by side with the Mexicans, who were never able to subdue them; but
their king submitted without resistance to the rule of the Spaniards.
_Moyas_ and _Lencas_.--These are tribes which still live in a wild state
in the forests situated between the Isthmus of Panama and that of
Thuantépec, but an inquiry into their manners and customs would offer no
features of interest. The life of savage nations exhibits an uniformity
which greatly abridges our task.
NORTH-EASTERN FAMILY.
In the fifteenth century the North-eastern family occupied that immense
expanse of North America which is comprised between the Atlantic Ocean
and the Rocky Mountains, but all its nations are now reduced to a few
far from numerous tribes, confined to the west of the Mississippi.
The distinguishing qualities of the red race are strongly marked among
these groups. A complexion of a light cinnamon-colour, a lengthened
head, a long and aquiline nose, horizontal eyes, a depressed forehead, a
robust constitution, and a tall stature constitute their principal
physical characteristics, to which must be added senses sharpened to an
extraordinary degree. They have a habit of painting their bodies, and
especially their faces, red. Their disposition is proud and independent,
and they support pain with stoical courage.
Almost all these Indian tribes have already disappeared in consequence
of the furious war waged upon them by the Europeans. Those that lived in
olden times on the declivities of the mountains facing the Atlantic are
very nearly extinct. Among such are the Hurons, Iroquois, Algonquins,
and the Natchez, rendered famous by Chateaubriand, and the Mohicans,
whom Cooper has immortalized.
We cannot speak detailedly here of these different nations, but in order
to give an idea of them we shall open Chateaubriand’s “Voyage en
Amérique,” and, having quoted a few lines from it, we will make the
reader acquainted with the pith of the observations made in our own day
in these same countries by contemporary travellers.
Speaking of the Muscogulges and the Simnioles, Chateaubriand writes in
the following terms:--
“The Simnioles and the Muscogulges are rather tall in stature: and, by
an extraordinary contrast, their wives are the smallest race of women
known in America; they seldom depass a height of four feet two or three
inches; their hands and feet resemble those of an European girl nine or
ten years old. But nature has compensated them for this kind of
injustice: their figure is elegant and graceful; their eyes are black,
extremely long, and full of languor and modesty. They lower their
eyelids with a sort of voluptuous bashfulness; if a person did not see
them when they speak, he would believe himself listening to children
uttering only half-formed words.”
The great writer passed along the borders of the lake to which its name
has been given by the Iroquois colony of the _Onondagas_, and visited
the “Sachem” of that people:--
“He was,” says Chateaubriand, “an old Iroquois in the strictest sense of
the word. His person preserved the memory of the former customs and
bygone times of the desert: large, pinked ears, pearl hanging from the
nose, face streaked with various colours, little tuft of hair on the top
of the head, blue tunic, cloak of skins, leathern belt, with its
scalping-knife and tomahawk, tattooed arm, mocassins on his feet, and a
porcelain necklace in his hand.”
The following is the sketch of an Iroquois:--
“He was of lofty stature, with broad chest, muscular legs, and sinewy
arms. His large round eyes sparkled with independence; his whole mien
was that of a hero. Shining on his forehead might be seen high
combinations of thought and exalted sentiments of soul. This fearless
man was not in the least astonished at firearms when for the first time
they were used against him; he stood firm to the whistling of bullets
and the roar of cannon as if he had been hearing both all his life, and
appeared to heed them no more than he would a storm. As soon as he could
procure himself a musket, he used it better than an European. He did not
abandon for it his tomahawk, his knife, or his bow and arrows, but added
to them the carbine, pistol, poniard, and axe, and seemed never to
possess arms sufficient for his valour. Doubly arrayed in the murderous
weapons of Europe and America, with his head decked with bunches of
feathers, his ears pinked, his face smeared black, his arms dyed in
blood, this noble champion of the New World became as formidable to
behold, as he was to contend against, on the shore which he defended
foot by foot against the foreigner.”
With this terrible portrait Chateaubriand contrasts the blithe
countenance of the Huron, who had nothing in common with the Iroquois
but language:--
“The gay, sprightly, and volatile Huron, of rash, dazzling valour, and
tall, elegant figure, had the air of being born to be the ally of the
French.”
We now come to travellers of our own day. Fig. 210 is a sketch of the
costumes of the wild Indians dwelling at the foot of the Rocky Mountains
in Missouri, and who bear the name of Creeks.
[Illustration: 210.--CREEK INDIANS.]
In his travels through the United States and Canada, M. H. Deville had
an opportunity of visiting an establishment of Iroquois. These savages
were remarkable for their reddish colour and coarse features. They wore
round hats with broad brims, and robed themselves in Spanish fashion in
a piece of dark cloth.
The manufacture of the native coverings for the legs and feet forms the
principal occupation of the women, and under the pretext of purchasing
some of their handiwork M. Deville entered several Iroquois dwellings.
Divested of the thick mantle worn by them out of doors, the women had
assumed a long, coloured smock-frock with tight-fitting pantaloons that
reached to the ankles, and their varnished shoes allowed coarse worsted
stockings to be seen. Earrings and a gold necklace constituted their
chief ornament. Their hair is drawn up to the top of the head and tied
there in a knot. To say that their features are agreeable would be
untrue, but in early youth their figures are rather handsome. Work,
order, and cleanliness reign in their household. Their brothers and
husbands are wood-cutters, steersmen, or conductors of rafts.
The same traveller met with some _Chippeway_ Indians on the heights of
Lake Pepin. Their stature was tall, but they had coarse features, and a
skin of a very dark reddish colour. Half their face was covered by a
thick layer of vermilion extending as far as their hair, which was
plaited over the crown. They wore long leather gaiters, tied at the
sides by innumerable thongs, and over a sort of tattered blouse was
thrown a large woollen blanket, which completely covered them. One
individual, armed with a long steel blade shaped like a dagger, had
stuck his pipe in his hair.
In his “Voyage dans les Mauvaises Terres du Nebraska,” M. de Girardin
(of Maine-et-Loire) describes his journey across part of the Missouri
basin occupied by some free and wild Indians.
He brought back with him sketches and illustrations of those tribes, the
principal among which are the _Blackfeet_, and the _Dacotas_, or
_Sioux_, and was present at a grand council of the latter nation, The
chiefs of the various clans, clad in their most brilliant costumes,
harangued the warriors, whilst a score of young braves, without any
other covering than a thick coat of vermilion or ochre, made their
steeds curvet and executed numberless fanciful manœuvres. The horses
were painted yellow, red, and white, and had their long tails decked
with bright-coloured feathers.
[Illustration: 211.--ENCAMPMENT OF SIOUX INDIANS.]
An immense tent, composed of five or six lodges of bison-skins, was
erected in the centre of the camp. The chiefs and principal warriors
formed a circle, in the midst of which the agent, the governor of Fort
St. Pierre, and his interpreters were stationed. According to Indian
custom, the grand chief lit the calumet of peace, a magnificent pipe of
red stone, the stem of which was a yard long and adorned with feathers
of every hue. After some impassioned orations the council refused the
travellers permission to pass over their territory in order to reach
that of the Blackfeet.
Fig. 211 represents the encampment of these Indians visited by M. de
Girardin: fig. 212 is a sketch of one of their horsemen, and fig. 213 a
likeness of a Sioux warrior, all from the pencil of the same gentleman.
M. de Girardin happened to go to another camp, that of an old chief of
the same tribe. It consisted of five or six tents, conical in shape, and
made of bison-skins. Remarkable for their whiteness and cleanliness
these habitations were covered with odd paintings which portrayed
warriors smoking the calumet, horses, stags, and dogs. Numerous freshly
scalped locks were hanging at the end of long poles. At the side of each
tent, a kind of tripod supported quivers, shields of ox-hide, and spears
embellished with brilliant plumage. A few young warriors of strongly
marked features, with aquiline noses and herculean forms, but hideously
daubed in black and white paint, were engaged in firing arrows at a ball
which was rolled along the ground or thrown into the air.
[Illustration: 212.--SIOUX WARRIOR.]
The chiefs made the travellers seat themselves on skins of bears and
bisons, and conversed with the interpreter, whilst M. de Girardin
remained exposed to the curiosity of the young folks, women, and
children. The girls ventured so far as to search his pockets and extract
from them his knife, pencils, and notebook. The most inquisitive, a fine
girl with very soft eyes and magnificent teeth, perceiving he had a long
beard wished to assure herself that he was not shaggy all over like a
bear, when the traveller took it into his head to put a little powder
into the hand of the pretty inquisitor and lit it by means of a glass
lens, an incident which gave a tremendous fright to the assemblage.
[Illustration: 213.--A SIOUX CHIEF.]
During a journey to the north-east of America in 1867, M. L. Simonin had
an opportunity of visiting a Sioux village, and we avail ourselves of a
few of his descriptions. It consisted of about a hundred huts, made with
poles and bison skins, or pieces of stitched cloth. The entrance to them
was by a low narrow hole covered over with a beaver skin. A fire blazed
in the centre of each hovel, and around it were pots and kettles for the
repast. The smoke which escaped at the top rendered this abode
intolerable. Beds, mattresses, cooking utensils, quarters of wild bison,
some raw, others dried and smoked, were scattered here and there.
Half-naked children, girls and boys, scampered about outside, as well as
troops of dogs that constituted at once their protectors, their vigilant
sentinels, and their food.
M. Simonin went inside many of the huts, where warriors were silently
playing cards, using leaden balls for stakes. Others, accompanied by the
noise of discordant singing and tambourines, were playing at a game
resembling the Italian “mora,” the score of which was marked with arrows
stuck in the ground. Some tents, in which sorcery, or “great medicine,”
was being practised, were prohibited to the visitor. The women were
sitting in a ring round some of the wigwams, doing needle-work,
ornamenting necklaces or mocassins with beads, or tracing patterns on
bison skins.
Some old matrons were preparing hides stretched on stakes, by rubbing
them with freestone and steel chisels set in bone handles. The squaws of
the Sioux, on whom, moreover, all domestic cares fall, are far from
handsome. They are the slaves of the man who purchases them for a horse
or the skin of a bison. The great Sioux nation numbers about
thirty-five thousand individuals.
The same gentleman from whom we have just been quoting, was enabled to
make some observations among the _Crows_, a tribe of Prairie Indians who
are neighbours of the Sioux. Their features are broadly marked, their
stature gigantic, and their frames athletic, while, according to M.
Simonin, their majestic countenances recall the types of the Roman
Cæsars as we see them delineated on antique medals.
The traveller was admitted into the hut of the chiefs, where the
“Sachems” were seated in a circle, and as he touched their hands
successively, they uttered a guttural “a hou,” a sound which serves as a
salutation among the Red Skins. He smoked the calumet.
These men had their cheeks tattooed in vermilion. They were scarcely
covered; one had a woollen blanket, the next a buffalo hide or the
incomplete uniform of an officer, while the upper part of another’s body
was naked. Several wore collars or eardrops of shells or animals’ teeth.
Hanging from the neck of one was a silver medal bearing the effigy of a
President of the United States, which he had received when he went on a
mission to Washington in 1853; and a horse, rudely carved in the same
metal, adorned the breast of another of their number.
M. Simonin was afterwards present at a council of the Crow Indians, but
we do not intend to give any report of this conference of savages, of
which, however, the reader may form some idea by casting a glance at
fig. 214.
In dealing with the relations existing between the wild Indians of North
America and the civilized inhabitants, that is to say, the Americans of
the United States, M. Simonin enters into some interesting reflections
which we believe we ought to reproduce.
“A singular race,” says M. Simonin, “is that of the Red Skins, among
whom Nature has so lavishly apportioned the finest land existing on the
globe, a rich alluvial soil, deep, level, and well watered; still this
race has not yet emerged from the primitive stage which must be
everywhere traversed by humanity at the outset--the stage of hunters and
nomads, the age of stone! If the Whites had not brought them iron, the
Indians would still use flint weapons, like man before the Deluge, who
sheltered himself in caverns and was contemporary in Europe with the
mammoth. Beyond the chase and war, the wild tribes of North America shun
work; women, among them, perform all labour. What a contrast to the
toiling, busy population around them, whose respect for women is so
profound! This population hems them in, completely surrounds them at the
present day, and all is over with the Red Skins if they do not consent
to retire into the land reserved for them.
[Illustration: 214.--CROW INDIANS IN COUNCIL.]
“And even there will industry and the arts spring up? How poorly the Red
race is gifted for music and singing is well known: the fine arts have
remained in infancy among them; and writing, unless it consists in rude
pictorial images, is utterly unknown. They barely know how to trace a
few bead patterns on skins, and although these designs are undoubtedly
often happily grouped and the colours blended with a certain harmony,
that is all. Industry, apart from a coarse preparation of victuals and
the tanning of hides and dressing of furs, is also entirely null. The
Indian is less advanced than the African negro, who knows at least how
to weave cloths and dye them. The Navajoes, alone, manufacture some
coverings with wool.
“The free Indians of the Prairies, scattered between the Missouri and
the Rocky Mountains, may be reckoned at about a hundred thousand, while
all the Indians of North America, from the Atlantic to the Pacific, are
estimated at four times that number. These calculations may possibly be
slightly defective, statistics or any accurate census being quite
wanting. The Red men themselves never give more than a notation of their
tents or lodges, but the assemblage of individuals contained in each of
these differs according to the tribe, and sometimes in the same tribe;
hence the impossibility of any mathematically exact computation.
“In the north of the Prairies the great family of the Sioux numbering
thirty-five thousand is remarkable above all others. The Crows,
Bigbellies, Blackfeet, &c., who occupy Idaho and Montana, form, when
taken altogether, a smaller population than the Sioux--probably about
twenty thousand. In the centre and south, the Pawnees, Arapahoes,
Shiennes, Yutes, Kayoways, Comanches, Apaches, &c., united, certainly
exceed forty thousand in number. The territories of Nebraska, Kansas,
Colorado, Texas, and New Mexico are those which these hordes overrun.
The Pawnees are cantoned in Nebraska, in the neighbourhood of the
Pacific Railway, and the Yutes in the ‘parks’ of Colorado.
“These races possess many characteristics in common; they are nomadic,
that is to say, they occupy no fixed place, live by fishing, or above
all by hunting, and follow the wild buffalo in its migrations
everywhere.
“A thoroughly democratic régime and a sort of communism control the
relations of members of the same tribe with each other. The chiefs are
nominated by election, and for a period, but are sometimes hereditary.
The most courageous, he who has taken the greatest number of scalps in
war or has slain most bisons, the performer of some brilliant exploit or
a man of superior eloquence, all these have the right to be chosen
chiefs. As long as he conducts himself well a chief retains his
position; if he incur the least blame his successor is appointed. Chiefs
lead the tribes to battle, and are consulted on occasions of difficulty,
as are also the old men. The braves are the lieutenants of the chiefs,
and hold second command in war. There is no judge in the tribes, and
each one administers justice for himself and applies the law at his own
liking.
“All these nations hunt and make war in the same manner, on horseback;
with spear, bow and arrows, in default of revolvers and muskets, and
using a buckler as a defence against the enemy’s blows. They scalp their
dead foe and deck themselves with his locks; pillage and destroy his
property, carry away his women and children captives, and frequently
subject the vanquished, above all any white man falling into their
hands, to horrible tortures before putting him to death.
“The squaws to whom the prisoner is abandoned exhibit the most revolting
cruelty towards him, tearing out the eyes, tongue, and nails of their
victim; burning him, chopping off a hand to-day, and a foot to-morrow.
When the captive is well tortured, a coal fire is lighted on his stomach
and a yelling dance performed round him. Almost all Red Skins commit
these atrocities phlegmatically towards the Whites when engaged in a
struggle with them.
“Tribes often make war among themselves on the smallest pretext, for a
herd of bisons they are pursuing, or a prairie where they wish to encamp
alone. They have not indeed any place reserved, but they sometimes wish
to keep one so, to the exclusion of every other occupant. Nor is it
uncommon for the same tribe to split itself into two hostile clans. A
few years ago the Ogallallas when maddened by whisky fought among
themselves with guns, and have been broken up ever since into two
bands, one of which, the ‘Ugly-Faces,’ is commanded by Red Cloud, and
the other, by Big-Mouth and Pawnee-Killer.
[Illustration: 215.--PAWNEE INDIANS.]
“The languages of all the tribes are distinct; but perhaps a linguist
would recognize among them some common roots, in the same way as in our
own day they have been found to exist between European tongues and those
of India. These languages all obey the same grammatical mechanism; they
are ‘agglutinative,’ or ‘polysynthetic,’ and not ‘analytic’ or
‘inflected,’ that is to say, the words can be combined with each other
to form a single word expressing a complete idea; but relation, gender,
number, etc., are not indicated by modifications of the substantive. I
pass over the other characteristics which distinguish agglutinative from
inflected languages. The dialects of the Red Skins have not, or seem not
to have, any affinity in the different terms of their vocabulary, which
is, besides, often very limited.
“In order to comprehend each other the tribes have adopted by common
accord a language of signs and gestures which approximates to that of
the deaf and dumb. In this way all the Indians are capable of a mutual
understanding, and a Yute, for instance, can converse without difficulty
for several hours with an Arrapahoe, or the latter with a Sioux.
“The Whites are not acquainted with the languages of the Prairie
Indians, or know them very badly. Frequently, there is but one
interpreter for the same tongue, often a very poor one, merely
understanding the idiom he has translated, not speaking it. Many, _à
fortiori_, are not able to write the language which they interpret.
Neither Dr. Mathews, John Richard, nor Pierre Chêne could spell for me
in English characters the names of the Crow chiefs. How would it be in
the case of the Arrapahoes or Apaches, whose strongly guttural speech is
only accentuated by the tips of the lips?
“In all this it must be understood that I speak only of the tribes of
the Prairies, and not of those who lived in olden times on the
declivities of the mountains overlooking the Atlantic or skirting the
Mississippi. The majority of the latter are, as is known, extinct, the
Algonquins, Hurons, Iroquois, Natchez and Mohicans, and it is also well
to avow that France has contributed in a large measure to their
disappearance.
“The residue of these tribes, which I shall term Atlantic--Delawares,
Cherokees, Seminoles, Osages, and Creeks--is now cantoned in the
reserves, especially in the Indian Territory, where little by little the
Red Skins are losing their distinctive characteristics. Histories and
authentic documents regarding all these races are extant, whilst only
very little is known up to the present concerning those of the Prairies.
The greater part of the legends and traditions with which people endow
them are only due to the invention of travellers.
[Illustration: 216.--A CHAYENE (SHIENNES) CHIEF.]
“It is towards a new territory analogous to the one just mentioned, and
bordering upon it, that the Commissioners of the Union have recently
pushed back the five great nations of the south; while they intend to
indicate a reserve of the same kind in the north of Dacota to the Crows
and the Sioux, if they find them well disposed to accept it.
“And then, people may say, what will become of the Indians? For this is
the question which every one asks when he hears the Red Skins spoken of.
If the Prairie tribes go into the reserves, the same will happen to them
which has befallen those of the Atlantic borders; little by little they
will lose their customs, their wild habits; they will yield insensibly
to the sedentary and agricultural life, and, step by step--last phase,
of which the first example remains to be seen--their country will pass
from the rank of a territory to that of a state. Arrived at this final
stage the Indian will be altogether blended with the White; after a few
generations he will not perhaps be more distinguishable from him than
the Frank is discernible from the Gaul among us, or the Norman from the
Saxon in England.
“But if the Indian does not submit; if he will not consent to be
cantoned in the reserves? Then must ensue a death-struggle between two
races differing in colour and customs, a merciless war of which,
unfortunately, so many examples have already been seen on the same
American soil. Where are now the Hurons, Iroquois, and Natchez, who
amazed our ancestors? The Algonquins, who had no limits to their
territory, where and how many are they to-day? All have gradually
disappeared by disease or warfare.
“The war which will break out this time will be short, and it will be
final, for in it the Indian will finally sink. He has on his side
neither science nor numbers. Undoubtedly, by his ambushes, by his
flights, by his isolated and totally unforeseen attacks, he bewilders
scientific warfare, and the most able strategists of the United States,
with General Sherman at their head, have been beaten by the Indians, who
have gained no small share of glory against the Whites. But the next war
will be no longer one of regulars but of volunteers. The pioneers of the
territories will arm themselves, and if the Red man demands tooth for
tooth, eye for eye, the Whites will inflict upon him the inflexible
penalty of retaliation, and the Indian will disappear for ever.”
[Illustration: 217.--A YUTE CHIEF.]
In the narrative of his travels from the Mississippi to the coasts of
the Pacific Ocean, made in 1853, M. Mollhausen has given various details
concerning the remnants of the nearly extinct Atlantic tribes.
The _Choctaws_, to the number of twenty-two thousand souls, are spread
over the regions bordering on Arkansas on the east, the plains inhabited
by the _Chicksaws_ on the south, and those occupied by the _Creeks_ on
the west, while their neighbours to the north are the _Cherokees_.
The vast plains which adjoin the Choctaw territories, are used for the
pastimes of the Indians, and especially for their game of ball or
tennis. The Choctaws, Chicksaws, Creeks, and Cherokees are passionately
attached to this amusement. A challenge borne by two able performers
usually gives rise to the festival, and having arranged the day for the
contest, the players dispatch their heralds to all quarters. These
emissaries are tattooed horsemen, accoutred in a fantastic style.
Carrying a ceremonial racket, they repair from village to village and
hut to hut, proclaiming throughout the entire tribe the names of the
individuals who have proposed the match, and making known the day of the
struggle and the place of meeting. As each of the actors is accompanied
by his relatives, half the nation is often found assembled at the
appointed locality on the eve of the solemn day, some to take part in
the fray, and the others to bet upon the result. This game (fig. 218) is
a tremendous tussle, a general scrimmage in which almost the whole tribe
is engaged.
Between the Canadian border and Arkansas, sprinkled with flourishing
farms, is the fertile domain of the Creek Indians. It is not so long
since the warriors there covered themselves with whimsical tattooing;
but progress has to-day penetrated into these savannas, and these same
Indians to-day read a newspaper printed in their language.
Like the Choctaws, the Creeks formerly inhabited Alabama and
Mississippi, which they ceded for a pecuniary consideration to the
American government. Their numbers do not amount to more than twenty-two
thousand.
A similar estimate may be made of the _Cherokees_, who have abandoned
New Georgia for higher Arkansas.
Further off are the _Shawnees_, a nation which is reduced to about
fourteen hundred members, and yet was once one of the most powerful in
North America. They were the first to oppose resistance to the
encroachments of civilization, and hunted from everywhere have strewn
the bones of their warriors along their route.
[Illustration: 218.--CHOCTAW INDIANS PLAYING BALL.]
The _Delawares_, who have diminished to the insignificant total of eight
hundred individuals, originally inhabited the eastern parts of the
States of Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Delaware. Their fate resembled
that of the Shawnees; being ever obliged to subdue new territories which
they were afterwards compelled to yield to the government. Driven from
the plains which contained the tombs of their forefathers, deceived and
betrayed by the strangers, the Delaware Indians have repelled Christian
missionaries. Placed at the extreme limits of civilization, on the very
border of virgin nature, they devote themselves fearlessly to their
adventurous propensities. They go to hunt the grizzly bear in
California, the buffalo on the plains of Nebraska, the elk at the
sources of the Yellowstone, and the mustang in Texas, scalping a few
crowns on their way. A Delaware only requires to see a piece of land
once, in order to be able to recognize it after the lapse of years, no
matter from what side he may approach it; and wherever he sets his foot
for the first time, a glance suffices to enable him to discover the spot
where water should be sought for. These Indians are admirable guides,
and on their services, which cannot be too dearly paid for, the
existence of a whole caravan often depends.
_Comanches._--The great and valiant nation of the Comanche Indians,
which is divided into three tribes, overruns in every direction the vast
expanse of the Prairies: outside those green savannahs they would be
unable to live. Those of the north and of the centre are ever hunting
the buffalo, and the flesh of that animal constitutes almost their sole
sustenance. From the most tender childhood till advanced age they are in
the saddle, and a whip and bridle render the Comanche the most expert,
agile, and independent of men. They gallop in thousands over the
Prairies hanging to the sides of their steeds, and directing their
arrows and spears with marvellous skill at their mark. They plume
themselves on being robbers, attack the establishments of the Whites,
lead men, women, and children away prisoners, and carry off the cattle.
Fig. 219 represents two Comanche Indians; fig. 220, one of their
encampments, and fig. 221, a buffalo hunt among the same tribe.
_Apaches._--The _Apache_ nation is one of the most numerous of New
Mexico, including many tribes, several of which are not even known by
name.
[Illustration: 219.--COMANCHE INDIANS.]
The _Navajoes_ belong to this group. They are the only Indians of New
Mexico who keep large flocks of sheep and pursue a pastoral life. They
know how to weave the wool of their flocks, of which they manufacture
thick blankets fit to compete with the productions of the west, twisting
bright colours into these rugs in a way that imparts to them a very
original appearance. Their deerskin leggings are made with the utmost
care, and have thick soles and a pointed end, shaped like a beak, a
necessary precaution against the thorny cactus plants with which the
soil bristles. Their head-gear consists of a leathern cap in the form of
a helmet, adorned by a bunch of cock’s, eagle’s, or vulture’s feathers.
In addition to bows and arrows, they carry long lances which they handle
very skilfully as they dash along on their fleet steeds.
[Illustration: 220.--A COMANCHE CAMP.]
In the last rank of the Apache nation are to be placed the tribes of the
_Cosninos_ and _Vampays_, thievish, savage, and suspicious hordes with
which it has been found impossible to establish any relations, and who
are natives of the mountains of San Francisco. Cedar-berries, the fruit
of a species of pine-tree, and the grass and root of a Mexican plant,
constitute their means of subsistence, for they are wretched hunters.
[Illustration: 221.--A BUFFALO HUNT.]
Within sight of the Rio Colorado M. Mollhausen encountered some Indians
belonging to the three tribes of the _Chimehwebs_, _Cutchanas_ and
_Pah-Utah_s, who bear a resemblance to each other. Their complexion was
dark in colour, their faces striped with bistre, and their black hair
hung down their backs in locks which were confined with wet clay. They
were of fine stature, and perfectly naked but for a waistband. They
bounded forward like deer to meet the travellers, and their expression
of countenance was frank, kind, and merry. Their women on the contrary
were small, thickset, and clumsy, but their large black eyes and
pleasant manners gave them a certain charm.
The travellers also fell in with the _Mohawk Indians_ (fig. 222), men of
herculean forms who were tattooed from the roots of the hair to the sole
of the foot in blue, red, white and yellow, and with eyes that glowed
like coals under this layer of paint. Most of them wore vulture’s,
magpie’s, or swan’s feathers on the top of their heads, and carried
large bows and spears in their hands.
Mr. Catlin made numerous excursions among the Indian tribes of the
plains of Columbia and Upper Missouri, and we shall quote presently his
remarks concerning the _Nayas_ and _Flat-Heads_.
Both these nations dwell to the west of the Rocky Mountains, occupying
all the country situated round Lower Columbia and Vancouver’s Island.
The latter tribe derives its name from the singular custom which exists
among them of flattening their children’s heads at their birth.
The Flat-Heads (fig. 223) live in a region where very little in the way
of food is to be found except fish, and their lives are spent in
canoes. The artificial deformity which constitutes the national
characteristic is to be found more especially among the women, with whom
it is almost universal; but it is only a question of fashion, and does
not appear to have any perceptible effect on the functions of the
organs, for persons whose heads have been compressed seem as intelligent
as those who have not undergone this strange operation.
[Illustration: 222.--MOHAWK INDIANS.]
Mr. Catlin says:--
“In the course of the year 1853 I found myself on board the Sally Anne,
a little vessel flying the star-spangled flag, which having made a few
trading cruises along the coast of Kamtschatka and Russian America, was
on her way to land in British Columbia several passengers who had been
attracted thither by the reputation of the auriferous deposits newly
discovered in that country.
“On the third day from our entry into Queen Charlotte’s Sound, the long
and magnificent strait separating Vancouver’s Island from the continent,
we got into the long-boat to go on shore, and arrived at the village of
the Nayas. The Indians had been informed of our visit and were all
assembled in their huts; the chief, a very dignified man, being seated
in his wigwam, with lighted pipe, ready to receive us. We squatted
ourselves on mats spread upon the ground, and whilst the pipe was being
passed round--this is the first ceremony on such occasions--hundreds of
native dogs--half wolves,--which had followed in our track, completely
invaded the approaches to the wigwam, barking and howling in the
shrillest and most mournful manner. The sentinel whom the chief had
stationed at the door to prevent anyone entering without permission,
discharged an arrow at the leader of the band, piercing him to the
heart, a proceeding which calmed the rest of the pack, which was then
dispersed with many blows of oars by the Indian women. We were not a
little embarrassed at having no other way of expressing our thoughts
than by signs, yet we seemed to understand each other perfectly, and we
gathered that the chief had sent to a village at no great distance in
search of an interpreter who ought very soon to arrive. I recommended my
companions not to breathe a word before his arrival as to our object in
visiting the locality, and in the meantime did not myself lose an
instant in endeavouring to rouse the interest of our hosts.
“I motioned to Cæsar to bring me the portfolio, and having seated myself
beside the chief, opened it before him, while I gave an explanation of
each portrait; he expressed no great surprise, and yet took an evident
pleasure in examining them. I showed him several chiefs of the Amazons,
as well as others of the Sioux, Osages, and Pawnees. The last likeness
was a full-length one of Cæsar, on seeing which he could not restrain
himself from bursting into the most tremendous fits of laughter, and
turning towards the subject of it who was sitting opposite, signed to
him to approach, gave him a grasp of the hand and made him place himself
beside him. These drawings excited great animation in the assemblage;
three or four under-chiefs were anxious to see them, and the chief’s
wife and their young daughter came close to us for the same purpose.
[Illustration: 223.--FLAT-HEAD INDIANS.]
“One detail of their toilette attracted Cæsar’s attention: a man had a
round slip of wood inserted in his under lip and the chief’s daughter
also carried a similar ornament. Like Cæsar, my companions were ignorant
of this strange and incredible custom, and contemplated the Indians thus
adorned, with the utmost astonishment.
“The chief’s daughter wore a magnificent mantle of mountain-sheep’s wool
and wild-dog’s hair, marvellously interwoven with handsome colours in
the most intricate and curious patterns, and bordered all round with a
fringe eighteen inches deep. The making of this robe had occupied three
women during a year, and its value was that of five horses. The bowl of
the pipe which the chief passed round, was of hard clay, black as jet
and highly polished, and both it and the stem were embellished with
sketches of men and animals carved in the most ingenious manner. I have
seen several of these pipes, and have had many in my possession, with
their eccentric designs representing the garments, canoes, oars,
gaiters, and even the full-length likenesses of their owners. These
designs of the Nayas are different from all those we saw among the other
tribes of the continent. The same ornaments are found on their spoons,
vases and clubs; on their earthenware, of which they make a great
quantity; and on everything else manufactured by them. Up to the present
these figures are inexplicable hieroglyphics to us, but they possess
great interest for archæologists and etymologists.
“I did not find in this Naya Chief the same superstitious dread which
the Indians of the Amazon and of other parts in the south of America
evinced when I asked them to have their portraits taken; on the contrary
he said of his own accord to me: ‘If you think any of us worthy of the
honour, or handsome enough to be painted, we are ready!’ I thanked him;
Cæsar went for my box of colours and my easel, and I began his likeness
and that of his daughter, for he had told me how much he loved this
child, adding that it was his rule to have her almost always with him,
and that he thought I should do well to draw them together, both on the
same canvas. I agreed to his request, telling him at the same time how
much I appreciated such natural and noble feelings on his part.
[Illustration: 224.--NAYA INDIANS.]
“. . . . As we neared the village a great crowd came to meet us, and I
noticed that the throng, especially the women, attached themselves to
the steps of Cæsar as he marched solemnly along, his tall figure drawn
up to its full height, and with the portfolio on his back. So large were
the numbers for so small a village, that I asked the interpreter to
explain what this signified. He told me that the news of our arrival and
the attraction of the dance which was sure to take place in the evening
had drawn and would still draw a vast concourse of Indians from the
adjoining districts. At sunset we partook of a meal of venison in the
chief’s wigwam, and afterwards set ourselves to smoke until night came
on. Then in the midst of dreadful yelling, barking, and singing, we saw
about a dozen flaming torches approaching the hut in front of which the
dance of masks now began. Grotesque is an imperfect word to convey an
idea of the incredible eccentricities and buffoonery that took place
before us, and Cæsar was seized with such a fit of laughing as to be
almost choked. Picture to yourself, fifteen or twenty individuals, all
full-grown men, masked or tricked out in the most extraordinary guise,
while many spectators, placed in the first rank, were costumed in
similar style. A great medicine man was the conductor of the revels and
the most whimsical of all. He represented the ‘King of the Bustards,’
another was ‘Monarch of the Divers,’ a third, ‘Doctor of the Rabbits;’
and there were also the ‘Brother to the Devil,’ the ‘Thunder-Maker,’ the
‘White Rook,’ the ‘Night-travelling Bear,’ the ‘Soul of the Caribout,’
and so on, until the names of every animal and every bird were entirely
exhausted. The dancers’ masks, of which I procured several, are very
ingeniously made. They are cleverly hollowed from a solid block of wood
in such a way as to fit the face, and are held inside by a cross-strap
which is taken between the teeth, thus enabling the voice to be
counterfeited and disguised; they are covered, moreover, with odd
patterns in various colours. With the exception of that of the leader of
the dance, all these masks had a round piece of wood in the under lip,
to recall the singular custom which exists in the country.
Entertainments of this description are not confined to the Nayas, for I
have witnessed similar recreations in many other tribes in North as
well as South America.
[Illustration: 225.--A CROW CHIEF.]
“They also slit the cartilages and lobes of their ears, lengthen them,
and insert little billets as ornaments. Those in the lip are principally
worn by the women, though some of the men have adopted this fashion,
which becomes more and more in vogue among both sexes as the coast is
ascended northwards. The same may be said of the masks, which are to be
found as far as among the Aloutis. All the women have not the lip
pierced, and those who have do not carry the wooden ornament except on
certain occasions, at settled periods, when they don full dress. They
remove it when eating and sleeping or if they have to talk much, for
there are plenty of words which cannot be pronounced with this
inconvenient trinket.
“The lip is perforated at the earliest age, and the aperture thus
formed, though almost imperceptible at first when the ‘barbote’ is taken
out, is kept open and grows larger daily.”
The same traveller had the pleasure of again meeting the _Crows_, but as
we have already spoken of the Indians of this tribe, we shall content
ourselves with reproducing here his very picturesque costume of one of
their chiefs (fig. 225).
Mr. Catlin twice visited the _Mandan Indians_ in the course of the
summer of 1832. The solitary village in which they were collected, to
the number of two or three thousand, was on the left bank of the
Missouri, at a distance of about 1400 miles from the city of St. Louis.
Of medium stature, and comfortably clad in skins, all wore leathern
leggings and mocassins elegantly embroidered with porcupine silk dyed in
various colours.
Each man had his tunic and his mantle which he assumed or laid aside
according to the temperature, and every woman her robe of deer or
antelope skin. Many among them had a very fair skin, and their hair,
which was silvery gray from childhood to old age, their light blue eyes
and oval faces, doubtless testified to an infusion of white blood.
Almost all the men adopted a curious fashion, peculiar to this tribe;
their hair, long enough to reach the calf of their legs, was divided
into matted locks, flattened and separated by hardened birdlime or by
red or yellow clay.
NORTH-WESTERN FAMILY.
The Indian tribes composing the _North-Western family_ of the North
American Branch, are less warlike and cruel than those of the east. They
take no scalps. Their stature is not so tall, their face broader, their
eyes more sunken, and their complexion browner. M. d’Omalius d’Halloy
cites in this group the _Koliouges_ (from 60° to 50° N. lat.), the
_Wakisches_ or _Nootkans_ (Island of Nootka and neighbouring coasts),
the _Chinooks_ (mouth of the Oregon), and the _Tularenos_, or Indians of
California.
A detailed description of these different American tribes would be
devoid of interest; in fact, we should be only able to repeat with but
little alteration what has been said in previous pages concerning the
manners, habits, customs, &c., of the last remaining savages who still
people the interior of the North American forests.
In connection with the aboriginal inhabitants of California, we must
direct the reader’s attention to the fact, that the Californians have a
skin of such a deep reddish-brown that it seems black. This colour is
certainly exceptional among the primitive inhabitants of America, but
the characteristic is so pronounced in the present instance, that we
felt that we could not avoid pointing it out, although it may be opposed
to the classification which we have adopted, placing in the Red Race all
members of the human family proper to America. This exception is one of
the inconveniences of classification to which we must submit, without
however endeavouring to conceal it.
THE BLACK RACE.
The Black Race, as considered in the various peoples constituting its
type, is distinguished by its short and woolly hair, compressed skull,
flattened nose, prominent jaws, thick lips, bowed legs, and black or
dark brown skin. Its members are confined to the central and southern
regions of Africa and the southern parts of Asia and Oceania. The blacks
found in America are the descendants of African slaves transported into
the New World by Europeans.
The peoples belonging to the Black Race present great variations. Some
have the type altogether peculiar to the Race we have just
characterized, while others show a tendency to approach the Yellow and
the White Races. The inhabitants of Guinea and Congo are quite black,
but the Caffres are only excessively brown and resemble Abyssinians. The
Hottentots and Bushmen are yellowish, like the Chinese, though at the
same time possessing the features and physiognomy of the Negro.
As striking varieties are, therefore, observable in the Black Race as in
the White, and a rigorous classification of it is consequently very
difficult to establish; but as we coincide in that which has been
suggested by M. d’Omalius d’Halloy, we shall separate the Black Race
into two divisions, the _Western_ and the _Eastern_ Branches.
CHAPTER I.
WESTERN BRANCH.
We shall notice three families in the _Western_ Branch of the Black
Race, those of the Caffres, Hottentots, and Negroes. These general
groups comprise an immense number of tribes, many of them still unknown,
constituting a population of about fifty-two millions.
CAFFRE FAMILY.
The Caffres who inhabit the south-east of Africa form, so to speak, the
stepping-stone or intermedium between the brown and the black nations.
Their hair is woolly, but their complexion is not so dark nor their nose
so flat as those of a Negro. Possessing more aptitude for civilization
than the other black races, they are associated together in large
communities, each of which obeys a chief, and though half wandering in
their habits, occupy some very populous towns, of considerable extent,
and resembling vast camps. Their clothing is very scanty, being reduced
in the men’s case almost to a cloak, whilst the women are better covered
in leathern garments.
The Caffres have great herds of cattle and devote themselves to
agriculture. They cultivate maize, millet, beans and watermelons; make
bread and beer, and manufacture earthenware, are able to utilize metals,
employ iron and copper, and know how to turn both into tools and
ornaments. They believe in a Supreme Being as well as in the immortality
of the soul, but pervert their religious sentiments by divers
superstitions.
The various tribes of this great family possess physical characteristics
in common which are not to be found in other African nations. Caffres
are far taller and stronger; they have well-proportioned limbs, a brown
skin, black and woolly hair; the elevated forehead and the projecting
nose of the European with the thick lips of the Negro, and the high
prominent cheekbones of the Hottentot. Their language is sonorous,
sweet, and harmonious, with a rumbling in its pronunciation.
[Illustration: 226.--A CAFFRE.]
We class with this family:
1. The Southern Caffres, who include the Amakisas, Amathymbas, or
Tamboukis, Amapendas, and other tribes;
2. The Amazulas, Vatwas, and some other warlike wandering hordes who
have lately advanced southward into the interior;
3. The inhabitants of Delagoa Bay, who bear a closer resemblance to the
Negroes;
4. The Bechuanas and all the numerous tribes situated towards the north
and in the interior, speaking a language of their own, called
_Sichuana_.
[Illustration: 227.--NATIVE OF THE MOZAMBIQUE COAST.]
The Bechuana nations are the most advanced of these four groups. The
traveller Livingstone, who made a long stay in their country, has given
excellent descriptions of them in his “Expedition to the Zambesi.” They
have made progress in arts and civilization, inhabit large towns, have
well-built houses, till the soil, and know how to preserve one year’s
crop until the next. Their features tend towards an approach to those of
Europeans.
In the region of the _Tammahas_, not far from Marhow, a town of ten
thousand inhabitants, fields of corn several hundred acres in extent,
testify to a rather forward state of agriculture and industry.
The _Maratsi_ cultivate sugar and tobacco, make knives and razors,
construct their houses in masonry, and ornament them with pilasters and
mouldings.
We must also affiliate to the Caffres, the inhabitants of the Mozambique
coast, that is to say, that portion of the east coast of Africa between
the mouth of the Zambesi and Cape Delgado. Fig. 227 represents a typical
native of this district.
HOTTENTOT FAMILY.
The _Hottentots_, whom the Dutch colonists call Bosjesmans or Bushmen,
inhabit the southern extremity of the continent. Their skin is of a dark
yellowish hue, and it is only in consequence of their features and
conformation, which are those of Negroes, that the Hottentots are placed
in the Black Race, for if their colour is considered, they should be
ranked in the Yellow one.
Prior to the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope by European navigators,
the Hottentots formed a numerous people, whose little tribes lived
happily and tranquilly under the patriarchal rule of their chiefs or
elders. Composed of from three to four hundred individuals only, these
hordes roved about with their flocks and assembled in villages, the
houses of which being constructed of branches of trees and reed mats,
were taken asunder on the signal of departure, and removed by oxen to
the site of the new encampment selected by the chief. The wildest of
them had for covering a cloak of sheepskins sewn together, and their
weapons were a bow and poisoned arrows. This people were active and
intrepid hunters, and they found an opportunity of proving to the
Europeans that they were brave in war. Their cruel invaders, the Dutch,
exterminated the majority of these tribes, others were violently
divested of their possessions and hurled back into the forests or the
deserts, where their wretched descendants still live.
The Hottentots or Bushmen seem to be the lowest of mankind, as much by
their physical characteristics as by the inferiority of their
intelligence. They are of small stature, yellowish complexion, and
repulsive countenance. Prominent foreheads, small sunken eyes, extremely
flat noses, and thick projecting lips, form the distinctive features of
their face. In consequence of their miserable state of existence, they
become worn out and decrepit early in life. They delight in personal
adornment, and deck ears, arms, and legs with beads, and with iron,
copper, or brass rings. The women colour the whole or part of their
faces; for all covering, they throw over their shoulders a kind of
sheepskin mantle.
[Illustration: 228.--THE HOTTENTOT VENUS.]
We give here (fig. 228), as an accurate specimen of the Hottentot race,
the portrait (from a cast in the French Museum of Natural History) of a
woman of that country, who died at Paris in 1828, and who was known by
the name of “The Hottentot Venus.” The physical specialty which rendered
her remarkable, and which consisted in a considerable development of the
posterior muscles, was merely an individual anomaly, and does not
permit of any general conclusion being drawn from it as a characteristic
of the Hottentot race. The skeleton of this female is preserved entire
in the Museum, where a cast of the whole body, coloured as in life, may
also be seen.
The Bushman’s dwelling is a low hut or a circular cavity. They formerly
lived in a species of natural caves among the rocks, and a few
individuals, even to the present day, occupy these same dens, which
convey to us a perfect idea of man’s habitations at the time of his
first appearance on the globe.
These wild beings have never been seen engaged in any other occupation
than that of making or repairing their weapons and their barbed or
poisoned arrows. In times of scarcity, they eat herb-roots, ants’ eggs,
locusts, and snakes. Their language is a mixture of chattering, hissing,
and nasal grunts.
As regards physical type, the Hottentots are small, but
well-proportioned, and erect without being muscular. They are generally
extremely ugly. Their nose is usually flat, their eyes long and narrow,
very wide apart from each other and with the inner angle rounded as
among the Chinese, whom the Hottentots resemble besides in some other
respects. Their cheekbones are high set and very prominent, and form
almost an equilateral triangle with their sharp-pointed chin. Their
teeth are very white. The women sometimes possess pleasing figures in
early youth, but later on their breasts lengthen immoderately, their
stomach becomes protuberant, and sometimes the hind part of their body
is covered with an enormous mass of fat. This inclination was visible to
an exaggerated excess in the case of the “Hottentot Venus;” but as we
have said, she merely constituted an individual exception, and it would
be erroneous to set it down as a general characteristic of the whole
Hottentot family.
NEGRO FAMILY.
The Negroes occupy a large part of Central and Southern Africa.
Senegambia, Guinea, a portion of the western Soudan, the coast of Congo,
along with the immense extent of country, as yet almost entirely
unknown, which is comprised between Congo on the west and the coasts of
Mozambique and Zanzibar on the east, are the dwelling-places of the
Negroes, properly so called.
Guinea and Congo are the classic homes of the Negro. There live the
representatives of this race, with the most characteristic and repulsive
features. The belief is, that, as the incursions of Asiatic and European
populations into Africa were always effected by the Isthmus of Suez and
the Red Sea, the aboriginal blacks were thrust back more and more
towards the west of the continent. The inhabitants of Guinea and Congo
would consequently be the descendants and contemporary representatives
of the primitive black stock.
Negroes are also to be found in the numerous islands of the Southern
Ocean; New Guinea, New Britain, New Caledonia, Australia, Madagascar,
&c., &c. In the last named large island, a vast Negro kingdom is in
existence, governed by a queen, who sent ambassadors to England and
France at the commencement of the present century. Finally, there are
Negroes in the United States, and in the West Indies. From 1848, when
slavery was declared abolished in the French possessions, the blacks
have been free in those colonies, and the gradual emancipation of the
Negroes which has taken place since, both in the American and Spanish
territories, has completely relieved them from bondage.
We proceed to study the Negroes, firstly as regards organization, and
then from the intellectual and moral stand-point.
The physiognomy of the Negro is so strongly distinctive that it is
impossible not to recognize it at the first glance, even if the
individual should have a fair skin. His protruding lips, low forehead,
projecting teeth, woolly and half-frizzled hair, thin beard, broad, flat
nose, retreating chin, and round eyes, give him a peculiar look amongst
all other human races. Several are bow-legged, almost all have but
little calf, half-bent knees, the body stooped forward, and a tired
gait.
The masticatory muscles are more powerful in the Negro than in the
White, on account of the greater length of the jaw. Their occiput is
flatter than that of the White, and the great occipital hole placed
further back. Dr. Madden has noticed skeletons of Negroes in Upper
Egypt, showing six lumbar vertebræ instead of five, a fact which
explains the length of their loins and shambling gait. The hips are less
prominent than in a white man. We may add that in this race the trunk is
not so broad as in the other human families, the arms are slightly
longer in proportion, and the legs rather perceptibly bent, with flat
and high placed calves.
The bones of the skull and those of the body are thicker and harder than
in the other races.
The bony cavity of the pelvis is much narrower in the Negro than in the
European, but it is broader towards the os sacrum, which renders
delivery easy to a Negress. Accurate measurements show the upper portion
of the pelvis to be a fourth wider in the European than in the Negro.
The thighs also differ in the Negro and the White, being very
perceptibly flattened in the former.
The foot participates in this general ugliness of the limbs. Flat feet,
which are sufficient to exempt from military service among the French,
are not only no deformity in the Negro, but a normal characteristic.
Instead of forming that curve which imparts elasticity to the whole
frame, the under part of the Negro’s foot is flat, thus rendering it
less fitted to support the body on marches. So apparent is this
malformation in the black, that they say of him in America, “The sole of
his foot makes a hole in the sand;” and it is easy, in consequence, to
distinguish by a mere look the footprint of an European from that of a
Negro. The first only shows the marks of the toes and heel, while the
other is the impress of the entire sole, from one end to the other.
Besides, the foot of the Negro is large and narrow, with wide divisions
between the toes, while the nails are so sharp and pointed, that they
resemble claws.
The complexion of the skin is one of the most apparent, though not most
characteristic, attributes of the Negro race. The belief was long
entertained that the colour of the blacks resulted from the prolonged
action of the sun on their bodies, but observation has shown that such
is not the case, and that their extremely dark hue by no means depends
either on the intensity or brilliancy of the solar rays. White men are
to be found in the central parts of Africa, in the Soudan and the
Sahara, for instance, as well as among the Touaricks, whilst black
tribes exist in countries subject to the most rigorous cold, such as Van
Diemen’s Land, and New Zealand. In another direction, too, quite close
to the white Icelanders and Norwegians, people with very dark skins may
be seen, like the Laplanders; and in California, a country of cold
latitude, the aborigines are, as we have stated, almost black.
The black colour resides in an oily, greasy principle, termed _pigmentum
nigrum_ (black pigment), which is deposited in a layer in the mucous
tissue on the cuticle. This penetrates into the hair, dyeing it black,
and diffuses itself throughout the entire system even to the membranes
surrounding the brain. This black mucous net-work appears to protect the
skin from the violent action of an African sun, and preserves it from
those inflammations which are called sun-strokes in our climate.
[Illustration: 229.--A ZANZIBAR NEGRO.]
Crossing with the White gradually diminishes the Negro’s colour, and in
proportion to the preponderance of black or white in its progenitors,
the offspring presents various gradations of complexion. The following
are the names which according to Valmont de Bomaire are given in the
colonies to the issue of the union of the two races: 1. The child of a
white man and a Negress, or of a Negro and a white woman, is called a
_mulatto_, who is neither black nor white, but of a blackish yellow hue,
and who has short and frizzly black hair. 2. The offspring of a white
man and a mulatto woman, or of a Negro and a mulatto woman, is termed a
_quadroon_, who, as regards colour, is a mixture of three-quarters white
with one-quarter black, or three-quarters black with one-quarter white.
In the first case the complexion is fairer; in the second, darker than
that of a mulatto. 3. A white man and a fair quadroon, or a Negro and a
dark quadroon produce an _octoroon_, seven-eighths white and one-eighth
black, or seven-eighths black and one-eighth white. 4. The child of a
White and an octoroon, or of a Negro and a dark octoroon, is in the one
case almost entirely white, in the other, nearly quite black.
Valmont de Bomaire adds, that in succeeding mixed generations (the union
with the white man taking place in Europe, and that with the black man,
in Senegal) the complexion would grow lighter or darker, until at last a
white or a black being was brought into the world. Such is the course of
physical influences and the causes of deterioration or relapse in the
colour of the human species. Only four or five generations of mixed
blood are required in order to render the Negro stock white, and no more
are wanted to make the white black. The union of a mulatto with a
quadroon or octoroon woman will produce, as may be understood, other
hues approaching to white or black in proportion to the progression
described above. The progeny of a black and a quadroon is termed
“saltatras” in the colonies; the word signifies “a leap-backwards” or a
return towards the black race.
Crossings of the Negro with individuals of the Yellow or Red Races,
with Asiatic Indians or American red-skins, beget offspring of varied
shades of colour, bearing different designations according to the
countries. These men of colour are seen in many islands of Polynesia.
Possessing neither the intelligence of whites nor the submissiveness of
blacks, despised by the former and hated by the latter, they constitute
an equivocal caste, with no settled position, and less disposed to
labour than revolt.
The colour of his skin takes away all charm from the Negro’s
countenance. What renders the European’s face pleasing is that each of
its features exhibits a particular shade. The cheeks, forehead, nose,
and chin of the White have each a different tinge. On the contrary all
is black on an African visage, even the eyebrows, as inky as the rest,
are merged in the general colour; scarcely another shade is perceptible,
except at the line where the lips join each other.
The skin of Negroes is very porous, so much so that the pores show
visibly; but it is far from hard in all cases, being in some instances
quite the reverse, smooth, satiny, and extremely soft to the touch.
The most unpleasant thing about a Negro’s skin is the nauseous odour it
emits when the individual is heated by perspiration or exercise; these
emanations are as hard to endure as those which some animals exhale.
A Negro’s hair is quite peculiar. Whilst that of a White is cylindrical,
the Black man’s is flat. It is also short and crisp, like the wool of a
sheep, and in contradistinction to the abundant supply of Europeans, the
women among whom can even trail their locks on the ground, it only
attains the length of a few inches. The beard, also, is very scanty and
scarcely covers the upper lip.
The eye of the Negro differs also from that of the white; the iris is so
dark as almost to be confounded with the black of the pupil. In the
European, the colour of the iris is so strongly marked as to render at
once perceptible whether the person has black, blue, or grey eyes.
Nothing similar in the case of the Negro, where all parts of the eye are
blended in the same hue. Add to this that the white of the eye is always
suffused with yellow in the Negro, and you will understand how this
organ, which contributes so powerfully to give life to the countenance
of the White, is invariably dull and expressionless in the Black Race.
Nature adapts the Negro to the torrid countries he inhabits. His
constitution is in general lymphatic and lethargic. His slow, sluggish
gait and invincible laziness provoke Europeans, who cannot understand so
much indolence. The relaxation of the limbs of the Negro betrays itself
by his inertia and drowsiness, as well as by the flabby flesh of the
women (Fig. 230).
Negroes are much less subject than Europeans to the influence of
stimulants. The strongest spirit, rum, pepper, the most irritant spices,
only feebly rouse their inert palate. Their soft, thick, oily skin,
smooth and hairless, is encrusted beneath the epidermis, as we have
said, with a black mucous deposit which gives it its colour. This viscid
film envelopes the nervous ramifications beneath the cuticle, thus
blunting the sensibility. The fine and delicate skin of the European
experiences horrible torture under the lash; but even when he is torn by
leathern thongs, the bleeding weals of which are sometimes, in an excess
of barbarity, rubbed with pepper and vinegar, the Negro supports this
cruel usage with indifference. Some blacks are seen joining the dance
after this punishment, as if nothing had happened.
Before speaking of the brain and understanding of the Negro, we should
make some remarks on the facial angle observed in this race. We have
said that a relatively exact judgment may be formed from the size of
this angle as to the value of a race of mankind, from the intellectual
point of view.[10] The more obtuse the angle, the greater indication
does it afford of noble and lofty sentiments; the smaller it is, the
nearer the head approaches to that of animals. A prominent forehead is
the sign of a developed intellect, whilst protruding jaws reveal brute
instincts. Consequently, the facial angle increases or diminishes
according as the forehead or the jaws project forward. The facial angle
of Europeans is about 76½ degrees, sometimes reaching 81. An angle of 90
degrees, that is to say a right angle, is found in the ancient statues
of Greece. But by reason of his retreating forehead and prominent jaws
the Negro only exhibits a facial angle of from 61¼ to 63 degrees,
approaching that of the monkey, which in those of the species to which
the orang-outang and gorilla belong, is of 45 degrees.
[10] See Introduction, p. 26.
This proportionate weakness of intelligence, revealed to us by the
smallness of the facial angle in the Negro, is confirmed by an
examination of his brain. The labours of anatomists of our own day have
established that not only is it the bulk of the brain which corresponds
relatively with intellectual activity, but that the genuine indication
revealing the superiority of mind in man consists in the number and
depth of the furrows or circumvolutions of the brain. Now the outlines
and windings of the cerebral mass in the European are so numerous and
deep that they can scarcely be measured, whilst the complications in the
head of the black are, as regards the same qualities, less by one half.
The brain of a Negro is also perceptibly smaller than that of a White.
It is the front part especially, that is to say the cerebral lobes,
which is so much larger in the European, and hence the fine arch of the
forehead peculiar to the White or Caucasian race.
[Illustration: 230.--ZANZIBAR NEGRESSES.]
The intellectual inferiority of the Negro is readable in his
countenance, devoid of expression and mobility. The black man is a
child, and like a child he is impressionable, fickle, easily affected by
good treatment, and capable of self-devotion, but capable also of hatred
in some cases, as well as of working out his revenge. The people of the
Black Race living in a free condition in the interior of Africa,
demonstrate by their habits and the state of their mind that they can
hardly get beyond the level of tribe life; and on the other hand such
difficulty is experienced in many colonies, in endeavouring to induce
the Negroes (so indispensable has the guardianship of Europeans become
to them) to maintain among themselves the benefits of civilization, that
the inferiority of their intelligence, compared with that of the rest of
mankind, is a fact not to be disputed.
Several instances might doubtless be adduced of Negroes who have
surpassed Europeans by their capacity of mind. Generals Toussaint
Louverture, Christofle, and Dessalines were no ordinary men, and
Blumenbach has preserved to us the names of many illustrious blacks,
among whom he mentions Jacob Captain, whose sermons, and theological
writings, in Latin and Dutch, are truly remarkable. It is not from
individual cases, however, but from the whole, that a judgment must be
arrived at, and experience has proved that the Negroes are inferior in
intelligence to all known races, not even excepting the savage people of
America and the Oceanian islands.
The Negro tribes would be excessively numerous if their children lived,
but negligence and laziness cause a notable proportion of their
offspring to perish. The continual wars, too, in which they indulge
against each other, equally impede the spread of their species, and
notwithstanding the fertility of the soil in a great part of Africa, the
improvidence and carelessness of the natives bring on real famines which
decimate their numbers.
Another cause of depopulation that happily becomes less important every
day is the trade which the blacks themselves are most eager to keep up.
They sell their children for a packet of beads or for a few flasks of
“fire-water.”
Thought grows sad as it carries itself back to the time, not yet very
remote, when Negro traffic and slavery, which to-day form the exception,
were the universal rule along the whole coast of Western Africa. Negroes
then were torn ruthlessly from their country and transported to other
climes to be reduced to bondage, or in other words to sacrifice life and
strength for their master, and in serving him, to exhaust themselves by
toil without gaining as much pity as is extended to beasts of burden.
With our animals, in fact, repose succeeds fatigue and food restores
vigour; whilst, in colonies subject to Europeans, dread of punishment,
the lash, and the most shocking usage, subdued the Negro to forced
labour.
This horrible traffic having excited universal indignation for half a
century, most States decreed its abolition. France by laws passed
between the years 1814 and 1848, definitively emancipated the slaves in
all her possessions, and since 1860 or so, almost the whole of America
has followed this example. Cruisers are now kept permanently on the
coasts of Africa both by England and France, which renders the slave
trade, if not impossible, at least difficult and dangerous for the
grasping, barbarous men who are not afraid to devote themselves to it
still.
This commerce, against which European nations have effected so much,
nevertheless, reckons as its partizans the Negroes themselves. The
tribes are, in fact, incessantly waging war on each other in order to
take prisoners and sell them to the traders who pay prohibited visits to
their shores. Even now, convoys of captives, chained together by means
of forked sticks, are too often to be seen traversing the forests on
their way to a slave-ship moored in some unfrequented creek.
Since the almost general abolition of slavery, many Negro tribes have
been remarked to live in better accord among themselves. Fathers have
some little love for their children, as they no longer entertain the
hope of selling them for a bottle of rum or a glass necklace!
This bondage of the Negroes is not, we may add, a social institution of
recent date. The Romans possessed black slaves, and had been preceded by
the Egyptians in a custom which, at a period yet more remote, prevailed
among the Assyrians and Babylonians. Three thousand years ago the
Arabians and Turks carried off Negroes. They ascended the Nile in large
vessels, collecting, as they went, the blacks that were delivered up to
them in Nubia and Abyssinia, and returning to Lower Egypt with this
cargo of human cattle, sold it for slaves.
A cruelty which occasionally approaches ferocity is the sad attribute of
some African tribes. Molien said of the inhabitants of Fouta-Toro, that
those Negroes had derived nothing from civilization but its vices, and
the same reproach is applicable to some of the modern tribes. The
natives of Dahomey, a Negro kingdom extending along the shores of the
Gulf of Guinea, distinguish themselves among all other blacks by their
callous and revolting inhumanity. To kill and slay is to them a
pleasure, which anyone who can indulge in it rarely denies himself, and
the post of executioner is sought for by the richest and most powerful
in the land as affording an opportunity for the most coveted enjoyments.
To form an idea of a similar excess of savagery and depravity, the
shocking account should be read in the “Tour du Monde,” narrated from
personal experience by Doctor Répin, who passed through Dahomey in 1856.
We cannot attempt to reproduce here the picture of such cold-blooded
barbarity.
The Negroes impose heavy labours on their women. Among them the wife is
merely a helper in toil, a servant the more. Making flour and bread,
tilling the ground, and the most fatiguing occupations, are the
Negress’s lot in her own country; and it has been said, perhaps rightly,
that the former slavery was possibly a benefit to her, as she at any
rate changed tyrants. The Negress grinds the corn by placing it in a
hollow stone and crushing it with a round flint, the flour falling
through a hole in the stone and being received in a mat laid on the
floor.
The religious notions possessed by the Negroes are very dim; they
doubtless believe in a supreme God, in a creator; but addict themselves
in excess to the practices of fetishism. Their fetishes are a kind of
secondary divinities, subordinate to the great God, master of nature.
Each person chooses for fetish whatever he likes--fire, a tree, a
serpent, a jackal, water, a hog, down to a piece of wood shaped by the
hand of man. The worship of the serpent is in much favour among the
inhabitants of Dahomey. They construct tents and dwellings for these
reptiles, rear them in great numbers, and allow them to rove about
wherever they please. Immediate death would follow any attempt to kill
or pursue the fetish serpents.
[Illustration: 231.--A NEGRO VILLAGE.]
Belief in the power of chance or destiny predominates among these rude
men. They feel that events do not depend on their own will, but upon
some hidden influence which directs everything, and which it is
necessary to render favourable to them. Hence the magicians and
soothsayers whose duty it is to avert evil fate or hurtful destinies,
and hence also the incalculable quantity of fetishes. Each Negro has his
own, to which he offers sacrifice so long as he obtains something from
it, and which he abandons the moment he recognizes its uselessness.
Lamentable effect of the natural degradation of these races!
The sad defects of the Negro in his savage state should not cause his
aptitudes to be forgotten. When he has been snatched from tribe life, or
freed from the chains that weighed him down, the black manifests
qualities which deserve to be brought into relief.
Let us remark firstly, that the Negroes, or the mulattoes resulting from
their union with the whites, are often gifted with an extraordinary
memory which gives them a great facility for acquiring languages. They
are not slow to appropriate the language of the people amidst whom they
are placed. They speak English in North America, Spanish in the Central
and Southern parts of the New World, and Dutch at the Cape of Good Hope.
They can even change their tongue with their masters. If a Dutch Negro
enters the service of an Englishman, he will abandon his former idiom
for that of the latter, and will forget his old mode of speech. Nay
more, their memory sometimes retains widely diverse languages at the
same time. Travellers have met negro traders in the centre of Africa,
having connections with different nations, who expressed themselves in
several tongues, and understood both Arabic and Koptic as well as
Turkish.
The towns inhabited by the Negroes resemble European cities sometimes so
much as to be mistaken for them; there is only a difference of degree in
their civilization and knowledge when compared with those of Europe.
Towns, properly so called, in the interior of Africa are however very
much scattered, but travellers bring to light fresh information
concerning the country every day, and the future will perhaps reveal to
us particulars about the civilization of Central Africa, of which we
have as yet hardly a suspicion.
Negroes are not bad accountants; they calculate mentally with great
rapidity, far surpassing Europeans in this respect.
The industrial arts are pursued with some success by many black tribes.
Iron can be extracted from its ores easily enough to admit of the trades
of founders and blacksmiths being carried on in every Negro village, and
some excellent handicraftsmen in both these callings are to be found in
Senegambia and several of the interior regions.
[Illustration: 232.--FISHING ON THE UPPER SENEGAL.]
Fermented drinks, such as beer, sorgho wine, &c., are also manufactured
with considerable skill.
Negroes possess the talent of imitation to a very remarkable extent.
They seize hold of and are able faithfully to mimic a person’s
particular characteristics or behaviour if they show any ludicrous
peculiarities. Negro humour is also generally gay and pleasant. They
like to laugh at their masters and overseers, the children of the house,
&c., and delight in making themselves merry at their expense.
Yet this imitative faculty inherent to blacks, does not go so far as to
endow them with any artistic talents. Drawing, painting, and sculpture
are unknown to Negroes, and it is impossible to infuse into them the
smallest capacity for such subjects, either by lesson or advice. Their
temples and dwellings are, in fact, only decorated with shapeless
scratches; Africans of the present day are utterly unskilled in drawing
and sculpture.
Negroes, if thus obtuse to the plastic arts, are on the contrary very
easily affected by music and poetry. They sing odd and expressive
recitatives at their festivals and sports, and in some Negro kingdoms a
caste of singers is even to be met with, which is alleged to be
hereditary, and whose members are also at the same time the chroniclers
of the tribe.
Musical instruments are rather plentiful among the Africans. In addition
to the drum, which holds so prominent a place in the music of the Arabs,
they use flutes, triangles, bells, and even stringed instruments, with
from eight to seventeen strings, the latter being supplied from the tail
of the elephant. They also possess instruments fashioned from the rind
of cucumbers, forming a sort of rude harp. The Mandigoes who live on the
banks of the Senegal, about the middle of its course, have a species of
clarionet, from four to five yards long.
[Illustration: 233.--A ZAMBESI NEGRESS.]
“The Negroes,” says Livingstone, in his “Expedition to the Zambesi,”
“have had their minstrels; they have them still, but tradition does not
preserve their effusions. One of these, apparently a genuine poet,
attached himself to our party for several days, and, whenever we halted,
sang our praises to the villagers in smooth and harmonious numbers. His
chant was a sort of blank verse, and each line consisted of five
syllables. The song was short when it first began, but each day he
picked up more information about us, and added to the poem, until our
praises grew into an ode of respectable length. When distance from home
compelled him to return, he expressed his regret at leaving us, and was,
of course, paid for his useful and pleasant flatteries. Another, though
less gifted son of Apollo, belonged to our own party. Every evening,
while the others were cooking, talking, or sleeping, he rehearsed his
songs, which contained a history of everything he had noticed among the
white men, and on the journey. In composing, extempore, any new piece,
he was never at a loss; for, if the right word did not come, he didn’t
hesitate, but eked out the measure with a peculiar musical sound,
meaning nothing at all. He accompanied his recitations on the _sausa_,
an instrument held in the fingers, whilst its nine iron keys are pressed
with the thumbs. Persons of a musical turn, too poor to buy a _sausa_,
may be seen playing vigorously on a substitute made of a number of thick
sorgho-stalks sewn together, and with keys of split bamboo. This
makeshift emits but little sound, but seems to charm the player himself.
When the _sausa_ is played with a calabash as a sounding board, it
produces a greater volume of sound. Pieces of shell and tin are added to
make a jingling accompaniment, and the calabash is profusely
ornamented.”
The music of the Negroes is not confined, it may be remarked, to simple
melody. They are not satisfied with merely playing the notes sung by the
voice, but have some principles of harmony. They perform accompaniments
in fourths, sixths, and octaves, the other musical intervals being less
familiar to them, except when sometimes employed to express irony or
censure. The advanced state of music amidst the Negro tribes is all the
more noticeable from the fact that among ancient European races, among
the ancient Greeks, at the most brilliant epoch of their history, for
instance, no idea whatever prevailed of harmony in music.
The faculties of the blacks can consequently in certain respects become
developed, and it is established that Negroes who live for several
generations in the towns of the colonies, and who are in perpetual
contact with Europeans, improve by the connection, and gain an
augmentation of their intellectual capacities.
To sum up, then, the Negro family possesses less intelligence than some
others of the human race; but this fact affords no justification for the
hateful persecutions to which these unfortunate people have been the
victims in every age. At the present day, thanks to progress and
civilization, slavery is abolished in most parts of the globe, and its
last remnants will not be slow to disappear. And thus will be swept
away, to the honour of humanity, a barbarous custom, the unhappy
inheritance of former times, repudiated by the modern spirit of charity
and brotherhood; and with it will vanish the infamous traffic which is
called the slave-trade.
No little time will, however, be needed in order to confer social
equality on the enfranchised Negro. We cannot well express the scorn
with which the liberated blacks are treated in North and South America.
They are hardly looked on as human beings, and notwithstanding the
abolition of slavery, are invariably kept aloof from the white
population. Centuries will be required to efface among Americans this
rooted prejudice, which France herself has had some trouble in shaking
off, since an edict of Louis XIV. cancelled the rank of any noble who
allied himself with a Negress, or even with a mulatto woman.
The general assuagement of manners and customs will ultimately, it must
be hoped, entirely obliterate these distinctions, so cruel and unjust to
the unhappy people whom a fatal destiny has condemned to a state of
perpetual martyrdom, without their having done anything to deserve it,
beyond coming into the world beneath an African sky.
CHAPTER II.
EASTERN BRANCH.
The _Eastern Blacks_, who have also been called _Melanesians_ and
_Oceanian Negroes_, inhabit the western part of Oceania and the
south-east of Asia. Their complexion is very brown, sometimes increasing
in darkness until it reaches intense black. Their hair is frizzled,
crisp, flaky, and occasionally woolly. Their features are disagreeable,
their figures of little regularity, and their extremities often lank.
They live in tribes or small divisions, without forming themselves into
nationalities.
We shall divide them into two groups, one, the _Papuan Family_, composed
of peoples among whom the characteristics indicated above, are the most
developed; the other, the _Andaman Family_, made up of tribes which more
resemble the Brown Race, and probably result from a mixture of it with
the Black one.
PAPUAN FAMILY.
The _Papuan Family_ seems to dwell only in small islands or on the
coasts of larger ones. Two groups of peoples are observable in it, one,
resembling the Malays, consists of the _Papuans_, who inhabit the New
Guinea Archipelago, and the other, resembling the Tabuans, occupies the
Fiji Islands, the New Hebrides, New Caledonia, and the Solomon range. We
proceed to say a few words as to the manners and customs of these
different sections of the Black Race.
_Papuans._--A remarkable feature presented by the Papuans, is the
enormous bulk of their half-woolly hair. Their skin is dark brown, their
hair black, and their beard, which is scanty, is, as well as their
eyebrows and eyes, of the same colour. Though they have rather flat
noses, thick lips and broad cheekbones, their countenance is by no means
unpleasant. The women are more ugly than the men, their withered
figures, hanging breasts, and masculine features render them
disagreeable to the sight, and even the young girls have a far from
attractive look.
_P. Sellier, p.^{t}_
_Imp. Dupuy, 22, R. des Petits Hôtels_
_G. Regamey, lith._
PAPOUAN
NEGRO OF NEW GUINEA
BLACK RACE]
Lesson considered the Papuans fierce, inhospitable, crafty men, but the
inhabitants of Havre de Doresy and generally of the northern part of
this Oceanic region, as far as the Cape of Good Hope, seemed to him of
great mildness and more disposed to fly from Europeans than to hurt
them. He thinks, nevertheless, that the Negroes in the south of New
Guinea, pushed back into that part of the island, and whom no
intermixture has altered, have preserved their savage habits and rude
independence. The state of perpetual hostility in which they live
renders their character distrustful and suspicious. Never did Lesson
visit a village, in a small boat manned by a fair number of men, that
women, children, old men, and warriors did not take to flight in their
large canoes, carrying off with them their movables and most precious
effects. He adds, that by good treatment and plenty of presents, people
may succeed in making way with them, may be able to lull their
uneasiness and establish friendly relations. The coloured Plate
accompanying this part of the work represents a native of the Papuan
Islands.
_Vitians._--The first accurate information about the Viti or Fiji
Islands is due to Dumont d’Urville. Mr. Macdonald, an assistant-surgeon
on board the English ship Herald, has published an account of his visit
to Fiji, and from it we extract the following particulars.
Thakombau (fig. 234), the king, was a man of powerful and almost
gigantic stature, with well-formed limbs of fine proportions. His
appearance, which was further removed from the Negro type than that of
other individuals of lower rank, sprung from the same stock, was
agreeable and intelligent. His hair was carefully turned up, dressed in
accordance with the stylish fashion of the country, and covered with a
sort of brown gauze. His neck and broad chest were both uncovered, and
his naked skin might be seen, of a clear black colour. Near him was his
favourite wife, a rather large woman with smiling features, as well as
his son and heir, a fine child of from eight to nine years old. His
majesty was also surrounded at respectful distance by a crowd of
courtiers, humbly cringing on their knees.
[Illustration: 234.--THAKOMBAU, KING OF THE FIJI ISLAND.]
In the course of his peregrinations, Mr. Macdonald was present at a
repast, consisting of pork, ignames, and taro,[11] served in wooden
dishes by women. Freshwater shell-fish of the cyprine kind completed the
banquet. The broth was very savoury, but the meat insipid. During the
conversation which followed, the traveller became convinced that gossip
is a natural gift of the Fijians. Figs. 235 and 236 represent types of
these people.
[11] The native substitute for bread.
[Illustration: 235.--NATIVE OF FIJI.]
The Fijians are fond of assembling to hear the local news, or to
narrate old legends. Respect for their chiefs is always preserved
unalterable among this people, turbulent in their behaviour, depraved in
their instincts, and familiar with murder, robbery, and lying. The
homage paid to their chiefs makes itself manifest both by word and
action; men lower their weapons, take the worst sides of the paths, and
bow humbly as one of the privileged order passes by. One of the oddest
forms taken by this obsequiousness is a custom in accordance with which
every inferior who sees his chief trip and fall, allows himself to
stumble in his turn, in order to attract towards himself the ridicule
which such an accident might have the effect of drawing upon his
superior.
[Illustration: 236.--NATIVE OF FIJI.]
The different classes or castes into which the Fijian population is
divided, are as follows: 1, sovereigns of several islands; 2, chiefs of
single islands, or of districts; 3, village chiefs, and those of
fisheries; 4, eminent warriors, but born in an inferior station, master
carpenters, and heads of turtle-fisheries; 5, the common people; and 6,
slaves taken in war.
The horrible custom of eating human flesh still exists in Fiji; the
missionaries have succeeded in bringing about its disappearance in some
parts of the island, but it remains in the interior districts,
concealing itself, however, and no longer glorying in the number of
victims devoured! Cannibalism does not owe its existence among the
Fijians, as in most savage tribes, to a feeling of revenge pushed to the
utmost limits; it arises there from an especial craving for human flesh.
But as this choice dish is not sufficiently abundant to satisfy all
appetites, the chiefs reserve it exclusively to themselves, and only by
extraordinary favour do they give up a morsel of the esteemed delicacy
to their inferiors.
[Illustration: 237.--A TEMPLE OF CANNIBALISM.]
The engraving (fig. 237) is taken from a sketch made by the missionary
Thomas Williams, of a sort of temple used on occasions of cannibalism in
Fiji. The four persons squatted in front of the edifice are victims
awaiting their doom, and whose bodies will afterwards serve for the
feast of these man-eaters.
Mr. Macdonald discovered that the custom of immolating widows is still
in full vigour in one of the districts of the island.
Dancing is the popular diversion of the Fiji Islands. The chant by which
it is usually regulated is of monotonous rhythm, its words recalling
either some actual circumstance or historical event. The dancers’
movements are slow at first, growing gradually animated, and being
accompanied by gestures of the hands and inflections of the body. There
is always a chief to direct the performers. A buffoon is sometimes
brought into the ring whose grotesque contortions bring applause from
the spectators.
Two bands, one of musicians, the other of dancers, take part in the
regular dances of the solemnities at Fiji (fig. 238); the first usually
numbers twenty, and the other from a hundred and fifty to two hundred,
individuals. These latter are covered with their richest ornaments,
carry clubs or spears, and execute a series of varied evolutions,
marching, halting, and running. As the entertainment draws towards its
close their motions increase in rapidity, their action acquires more
liveliness and vehemence, while their feet are stamped heavily on the
ground, until at last the dancers, quite out of breath, ejaculate a
final “Wa-oo!” and the antics cease.
_New-Caledonians._--The inhabitants of New Caledonia belong to the
branch of Oceanian Negroes. This island, hidden in the Equinoctial
Ocean, is a French possession, and has been marked out for the reception
of those Communist insurgents and incendiaries arrested in Paris in June
1871, after the “seven days’ battle” who were sentenced to
transportation by the courts-martial. We are indebted to MM. Victor de
Rochas and J. Garnier for some valuable details concerning the
population of the colony.
The aborigines of New Caledonia have a sooty-black skin; woolly, crisp
hair and abundant beard, both black; a broad, flat nose deeply sunk
between the orbits; the white of the eye bloodshot; large, turned-out
lips; prominent jaws; a wide mouth; very even and perfectly white teeth;
slightly projecting cheekbones; a high, narrow, and convex forehead; and
the head flattened between the temples. Their average stature is at
least as tall as that of the French, their limbs are well-proportioned,
and their development of both chest and muscles is generally
considerable.
[Illustration: 238.--A FIJIAN DANCE.]
The men are not very ugly, many even showing a certain regularity of
feature; and some tribes on the east coast are better favoured than the
rest in this respect. Figs. 239 and 240 convey a fair idea of the male
population.
The ugliness of the women is proverbial. With their shaven heads and the
lobes of their ears horribly perforated or pinked, they present a
revolting appearance, even when young in years. The rude toil and bad
treatment to which they are subjected bring upon them premature old age.
They suckle their children for a long period, for three years on the
average, and sometimes for five or six.
Like all savages, the New-Caledonians possess an exquisitely keen sense
of sight and hearing. They are active and capable of exerting
considerable strength for a short effort, but have no lasting power.
Their inability to support fatigue for any length of time doubtless
arises from the nature of their nourishment. They swallow really nothing
beyond sugary and feculent vegetable food, seldom eating meat, the true
source of the sustainment and recuperation of strength. Their island
supplies the New-Caledonians with no quadrupeds which they can capture
for sustenance, and they possess no weapons suitable for killing birds.
The quantity of eatables these people can gorge at a single meal is
wonderful, quite three times as much as an European would be equal to.
M. Garnier visited the village of Hienghène. Its chief came to meet the
travellers and presented to them his eldest son, while numbers of naked
warriors, with blackened chests, beards, and faces, stood round in a
silent and motionless group. They might have been taken for bronze
statues were it not for their dark and sparkling eyes which followed the
smallest gesture of the visitors.
At a signal from the chief, several youths dashed forward and in a few
seconds showered down from the cocoa-trees a hail of nuts, the pulp of
which in the liquid state is the most agreeable drink imaginable for
allaying thirst.
[Illustration: 239.--YOUNG NATIVE OF NEW CALEDONIA.]
The village of Hienghène is one of the most considerable in the island.
Its dwellings are shaped like beehives, and are crowned with a rude
statue surmounted by a quantity of shell-fish or sometimes by skulls of
enemies slain in war.
These cabins have a single opening, very low and narrow. In the evening
they are filled with smoke in order to banish the mosquitoes; the narrow
aperture is then shut and the occupants lay themselves down to sleep on
mats, whilst the smoke, by reason of its lightness, remains floating
over their heads; but to sit upright without being half smothered by it
is impossible.
Great numbers of aborigines dwell along the sea-coast. They came on
board M. Garnier’s vessel in crowds, bringing provisions and shell-fish,
and examining everything with the greatest attention.
The natives of this tribe are of a fine type. M. Garnier noticed among
the visitors several men admirably built, and with a perfectly developed
muscular system; but he nevertheless remarked as a general defect of the
New Caledonians, that they have too thin legs in comparison with their
bodies, and calves placed higher than in Europeans.
Whether from habit, or in consequence of anatomical formation, these
people assume positions at every moment which would fatigue us terribly.
They sit down on their heels for whole days, and when they climb up into
a cocoa-tree, or rest themselves by the way, place themselves without
any effort in postures that are really surprising.
The singular fancy which some of these tribes have for clay, has been
already noticed, and M. Garnier convinced himself of the reality of the
fact. The earth in question, is a silicate of magnesia, greenish in
colour. It is ground by the teeth into a soft, fine dust, by no means
disagreeable in taste. The habit of eating this clay, is, however, far
from general; women only, in certain cases of illness, take a few
pinches of it.
M. Garnier had an opportunity of being present at the _pilou-pilou_, a
dancing festival which takes place on the occasion of the igname
harvest. On a piece of high but level ground, overlooking a vast plain,
were seated the chiefs and old men; the crowd were assembled below,
and in front of them was piled a huge heap of ignames. Thirty or forty
youngsters, selected from the handsomest of the tribe, advanced and each
took a load, and then ascended the plateau in a body, all dashing at
full speed to lay their burdens at the feet of the chiefs. Then, still
running, they returned to the great mass of ignames to carry away a
fresh cargo, and so on until the whole pile disappeared. They were
pursued during this wild race by the yelling crowd, bounding around them
with brandished weapons. Every European would have been interested in
this strange spectacle; but a painter or a sculptor would have never
grown weary of admiring the forms of the young performers: finer
artistic models have seldom “posed” in any studio.
[Illustration: 240.--NATIVE OF NEW CALEDONIA.]
This _fête_ was interrupted by a mock fight, during which the warriors,
either in complete nudity or with gaudy cloths tied round their waists,
whirled their weapons about as they kept bounding, yelling, and taunting
their adversaries. The old withered men, whose hands could throw neither
stone nor javelin, animated the courage of the young people and showered
insults on their opponents.
We are unable to retrace in its entirety, the curious and graphic
description which M. Gamier has given of this contest, but a scene of
cannibalism at which he was present, is too dramatic to be passed over.
Near a large fire sat a dozen men, in whom the traveller recognized the
chiefs he had seen in the morning, and pieces of smoking meat surrounded
with ignames and taros were laid on broad banana leaves before them. The
bodies of some unfortunate wretches killed during the day, supplied the
materials for this ghastly banquet, and the hole in which their limbs
had just been cooked was still there. A savage joy was pictured on the
faces of these demons. Both hands grasped their horrid food. An old
chief with a long white beard did not seem to enjoy so formidable an
appetite as his comrades. Leaving aside the thigh-bone and the thick
layer of flesh accompanying it which had been served him, he contented
himself with nibbling a head. He had already removed all the meaty
parts, the nose and cheeks, but the eyes remained. The old epicure took
a bit of pointed stick and thrust it into both pupils, then shook the
horrid skull until bit by bit he brought out the brain; but as this
process was not quick enough, he put the back of the head into the
flames, and the rest of the cerebral substance dropped out without
difficulty!. . . .
ANDAMAN FAMILY.
We comprise in the _Andaman_ Family those Eastern blacks who possess the
characteristics of the Negro race strongly marked. These nations are as
yet but little known. The inhabitants of New Guinea, the aborigines of
the Andaman Isles, in the bay of Bengal, the blacks of the Malacca
peninsula, those dwelling in some of the mountains of Indo-China, the
natives of Tasmania, and, finally, the indigenous population of
Australia are included in this group.
Among all these people the facial angle does not exceed 60 degrees; the
mouth is very large, the nose broad and flat, the arms short, the legs
lanky, and the complexion the colour of soot. The women are positively
hideous.
The tribes which form these groups are, in general, numerous and subject
to the arbitrary authority of a chief. Language is extremely limited
among them; they possess neither government, laws, nor regularly
established ceremonies, and some do not even know how to construct
places of abode.
In order to convey to the reader an idea of the people composing the
Andaman Family we shall give a glance at the inhabitants of the Andaman
Isles and also at those of Australia.
_Andamans._--The dwellings of the Andamans are of the most rudimentary
kind, being hardly superior to the dens of wild beasts. Four posts
covered with a roof of palm-leaves constitute these lairs, which are
open to every wind, and “ornamented” with hogs’ bones, turtle shells,
and large dried fish tied in bunches.
As for the inhabitants themselves, they are of an ebon black. They
seldom exceed five feet in stature; their heads are broad and buried
between their shoulders; and their hair is woolly, like that of the
African blacks. The abdomen is protuberant in a great many cases, and
their lower limbs lank. They go about in a state of complete nudity,
merely taking care to cover the entire body with a layer of yellow ochre
or clay, which protects it from the sting of insects. They paint their
faces and sprinkle their hair with red ochre.
Their weapons are, however, manufactured with much cleverness. Their
bows, which require a very strong pull, are made of a sort of iron-wood
and gracefully shaped. Their arrows are tipped with fine points, some of
them barbed, and they shoot them with much skill. They handle expertly
their short paddles, marked with red ochre, and hollow their canoes with
a rather rude implement formed of a hard and sharp stone fastened to a
handle by means of a strong cord made from vegetable fibres.
The Andamans are ichthyophagists, for the seas which wash their islands
abound in excellent fish and palatable mollusks. Soles, mullets, and
oysters constitute the staple of their food, and when during tempestuous
weather fish runs short, they eat the lizards, rats, and mice which
swarm in the woods.
Though not cannibals, the Andamans are nevertheless a most savage race,
who do not even exist in a state of tribedom, but who are merely
gathered into gangs.
The bitterest contempt has been lavished on these rude inhabitants of
the islands of Bengal, and people have been willing to consider them as
brutes of the worst cruelty, and most extreme ugliness; but more recent
observation, and the few facts which we have mentioned, show that this
estimate should be somewhat mitigated.
_Australian Blacks._--We have arrived at the black people who occupy
part of Australia, and take advantage of some valuable information
concerning them, found in M. H. de Castella’s “Souvenirs d’un Squatter
Français en Australie,” and which was acquired by the author’s personal
experience of these uncouth beings.
The wild state in which the aborigines of Australia exist is the result
of the poverty of their country, which affords no other source of
sustenance than animals. True, these abound there; kangaroos, squirrels,
opossums, wild-cats, and birds of all kinds are so numerous, that the
natives need, as it were, only stretch out their hands in order to take
them. In this mild climate they can live without any shelter.
According to M. de Castella, the Negroes of Australia are not so ugly as
they have been represented. Among the men whom he examined, some were
tall and well made. Their slow, lounging gait, was not devoid of
dignity, and the solemnity of their step reminded one of the strut of a
tragedian on the stage.
[Illustration: 241.--ENCAMPMENT OF NATIVE AUSTRALIANS.]
The Australian blacks recognize family ties. None of them have more than
one wife, but they do not marry within their own particular tribe. They
live encamped in bands, and now that they are reduced to small numbers,
in entire tribes. They do not build permanent huts, but protect
themselves in summer from the sun and hot winds merely by a heap of
gum-tree branches, piled up against some sticks, thrust in the ground.
When winter comes on, they strip from the trees large pieces of bark,
eight or ten feet high, and as wide as the whole circumference of the
trunk, forming with these fragments a screen, which they place at the
side whence the rain is blowing, and alter if the wind happens to
change. Squatted on the bare earth, in the opossum skin which serves the
double purpose of bed and clothing, each of them is placed before a
hearth of his own. Fig. 241 is an engraving taken from a photograph of
Australian natives.
The Australian Negroes of the present day have guns, and employ little
axes for chopping their wood and cutting bark, but it is not so long
since the only weapons they possessed were made of hard wood, and their
hatchets consisted of sharp stones fastened to the end of sticks, like
the flint instruments used by men before the Deluge. There is in fact
little or no difference between the people of the age of stone, and the
Negroes of Australia, and consequently an acquaintance with the wild
manners and customs of these races has been of great advantage to
naturalists of our day in throwing light upon the history of primitive
man.
M. H. de Castella was greatly struck by the agility of the Australian
blacks in climbing gum-trees whose straight stems are often devoid of
branches for twenty or thirty feet from their base, and are besides too
thick to be clasped. When by perfect prodigies of acrobatism the native
reached the wild cats and opossums’ nests, he seized the animals, and
threw them to his wife.
This wife carried everything; her last-born in a reed basket hanging
from her neck, the slaughtered game in one hand, and in the other a
blazing gum branch, to light the fire when the family took up fresh
quarters. The man walked in front, carrying nothing but his weapons;
then came the wife, and after her, their children according to height.
A batch of Australian blacks is never, by any chance, to be met walking
abreast, even when in great numbers, and if a whole tribe is crossing
the plains, only a long black file is to be seen moving above the high
grass.
[Illustration: 242.--NATIVE AUSTRALIAN.]
M. de Castella was a spectator of the curious sight which eel-fishing
affords among these natives. Holding a spear in each hand, with which to
rake up the bottom, they wade through the water up to their waists,
balancing and regulating their movements to the even measure of one of
their chants. When an eel is transfixed by a stroke of one lance, they
pierce it in another part of the body with the second, and then,
holding the two points apart, throw the fish upon the ground, the
quantity which they take in this manner being enormous. They dispense
with saucepans and cooking utensils of all kinds in the preparation of
their meals, simply placing the game or fish on bright coals covered
over with a little ashes.
[Illustration: 243.--AN AUSTRALIAN GRAVE.]
Everyone has heard of the skill with which savages navigate their rivers
in bark canoes, but the people of whom we are now speaking render
themselves remarkable above all others by their adroitness in guiding
their little crafts over the rapids. Only two persons can sit in their
boats, while a spear supplies the place of an oar, and is used with
astonishing dexterity.
No one acquainted with this kind of barbarous life will be surprised to
hear that the blacks of Australia are diminishing at a wonderfully quick
rate. Of the whole Varra tribe, formerly a numerous one, M. de Castella
could find no more than seventeen individuals.
What most struck the author of an account of a journey from Sydney to
Adelaide, which appeared in the “Tour du Monde,” in 1860, was the small
number of aborigines which he met in a distance of more than two hundred
and fifty miles. Sturt and Mitchell, in the middle of the present
century, had visited tribes on the higher tributaries of the Murray
river, which then consisted of several hundred persons, but M. de
Castella found them only represented by scattered groups of seven or
eight famished individuals. Fig. 242 portrays one of the types sketched
by this gentleman.
Mitchell has given a description in his “Travels,” of the “groves of
death”--those romantic burial-places of the Australians--but the
writer in the “Tour du Monde” found them no longer in existence. The
tombs of the natives at the present day are as wild and rude as
themselves. In the bleak deserts of the land of the West four branches
driven into the ground and crossed at the top by a couple more (fig.
243), support the mortal remains of the Australian aboriginal, whose
only winding sheet is the skin of a kangaroo.
INDEX.
ABABDEHS, 362
Abases, 204
Abipones, 420
_Abouna_, 360
Abruzzans, 104
Abstraction, a faculty of man, 1
Abyssinians, 355, 357
Abyssinian Christians, 360
---- Family, 355
---- religion, 360
---- soldiers, 360
---- type, 355, 357
_Achagy_, 427
_Acquajolo_, 105
Afghans, 190, 199
Africa, original population of, 11
---- populations of, 355
Agglutinative languages, 9, 32
Agora, 154
Agows, 357
Agricultural stage of Man, 35
Aguilots, 425
Aïnos, 210
---- type, 210
Alanians, 70
Albanians, 149, 152, 160, 161, 162
Alfusus, 375
Algonquins, 460, 472
Alphabetic writing, 33
Aluta River, 109
Amakisas, 496
Amapendas, 496
Amathymbas, 496
Amazulas, 496
American Indians, 404, 416, 460, 471
---- type, 65
_Amin_, 166
_Amin-el-oumena_, 166
Anahuac, 452
Ancient Chinese writing, 282
---- Egyptians, 173
---- Etruscans, 93, 101
---- Illyrians, 160
---- Incas, 408
---- Mexicans, 405, 454
---- Peruvians, 405
---- Persian type, 191
Andaman Family, 532
---- Islanders, 532
Andian Family, 407
_Angaskah_, 342
Angles, 55
Annamites, 324
Antis Indians, 407, 410, 411
---- customs, 412, 413, 414, 415
---- religion, 416
---- type, 411
Apaches, 470, 481
Apolistas, 410
Apontis, 444
Aquitanians, 66
Arab type, 184
Arabs, 183
---- nomadic, 184
---- Shegya, 184
Aramaic Race, 163
Aramean Branch of White Race, 40, 163
---- civilisation, 163
Araocas, 449
Arapahoes, 470
Araucanians, 407, 416
Arcadians, 150
_Arch_, 166
Ardschis River, 109
Aristocracy, English, 62
Armenians, 190, 201
---- in Turkey, 253
Armenian population, 202
---- religion, 202
---- type, 201
Artisans, French, 76
Aryans, 353
Aryan Race, 10, 40
Asia, original population of, 11
Assyrians, 183
Atacamas, 407, 410
Athens, 157
Athenian type, 160
Australian aboriginals, 533
---- native customs, 531, 536
---- native tombs, 538
_Ayams_, 248
Aymaras, 407, 410
Aztecs, 451
BAKTYAN, 199
Bambara, 364
Banians, 336
Bankok, 330, 332
Barabras, 357, 361
Barabra type, 361
Barbotes, 428, 432, 440, 450, 492
Baskirs, 129
Bavaria, 48
Batavians, 368
Battas, 365, 373
Bechuanas, 497, 498
Bedouins, 183
_Beglebeig_, 191
Behring’s Straits, 10
Beloochees, 199
Bengalese, 340
Berbers, 163
Beyram, 250
Beys, 246
Bible, unity of Man proclaimed in the, 11
Bicharyehs, 362
Bielo-Russians, 118
Big-Bellies, 470
Blackfeet Indians, 464
Black Race, 495
Bohemians, 112
_Bolas_, 427
_Bolero_, 90
Bonzes, 259, 280
Bosniaks, 113, 130, 141, 142, 143, 145
Botocudos, 435, 449
Bougis, 365, 373
Brahminism, 336
Brahmins, 336
Brahnis, 201
Brain of the ape, 22
---- of man, 22
---- of the negro, 508
Brazilian Indian customs, 448
Brazilian Indian dwellings, 447
British Isles, 55
Brown Race, 335
Bucharest, 109
Buddhism, 163, 307, 319, 320, 322, 332
Bulgarians, 113, 130
Burgundians, 71
Burïats, 218, 221
Burïat customs, 223
Burmans, 324
Burmese, 324
Bushmen, 499
_CADIS_, 246
Caffre Family, 496
---- type, 496, 497
Calabrians, 104
Californian Indians, 493
Cambodian customs, 329
Campagna, The, 93
_Cangue_, 296
Cannibalism, Fijian, 523, 524
---- Maori, 386
---- New Caledonian, 531
Caper fig-tree, 168
Capital punishment in China, 294
Caprification of the fig-tree, 168, 169, 170
Capuans, 103
_Caravanserai_, 240
Caribbean Group, 450
Caribs, 450
Carinthia, 116
Carniola, 116
Caroline Islanders, 400, 401
Carpathian Mountains, 109
Carthaginians, 183
Caryis, 444
Caste, 347, 348
Cathsé, 272
Caucasian Race, 40
Cayuguas, 435
Celtic type, 57, 67
---- weapons, 67
Celts, 66, 67
Chaldeans, 186
Changos, 186
Characteristics of Man, Intellectual, 30
---- of the White Race, 40
Charruas, 420
Chaymas, 450
Chen-elches, 422
Cherokees, 478
Chichimecas, 452
Chicksaws, 478
Chimehwebs, 484
Chinese agriculture, 271
---- army, 300
---- centralization, 256
---- civilization, 36, 301
---- corruption, 266
---- court of justice, 295, 296, 298, 299
---- customs, 262
---- dinner, 268
---- drama, 287
---- eating-house, 267
---- education, 280, 281, 284
---- Family, 256
---- feet, 262
---- fishing (river), 274, 275, 276
---- fishing (sea), 274
---- food, 278
---- gambling, 265
---- idleness, 264
---- interior, 263
---- irrigation, 279
---- jurisprudence, 290
---- language, 284
---- law courts, 290, 291
---- literature, 287
---- marionettes, 288
---- marriages, 261
---- opium smoking, 270
---- pisciculture, 274
---- polygamy, 260
---- printing, 286
---- punishments, 292, 294-296
---- religion, 257
---- religious toleration, 258
---- rice fields, 278
---- tea houses, 266, 267
---- theatres, 288
---- type, 256
---- women, 259
---- writing, ancient, 282
---- writing, modern, 282, 283, 284
Chinooks, 493
Chiotians, 158
Chippeway Indians, 463
Chiquitos, 420, 432, 433, 434
Chiriguanos, 444
Choctaws, 478
_Choli_, 342
Chunipis, 425
Cingalese customs, 351
---- costume, 351
---- of the coast, 351
---- of the hills, 351
---- type, 350
---- women, 350
Circassian Family, 163, 204
---- slaves, 240
---- type, 204
Circulatory system of Man, 30
Cirionos, 444
Civilization, Aramean, 163
---- Chinese, 36, 301
---- Egyptian, 36
---- progress of, 37
Classification of Man, Blumenbach’s, 18
---- ---- Bory de Saint Vincent’s, 18
---- ---- Buffon’s, 17
---- ---- Cuvier’s, 18
---- ---- Desmoulins’, 18
---- ---- d’Omalius d’Halloys’, 19
---- ---- de Quatrefages’, 19
---- ---- Lacépède’s, 18
---- ---- Pritchard’s, 18
---- ---- Virey’s, 18
---- of the Human Race, 17, 38
Clavel’s “Races Humaines,” 48, 53
Comanches, 480
Confucius, doctrines of, 258, 307
Coras, 459
Cossacks, 120, 124
---- of the Ukraine, 118
Cosninos, 482
Cranium, brachycephalous, 25
---- dolichocephalous, 25
---- of Man, 25
Creation, animal centres of, 8
---- of Man, cause of, 3
---- ---- in the quaternary period, 3
---- ---- manifold, 6
---- ---- special, 3
---- one human centre of, 6, 8
---- vegetable centres of, 8
Creek Indians, 462, 478
Croats, 113
Crow Indians, 468
Cshatriyas, 336
Cutchanas, 484
Cymri, 67
DACIA, 106
Dacotas, 464
_Daïri_, 313
Dalmatians, 116
Danes, 42, 46
Danube, 109
Danubian Principalities, 107
Daouria, Tunguses of, 223
Deccan, 340
Deccan Hindoos, 340
Definition of Man, 1
---- of Race, 12, 13, 14
---- of Species, 12, 13, 14
_Déhera_, 166
Delawares, 474, 480
Denmark, 46
_Dhamans_, 166
_Dhoti_, 342
_Divan_, 247
_Djama_, 166
_Djelodar_, 198
_Djemaa_, 166
Dokhar, 168
Dongoulahs, 361
Druids, 71
Druzes, 188, 250
Dutch language, 55
Dyak customs, 376, 378
---- head-cutters, 376
---- superstitions, 376
Dyaks, 365, 375
EASTERN NUBIANS, 362
Egyptian civilization, 36
---- dancing girls, 180
---- marriages, 179
---- polygamy, 180
---- sailors, 179
---- type, 173
Egyptians, ancient, 173
---- modern, 174
Emmages, 425
_Enderoun_, 196
English, 42
---- aristocracy, 62
---- middle class, 64
---- type, 55, 56, 57, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65
---- women, 60, 61
---- working class, 65
Esthonians, 129
Esquimaux customs, 211, 212, 213, 216, 217
---- dress, 214
---- Family, 206, 211
---- type, 211
Etruscans, ancient, 101
Etruscan sarcophagi, 101
European Branch (White Race), 40
FACIAL ANGLE, 26
---- ---- of the Negro, 508
Falæshas, 357
_Fandango_, 90
Fehles, 183
Fellahs, 176, 177, 178, 179
Fellans, 355, 363, 364
Fellatahs, 363
_Fetfa_, 247
Fetishes, 512
Fez, 154
Fiji, king of, 520
Fijian cannibalism, 523, 524
---- dances, 526
Fijians, 520, 521, 522, 523, 524, 525
Finlanders, 129
Finns, 113, 125, 129
---- of Eastern Russia, 127
---- of Silesia, 127
---- of the Baltic, 127
Flat-head Indians, 485, 486
Flemish language, 55
Foudaïsi, 321
Franks, 71
Frank type, 71
French, 66
---- artisans, 76
---- bourgeois, 77
---- peasant, 76
---- soldier, 78
---- type, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80
---- women, 71, 79, 80
Friendly Islanders, 388
Frieslandic language, 55
Fundamental languages of Man, 9
_Fystan_, 154
GADIGUÈS, 435, 436
Gaels, 68
Gallas, 357, 363
Gallic customs, 69
---- type, 57, 68, 72
Garnants, 357
Gauls, 66
Georgian Family, 163, 203
---- slaves, 240
---- type, 204
---- women, 204
Germanic type, 50, 51, 52, 53, 58
Germans, 42, 47
_Gholaums_, 191
_Ging-seng_ root, 269
Goths, 71
Grand Chaco, 425
Grand vizier, 247
Gränzer, 137, 140, 141
Greek church, 249
---- Family, 41, 149
---- peasants, 154
---- type, 152, 153
Greeks in Turkey, 252
Groves of Death, 538
Guarani, 407, 434, 435, 444
Guaranns, 449
Guarany language, 444
---- type, 435
Guarayi, 444
Guatos of Cuyaba, 438
Guayquerias, 450
HADHAREBS, 362
Harems, 240
Hawaiians, 399, 400
Hebrews, 183
_Hegira_, 239
Highlanders, 68
Hindoos, 339
Hindoo castes, 336, 346, 347, 348
---- characteristics, 340
---- civilization, 336
---- customs, 344, 348
---- food, 345
---- ornaments, 342
---- religion, 342
---- society, 336
---- type, 339
Hindostani, 346
Hispanians, 80
Hospodars, 107
Hottentots, 499
Hottentot type, 499, 501
---- Venus, 500
Huaxtecas, 460
Hungarians, 48, 113
Huns, 72, 145
Hurons, 460, 462
Hyperborean Branch (Yellow Race), 205, 206
IBERIANS, 66
Icelanders, 43
Ienissian Family, 206, 217
Indian games, North American, 478
---- languages (East), 346
---- territory, 473, 478
Indo-Chinese Family, 324
Inflected languages, 9, 32
Intelligence of Man, 1
---- of brutes, 1
Ionians, 158
Irish, 68
Iroquois, 462, 463, 472
_Isba_, 121
Ischorians, 129
Italians, 66
Italian climate, 93
---- type, 94
JAKOBITES, 249
Jalovitza River, 109
_Jamah_, 342
Japanese, 256, 302, 304, 306, 312, 320
---- Bonzes, 302, 320, 321, 322, 323
---- characteristics, 302, 303
---- costume, 304, 305, 306
---- government, 307
---- literature, 302
---- manufactures, 306
---- religion, 302, 307
---- soldiers, 308
---- type, 304
---- weapons, 318, 319
---- writing, 302
Jats, 340
Javanese, 365, 367, 369
---- costume, 368
---- dancing girls, 369
---- princes, 369
---- trinkets, 371
---- weddings, 371
Jews, 183, 184, 186
Jukaghirite Family, 206, 217
KABYLES, 163
Kabyle agriculture, 168
---- type, 165, 167
Kabylia, 165, 171
Kachintz, 127
_Kakim_, 191
Kaliouges, 493
Kalmuks, 218
Kalmuk customs, 219
---- type, 219
_Kalva, La_, 242
_Kalyaudjy_, 198
Kamis, 307, 312
---- religion, 320, 322
Kamtschadale Family, 206, 209
---- type, 210
Kandians, 350
_Kang_, 262
Kayoways, 470
Kenous, 361
_Ketlkhoda_, 191
Khalkas, 220
Khalkasian customs, 221
---- type, 221
_Khanoun_, 166
_Kharouba_, 166
_Khodja_, 166
King of Fiji, 520
Kioto, 310
Kirghis, 232, 238
_Kodju_, 247
Kopts, 174, 175, 176
Koptic language, 174
_Koran_, 247
Koriak family, 206, 217
_Kousso_, 361
Kurds, 190, 201
Kymes, 28
Kyrials, 129
LADRONE ISLANDERS, 400
Languages, agglutinative, 32
---- inflected, 32
---- monosyllabic, 31
Laplanders, nomadic, 208
---- sedentary, 208
Lapp Family, 206, 207
---- customs, 208
---- type, 206
---- women, 209
Latins, 49, 66, 72
Latin Family, 41, 66, 93
---- type, 66, 72
Lencas, 459
Lenguas, 420, 425, 426, 427, 428
Libyan Family, 163
Lithuanians, 113, 116
Livonians, 129
MACASKILL ISLANDERS, 402
Macassars, 365, 373
Macedonians, 152
Machicuys, 420, 428, 430, 432
Madagascar, 364
Magachs, 435, 436
Magyars, 113, 146, 147, 148, 149
Magyar type, 149
_Mahana_, 427
Mahometanism, 163, 193, 250
Mahrattas, 340
Malabar Family, 339, 354
Malay Branch (Brown Race), 365
---- customs, 366
---- type, 365, 366
Malaysia, 365
Man, agricultural stage of, 25
---- birthplace of, 8
---- brain of, 22
---- carriage of, 27
---- colour of, 29
---- cranium of, 25
---- definition of, 1
---- divine origin of, 24
---- fundamental languages of, 9
---- types of, 9
---- hand of, 23
---- hunting stage of, 35
---- intelligence of, 1, 30
---- language of, 31
---- moral attributes of, 33
---- nervous system of, 29
---- organization of, 21
---- origin of, 3, 4, 8
---- original migrations of, 9
---- pastoral stage of, 35
---- primitive societies of, 35
---- senses of, 22
---- stature of, 28
---- unity of, 16
---- writing of, 32
Manchús, 223
Mandan Indians, 492, 493
Manilla, 374
Manufactures, primitive, 37
Maoris, 381
Maori cannibalism, 386
---- chiefs, 387
---- costume, 381
---- customs, 382, 386
---- dances, 385
---- language, 385
---- religion, 385
---- type, 381
---- weapons, 385
---- women, 381
Maratsi, 498
_Maro_, 398
Maronites, 188, 250
Maronite manuscripts, 190
Maropas, 410
Marquesans, 395
Mataguayos, 420
Melanesians, 519
Mesopotamians, 186
Messenians, 150
Metscheriaks, 129
Mexicans, 452
---- ancient, 405, 454
---- modern, 454, 455, 456, 458
Mexican Indians, 454
Micronesians, 365, 400, 401, 402
Mikado, 308, 309, 310, 311, 312, 313, 314, 316, 317
Military Confines, 132, 140
Mingrelians, 204
Mirdites, 162
Mixtecas, 460
Mnemonic writing, 32
Moadueinites, 129
Mocéténès, 410
Mohawk Indians, 484
Mohicans, 460, 472
Moldavians, 106
Moldo-Walachians, 66, 105
Mongolian Branch (Yellow Race), 205, 218
Mongols, 218, 220
Mongrels, 15
Montenegriners, 116
Moorish type, 87
Moors, 172
_Mora_, _La_, 97
Moscas, 432, 434
Moyas, 459
_Mudir_, 252
_Mufti_, 247
Mulatto, 505
Mulgrave Islanders, 401
Muscogulges, 461
Mutualis, 190
NAHUATH, 406
Nahuatlacas, 453
Naïbs, 246
Natchez Indians, 460, 472
Navajoes, 481
Nayas Indians, 485, 486, 488, 490, 492
Neapolitans, 104
Negroes, 361, 501
Negro, brain of, 508
---- characteristics, 506, 508, 509, 512, 514, 515, 516, 517
---- cross breeds, 505
---- cruelty, 512
---- facial angle of, 508
---- imitative talent of, 515
---- memory, 514
---- music, 515, 516
---- religion, 512
---- slavery, 510
---- type, 502, 503, 504, 505
Negus Theodorus, 360
Nervous system of the White Man, 29
---- of the Negro, 30
Nestorians, 250
New Caledonians, 526, 527, 530
New Caledonian cannibalism, 531
New Zealanders, 381, 382, 384, 385, 386
Nigritia, 364
Nogays, 232, 238
Northern Branch (Red Race), 451
---- north-eastern Family of, 459
---- north-western Family of, 493
---- southern Family of, 451
Northern Italians, 101
Norwegians, 42, 44
Noubas, 361
Nubians, 361, 362
---- Eastern, 362
Nubian customs, 362
---- ruins, 362
OCEANIA, 380
Oceanian negroes, 519
Octoroons, 505
Olmecas, 459
Organization of Man, 21
Origin of coloured Races, 11
---- Man, 3, 4, 8
Orthognathism, 26
Osages, 478
Osmanlis, 232, 239
Ossetines, 190, 202
Ostiaks, 129
---- of Temisia, 217
Othomis, 460
Oualan, 401
_Ouhil_, 166
Ouragas, 449
Owas, 364
Owhyhee, 397
_PACHA_, 246
_Padishah_, 244
Pah-Utahs, 484
_Pai-aguaá_, 436
Palanquins, 264
Pampas, 419
Pampean Family, 407, 419
Pandours, 144
Pannonians, 116
Papuan Family, 519
Papuans, 520
Paraguay, 435
Parana, 435
Pariahs, 337, 346, 348
Patagonians, 420, 421
Patagonian customs, 421, 422, 424
---- sacrifices, 424
---- stature, 28, 420
_Paton-paton_, 385
Pawnees, 470
Payaguas, 437, 438, 440
Payaguasian customs, 440, 441
---- stature, 437
_Payes_, 425, 441, 442, 443
Pecherays, 416, 417, 418, 419
Pei-Ho river, 274
Peking Imperial College, 286
Permians, 129
Persians, 163
Persian customs, 194, 195, 196, 198, 199
---- Family, 190
---- government, 191
---- manufactures, 191
---- population, 193
---- religion, 193
---- type, ancient, 191
---- type, modern, 161
---- visits, 199
---- women, 197
Peruvians, ancient, 405, 408
---- modern, 408, 409
Peuhls, 363
Phanariots, 155
Phariagots, 450
Philippine Islanders, 374
Phœnicians, 183
Piasts, 118
_Pilou-pilou_, 528
Pitiligas, 425
Poles, 48, 113
Polygenists, doctrines of, 16
Polynesian customs, 380
---- Family, 365, 380
Pomotouans, 395
Populations of Africa, original, 11
---- America, original, 405
---- Asia, original, 11
---- Europe, original, 40, 41
Portuguese, 80, 90
---- type, 90
---- women, 90
Pouls, 363
Procidans, 103
Prognathism, 26
Prussians, 54
---- type, 54
Puelches, 420
Pygmies, 28
QUADROONS, 505
Quarries, 129
Quichuan type, 408
Quichuas, 406, 407
RACE, BLACK, 495
---- Brown, 335
---- definition of, 12, 13, 14
---- Red, 404
---- White, 30
---- Yellow, 205
Races, Human, 38
Rajpoots, 336, 340
_Ramazan_, 250
_Rebosso_, 454
Red Indian characteristics, 470, 471, 486, 492
---- languages, 472
---- type, 460
_Reiss effendi_, 247
Rivobon-Sinton, 322
Roman peasants, 96
Romanians, 72
Romans, 93
Rousniaks, 120
Russian type, 123
---- women, 124
Russians, 113, 120, 121, 122
_Russians_ (Bielo-), 118
Ruthenians, 118
SAGAÏS, 127
Sahara, 172
_Sahrong_, 368, 371
_Saltatras_, 505
Samchow, 266
Samoiede Family, 206, 209
Sandwichians, 396, 397
Sandwichian morals, 399
---- type, 396
---- women, 396
Sanskrit, 346
_San-tse-king_, 284
_Sarapé_, 455
Sarmatians, 114
Saxons, 55
Saxon type, 16
Scandinavians, 41
Schiite sect, 236
Scinde, natives of, 353
Scythians, 114
Seminoles, 478
Semitic Family, 183
Semitics, 163
Senses of animals, 22
---- of Man, 22
Seraglio, 240
Servians, 113, 114, 130
Shah, 191
Shamanism, 223, 229
Shamans, 229
Shawnees, 480
Shegya Arabs, 164
Shellas, 163, 172
Shiennes, 470
Siamese, 324, 330, 331
---- agriculture, 332
---- Cambodia, 331
---- costume, 325
---- government, 328
---- Malacca, 331
---- population, 324
---- type, 324
Sichuana language, 497
Sikhs, 340
Simnioles, 460
Sinaic Branch (Yellow Race), 205, 254
Sioux, 464
---- customs, 464, 465, 466
Sivaism, 342
Skin of Man, colours of, 29
Slavonian Family, 41, 113
Slavonians, 116
---- northern, 118, 119
---- southern, 120
Slavonian type, 113, 114, 118, 119, 133
---- women, 134
Slavonians, 116
Slovachians, 118
_Soff_, 166
Sosists, 193
Souakins, 363
Sounanis, 186
Southern Branch (Red Race), 407
---- Italians, 103
---- Italian type, 103
Spaniards, 66, 80
Spanish dances, 90
---- inquisition, 86
---- intolerance, 86
---- type, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88
---- women, 87
Spartans, 150
_Spathar_, 107
Species, definition of, 12, 13, 14
Stature of Man, 28
Stieng savages, 332, 334
Sudras, 336
Suevians, 71
Sunnite sect, 236
Swedes, 42
Symbolical writing, 33
Syrians, 183, 186
_TABOO_, 380, 391, 399
Tabayari, 444
Tacanas, 410
Tadjiks, 190
Tagals, 365, 373
Tahitians, 391
Tahitian customs, 393, 394, 395
---- type, 391, 392
---- women, 302
Taïcoon, 309, 310, 311, 312, 313, 316, 317
_Taktikios_, 154
_Talagani_, 154
Tamanacs, 449
Tamboukis, 497
Tameyi, 444
Tammahas, 498
Tamuls, 354
Tapigoas, 444
Tapinaqui, 444
Tarascas, 459
_Tatare_, 112
Tattooing, 382, 390, 425, 438
Taygetans, 150
Tchecks, 113
Tcheremissians, 129
Tchoudans, 116
Tchourachians, 129
Teleouts, 127
Telingas, 354
_Tembeta_, 440
Tepanecas, 459
Teptiars, 129
Terra del Fuego, 416
Territory, Indian, 473, 478
Teutonic Family, 41
Thracians, 152
Tibbous, 163, 357, 363
Tibbou type, 363
Tigré mountaineers, 360
Timmimnes, 444
Tobas, 420, 425, 428, 430
Tobatinguas, 435
Tokis, 385
Toltecs, 452
Tongas, 388
Tonga customs, 389, 390, 391
---- type, 388
Topas, 435
Totonacs, 460
Touaricks, 163, 172
_Touloupa_, 123
Tularenos, 493
Tunguses, 218, 223
---- of Daouria, 223
Tungusian Family, 223
Tupi language, 444
Tupinambi, 444
Turajas, 375
Turcomans, 232
Turcoman customs, 234, 235, 236
---- religion, 235
---- type, 232
---- women, 232, 233, 234
Turks, 218, 239, 244, 248
Turkish administration, 246, 247, 248
---- agriculture, 252
---- corruption, 248
---- customs, 240, 242, 243, 244, 246
---- education, 252
---- Family, 229
---- Jews, 250
---- law, 244
---- literature, 251, 252
---- manufactures, 252
---- polygamy, 240
---- religion, 248
---- temperance, 239
---- type, ancient, 230
---- type, modern, 231, 239
---- women, 240, 241
Tuscans, 101
Tuscan type, 101
Tzapotecas, 459
_ULEMA_, 247
United States, 65
Uruguay, 435
Uscoks, 116
Uzbeks, 238
VALENCIANS, 87
Vampays, 484
Varegians, 116
Varna-Sancára (caste of), 337
Varra tribe, 538
Vativas, 497
Venedians, 114
Vogouls, 127, 129
WALACHIANS, 105, 106, 111, 113
Walachian minerals, 112
---- type; 109
Wall of China, Great, 301
Walloons, 72
Western Branch (Black Race), 496
Western Guarani, 444
Writing, alphabetic, 33
---- Chinese, 282, 283, 284
---- symbolical, 33
Würtembergers, 48
XICALAUCAS, 460
YAKOUBIS, 186
Yakuts, 218
Yakut customs, 226, 227, 228
---- Family, 223
---- religion, 226
---- type, 224, 225
---- women, 229
Yankees, 65
_Yaschmac_, 244
Yeddo, 309
Yellow Race, 205
Yuracares, 410
Yutes, 470
ZASKAM, 112
Ziguans, 112
Zingari, 353
Zoroath (religion of), 193
BRADBURY, EVANS, AND CO., PRINTERS, WHITEFRIARS.
Transcriber’s Notes:
This text follows the text of the original work, including
inconsistencies in spelling, lay-out, hyphenation, capitalisation,
etc.; these have not been changed, except as mentioned below.
Notes on the text:
Some words from the Index do not occur in text.
Wrong accents (Pyreneés, Lozére) have not been corrected.
Page 151, Fallmeseyer: this is possibly a reference to Jakob Philipp
Fallmerayer.
Page 216, penguin eggs: this seems unlikely on the North Pole; the
accompanying illustration shows flying birds. This is possibly a
mistranslation from the French.
Changes made to the original text:
Illustrations have been moved outside paragraphs. Footnotes have been
moved to directly underneath the paragraph to which they refer.
Some obviously missing or incorrect punctuation has been corrected
silently.
Coloured plates and an unnumbered illustration have been added to the
List of Illustrations.
Page xii: BURIATS changed to BURÏATS as in text
Page 10: terrestial changed to terrestrial
Page 26: γηαθος changed to γναθος
Page 65: silen men changed to silent men
Page 66: Moldo-Wallachians changed to Moldo-Walachians as elsehwere
Page 116: Slevenians changed to Slavonians
Page 170: hundreth changed to hundredth
Page 174: fig. 80 changed to fig. 74
Page 214: This consist changed to This consists
Page 243: (fig. 109) changed to (fig. 110)
Page 262: develope changed to develop
Page 267: Tea houses changed to Tea-houses as elsewhere
Page 280 Footnote [9]: the original text “Idem” has been replaced with
the same text as Foootnote [8]
Page 305: tight fiting changed to tight fitting
Page 342: developes changed to develops; threw coquettishly changed to
throw coquettishly
Page 361: Cammar changed to Cammas
Page 381: tatooing changed to tattooing as elsewhere
Page 395: somtimes changed to sometimes
Page 420: Abipoous changed to Abipones
Page 488: archeologists changed to archæologists as elsewhere
Page 518: disagreeble changed to disagreeable
Page 540: Caryii changed to Caryis as in text
Page 541: Demoulins changed to Desmoulins as in text
Page 542: Gadigues changed to Gadiguès; Dchera changed to Déhera;
Dhamars changed to Dhamans; Djelodas changed to Dejelodar; Dejemua
changed to Djemaa; Flathead changed to Flat-head; Fondaisi changed to
Foudaïsi; Gadigues changed to Gadiguès (all as in text)
Page 543: Hindôstani changed to Hindostani; Huasetecas, 489 changed to
Huaxtecas, 460; Ischonians changed to Ischorians; kalyandjy changed to
kalyaudjy (all as in text)
Page 544: Manchus changed to Manchús as in text
Page 545: Miridites changed to Mirdites; Pai-agnaa changed to
Pai-aguaá as in text; Negus Theodoras changed to Negus Theodorus (all
as in text)
Page 546: Sagaris changed to Sagaïs as in text
Page 547: Slevenians changed to Slavonians; Spathas changed to
Spathar; Tamboukies changed to Tamboukis; Tchourachians changed to
Tchouvachians (all as in text)
Page 548: 242, 242, 244 changed to 232, 232, 234; Wurtembergers
changed to Würtembergers (as in text); Yuracaures changed to Yuracares
(as in text). | 180,254 | common-pile/project_gutenberg_filtered | 41849 | project gutenberg | project_gutenberg-dolma-0006.json.gz:3021 | https://www.gutenberg.org/files/41849/41849-0.txt |
eKyYq7WCDgOGKtGf | 2.4: Before You Move On (Visual Elements and Design Principles) | 2.4: Before You Move On (Visual Elements and Design Principles)
Key Concepts
Visual art can be divided into dimensional categories: two-dimensional, three-dimensional, and four-dimensional art. Each category has unique and specific approaches and materials. Two-dimensional art consists of drawing, painting, and printmaking. Three-dimensional art consists of sculpture, including installation, and kinetic art. Four-dimensional or time-based art includes video and performance and depends on the use of technology and the passage of time for its effect. Time-based art has grown today to encompass digital art, computer animation, interactive art, video games, virtual reality, robotics, and 3D printing.
The elements and principles of design are the components and their organization within visual art. Line, shape, mass/volume, perspective, texture, and color are the primary elements of design. Time is a recently recognized additional element of design. Principles of design include unity and variety, scale and proportion, balance, emphasis and movement, and rhythm and repetition.
In this chapter we have also outlined many of the materials and processes used in creating art. In Chapter 3 Significance of Material Used in Art, we will examine the impact and meaning of substances employed to create works of art. In Chapter 4 Describing Art: Formal Analysis, Types and Styles of Art, we will utilize our understanding of materials and processes, and elements and principles of design to describe and explore meaning in art.
Test Yourself
- Historically, the term fine art was limited to mean painting, architecture, and sculpture. Today, other approaches to the production of art objects have been discovered and exploited. This process of evolution has had both drawbacks and advantages. Discuss.
- “____________ -dimensional art occurs on flat surfaces, like paper, canvas, or even cave walls.”
- Art can be broken down into Form and _______________
- “To __________________ an object is to observe its appearance and transfer that observation to a set of marks.”
- “For the most part, the pigments or coloring agents in paints remain the same. The thing that distinguishes one kind of painting from another is the ____________.”
- The difference between open and closed sculptural forms is that closed forms are surrounded by ____________, while open forms are penetrated by it.
- Calligraphy is defined as “_____________ writing.”
- Perspective in art is the _________________ of space on a flat surface.
- The three main cues to the illusion of space on a flat surface are:
-
The five elements of design mentioned in the text are:
- __________________________
- __________________________
- __________________________
- __________________________
- __________________________
-
The text mentions several principles of design. List and Describe three of them.
Principle of Design:
Description:
a. _________________________ _________________________ b. _________________________ _________________________ c. _________________________ _________________________ - The unique property of Kinetic sculpture is: ___________________________
- “The Fauves were a group of artists in the early twentieth century who used ____________ color .”
-
Suggest one potential reason for the use of a monochromatic color scheme, a complementary color scheme, and an analogous color scheme.
- Monochromatic_______________________________________________
- Complementary_______________________________________________
- Analagous ___________________________________________________ | 652 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://human.libretexts.org/Courses/Southwestern_College/Art_104%3A_Introduction_To_Art_(Donovan)/02%3A_The_Visual_Elements_and_Design_Principles/2.04%3A_Before_You_Move_On_(Visual_Elements_and_Design_Principles) | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:26069 | https://human.libretexts.org/Courses/Southwestern_College/Art_104%3A_Introduction_To_Art_(Donovan)/02%3A_The_Visual_Elements_and_Design_Principles/2.04%3A_Before_You_Move_On_(Visual_Elements_and_Design_Principles) |
u-FsyCP_xJzpCMDK | Civil Rights and Liberties | Voting Rights
Voting Districts or Redistricting and Race
Gomillion v. Lightfoot (1960)
364 U.S. 339 (1960)
Vote: 9-0
Decision: Reversed
Majority: Frankfurter, joined by Warren, Black, Douglas, Clark, Harlan, Brennan, and Stewart
Concurrence: Whittaker
MR. JUSTICE FRANKFURTER delivered the opinion of the Court.
This litigation challenges the validity, under the United States Constitution, of Local Act No. 140, passed by the Legislature of Alabama in 1957, redefining the boundaries of the City of Tuskegee. Petitioners, Negro citizens of Alabama who were, at the time of this redistricting measure, residents of the City of Tuskegee, brought an action in the United States District Court for the Middle District of Alabama for a declaratory judgment that Act 140 is unconstitutional, and for an injunction to restrain the Mayor and officers of Tuskegee and the officials of Macon County, Alabama, from enforcing the Act against them and other Negroes similarly situated. Petitioners’ claim is that enforcement of the statute, which alters the shape of Tuskegee from a square to an uncouth twenty-eight-sided figure, will constitute a discrimination against them in violation of the Due Process and Equal Protection Clauses of the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution and will deny them the right to vote in defiance of the Fifteenth Amendment.
The respondents moved for dismissal of the action for failure to state a claim upon which relief could be granted and for lack of jurisdiction of the District Court. The court granted the motion, stating,
“This Court has no control over, no supervision over, and no power to change any boundaries of municipal corporations fixed by a duly convened and elected legislative body, acting for the people in the State of Alabama.”
On appeal, the Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit, affirmed … We brought the case here since serious questions were raised concerning the power of a State over its municipalities in relation to the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments.
At this stage of the litigation, we are not concerned with the truth of the allegations, that is, the ability of petitioners to sustain their allegations by proof. The sole question is whether the allegations entitle them to make good on their claim that they are being denied rights under the United States Constitution. The complaint, charging that Act 140 is a device to disenfranchise Negro citizens, alleges the following facts: Prior to Act 140 the City of Tuskegee was square in shape; the Act transformed it into a strangely irregular twenty-eight-sided figure.
The essential inevitable effect of this redefinition of Tuskegee’s boundaries is to remove from the city all save only four or five of its 400 Negro voters while not removing a single white voter or resident. The result of the Act is to deprive the Negro petitioners discriminatorily of the benefits of residence in Tuskegee, including, inter alia, the right to vote in municipal elections.
These allegations, if proven, would abundantly establish that Act 140 was not an ordinary geographic redistricting measure even within familiar abuses of gerrymandering. If these allegations upon a trial remained uncontradicted or unqualified, the conclusion would be irresistible, tantamount for all practical purposes to a mathematical demonstration, that the legislation is solely concerned with segregating white and colored voters by fencing Negro citizens out of town so as to deprive them of their pre-existing municipal vote.
It is difficult to appreciate what stands in the way of adjudging a statute having this inevitable effect invalid in light of the principles by which this Court must judge, and uniformly has judged, statutes that, howsoever speciously defined, obviously discriminate against colored citizens. “The [Fifteenth] Amendment nullifies sophisticated as well as simple-minded modes of discrimination.” Lane v. Wilson (1939).
The complaint amply alleges a claim of racial discrimination. Against this claim the respondents have never suggested, either in their brief or in oral argument, any countervailing municipal function which Act 140 is designed to serve. The respondents invoke generalities expressing the State’s unrestricted power—unlimited, that is, by the United States Constitution—to establish, destroy, or reorganize by contraction or expansion its political subdivisions, to wit, cities, counties, and other local units. …
… The Court has never acknowledged that the States have power to do as they will with municipal corporations regardless of consequences. …
… [S]uch power, extensive though it is, is met and overcome by the Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution of the United States, which forbids a State from passing any law which deprives a citizen of his vote because of his race. The opposite conclusion, urged upon us by respondents, would sanction the achievement by a State of any impairment of voting rights whatever so long as it was cloaked in the grab of the realignment of political subdivisions. “It is inconceivable that guaranties embedded in the Constitution of the United States may thus be manipulated out of existence.” Frost & Frost Trucking Co. v. Railroad Commission of California (1926).
… A statute which is alleged to have worked unconstitutional deprivations of petitioners’ rights is not immune to attack simply because the mechanism employed by the legislature is a redefinition of municipal boundaries. According to the allegations here made, the Alabama Legislature has not merely redrawn the Tuskegee city limits with incidental inconvenience to the petitioners; it is more accurate to say that it has deprived the petitioners of the municipal franchise and consequent rights and to that end it has incidentally changed the city’s boundaries. While in form this is merely an act redefining metes and bounds, if the allegations are established, the inescapable human effect of this essay in geometry and geography is to despoil colored citizens, and only colored citizens, of their theretofore enjoyed voting rights
For these reasons, the principal conclusions of the District Court and the Court of Appeals are clearly erroneous and the decision below must be
Reversed.
MR. JUSTICE WHITTAKER, concurring.
I concur in the Court’s judgment, but not in the whole of its opinion. It seems to me that the decision should be rested not on the Fifteenth Amendment, but rather on the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution. I am doubtful that the averments of the complaint, taken for present purposes to be true, show a purpose by Act No. 140 to abridge petitioners’ “right … to vote” in the Fifteenth Amendment sense. It seems to me that the “right … to vote” that is guaranteed by the Fifteenth Amendment is but the same right to vote as is enjoyed by all others within the same election precinct, ward or other political division. And, inasmuch as no one has the right to vote in a political division, or in a local election concerning only an area in which he does not reside, it would seem to follow that one’s right to vote in Division A is not abridged by a redistricting that places his residence in Division B if he there enjoys the same voting privileges as all others in that Division, even though the redistricting was done by the State for the purpose of placing a racial group of citizens in Division B …
But it does seem clear to me that accomplishment of a State’s purpose — to use the Court’s phrase — of “fencing Negro citizens out of” Division A and into Division B is an unlawful segregation of races of citizens, in violation of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, Brown v. Board of Education (1954), Cooper v. Aaron (1958), and, as stated, I would think the decision should be rested on that ground — which, incidentally, clearly would not involve, just as the cited cases did not involve, the Colegrove problem.
Thornburgh v. Gingles (1986)
478 U.S. 30 (1986)
Note: This is a statutory case but the decision here is important for understanding the next two cases; thus, a short excerpt has been included.
Vote: 9-0
Decision: Affirmed in part and reversed in part
Majority: Brennan Burger, joined by Burger, White, Marshall, Blackmun, Powell, Rehnquist, Stevens, and O’Connor
JUSTICE BRENNAN announced the judgment of the Court and delivered the opinion of the Court with respect to Parts I, II, III-A, III-B, IV-A, and V, an opinion with respect to Part III-C, in which JUSTICE MARSHALL, JUSTICE BLACKMUN, and JUSTICE STEVENS join, and an opinion with respect to Part IV-B, in which JUSTICE WHITE joins.
This case requires that we construe for the first time § 2 of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, as amended June 29, 1982. 42 U.S.C. § 1973. The specific question to be decided is whether the three-judge District Court, convened in the Eastern District of North Carolina pursuant to 28 U.S.C. § 2284(a) and 42 U.S.C. § 1973c, correctly held that the use in a legislative redistricting plan of multimember districts in five North Carolina legislative districts violated § 2 by impairing the opportunity of black voters “to participate in the political process and to elect representatives of their choice.” § 2(b), 96 Stat. 134.
…
Preliminarily, the [District] court found that black citizens constituted a distinct population and registered-voter minority in each challenged district. The court noted that, at the time the multimember districts were created, there were concentrations of black citizens within the boundaries of each that were sufficiently large and contiguous to constitute effective voting majorities in single-member districts lying wholly within the boundaries of the multimember districts. With respect to the challenged single-member district, Senate District No. 2, the court also found that there existed a concentration of black citizens within its boundaries and within those of adjoining Senate District No. 6 that was sufficient in numbers and in contiguity to constitute an effective voting majority in a single-member district. The District Court then proceeded to find that the following circumstances combined with the multimember districting scheme to result in the dilution of black citizens’ votes.
Based on these findings, the court declared the contested portions of the 1982 redistricting plan violative of § 2, and enjoined appellants from conducting elections pursuant to those portions of the plan … We noted probable jurisdiction, 471 U.S. 1064 (1985), and now affirm with respect to all of the districts except House District 23. With regard to District 23, the judgment of the District Court is reversed.
…
Because loss of political power through vote dilution is distinct from the mere inability to win a particular election, Whitcomb (1971), a pattern of racial bloc voting that extends over a period of time is more probative of a claim that a district experiences legally significant polarization than are the results of a single election …
…
Summary
In sum, we would hold that the legal concept of racially polarized voting, as it relates to claims of vote dilution, refers only to the existence of a correlation between the race of voters and the selection of certain candidates. Plaintiffs need not prove causation or intent in order to prove a prima facie case of racial bloc voting, and defendants may not rebut that case with evidence of causation or intent.
…
The District Court in this case carefully considered the totality of the circumstances and found that, in each district, racially polarized voting; the legacy of official discrimination in voting matters, education, housing, employment, and health services; and the persistence of campaign appeals to racial prejudice acted in concert with the multimember districting scheme to impair the ability of geographically insular and politically cohesive groups of black voters to participate equally in the political process and to elect candidates of their choice. It found that the success a few black candidates have enjoyed in these districts is too recent, too limited, and, with regard to the 1982 elections, perhaps too aberrational, to disprove its conclusion. Excepting House District 23, with respect to which the District Court committed legal error, see supra, at Thornburg v. Gingles (1986), we affirm the District Court’s judgment. We cannot say that the District Court, composed of local judges who are well acquainted with the political realities of the State, clearly erred in concluding that use of a multimember electoral structure has caused black voters in the districts other than House District 23 to have less opportunity than white voters to elect representatives of their choice.
The judgment of the District Court is
Affirmed in part and reversed in part.
Shaw v. Reno (1993)
509 U.S. 630 (1993)
Vote: 5-4
Decision: Reversed
Majority: O’Connor, joined by Rehnquist, Scalia, Kennedy, and Thomas
Dissent: White, joined by Blackmun, Stevens, and Souter
O’Connor, J., delivered the opinion for a unanimous Court.
This case involves two of the most complex and sensitive issues this Court has faced in recent years: the meaning of the constitutional “right” to vote, and the propriety of racebased state legislation designed to benefit members of historically disadvantaged racial minority groups. As a result of the 1990 census, North Carolina became entitled to a 12th seat in the United States House of Representatives. The General Assembly enacted a reapportionment plan that included one majority-black congressional district. After the Attorney General of the United States objected to the plan pursuant to § 5 of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, 79 Stat. 439, as amended, 42 U. S. C. § 1973c, the General Assembly passed new legislation creating a second majority-black district. Appellants allege that the revised plan, which contains district boundary lines of dramatically irregular shape, constitutes an unconstitutional racial gerrymander. The question before us is whether appellants have stated a cognizable claim.
The voting age population of North Carolina is approximately 78% white, 20% black, and 1% Native American; the remaining 1% is predominantly Asian. App. to Brief for Federal Appellees 16a. The black population is relatively dispersed; blacks constitute a majority of the general population in only 5 of the State’s 100 counties. Brief for Appellants 57. Geographically, the State divides into three regions: the eastern Coastal Plain, the central Piedmont Plateau, and the western mountains. H. Lefler & A. Newsom, The History of a Southern State: North Carolina 18-22 (3d ed. 1973). The largest concentrations of black citizens live in the Coastal Plain, primarily in the northern part. O. Gade & H. Stillwell, North Carolina: People and Environments 65-68 (1986).
Forty of North Carolina’s one hundred counties are covered by § 5 of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, 42 U. S. C. § 1973c, which prohibits a jurisdiction subject to its provisions from implementing changes in a “standard, practice, or procedure with respect to voting” without federal authorization, ibid. … Because the General Assembly’s reapportionment plan affected the covered counties, the parties agree that § 5 applied. Tr. of Oral Arg. 14, 27-29. The State chose to submit its plan to the Attorney General for preclearance.
The Attorney General, acting through the Assistant Attorney General for the Civil Rights Division, interposed a formal objection to the General Assembly’s plan. The Attorney General specifically objected to the configuration of boundary lines drawn in the south-central to southeastern region of the State. In the Attorney General’s view, the General Assembly could have created a second majorityminority district “to give effect to black and Native American voting strength in this area” by using boundary lines “no more irregular than [those] found elsewhere in the proposed plan,” but failed to do so for “pretextual reasons.” See App. to Brief for Federal Appellees lOa-lla.
… Instead, the General Assembly enacted a revised redistricting plan, 1991 N. C. Extra Sess. Laws, ch. 7, that included a second majority-black district. The General Assembly located the second district not in the south-central to southeastern part of the State, but in the north-central region along Interstate 85.
The first of the two majority-black districts contained in the revised plan, District 1, is somewhat hook shaped. Centered in the northeast portion of the State, it moves southward until it tapers to a narrow band; then, with finger-like extensions, it reaches far into the southernmost part of the State near the South Carolina border. District 1 has been compared to a “Rorschach ink-blot test,” Shaw v. Barr (1992) (Voorhees, C. J., concurring in part and dissenting in part), and a “bug splattered on a windshield,” Wall Street Journal, Feb. 4, 1992, p. A14.
The second majority-black district, District 12, is even more unusually shaped. It is approximately 160 miles long and, for much of its length, no wider than the 1-85 corridor. It winds in snakelike fashion through tobacco country, financial centers, and manufacturing areas “until it gobbles in enough enclaves of black neighborhoods.” 808 F. Supp., at 476-477 (Voorhees, C. J., concurring in part and dissenting in part). Northbound and southbound drivers on 1-85 sometimes find themselves in separate districts in one county, only to “trade” districts when they enter the next county. Of the 10 counties through which District 12 passes, 5 are cut into 3 different districts; even towns are divided. At one point the district remains contiguous only because it intersects at a single point with two other districts before crossing over them. See Brief for Republican National Committee as Amicus Curiae 14-15 …
The Attorney General did not object to the General Assembly’s revised plan. But numerous North Carolinians did … alleging that the plan constituted an unconstitutional political gerrymander under Davis v. Bandemer (1986). That claim was dismissed, see Pope v. Blue (1992), and this Court summarily affirmed
Shortly after the complaint in Pope v. Blue was filed, appellants instituted the present action in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of North Carolina. Appellants alleged not that the revised plan constituted a political gerrymander, nor that it violated the “one person, one vote” principle, see Reynolds v. Sims (1964), but that the State had created an unconstitutional racial gerrymander.
…
Appellants contended that the General Assembly’s revised reapportionment plan violated several provisions of the United States Constitution, including the Fourteenth Amendment. They alleged that the General Assembly deliberately “create[d] two Congressional Districts in which a majority of black voters was concentrated arbitrarily-without regard to any other considerations, such as compactness, contiguousness, geographical boundaries, or political subdivisions” with the purpose “to create Congressional Districts along racial lines” and to assure the election of two black representatives to Congress. App. to Juris. Statement 102a.
…
By a 2-to-1 vote, the District Court also dismissed the complaint against the state appellees. The majority found no support for appellants’ contentions that race-based districting is prohibited by Article I, § 4, or Article I, § 2, of the Constitution, or by the Privileges and Immunities Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.
…
We noted probable jurisdiction. 506 U. S. 1019 (1992).
“The right to vote freely for the candidate of one’s choice is of the essence of a democratic society. …” Reynolds v. Sims (1964). For much of our Nation’s history, that right sadly has been denied to many because of race. The Fifteenth Amendment, ratified in 1870 after a bloody Civil War, promised unequivocally that “[t]he right of citizens of the United States to vote” no longer would be “denied or abridged … by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.” U. S. Const., Amdt. 15, § 1.
But “[a] number of states … refused to take no for an answer and continued to circumvent the fifteenth amendment’s prohibition through the use of both subtle and blunt instruments, perpetuating ugly patterns of pervasive racial discrimination.” Blumstein, Defining and Proving Race Discrimination: Perspectives on the Purpose V s. Results Approach from the Voting Rights Act, 69 Va. L. Rev. 633, 637 (1983) …
Another of the weapons in the States’ arsenal was the racial gerrymander-“the deliberate and arbitrary distortion of district boundaries … for [racial] purposes.” Bandemer (1986) (Powell, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part) …
But it soon became apparent that guaranteeing equal access to the polls would not suffice to root out other racially discriminatory voting practices. Drawing on the “one person, one vote” principle, this Court recognized that “[t]he right to vote can be affected by a dilution of voting power as well as by an absolute prohibition on casting a ballot.” … Accordingly, the Court held that such schemes violate the Fourteenth Amendment when they are adopted with a discriminatory purpose and have the effect of diluting minority voting strength. Congress, too, responded to the problem of vote dilution. In 1982, it amended § 2 of the Voting Rights Act to prohibit legislation that results in the dilution of a minority group’s voting strength, regardless of the legislature’s intent. 42 U. S. C. § 1973; see Thornburg v. Gingles (1986) (applying amended § 2 to vote-dilution claim involving multimember districts); see also Voinovich v. Quilter (1993) (single-member districts).
It is against this background that we confront the questions presented here. In our view, the District Court properly dismissed appellants’ claims against the federal appellees. Our focus is on appellants’ claim that the State engaged in unconstitutional racial gerrymandering. That argument strikes a powerful historical chord: It is unsettling how closely the North Carolina plan resembles the most egregious racial gerrymanders of the past.
An understanding of the nature of appellants’ claim is critical to our resolution of the case. In their complaint, appellants did not claim that the General Assembly’s reapportionment plan unconstitutionally “diluted” white voting strength. They did not even claim to be white. Rather, appellants’ complaint alleged that the deliberate segregation of voters into separate districts on the basis of race violated their constitutional right to participate in a “color-blind” electoral process.
Despite their invocation of the ideal of a “color-blind” Constitution, see Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) (Harlan, J., dissenting), appellants appear to concede that race-conscious redistricting is not always unconstitutional. See Tr. of Oral Arg. 16-19. That concession is wise: This Court never has held that race-conscious state decisionmaking is impermissible in all circumstances. What appellants object to is redistricting legislation that is so extremely irregular on its face that it rationally can be viewed only as an effort to segregate the races for purposes of voting, without regard for traditional districting principles and without sufficiently compelling justification. For the reasons that follow, we conclude that appellants have stated a claim upon which relief can be granted under the Equal Protection Clause.
The Equal Protection Clause provides that “[n]o State shall … deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.” U. S. Const., Arndt. 14, § 1. Its central purpose is to prevent the States from purposefully discriminating between individuals on the basis of race …
Classifications of citizens solely on the basis of race “are by their very nature odious to a free people whose institutions are founded upon the doctrine of equality.” … Accordingly, we have held that the Fourteenth Amendment requires state legislation that expressly distinguishes among citizens because of their race to be narrowly tailored to further a compelling governmental interest.
Appellants contend that redistricting legislation that is so bizarre on its face that it is “unexplainable on grounds other than race,” Arlington Heights, supra, at 266, demands the same close scrutiny that we give other state laws that classify citizens by race. Our voting rights precedents support that conclusion.
…
… Gomillion thus supports appellants’ contention that district lines obviously drawn for the purpose of separating voters by race require careful scrutiny under the Equal Protection Clause regardless of the motivations underlying their adoption.
…
Put differently, we believe that reapportionment is one area in which appearances do matter. A reapportionment plan that includes in one district individuals who belong to the same race, but who are otherwise widely separated by geographical and political boundaries, and who may have little in common with one another but the color of their skin, bears an uncomfortable resemblance to political apartheid. It reinforces the perception that members of the same racial group-regardless of their age, education, economic status, or the community in which they live-think alike, share the same political interests, and will prefer the same candidates at the polls. We have rejected such perceptions elsewhere as impermissible racial stereotypes … By perpetuating such notions, a racial gerrymander may exacerbate the very patterns of racial bloc voting that majority-minority districting is sometimes said to counteract.
The message that such districting sends to elected representatives is equally pernicious. When a district obviously is created solely to effectuate the perceived common interests of one racial group, elected officials are more likely to believe that their primary obligation is to represent only the members of that group, rather than their constituency as a whole. This is altogether antithetical to our system of representative democracy …
For these reasons, we conclude that a plaintiff challenging a reapportionment statute under the Equal Protection Clause may state a claim by alleging that the legislation, though race neutral on its face, rationally cannot be understood as anything other than an effort to separate voters into different districts on the basis of race, and that the separation lacks sufficient justification. It is unnecessary for us to decide whether or how a reapportionment plan that, on its face, can be explained in nonracial terms successfully could be challenged. Thus, we express no view as to whether “the intentional creation of majority-minority districts, without more,” always gives rise to an equal protection claim. Post, at 668 (WHITE, J., dissenting). We hold only that, on the facts of this case, appellants have stated a claim sufficient to defeat the state appellees’ motion to dismiss.
…
Racial classifications of any sort pose the risk of lasting harm to our society. They reinforce the belief, held by too many for too much of our history, that individuals should be judged by the color of their skin. Racial classifications with respect to voting carry particular dangers. Racial gerrymandering, even for remedial purposes, may balkanize us into competing racial factions; it threatens to carry us further from the goal of a political system in which race no longer matters-a goal that the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments embody, and to which the Nation continues to aspire. It is for these reasons that race-based districting by our state legislatures demands close judicial scrutiny.
In this case, the Attorney General suggested that North Carolina could have created a reasonably compact second majority-minority district in the south-central to southeastern part of the State. We express no view as to whether appellants successfully could have challenged such a district under the Fourteenth Amendment. We also do not decide whether appellants’ complaint stated a claim under constitutional provisions other than the Fourteenth Amendment. Today we hold only that appellants have stated a claim under the Equal Protection Clause by alleging that the North Carolina General Assembly adopted a reapportionment scheme so irrational on its face that it can be understood only as an effort to segregate voters into separate voting districts because of their race, and that the separation lacks sufficient justification. If the allegation of racial gerrymandering remains uncontradicted, the District Court further must determine whether the North Carolina plan is narrowly tailored to further a compelling governmental interest.
Accordingly, we reverse the judgment of the District Court and remand the case for further proceedings consistent with this opinion.
It is so ordered.
Miller v. Johnson (1995)
515 U.S. 900 (1995)
Vote: 5-4
Decision: Affirmed
Majority: Kennedy, joined by Rehnquist, O’Connor, Thomas, and Scalia
Concurrence: O’Connor
Dissent: Stevens
Dissent: Ginsburg, joined by Breyer, Stevens, and Souter (except as to Part III-B)
JUSTICE KENNEDY delivered the opinion of the Court.
The constitutionality of Georgia’s congressional redistricting plan is at issue here. In Shaw v. Reno, 509 U. S. 630 (1993), we held that a plaintiff states a claim under the Equal Protection Clause by alleging that a state redistricting plan, on its face, has no rational explanation save as an effort to separate voters on the basis of race. The question we now decide is whether Georgia’s new Eleventh District gives rise to a valid equal protection claim under the principles announced in Shaw, and, if so, whether it can be sustained nonetheless as narrowly tailored to serve a compelling governmental interest.
The Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment provides that no State shall “deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.” U.S. Const., Amdt. 14, 1. Its central mandate is racial neutrality in governmental decisionmaking. The Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment provides that no State shall “deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.” U.S. Const., Amdt. 14, 1. Its central mandate is racial neutrality in governmental decisionmaking … The Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment provides that no State shall “deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.” U.S. Const., Amdt. 14, 1. Its central mandate is racial neutrality in governmental decisionmaking.
In Shaw v. Reno, we recognized that these equal protection principles govern a State’s drawing of congressional districts, though, as our cautious approach there discloses, application of these principles to electoral districting is a most delicate task …
This litigation requires us to apply the principles articulated in Shaw to the most recent congressional redistricting plan enacted by the State of Georgia …
In 1965, the Attorney General designated Georgia a covered jurisdiction under § 4(b) of the Voting Rights Act (Act) … In consequence, § 5 of the Act requires Georgia to obtain either administrative preclearance by the Attorney General or approval by the United States District Court for the District of Columbia of any change in a “standard, practice, or procedure with respect to voting” made after November 1, 1964 … The preclearance mechanism applies to congressional redistricting plans, and requires that the proposed change “not have the purpose and will not have the effect of denying or abridging the right to vote on account of race or color.” …”[T]he purpose of § 5 has always been to insure that no voting-procedure changes would be made that would lead to a retrogression in the position of racial minorities with respect to their effective exercise of the electoral franchise.” …
… Citing much evidence of the legislature’s purpose and intent in creating the final plan, as well as the irregular shape of the district (in particular several appendages drawn for the obvious purpose of putting black populations into the district), the court found that race was the overriding and predominant force in the districting determination. The [District] court proceeded to apply strict scrutiny. Though rejecting proportional representation as a compelling interest, it was willing to assume that compliance with the Act would be a compelling interest … [T]he court found that the Act did not require three majority-black districts, and that Georgia’s plan for that reason was not narrowly tailored to the goal of complying with the Act …
Finding that the “evidence of the General Assembly’s intent to racially gerrymander the Eleventh District is overwhelming, and practically stipulated by the parties involved,” the District Court held that race was the predominant, overriding factor in drawing the Eleventh District …
Appellants do not take issue with the court’s factual finding of this racial motivation. Rather, they contend that evidence of a legislature’s deliberate classification of voters on the basis of race cannot alone suffice to state a claim under Shaw. They argue that, regardless of the legislature’s purposes, a plaintiff must demonstrate that a district’s shape is so bizarre that it is unexplainable other than on the basis of race, and that appellees failed to make that showing here. Appellants’ conception of the constitutional violation misapprehends our holding in Shaw and the equal protection precedent upon which Shaw relied …
Our circumspect approach and narrow holding in Shaw did not erect an artificial rule barring accepted equal protection analysis in other redistricting cases. Shape is relevant not because bizarreness is a necessary element of the constitutional wrong or a threshold requirement of proof, but because it may be persuasive circumstantial evidence that race for its own sake, and not other districting principles, was the legislature’s dominant and controlling rationale in drawing its district lines. The logical implication, as courts applying Shaw have recognized, is that parties may rely on evidence other than bizarreness to establish race-based districting …
In sum, we make clear that parties alleging that a State has assigned voters on the basis of race are neither confined in their proof to evidence regarding the district’s geometry and makeup nor required to make a threshold showing of bizarreness. Today’s litigation requires us further to consider the requirements of the proof necessary to sustain this equal protection challenge …
The courts, in assessing the sufficiency of a challenge to a districting plan, must be sensitive to the complex interplay of forces that enter a legislature’s redistricting calculus. Redistricting legislatures will, for example, almost always be aware of racial demographics; but it does not follow that race predominates in the redistricting process …
The distinction between being aware of racial considerations and being motivated by them may be difficult to make. This evidentiary difficulty, together with the sensitive nature of redistricting and the presumption of good faith that must be accorded legislative enactments, requires courts to exercise extraordinary caution in adjudicating claims that a State has drawn district lines on the basis of race. The plaintiff’s burden is to show, either through circumstantial evidence of a district’s shape and demographics or more direct evidence going to legislative purpose, that race was the predominant factor motivating the legislature’s decision to place a significant number of voters within or without a particular district. To make this showing, a plaintiff must prove that the legislature subordinated traditional race-neutral districting principles, including but not limited to compactness, contiguity, and respect for political subdivisions or communities defined by actual shared interests, to racial considerations. Where these or other race-neutral considerations are the basis for redistricting legislation, and are not subordinated to race, a State can “defeat a claim that a district has been gerrymandered on racial lines.” …
In our view, the District Court applied the correct analysis, and its finding that race was the predominant factor motivating the drawing of the Eleventh District was not clearly erroneous. The court found it was “exceedingly obvious” from the shape of the Eleventh District, together with the relevant racial demographics, that the drawing of narrow land bridges to incorporate within the district outlying appendages containing nearly 80% of the district’s total black population was a deliberate attempt to bring black populations into the district …
To satisfy strict scrutiny, the State must demonstrate that its districting legislation is narrowly tailored to achieve a compelling interest … We do not accept the contention that the State has a compelling interest in complying with whatever preclearance mandates the Justice Department issues. When a state governmental entity seeks to justify race-based remedies to cure the effects of past discrimination, we do not accept the government’s mere assertion that the remedial action is required. Rather, we insist on a strong basis in evidence of the harm being remedied …
Instead of grounding its objections on evidence of a discriminatory purpose, it would appear the Government was driven by its policy of maximizing majority-black districts. Although the Government now disavows having had policy … and seems to concede its impropriety, the District Court’s well-documented factual finding was that the Department did adopt a maximization policy and followed it in objecting to Georgia’s first two plans …
The Act, and its grant of authority to the federal courts to uncover official efforts to abridge minorities’ right to vote, has been of vital importance in eradicating invidious discrimination from the electoral process and enhancing the legitimacy of our political institutions. Only if our political system and our society cleanse themselves of that discrimination will all members of the polity share an equal opportunity to gain public office regardless of race. As a Nation we share both the obligation and the aspiration of working toward this end. The end is neither assured nor well served, however, by carving electorates into racial blocs.”If our society is to continue to progress as a multiracial democracy, it must recognize that the automatic invocation of race stereotypes retards that progress and causes continued hurt and injury.” …
It takes a shortsighted and unauthorized view of the Voting Rights Act to invoke that statute, which has played a decisive role in redressing some of our worst forms of discrimination, to demand the very racial stereotyping the Fourteenth Amendment forbids.
The judgment of the District Court is affirmed, and the cases are remanded for further proceedings consistent with this decision.
It is so ordered.
Bush v. Vera (1996)
517 U.S. 952 (1996)
Vote: 5-4
Decision: Affirmed
Majority: O’Connor, joined by Rehnquist, and Kennedy
Concurrence: O’Connor
Concurrence: Kennedy
Concurrence: Thomas, joined by Scalia
Dissent: Stevens, joined by Ginsburg, and Breyer
Dissent: Souter, joined by Ginsburg, and Breyer
JUSTICE O’CONNOR announced the judgment of the Court and delivered an opinion, in which THE CHIEF JUSTICE and JUSTICE KENNEDY join.
This is the latest in a series of appeals involving racial gerrymandering challenges to state redistricting efforts in the wake of the 1990 census … That census revealed a population increase, largely in urban minority populations, that entitled Texas to three additional congressional seats. In response, and with a view to complying with the Voting Rights Act of 1965 (VRA), 79 Stat. 437, as amended, 42 U. S. C. § 1973 et seq., the Texas Legislature promulgated a redistricting plan that, among other things, created District 30, a new majority-African-American district in Dallas County; created District 29, a new majority-Hispanic district in and around Houston in Harris County; and reconfigured District 18, which is adjacent to District 29, to make it a majority- African-American district. The Department of Justice precleared that plan under VRA § 5 in 1991, and it was used in the 1992 congressional elections …
The plaintiffs, six Texas voters, challenged the plan, alleging that 24 of Texas’ 30 congressional districts constitute racial gerrymanders in violation of the Fourteenth Amendment. The three-judge United States District Court for the Southern District of Texas held Districts 18, 29, and 30 unconstitutional …
We must now determine whether those districts are subject to strict scrutiny. Our precedents have used a variety of formulations to describe the threshold for the application of strict scrutiny. Strict scrutiny applies where “redistricting legislation … is so extremely irregular on its face that it rationally can be viewed only as an effort to segregate the races for purposes of voting, without regard for traditional districting principles,” Shaw I, …
Strict scrutiny does not apply merely because redistricting is performed with consciousness of race. Nor does it apply to all cases of intentional creation of majority-minority districts … For strict scrutiny to apply, the plaintiffs must prove that other, legitimate districting principles were “subordinated” to race. Miller (1995). By that, we mean that race must be “the predominant factor motivating the legislature’s [redistricting] decision.” Ibid. (emphasis added) …
The present suit is a mixed motive suit. The appellants concede that one of Texas’ goals in creating the three districts at issue was to produce majority-minority districts, but they also cite evidence that other goals, particularly incumbency protection also played a role in the drawing of the district lines … A careful review is, therefore, necessary to determine whether these districts are subject to strict scrutiny …
We begin with general findings and evidence regarding the redistricting plan’s respect for traditional districting principles, the legislators’ expressed motivations, and the methods used in the redistricting process …
These findings-that the State substantially neglected traditional districting criteria such as compactness, that it was committed from the outset to creating majority-minority districts, and that it manipulated district lines to exploit unprecedentedly detailed racial data-together weigh in favor of the application of strict scrutiny. We do not hold that any one of these factors is independently sufficient to require strict scrutiny. The Constitution does not mandate regularity of district shape, see Shaw I (1993), and the neglect of traditional districting criteria is merely necessary, not sufficient. For strict scrutiny to apply, traditional districting criteria must be subordinated to race. Miller (1995). Nor, as we have emphasized, is the decision to create a majority-minority district objectionable in and of itself.
…
Strict scrutiny would not be appropriate if race-neutral, traditional districting considerations predominated over racial ones. We have not subjected political gerrymandering to strict scrutiny … And we have recognized incumbency protection, at least in the limited form of “avoiding contests between incumbent[s],” as a legitimate state goal … Because it is clear that race was not the only factor that motivated the legislature to draw irregular district lines, we must scrutinize each challenged district to determine whether the District Court’s conclusion that race predominated over legitimate districting considerations, including incumbency, can be sustained.
[The Court determines that strict scrutiny applies for Districts 18, 29 and 30.]
Having concluded that strict scrutiny applies, we must determine whether the racial classifications embodied in any of the three districts are narrowly tailored to further a compelling state interest. Appellants point to three compelling interests: the interest in avoiding liability under the “results” test of VRA § 2(b), the interest in remedying past and present racial discrimination, and the “non retrogression” principle of VRA § 5 (for District 18 only) …
A State’s interest in remedying discrimination is compelling when two conditions are satisfied. First, the discrimination that the State seeks to remedy must be specific, “identified discrimination”; second, the State “must have had a ‘strong basis in evidence’ to conclude that remedial action was necessary, ‘before it embarks on an affirmative action program.'” Shaw II, ante, at 910 (citations omitted). Here, the only current problem that appellants cite as in need of remediation is alleged vote dilution as a consequence of racial bloc voting, the same concern that underlies their VRA § 2 compliance defense, which we have assumed to be valid for purposes of this opinion. We have indicated that such problems will not justify race-based districting unless “the State employ[s] sound districting principles, and.., the affected racial group’s residential patterns afford the opportunity of creating districts in which they will be in the majority.” Shaw I (1993), (internal quotation marks omitted). Once that standard is applied, our agreement with the District Court’s finding that these districts are not narrowly tailored to comply with § 2 forecloses this line of defense …
Our legitimacy requires, above all, that we adhere to stare decisis, especially in such sensitive political contexts as the present, where partisan controversy abounds. Legislators and district courts nationwide have modified their practices-or, rather, reembraced the traditional districting practices that were almost universally followed before the 1990 census-in response to Shaw I. Those practices and our precedents, which acknowledge voters as more than mere racial statistics, play an important role in defining the political identity of the American voter. Our Fourteenth Amendment jurisprudence evinces a commitment to eliminate unnecessary and excessive governmental use and reinforcement of racial stereotypes …
We decline to retreat from that commitment today.
The judgment of the District Court is
Affirmed.
Cooper v. Harris (2016)
532 U.S. 234 (2016)
Vote: 5-3
Decision: Affirmed
Majority: Kagan, joined by Thomas, Ginsburg, Breyer, and Sotomayor
Concurrence: Thomas
Dissent: Alito, joined by Roberts, and Kennedy
JUSTICE KAGAN delivered the opinion of the Court.
The Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment limits racial gerrymanders in legislative districting plans. It prevents a State, in the absence of “sufficient justification,” from “separating its citizens into different voting districts on the basis of race.” …
When a voter sues state officials for drawing such race-based lines, our decisions call for a two-step analysis …
First, the plaintiff must prove that “race was the predominant factor motivating the legislature’s decision to place a significant number of voters within or without a particular district.” Miller v. Johnson (1995). That entails demonstrating that the legislature “subordinated” other factors—compactness, respect for political subdivisions, partisan advantage, what have you—to “racial considerations.” Ibid. The plaintiff may make the required showing through “direct evidence” of legislative intent, “circumstantial evidence of a district’s shape and demographics,” or a mix of both …
Second, if racial considerations predominated over others, the design of the district must withstand strict scrutiny. See Bethune-Hill (2017). The burden thus shifts to the State to prove that its race-based sorting of voters serves a “compelling interest” and is “narrowly tailored” to that end. Ibid. This Court has long assumed that one compelling interest is complying with operative provisions of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 (VRA or Act) …
This case concerns North Carolina’s most recent redrawing of two congressional districts, both of which have long included substantial populations of black voters. In its current incarnation, District 1 is anchored in the northeastern part of the State, with appendages stretching both south and west (the latter into Durham). District 12 begins in the south-central part of the State (where it takes in a large part of Charlotte) and then travels northeast, zig-zagging much of the way to the State’s northern border …
[From the Opinion’s appendix]
With that out of the way, we turn to the merits of this case, beginning (appropriately enough) with District 1. As noted above, the court below found that race furnished the predominant rationale for that district’s redesign. See supra, at 6–7. And it held that the State’s interest in complying with the VRA could not justify that consideration of race. See supra, at 7. We uphold both conclusions.
Uncontested evidence in the record shows that the State’s mapmakers, in considering District 1, purposefully established a racial target: African-Americans should make up no less than a majority of the voting-age population. Senator Rucho and Representative Lewis were not coy in expressing that goal. They repeatedly told their colleagues that District 1 had to be majority-minority, so as to comply with the VRA. During a Senate debate, for example, Rucho explained that District 1 “must include a sufficient number of African-Americans” to make it “a majority black district.” Similarly, Lewis informed the House and Senate redistricting committees that the district must have “a majority black voting age population.” And that objective was communicated in no uncertain terms to the legislators’ consultant. Dr. Hofeller testified multiple times at trial that Rucho and Lewis instructed him “to draw [District 1] with a [BVAP] in excess of 50 percent.” …
Faced with this body of evidence—showing an announced racial target that subordinated other districting criteria and produced boundaries amplifying divisions between blacks and whites—the District Court did not clearly err in finding that race predominated in drawing District 1. Indeed, as all three judges recognized, the court could hardly have concluded anything but …
The more substantial question is whether District 1 can survive the strict scrutiny applied to racial gerrymanders. As noted earlier, we have long assumed that complying with the VRA is a compelling interest. And we have held that race-based districting is narrowly tailored to that objective if a State had “good reasons” for thinking that the Act demanded such steps.
North Carolina argues that District 1 passes muster under that standard: The General Assembly (so says the State) had “good reasons to believe it needed to draw [District 1] as a majority-minority district to avoid Section 2 liability” for vote dilution. We now turn to that defense …
In sum: Although States enjoy leeway to take race-based actions reasonably judged necessary under a proper interpretation of the VRA, that latitude cannot rescue District 1. We by no means “insist that a state legislature, when redistricting, determine precisely what percent minority population [§2 of the VRA] demands.” Ibid. But neither will we approve a racial gerrymander whose necessity is supported by no evidence and whose raison d’être is a legal mistake. Accordingly, we uphold the District Court’s conclusion that North Carolina’s use of race as the predominant factor in designing District 1 does not withstand strict scrutiny.
We now look west to District 12, making its fifth (!) appearance before this Court. This time, the district’s legality turns, and turns solely, on which of two possible reasons predominantly explains its most recent reconfiguration. The plaintiffs contended at trial that the General Assembly chose voters for District 12, as for District 1, because of their race; more particularly, they urged that the Assembly intentionally increased District 12’s BVAP in the name of ensuring preclearance under the VRA’s §5. But North Carolina declined to mount any defense (similar to the one we have just considered for District 1) that §5’s requirements in fact justified race-based changes to District 12—perhaps because §5 could not reasonably be understood to have done so … Instead, the State altogether denied that racial considerations accounted for (or, indeed, played the slightest role in) District 12’s redesign. According to the State’s version of events, Senator Rucho, Representative Lewis, and Dr. Hofeller moved voters in and out of the district as part of a “strictly” political gerrymander, without regard to race. 6 Record 1011. The mapmakers drew their lines, in other words, to “pack” District 12 with Democrats, not African-Americans. After hearing evidence supporting both parties’ accounts, the District Court accepted the plaintiffs …
Getting to the bottom of a dispute like this one poses special challenges for a trial court. In the more usual case alleging a racial gerrymander—where no one has raised a partisanship defense—the court can make real headway by exploring the challenged district’s conformity to traditional districting principles, such as compactness and respect for county lines. In Shaw II, for example, this Court emphasized the “highly irregular” shape of then-District 12 in concluding that race predominated in its design. But such evidence loses much of its value when the State asserts partisanship as a defense, because a bizarre shape—as of the new District 12—can arise from a “political motivation” as well as a racial one. And crucially, political and racial reasons are capable of yielding similar oddities in a district’s boundaries. That is because, of course, “racial identification is highly correlated with political affiliation.” As a result of those redistricting realities, a trial court has a formidable task: It must make “a sensitive inquiry” into all “circumstantial and direct evidence of intent” to assess whether the plaintiffs have managed to disentangle race from politics and prove that the former drove a district’s lines …
Our job is different—and generally easier. As described earlier, we review a district court’s finding as to racial predominance only for clear error, except when the court made a legal mistake. Under that standard of review, we affirm the court’s finding so long as it is “plausible”; we reverse only when “left with the definite and firm conviction that a mistake has been committed.” And in deciding which side of that line to come down on, we give singular deference to a trial court’s judgments about the credibility of witnesses. That is proper, we have explained, because the various cues that “bear so heavily on the listener’s understanding of and belief in what is said” are lost on an appellate court later sifting through a paper record …
In light of those principles, we uphold the District Court’s finding of racial predominance respecting District 12. The evidence offered at trial, including live witness testimony subject to credibility determinations, adequately supports the conclusion that race, not politics, accounted for the district’s reconfiguration. And no error of law infected that judgment: Contrary to North Carolina’s view, the District Court had no call to dismiss this challenge just because the plaintiffs did not proffer an alternative design for District 12 as circumstantial evidence of the legislature’s intent …
The State mounts a final, legal rather than factual, attack on the District Court’s finding of racial predominance. When race and politics are competing explanations of a district’s lines, argues North Carolina, the party challenging the district must introduce a particular kind of circumstantial evidence: “an alternative [map] that achieves the legislature’s political objectives while improving racial balance.” Brief for Appellants 31 (emphasis deleted). That is true, the State says, irrespective of what other evidence is in the case—so even if the plaintiff offers powerful direct proof that the legislature adopted the map it did for racial reasons. Because the plaintiffs here (as all agree) did not present such a counter-map, North Carolina concludes that they cannot prevail. The dissent echoes that argument …
We have no doubt that an alternative districting plan, of the kind North Carolina describes, can serve as key evidence in a race-versus-politics dispute. One, often highly persuasive way to disprove a State’s contention that politics drove a district’s lines is to show that the legislature had the capacity to accomplish all its partisan goals without moving so many members of a minority group into the district. If you were really sorting by political behavior instead of skin color (so the argument goes) you would have done—or, at least, could just as well have done—this. Such would-have, could-have, and (to round out the set) should-have arguments are a familiar means of undermining a claim that an action was based on a permissible, rather than a prohibited, ground …
But they are hardly the only means. Suppose that the plaintiff in a dispute like this one introduced scores of leaked emails from state officials instructing their mapmaker to pack as many black voters as possible into a district, or telling him to make sure its BVAP hit 75%. Based on such evidence, a court could find that racial rather than political factors predominated in a district’s design, with or without an alternative map. And so too in cases lacking that kind of smoking gun, as long as the evidence offered satisfies the plaintiff ’s burden of proof. In Bush v. Vera, for example, this Court upheld a finding of racial predominance based on “substantial direct evidence of the legislature’s racial motivations”—including credible testimony from political figures and statements made in a §5 preclearance submission—plus circumstantial evidence that redistricters had access to racial, but not political, data at the “block-by-block level” needed to explain their “intricate” designs. See 517 U. S., at 960–963 (plurality opinion). Not a single Member of the Court thought that the absence of a counter-map made any difference. Similarly, it does not matter in this case, where the plaintiffs’ introduction of mostly direct and some circumstantial evidence—documents issued in the redistricting process, testimony of government officials, expert analysis of demographic patterns—gave the District Court a sufficient basis, sans any map, to resolve the race-or-politics question …
North Carolina insists, however, that we have already said to the contrary—more particularly, that our decision in Cromartie II imposed a non-negotiable “alternative-map requirement.”
According to North Carolina, that passage [in Cromartie II] alone settles this case, because it makes an alternative map “essential” to a finding that District 12 (a majority-minority district in which race and partisanship are correlated) was a racial gerrymander. Reply Brief 11. Once again, the dissent says the same.
But the reasoning of Cromartie II belies that reading. The Court’s opinion nowhere attempts to explicate or justify the categorical rule that the State claims to find there. (Certainly, the dissent’s current defense of that rule was nowhere in evidence.) And given the strangeness of that rule—which would treat a mere form of evidence as the very substance of a constitutional claim—we cannot think that the Court adopted it without any explanation. Still more, the entire thrust of the Cromartie II opinion runs counter to an inflexible counter-map requirement. If the Court had adopted that rule, it would have had no need to weigh each piece of evidence in the case and determine whether, taken together, they were “adequate” to show “the predominance of race in the legislature’s line-drawing process.” 532 U. S., at 243–244. But that is exactly what Cromartie II did, over a span of 20 pages and in exhaustive detail. Item by item, the Court discussed and dismantled the supposed proof, both direct and circumstantial, of race-based redistricting. All that careful analysis would have been superfluous—that dogged effort wasted—if the Court viewed the absence or inadequacy of a single form of evidence as necessarily dooming a gerrymandering claim …
In a case like Cromartie II—that is, one in which the plaintiffs had meager direct evidence of a racial gerrymander and needed to rely on evidence of forgone alternatives—only maps of that kind could carry the day. But this case is most unlike Cromartie II, even though it involves the same electoral district some twenty years on. This case turned not on the possibility of creating more optimally constructed districts, but on direct evidence of the General Assembly’s intent in creating the actual District 12, including many hours of trial testimony subject to credibility determinations. That evidence, the District Court plausibly found, itself satisfied the plaintiffs’ burden of debunking North Carolina’s “it was really politics” defense; there was no need for an alternative map to do the same job. And we pay our precedents no respect when we extend them far beyond the circumstances for which they were designed …
Applying a clear error standard, we uphold the District Court’s conclusions that racial considerations predominated in designing both District 1 and District 12. For District 12, that is all we must do, because North Carolina has made no attempt to justify race-based districting there. For District 1, we further uphold the District Court’s decision that §2 of the VRA gave North Carolina no good reason to reshuffle voters because of their race. We accordingly affirm the judgment of the District Court.
It is so ordered. | 12,496 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://open.oregonstate.education/civilrights/chapter/redistricting-race/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:40475 | https://open.oregonstate.education/civilrights/chapter/redistricting-race/ |
9hCQWv58dAkBITy7 | 4.1: Introduction | 4.1: Introduction
Learning Objectives
- Outline indications for insertion of a central venous access device (CVAD)
- Compare and contrast the various types of CVADs and where they are inserted
- Describe the processes of verifying placement and securing a CVAD
- Describe infection control techniques to prevent infections associated with CVADs
- Identify potential complications associated with CVADs, prevention, and related nursing interventions
- Discuss how to safely change CVAD dressings and needleless connectors
- Outline the processes of safely accessing, flushing, and locking CVADs
- Describe blood sampling techniques from CVADs
- Discuss the components of routine documentation related to CVADs
As the complexity of client conditions continues to evolve within health care settings, the safe use and management of central lines are imperative. A central line is a thin, flexible, large-bore tube inserted into a client’s large vein, also referred to as a central venous access device (CVAD) . There are various insertion sites for CVADs (see Figure 4.1 [1] ). CVADs are commonly guided into the superior vena cava so the distal tip is located in the superior vena cava near the junction with the right atrium. Other CVADs are introduced through the femoral vein so the distal tip sits in the inferior vena cava. CVADs differ from short peripheral IV catheters used for intravenous access because they are placed in central circulation due to the distal tip location.
CVADs are used for delivery of medication, fluids, and nutrition and can remain in place long-term. They can also be used for blood draws, hemodynamic monitoring, and transvenous pacing. These lines help ensure consistent vascular access can be easily obtained and utilized by the health care team. This chapter will describe indications for CVADs, explore different types of CVADs, outline related nursing procedures, and discuss nursing management of clients with CVADs.
- “Central-venous-access-sites.png” by unknown author is licensed under CC B-NC-ND. Access for free at www.researchgate.net/figure/Central-venous-access-sites_fig1_334584348 ↵ | 416 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Nursing/Nursing_Advanced_Skills_(OpenRN)/04%3A_Manage_Central_Lines/4.01%3A_Introduction | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:26532 | https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Nursing/Nursing_Advanced_Skills_(OpenRN)/04%3A_Manage_Central_Lines/4.01%3A_Introduction |
housqAVd3MxTVoay | Contemporary Health Issues | 73 Emotional Health and Mental/Emotional Disorders
Defining Mental Illness
We can all be “sad” or “blue” at times in our lives. We have all seen movies about the madman and his crime spree, with the underlying cause of mental illness. We sometimes even make jokes about people being crazy or nuts, even though we know that we shouldn’t. We have all had some exposure to mental illness, but do we really understand it or know what it is? Many of our preconceptions are incorrect. A mental illness can be defined as a health condition that changes a person’s thinking, feelings, or behavior (or all three) and that causes the person distress and difficulty in functioning. As with many diseases, mental illness is severe in some cases and mild in others. Other individuals may show more explicit symptoms such as confusion, agitation, or withdrawal.
There are many different mental illnesses, including depression, schizophrenia, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), autism, and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Each illness alters a person’s thoughts, feelings, and/or behaviors in distinct ways. In this module, we will at times discuss mental illness in general terms and at other times, discuss specific mental illnesses.
Disorders such as epilepsy, Parkinson’s disease, and multiple sclerosis are brain disorders, but they are considered neurological diseases rather than mental illnesses. Interestingly, the lines between mental illnesses and these other brain or neurological disorders is blurring somewhat. As scientists continue to investigate the brains of people who have mental illnesses, they are learning that mental illness is associated with changes in the brain’s structure, chemistry, and function and that mental illness does indeed have a biological basis. This ongoing research is, in some ways, causing scientists to minimize the distinctions between mental illnesses and these other brain disorders.
Optional Learning Activity: Well-being Self Assessment
Complete the Wellbeing Self-Assessment. This tool uses WEMWBS, a scale which is often used by scientists and psychologists to measure wellbeing. To get your wellbeing score, go through the statements and check the box that best describes your thoughts and feelings over the last two weeks.
Neurosis vs. Psychosis
Two generic psychiatric terms for mental states are neurosis and psychosis. Neurosis is a term no longer used medically as a diagnosis for a relatively mild mental or emotional disorder that may involve anxiety or phobias but does not involve losing touch with reality. Psychosis refers to a serious mental disorder in which a person loses contact with reality and experiences hallucinations or delusions.
Psychosis
Disturbances of perception and thought process fall into a broad category of symptoms referred to as psychosis. The threshold for determining whether thought is impaired varies somewhat with the cultural context. Like anxiety, psychotic symptoms may occur in a wide variety of mental disorders. They are most characteristically associated with schizophrenia, but psychotic symptoms can also occur in severe mood disorders. One of the most common groups of symptoms that result from disordered processing and interpretation of sensory information are the hallucinations.
Hallucinations are said to occur when an individual experiences a sensory impression that has no basis in reality. This impression could involve any of the sensory modalities. Thus hallucinations may be auditory, olfactory, gustatory, kinesthetic, tactile, or visual. For example, auditory hallucinations frequently involve the impression that one is hearing a voice. In each case, the sensory impression is falsely experienced as real. A more complex group of symptoms resulting from disordered interpretation of information consists of delusions. A delusion is a false belief that an individual holds despite evidence to the contrary. A common example is paranoia, in which a person has delusional beliefs that others are trying to harm him or her. Attempts to persuade the person that these beliefs are unfounded typically fail and may even result in the further entrenchment of the beliefs. Hallucinations and delusions are among the most commonly observed psychotic symptoms.
Symptoms generally involve the experience of something in consciousness that should not normally be present. For example, hallucinations and delusions represent perceptions or beliefs that should not normally be experienced. In addition to hallucinations and delusions, patients with psychotic disorders such as schizophrenia frequently have marked disturbances in the logical process of their thoughts. Specifically, psychotic thought processes are characteristically loose, disorganized, illogical, or bizarre. These disturbances in thought process frequently produce observable patterns of behavior that are also disorganized and bizarre. The severe disturbances of thought content and process that comprise the positive symptoms often are the most recognizable and striking features of psychotic disorders such as schizophrenia or manic depressive illness.
Mental Illness in the Population
Many people feel that mental illness is rare, something that only happens to people with life situations very different from their own, and that it will never affect them. Studies of the epidemiology of mental illness indicate that this belief is far from accurate. In fact, the surgeon general reports that mental illnesses are so common that few U.S. families are untouched by them.
Mental Illness in Adults
Even if you or a family member has not experienced mental illness directly, it is very likely that you have known someone who has. Estimates are that at least one in four people is affected by mental illness either directly or indirectly.
Consider the following statistics to get an idea of just how widespread the effects of mental illness are in society:
- According to recent estimates, approximately 20 percent of Americans, or about one in five people over the age of 18, suffer from a diagnosable mental disorder in a given year.
- Four of the 10 leading causes of disability—major depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and obsessive-compulsive disorder—are mental illnesses.
- About 3 percent of the population have more than one mental illness at a time.
- About 5 percent of adults are affected so seriously by mental illness that it interferes with their ability to function in society.
- Approximately 20 percent of doctors’ appointments are related to anxiety disorders such as panic attacks. Eight million people have depression each year.
- Two million Americans have schizophrenia disorders, and 300,000 new cases are diagnosed each year.
Warning Signs for Mental Illness
Each mental illness has its own characteristic symptoms. However, there are some general warning signs that might alert you that someone needs professional help. Some of these signs include marked personality change, inability to cope with problems and daily activities, strange or grandiose ideas, excessive anxieties, prolonged depression and apathy, marked changes in eating or sleeping patterns, thinking or talking about suicide or harming oneself, extreme mood swings—high or low, abuse of alcohol or drugs, and excessive anger, hostility, or violent behavior.
A person who shows any of these signs should seek help from a qualified health professional. Diagnosing Mental Illness Mental Health Professionals To be diagnosed with a mental illness, a person must be evaluated by a qualified professional who has expertise in mental health. Mental health professionals include psychiatrists, psychologists, psychiatric nurses, social workers, and mental health counselors. Family doctors, internists, and pediatricians are usually qualified to diagnose common mental disorders such as depression, anxiety disorders, and ADHD. In many cases, depending on the individual and his or her symptoms, a mental health professional who is not a psychiatrist will refer the patient to a psychiatrist. A psychiatrist is a medical doctor (M.D.) who has received additional training in the field of mental health and mental illnesses.
Psychiatrists evaluate the person’s mental condition in coordination with his or her physical condition and can prescribe medication. Only psychiatrists and other M.D.s can prescribe medications to treat mental illness.
Mental Illnesses are Diagnosed by Symptoms
Unlike some disease diagnoses, doctors can’t do a blood test or culture some microorganisms to determine whether a person has a mental illness. Maybe scientists will develop discrete physiological tests for mental illnesses in the future; until then, however, mental health professionals will have to diagnose mental illnesses based on the symptoms that a person has. Basing a diagnosis on symptoms and not on a quantitative medical test, such as a blood chemistry test, a throat swab, X-rays, or urinalysis, is not unusual. Physicians diagnose many diseases, including migraines, Alzheimer’s disease, and Parkinson’s disease based on their symptoms alone. For other diseases, such as asthma or mononucleosis, doctors rely on analyzing symptoms to get a good idea of what the problem is and then use a physiological test to provide additional information or to confirm their diagnosis.
When a mental health professional works with a person who might have a mental illness, he or she will, along with the individual, determine what symptoms the individual has, how long the symptoms have persisted, and how his or her life is being affected. Mental health professionals often gather information through an interview during which they ask the patient about his or her symptoms, the length of time that the symptoms have occurred, and the severity of the symptoms. In many cases, the professional will also get information about the patient from family members to obtain a more comprehensive picture. A physician likely will conduct a physical exam and consult the patient’s history to rule out other health problems. Mental health professionals evaluate symptoms to make a diagnosis of mental illness. They rely on the criteria specified in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV; currently, the fourth edition), published by the American Psychiatric Association, to diagnose a specific mental illness.
For each mental illness, the DSM-IV gives a general description of the disorder and a list of typical symptoms. Mental health professionals refer to the DSM-IV to confirm that the symptoms a patient exhibits match those of a specific mental illness.
The fields of neuroscience, psychiatry, and psychology address different aspects of the relationship between the biology of the brain and individuals’ behaviors, thoughts, and feelings, and how their actions sometimes get out of control. Through this multidisciplinary research, scientists are trying to find the causes of mental illnesses. Once scientists can determine the causes of a mental illness, they can use that knowledge to develop new treatments or to find a cure.
The Biology of Mental Illnesses
Most scientists believe that mental illnesses result from problems with the communication between neurons in the brain (neurotransmission). For example, the level of the neurotransmitter serotonin is lower in individuals who have depression. This finding led to the development of certain medications for the illness. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) work by reducing the amount of serotonin that is taken back into the presynaptic neuron. This leads to an increase in the amount of serotonin available in the synaptic space for binding to the receptor on the postsynaptic neuron. Changes in other neurotransmitters (in addition to serotonin) may occur in depression, thus adding to the complexity of the cause underlying the disease. Scientists believe that there may be disruptions in the neurotransmitters dopamine, glutamate, and norepinephrine in individuals who have schizophrenia. One indication that dopamine might be an important neurotransmitter in schizophrenia comes from the observation that cocaine addicts sometimes show symptoms similar to schizophrenia. Cocaine acts on dopamine-containing neurons in the brain to increase the amount of dopamine in the synapse.
Risk Factors for Mental Illnesses
Although scientists at this time do not know the causes of mental illnesses, they have identified factors that put individuals at risk. Some of these factors are environmental, some are genetic, and some are social. In fact, all these factors most likely combine to influence whether someone becomes mentally ill. Environmental factors such as head injury, poor nutrition, and exposure to toxins (including lead and tobacco smoke) can increase the likelihood of developing a mental illness. Scientists understand that mental illnesses are associated with changes in neurochemicals. For example, in people who have depression, less of the neurotransmitter serotonin (small circles) is released into the synaptic space than in people who do not have depression. Certain medications called selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) relieve symptoms of depression by causing an increase in the amount of serotonin in the synaptic space. Social factors also present risks and can harm an individual’s, especially a child’s, mental health. Social factors include severe parental discord, death of a family member or close friend, parent’s mental illness, parent’s criminality, overcrowding, economic hardship, abuse, neglect, and exposure to violence.
Treating Mental Illnesses
At this time, most mental illnesses cannot be cured, but they can usually be treated effectively to minimize the symptoms and allow the individual to function in work, school, or social environments. To begin treatment, an individual needs to see a qualified mental health professional. The first thing that the doctor or other mental health professional will do is speak with the individual to find out more about his or her symptoms, how long the symptoms have lasted, and how the person’s life is being affected. The physician will also do a physical examination to determine whether there are other health problems. For example, some symptoms (such as emotional swings) can be caused by neurological or hormonal problems associated with chronic illnesses such as heart disease, or they can be a side effect of certain medications. After the individual’s overall health is evaluated and the condition diagnosed, the doctor will develop a treatment plan. Treatment can involve both medications and psychotherapy, depending on the disease and its severity.
Medications
Medications are often used to treat mental illnesses. Through television commercials and magazine advertisements, we are becoming more aware of those medications. To become fully effective, medications for treating mental illness must be taken for a few days or a few weeks. When a patient begins taking medication, it is important for a doctor to monitor the patient’s health. If the medication causes undesirable side effects, the doctor may change the dose or switch to a different medication that produces fewer side effects. If the medication does not relieve the symptoms, the doctor may prescribe a different medication. It is important to remember that all medications have both positive and negative effects. For example, antibiotics have revolutionized treatment for some bacterial diseases. However, antibiotics often affect beneficial bacteria in the human body, leading to side effects such as nausea and diarrhea.
Psychiatric drugs, like other medications, can alleviate symptoms of mental illness but can also produce unwanted side effects. People who take a medication to treat an illness, whether it is a mental illness or another disease, should work with their doctors to understand what medication they are taking, why they are taking it, how to take it, and what side effects to watch for. Occasionally, the media reports stories in which the side effects of a psychiatric medication are tied to a potentially serious consequence, such as suicide. In these cases, it is usually very difficult to determine how much suicidal behavior was due to the mental disorder and what the role of the medication might have been. Medications for treating mental illness can, like other medications, have side effects. The psychiatrist or physician can usually adjust the dose or change the medication to alleviate side effects.
Psychotherapy
Psychotherapy is a treatment method in which a mental health professional (psychiatrist, psychologist, or other mental health professional) and the patient discuss problems and feelings. This discussion helps patients understand the basis of their problems and find solutions. Psychotherapy may take different forms. The therapy can help patients change thought or behavior patterns, understand how past experiences influence current behaviors, solve other problems in specific ways, or learn illness self-management skills.
Psychotherapy may occur between a therapist and an individual; a therapist and an individual and his or her family members; or a therapist and a group. Often, treatment for mental illness is most successful when psychotherapy is used in combination with medications. Just as there are no medications that can instantly cure mental illnesses, psychotherapy is not a one-time event. The amount of time a person spends in psychotherapy can range from a few visits to a few years, depending on the nature of the illness or problem. In general, the more severe the problem, the more lengthy the psychotherapy should be.
Impact of Mental Illness
The high incidence of mental illness has a great impact on society. Treatment, including psychotherapy and medication management, is cost-effective for patients, their families, and society. The benefits include fewer visits to other doctors’ offices, diagnostic laboratories, and hospitals for physical ailments that are based in psychological distress; reduced need for psychiatric hospitalization; fewer sick days and disability claims; and increased job stability. Conversely, the costs of not treating mental disorders can be seen in ruined relationships, job loss or poor job performance, personal anguish, substance abuse, unnecessary medical procedures, psychiatric hospitalization, and suicide. Major mental disorders cost the nation at least $193 billion annually in lost earnings alone, according to a 2008 study funded by the National Institutes of Health’s National Institute of Mental Health.
Mental Health and Disabilities
The treatment received by those defined as mentally ill or disabled varies greatly from country to country. In post-millennial America, those of us who have never experienced such a disadvantage take for granted the rights our society guarantees for each citizen. We do not think about the relatively recent nature of the protections, unless, of course, we know someone constantly inconvenienced by the lack of accommodations or misfortune of suddenly experiencing a temporary disability.
Mental Health
People with mental disorders (a condition that makes it more difficult to cope with everyday life) and people with mental illness (a severe, lasting mental disorder that requires long term treatment) experience a wide range of effects.According to the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), the most common mental disorders in the United States are anxiety disorders. Almost 18 percent of American adults are likely to be affected in a single year, and 28 percent are likely to be affected over the course of a lifetime (National Institute of Mental Health 2005). It is important to distinguish between occasional feelings of anxiety and a true anxiety disorder. Anxiety is a normal reaction to stress that we all feel at some point, but anxiety disorders are feelings of worry and fearfulness that last for months at a time. Anxiety disorders include obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD), panic disorders, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and both social and specific phobias. The second most common mental disorders in the United States are mood disorders; roughly 10 percent of American adults are likely to be affected yearly, while 21 percent are likely to be affected over the course of a lifetime (National Institute of Mental Health 2005).
Major mood disorders are depression, bipolar disorder, and dysthymic disorder. Like anxiety, depression might seem like something that everyone experiences at some point, and it is true that most people feel sad or “blue” at times in their lives. A true depressive episode, however, is more than just feeling sad for a short period. It is a long-term, debilitating illness that usually needs treatment to cure. And bipolar disorder is characterized by dramatic shifts in energy and mood, often affecting the individual’s ability to carry out day-to-day tasks. Bipolar disorder used to be called manic depression because of the way that people would swing between manic and depressive episodes.
Depending on what definition is used, there is some overlap between mood disorders and personality disorders, which affect nine percent of Americans yearly. The American Psychological Association publishes the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual on Mental Disorders (DSM), and their definition of personality disorders is changing in the fifth edition, which is being revised in 2011 and 2012. In the DSM-IV, personality disorders represent “an enduring pattern of inner experience and behavior that deviates markedly from the expectations of the culture of the individual who exhibits it” (National Institute of Mental Health). In other words, personality disorders cause people to behave in ways that are seen as abnormal to society but seem normal to them. The DSM-V proposes broadening this definition by offering five broad personality trait domains to describe personality disorders, some related to the level or type of their disconnect with society. As their application evolves, we will see how their definitions help scholars across disciplines understand the intersection of health issues and how they are defined by social institutions and cultural norms.
ADHD
Another fairly commonly diagnosed mental disorder is Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), which statistics suggest affects nine percent of children and eight percent of adults on a lifetime basis (National Institute of Mental Health 2005). ADHD is one of the most common childhood disorders, and it is marked by difficulty paying attention, difficulty controlling behavior, and hyperactivity. According to the American Psychological Association (APA), ADHD responds positively to stimulant drugs like Ritalin, which helps people stay focused. However, there is some social debate over whether such drugs are being overprescribed (American Psychological Association). In fact, some critics question whether this disorder is really as widespread as it seems, or if it is a case of overdiagnosis. Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) have gained a lot of attention in recent years. The term ASD encompasses a group of developmental brain disorders that are characterized by “deficits in social interaction, verbal and nonverbal communication, and engagement in repetitive behaviors or interests” (National Institute of Mental Health).
Optional Learning Activity
Is ADHD a valid diagnosis and disease? Some think it is not. This article discusses this history of the issue.
Disability
The Americans with Disabilities Act requires that access be provided to everyone. Disability refers to a reduction in one’s ability to perform everyday tasks. The World Health Organization makes a distinction between the various terms used to describe handicaps that’s important to the sociological perspective. They use the term impairment to describe the physical limitations, while reserving the term disability to refer to the social limitation.
Before the passage of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) in 1990, Americans with disabilities were often excluded from opportunities and social institutions many of us take for granted. This occurred not only through employment and other kinds of discrimination, but through casual acceptance by most Americans of a world designed for the convenience of the able-bodied. Imagine being in a wheelchair and trying to use a sidewalk without the benefit of wheelchair accessible curbs. Imagine as a blind person trying to access information without the widespread availability of Braille. Imagine having limited motor control and being faced with a difficult-to-grasp round door handle. Issues like these are what the ADA tries to address. Ramps on sidewalks, Braille instructions, and more accessible door levers are all accommodations to help people with disabilities.
People with disabilities can be stigmatized by their illness. Stigmatization means that their identity is spoiled; they are labeled as different, discriminated against, and sometimes even shunned. They are labeled and ascribed a master status, becoming “the blind girl” or “the boy in the wheelchair” instead of someone afforded a full identity by society. This can be especially true for people who are disabled due to mental illness or disorders. As discussed in the section on mental health, many mental health disorders can be debilitating, affecting a person’s ability to cope with everyday life. This can affect social status, housing, and especially employment. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (2011), people with a disability had a higher rate of unemployment than people without a disability in 2010: 14.8 percent to 9.4 percent. This unemployment rate refers only to people actively looking for a job. In fact, eight out of 10 people with a disability are considered “out of the labor force;” that is, they do not have jobs and are not looking for them. The combination of this population and the high unemployment rate leads to an employment-population ratio of 18.6 percent among those with disabilities. The employment-population ratio for people without disabilities was much higher, at 63.5 percent (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics 2011).
Learning Activity
What are the most commonly diagnosed mental disorders in the United States?
- ADHD
- Mood disorders
- Autism spectrum disorders
- Anxiety disorders
Show Answer
Anxiety disorders are the most commonly diagnosed disorders in the United States
Show Sources
Sources
Defining Mental Illness: Dedicated to Public Domain 2012, National Institutes of Health
Neurosis vs. Psychosis: NIH, http://science-education.nih.gov/supplements/nih5/Mental/other/glossary.htm
Psychosis: http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/library/mentalhealth/chapter2/sec2.html#manifest
Mental Illness in the Population: NIH, http://science-education.nih.gov/supplements/nih5/Mental/guide/info-mental-a.htm
Mental Health and Disabilities: OpenStax College. 2012. Health in the United States. Connexions, May 18, 2012. http://cnx.org/content/m42931/1.2/ | 5,276 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://library.achievingthedream.org/herkimerhealth/chapter/emotional-health-and-mentalemotional-disorders/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:76799 | https://library.achievingthedream.org/herkimerhealth/chapter/emotional-health-and-mentalemotional-disorders/ |
L68Bwd0dCzTd-eGl | Biomechanics of Human Movement | 2 1.1 Understanding Equations and Basic Math
Mathematics can sometimes feel like a different language. With enough practice, you can become fluent in the language of numbers. Let’s review the concept of ‘equation’. An equation says that two ‘things’ are equal with the use of an equal sign ‘=’. For example:
x + 2 = 6
That equation says: what is on the left (x+2) is equal to what is on the right (6) of the equal sign. This can be a powerful tool as we aim to understand human movement with data (numbers) collected. The equations may get a bit more complicated but the rules remain the same.
A formula is a ‘rule’ that use mathematical symbols. It usually consists of an equal sign and two or more variables. For example. the formula for force (as you will see later in the course) is:
F = ma
This can be stated as: the force acting on an object is equal to the mass of the object multiplied by the acceleration of the object. It can be convenient with formulas to have basic algebra skills. In algebra, the goal is to get the letter or symbol (also called the unknown) on one side of the equation (usually the left) and the numbers on the other side.
The golden rule of algebra is: anything you do on one side of the equation, you must do on the other side. For example, if you want to add 10 from one side of the equation, you must add 10 from the other.
In cases where the variable shows up twice in the equation, you should try to get all of the variables on one side of the equation and all of the numbers on the other:
x + 23 = 3x +45
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1. Initial Equation / Problem |
x + 23 |
= |
3x + 45 |
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2. Subtract x from each side |
x – x + 23 |
= |
3x – x + 45 |
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Result |
23 |
= |
2x + 45 |
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3. Subtract 45 from each side |
23 – 45 |
= |
2x + 45 – 45 |
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Result |
-22 |
= |
2x |
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4. Divide both sides by 2 |
-22 |
= |
2x |
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Result |
x |
= |
-11 |
To become proficient in algebra, you should practice.
A note on the symbols used in this textbook
You’ll notice that we used letters to symbolize a variable. For example, the value for ‘force’ will feature as ‘F’ in an equation. Although some symbols are universal (‘m’ for mass and ‘a’ for acceleration), some are not. Physics, engineering and biomechanics may use different symbols for the same thing (both p and L can be used for momentum). Sometimes, the same symbol can have different meanings in the same field. For example, a capital W can be used for both ‘weight’ and ‘work’. You’ll have to take great care in understanding the meaning of each variable based on the context they are presented in.
A symbol can have up to four parts: the main variable, a leading superscript, a following superscript and a following subscript:
xp’1
The main variable (p in the example above) represents the variable you are quantifying. The leading superscript (x) let’s the reader know the frame of reference. X represents the horizontal axis and y the vertical axis. We’ll discuss this in detail later in the book. The following superscript is important if you are keeping track of the variable over time. Time zero does not have a superscript, time at point 1 has a single prime, time at point 2 has a double prime and so on… The following subscript is important if you are quantifying the variable for more than one body. If you have two runners and you are reporting both their momentum, person 1 would have a moment p1 and person 2, p2. | 886 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/humanbiomechanics/chapter/understanding-equations-and-basic-math/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:59718 | https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/humanbiomechanics/chapter/understanding-equations-and-basic-math/ |
Tw0jtYwvnd77FiXH | Literature Reviews for Education and Nursing Graduate Students | Chapter 4: Where to Find the Literature
Learning Objectives
At the conclusion of this chapter, you will be able to:
- Search a library catalog to locate electronic and print books.
- Search databases to find scholarly articles, dissertations, and conference proceedings.
- Retrieve a copy or the full text of information sources
- Identify and locate core resources in your discipline or topic area
4.1 Overview of discovery
Discovery, or background research, is something that happens at the beginning of the research process when you are just learning about a topic. It is a search for general information to get the big picture of a topic for exploration, ideas about subtopics and context for the actual focused research you will do later. It is also a time to build a list of distinctive, broad, narrow, and related search terms.
Discovery happens again when you are ready to focus in on your research question and begin your own literature review. There are two crucial elements to discovering the literature for your review with the least amount of stress as possible: the places you look and the words you use in your search.
The places you look depend on:
- The stage you are in your research
- The disciplines represented in your research question
- The importance of currency in your research topic
Review the information and publication cycles discussed in Chapter 2 to put those sources of this information in context.
The words you use will help you locate existing literature on your topic, as well as topics that may be closely related to yours. There are two categories for these words:
- Keywords – the natural language terms we think of when we discuss and read about a topic
- Subject terms – the assigned vocabulary for a catalog or database
The words you use during both the initial and next stage of discovery should be recorded in some way throughout the literature search process. Additional terms will come to light as you read and as your question becomes more specific. You will want to keep track of those words and terms, as they will be useful in repeating your searches in additional databases, catalogs, and other repositories. Later in this chapter, we will discuss how putting the two elements (the places we look and the words we use) together can be enhanced by the use of Boolean operators and discipline-specific thesauri.
Discovery is an iterative process. There is not a straight, bright line from beginning to end. You will go back into the literature throughout the writing of your literature review as you uncover gaps in the evidence and as additional questions arise.
4.2 Finding sources: Places to look
Let’s take some time to look at where the information sources you need for your literature review are located, indexed, and stored. At this stage, you have a general idea of your research area and have done some background searching to learn the scope and the context of your topic. You have begun collecting keywords to use in your later searching. Now, as you focus in on your literature review topic, you will take your searches to the databases and other repositories to see what the other researchers and scholars are saying about the topic.
The following resources are ordered from the more general and established information to the more recent and specific. Although it is possible to find some of these resources by searching the open web, using a search engine like Google or Google Scholar, this is not the most efficient or effective way to search for and discover research material. As a result, most of the resources described in this section are found from within academic library catalogs and databases, rather than internet search engines.
4.2.1 Finding books and ebooks
<IP_ADDRESS> Books
Look to books for broad and general information that is useful for background research. Books are “essential guides to understanding theory and for helping you to validate the need for your study, confirm your choice of literature, and certify (or contradict) its findings.” (Fink, 4th ed., 2014, p. 77). In this section, we will consider print and electronic books as well as print and electronic encyclopedias.
Most academic libraries use the Library of Congress classification system to organize their books and other resources. The Library of Congress classification system divides a library’s collection into 21 classes or categories. A specific letter of the alphabet is assigned to each class. More detailed divisions are accomplished with two and three letter combinations. Book shelves in most academic libraries are marked with a Library of Congress letter-number combination to correspond to the Library of Congress letter-number combination on the spines of library materials. This is often referred to as a call number and it is noted in the catalog record of every physical item on the library shelves. (Bennard et al, 2014a)
The Library of Congress (LC) classification for Education (General) is L7-991, with LA, LB, LC, LD, LE, LG, LH, LJ, and LT subclasses. For example,
LB3012.2.L36 1995
Beyond the Schoolhouse Gate: Free Speech and the Inculcation of Values
In Nursing, the LC subject range is RT1-120. A book with this LC call number might look like: R121.S8 1990 Stedman’s Medical Dictionary. Areas related to nursing that are outside that range include:
R121 Medical dictionaries
R726.8 Hospice care
R858-859.7 Medical informatics
RB37 Diagnostic and laboratory tests
RB115 Nomenclature (procedural coding – CPT, ICD9)
RC69-71 Diagnosis
RC86.7 Emergency medicine
RC266 Oncology nursing
RC952-954.6 Geriatrics
RD93-98 Wound care
RD753 Orthopedic nursing
RG951 Maternal child nursing / Obstetrical nursing
RJ245 Pediatric nursing
RM216 Nutrition and diet therapy
RM301.12 Drug guides
In most libraries, there is a collection of reference material kept in a specific section. These books, consisting of encyclopedias, dictionaries, thesauri, handbooks, atlases, and other material contain useful background or overview information about topics. Ask the librarian for help in finding an appropriate reference book. Although reference material can only be used in the library, other print books will likely be in what’s called the “circulating collection,” meaning they are available to check out.
<IP_ADDRESS> Ebooks
The library also provides access to electronic reference material. Some are subject specific and others are general reference sources. Although each resource will have a different “look” just as different print encyclopedias and dictionaries look different, each should have a search box. Most will have a table of contents for navigation within the work. Content includes pages of text in books and encyclopedias and occasionally, videos. In all cases you will be able to collect background information and search terms to use later.
North American academic libraries buy or subscribe to individual ebook titles as well as collections of ebooks. Ebooks appear on various publisher and platforms, such as Springer, Cambridge, ebrary (ProQuest), EBSCO, and Safari to name a few. Although access to these ebooks varies by platform, you can find the ebook titles your library has access to through the library catalog. You can generally read the entire book online, and you can often download single chapters or a limited number of pages. You may be able to download an entire ebook without restrictions, or you may have to ‘check it out’ for a limited period of time. Some downloads will be in PDF format, others use another type of free ebook viewing software, like ePUB. Unlike public library ebook collections, most academic library ebooks are not be downloadable to ereader devices, such as Amazon’s Kindle
<IP_ADDRESS> The Library Catalog
In general, everything owned or licensed by a library is indexed in “the library catalog”. Although most library catalogs are now sophisticated electronic products called ‘integrated library systems’, they began as wooden card filing cabinets where researchers could look for books by author, title, or subject.
While the look and feel of current integrated library systems vary between libraries, they operate in similar ways. Most library catalogs are quickly found from a library’s home page or website. The library catalog is the quickest way to find books and ebooks on your topic.
Here are some general tips for locating books in a library catalog:
- Use the search box generally found on a library’s home page to start a search.
- Type a book title, author name, or subject keywords into the search box.
- You will be directed to a results page.
- If you click on a book title or see an option to see more details about the book, you can look at its full bibliographic record, which provides more information about the book, as well as where to find the book. Pay particular attention to subjects associated with the item, adding relevant and appropriate terms to your list of search terms for future use.
- If you want to have more control over search results, you can try an “Advanced Search” within the library catalog
- Look for an “Advanced Search” option near the basic or single search box
- The options within the advanced catalog search window allow you to limit searches by:
- Publication Year
- Subject
- Call number
- And more…
- There is generally a “Format” list on the advanced search page screen. This list will give you options for limiting format to Print Books or Ebooks.
- You can limit searches to a specific library or libraries to narrow by location or ‘search everything’ to broaden your search.
OCLC WorldCat (https://www.worldcat.org/) is the world’s largest network of library content and it provides another way to search for books and ebooks. For students who do not have immediate access to an academic library catalog, WorldCat is a way to search many library catalogs at once for an item and then locate a library near you that may own or subscribe to it. Whether you will be able check the item out, request it, place an interlibrary loan request for it, or have it shipped will depend on local library policy. Note that like your own library catalog, WorldCat has a single search box, an Advanced search feature, and a way to limit by format and location.
4.2.2 Finding scholarly articles
While books and ebooks provide good background information on your topic, the main body of the literature in your research area will be found in academic journals. Scholarly journals are the main forum for research publication. Unlike books and professional magazines that may comment or summarize research findings, articles in scholarly journals are written by a researcher or research team. These authors will report in detail original study findings, and will include the data used. Articles in academic journals also go through a screening or peer-review process before publication,implying a higher level of quality and reliability. For the most current, authoritative information on a topic, scholars and researchers look to the published, scholarly literature. That said,
Journals, and the articles they contain, are often quite expensive. Libraries spend a large part of their collection budget subscribing to journals in both print and online formats. You may have noticed that a Google Scholar search will provide the citation to a journal article but will not link to the full text. This happens because Google does not subscribe to journals. It only searches and retrieves freely available web content. However, libraries do subscribe to journals and have entered into agreements to share their journal and book collections with other libraries. If you are affiliated with a library as a student, staff, or faculty member, you have access to many other libraries’ resources, through a service called interlibrary loan. Do not pay the large sums required to purchase access to articles unless you do not have another way to obtain the material, and you are unable to find a substitute resource that provides the information you need. (Bennard et al, 2014a)
<IP_ADDRESS> Databases
A database is an electronic system for organizing information. Journal databases are where the scholarly articles are organized and indexed for searching. Anyone with an internet connection has free access to public databases such as PubMed and ERIC. Students can also search in library-subscribed general information databases (such as EBSCO’s Academic Search Premier) or a specialized or subject specific database (for example, a ProQuest version of CINAHL for Nursing or ERIC for Education).
Library databases store and display different types of information sets than a library catalog or Google Scholar. There are different types of databases that include:
- Indexes– with citations only
- Abstract databases – with citations and abstracts only
- Full text databases – with citations and the full text of articles, reports, and other materials
Library databases are often connected to each other by means of a “link resolver”, allowing different databases to “talk to each other.” For example, if you are searching an index database and discover an article you want to read in its entirety, you can click on a link resolver that takes you to another database where the full-text of the article is held. If the full-text is not available, an automated form to request the item from another library may be an option.
Why search a database instead of Google Scholar or your library catalog? Both can lead you to good articles BUT:
- The content is wide-ranging but not comprehensive or as current as a database that may be updated daily.
- Google Scholar doesn’t disclose its criteria for what makes the results “scholarly’ and search results often vary in quality and availability.
- Neither gives you as much control over your search as you get in a database.
<IP_ADDRESS> Citation searches
Another way to find additional books and articles on your topic is to mine the reference lists of books and articles you already found. By tracing literature cited in published titles, you not only add to your understanding of the scholarly conversation about your research topic but also enrich your own literature search.
A citation is a reference to an item that gives enough information for you to identify it and find it again if necessary. You can use the citations in the material you found to lead you to other resources. Generally, citations include four elements:
- Author
- Title
- Source
- Date
For example,
For a good summary of how to read a citation for a book, book chapter, and journal article in both APA and MLA format, see this explanation at: https://www.slideshare.net/opensunytextbooks/gathering-components-of-a-citation
4.2.3 Finding conference papers
Conference papers are often overlooked because they can be difficult to locate in full-text. Sometimes the papers from an annual proceeding are treated like an individual book, or a single special issue of a journal. Sometimes the papers from a conference are not published and must be requested from the original author. Despite publication inconsistency, conference papers may be the first place a scholar presents important findings and, as such, are relevant to your own research. Places to look for conference papers:
<IP_ADDRESS> WorldCat
- use keywords from the conference name (NOT the article title)
- it often helps to leave out terms like: conference, proceedings, transactions, congresses, symposia/symposium, exposition, workshop or meeting
- include the year of the conference
- include the city in which the conference took place
<IP_ADDRESS> Google Scholar
- Search by keyword and add the word ‘conference’ and the year to your search, for example: ‘conference education 2008′
<IP_ADDRESS> Databases
- For Education: ERIC, limit to ‘Collected Works–Proceedings’ or ‘Speeches/Meeting papers’
- For Nursing: CINAHL, limit to proceedings in the “Publication Type” box
- For Education: Education Full Text, limit to ‘proceeding’ in the “Document Type” box
- PsychInfo: limit to ‘Conference Proceedings’ in the “Record Type” Box
- Web of Science: limit to ‘conference’
<IP_ADDRESS> Professional Societies & Other Sponsoring Organizations
Check the web sites of the organizations that sponsor conferences. Listings of conference proceedings are often under a “Publications” or “Meetings” tab/link. The National Library of Medicine maintains a conference proceedings subject guide for health-related national and international conferences. Though many papers/proceedings are not available for free, the organization web site will often contain citations of proceedings that you can request through interlibrary loan.
4.2.4 Finding dissertations
In addition to journal articles, original research is also published in books, reports, conference proceedings, theses and dissertations. Both theses and dissertations are very detailed and comprehensive accounts of research work. Dissertations and theses are a primary source of original research and include “referencing, both in text and in the reference list, so that, in principle, any reference to the literature may be easily traced and followed up.” (Wallace & Wray, p. 187). Citation searching of the reference list or bibliography in a dissertation is another method for discovering the relevant literature for your own research area. Like conference papers, they are more difficult to locate and retrieve than books and articles. Some may be available electronically in full-text at no cost. Others may only be available to the affiliates of the university or college where a degree was granted. Others are behind paywalls and can only be accessed after purchasing. Both CINAHL and ERIC index dissertations. Individual universities and institutional repositories often list dissertations held locally. Other places to look for theses and dissertations include:
Dissertations Express – search for dissertations from around the world. Search by subject or keyword, results include author, title, date, and where the degree was granted. Some are available in full-text at no cost, however most requirement payment.
EThOS – the national thesis service for the United Kingdom, managed by the British Library. It is a national aggregated record of all doctoral theses awarded by UK Higher Education institutions, providing free access to the full text of many theses for use by all researchers to further their own study.
Theses Canada – a collaborative program between Library and Archives Canada (LAC) and nearly 70 accredited Canadian universities. The collection contains both microfiche and electronic theses and dissertations that are for personal or academic research purposes.
4.3 Advanced searching
Now that you have an idea of some of the places to look for information on your research topic and the form that information takes (books, ebooks, journals, conference papers, and dissertations), it’s time to consider not only how to use the specialized resources for your discipline but how to get the most out of those resources. To do a graduate-level literature review and find everything published on your topic, advanced search and retrieval skills are needed.
4.3.1 Search Operators
Literature review research often necessitates the use of Boolean operators to combine keywords. The operators – AND, OR, and NOT — are powerful tools for searching in a database or search engine. By using a combination of terms and one or more Boolean operator, you can focus your search and narrow your search results to a more specific area than a basic keyword search allows.
Boolean operators – allow you to combine your search terms using the keywords AND, OR and NOT. Look at the diagrams in Figure 4.6 to see how these terms will affect your results.
Truncation – If you use truncation (or wildcards), your search results will contain documents including variations of that term.
For example: light* will retrieve, of course, light, but also terms like: lighting, lightning, lighters and lights. Note that the truncation symbol varies depending on where you search. The most common truncation symbols are the asterisk (*) and question mark (?).
Phrase searching – Phrase searching is used to make sure your search retrieves a specific concept. For example “durable wood products” will retrieve more relevant documents than the same terms without quotation marks.
For a description of these more advanced search features, watch this short video tutorial on effective search strategies. (Clark, 2016).
4.3.2 Finding sources in your discipline or topic area
It’s time to put these tips and your search skills to use. This is the point, if you have not done so already, to talk to a librarian. The librarian will direct you to the resources you need, including research databases to which the library subscribes, for your discipline or subject area. Literature reviews rely heavily on data from online databases, such as CINAHL for Nursing and ERIC for Education. Unfortunately, the costs to subscribe to vendor-provided products is high. Students affiliated with large university libraries that can afford to subscribe to these products will have access to many databases, while those who do not have fewer options.
Students who do not have access to subscription databases such as CINAHL or ERIC through Ebsco and ProQuest should use PubMed for Nursing at https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ and the public version of ERIC at https://eric.ed.gov/ for literature review research.
Although a librarian is the best resource for learning how to use a specific tool, an online tutorial on how to search PubMed may be useful and informative for those who do not have access to a librarian or a subscription database: Likewise, this document, titled “How does the ERIC search work,” provided by the Institute of Education Sciences provides some helpful tips for searching the public version ERIC.
4.3.3 Specialized vocabulary
One major source of search terms in a database is a specialized dictionary, or thesaurus, used to index journal articles. Thesauri provide a consistent and standardized way to retrieve information, especially when different terms are used for the same concept. According to Fink (2014), “evidence exists that using thesaurus terms produces more of the available citations than does reliance on key words…Using the appropriate subject heading will enable the reviewer to find all citations regardless of how the author uses the term.” (p. 24).
In Education and Nursing, thesauri are available. In subscription databases, as well as in PubMed and the public version of ERIC, look for the thesaurus to guide you to appropriate and relevant subject terms.
4.3.4 Citation Searching
Citation searching works best when you already have a relevant work that is on topic. From the document you identified as useful for your own literature review, you can either search citations forward or backward to gather additional resources. Cited reference searching and reference or bibliography mining are advanced search techniques that may also help generate new ideas as well as additional keywords and subject areas.
For cited reference searching, use Google Scholar or library databases such as Web of Science or Scopus. These tools trace citations forward to link to newly published books, journal articles, book chapters, and reports that were written after the document you found. Through cited reference searching, you may also locate works that have been cited numerous times, indicating what may be a seminal work in your field.
With citation mining, you will look at the references or works cited list in the resource you located to identify other relevant works. In this type of search, you will be tracing citations backward to find significant books, journal articles, book chapters, and reports that were written before the document you found. For a brief discussion about citation searching, check out this article by Hammond & Brown (2008).
Practice
The two most important finding tools you will use are a library catalog and databases. Looking for information in catalogs and databases takes practice.
Get started by setting aside some dedicated time to become familiar with the process:
- Practice by locating one reference book and one ebook in your library catalog or WorldCat
- Practice searching in freely available databases such as PubMed or ERIC
- Talk to a librarian about using a subject specific subscription database like Ebsco’s CINAHL or ProQuest’s ERIC. Be sure to explore the various bells and whistles that the database provides to improve the precision of your search
- Try some of the limiters to see what each does to your search results
- Once you find an article, what do you need to do to get it in full-text?
- Find out how to use interlibrary loan or document delivery.
Next, complete this exercise:
- Browse through a popular or scientific publication such as the science section of the New York Times or Scientific American. Find a short article that looks interesting and is easy to understand.
- Look for the following:
- an article that reports on a recent study published in a scholarly journal;
- the title of the journal;
- the name of the author(s); and
- an indication of when the original study appeared. Note: sometimes the source will say that the research was published in a latest issue of Science or Nature.
- Once you find some of these facts (journal title and the authors should be sufficient), you can start to search for the primary source in a library catalog or the library’s databases.
- Catalog search: find out if your school subscribes to a particular journal by searching for the journal by title.
- Best case scenario: the library subscribes to the journal.. The next step is to figure out the available format(s). You might have several options:
- Electronic subscription—great! It means you can access the journal right away. Once you get to the online (or electronic) version of the journal, you are given a choice of searching within this publication. An author search should be sufficient to locate the article.
- Print subscription version—good! You can search in databases or a discovery service tool for your article by entering the journal title and the authors. Once you locate a record about the article, which will include volume and issue number, page numbers, the article title, you can go to the shelves where you will find the issue of the journal that includes your article.
- Microform version—still good! Again, after searching databases and locating the exact information about the article, you should be able to locate the appropriate microfilm reel or microfiche. Before the widespread and easy access to online versions of materials, microforms were used to save space by preserving documents on film. Libraries are equipped with microform readers—if you need help using a reader, ask the library staff. (Bennard et al, 2014b)
Test Yourself
Get an article
- Access PubMed or ERIC
- Do a subject search, using the thesaurus (for ERIC) or MeSH terms (for PubMed)
- Do a keyword search
- Supplement your subject search with keywords, using advanced search tools like Boolean operators, truncation, or phrase searching
- Limit your search by language, date of publication or PICO factor
- Access the full text of an article you find.
- If full text is not available, find out how to request the article through interlibrary loan
In your general topic area, do you know:
- The core source materials?
- The most significant theories?
- The major issues and debates surrounding your topic area?
- The key political, social, economic, legal, environmental, and/or technological aspects of your topic?
- The origins of your topic?
- The definitions for your topic?
- How knowledge in your topic area is organized?
- What problems or solutions have been addressed to date?
- If you don’t know the answers to these questions, do you know how to find the answers? | 5,859 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/literaturereviewsedunursing/chapter/chapter-4-evaluating-sources/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:19804 | https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/literaturereviewsedunursing/chapter/chapter-4-evaluating-sources/ |
RVd0EvpQHdflBrDJ | A Guide to Writing | Chapter
Questions to Consider
- What are the steps to learning something new?
- How is the brain affected by learning?
- What kinds of learning are expected in college?
Have you ever thought about how we learn something new? Think back on a skill you have learned. Did you start with an interest in the topic or skill? Then, did you start practicing the skill or deepening your understanding of the topic? Perhaps you received feedback using the skill or sharing your knowledge and then you worked on refining that skill or understanding. If you participated in that process, then you did what Rita Smilkstein (2011) calls “The Natural Learning Process.”1 Here are the steps that she says we go through any time we learn:
- motivation;
- beginning practice;
- advanced practice to build a foundation upon which control, creativity, and critical and abstract thinking can be applied;
- skillfulness;
- refinement; and
- mastery.
Another way to look at learning is through the biological lens. When we go through the learning process outlined above, our brains actually change. This is called neuroplasticity, or the brain’s ability to form or reorganize neural pathways in reaction to the learning process. This means that when you learn something new, and especially if you practice it and fail at getting it right the first time, your brain is changing. When you get better at a skill such as throwing a curve ball or learning how to solve for X, your brain is actually reorganizing itself so that you can perform those tasks more quickly.
So what does this have to do with reading and note-taking? Your learning process has to begin somewhere before you can claim mastery of a concept. Too many students try to move quickly through reading or take only partial notes because they think that just by scanning a text or listening to a lecture and jotting down a few key ideas, they have adequately learned something. True, your brain is changing during those initial processes, but it will take much more practice (also known as studying) to help you recall that information at a later date. Moreover, your goal in college classes is not just to remember the information for a test, but it is to build on that foundational knowledge to learn different levels of thinking, which we will talk about in the next section.
Bloom’s Taxonomy
One aspect of learning in college is that different professors and different courses expect different types of learning from you. Figuring out how you need to learn the material and how you will be tested on it is part of learning the (sometimes) hidden curriculum.
If you want some insight into the types of learning you will do in college, you will want to get to know the work of Dr. Benjamin Bloom, an educational psychologist best known for his classification of different levels of learning, and the concept called Bloom’s Taxonomy2. See Figure 3.2 for a list of the levels as well as verbs that demonstrate what you would do at each level. The bottom two levels, Remember and Understand, are called “lower levels” of Bloom’s because they often take less effort than the others, and they are seen as foundational to the learning process.
The remaining levels are considered “higher levels” of Bloom’s because they often require you not only understand the information, but also do something with it: apply it to a new situation, analyze its components, evaluate its strengths and weaknesses, or create something new from your knowledge. Not all of your learning in college and the workplace will be at the higher levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy, but as you gain more knowledge and develop more sophisticated academic and workplace skills, you will move beyond merely remembering information.
Let’s break down the different levels so you have a better understanding of them. The first and lowest level is “Remember.” At this level, you are attempting to recall information, such as definitions of terms or steps in a process. You don’t have to really understand (that will come next) the concepts at this level. For example, you may be able to memorize the steps of the Krebs Cycle by naming them in order, but that doesn’t mean you truly understand the processes involved and the effects of each step.
The second level is “Understand.” This is the stage in which you can explain or describe a concept in your own words. Usually, if you have restated a term, concept, or process in your own words, you have a basic understanding of it. Again, these are lower levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy and are the fundamental first steps if you want to move higher up on the taxonomy. The next level is “Apply,” which indicates that you know the concept well enough to use it in a new context. Math classes often ask you to remember and understand the steps of a formula and the reason you would use it, but then ask that you use that formula in a new problem.
The levels in which you “Analyze” and “Evaluate” require that you be able to examine the concepts in depth and be able to, for example, compare and contrast a concept with another concept (Analyze) or choose the best concept among others (Evaluate). The final level is “Create,” which, according to Bloom, is the pinnacle of learning: If you can create (or recreate) something new based on what you have learned, you have demonstrated understanding of a concept, idea, or skill.
We will revisit Bloom’s Taxonomy in the chapter on studying, but it is worth introducing in relation to reading and note-taking because students who read texts and take notes on their readings or the professor’s lectures are often capturing information to remember it later. This is a good first step to the learning process, but as you will see later, that is not the only or final step to learning.
Footnotes
- 1Smilkstein, R. (2011). We’re born to learn: Using the brain’s natural learning process to create today’s curriculum. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
- 2Bloom, B.S. (1980). All our children learning. NY: McGraw-Hill.
LICENSE AND ATTRIBUTION
Adapted from Amy Baldwin’s “3.1 The Learning Process” of College Success Concise, 2023, used according to CC by 4.0. Access for free at https://openstax.org/books/college-success-concise/pages/1-introduction | 1,371 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://uen.pressbooks.pub/snowcollegecomp/chapter/the-learning-process/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:73607 | https://uen.pressbooks.pub/snowcollegecomp/chapter/the-learning-process/ |
TFfkytJgwg2cYFLf | An introduction to the study of agricultural economics, | Farm . . 77
VI. THE ORGANIZATION OF THE FARM, CONTINUED; THE PROPORTIONS IN WHICH THE FACTORS OF PRODUCTION SHOULD BE BROUGHT TOGETHER, WITH ESPECIAL REFERENCE TO INTENSITY OF CULTURE .....
THE FORCES AND CONDITIONS WHICH DETERMINE THE PRICES OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS 136 THE DISTRIBUTION OF WEALTH, WITH ESPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE RENT OF FARM LAND AND TO THE CONDITIONS WHICH ENABLE FARMERS TO SAVE FROM THEIR EARNINGS 152 THE PRINCIPLES TO BE FOLLOWED IN ESTIMATING THE VALUE OF FARM LAND AND EQUIPMENTS ..... 185
INTRODUCTION
The subject matter of Economics, or Political Economy, is found in the relations arising among men in their efforts to gain a livelihood, and in the relations between man and the physical universe consequent upon these efforts. Economics deals primarily with human relations arising under certain conditions ; for example, wages, rent, interest, and taxes, all rest upon such relations. But in order to make a living man must shape Nature to his purposes ; therefore we must examine into the given conditions under which men come into contact with each other and with Nature in their efforts to secure the necessaries, conveniences, and luxuries of life.
While she has provided abundant opportunities for producing the means of satisfying human wants, Nature has decreed that man must work, — "In the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread."1 Or to give Virgil's version of the same law,
AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS
be so directed as to yield the largest possible returns in human satisfaction. Viewed from this standpoint it may be said that economics includes a treatment of "the economy of energy required for the satisfaction of human needs."1 It is desirable that the energy required for the satisfaction of human wants be used most economically, not that men may work less strenuously, but that they may live more abundantly.
The economics of any particular industry, as agriculture, treats of the principles which should guide those engaged in that industry in the expenditure of energy in the production of economic goods, and also of those institutions which are necessary to impel the promoters of that industry to do that which best conserves the interests of society as a whole.
Agriculture is often spoken of as the most independent of all occupations, and it is true that the farmer is less dependent upon his fellow men than is his city brother. But while it is true that the farmer is brought into contact with other men less frequently than is the merchant or the manufacturer, yet, on the other hand, he is brought into closer contact with Nature. The manufacturer, for example, may know each evening what tasks are to engage his attention the next day, but the farmer simply knows what he would like to do, and awaits the dictations of the weather. So-
daily considered, the farmer may be more independent than the man of the city, but he is certainly more directly dependent upon the conditions set by his physical environment.
But while the farmer may be more directly dependent upon Nature than are those engaged in the industries of the city, he is by no means independent of his fellow men. The pioneer farmer who looked primarily to the satisfaction of the wants of his own household may have selected the crops which he cultivated, without giving any thought to the needs of other men; but the modern agriculturist, who produces primarily for the market, and procures upon the market a large share of the necessaries, conveniences, and luxuries of life, is bound to take into account the demands of his fellow beings. The modern farmer must consider the price for which the produce can be sold as well as the conditions of production, if he would manage his farm successfully.
This close dependence of the farmer upon physical and social conditions which are subject to variation from year to year, makes it impossible for him to manage his work by rule of thumb. He must follow general principles rather than specific rules. He is ever being required to adjust himself to new commercial conditions, and demands are being made upon his judgment many times in the course of each 'day's work, as he tries to adjust his farm operations to the vary-
ing conditions of soil and climate. It is necessary that the farmer be ever alert. "It is a maxim universally agreed upon in agriculture," says Pliny, "that nothing must be done too late; and again, that everything must be done at its proper season; while there is a third precept, which reminds us that opportunities lost can never be regained."1 It is of exceedingly great importance that the farmer have in mind some guiding principles which, like the compass, will enable him to direct his actions in accordance writh a definite purpose.
There remains that class until this day who fail to recognize the presence of natural laws, and who attribute the unusual success of the men of extraordinary ability to dishonesty or to foul play of some sort, while to "bad luck" they ascribe the results of their own laziness. These men who talk of "luck," and who are not willing to attribute to brain and brawn the success of their neighbors, may well draw a lesson from the following story related by the ancient writer, Pliny: "C. Furius Chresimus, a freedman, having found himself able, from a very small piece of land, to raise far more abundant harvests than his neighbors could from the largest farms, became the object of very considerable jealousy among them, and was accordingly accused of enticing
away the crops of others by the practise of sorcery. Upon this, a day was named by Spurius Calvinus, the curule aedile, for his appearance. Apprehensive of being condemned, when the question came to be put to the vote among the tribes, he had all his implements of husbandry brought into the Forum, together with his farm servants, robust, well-conditioned, and well-clad people, Piso says. The iron tools were of first-rate quality, the mattocks were stout and strong, the plow-shares ponderous and substantial, and the oxen sleek and in prime condition. When all this had been done, 'Here, Roman citizens/ said he, 'are my implements of magic; but it is impossible for me to exhibit to your view, or to bring into this Forum, those midnight toils of mine, those early watchings, those sweats, and those fatigues/ Upon this, by the unanimous voice of the people, he was immediately acquitted."1
The element of uncertainty should not be underrated, for this is one of the characteristics of the agricultural industry, and yet it should be remembered that as a rule the chance element is more or less equally great in a given community, and at a given time, for all who are equally intelligent and energetic. The more rational farmers are usually willing to admit that the unusual de-
lThe Natural History of Pliny, Book XVIII, Chapter 8. Taken from the translation of Bostock and Riley, Bohn's Classical Library, Vol. IV, p. 17.
gree of success attained by one of their number is the result of hard work, clear thinking, and skilful management. These more intelligent farmers are coming to recognize that there are fundamental economic principles which, when carefully followed, lead the way to success in agricultural production. The setting forth of such principles is one of the aims of this book.
The development of commercial agriculture has brought the tillers of the soil into close economic relations with those engaged in other industries. The farmer has become dependent upon the manufacturer, the merchant, and the commercial carrier. But besides the relations which arise when the products of the country are exchanged for those of the city, should be mentioned those which are involved whenever labor is employed, and whenever the use of land is acquired either by lease or by purchase. These various relations often result in conflicting interests which must be adjusted by public authority in accordance with some generally accepted principle. Hence it has come about that these economic relations have their legal side. So to analyze the conditions of agricultural production that those who make the laws, which are intended to adjust the economic relations of those engaged in this industry, may act intelligently, is, therefore, another purpose which has been held in mind in the preparation of this work.
THE FACTORS OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION
.While the natural agents, heat, light, air, moisture, and the soil, are all essential to agricultural production, the farmer usually acquires the use of all these when he buys or rents land, and for this reason economists have commonly included all these natural agents under the one term land. Horses and other live stock, tools and machinery, buildings, and general farm supplies are also essential to modern agricultural production. These, so far as they are used for productive purposes, are classed together as capitalgoods. The term capital has been used by economists in the sense in which we here use the term capital-goods, but it often happens that these writers have in mind the money value of certain instruments of production rather than the concrete things such as horses, cattle, sheep, and hogs, or barns, plows, harrows, drills, and reapers, or hay, grain, and fodder which are fed to productive animals. The farmer deals with concrete things. As the term land is used to designate something concrete, so the term capital-goods will be used in this book to designate certain other concrete
In order that the land and the capital-goods shall be most productive it is necessary that man should do his part. The work required for this, whether intellectual or physical, and whether performed by the farmer himself or by hired men, is, in most economic literature designated by the term labor.
The activities of man as a factor in agricultural production may be divided into two classes : first, management, which includes that activity which is requisite to the planning and supervision of the operations of the farm; and, second, the performance of certain tasks, such as plowing, sowing, harrowing, etc., as directed by the manager. The latter is usually called "labor," which is the narrower and more common use of this term. Both of these functions, labor and management, are commonly performed by farmers in this country, although to hire laborers to perform many of the operations of the farm is also common. For many purposes it seems more convenient to follow the practise of using the term labor in its inclusive sense, and yet for certain purposes of analysis it is necessary to make the distinction between labor in this narrower sense and management
factors of production. These factors being the basis of agricultural production, we shall first consider the abundance and economic character of the land and the capital-goods employed in agriculture, and the number and economic character of the men engaged in this industry, in the United States, and then attempt to lay down the principles in accordance with which these factors should be organized.
Section I. Land. — The land area of the United States, exclusive of Alaska and the insular possessions, was given, in 1900, as 2,970,230 square miles, or 1,900,947,200 acres. The acreage in fan^^^^given, as 838,591,774, which is
about forf^J KK" I ) Per cent °^ ^e tota^ ^anc* surface oi^| Bfuntry.1 Of the total area included in farms, however, only about half (414,498,487 acres, or 49.4 per cent.) is given as improved land.2 Hence only about twenty-two per cent. (21.8) of the land area of the United States is improved farm land. It is interesting and helpful to compare the United States with some of the European countries in this regard. In England seventy-six per cent, of the total area is
pp. 25 and 70.
2 Under the total area in farms is included "all outlying or separate meadows, pastures, woodlots, marshes, etc." Under "unimproved land" is included all "land which has never been plowed, mowed, or cropped, including land once cultivated but now grown up to trees and shrubs." Under "Improved land" is "included all land not reported as unimproved." (Twelfth Census of the United States, Vol. V, p. 758.)
given (1900) as the improved area of farms.1 In Germany, eighty per cent, of the total area is included in farms (1895) ; but only three- fourths of the total farm area is counted as improved land. Hence about sixty per cent, only of the total area of Germany is improved farm land.2 These figures indicate that the land of the United States has not been nearly so completely brought under cultivation as has that of the older countries. Yet there is sixteen times as much improved farm land in the United States as there is in England, and five times as much as in Germany.
The above figures for the United States as a whole do not fairly represent the extent to which the land of this country has been utilized. In the state of Illinois ninety-one per cent, of the total area is included in farms, and eighty-four and one-half per cent, of the area in farms is improved, so that nearly seventy-six per cent, of the total area of the state is improved farm land. In Iowa the proportion of improved land is even
*By "improved area" is meant the acreage under "crops, bare fallow, or grass," "the rough grazings attached to many farms in hilly districts" not being included. The total "improved area" of farm land in England was 24,713,790 acres. (See the Agricultural Returns, published annually by the Board of Agriculture.)
2 Land used as cultivated fields, gardens, meadows, rich pastures, orchards, and vineyards are counted as improved land, in the German reports. The total improved area in farms in Germany was 80,451,632 acres, in 1895. (SeeStatistik des Deutschen Reichs (1895). Neue Folge 112, p. 21*)
larger. Ninety-five and eight-tenths per cent, of the total area of that state is farm land, and of that in farms eighty-six and one-half per cent, is improved, so that eighty-three per cent, of the total area of the state is improved farm land. In Wisconsin the situation is quite different. Only fifty-five and five-tenths per cent, of the total area is there included in farms, and only fifty-six and six-tenths per cent, of that is improved, so that only thirty-one and four-tenths per cent, of the total area of the state is improved farm land. It is well known that this low percentage of improved land in Wisconsin is due to the vast areas of unoccupied land in the northern part of the state. The figures for New Mexico will help one to understand why the percentage of improved land for the United States as a whole is so low in spite of the fact that some states surpass the densely populated European countries in the percentage of their improved land. In 1900, only five and nine-tenths per cent, of the total area of New Mexico was in farms, and only six and fourtenths per cent, of that was improved. Thus the improved area was only thirty-eight-hundredths of one per cent, of the total area.
Of the territorial divisions of the United States, the North Central States form by far the most important agricultural region. While these states contain only about one-fourth of the total area, they contain more than one-half of the im-
proved land of the United States (1900), and, in 1903, they produced over two-thirds of our maize, wheat, and barley crops and nearly three-fourths of our oat crop.
It is true that vast areas of the unimproved land of this country are not capable of being brought under cultivation, yet there is certainly a much greater opportunity for agricultural expansion here than in Europe. It would be interesting to know what share of the unimproved areas of the United States might be cultivated. It is certainly true that much of the land included in the "unimproved area" of farms might be plowed or mowed if this form of treatment would bring larger net returns to the farmer than he can obtain in other ways. Our rich pasture lands, which produce an enormous amount of wealth each year with a minimum expenditure of labor, are included under the head of unimproved land. The area which is not included in farms consists. in part, of timber lands which form the basis of the lumber industry, and, in part, of valuable grazing lands which supplement the farms in the production of meat and wool.
Irrigation is proving an important means of extending agriculture in the arid regions. To quote Professor Elwood Mead : "The uninhabited and mismanaged areas of the arid region are full of opportunities. A realization of the possibilities of this region and of what man can accom-
plish by a right use of its resources has been of slow growth. To the early fur traders and explorers the arid region was a dreary, worthless waste. To neither Bonneville, Fremont, nor any of the multitude who crossed its vast expanse to reach the golden rivers of California was there given any prophetic vision of the magic to be wrought by irrigation. Nor is this surprising. It is difficult to imagine anything less attractive than the stretches of barren sand broken only by the isolated yuccas of the Mojave Desert, or anything more dreary than the crucifixion thorn of Arizona, Only in localities where the work of reclamation has been in progress long enough to permit the growth of trees, flowers, and shrubs, can the possibilities of the soil and climate be appreciated. No greater contrast can be found anywhere than is afforded by a comparison of the desert above the ditches and the cultivated fields below them. . . . The arid West is the nation's farm. It contains all that is left of the public domain, and is the chief hope of those who dream of enjoying landed independence, but who have little beside industry and self-denial with which to secure it. As it is now, this land has little value. This is not because the land lacks fertility, but because it lacks moisture. Where rivers have been turned from their courses, the products which have resulted equal in excellence and amount those of the most favored district of amis
pie rainfall." And yet, with respect to the proportion of these arid regions which may be made productive, the same authority gives the following rather discouraging estimate : "If every drop of water which falls on the mountain summits could be utilized, it is not likely that more -than ten per cent, of the total area of the arid West could be irrigated, and it is certain that, because of physical obstacles, it will never be possible to get water to even this small percentage/'1
The introduction of new varieties of grains and forage crops which are suited to semi-arid regions makes possible the extension of agriculture where the rainfall is too light for the crops which are commonly grown in the humid regions. For example, the drought-resisting macaroni wheats have recently been introduced with great profit. "In many places west of the looth meridian, where wheat growing with other varieties is practically impossible on account of drought, the eastern Russian varieties by virtue of their extreme drought-resisting qualities will produce, ordinarily, a crop of from twelve to twenty bushels per acre. By the use of these wheats, therefore, these localities may become important additions to the wheat area."2
sources of the country, a part of which may be met by extending the industry into regions which are not being used ; but the most important means of increasing the supply of agricultural products in the future will doubtless be by farming more intensively the land which is already in use. This means that the part which labor and capital-goods play in agricultural production will be more important, relatively, in the future than at the present time.
Section II. Capital-Goods. — According to the census for 1900, the implements and machines on the farms of the United States were valued at 761,261,550 dollars, which is an average of ninety cents per acre of farm land. The value of live stock on farms was given at 3,078,050,041 dollars, or an average of three and sixty-six-hundredths dollars per acre of farm land. Together, therefore, the value of the live stock, tools and machinery amounted to four and fifty-six-hundredths dollars per acre. But these figures do not fairly indicate the amount of capital required to operate a farm in this country. To this must be added the money which the farmer is required to have in hand for meeting current expenses, the value of the grain, hay, etc., which he has in store at the time when the valuation of the live stock is made, and the many little things which are necessary and yet which are usually omitted from the census valuations.
A concrete example is worth more than abstract averages in giving a correct notion of the amount of capital a tenant farmer must have in order to carry on agriculture successfully.
On March ist, 1904, an invoice was made by disinterested men, of all the live stock, grain, and fodder on a farm in southeastern Iowa. The farm consisted of six hundred acres of land, two hundred and ninety-five acres of which were plowed or mowed land at the time. The remainder was in pasture, though some of the land then in pasture had been and will again be under the plow, while parts of the pasture land are densely covered with trees. On the whole the degree of intensity of culture is about the average for that part of the country, which is certainly far from being farmed intensively. The land had been farmed "on shares," one party furnishing the land and half of the live stock and bearing half of the expense when live stock or feed was purchased. The other party furnished half of the live stock, all of the tools and machinery, and the labor needed to operate the farm. When the invoice was made for the purpose of bringing this partnership to a close, the live stock, grain, hay, etc., were valued at about five thousand dollars. This is eight and one-third dollars per acre. The live stock was of the ordinary breeds commonly kept in that part of the country. The farmer estimated the value of the tools and
machinery on the farm at six hundred dollars, though if all of it had had to be purchased new, it would have cost more than twice that amount. This indicates that more than nine dollars per acre was required, to enable the farmer to assume the ownership of all of the live stock, grain, fodder, tools and machinery on the farm on March ist. To this, no great amount would need to be added for bills which had to be met before the farm could be made to yield a return, for the farm was in full running order, with sales occurring every few weeks.
The amount of capita! required for carrying on agriculture in the principal European countries is much greater than the amount commonly used in this country. In England, the better farmers invest forty dollars and more per acre. This includes, of course, all the capital that a tenant farmer must be able to command in order to carry on agriculture successfully. The advanced rent, the advanced wages of labor, the cost of living until returns can be had, as well as the value of the live stock, machinery, etc., are all included in this amount.
The amount of capital invested, per hectare of land, in German agriculture has greatly increased in the last hundred years. Early in the Nineteenth Century, according to Albrect Thaer, the investment of 168 marks1 per hectare2 was
counted intensive agriculture, whereas at the present time more than six hundred marks per hectare are sometimes invested. The following figures have been given to represent the amount of operating capital per hectare required to carry on agriculture in Germany. The amount varying in the different parts of the country and in the different lines of production.1
Extensive farming under 200 marks per hectare
While these figures for the amount of money invested per acre, in agricultural production, in European countries are not exactly comparable with those for the United States, it is clear that our agriculture is much less intensive than that of Germany and of England.
Section III. Population. — The aggregate population of Continental United States in 1900, was 75,994,575- Of this total thirty-eight and fouiHenths per cent, were engaged in gainful occupations. Of all persons ten years of age and over, fifty and three-tenths per cent, or 29,285,922, were engaged in gainful occupations. Of the male population ten years of age or over, eighty per cent, were engaged in gainful occupations ; while only eighteen and eight-tenths per
There were 10,438,219 persons engaged in agriculture in 1900. Of these 5,681,257, or fifty-six per cent, were farmers, planters, and overseers; 4,459,346 or forty- four per cent, were agricultural laborers. Of these "agricultural laborers" more than half (2,366,313) were members of the farmers' families, and less than half (2,047,658) were hired laborers, so there was scarcely more than one hired farm hand, on the average, for every three farmers. This means that in the vast majority of cases the work of the farm is done by the farmer and his family ; there being many large farms on which large numbers of hands are hired, as for example on wheat farms, on sugar plantations, and on the large grain and stock farms where the farmer is little more than a superintendent and does not put his own hand to the plow. Under "agricultural pursuits" are included, besides the above, the following classes :
Other agricultural pursuits 5,6o6
There were forty-one acres of improved land in the United States in 1900 for every person engaged in strictly agricultural pursuits. In England there is a little over eight acres of improved agricultural land for each person engaged in agriculture. In Germany one person is employed in agriculture for every ten acres of improved agricultural land. Much work is done by hand in European countries that is done by machinery in America. In Germany, for example, only about one farm in six had any machinery (i. e., as distinguished from tools) used upon it in 1895. It is the great number of small farms that makes the percentage so low. Most of the large farmers used some machinery, and yet scarce a third of these farmers employed mowing and reaping machines.
A better test of the relative intensity of culture of the various countries is the number of bushels per acre which they produce of the same grain. For the year 1902 the average production of wheat in the United States was 14.5 bushels per acre; in Germany, 23.5 ; in England, 31.9 bushels, For the same year the average production of oats in the United States was 28.7 bushels per acre; in Germany, 44.9; in England 41.5 bushels,
pean countries.1
Thus it seems that, compared to European countries, we use a small percentage of our total area as farm land, we expend a small amount of labor and capital per acre, and we win a small product per acre; though our product is larger (in quantity at least) per capita of those engaged in the industry than that of the older countries.
Section I. The economic properties of land as a factor in agricultural production. — It is a familiar fact that land is essential to all forms of economic activity. Manufactures and commerce cannot be carried on without the use of land. These industries use land, however, primarily as standing-room. The character of the soil is of little or no significance to the man who wishes to use land simply as standing-room for a cotton factory. In the case of agriculture, conditions are quite different. To the farmer, land is valuable not only because it provides space for buildings and roads, and for the performance of such work as the threshing of grain, and the feeding of cattle; it is valuable to him first of all because of those physical and chemical characteristics of the soil and the atmosphere which make the land capable of supporting plant life.
Under the physical conditions which are conducive to plant growth are included : ( i ) the moisture and (2) the temperature of the soil
ECONOMIC PROPERTIES
and the air, and (3) the mechanical structure of the soil. The amount of rainfall and sunshine remaining the same, the moisture and the ten> perature of the soil, and its capacity for retaining the chemical elements of fertility vary greatly from place to place because of differences in the size of the particles of the soil. By cultivation the soil may be improved to some extent, in this respect. By drainage and by irrigation the moisture of the soil can be modified, and by the use of glass and 'artificial heat the temperature of both the soil and the atmosphere can be regulated. But in most places and for most purposes Nature has done infinitely more for man than he can do for himself in providing the land with these desirable physical qualities.
From the standpoint of the economist the most important chemical conditions of plant growth are: (i) nitrogen, (2) phosphoric acid, (3) potash, and (4) water. Other chemical compounds contribute to plant growth, but these are the ones which require our especial attention because they are present in the soil in limited and varying quantities, and because they are more or less readily exhausted and require considerable effort to increase or replenish their supply. In the humid regions where the water needed by plants is abundantly supplied by Nature this element of fertility requires little or no attention, but in the arid regions water ranks first in eco-
nomic importance. The carbon dioxide gas of the air is as important to plant growth as is water, but it is present in such great abundance that it has no value placed upon it and hence does not enter into the list of economic conditions which require our attention.
All of these physical and chemical conditions of plant growth are usually included under "the fertility of the land."1 And as it varies greatly with respect to these conditions, land is said to vary from place to place with respect to its fertility.
When a man contemplates the purchase of a farm there is one thing more which is of vital importance to him. He wants extent of land and he wants this land to be fertile, but what is sometimes even more significant than these qualities is the location of the farm which he is to cultivate. In fact the physical and chemical characteristics of the land are greatly influenced by its location. Heat and moisture, and the character of the rocks from which the soil is formed vary greatly from place to place. But besides these variations in the natural conditions, there are variations in the social conditions which influence the production and sale of products. Large populations are in some places concentrated on small areas, leaving vast territories sparsely settled. This variation in the density of population may
be explained, in part at least, in terms of variations in the physical environment, but our especial interest is in the effect and not the cause of this variation in the density of population. Where the population is dense capital is also usually present in great abundance, and can be had more cheaply than in the sparsely settled districts. This abundance of labor and capital enables the farmer to operate his land more cheaply. But this is not all. The farmer who is nearer a great center of population, such as London or New York, can sell his products for the same price which is paid for like products which have been shipped great distances. Thus it is that of two pieces of land equally fertile the farmer prefers the one located nearer a great center of population, because it enables him to produce and market products more cheaply.
Because of these variations with respect to fertility and location, land is said to vary in productivity, or, in its value-producing power. That is, a given farmer, employing a given amount of labor and capital-goods of a specified grade, can obtain larger gross receipts upon one grade of land than upon another.
The words " fertility" and "productivity" have commonly been used synonymously to designate the relative number of bushels or pounds of product obtained from a given area of land. But the one common property of economic goods is
value. Economic goods have weight and bulk, it is true, but these properties they share in common with free goods. "We need therefore some term which will express the relative capacity of different pieces of land to produce values, and since it is bad economy to use two words for one idea and leave another idea without any word with which it may be expressed, it is desirable that a more equitable distribution of words should be made. Fertility refers to the quality of the land. * Variation in fertility is measured in terms of the pounds or bushels of the product. Instead of using the \vord productivity to designate this same idea we propose to use this term to designate the relative value-producing-power of the land. The productivity of land may, and usually does, vary from place to place because of variations in the fertility of the land and because of differences in location with respect to the central market. Differences in the productivity of land due to location may be expressed in terms of variations in the local market prices of the products. Because of the fact that land is limited in quantity, .some economists have said that land partakes of the character of a monopoly. This statement is rather misleading, however, for the essential element in a monopoly is unity of control, and land does not lend itself readily to unity of control. What these economists have in mind is that land usually commands a price which is
greater than the cost of improving such land. This higher price is due, however, to the fact that productive land is relatively scarce. Land of a given grade may have a value placed upon it far above what it costs to bring such land under cultivation ; but this is due to the limited quantity of productive land and as this scarcity is not due to the control of man but to the nature of the physical universe, land should not be called a monopoly good.
Section II. The economic properties of capital-goods as a factor in agricultural production. — The capital-goods, such as horses, cattle, machinery, and buildings which are used in agricultural production, differ from land in that they can be increased in quantity indefinitely. It is true that effort and sacrifice are essential to the production of capital-goods, but with the growth of wealth and the progress of industrial society, less and less sacrifice is required in order that the supply of capital-goods may be increased or improved.
So far as location is concerned many forms of capital-goods are movable, so that they can be taken to the place where they best serve the purpose for which they were intended. While some forms of capital-goods cannot easily be moved after they are once constructed, they can be made where they best serve the purpose of the farmer. Hence, while the productivity of land is greatly influenced by location, the location of capital-goods
is determined largely by their opportunities for productivity. And yet all forms of capital-goods vary in productivity. Some machines are better than others which were intended to do the same kind of work. The grain binder, for example, is more useful than the old self-rake, and some binders do better work than others. Some horses will do more work or in some other way be more productive than others. Certain breeds of cattle, sheep, or hogs will convert the food given them into more valuable products than other breeds. Hence, other things being equal, the man who works with the most productive forms of capitalgoods can produce the largest returns.
This variation in the productivity of capitalgoods is apt to be overlooked, because capitalgoods are valued according to their productivity, and when we speak of the amount of capital employed upon a given farm we have in mind the value of the capital-goods, and of course one dollar's worth of capital-goods under the same management should be just as productive as any other dollar's worth.
While variation in productivity is common to both, there is an important difference between land and capital-goods, in that when more capitalgoods are wanted it is usually the more productive forms which are made, while an increase in the amount of land under cultivation usually requires that less productive land be resorted to. The
history of agriculture in the United States shows that changes in the character of the capital-goods and especially of the machinery has greatly influenced the usefulness or productivity of this factor of production.
"The year 1850 practically marks the close of the period when the only farm implements and machinery, other than the wagon, cart and cottongin, were those which, for want of a better designation, may be called implements of hand production. Th'e old cast iron plows were in general use. Grass was mowed with the scythe, and the grain was cut with the sickle or cradle and threshed with the flail. . . . The last half century has witnessed a revolution in agricultural methL ods, and the new implements and machines introduced would require more than a page to catalogue."1 "For the United States the value of machinery per acre of farm land has increased nearly eighty per cent, since 1850. . . . These increases in money value, however, do not measure the added usefulness of the new machinery. This is measured principally by the degree to which the machinery saves human labor by substituting the power of animals or of steam,"2
"The number of acres of the leading crops per male worker increased from 23.3 in 1880 to 31 in 1900. The number of acres of these crops per
working animal was 13.5 at both of these dates; but the average number of horses to one male worker increased from 1.7 in 1880 to 2.3 in 1900." From these figures it appears that in the last twenty years, by the aid of machinery, and the substitution of horse power for hand labor, the effectiveness of human labor on farms has been increased to the extent of about thirty-three per cent. "The special investigations of the Labor Bureau have led to the conclusion that by the use of machinery the effectiveness of human labor has been nearly, if not quite, doubled since the middle of the century."1
While the percentage of the population of the country which was engaged in agriculture declined 19.4 per cent, during the two decades from 1880 to 1900, the production of the staple food crops per capita of the total population about held its own. This is shown by the following figures :2
1 Twelfth Census, Vol. V., p. xxxi.
2 United States Department of Agriculture, Division of statistics, Bulletin No. 24. Relations of Population and Food Products in the United States, pp. 20, 24, 30, 38, 57, 65, 70.
The above figures indicate also that while the grain crops and the potato crop about kept pace with the increase in the total population in spite of the fact that the share of the population engaged in agriculture decreased greatly, the production of live stock did not increase so rapidly as did the total population. And yet, in the case of live stock there has been an important improvement in the breeds which would, in part at least, make up in increased size and value per head for the decline in 'the number per capita. It is certain that in those lines of production in which new forms of machinery have been introduced the effectiveness of labor has been greatly increased because of the higher degree of productivity of these new forms of capital-goods.
Section III. The economic properties of labor as a factor in agricultural production. — There is no limit to the increase in the number of laborers except that set by the limited character of the other factors of production. The English economist, Malthus, called attention to the fact that population tends to increase at a geometrical ratio, that, as population increases, it becomes necessary to resort to less and less productive land, where, if improvements are not made in the methods of cultivation, it becomes more and more difficult to make a living. It is this strong tendency on the part of mankind to increase in numbers, along with the desire of most individuals to 3 33
society.
The population of the United States has increased very rapidly in the last hundred years. The population was 5,308,483 in 1800, and in 1900 it was 76,303,378. The territory of the United States expanded in the mean time it is true, but not so rapidly as did the population. The number of inhabitants per square mile was 6.6 in 1800, and had risen to 25.6 in 1900. This means that the land resource of the United States is rapidly being occupied, and it is a fact often commented upon in recent years that the best land is now all in use, so that as the population increases more and more ingenuity will be required to make the soil provide sustenance for the increasing numbers. This has already resulted in efforts to increase the available area of agricultural land by means of drainage and irrigation, and in efforts to make each acre of land yield a larger product by means of a more intensive culture. In general it would seem, therefore, that the propensity on the part of human beings to increase in numbers tends to be transmuted into an improvement in the quality of the labor supply.
The labor of all those who are engaged in agriculture is not equally productive. This is due to variations in the efficiency of those engaged in this industry. There are more than five million farm-
ers in the United States. From general observations we know that some of these farmers can scarcely make a living, others live comfortably and gradually save enough to buy a small farm, while still others are very prosperous, living well and accumulating considerable sums of money from year to year. The relative degree of prosperity to which the American farmer can attain is determined largely by his own efficiency.
The variation in the efficiency of the farmers may be either qualitative or quantitative. Qualitative efficiency refers to the return which a man can produce upon a given piece of land with a given supply of capital-goods. Quantitative efficiency refers to the quantity of land and capitalgoods which a man can operate. When two farmers employ equal amounts of labor and capital-goods upon equal areas of equally productive land, the one who possesses a relatively high degree of qualitative efficiency can produce a larger return than his competitor who is qualitatively less efficient. The larger return is won by the farmer who is qualitatively more efficient because he shows greater skill in performing his work. He uses better judgment in planning his farm operations, in regulating his field system, in selecting seeds, in choosing tools and machinery with which to do the work, or in the breeding and feeding of live stock. The farmer who is quanti-
given quality.
With respect to the efficiency of the farmers of the United States we may say, from general observation, that they are more alert and do more work than do the farmers of England, — they are quantitatively more efficient; but it seems true also that they are not in the habit of doing their work so carefully, — they are qualitatively less efficient. This difference is doubtless due in part at least to the fact that extensive culture has generally been most profitable in America, while intensive culture has long been necessary in Europe. In England, keen competition for the use of land has weeded out the farmers who could not produce a large surplus over costs on each acre of land, while in the United States this class has been able to compete more successfully. At the present time, however, the competition for the use of land is becoming keen in this country, and in the future the farmer who does not plan his work carefully and do it well, is sure to find it more and more difficult to pay the price which his compete tors are offering for the use of land.
One element of our agricultural population is markedly inefficient, both from the standpoint of the quantity and the quality of their work. In 1900, thirteen per cent, of the farms of the United States were operated by negroes. In the South Atlantic States the percentage of negro farmers
was thirty, in the South Central States it was twenty-seven and two-tenths, while in the one state of Mississippi the percentage was fifty-eight and three-tenths. The size of their farms is small, — averaging about fifty-one acres. That they do not work very strenuously nor compete very keenly for the use of land, is shown by the fact that land of practically the same grade is much less valuable in Alabama where the negroes predominate than in Texas where the whites are in the majority. In all of the thirty-nine counties of the "Black Prairie" of Texas the whites were in the majority in 1890, and the average value of land was 12.19 dollars per acre; whereas, similar soil was worth 6.40 dollars per acre in the "Black Prairie" of Alabama in which there are twelve counties, and in all of which counties there were more negroes than whites.1
A Southern planter, interested in the improvement of the negroes, is quoted as saying: "One of the things which militates most against the negro is his unreliability. . . . His mental processes are past finding out and he cannot be counted on to do or not to do a given thing under given circumstances."1 "Judged by present standards," says Carl Kelsey, "the negro is decidedly lacking. . . . Something is holding him back, ....
1 Carl Kelsey, The Negro Farmer, p. 69 ; also, Harry Hammond, in The Cotton Plant (Bulletin No. 33, U. S. Dept. of Agr., Office of Experiment Stations), p. 242.
Thus a review of the economic properties of the factors of production shows them to be alike in that they vary in productivity. This variation in productivity is a fact that must ever be kept in mind in any discussion of the organization of the factors of production. On the other hand it has been found that land is very different from the other factors of production with respect to its capacity for being increased in quantity. This fact becomes important in explaining why the organization of agriculture must ever be changing with the progress of society.
TION OF THE FARM
There was a time when each farm family or each small community tried to produce for itself all the food, clothing, and shelter necessary to its well-being, — each family carried on both agriculture and manufactures. This was the ideal in western Europe in the days of Karl the Great, and it has not been long since it was the ideal of the pioneer farmer in America. But with the modern organization of industrial society, men have found that a given amount of economic activity will produce the means of satisfying a greater number of wants when each man devotes himself more or less exclusively to some one line of production. ^ This specialization in production brings larger returns because (i) some parts of the world are especially well suited for the production of certain products, (2) some men are especially well fitted for performing one kind of work while others can best do something else, and (3) any man can accomplish more when he devotes all of his time and attention to one kind of work than when he changes about indefinitely
from one thing to another so that he never acquires a high degree of skill in any line, to say nothing of the loss of time in making changes.
As a result of the development of commerce in the products of agriculture, the modern farmer has found it profitable to look primarily to the production of a few staples which can be put upon the market in exchange for the great variety of things which he desires to use. Incidentally many modern farmers produce certain articles, such as fruits and vegetables, primarily for the use of their own households, and here they are free to follow their own instincts, as did the selfsufficing farmers of olden times, and produce those things which they like best to consume ; but in the production of the staples of commerce they must, if they would best succeed, produce those things which will enable them to obtain upon the market the largest possible means of supplying their wants, in return for every unit of effort which they expend upon their farms.
From the point of view of the farmer, then, the first problem before us in the economics of agriculture pertains to the selection of land and the management of a farm in such a manner as will enable the farmer, one year with another, to win the largest net profits. For example, if a farmer is operating land in a given community he should endeavor to determine which grade of land to cultivate, which kinds of crops to grow, how in-
tensely the land should be cultivated in the case of each crop, and how large a farm he should attempt to operate in order that, after he has counted out the rent of the land (or the interest on the value of the land and the cost of repairs, etc., if he owns the land), the expense (in the forms of interest and wear and tear) to which he has been for the use of capital-goods, and the cost of hired labor, the total net profit which is left to him and his family in return for their own labor, skill, and enterprise shall be as large as possible.
We find it desirable in this treatise to look upon the farmer and his family as a unit, and to use the phrase "net profit" to designate that share of the entire product of the farm, which is attributed to the personal services of the farmer and his family. It is not essential that the net profit be in the form of money, a portion of it may well be retained in the form of commodities which may be used directly by the family. The articles so used have their value quite as clearly as do those which are sold. In speaking of the farmer's net profit, therefore, the value of the products retained for home consumption should be included.
From the standpoint of economy in production, the modern system which is called commercial agriculture, is without question, far superior to the old self-sufficing system, for it undoubtedly enables the farmers to win a larger net profit; but from the standpoint of justice in distribution,
the commercial system has been challenged, and there is doubtless a chance for improvement in this regard. To illustrate the way in which this injustice may arise, let us suppose that a given farmer puts forth a given amount of labor and capital in the production of goods which he sells upon the market for one hundred dollars; and suppose also that when this money is invested in the various articles which he wishes to consume the farmer finds that the commodities which he is taking home in return for the products of his farm, were the product of much less, say twenty per cent, less, labor and capital than the amount which he expended upon the commodities which he took to the market, and that this difference is due to the fact that some men have a power of absorbing much of the profits of labor by simply manipulating values without adding anything to the usefulness of commodities. Certainly if such a condition existed it would be an injustice to the farmer even though the articles which he received in this way would satisfy many more wants and satisfy those more completely than he could hope to satisfy them if he tried to produce for himself every article which he consumes.
It has been alleged that there are men who do no work, but simply sit at certain points where exchanges are made and demand that their baskets be filled.1 To avoid this alleged injustice in
the distribution of wealth, it has been proposed1 that "Farming Corporations" be organized, and that these corporations make it their business to produce for themselves everything they want to use. It is proposed that no attention shall be paid to the commercial world nor to commercial values, but simply to the wants of the farmers and their families. Every kind of agricultural product which may be desired for use by the members of this corporation is to be produced by them. Wool is to be' produced and converted into clothing, beef is to be produced for home use, and the hides of the animals converted into shoes for home use. Thus to avoid unjust treatment it is proposed to throw away the advantages of the commercial system and revert to the old selfsufficing system in agricultural production.
Mr. L. H. Kerrick, of Bloomington, Illinois, a leading and successful farmer of that state, delivered an address at the Iowa Agricultural College, Ames, Iowa, a year or more ago, in which he said in part :
The farmer has, in my region certainly, become too much imbued with the spirit of commercialism. He has gone too far, I think, in the way of producing things to "sell" He raises big crops of corn and oats to sell, or feeds many cattle and hogs for the market. He sells these at the other fellow's prices. Then he turns about and buys at the other fellow's prices, supplies of various kinds that he might easily have produced on his own farm. By this practise, he puts himself twice in the enemy's hands— once when
he sells, and again when he buys. This is not the highest . and best idea of living by farming. The first thing a farmer should do is to surround himself in his farm home with everything he can make or produce that will promote the health, comfort, safety and pleasure of himself and family. This is what the farm is for, first. And how few good and needful things there be that may not be produced and provided on a good farm and in and about a real farm home! I do not attempt to name the innumerable good things of his own garden and orchard and field — all prime, fresh and exactly to his liking, which the provident farmer may have if he can only get that idea of raising things to sell out of his head or at least modified, and get that other idea of producing things on his own farm for his own use. If farmers everywhere would think first and work first to provide for their wants on their own farms, then they might be able to set the price on the surplus they have to sell. Then the surplus would not be so overwhelming in volume. Then there might be competition among the buyers of his surplus. The consumer might not then be so able as now to sit complacently waiting to be solicited to buy this enormous surplus at his own price. The railroad people then might take on better manners and be willing to give a more nearly just rate, and they might be more careful to give good service.
The farmer with the right idea of farming and of farm life and of farm opportunities, is the man I have most faith in to curb trusts and corporations generally — such as need curbing.
The makers of machines and implements and of barbed wire and of all that sort of thing, cannot eat their stuff — they must sell to get any good out of their product. They cannot live at all without selling. But the right kind of a farmer can live a long time without selling his product — he can eat it and live. Suppose the other fellow asks of you an exorbitant price for his wares. Just let him keep them a. while, or try to keep them. They can't keep them, because they can't eat them ; and to get something to eat, they must sell. But you, my farmer friends, can keep yours a while
and be living like kings — eating your bread and meat and good apples and fresh butter and eggs and milk. The other fellow can only keep his just a little while, until you hear the prices of his wares a cracking. The farmer is a trust breaker, if he only knows it. I have little faith in legislatures and courts and magazine writers and orators, as trust breakers. But the farmer with the right idea, as I have been trying to illustrate, can fortify himself in his farm home for a much longer siege than the manufacturer or the railroad manager can put up against him. And the beauty of it all is, the farmer can be happy all the same, and all the time.
That too many farmers neglect to provide their families with the variety and abundance of fruits and vegetables which they might and should produce primarily for home use, and that they also generally fail to appreciate the possibility of creating for themselves beautiful surroundings by planting flowers and shrubs and trees, is frankly admitted. This condition of affairs is to be regretted, and should be remedied. One of the greatest of economists, John Stuart Mill, has said : " Solitude in the presence of natural beauty and grandeur is the cradle of thoughts and aspiraltions which are not only good for the individual, but which society could ill do without."1 We need more of the "thoughts and aspirations" such as the "natural beauty and grandeur" of the ideal country home may inspire, and it is certainly to be hoped that the American farmer will avail himself of his natural opportunities and surround
dignity and beauty of his home.
But if these beautiful surroundings 'are to be created they must first be desired by the farmers, and it will certainly be admitted that the desire for food, clothing, and shelter naturally and properly come first and should be satisfied before much attention is given to the creation of beautiful surroundings; and, again, to enjoy the beautiful surroundings, one must have leisure, and in order to have time, after satisfying the more urgent wants, to create and enjoy beautiful surroundings, it is important that the farmer avail himself of the most economical means of satisfying these wants. We object, therefore, to the general principle laid down by Mr. Kerrick, that farmers everywhere should "think first and work first to provide for their wants on their own farms," rather than to look primarily to the production of those things which will give them the greatest purchasing power in the market. We believe the latter method to be the one which will bring the largest means of satisfying wants for a given amount of exertion, whereas, Mr. Kerrick's suggestion points towards a reversion to the selfsufficing economy of earlier times, and to a sacrifice of much of the benefit which has resulted from the extension of commerce and from specialization in industry.
present complex commercial system of agricultural production; but, in spite of this objection, the commercial system is superior to the old selfsufficing economy which was only desirable in an earlier stage of economic society when the dangers to commerce were so very great and the means of transportation had been so little developed that the farmers could gain little or nothing by producing for the market. Modern agriculture is not entirely commercial, yet the production for the market is the dominant feature. The commercial system has replaced the self-sufficing system, because it brings larger returns for .the efforts expended, and our aim should be not to revert to a less economical system in order to avoid the evils which have arisen, but to remove the evils which accompany it and thus perfect the present commercial system.
When the farmer follows the rule of seeking the largest net profits, he will not be bound to any one system, he will produce for home consumption just to the extent that he can produce more cheaply than to buy upon the market. That which is good practise in this regard at one time and place may be bad economy at the same time at another place, and at the same place at another time.
States.
The beginners of American agriculture were Englishmen, and the course which they first took in the New World was greatly influenced by the stage of industrial progress with which they were familiar at home. In the Seventeenth Century, the greater part of the land of England was divided up into small holdings cultivated by tenant or by landowning farmers who looked primarily to the production of such crops as were needed in their own households. In some parts of the country, however, the organization of agriculture had taken on a very different form. Large areas of land in the southeastern part of England had been made into sheep farms on which wool was produced primarily for the market.
Thus, in the Seventeenth Century, England had two types of farmers. The peasant farmer was a hard working, pains-taking tiller of the soil who was able to live "unto himself." The wool and flax which were gro\vn on his little farm were manufactured by the farmer and his family into the various articles which were desired for home consumption. The peasant's house was usually of simple construction, such as the farmer could make for himself out of such materials as could be found in the immediate neighborhood. Cottages made of mud and straw were very common in the central and northern counties. This
farmer was just the kind to succeed in a new country where commerce could not be counted upon to supply such stores of goods as the wants of men demand.
The second class of English farmers had been in the habit of producing primarily for the market, and depending upon the market for the supplies of clothing, luxuries, etc., which it was their desire to consume. They had passed on to that stage in the evolution of industrial society where the commercial side of their agriculture domiL nated, and without a market they could not well survive. Having before our minds these two classes of English farmers, let us next take a glance at the country which they were to occupy.
The new country provided new crops, such as maize, potatoes, and tobacco, the culture of which could be learned from the Indians. The climate of the eastern coast of America is very different from that of England, and much colder than the settlers may have expected to find in a latitude so much south of their mother country. The Atlantic coast presents two very different areas; tide-water Virginia, with her mild climate, rich soil, and slow flowing rivers which were well suited for becoming the arteries of commerce into the interior; and New England, with her more severe climate, her poorer soil and rough surface traversed by swift flowing streams which 4 49
of transportation.
Both of these classes of English farmers came to America. Both classes went to New England and both classes went to Virginia. The first class, the self-sufficing farmers, got along well in New England. They learned to grow maize and potatoes. They found plenty of fish in the streams. Their old habits of building houses for themselves, manufacturing their own clothing, and producing and preparing for winter's use abundant supplies of food, made them the natural inhabitants of the isolated New England of that time.
But the commercial farmers were not so successful in the North as were their less pretentious fellow countrymen. They sought diligently for some agricultural product which could be transported to London with profit; for it was from London that they could draw the comforts and luxuries which they had learned to consume but which they were unable, themselves, to produce. As it was unprofitable in those early days to ship grain to London except in years when the price was abnormally high, and as no staple was found which would bear shipment to Europe, commercial agriculture was unable to play an important role in New England.
a thorough search was made for a staple which would form the basis of a profitable system of commercial agriculture. The production of silk was attempted, but with little or no success. Wine was looked to as a possible solution of the problem, but this, too, led only to disappointment. Tobacco was finally tried with success in the Southern Colonies, and the South was launched upon a career of her own. Tobacco had become fashionable in England, and demanded a high price. This was the opportunity of the commercial farmers. They could produce tobacco and send it by the cargo directly from the river wharves on their own plantations to the markets of London. This enabled them to order whatever they pleased from the merchants of Europe. The labor problem arose. Free white men could do better working for themselves in a country where rich soil "was to be had for taking up."1 Contract labor was resorted to, but this did not supply the demand. The African negro was introduced to supply the tobacco plantations with the desired number of laborers. And thus, it was tobacco and slaves that made commercial agriculture possible and profitable to' the farmers of the South and led to the development of the large plantations of Virginia which were comparable in size and dignity to some of the estates of the
water Virginia.
In the North the self-sufficing economy remained important for a long time. The small farmers from New England, New York, and Pennsylvania gradually moved westward, and it was the same conditions which made them successful in the early settlement of the North that fitted them for the life of the pioneer. Since the days of railways, new countries can be settled successfully by commercial agriculturists, but it was only yesterday that the self-sufficing pioneer was an important factor in the development of the resources of the United States.
The self-sufficing pioneer farmer was free from the power of trusts and corporations, but his life was full of hardships such as few farmers would now willingly endure. The following quotation, descriptive of the life of a pioneer family during their first year in their new home in western Pennsylvania, in 1773, sets forth the hardships of these pioneers in a very pathetic manner. "For six weeks we had to live without bread. The lean venison and the breast of the wild turkey, we were taught to call bread. The flesh of the bear was denominated meat. This artifice did not succeed very well, after living in this way for some time we became sickly, the stomach seemed to be always empty, and tor-
mented with a sense of hunger. I remember how narrowly the children watched the growth of the potato tops, pumpkin and squash vines, hoping from day to day, to get something to answer in the place of bread. How delicious was the taste of the young potatoes when we got them! What a jubilee when we were permitted to pull the young corn for roasting ears. Still more so when it had acquired sufficient hardness to be made into johnny cakes by the aid of a tin grater."1
The agriculture of the North has gradually been transformed until now the commercial element dominates. Manufacturing was for a long time a household industry carried on by nearly every farm family, but in the course of time more and more of this work was turned over to those who made a specialty of manufactures. The swift streams of New England were harnessed, and made to turn the wheels of industry. This movement followed but slowly the path of the pioneer farmer, yet in the course of time the older parts of the North became noted for their manufactures. With the development of manufactures, a market has grown up for the ordinary forms of farm produce, such as wheat, oats, pork, beef and dairy products. As markets have developed and the means of transportation have been
improved, the old self-sufficing agriculture has been gradually transformed into a commercial economy, until the remnants, only, of the old system are now to be found.
From the standpoint of the farmer, the guiding principle in the organization of commercial agriculture is to seek the largest net profit ; but there is another point of view than that of the farmer. Since not only the farmer, but every one else is interested in agriculture, the question arises, are the interests of the country as a whole best conserved when each farmer follows tenaciously his own self-interest and succeeds in winning the largest net profits in return for the effort which he expends in agricultural production? There may be at certain points, a conflict between the narrower and the broader interests. In this case we are confronted with the problem of determining whether the individual or the general interest should be promoted. To the extent that the greatest good to the greatest number demands that the general or social interests be conserved, it falls within the domain of our subject to propose institutions which will limit the free action of individuals in such a manner as to promote the highest interests of society as a whole.
But while human welfare or the greatest good to the greatest number has long been recognized as the standard by which every law or custom should be accepted or rejected, this principle is
so abstract that men may be fully agreed upon its acceptance as their standard, and yet hold exactly opposite opinions as to the desirability of a particular measure. The statesman needs a more concrete standard which may be used with safety in his efforts to set proper limits to the free action of farmers and of those with whom they have economic relations, in the pursuance of their daily toils.
The highest value of the productions of a country has been set forth as a practical economic ideal for the statesman. It has been said that "the prosperity of a nation is in proportion to the value of its productions."1 This is the economic ideal which was set forth by their leaders as the aim and the end of the Patrons of Husbandry in their efforts to promote the interests of agriculture.
To this principle, as an economic ideal, it might be objected that legislation may be of such a character as to increase the value of the agricultural productions of a country and at the same time not improve the economic well-being of the people of the country as a whole. It is quite conceivable, for example, that duties on imports may be so levied as to increase the total value of the agricultural products of a country, without increasing the prosperity of the nation as a whole.
ideal shall be attained, that the labor and the capital of a country be properly distributed among the various lines of economic activity. The labor and the capital of a nation should be so distributed among the various industries that the portion of these factors which is employed under the most unfavorable circumstances shall be equally pro^ ductive in all industries. The necessity of this proper adjustment of the productive forces should ever be kept in mind in the discussion of the movements of population from country to city or vice versa.
When the productive forces are properly distributed among the various lines of production, and where the relative values of products are not to be directly affected, it would seem that a just and practical ideal to be held in mind when passing judgment upon the institutions which limit and define the rights of the farmers in their relations to each other, to their landlords, to laborers which they employ, and to those to whom they sell their products, would be the highest value of the agricultural productions of a country.
We wish to mark out clearly trie distinction between the social ideal and the ideal of the individual. The individual seeks the largest net profits. He desires to have that share of the , product which is left to him, after paying what is necessary to engage the other factors of production, as large as possible. Where the personal
interest of the farmer does not extend to all of the factors of production, conflicting interests are certain to arise, as between the landlord and the tenant, or the employer and the employee. While the farmer is interested, personally, in having his own share of the produce large in proportion to the efforts which he puts forth, the statesman should be interested equally in having the returns to all the factors of production as large as possible. It is, therefore, not the return to any one factor in particular, but the sum of the returns to all the factors which should be of vital interest to the statesman. With the limitations which have been suggested, the highest long-timeaverage value of the total product of this industry, is, then, the goal, when agriculture is viewed from the standpoint of the nation as a whole.
It will be our purpose in the following chapters, to outline the economic principles which the farmer follows when intelligently seeking to win the largest possible net profits; and also to note those circumstances under which the winning of the largest net profits on the part of the farmer does not result also in the highest value of the agricultural productions of the country as a whole. It will be attempted, further, to outline some of the methods which have been employed by public authority in its attempts to promote the agricultural interests, and to discuss the institutions which are essential to a proper adjustment
CHAPTER V
THE ORGANIZATION OF THE FARM. THE SELECTION OF LAND, LIVE STOCK AND EQUIPMENT; THE CHOICE OF CROPS; THE PLACE OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN THE ECONOMY OF THE FARM.
Section I. The selection of land and capitalgoods, or, the grades of the factors of production which should be brought together. — With the three factors of production to be organized in such a manner as will enable him to win the largest net profits, the first problem before the farmer is the selection of land, live stock and equipment. It has been seen that all the factors vary in productivity, and the question arises as to which grade of land a given farmer should select for his agricultural operations, and which grade of capital-goods he should employ.
The proportions in which the factors of production should be brought together will be discussed in the next chapter. There we shall have to do with the quantities of labor and capitalgoods which should be expended upon a given area of land, the quantity of labor which should be associated with a given quantity of capitalgoods, and the quantity of land, labor and capital-
goods which should be brought under one manL agement in order that the best results shall be attained; but in this chapter quantities or proportions will be disregarded, and our attention will be fixed upon the qualities of these factors, with a view to determining which grades of land, laborers, horses, machines, etc., should be associated together.
When viewed from the standpoint of the highest value of the productions of a country it becomes apparent that the farmers who are qualitatively most efficient, should employ the most productive grades of capital-goods upon the most productive land. A mathematical illustration of this is as follows. Let the grades of farmers be represented by the figures 2, 4, and 6 ; the grades of capital-goods by the figures i, 3, and 5 ; and the grades of land by the figures 8, 10, and 12. Having in mind that a given grade of land, for example, will yield twice as much product in value if farmed by the man whose efficiency is represented by figure four as it will if managed by the one whose efficiency is represented by figure two, etc., for the other grades and factors, let the reader try to multiply these figures together, taking one figure from each group, in such a manner that the sum of the products will be the greatest possible. Note that when the highest from each group are associated together, and the medium, and again the lowest are in turn associated together the sum
of the products will be the greatest possible, as for example, (2x3x12) + (4x5x10) + (8xix6)= only 320, whereas (2x1x8) + (4x3x10) + (6x5x 12) =496, which is the maximum product which can be obtained.
The question arises at once as to the willingness of the farmers to select land according to this principle. There is no apparent reason why the best farmers should object to using the best land and the best live stock and equipment, but it is clear that the least efficient farmer could produce larger crops upon the more productive grades of land and by using the more productive forms of capital-goods than he can on the less productive land and by using the less productive horses and tools to which this formula assigns him. The fact which reconciles the less efficient farmers to the use of the lower grades of the factors of production, is the competitive price which must be paid for the use of the higher grades, For example, the farmers who are qualitatively more efficient can pay more for the use of the more productive land than their less efficient competitors can possibly pay, and yet at these higher rents these more efficient farmers find it to their interest to select the higher grades of land. This proposition will be further developed in the chapter on the distribution of wealth, where it will be shown more clearly why it is that the interest of
society as a whole in this regard.
After the student has followed through the further development of the subject this principle will not seem so abstract as it may appear on the surface. It will then be seen that if a farmer is only able to make a living on land with a low degree of productivity, that the chances of his making a living and paying the rent on the better grades of land where the rent will be higher, are very poor indeed. On the other hand if a farmer can make a profit on the low grade land, which enables him to lay aside something each year, the chances are that such a farmer can increase his savings by selecting more productive land and paying a higher rent for its use. The writer has known farmers who succeeded in making a living on cheap land, but who utterly failed to make the rent when they moved to better land, whereas there were other farmers who could pay the rent for the more productive land, and have more money left at the end of the year than they could possibly have had in case they had farmed the less productive land which could be had for a much lower rent.
This process of shifting the farmers who are qualitatively less efficient to the less productive land operates more or less automatically. The writer once knew a farmer who paid a cash rent for a farm of one hundred acres of good land.
Year after year he scarcely kept even, and would not have been able to make both ends meet had he not engaged in other work during a part of the year. Another farmer offered more for the use of the land than was being paid, and the old tenant gladly gave up the place rather than pay any more rent than he was paying. The second farmer has paid the higher rent and saved money year by year, and at the same time the first mentioned farmer moved to cheaper land where he has been able "to make a living and even a little more, and has not felt so keenly the burden of the rent.
It is a matter of common observation that the best farm land is usually occupied by intelligent and thrifty farmers, whereas the less desirable land is usually occupied by men not so well endowed by nature to put the land to its highest use, and hence who are not capable of competing for the more productive grades of land. The writer's attention was called to this fact, with regard to the distribution of the population over i the different grades of land, some years ago, both by Professor Turner and by Professor Van Hise of the University of Wisconsin ; but it was later, in a study of the influence of variations in the qualitative efficiency of farmers upon the amount of rent that would be paid for the use of farm land under competitive conditions, that the economic principle which explains this fact was discovered. 63
It will be shown, in the chapter on distribution, that the net profit which any farmer can make will vary with the grade of the land ; that the farmer who has the highest degree of qualitative efficiency can make much more than a living on land of any grade, but that he can make the largest net profit on the most productive land after outbidding all competitors for its use. It will be shown that the farmer whose degree of qualitative efficiency is half \vay between the highest and the lowest, can make a living on many of the different grades of land, but that owing to the higher rents which the more efficient are willing to pay for the better grades of land, he can secure the largest net profit by employing that grade of land which corresponds to his degree of qualitative efficiency. And finally it will be shown that the farmer with the lowest degree of qualitative efficiency can hope to make a living only on the least productive land. The same principle holds with regard to the selection of capital-goods, and also of laborers where laborers are employed.
Attention has been called to the variation in the efficiency of the farmers, but it should be noted also that the efficiency of a given farmer may be different in the various branches of the agricultural industry. A man can usually do best that for which he has a natural liking or taste. Each farmer should decide, therefore, which branch of agriculture he can follow to best advan-
tage and then select the grade of land and capitalgoods, suited to that branch of agriculture, which correspond to his degree of qualitative efficiency as a producer in that branch of the industry, for such a choice will enable him to win the largest net profit.
Section II. The selection of crops and the organisation of the -field-system. — When the land is selected on which the farmer is to carry on his agricultural operations, the next important question which arises pertains to the selection of the crops which are to find a place in the field-system. The Roman agricultural writer, Pliny the elder, quotes a maxim which was said to have been handed down from the ancients, to the effect that he is a bad farmer indeed who will buy anything which he can produce upon his own farm.1 But Albrecht Thaer, the leading German agriculturist of one hundred years ago, and perhaps the greatest agriculturist Germany has produced, taught the farmers of his generation to produce nothing for themselves which they could to better advantage purchase upon the market.2 The maxim quoted by Pliny points towards the self-sufficing economy of early times when the goal of the husbandman was the direct satisfaction of all the
wants of his household; but Thaer lived at a time when commerce had so developed and industry had become so diversified that production for the market had become very important. The followers of Thaer learned to select those crops which would enable them to win the largest net profits, and to exclude all others from the fieldsystem.
This process of selecting the crops which enable the farmer to win the largest net profits is an important factor in determining the geographical distribution of farm crops in modern times. While all plants will not thrive under the same conditions, there are usually several species present to compete for the use of each piece of land. When Nature is left to herself, the plants which are best fitted for this competitive struggle survive and occupy the land; but when man intervenes the useful plants are given especial care while the plants which are harmful or of no use are destroyed.
Under the self-sufficing economy of earlier times, all the useful plants which could be made to thrive were cultivated on each farm. The greater the variety of crops which each husbandman could produce the greater the degree of his well-being, for each household was a little economic world striving to subsist upon the immediate products of its own industry. ' But under the regime of modern commercial agri-
culture, where each farmer produces primarily for the city, national, or world market, and buys upon the market the majority of the goods he consumes, his well-being depends less upon the variety of his own productions, and more upon his power to command the desired commodities upon the market. This power does not depend upon the variety, but upon the cost, quantity, and price of the articles which he takes to the market. Cost, or cheapness of production, is not the one determining factor ; neither is the quantity of the product. The selling price would also be a poor guide in itself. But when the cost of producing an article, the quantity which one man can produce, the capacity of the crop to fit itself into the fieldsystem, and the farm price of the product, are all taken together, it will be found that, with prices as they are at a given time, some crops will net the farmer a handsome profit, while others can be grown only at a loss. The economic wellbeing of the modern farmer depends, then, upon his capacity to select and produce that crop or combination of crops which, one year with another, will enable him to win the largest net profit.
The organization of the farm is essentially different from that of the factory. In mechanical pursuits it is the common thing for each man to devote all of his time throughout the year to the production of that one article or class of articles
which he can produce to the best advantage. In agriculture, however, the production of any one crop requires the attention of the farmer for only a portion of the year, and various crops demand his attention at different seasons, so that his labor, horses, and machines are usually employed more economically in a system of diversified farming than in a single crop system, even if the crop needing attention at one time is less profitable than that requiring attention at another time.
The crops which require attention at the same time of the year may be looked upon as a group of competing crops. Those crops which require cultivation for six or eight weeks during the early period of their growth, such as maize, cotton, tobacco, potatoes, sugar beets, etc., may be classed together as a group of competing crops, because they compete for the attention of the farmer, — for his labor, horses, tools and machinery. The winter grains, rye and winter wheat, or the spring grains, oats, barley, and spring wheat, may be given as other groups. These separate groups may be called non-competing groups, because the members of one group require the attention of the farmer at a different time than do the members of the other groups. For example, maize, cotton, etc., do not compete with oats, barley, etc.
The farmer who seeks to use his labor and capital to the best advantage should select from each group of competing crops that one which will add
the most to the farmer's net profit and should introduce as many non-competing crops into the field-system as will add sufficient to his net profit to pay him for his trouble. When this principle is followed it will often happen that of two noncompeting crops in the field-system, one will yield a larger net profit than the other. Yet when the year's accounts are balanced, it will be found that the total net profit of the farmer is greater when both crops are cultivated than when but the one is grown, even if the one is less profitable than the other, for each crop represents the most profitable use to which the labor, horses, tools and machinery can be put at the given time, and if not used in that way they must be put to a less productive use or to no use at all.
But of two competing crops, only the more profitable one should be produced. Take maize and sugar beets, for example, in that part of the United States where the sugar-beet region lies within the "corn belt." Indian corn and beets require the attention of the farmer at the same time of year and if the one crop increases the other must decrease. Hence beets must here prove equally profitable, that is they must add as much as maize to the farmer's total net profit, before they can be cultivated without loss. The beets may yield the larger net profit per acre, and yet prove less profitable to the farmer because he cannot operate so many acres of beets as of
maize. In order to arrive at the total net profit which he can win from the production of a given crop, the net profit per acre must be multiplied by the number of acres which the farmer can operate.
Cotton and maize are competitors in the South. For many years after the Civil War cotton yielded a much greater net profit to the farmers than did maize. As a result, maize was little grown in the South, the supply being drawn from the North where cotton does not thrive. Toward the close of the last century the profits of cotton growing considerably declined and maize production took a more important place in the field-system of the South.
When the above principle is followed in the organization of the field-system, it will not be true, necessarily, that each crop will be grown where the facilities for its production are the greatest; for it may happen, for example, that in the region where the facilities for the production of tobacco are the best, sugar beets will yield a larger net profit than tobacco, in which case the latter crop might well be excluded from the fieldsystem in the very region where, aside from the element of rent, it can be produced most cheaply.
It is evident that changes in the relative value of farm products will necessitate changes in the organization of the field-system. If the price of one of two competing crops should rise more rapidly than that of the other, this might result in a
change from the one crop to the other. Changes of this kind often come about in certain districts, because of the growth of a great industrial and commercial center in that part of the country. Take, for example, the farms located within a few miles of Chicago. Seventy years ago there was practically no home market, and the farmers, to the extent that they produced for the market at all, produced those crops which when shipped to the East would yield the largest net profit ; but in the meantime "the development of a market close at hand has greatly influenced the organization of these farms. The local demand for milk and for garden produce has made it most profitable for the farmers to devote themselves more or less •exclusively to dairying and market gardening. This is due to the well known fact that location with respect to the market has a greater influence upon the price of some commodities than upon that of others; that is, a dollar's worth of one commodity can be shipped more cheaply or in better condition than can a dollar's worth of another commodity. Thus it is that the farmer must ever be alert to the changes which are going on in the whole industrial world if he would perfectly adjust his production in such a manner as will bring the largest net profits.
Fluctuations in land rents, without any change in the relative value of the products, may necessitate the reorganization of the field-system. Sup-
pose, for example, that the rent of a given piece of land is three dollars per acre, and that the net profit per acre is five dollars when the land is devoted to maize, and that the net profit is twenty dollars per acre when the land is devoted to sugar beets; but that the farmer can operate thirty-five acres of maize and only seven acres of beets. Then he could win one hundred and seventy-five dollars net profit by producing maize, and only one hundred and forty dollars by producing beets. But, suppose the rent of the land should rise to five dollars per acre, without any change in the prices of the products or in the costs of production. The profits per acre of maize would then be three dollars, and that of an acre of beets would be eighteen dollars, so that, with the same proportions as to the number of acres which the farmer can operate of these two crops, the total net profit which he could win from the production of maize would be reduced to one hundred and five dollars, while that from the beets would have been reduced to one hundred and twenty-six dollars only. In this hypothetical case the rise in the rent would result in a subtraction of only fourteen dollars from the total profits of the beet crop, while it would result in a reduction of the profits on maize of seventy dollars, so that the crop which was the more profitable before the rise in the rent would become the less profitable as a result of the rise in rent.
It is a well recognized fact that the different crops make different demands upon the soil. For this reason the crops which are associated together in the systems of rotation should be such as will make supplementary demands upon the soil's elements of fertility. This in itself, however, is not a safe guide in determining which plants should be introduced into the field-system ; for it might lead to the cultivation of the less profitable of two competing crops and thus reduce the farmer's total net profit. Yet it should ever be kept in mind that if one of two competing crops exhausts the soil while the other adds to its fertility, this must be taken into account when calculating the net profit which these crops can be made to yield. The crops being chosen which will, one year with another, enable the farmer to win the largest net profit, they should be arranged in the field-system in such a manner as best to supplement each other in their demands upon the soil.
A comparative study of the crops and fieldsystems of Europe and America will throw some light upon the situation in America. A threefield system of crop rotation prevailed throughout Europe during the Middle Ages. Under this system, the arable land was divided into three parts. One part was sown with winter grain, one part with spring grain, and the third part was fallowed. The fallowed field was cultivated carefully to destroy the weeds and to bring the soil
into good tilth. The field which was fallowed one year was sown to winter grain the next, and to spring grain the following year, so that each field was cleaned of weeds and brought into good tilth every third year, during which year the field yielded no product.
This system was in very general use throughout Europe down to the close of the Eighteenth Century, but by that time the industrial and commercial population was making such demands for agricultural products that the more intelligent farmers began to think it too great a waste to cultivate a third of the arable land each year with no crop growing upon it. A general search was made for a crop which could be grown in place of the bare fallow, and at the same time allow the soil to be cleaned of weeds and cultivated preparatory for the sowing of grain. Indian corn had already been introduced in the countries along the Mediterranean, but unfortunately this crop, which is the one grain crop which can be cultivated successfully while growing, was ruled out by the climate, in the greater part of Europe, so that turnips, potatoes, and beets were resorted to. Besides the root crops, clover was introduced, and the rotation changed into a four-course system in which roots, summer grain, clover, and winter grains succeeded each other in the order given. On heavy clay soils where the root crops would not thrive beans sometimes took the place
of the root crop in this four-course system. During the last quarter of the Eighteenth Century and the first half of the Nineteenth, this four-course system gradually replaced the old three-field system and its bare fallow. The root crops came to be called "fallow crops" because they were looked upon as incidental to the fallowing of the land in preparation for the grain crops. The grains continued, at least until 1875, to be the most valuable crops.
Since the fall in the price of cereals, about thirty years ago, the European field-system has been quite upset. Those articles which will not stand long shipment, such as milk, vegetables, etc., prove most profitable, because foreign counu tries cannot compete so successfully upon the European markets. As a result grain land has, in many instances, been converted into pastures. A good example of this is found in eastern England where many old wheat fields have been converted into permanent pastures for dairy cows. The production of green fodders for cattle has proved relatively more profitable in recent years than formerly. Truck farming has been rapidly developed. In general, the tendency has been for the farmers to disregard all systems of crop rotation and produce such crops as will enable them to secure the greatest net profit. Commercial fertilizers are generally used, so that it is possible to adjust the chemical content of the soil to the
chemical content of the soil.
The old three-field system was the rule in northern and western Europe during the first two centuries of American colonization, yet the bare fallow never became permanently established in the American colonies. The colonists were, from the beginning, well provided with valuable crops, which could be cultivated while growing. Indian corn and tobacco made the bare fallow unnecessary and practically unknown in this country long before "fallow crops" were generally introduced in northwestern Europe. And while our country has greatly expanded, cotton, maize and tobacco have continued to make fallowing unnecessary in most parts of the United States. In parts of Canada, and in the United States along the northern border, along the Pacific coast, and on the high table lands of the plains these crops will not thrive, and the conditions with regard to available crops are more nearly the same as in western Europe.
Thus, of the group of competing crops to which Indian corn, cotton, tobacco, and roots belong, the farmers of northwestern Europe have only the roots to select from. It is true that small areas are devoted to tobacco in northern Germany, but this is of no general significance. Hence, in Germany, for example, sugar beets
have only to prove more profitable than potatoes, which are grown in large quantities for the distilleries, or turnips, and fodder beets, which are grown for the feeding of cattle, in order to be introduced with profit into the field-system. Whereas in the "corn belt" of the United States, sugar beets must prove as profitable as maize before there is any economy in their introduction.
Under these circumstances it might be true that the facilities for producing sugar beets were greater in the "corn belt" of the United States than in Germany; and yet in case the maize, which cannot be grown in Germany, should prove more profitable than the beets there would be no economy in producing beets in the United States, while at the same time they might prove profitable in Germany, in spite of the poorer facilities, because of the lack of a more profitable crop to take their place in the field system. This example illustrates the principle which was well understood by the classical economists, namely, that: "A thing may sometimes be sold cheapest, by being produced in some other place than that at which it can be produced with the smallest amount of labor and abstinence."1
Section HI. The place of animal husbandry in the economy of the farm. — The importance of live stock in the economy of the farm is shown
by the fact that on June i, 1900, the live stock on farms represented fifteen per cent, of the total value of all farm property; and by the further fact that the value of the animal products sold or consumed by the farmers in 1899, represented forty-five and seven-tenths per cent, of the total value of all farm products sold or devoted to the personal use of the farmers and their families during the same year. The following table shows the valuation of farm property1 and products2 as reported in the twelfth census.
The value of crops fed to stock, in 1899, was reported as $974,941,046, or 32.3 per cent, of the total reported value of all crops of the country. These crops and the pastures of the country formed the basis for the production of the $i,718,990,221 worth of live stock products. Of the total value of animal products sold or used, the most important items were the value of animals sold and slaughtered, which was $912,786,424, and that of dairy products, which was $472,369,255.
There are certain crops such as cotton and tobacco which are always intended for the mar*ket in their native form, but there are many other crops, such as the grains and the hay and forage crops, which may be sold in their native form or transformed by the farmer into animal products. The farmer has ever before him, therefore, the problem of determining whether the largest net profit can be obtained by selling or by feeding these crops.
The farmer who feeds and properly looks after hogs, cattle, or sheep, cannot spend as much time in the field as he who keeps no stock of these kinds. The dairy industry comes more into competition with the crops of the fields, than do the other live stock industries. But while a part of the time devoted to live stock must be subtracted from the time which can be spent in the field, yet, for the most part, the live stock industry is supplementary to the other branches of agricultural production. Live stock requires the especial attention of the farmer in the winter when nothing can be done in the fields. In the summer, when the farmer is busy in the field, much of the live stock is shifting for itself in the pasture, and there is usually enough time when the ground is too wet for work in the field, to permit the farmer to give the needed attention to the live stock which is in the pasture.
To the extent that the live stock industry is supplementary, in its demands upon the time and energy of the farmer, to the production of farm crops, he has only to decide whether the additions to his total net profit, resulting from the transformation of the various crops into animal products, are sufficient to remunerate him for the efforts put forth. But to the extent that the live stock industry encroaches upon the time and energy available for crop production, the problem of determining whether to sell his crops or conSo
vert them into animal products presents itself in practically the same form as that of selecting crops for the field-system. The general principle is simple, — seek the largest long-time-average net profit, — but the practical application of this principle is especially difficult, because of the limited extent to which these two lines of work come into conflict with each other. It can be said, however, that the live stock industry should enable the farmer to win -as large a net profit as he could secure from other sources, and enough more to make worth while the extra effort put forth when he could have found employment in no other line of productive activity, but which time might have been spent in enjoying the products of his labor or in improving his mind.
The problem of deciding upon the kinds of live stock to be kept should be solved by the principle which has already been discussed under the head of crop competition. It is perhaps true that personal likes and dislikes enter more largely into the situation here than in the selection of crops, but having taken this element into account, the various branches of live stock production may be classified according to whether they are more or less competitive with or supplementary to each other and with the field crops, in their demands upon the time and energy of the farmer, and then the selection should be made on the basis of the 6 81
profit.
One factor ever to be kept in mind in counting the profits of the live stock industry is the value, as fertilizer, of the manure, which is a very important by-product of this industry. This element is usually underestimated in a new country, but in the older countries where commercial fertilizers have long been necessary if the farmer would secure the largest net profit in the production of field crops, full value must be given to this by-product.
Professor Charles F. Curtiss, of the Iowa Agricultural College, says:1 "Maintenance of fertility is secured by rotation of crops, by chemical fertilizers, and by physical and bacteriological methods ; but . by none of these has the virgin strength of the soil been maintained over long periods except as plant production has been associated with animal husbandry. By selling dairy products in the form of butter and cheese and restoring the by-products by feeding the skim milk, buttermilk and whey we take from the soil but one-tenth of fertility lost by a grain crop. . . . If fertilizing material must be bought for the farm, it can, under all ordinary conditions, be bought in vastly cheaper form as feed stuffs and utilized as such, and the residue applied to the
soil, than by purchasing fertilizers outright. The very best of fertilizers are often obtained in this way without any direct outlay. The use of feed stuffs, rich in fertility, may even return a handsome profit as a separate proposition, and thus fertilizing constituents come on to the farm under most advantageous circumstances. The British and other European farmers buy large quantities of our flaxseed and corn by-products. They figure that they are the gainers even if they do not make any profit on their feeding operations with these products, and they are. Until recently the packing-house by-products, including dried blood and tankage in various forms, have practically all gone direct to the land as fertilizers. To-day these products are serving a most important purpose as feed stuffs, and the time is near at hand when practically every pound .of this material will first be utilized as stock food, and later returned to the soil. The returns are so much greater and so much more economical in this way as to put the purely commercial-fertilizer farmer out of business in the space of a few years at the outside, where other conditions are similar."
The feeding of grain, hay, and fodder to live stock is an effective means of converting these crops into products of higher specific value, which will better stand the costs of transportation to distant markets. "Cattle and hogs not only convert, but also condense Indian corn. They enable it
to be profitably raised in regions too far removed from the markets of the country to be transported in that form. By condensing the Indian corn to one-fifth or one-sixth of its bulk and weight, and reducing the cost of transportation in something like a similar proportion, the possibility is secured of raising Indian corn in regions situated thousands of miles from the market at which the corn products or, what is practically the same, the pork and beef are consumed."1
Maize is produced primarily for the feed lot. Only 18.7 per cent, of the maize crop of the United States, for 1903, was shipped out of the county where it was grown.2 Twenty-eight and six-tenths per cent, of the oat crop3 and 57.9 per cent, of the wheat crop4 was shipped out of the county where grown. But the proportion of the maize crop which is fed varies greatly in the difr ferent parts of the country. The farmers of Illinois produced 264,087,431 bushels of maize, in 1903, 52.8 per cent, of which was shipped out of the county where it was grown, and 41 per cent, of which was yet in the hands of the farmers on March i, 1904; whereas the Iowa farmers produced 229,218,220 bushels of maize in the same year and only 6 per cent, of their crop was shipped
30 per cent, of the crop on hand March i, I9O4.1
That the Iowa farmers feed their maize more generally than do the Illinois farmers is indicated by the fact that the principal source of income on 40.5 per cent, of the farms of Illinois was hay and grain, and on 43 per cent, it was live stock; whereas in Iowa the principal source of income was hay and grain on but 32 per cent, of the farms, and live stock was the principal source of income on 58." 5 per cent, of the farms.2 There were 3,710,020 hogs in the state of Illinois on January i, 1904, while there were 7,364,268 in Iowa.3 On the same date there were 2,689,193 cattle in Illinois and 4,865,626 in Iowa.4 These facts point definitely to a great difference in the farm organization in these two states.
There are, doubtless, several reasons for this difference in the farm economy of these two states, but distance from the markets is certainly a very important factor. The distilleries of Illinois make a demand for materials valued at $3,734,652^ and by far the most important of these materials is maize,6 while no maize was used for this purpose in Iowa. The glucose factories of Illinois used materials valued at $12,988,845.
which was, doubtless, practically all maize ; whereas, the material used for this purpose in Iowa was valued at $2,784,388.1 There was more starch made from maize in Iowa than in Illinois, it is true, but the total value of the materials used for this purpose in Iowa was only $623,8 14.2 On the whole, therefore, it is clear that the local manufacturing industries make a much greater demand for maize in Illinois than in Iowa.
Chicago is so located as to be the principal market for maize shipped from both states and the Illinois farmers have the advantage over the Iowa farmers in lower freight rates to this market. Chicago is the largest "primary market" for maize in the country. During the fifty-two weeks ending January 2, 1904, the receipts of maize at Chicago were 91,560,168 bushels, and the shipments from this market were 87,523,525 bushels.3 So far as the writer has been able to ascertain, the freight rate per one hundred pounds of hogs in car-load lots from the various Iowa and Illinois railway stations to Chicago, is about twice that for maize in car-load lots from the same stations. It appears, also, that the rates for these commodities are, on the average, about twice as high from the Iowa as from the Illinois stations. On the assumption that the feeding of
the maize to hogs and cattle condenses the product to one-sixth its original weight, there would be a considerable saving in freight, by such con1densation of the product, in Illinois as well as in Iowa, but the saving would be twice as great for the Iowa farmers as for the Illinois farmers, and as the price of maize rises, the point where it would be more profitable to ship the maize than to convert it into live stock products would be reached in Illinois before it would be reached in Iowa.
ENCE TO INTENSITY OF CULTURE.
Agriculture is said to be extensive or intensive according to the amount of labor, capital-goods, and managerial activity devoted to each acre of land. When a small amount of labor, capitalgoods, and managerial activity is employed on each acre of land the culture is said to be extensive, when a large amount, it is said to be intensive. There is variation also in the amount of labor which is associated with a given amount of capital-goods. In the United States we use relatively large amounts of capital-goods compared with the amounts of labor employed, while the reverse is true in China. There may be wide variations, also, in the amount of managerial activity associated with a given amount of labor and capital-goods. At a given time and place some definite proportion of each of these factors should be associated if the best results are to be attained.
Not forgetting that "the largest total net profit" is the ideal which we have ever before us, when considering this subject from the standpoint of the farmer, let us assume that the farmer has at his command, land, laborers, and capital-goods already brought together in the most desirable proportions. Then, leaving until later the discussion of the rules which should be followed in determining these proportions, we shall first attempt to ascertain the number of composite units, made up in the proper proportions of the other factors, which should be brought under a given amount of managerial activity.
Assuming that a farmer wishes to devote a given amount of effort to the management of agricultural operations, the question arises whether he should give this effort to a large number of these composite units and give but little attention to each unit, or devote this same amount of managerial activity to a small number, and give very close attention to each unit. If the number of these composite units under one management be increased, without any increase in the amount of effort put forth on the part of the manager, so that less and less attention is given to each unit, a gradual decrease in the return per unit will take place as the number of units is increased, until finally a point will be reached where all of the net profit secured by adding another unit will be absorbed by the subtractions from the
returns to the units already employed. In other words, each succeeding composite unit brought under a given amount .of managerial activity will add less and less to the total product until finally the point will be reached where the net addition to the total product due to an additional composite unit will no more than pay the costs of engaging the cooperation of such unit, and at this point the additions should cease if the farmer would attain to the ideal, that is, if he would secure the largest net profit for a given amount of exertion.
This point may be illustrated by means of the following table, in which the number of composite units (a unit may be thought of in this illustration as one laborer and the amount of capital-goods and land which should be associated with him) to be associated with one unit of managerial activity (which may be thought of as the amount of such activity which one farmer wishes to devote to agricultural production) is increased from one to ten, and as a result of the increase in the number of the composite units brought under the one management the net profit per corrtposite unit is represented as gradually falling from $260 to $40, while the resulting net profit per unit of managerial activity is represented as increasing until after the fifth composite unit is added, after which it is represented as falling.
10 40 400
The figures here used are selected more or less arbitrarily, it is true, but we believe they illustrate quite clearly the general truth that, as the number of the composite units brought under one management is increased, the average return per composite unit, and hence the average net profit per composite unit will fall, but that for a time this fall in the net profit per composite unit is more than balanced by the increase in the number of such units, and the net profit per unit of managerial activity continues to increase until finally the point is reached where the net profit per unit of managerial activity reaches its maximum, and if the number of composite units associated with a given amount of. managerial activity be increased beyond this point the net profit per unit of the latter, and hence the total net profit which the farmer will be able to secure as a manager, will be reduced below the possible maximum.
devoted to a small number of the composite units of the other factors, the management may be said to be intensive, and when a small amount the management may be said to be extensive. The proper degree of intensity of management is that which yields the largest net profit per unit of managerial activity, and this point will be reached when the addition of another composite unit would add to the total product no more than enough to pay the costs of enlisting its cooperation. This principle applies to the different factors severally as well as collectively. The amount of land brought under one management may be increased to advantage until the last increment results in a net addition to the total product no greater than the rent which must be paid to secure the use of the land. The same proposition holds for the other factors. But the problem still remains as to the proportions which will exist between the three factors, land, capital-goods, and hired laborers, when the amount of each of these brought under one management is determined by this rule. These proportions and especially the amount of labor and capital-goods to be used upon a given area of land may, with profit, be considered in considerable detail.
Let us first consider the proportions which should exist between laborers and capital-goods in this composite unit, and then try to ascertain the proportions which should exist between land
In the case of a farmer who hires no laborers, but performs all the labor himself, the first of these problems merges itself into the one we have just discussed, and the simple statement will suffice that : additions to the supply of capital-goods are justifiable so long as such increments result in a net addition to the total product, greater than the cost of securing their cooperation in production. But where the farmer devotes his time primarily to the management of the farm and hires large numbers of laborers, the proportions in which these two factors should be brought together is not a simple problem.
There is no fixed ratio, which holds good for all times and all places, between the number of laborers and the amount of capital-goods which should be employed in the production of any particular crop, and of course the proportion will vary with the crops which are being produced. Nearly everything that is now done by machinery has one time been done by hand, and much that is now done by hand may some day be done by machinery. At a given time and place, however, there should exist a certain ratio between the number of laborers and the amount of capital1goods brought together in any particular line of production, in order that the farmer may win the largest net profit for his efforts.
It often happens that a fixed number of laborers must be combined with certain capital-goods ; for •example, one man is required for each harvesting machine; but in many cases it may be a matter of indifference, aside from the element of profit, whether the work be done by hand or by horse power and machinery. In the production of wheat, for example, the proportion of capitalgoods might be reduced and the same produce obtained by increasing the number of laborers. The reverse of this proposition is also true. But while these variations may be made arbitrarily they have an influence upon the amount of the farmer's share of the product. Of all the various operations necessary to produce and market a bushel of wheat, some can be performed more cheaply by the use of horses and machines, others by means of laborers.
Where the farmer's aim is to have the net profit which is left after paying the hired laborers and paying for the use of the capital-goods, as large as possible, every operation should be performed by laborers, if this method will lower the costs of production, increase the product, or in any other way increase the net profits ; and everything should be done by means of horses and machines or other forms of capital-goods, which can be done to better advantage in that way. It may often happen that the cost of performing certain farm operations can be reduced by the use
of horses and machinery in the place of laborers, but it may at the same time happen that the product resulting from these operations is likewise reduced. It is not always true, therefore, that every operation should be performed in the least expensive manner, in fact, it may easily happen that the most expensive method will result in the largest net profit.
One point never to be overlooked in considering the desirability of substituting laborers for capital-goods or vice versa, is, the relative demand which will be made upon the time and energy of the manager. Any change in the proportions of these factors in the composite unit, which will increase the amount of managerial activity per such unit, must sufficiently increase the farmer's net profit per composite unit to balance the loss due to the reduction in the number of such units which can be brought under a given unit of managerial activity.
Where the substitution of the one factor for the other makes no change either in the quantity of the product or in the amount of managerial activity required, the rule is a simple one : where there is a choice between using laborers or capitalgoods in the performance of certain operations, choose the cheaper method. And yet, the qualifying phrases in this formula are so important that the problem is far from being a simple one, and in many cases, perhaps in most cases, it is the
more fundamental principle of seeking the largest net profit per unit of managerial activity, which must be kept uppermost in mind.
A change in the rate of wages without a corresponding change in the rate of return to capital, or vice versa, will necessitate a readjustment of the relative amounts invested in the employment of laborers and in the employment of capitalgoods. As wages rise relatively to the returns to capital-goods, there should be less labor and more capital-goods employed. Improvement in machinery often make it profitable to substitute capital-goods for laborers. The self-binder, the hay-loader, and the windmill are examples where this has been true.
Having decided upon the proportions in which laborers and capital-goods should be associated, the farmer is still confronted with the problem of determining how many composite units, made up of laborers and capital-goods in the proper proportions, should be employed upon a given area of land in the production of a given crop. This is the problem of determining the proper intensity of culture. There is always some degree of intensity which will yield the largest net profit ; but what is that degree of intensity?
For the sake of simplicity, let us first suppose that the farmer can get as much land of a given grade as he may want to use, without paying anything for its use. Under such circumstances,
how many composite units, composed of laborers and capital-goods should be associated with an acre of land? For the purposes of this illustration let us assume a small composite unit, the use of which costs the farmer one dollar. It is obvious that in the production of maize, for example, the application of one of these units, per acre of land, would ordinarily produce very little, if any maize at all. It is possible that the expenditure of two units would produce a small crop ; but then the third unit would increase the product more than the second, the fourth more than the third, and so on until a point of stationary returns has been reached, after which the succeeding units may be said to continue for a time to add less and less to the total product, until a point may be reached where further applications would add nothing to the total product. Thus in agricultural production the returns to succeeding composite units made up of laborers and capital-goods, may be said to follow the law of increasing returns until a point of stationary returns has been reached, after which the law of diminishing returns per succeeding unit commences to operate.
This may be illustrated by means of a diagram. In Fig. i the composite units of labor and capitalgoods applied to a given acre of land are measured on the line A B, commencing at A. The line A I' B represents the increasing and diminishing returns per succeeding unit. Having in mind land 7 97
with a given degree of productivity, the distance between the lines A B and A I' B will depend upon the degree of qualitative efficiency possessed by the farmer who operates the laborers and the capital-goods, and also upon the character of the laborers and capital-goods which he employs. For this reason it will be necessary to keep in mind a given farmer employing a given grade of laborers and capital-goods, as well as a given piece of land. With these conditions in mind we may speak of the area AC C (Fig. i) as representing the product which would result if but one unit were employed per acre, and of the area C C' Dr D as representing the increase in the product due to the addition of the second unit and so on for the succeeding units. As illustrated in Fig. i, the
Fig. i.
product of each succeeding unit is greater than the one preceding it until six units have been expended, after which each succeeding unit may be said to yield a smaller product than the one immediately preceding it.
ORGANIZATION QF THE FARM
returns per succeeding unit operates during the application of a few units, after the final point of increasing return has been reached and before the starting point of diminishing returns per succeeding unit has been reached. It may be true also, that the line A I' in Fig. i, should rise rapidly with the application of one particular unit, say the fourth, and then remain stationary or even fall with the application of the fifth, and then rise very rapidly again with the application of the sixth. The introduction of drainage or the use of commercial fertilizers might bring such a result. There are at present no data from which to calculate the exact curve which the returns per succeeding unit will follow, but the general rise followed by a general fall is a matter of common observation.
With this illustration (Fig. i) before us, suppose the farmer has one thousand of these composite units, made up of laborers and capitalgoods, to expend in agricultural production. In other words, suppose that this farmer has found that he can secure the largest net profit when he operates just one thousand of these units of labor and capital-goods. With free land at his disposal, how many acres will he use and how many units will he employ upon each acre? Will he apply five units per acre and use two hundred acres of land? No, his expenditures will produce a greater total product when he employs six
units per acre and confines himself to one hundred and sixty-six and two-thirds acres. But will this make the labor and capital-goods most productive? On first thought one might answer yes, because the seventh unit adds less to the product than the sixth; but upon looking more closely into the matter, it is apparent that there is no good reason for ceasing to apply more units simply because the point of diminishing returns per succeeding unit has been reached. The seventh unit may add less to the total product than the sixth, and yet add more than any of the first four units, and the average product per unit may be greater when seven units have been applied than when only six have been expended. Hence the total product of the thousand units may be greater when seven units have been applied to each acre and only one hundred and forty-three acres of land employed. But at what point should the farmer cease to increase his applications per acre of land? It is obvious that there is a limit, that, for example, a thousand units expended upon one acre of land in the production of Indian corn would yield a smaller return per unit than when more land is used and the number of units applied to each acre more limited. But what is the limit? It is true that in the case before us the sixth unit increases the total product more than any unit before or after it, but all units cannot be sixth units. The first, the second, and
the third are indispensable ; and, in case a farmer can manage a fixed number of these composite units, made up of capital-goods and laborers, when employed in the production of a given crop without reference to the area on which they are employed, the highest average return per unit is the thing which he should seek, for with a fixed cost per composite unit this will enable him to secure the largest net profit per composite unit, consistent with the proper intensity of management, and hence will enable him to secure the maximum total net profit for his exertion.
In the illustration (Fig. i) the average product per unit is represented as increasing rapidly until the sixth unit has been applied and then less rapidly until a point is reached where the return per increment is just equal to the average. At this point the average return per unit reaches the maximum, and the application of another increment would reduce the average product per unit employed. The thousand composite units are used in the most economical manner when the acreage is so limited that the number of units applied to each acre is just sufficient to yield the maximum average return per unit. For example, the highest average return would be gained by the application of X units in the case before us in Fig. i, where the location of X is determined by the fact that the rectangle A V X' X is drawn in such a manner that its area equals the
area A T X' X, which represents the total product of X composite units of the two factors, laborers and capital-goods. That part of the rectangle lying between the line H H' and line 1 1', for example, represents the average return per unit. Had the applications stopped at I, after the application of but six units, the total product would be represented by the area A I' I, or the rectangle A W N I, and the average return per unit would have been less. Likewise had the applications been increased to nine units, the average return per unit would have fallen. Hence a curve of increasing and diminishing average returns may be drawn, based upon the increasing and diminishing returns of the successive composite units of labor and capital-goods. This curve of averages is represented by line AX' P (Fig. i) which is so drawn that it will pass through the upper right hand corner of any rectangle which has AC, A D, A E, etc., or any part thereof, as a base and which encloses an area equal to the area A C C, AD' D, A E' E, etc., respectively, as rectangles A W N I and A V X' X have been drawn in Fig. I.
As illustrated in Fig. i, the curve of averages reaches the highest point at X' and the highest average product per unit is gained by employing seven and two-fifths units per acre, and it will be seen at once that, since all the charges which must be deducted are a fixed amount per com-
posite unit of labor and capital-goods applied, the higher the average return per unit, the greater will be the farmer's net profit per composite unit, and under the assumption that, in the production of a given crop, the same amount of managerial activity is required per composite unit without regard to the area of the land on which it is employed, and when there is no rent to pay, the applications should increase until the point of maximum average returns per unit is reached. This is the most extensive agriculture that is consistent with the greatest net profit to the farmer under any circumstances; in the production of a given crop, and, under the above assumption as to demands upon managerial activity, it is the most intensive that is in accordance with the farmer's highest economic interest, where the use of land may be had free.
It has been said1 that the intensity of culture should be increased until the final increment adds no more to the total product than enough to cover the cost of that unit. If, in Fig. i, for example, the value of the product represented by a rectangle whose sides are K L and L L' equals the cost of securing the use of a composite unit, the applications should, according to this view, be increased just to point L. It is true that this would enable the farmer to secure the largest net profit per acre of land, but unless he be a marginal
farmer, in which case the two statements coincide, it would reduce his net profit per composite unit of the other factors. If the farmer were able to operate a given number of acres of land without regard to the degree of intensity of culture, then it would be desirable to secure the largest net profit per acre; but if he can, to advantage, manage only a given number of units of labor and capital-goods regardless of the area on which it is expended, then he should seek the largest net profit per unit of these factors.
It may be well at this point to devote a few lines to the assumption, that, within the limits of the variations in intensity of culture which is likely to exist in the production of a given crop, the same amount of managerial activity is required per composite unit composed of the two factors, laborers and capital-goods, without regard to the area of the land on which it is employed.
In general, we believe this assumption to be very near the truth. In the production of Indian corn, for example, the amount of managerial activity required for each laborer with the team and tools which are used by him would be the same whether thirty acres of the crop were cultivated three times, or the same laborer and capitalgoods were used in cultivating twenty-two and one-half acres of maize four times. Certainly if one must choose between this assumption, and the
assumption that the same amount of managerial activity is required for each acre of land, regardless of the intensity of culture, there is little question as to the choice. It is doubtless true that one man can superintend the operations of more laborers and capital-goods when they are brought together under one roof as in a large manufacturing plant than when they are distributed over a vast area of land, but on the farm and in the production of a given crop we believe that, as a rule, the demands upon the time and energy of the manager, per composite unit of the two factors, laborers and capital-goods, will remain practically the same regardless of the area on which such unit is expended. We shall proceed, therefore, upon this assumption in our attempt to ascertain the degree of intensity of culture which is most economical where land has acquired some value so that something must be paid for its use.
When a fixed sum per acre must be paid for its use, land should be cultivated more intensively than when it could be had free. Suppose, for example, that three dollars per acre must be paid for the use of land. We may think of this rent as taking all of the product of the first four and one-half, or R composite units of the factors applied (Fig. i). In this discussion we shall speak of that share of the product which is left after paying the rent, as a net return. The farmer may be said to receive no net return from his expendi-
tures until the rent is paid. Should he cease his applications when R units have been employed, the product would just pay the rent and he would lose the cost of the labor and capital-goods, besides receiving nothing for his trouble. Whatever he produces by further applications is the fund which gives rise to the net profits after the wages of hired laborers and the payment for the use of capital-goods have been withdrawn.
When there is no rent to pay, the farmer seeks the highest average gross return per unit of expenditure; but, where a fixed rent must be paid, he no longer seeks the highest average gross return, but the highest average net return per unit, for, under the assumption that, in the production of a given crop, the amount of managerial activity per composite unit of laborers and capital-goods remains the same regardless of the area on which it is expended, the largest net return per composite unit of these factors will enable the farmer to secure the largest net profit per unit of managerial activity put forth, and this is the goal in agricultural production when viewed from the standpoint of the farmer.
The average net return per unit follows the law of increasing and diminishing returns in the same manner as the average gross return; but, when a fixed rent is paid, the line of increasing average net return starts at point R (Fig. i) ; for all of the product up to point R is required to pay the
rent, and the average net return at that point is zero. After the application of five units the average net return per unit will be represented by onefifth of the area R R' H' H; for the total return minus the rent is represented by the area R R' H' H, and since five units have been applied this net return must be divided by five to find the average. Likewise after the application of the sixth unit, it will be one-sixth of the area R R' I' I. After the application of the seventh unit, the average will be one-seventh of the area R R' Kf K. Thus the line of average net returns (line R Y' P' in Fig. i ) rises rapidly until the line / /' is crossed, after which it rises less rapidly until it crosses the line /' B, after which it falls. When a fixed rent is paid, the line of average net returns can never rise so high as the line of average gross returns, and the point Y' , where the line of average net returns reaches its maximum distance from the base line A B, will always be farther to the right than point X' ; and hence the highest average net return per composite unit of labor and capital-goods employed on land for which a fixed rent must be paid, will be gained by a more intensive culture than when the same land could be had rent free.
When the farmer follows the rule of seeking the largest net profit for his exertion, the degree of intensity of culture on a given piece of land and in the production of a given crop will vary
with the amount of the fixed rent which is paid for its use, — the greater the amount of rent, the higher the degree of intensity, for when a higher rent must be paid for the use of the land a more intensive culture is necessary if the highest average net return is to be secured.
If the proposition is reversed and we think of successive increments of land being brought under a given number of composite units of the other factors, the simple statement will suffice that the amount of land should be increased until the final increment of land adds just enough to the total product to pay the cost of securing the use of the land.1 It will readily be seen that this would result in the degree of intensity of culture which will yield the largest net return per composite unit of the other factors. On the assumption, therefore, that one farmer can manage a given number of the composite units of labor and capital-goods without regard to the area on which it is expended, the same conclusion will be arrived at with regard to the proper degree of intensity of culture where land can be had free or where a fixed rent must be paid for its use, whether one adds successive units of the other factors to a given area of land until the average net return per unit reaches the maximum, or whether one adds successive acres of land to a
given number of the composite units of the other factors until the final increment of land adds just enough to the total product to pay the fixed rent which must be paid to secure the use of said increment of land.
The conditions are practically the same if the farmer owns the land which he cultivates as if he pays a fixed rent, the only difference being that he has paid for the perpetual use of the land, whereas the tenant pays annually for its use.
The payment of a share rent does not tend to increase the intensity of culture. The share rent increases as the total product increases; and it may be thought of as taking some fixed portion, say one-third, of the product of each succeeding unit of labor and capital-goods applied, so that the farmer gets only two-thirds of the product of each unit, and his share reaches the highest average return per unit with the same degree of intensity which yields the highest average gross return per unit. Hence, where the share tenants follow their own self-interest, they will farm no more intensively on the best land when less productive grades of land have been resorted to than when only the best grade was cultivated.
To illustrate this point, draw a curved line from A to B in Fig. 2, at such a distance from lines A I' B and A B as to leave two-thirds of the area of each section between the lines A B and A I B. Then draw a line through the points of
ctthmt? Sofpoie tint wage* and interest enty per cent; w>0 it then pay the former *t more unit* per acre? If the rent should
terest, and if the foregoing reasoning with
10 the proper nitensitf of cotore be true, gree of intensity in terms of ojujiitjlies of and capital-goods which would yield the t net return would not change; but the ex-
penditure per acre in value would be decreased and the profits of the farmer would be increased in the same proportion. This higher profit might increase the demand for land, however, and this would likely result in a rise in rents, after which it would pay to increase the quantity of labor and capital-goods employed, excepting in the case of the share tenant.
The intluence of a rise or fall in the price for which the product can be sold, will influence the degree of intensity only as it may affect the amount of rent which must be paid for the use of land. As prices rise the rent tends to rise and the degree of intensity should be increased, while the reverse is true in the case of falling prices. This is true because land of a given degree of productivity is limited, and as labor and capitalgoods increase in quantity, land of a less productive grade must be resorted to, and without improvements this is possible only when wages and interest fall or prices rise. But there is a close relation betueen the gross return which the marginal land \\ ill yield and the amount of wages and interest which labor and capital-goods can command on other grades of land. This means of course that as the less productive lands are morted to the rent which the competitors will for the better land will rise, and then the largest net retmu and hence the largest net profit
be gotten only by more intensive culture.
In this connection the influence of lower wages and lower interest and higher rents, upon the choice of crops, should be reviewed, because it often happens that a rise in rents will result in the change from a crop wrhich requires but little expenditure for labor and capital-goods per acre to one that requires large expenditures per acre.
That degree of intensity of culture which brings the largest net profit to the landowning farmer or to the tenant who has a fixed rent to pay, seems also to be that degree of intensity which makes the total amount of land, labor, capital-goods, and managerial activity employed in the agricultural industry, most productive. It appears, therefore, that at this point there is a harmony of interests between the individual and society as a whole; but it would seem that the interest of the share tenant is not in harmony with the interest of society as a whole in this regard, for if the better grades of land are farmed so extensively as the interest of the share tenant seems to dictate, poorer grades of land would need to be used in order that the labor and capitalgoods of the country be employed, and some of this labor and capital-goods on the marginal land would be creating a smaller product than it could be made to yield if employed in farming the better grades of land to a more intensive degree; and,
therefore, while a given share tenant could increase his net profit by this extensive culture, such culture would reduce the total value of the agri1cultural productions of the country as a whole.
The interest of the share tenant is also out of harmony with that of the landlord in this regard. Since it is to the interest of the landlord that the share which accrues to him as rent shall be as large as possible, he may desire that the intensity of culture be carried to the farthest extreme. So long as an increment of expenditure will add anything to the product it might seem to his interest to have the increment applied, for it would add to his income. Thus, stated in its extreme form, it would seem that while the share tenant would desire to farm so extensively that the average gross return per unit of labor and capital would reach the maximum, the landlord might desire that the gross return per acre should reach its absolute maximum, without regard to cost per unit of the product.
It is evident that the interest of the landlord as well as that of the share tenant is here in conflict with the interest of society as a whole; for to follow what seems to be the landlord's highest economic interest in this particular, would result in the reduction of the total agricultural product which could be produced with a given amount of social energy.
always be unable to induce his share tenant to farm any more intensively than an owner of land or a tenant with a fixed rent finds it to his interest to farm his land, for the tenant could otherwise do better by paying a cash rent or by taking up new land of nominal value. On the other hand, the share tenants are, in the United States, quite generally under the direct supervision of the owners of the land, who insist that the share tenant should farm as well as the owner would do. It may be true that this ideal is not often perfectly attained, and yet the tendency is for the landlord to so bring his influence to bear upon the share tenant that the social loss due to share tenancy is, perhaps, not very great. Yet this conflict between the interest of the landlord and that of his share tenant is a factor which becomes more and more difficult to adjust as land values rise.
PRINCIPLES
Suppose that a farmer who employs labor and capitalgoods of a given grade in the production of maize should find by experimentation, that, with wages, wear and tear, interest and other elements which must be taken into
account in figuring the cost of using capital-goods, as they were at a given time, the following varying expenditures would yield the corresponding varying results.
PROBLEMS
(1) Supposing that the farmer could get all the land he cared to use, rent free, either of the quality found in Field A or Field B ; which kind of land would it pay him the better to use ?
(2) When maize is worth 25 cents per bushel and a rent of $2.50 per acre is charged for the land of either grade, which grade would prove the more profitable to the farmer, and to what degree of intensity should he cultivate it?
to the landlord, as rent, to what degree of intensity would he farm each of the fields, A and B, if he followed his own highest economic interest? To what degree of intensity if he followed the highest economic interest of the landlord? Explain fully how society as a whole would lose in either case.
(4) When maize is worth 35 cents per bushel and the rent which must be paid for the use of the land in Field A is $5.00 per acre, what is the highest rent which the farmer could afford to pay for the use of the land in Field B ?
(6) How would the second problem (2) be affected if the price of corn should rise to 40 cents per bushel and the rent should at the same time rise to $4.00?
(7) How would problem three (3) be affected if the landlord should agree to take twelve and one-half bushels of maize per acre instead of one-third of the crop?
(8) Suppose that the rent of the land is $2.50 per acre and that with this rent the highest average net return per dollar's worth of labor and capital-goods is gained in the production of maize when $8 is expended per acre, and in beets when $32 is expended, and that the maize crop is worth $15 per acre, and the beets are worth $48 per acre, and further that the farmer can manage four times as many acres of maize as of beets and that the two crops are equally beneficial to the soil; which of the two crops would prove the more profitable to the farmer?
(9) Suppose that the rent rises to $5 per acre, the expenditure on maize to $9 and that on beets to $36, and that the maize crop is then worth $16.25 per acre, and the beet crop $53 per acre ; which would then prove the more profitable crop to the farmer?
(10) How would the 9th problem have been affected if the price of maize had risen ten per cent, without any corresponding change in the price of the beets?
FARMS IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES.
Section I. The economic principles which determine the size of farms. — The amount of land which a farmer should attempt to operate, in order that he may win the largest total net profit, depends upon many varying conditions : the kinds of crops which he grows ; the intensity of culture ; the character of the horses, the tools, and the machines which he uses ; the number and character of the laborers which he employs; and the efficiency of the farmer himself, are all important factors in determining the size of the farm which is most economical.
Where tobacco or sugar beets are cultivated, one man cannot operate so large a farm as where maize is the principal crop. In the tobacco districts of Dane County, Wisconsin, farms have decreased in size in recent years ; while in the dairy districts they are larger now than fifteen years ago. In New England, where mixed or grain farming has been unprofitable for the last twenty-five years, some regions have, in recent years, been devoted
to dairying, and others to fruit growing. Where fruit-growing has replaced the old agriculture farms are smaller than formerly. Where dairying has been generally introduced the average farm is larger than before the change.
Since intensive culture requires more labor upon a given area of land, it is impossible for one man to cultivate so many acres where the culture is intensive as where it is extensive. In new countries, where land is relatively abundant, extensive culture is generally most profitable and the average size of farms is usually greater than in older countries where land is scarce, land values very high, and intensive culture most profitable.
A farmer can use more land when he has the most efficient forms of capital-goods with which to work. The fact that five times as many men are often employed upon a given area of land in England as upon the same area in the United States is not explained wholly by the difference in the degree of intensity of culture in the two countries. The American farmers have, as is well known, much more and better labor-saving machinery than do the English.
The efficiency of the farmer is an important factor in determining how much land he can use to best advantage. The energetic man, whose clear head and strong arms enable him to plan his work most economically and to do it quickly, can operate a much larger farm than his neighbor who
THE SIZE OF FARMS
may be characterized by the opposite qualities. This may happen as a result of variations in the quantitative efficiency even where the farmers perform most all of the work themselves ; but the farmer who is qualitatively very efficient as a manager of agricultural operations, can increase his total net profits by operating a large farm by means of hired laborers who may have little managing ability themselves, but who have ordinary capacity for the performance of farm labor when directed by an efficient farmer. The kinds of crops, the intensity of culture, the efficiency of the capital-goods and of the farmer himself remaining the same, the greater the number of laborers, of a given degree of efficiency, who are employed by one farmer the larger the farm may be to advantage. A question may arise as to how far this increase in the number of laborers, and the accompanying increase in the size of farms, should be carried in order that the farmer shall win the largest net return for his efforts, and also as to the desirability of large farms socially considered.
If a farmer possesses superior managing ability, so that it is profitable for him to devote all of his time and energy to the management of a farm, employing laborers to perform all of the detailed operations, how large a farm should he attempt to operate? The farmer should look, of course, to the net profit which is left after the payup
have been made.
Having decided upon the branch of agriculture which he is to follow, the grade of land, capitalgoods, and laborers which he is to employ, the kind of crops which should be grown, and the proportions in which these factors should be brought together and the amount of managerial activity which should be devoted to each unit, the farmer has yet to determine how many of these composite units he should attempt to manage.
If the farmer could increase the number of these composite units indefinitely without any increase in the work of management, and, at the same time, without any reduction in the quality of the management, and hence, without any reduction in the average net return per composite unit, there would be no limit to the size of the farm nor to the total net profit which he could win. This is, of course, impossible. The supposition is made to emphasize the fact that it is the increased amount of effort which the farmer must put forth, and the tendency towards a decline in the efficiency of his management after the farm has reached large proportions, which set the limit to the size of the farm.
labor, and capital-goods, which should be brought under a given amount of managing activity, has already been considered in the preceding chapter and we shall now consider, therefore, the conditions which set the limit to the quantity of managerial activity which a farmer will expend and which ultimately determines the size of the farm. Having decided upon the number of the composite units of the factors which should be brought under a given amount of managerial activity, that is the intensity of the management, other things remaining the same, the size of the farm should vary directly as the amount of effort which the farmer is willing to put forth in its management. The farmer's energy is, of course, limited, and after he has performed a given amount of work per day, it requires more and more inducement to impel him to increase his activity. It may be that a few hours of work each day would be a pleasure to him, and that the profits which he received from these few hours' labor would be much more than enough to induce him to perform the work of management; but when hour after hour is added to the time which he must spend in the fields, and the rapidity of his movements from place to place must be increased more and more, in order that the farm may be properly operated, each succeeding addition to the time and the speed of his work becomes more and more wearisome, while at the same time the
wants which are to be satisfied by the fruits of this increased labor become less and less important to him, until finally the point is reached where the increase in the net profit is not sufficient to induce the farmer to increase his activity.
L M N O
This can be illustrated by means of a diagram. In Fig. 3 the succeeding composite units of the agents are measured on the base line A X, and the net profit which the farmer receives for managing these units is represented by the area between this line and the line B Y, so that the area A B C' C, for example, represents the net return from one of the composite units. If the idea of a composite unit seems too abstract to the reader, he may think of one of these units of the agents of production as one laborer and the amount of land and capital-goods associated with him. That share of the net profit per unit which is represented by the area lying below the curved line P P' may be thought of as the amount which is required to yield to the manager a pleasure in consumption goods equal to the pain of performing the work of management. Assuming
that he devotes exactly the same care to each unit, as he continues to increase the number of units, the perpendicular distance between lines A X and B Y will remain constant ; but a larger and larger proportion of the net profits of the succeeding units will be required to counterbalance the pain or dis-utility accompanying the added exertion, required for the management of such units, hence the curve P Pf will gradually rise until at some point it will cross the line B Y, at which point the farmer will cease to increase the size of his farm.
Which is the most desirable from the social point of view, the large, the medium, or the small farm ? Having in mind that farmers vary greatly in their degrees of efficiency, it would seem socially desirable to have the managing done by the most efficient farmers ; for in this way the labor would be under more efficient direction, than where every man directs his own activities. Another advantage of large farms lies in the fact that they facilitate a more extended division of labor. There can be a shepherd who devotes all of his time to the sheep, and for this reason he can better understand his business. So it is in every line of work on the large farm. Machinery can be used to better advantage on the large farm. The efficient manager of the large farm can better determine what will pay and what will not pay, so that he is in a much better position to direct the labor
power of society to the best advantage. The man who is toiling in the field as well as managing the farm is less likely to be far-sighted at a time when he is tired, and at such times he may sacrifice much of the profits for a relatively small saving of labor.
On the other hand what improves the efficiency of the management in this way may lower the quality of the workmanship. There are some men, it is true, who seem to work better for others than for themselves, but with many others, the opposite is true. There are vast numbers of small farmers who do not use good methods, who, because of their interest in that which is their own, will put forth greater effort than they would if they were working for some one else.
It has been said that certain kinds of farming lend themselves more readily than others to large scale operations; that wheat farming, for example, is especially suited to large scale operations, but that as this one crop system gives way to diversified farming, the advantages of smaller farms assert themselves. The owner of young stock takes more pains with them than he would if he were a hired laborer. It is certainly true as a general rule that the man who owns the lambs or pigs will lose more sleep and go to more trouble than will a hired man. "He that is an hireling, and not the shepherd, whose own the sheep are not, seeth the wolf coming, and leaveth the sheep,
and fleeth : and the wolf catcheth them, and scattereth the sheep. The hireling fleeth, because he is an hireling, and careth not for the sheep."1
The management of a farm is something which must be diffused through the details of the. work. There is a withdrawal of the efficient manager's ability from the details and a concentration of it upon the general supervision of the farm as the size of the farm increases. As more and more of the details are delegated to hired men these details are not looked after so well as they might be if looked after directly by the master. Cato, a Roman agricultural writer, says, "Neither the assiduity and experience of the hired manager, nor the power and willingness of the master to lay out money in improvements, are so effectual as this one thing, the presence of the master; which, unless it is frequent with the operations, it will happen to him as in an army when the general is absent; all things will be at a stand."2 And, again, Pliny says, "The ancients were in the habit of saying, that it is the eye of the master that does more towards fertilizing a field than anything else."3
most economic use of the productive energies of a country, is a matter of determining the point at which the advantages of the more efficient general supervision as to crops, field-systems, intensity of culture, etc., are balanced by losses in the execution of the details of the work with less skill and personal interest.
The conclusion is, therefore, that every man who can make more by hiring to a farmer should do so, and every farmer who can increase his net profits by hiring men and increasing the size of his farm, without increasing the amount of effort which he need put forth, should do so. Each man would then get the largest net income, and the value of the agricultural productions of the country would reach the maximum.
But the actions of men are not controlled entirely by economic motives. There is a pleasure to be derived from being one's own master, which is often prized more highly than many of the things which money can buy. As a result many men remain independent farmers when they could secure a larger income for themselves and add more to the value of the agricultural productions of the country by being hired men under the direction of more efficient managers. And yet it may be that this economic loss is compensated for in the social gain that comes from self-directed activity.
commanded the attention of agricultural writers since ancient times. "The ancients," says Pliny, "were of opinion, that, above all things, the extent of farms ought to be kept within proper bounds. Wherefore it was a maxim amongst them, to sow less and plow better. Such, too, I find, was the opinion entertained by Virgil, and indeed, if we must confess the truth, it is the wide-spread domains that have been the ruin of Italy, and soon will be that of the provinces as well. . . . With that greatness of mind which was so peculiarly his own, and of which he ought not to lose the credit, Cneius Pompeius would never purchase the lands that belonged to a neighbor."1
Columella, another Roman agricultural writer, also taught moderation in the size of farms. "To the other precepts," says he, "we add this, which one of the seven wise men has pronounced as a maxim, that holds true in all ages, that there ought to be limits and measures of things; and this ought to be understood, as applied not only to those that do any other business, but also those that buy land, that they may not buy more than they are fully able for. To this is applicable the famous sentence of our poet, You may admire a large farm, but cultivate a small one; which ancient precept this most learned man [Virgil],
1 Natural History, Book XVIII, Chapter 7. The first part of this quotation is taken from the translation as given by Adam Dickson, Husbandry of the Ancients, Vol. I, p. 193 ; the latter part is from Bohn's edition, Vol. IV, pp. 14 and 15.
.... expresses in numbers. This, too, is agreeable to an acknowledged maxim of the Carthaginians, a very acute nation, That the land ought to be weaker than the husbandman; for, when they struggle together, should the farm prevail, the master must be ruined. And, indeed, there is no doubt, that a small field well cultivated produces more than a large field ill cultivated."1 "Among the maxims of the ancients, recorded by Palladius," says Dickson, "there is one to the same purpose with that mentioned by Columella, 'A small farm cultivated is more fruitful than a large farm neglected/ "2
Section II. The size of farms in various countries. A. The size of farms in the United States. — The total number of farms in the United States in 1900 was 5,739,657. The total area of these farms was 841,201,546 acres. The average area per farm was 146.6 acres, and the average number of improved acres per farm was 72.3. In the following table are given the number of farms of the various sizes, the percentage of the area of farm land in each class, and the percentage of all farms in each class.
Total 5,739,657 100.00 100.0
From Table No. i, it will be seen that a very large proportion of the farms of the United States (70.5 per cent.) fall into the three classes of farms ranging from twenty to fifty, fifty to one hundred, and from one hundred to one hundred and seventy-five acres respectively. With regard to the geographical distribution of the farms of the various sizes it was shown by the census returns for 1900 that small farms ranging from twenty to fifty acres were most abundant in the southern states, the percentage in this class in the South Atlantic division being 27.6, and 30.1 in the South Central division, as compared with 21.9 for the country as a whole. Farms ranging from fifty to one hundred acres in extent are relatively most abundant in the North Atlantic division,
where the percentage belonging to this class is 28.3, as compared with 23.8 for the country as a whole. Farms containing from one hundred to one hundred and seventy-five acres are relatively most abundant in the North Central division, where the percentage is 29.9 as compared with 24.8 for the country as a whole. This same division contains, also, the highest proportion of farms ranging from one hundred and seventy-five to two hundred and sixty acres in size, the percentage being n, as compared with 8.5 for the country as a whole. The farms containing two hundred and sixty acres and over were relatively most abundant in the Western division, the percentage there being 23.6 as compared with 9.2 for the United States as a whole.
It may be said with respect to the kind of agriculture which prevailed on the farms of the various sizes that the census returns for 1900 show that on the farms which contained one hundred acres or more the principal sources of income were, in the vast majority of cases, hay, grain, and live stock. While on farms ranging from ten to fifty acres the principal source of income was more often cotton than any other one product. This corresponds with the fact that small farms ranging from twenty to fifty acres in extent are most abundant in the southern states. It corresponds also with the fact that about half of the farms on which cotton is the principal product,
are operated by negroes and that farms operated by negroes are usually comparatively small, about nine-tenths of the negro farmers having been found to occupy farms of less than fifty acres in extent.
Small farms in the cotton belt have not always been so common, as is shown by the rapid decline in the average size of farms in the southern states since 1860. In the South Central division where the decline in the size of farms has been most marked, the "average number of acres per farm was 321.3 in 1860, and 155.4 in 1900. This is the result of replacing the plantation system with the tenant system after the slaves had been emancipated. The questions of the labor supply and the size of farms are here closely associated. It may well be questioned if the change from large to small farms in the production of cotton has been of any economic advantage either to the farmers or to the country as a whole.
B. The size of farms in England.1 — There were 380,179 farms ("agricultural holdings") in England in 1895. These holdings, or farms, contained in the aggregate, 24,844,688 acres of improved land, that is, land under crops, bare fallow, or grass. The average number of improved acres per farm was, therefore, slightly more than sixty-five. These figures include all of the hold-
1 Board of Agriculture, Returns as to the number and size of agricultural holdings in Great Britain in the year 1895, Parliamentary Papers, C. — 8243, p. 3.
ings of agricultural land above one acre in extent. The following table shows _the number of farms of the various sizes and the percentage of the total improved area of farm land which is found in each class of farms.
TABLE 2. THE FARMS OF ENGLAND CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO SlZE, WITH THE PERCENTAGE OF THE TOTAL IMPROVED AREA FOUND IN EACH CLASS, ACCORDING TO THE RETURNS FOR iSgs.1
100.00
C. The size of farms in Germany.2 — The total number of farms in Germany, in 1895, was 5,558,317. The total area in these farms was 106,913,313 acres, so that the average size of farms was 19.2 acres. Under the term Betrieb, which may be translated farm, is included every piece of land large or small which is used for agricultural purposes and which is cultivated or managed directly
1 Board of Agriculture, Returns as to the number and size of agricultural holdings in Great Britain in the year 1895, Parliamentary Papers, C. — 8243, p. 3.
by one man. When all farms are excluded which are less than one hectare or 2.47 acres, the average size is nearly doubled, being 34.37 acres. Yet these general averages would be considerably reduced if the waste lands were counted out, as only seventy-five per cent, of the total area of farms is reckoned as cultivated land, that is, land used as cultivated fields, gardens, meadows, rich pastures, orchards, and vineyards. In the following table is given the number of farms of the various sizes, and the percentage of the total area in farms, which is found in each class.
Total 5,558,317 100.00
Eastern Germany is a land of large farms. In the southwestern part very small holdings prevail, while in the northwest and in the south mediumsized farms are most common.
there were 5,702,752 farms in France. The area in farms (exploitations) was 122,015,015 acres. The average size of farms was 21.4 acres. But when we exclude all farms which are less than 2.47 acres (one hectare) the number of farms is reduced to 3,467,347, while the acreage is reduced only to 118,735,256 and the average is increased to 34.2 acres per farm. This is the total area, which is, of course, greater than the cultivated area. The following table will be of interest, as it is comparable to those for Germany, England, and the United States.
It is interesting to compare these tables, and note the close resemblance between Germany and France with respect to the size of farms, and then to note that the average for England is much greater. It would be exceedingly interesting to
study the history of land tenure in these three countries with a view to determining to what extent social institutions have determined the size of farms and to what extent these variations between England and the continent may be due to different economic conditions.
Twelfth Census of the United States, Volume V.
Returns as to the number and size of agricultural holdings in Great Britain in the year 1895. A report made by P. G. Craigie to the President of the Board of Agriculture of Great Britain, Parliamentary Papers (C. — 8243).
PRODUCTS.
It has been seen that one of the most important factors in determining which crops should be selected for the field-system and the degree of intensity with which these crops should be cultivated, is the price for which the produce can be sold. The question arises, therefore: What are the forces and conditions which determine the prices of agricultural products?
The business man explains prices in terms of demand and supply; and while it will be impossible in a work of this kind to enter into the philosophy of value, it may be worth while to devote a few lines to the significance of demand and of supply. Behind the fact of demand is the more fundamental fact of human wants. The desire to satisfy wants impels men to produce supplies of utilities. The effort which man must put forth in order to gain the means of satisfying his wants sets a limit to the supply of valuable utilities or economic goods as they are sometimes called. It usually happens that long before all of the wants of a man
PRICES OF PRODUCTS
are satisfied, the pain of exertion becomes great enough to more than balance the possible pleasure which might be produced by consuming the products of further exertion. So long as there is an unsatisfied desire for an article, that article will have some value placed upon it. The relative intensity of the buyer's desire for an article determines how highly he will value it, and what price he will be willing to pay for it ; but the price which must be paid determines how completely the want will be satisfied, — the higher the price the more intense will be the desire which will be left unsatisfied.
On the other hand the natural facilities for increasing the supply will determine how high the price must be before the producer can afford to increase the supply. Marshall says : "For long periods the supply price is that which is just needed to call forth those new investments of capital, material and personal, which are required to make up a certain aggregate volume of production."1 The lower the price at which the producer can, with profit, add an increment to the supply, the greater the total supply that will be put upon the market and the more generally it will be consumed; but the greater the amount of an article consumed, the less intense is the desire for it and the less highly it is valued. Thus it is that the marginal utility, or the intensity of the last want
which is satisfied tends to adjust itself to the cost of producing that share of the supply which is produced under the most unfavorable circumstances. But it is also true that the price which is offered at a given time, and which corresponds to the marginal utility at that time, determines the maximum amount which can be expended in the production of a given article with profit and hence determines ultimately how far down the scale of less and less favorable circumstances its production can be carried on. Thus it is that the forces which lie behind the demand for an article, and the conditions under which the article may be supplied, regulate its price.
Let us apply this principle to a concrete case by asking the question, "What determines the price of wheat?" The value which the wheat consumers will place upon wheat is determined by the intensity of their desire for wheat bread ; but the intensity of that desire varies with the amount per capita they are consuming from day to day. The more they consume each day, the less intense the desire for wheat, and the lower the price which the consumers are willing to pay for it. But, again, the less the consumers are willing to pay, the fewer are the farmers who can introduce wheat into their field-systems with profit, and the smaller the supply will tend to become. Thus it is that the price rises when the demand increases relatively to the supply, and falls when the sup-
tween demand and supply.
Wheat can be shipped anywhere in the world, so that it is the wheat crop of the whole world, and the demand of the entire population of the earth for wheat, that must be taken into account in any attempt to work out the conditions which determine the price of wheat at any given time. Many countries produce more wheat than they can consume, w7hile other countries draw a part of their supply from abroad every year. The most important countries having a wheat surplus are : the United States, Canada, Argentina, Chile, Uruguay, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, Rumania, Russia, Turkey, British East Indies, Australasia, and North Africa. The most important wheatimporting countries are : Great Britain, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Norway and Sweden, Switzerland, Japan, and China.
Wheat is sent from the United States to Europe, where it competes with wheat brought from India. Wheat is sent from India to China and Japan and there meets the product of the great wheat farms of California, Washington, and Oregon. Thus we see that the commerce in wheat is world-wide and the price of wheat is determined by the supply and the demand upon a market which is world-wide. Hence it should not be ex-
pected that the price of wheat will vary inversely as the yield in any one country; for the wheat producing countries are scattered widely over the surface of the earth, and the conditions which reduce the crop in one country may not be present in other countries, and hence a short crop in one country is often made up for by an unusually large one in another country.
The price of wheat tends to equal the cost of producing and bringing to the central market that portion of the wheat which is produced and marketed under the most unfavorable conditions, — the competition of crops as well as natural conditions being taken into account. This means, simply, that if the intensity of the desire for wheat increases a higher price is likely to be offered for wheat and it will become profitable to extend its culture under conditions where this crop was formerly unprofitable ; and the tendency is to extend its culture to the point where the costs will equal the price under the most unfavorable conditions of wheat production, which may be interpreted as meaning wheat produced upon the least productive wheat land by the least efficient farmers which are capable of competing in wheat production. If the price falls, some of the land which has been used for wheat production can no longer be used for this purpose with profit. Consequently some of the farmers who at the higher price could make a profit by producing wheat could no longer do
so, and some of the supply would be cut off. Thus it is that agriculture must ever be adjusted to the changes in the prices of the products.
There are certain products which can be substituted for each other and thus tend to keep prices from rising so high or sinking so low as they otherwise might. Rye bread, for example, is consumed very largely in northern Europe, and when the rye crop is larger, and the wheat crop smaller than usual, more rye bread and less wheat bread is consumed. When the rye crop is smaller than usual, there may be a larger wheat crop to balance the shortage in rye. Thus, it is the world's supply of wheat and wheat substitutes, and the world's demand for bread and bread substitutes, that fixes the price of wheat on the world's market at any given time.
Liverpool is the center of the world's wheat trade, and the conditions which regulate the price of wheat on the Liverpool market may be said to regulate the price throughout the world. More wheat is produced in the United States than is consumed at home. The surplus of the great wheat producing states is brought together at the "primary" grain markets,1 the most important of which are: Chicago, Minneapolis, Duluth, Superior, St. Louis, Milwaukee, Toledo, Kansas City, Peoria, Cincinnati, and Detroit. From these primary markets, wheat and its products are sent
to the various parts of the United States, where wheat is not produced in sufficient quantities to supply the demand. But after all of the deficit areas of the United States are supplied, a large surplus still remains, which is sent abroad.
The price of wheat in any primary market will equal the price in Liverpool minus the charges made for putting the wheat on the Liverpool market. The local price at any point in the surplusproducing regions will equal the price at the nearest primary market minus the charges incident to putting the wheat on that market. The local price of wheat or its products at any point where less is produced than is consumed will equal the price in the nearest primary market plus the charges made for bringing the wheat or wheat product from that market. The charges made for transporting and handling the grain have been spoken of, rather than the cost of transporting and handling the grain, for the reason that it is not certain that the charges are exactly the same as the costs to the transportation companies and the wheat merchants, and yet if the companies and the merchants are able to charge more than sufficient to pay all costs this becomes as important in determining the price as if it actually cost the company more to give the services.
The circumstances are somewhat different in the case of maize. The United States is the principal maize producing country, and nearly the
whole crop is consumed at home. Over threefourths of the maize crop i-s consumed in the county where grown. Only one-fifth of it enters into the internal commerce of the country, and from five to ten per cent., only, enters into foreign distribution. Maize is used largely for the feeding of stock. From year to year farmers count on selling about so many fat cattle and hogs, and it is for this purpose that most farmers grow maize. When the crop is short, as in 1901, the shortage here is not balanced, as it is apt to be in the case of wheat, by good crops in other countries, because there is no country which ships maize to the United States in appreciably large quantities.
The demand for pork is fairly regular and so is that for fat cattle, and the result of a short maize crop shows itself at once in the price of maize and only less directly in the price of pork and beef.
But the difference between maize and wheat with respect to the price-determining conditions in the United States is only one of degree. This country is an exporter of maize in ordinary years and any relatively small increase in the size of the American maize crop may be balanced by a short crop in some of the other countries which compete upon the European market.
The potato market is still more local than that for maize. Each locality is more dependent upon the local supply and the price is influenced much more by variations in the yield of the local
crop than in the case of maize and wheat. Some regions are regularly wheat sellers, others wheat buyers, from year to year ; but in the case of potatoes, the aim of the vast majority of the producers is simply to supply their own wants or to meet the demands of the local markets, and the same region may have a surplus one year and a deficit the next. The cost of shipping potatoes is a larger percentage of their total value than in the case of wheat, and as the surplus of one year cannot be kept until the next, the local price will be relatively low in case there is a surplus, while in case of a deficit the local price will be relatively high. Clover seed is a good example of a very uncertain crop, and it is well known that, for this reason, the price of this article fluctuates very greatly from year to year.
The prices of the animal products of the farm must necessarily sustain some more or less definite relation to the prices of the crops on which the live stock industry is based. In general it is true that in a country where grazing lands are abundant and where the prices of hay and grain are low, the prices of cattle and dairy products will be lower than in a country like England, where grazing lands are scarce and feed stuffs are dear.
When long periods are taken into account, the general principle seems to hold true in any single country that a rise in the price of feed stuffs will
The price of Indian corn on the Chicago market reached its lowest figure for the twelve years from 1892 to 1903, in September, 1896, when it was 19.5 cents per bushel. The minimum price of hogs on the same market for the same period was likewise reached in September, 1896, when the lowest was $2.45 per 100 Ibs. On the other hand, the highest Chicago price of maize for this period is given at 88 cents per bushel, which price was reached in July, 1902, and it was in the same month of that year that the price of hogs on the Chicago market rose to $8.75 per 100 Ibs., which is the highest price quoted in that market for the twelve years under consideration.1
But when shorter periods are taken into account, a rise in the prices of feed stuffs is often accompanied by a fall in the prices of the live stock which is dependent upon this food supply. It is a matter of common observation among farmers that if there is a great abundance of grain, hay, and forage crops available in the fall of the year, there is usually a great demand for "stock cattle," and there is no rush about marketing the fat cattle which are intended for the market. As a result, the prices of cattle are relatively high in comparison with the prices of the materials on which they are fed. Again when a dry summer cuts the crops short, so that the number of cattle which should be kept through the winter is very
great in comparison to the stores of feed, many farmers find it necessary to sell some of their cattle rather prematurely and at a very low price. Under these circumstances the prices of "stock cattle" are likely to show a greater rise or fall inversely to the prices of the feed stuffs, than are the prices of fat cattle and dairy products.
While it is true that the prices of hogs and of maize reach their highest level in the same month and likewise their lowest level in the same month, it is also true that the prices of hogs tend for a time to fall when the price of maize rises. In 1901, a year when the maize crop was short, the average monthly price of maize rose from 56 H cents per bushel in September, to 65 cents in December, during which time the average monthly price of hogs fell from $6.60 per 100 Ibs., in September, to $6.27^ in October, to $5.65 in November, but rose to $6.00 again in December, so that in the five months the price of hogs fell 60 cents per 100 Ibs., while the price of maize rose 8^€ cents per bushel.1 This situation is doubtless to be explained in part by the fact that the number of hogs to be fed was relatively great when compared with the amount of maize available for feeding purposes, and as a result the hogs were rushed
at any price.
This conclusion seems to be confirmed by the fact that while there were 56,982,142 hogs on farms January i, 1901, there were but 48,698,890 on January i, 1902. This relation between the prices of maize and of hogs during the last five months of 1901, may be explained in part, however, by the fact that the supply of marketable maize was much smaller than the total number of bushels produced in the country, for the reason that much of the crop did not mature properly. A considerable proportion of the crop could not be put upon the market and that which was marketable commanded a high price, while that which could not be sold could not be kept for any great period in the crib without deterioration, hence it was rapidly fed out regardless of the high price of maize upon the market.
Perhaps sufficient has been said to impress the careful reader with the fact that the so-called law of demand and supply is but a very general statement of the price-determining phenomena, and that the conditions and forces which lie beneath demand and supply are exceedingly various and complex.
Ely, R. T., Outlines of Economics, pages 118 to 125. Marshall, A., Principles of Economics, Book V. Mill, J. S., Political Economy, Book III, Chapters I to IV. Report of the Industrial Commission, Volume VI, on The Distribution and Marketing of Farm Products,
APPENDIX TO CHAPTER VIII
The wholesale prices of Indian corn per bushel, and of hogs per 100 Ibs., on the Chicago market, from January, 1895 to February 1005, giving the highest and the lowest price for each month.1
EARNINGS.
Having sold his products upon the local market, what determines the share of the gross receipts which the farmer may keep as payment for his labor and enterprise, and what determines the proportion which must be paid for the use of land and capital-goods? Farmers of varying degrees of efficiency employ capital-goods of varying degrees of usefulness upon land of varying degrees of productivity. With these three variables united in varying proportions in the production of articles which vary in their market value from place to place and from time to time, the problem before us is to determine the share of the gross returns which each factor will receive.
This is by no means a simple problem. There is a very complex set of forces and conditions which make it necessary for a given farmer at a given time and place, to credit a certain proportion of his gross returns to capital-goods, and another certain share to land ; but at another time on the same farm or on another farm at the same
DISTRIBUTION OF WEALTH
time, or with a different farmer on the same farm at the same time, the share of the gross returns received by each factor may be different. The problem of distribution is consequently so complex and difficult that it will be impossible in this work to do more than to indicate in a general way the operation of the forces and conditions which regulate the distribution of the product among the factors of production.
Let us first examine the different factors of production,— land, capital-goods, and farmers, — and determine if possible how much each factor must receive in order that it may be induced to participate in agricultural production. In this discussion we shall speak of farmers, as synonymous with labor, for the reason that this will simplify the discussion, and for the further reason that in the vast majority of cases most of the farm work is done by the farmer and his family.
The farmer must receive, at least, enough to sustain his body in a working condition, and he will usually demand more than this. He will usually want to support a family, and this is essential to the future supply of labor. It may be said, therefore, that in the long run, the least return that will induce men to become farmers is maintenance for themselves and their families in accordance with the "standard of life,"1 which
seems to them essential to happiness. It is true that many farmers always receive as their share of the product, more than this necessary minimum. This is generally true of the more efficient farmers ; but the marginal farmers may be thought of as receiving this minimum when long time averages are taken into account.
There will always be fluctuations ; there will be times when the demand for farmers is great relatively to the supply, and as a result even the marginal farmers will receive more than the necessary minimum which is required to induce them to participate in agricultural production. This condition of affairs would make agriculture a very attractive pursuit, however, and the tendency would be for men from other pursuits to be attracted into agriculture; or at least for a smaller proportion of each generation of farm boys to enter the industries of the cities, and in the course of time the competition would drive the profits of the marginal farmer down to the minimum.
Again, the number of competing farmers may become too great, so that the returns of the marginal farmers will be depressed far below the necessary minimum; but this would result in the elimination of some of the less efficient farmers, and perhaps others as well, who would decide they could do better in some other industry. To the
extent that these marginal farmers are eliminated, a higher grade of farmers will be found upon the margin. These new marginal farmers will be able to make a living for themselves and their families and give a larger share of the gross returns to the other factors than could the less efficient competitors who have been crowded out. The elimination of some of the farmers would also relieve to some extent the pressure of competition. As a result of the lifting of the margin to more efficient farmers and of this lessened competition the returns to the marginal farmers will tend to be adjusted to the minimum which the standard of life of these marginal farmers makes necessary to induce them to participate in agricultural production.
The share of the product which the more efficient farmers are able to command will be taken up later, since for the sake of simplicity, it has been thought best to continue first the discussion of the conditions and forces which regulate the distribution of their gross product among the grades of the factors which are brought together on the margin, — that is among the least efficient farmers, and the least productive land in use and the least productive grades of capital-goods.
On the margin where the least productive of all of the factors of production are brought together, there is no chance for a differential return to be commanded by any of the factors. There is no
return to land except enough to pay for bringing it into cultivation, and this should perhaps be counted as return to the capital-goods employed in bringing the land under cultivation, in which case the whole product could be said to be divided between the farmers and the capital-goods. With this in mind it might seem the simplest explana^ tion of the return to marginal capital-goods, to say that all of the return except the necessary minimum demanded by the farmers must be credited to capital-goods. This may tend to be true, and yet it explains nothing. It leaves unanswered the question why it is that less productive land is not cultivated at a given time, for the farmers might receive their necessary minimum from such land, although this would result in a reduction in the return which could be credited to capital-goods. It becomes evident therefore that the return to capital-goods is regulated by a set of more or less independent forces. It is well understood that capital-goods must be kept intact, that seed grains must be replaced, that when a machine is broken it must be put in repair, and when it is worn out it must be replaced, and that the horses must be fed and cared for ; but beyond this amount which is necessary for maintenance, a certain amount must be paid for the use of capital-goods. This return is usually expressed in terms of an annual rate per cent, upon the value of the capital-goods, but there is no good
The marginal farmer and the marginal capitalgoods must, on the long time average, be maintained, and the hire of the capital-goods must be paid. As land which will not produce this much will not be brought under cultivation, it is clearly the return demanded by farmers for labor and the use of capital-goods which determines the margin of cultivation, and not the productivity of the marginal land which determines the amount which is paid for the use of capital-goods. But why is it that more must be paid for the use of capitalgoods than sufficient to keep such goods intact? In other words, why must a hire be paid for the use of capital-goods ?
First, the supply is limited. The supply cannot be increased indefinitely without some sacrifice of the gratification of present desires. Men are usually desirous of laying up something for the future, but they are more concerned with the gratification of present wants until the latter are partially satisfied. That is; men value the means of gratifying their present wants more highly than they do the means of gratifying the wants of of the future, and as a result, after saving has reached a certain point, they will not refrain from consuming wealth to-day in order that it may be turned into capital-goods, unless they have the assurance that a greater amount of wealth will be
returned to them in the future. In old countries where there is much wealth already accumulated in the various forms of capital-goods, the present wants, of the wealthier classes at least, are more completely satisfied, and future wants are estimated relatively more highly than in a poor country where present wants are more intense. Hence the amount of hire which must be paid for the use of capital-goods will be smaller in wealthy countries than in countries where little wealth has been accumulated.
While the fact that the supply of capital-goods cannot be increased without labor and the fact that present goods are valued more highly than future goods explain why something must be paid for the use of capital-goods, these circumstances do not account for the fact that men are willing to pay a price for the use of capital-goods. Men are willing to pay a hire for the use of capitalgoods because these goods aid in production. The farmer can stir more ground or reap more grain in a day, he can produce more goods for the market in a year, when he uses plows, reapers, horses, etc., than when he labors unaided by these.
These then are the forces and conditions which lie behind the supply of and the demand for capital-goods, and which regulate the amount of hire which is paid for their use. The greater the opportunities for gaining a profit by employing them, the greater will be the demand for capital-
goods and the higher the price which will be offered to induce men to sacrifice present for future goods. This explains in part the high price which is paid for the use of capital-goods. On the other hand, the higher the price the fewer will be the opportunities for investing capitalgoods with profit, and thus the demand is limited in part by the conditions of supply.
We have now reviewed the conditions and forces which seem to determine the distribution of the gross returns of the marginal farmers operating marginal capital-goods upon marginal land, but to complete the theory of distribution it is necessary to explain the conditions and forces which determine the distribution of the gross returns of the more productive grades of the factors of production. The more efficient farmer is able to command more than the minimum which is necessary to the marginal farmer; this is likewise true of the more productive grades of capitalgoods, and all the more productive grades of land afford a return to the owners.
The share of the gross return which is attributed to land varies from place to place because of variations in the productivity of land. Other things remaining the same, the more fertile the soil and the higher the local market prices which can be obtained for the products of the farm, or — to state the same thing in other words — the more productive the land, the keener will be the compe-
tition for its use and the higher will be the rent which the farmers will offer for it. In a progressive society the least productive land which is required for supplying the market at a given time will command rent enough to pay for bringing it under cultivation ; but this rent is, in reality, paid for the use of capital-goods. Such land is called marginal land. It has often been called no-rent land, because no differential rent is paid for its use, and the differential rent is the only distinctively land rent. All land which is more productive than the marginal, will have a rent paid for its use. Because it is more desirable, the farmers will compete for the more productive land until the rent rises to a point where they find it equally desirable to take the less productive land at a lower rent.
If land were the only factor which varies in productivity, it would be a very easy matter to state the law of rent ; for then all of the farmers and all of the capital-goods would tend to receive the minimum, which is just enough to enlist in the industry the least productive grades of these factors. Under these conditions the total return minus the necessary minimum to labor and capitalgoods would be credited to land.
at A and the least productive land in use, or marginal land, at B. The value of the product is represented by the perpendicular distance from line AB to line C Dr. That share of the value of the
product represented by the perpendicular distance between lines A B and E E' may be looked upon as the necessary minimum required to enlist the capital-goods, and that share represented by the perpendicular distance between E E' and D D' may be looked upon as the necessary return to the farmers. The remainder, measured by the perpendicular distance between lines D D' and C D', varying from nothing on the margin to a very large share of the gross returns on the most productive land, would then represent the differential rent of the land.
Attention should be called to the fact that in the illustration (Fig. 4) the lines E E' and D D' are not parallel to line A B, that a larger amount ii 161
per acre of land is represented as being attributed to the farmers and to the capital-goods on the more productive than on the less productive grades. This is intended to indicate that even under the conditions of homogeneous farmers and homogeneous capital-goods the more productive grades of land would be farmed more intensively, and hence a larger amount per unit of land would be credited to these factors.
The fact that these more productive grades of land are cultivated more intensively and that a larger amount is for this reason credited to the other factors from each acre of land, does not lessen the amount of rent, but rather increases the amount which can be paid for the use of the more productive land. That the best land can, with profit, be cultivated more intensively when less productive land must be resorted to, than when the supply of best land exceeded the demand; and that this results in a greater rent being paid for the more productive land than the surplus over costs which would result from farming such land to that degree of intensity which paid best when it could be had free, was recognized and elucidated by Ricardo.
To illustrate the influence of variations in the intensity of culture upon the amount of differential rent which will be paid for the better grades of land when less productive land must be resorted to in order to supply the demand for agricultural products, suppose that a farmer has three grades
of land to choose from. These three grades of land are represented by letters A, B, and C (Fig. 5), the latter being marginal land. The curves
H A I, HB I, and H C I represent the increasing and diminishing returns to succeeding units of labor and capital-goods upon the different grades of land. We have made this somewhat more simple than the actual conditions by taking a case where the lines of increasing and diminishing returns have a definite relation to each other. The largest gross return per unit of labor and capitalgoods will be gained from each of these. three pieces of land when X units (measured by line H X, in Fig. 5 ) have been expended. With this expenditure upon each of the three grades of land, the value of the product which a given farmer can produce on A grade land will be represented by the area H M N X; that of B grade land, by the area H L O X; and that of C grade land, by the area H K P X. But, the same amount of labor and capital-goods will not be applied to the three
grades of land. It will prove profitable to farm the more productive land more intensively before it will prove profitable to farm the less productive land at all. When it is profitable for a farmer to apply X units to C grade land it will prove equally profitable for him to apply Y units to B grade land and Z units to A grade land.
We are now in a position to see more clearly the influence of varying degrees of intensity of culture upon differential rents. In the illustration the surplus which a given farmer can produce on A grade land ( Fig. 5 ) , over what he can produce on C grade land is represented by the area K M N E, which is greater than the area KMNP by the area P N E; but the area K M N P measures the difference in the value of the product which he could produce on the two pieces of land with the same outlay. The surplus which the same farmer can produce upon B grade land, over what he can produce upon C grade land is represented by the area K L O D; that of A grade land over B grade by area L M N E D 0. Hence, it is not simply differences in productivity with the same outlay, but it is the differences in the capacity of the land to yield a surplus, that determines how much more highly a farmer will estimate one piece of land than another of the same area.
measured by the amount of surplus over costs which can be produced upon a given grade of land. But this is not true. The farmers who are qualitatively more efficient find greater opportunity for the employment of their superior skill and knowledge upon the more productive, than upon the less productive land. The farmers who possess a relatively high degree of qualitative efficiency can win a larger return from land of any grade than can their less efficient competitors, but this extra product due to superior ability is greater on the more productive than on the less productive land and for this reason the more efficient farmers compete only for the more productive land, and are willing to pay more for it than the less efficient farmers can afford to pay. The qualitatively less efficient farmers go on competing for the less productive land until marginal farmers are shifted to marginal land. Hence, the difference between the rent of marginal land and that of the more productive land cannot be measured in terms of differences in the amount of the surplus which would exist if land were the only factor which varies in productivity.
This can be illustrated by means of a diagram. In Fig. 6 the land is represented as varying in productivity from left to right, the most productive land being at the left, and called A grade land; the least productive being at the right and called B grade land. (For the sake of simplicity,
it will be assumed in this illustration, that the same degree of intensity of culture exists throughout the area under consideration.) The perpendicular distances represent the value of the product. The distance A C represents the value of the product which the most efficient farmer can produce upon the most productive land, the distance B C' represents the value of the product which the same farmer could produce upon marginal land. The distance A D represents the value of the product which the marginal farmer could produce upon the most productive land, the distance B Dr represents the value of the product \vhich the marginal farmer can produce upon marginal land. (To facilitate the discussion, we shall call the former the C grade farmer and the latter the D grade farmer.)
Let it be supposed that the land which is necessary to supply the demand for a certain class of agricultural products, such, for example, as the diversified agriculture of the corn belt, varies in productivity from A to B, that A grade land is twice as productive as B grade land, and that all other land under consideration is more productive than B and less productive than A grade land. Let it be supposed, also, that all of the farmers who are able to compete for the use of this land at a given time vary in qualitative efficiency from C to D (as represented in Fig. 6), that the farmer who has C degrees of efficiency is qualitatively
twice as efficient as the one who possesses D degrees of efficiency, and that the other farmers are graded according to their efficiency from C to
D, as the land is graded from A to B. The farmer who possesses C degrees of efficiency can produce twice as much on land of any grade as can the farmer with D degrees of efficiency. The D grade farmer is the marginal farmer, and must receive enough on marginal land to cover costs, including a living. On the A grade land, which is twice as productive as the marginal land, he can produce twice as much with the same outlay, and
Let it be said that the D grade or marginal farmer's product on B grade land is valued at n (represented by the line B Dr in Fig. 6), that his product upon A grade land is valued at 2n (represented by the line AD), and that he is willing to pay a differential rent of n (line ED), for the use of A grade land. Then the value of the product of the C grade farmer, who is qualitatively twice as efficient as the marginal farmer, will be 2n (line B C') on B grade land, and 411 (line AC) on A grade land. Thus, while the C grade farmer can gain an extra product valued at n (line D' C') on B grade land, his extra product on A grade land, above what the D grade farmer could produce, is valued at 2n (line DC). Hence the C grade farmer will not compete for B grade land until the rent on A grade land rises sufficiently to absorb half of this extra product, so that his net profit will be the same on both pieces of land. Until rent rises to zn on A grade land (that is, to point K in Fig. 6, and measured by the line E K) , the personal profit which the C grade farmer can win on such land will be greater than that which he could win from B grade land. If the differential rent of A grade land should rise to zn (that is, to point K), the C grade farmer's personal profits on A grade land (represented by line K C), would be the same as that which he could win
on B grade land (represented by line Df C') , being valued at n in either case. But, while the C grade farmer will pay a rent of 2n for A grade land rather than farm marginal land, the D grade farmer will take marginal land rather than pay more than n for A grade land. With the given hypothesis the differential rent of A grade land will not be less than n (measured by line ED), for the D grade farmer can afford to pay that much for its use; and it will not rise higher than 2M (measured by the line EK), for the C grade farmer would then prefer marginal land for which no differential rent is charged.
With all grades of farmers competing for the use of land, the differential rent of A grade land will be greater than n ; for, at rent of n, all but the marginal farmers will prefer it to inferior land, because the extra product, due to superior qualitative efficiency, is greater on the more productive land. To the extent that the better farmers follow their highest economic self-interest they will compete for the better land, and the rent of such land will rise, until, one by one, the less efficient farmers find it preferable to take less productive land at a lower rent. The farmers who are qualitatively most efficient can pay more for the best land than any of his competitors can afford to pay and still receive a larger net profit than he would receive from the less productive land at the rents which the less efficient farmers pay for such land.
When each farmer has taken the land for which his degree of efficiency enables him to compete to the best advantage, the marginal farmer will be found upon the marginal land, the average farmer upon the average land, and the most efficient farmer upon the most productive land. The product resulting from this most economical application of efficiency to productivity will be measured by the area A C D' B (Fig. 6). It will be noticed that the line C Dr is not a straight line. This is not a straight line because its distance from the line A B is determined by multiplying productivity by efficiency, both of which are decreasing factors as we go from the most productive to the marginal land. With regular and close gradation of land and of farmers this line would tend to be a regular curve. This curve will probably be irregular, however; for the continuous and regular gradation of land and of farmers which would be necessary to produce a regular curve, gradually falling from C to D', could, perhaps, never be found.
The line XD', which may be called the rent curve to distinguish it from the product curve CD', is drawn arbitrarily to illustrate the way in which rent will rise above the line D Df, which line represents the level to which the rent could rise on the various grades of land if all farmers possessed the same degree of qualitative efficiency as the marginal farmers. Point X will be some
place between D and K, because, as has been shown, the differential rent of A grade land can neither be less than n nor more than 2n. Thus the area E D Df (Fig. 6) represents the differential rent under the assumption that all farmers have the same degree of qualitative efficiency as the marginal farmers, and the area D X D' represents the further differential which arises from variations in the efficiency of the farmers. These two constitute the differential rent which would be paid under the conditions assumed; namely, with homogeneous capital-goods, equally intensive culture on all land, and perfect competition.
The remainder of the surplus represented by area X CD' would go to the farmers as personal profits, the amount of personal profit received by a given farmer depending upon his relative degree of qualitative efficiency.
Another method of illustrating the distribution of the proceeds among, the factors of production is as follows: Suppose six grades of farmers, represented by letters A, B, C, D, E, and F are in competition for as many grades of land designated as ist, 2d, 3d, 4th, 5th, and 6th grade land. Let us assume that on any grade of land the A grade farmer can secure a gross return twice as great, with a given outlay, as the F grade farmer can secure, and that the gradation in the qualitative efficiency of the farmers is continuous and regular from the A grade to the F grade farmer. Let it
further be assumed that any of these farmers can secure twice as large a return on the ist grade land from a given outlay as he can secure on 6th grade land, and that the gradation of the land is continuous and regular from the first to the sixth grade.
With these assumptions in mind let the following figures represent the value of the gross product which the farmers of the respective grades can produce as a result of the employment of a given quantity of labor and capital-goods on the different grades of land. To make this illustration include the factor of variations in intensity of culture we have taken a fixed amount of expenditure instead of a fixed area of land. If, therefore, one acre be the area of the 6th grade land on which this fixed amount of expenditure is made, less than an acre of the more productive grades of land will be associated with the given amount of labor and capital-goods, for the more productive the land the more intensive the culture.
ginal farmer when operating 6th grade or marginal land will just be able to make a living without paying any rent for the use of the land. But if the F grade farmer can make a living on 6th grade land when he has no rent to pay, he can make a living and something more on the 5th grade land, and, if we think of the figures in the illustration as representing dollars, the F grade farmer can afford to pay just one dollar as rent for the quantity of 5th grade land on which he would make the same outlay as on an acre of the 6th grade land, for instead of a product worth five dollars he secures a product worth six dollars. Following the same reasoning the F grade farmer could afford to pay two dollars for the 4th grade land, three dollars for the 3d grade, four for the 2d, and five dollars for the quantity of ist grade land on which he would employ the given amount of labor and capital-goods in farming that land to the most economical degree of intensity.
.When all of the grades of land are viewed from the standpoint of the A grade farmer, it becomes apparent that he would be able to make more than a living on land of any of these grades, and that he would do as well to pay a rent of two dollars for the use of 5th grade land, four dollars for 4th grade land, six for the 3d, eight for the 2d, and ten for the ist grade land, as to farm the 6th grade land rent free; and in our illustration we shall assume that the F grade farmer is needed to sup-
ply the demand for farmers when the six grades of land are in use, and as he cannot pay any rent for its use it is fair to assume that no other farmer will pay anything for its use. All of the farmers who possess a higher degree of qualitative efficiency than the F grade farmer are in a position to pay more for the more productive grades of land than the F grade farmer can possibly pay, and still secure a larger net return on their investments than they can make on marginal or F grade land when the latter is rent-free. It becomes evident, therefore, that the F grade farmer will, under keen competition, be confined to the 6th grade land and that in a competition for the other grades of land he is not able to bid high enough to make it desirable for any of the more efficient farmers to prefer the 6th grade land.
But the question before us is, how much rent will the competition among the farmers of the various grades of farmers induce them to pay for the various grades of land? Under the hypothesis that the F grade farmer and the 6th grade land are both needed to supply the demand at a given time and with a given price level, competition will leave a minimum return of five dollars to the F grade farmer when he confines his attention to the 6th grade land and no rent will be paid for the 6th grade land. The E grade farmer is able to secure a return of six dollars on the marginal land. It cannot be expected, therefore, that
he will be willing to take less on any other grade. He can pay one dollar and twenty cents for the amount of 5th grade land on which the same outlay is made as on the acre of the F grade land, and retain a net return equal the gross return on the no-rent land. But the F grade farmer can bid no more than one dollar for the use of this land, and so far as he is concerned, the E grade farmer can have the 5th grade land for anything over one dollar, and to give a small balance let us say he will offer one dollar and five cents.
If the E grade farmer can secure the use of 5th grade land for one dollar and five cents per unit (thinking of the amount of land on which the given amount of labor and capital is expended on the various grades of land as a unit of land power) leaving him a net return of six dollars and fifteen cents, he will certainly not take less on 4th grade land. He will cease to bid for the 4th grade land, therefore, when the rent rises above two dollars and twenty-five cents. When the rent of 5th grade land is one dollar and five cents the D grade farmer could secure a net return of seven dollars and thirty-five cents on that grade of land, and he could as well pay two dollars and forty-five cents for 4th grade land, for this would leave him the same net return as he could win on 5th grade land, but so far as the competition of his inferiors is concerned any amount over two dollars and twenty-five cents, let us say two dollars and thirty
cents is all he need pay, and this will leave him a net return of seven dollars and fifty cents which is fifteen cents better than he could do on the 5th grade land. To secure the same net return on 3d grade land, the D grade farmer cannot bid over three dollars and seventy cents for its use. But the C grade farmer whose net return on 4th grade land, at a rent of two dollars and thirty cents, would be eight dollars and ninety cents, can secure the same net return from 3d grade land after paying three dollars and ninety cents rent for its use, so that it will be profitable for him to outbid the D grade farmer for 3d grade land by offering three dollars and seventy-five cents. This leaves the C grade farmer a net return of nine dollars and five cents, and to secure the same net return from 2d grade land he can pay no more than five dollars and thirty-five cents as rent for 2d grade land. But the B grade farmer can as well afford to pay five dollars and fifty-five cents for 2d grade as to pay three dollars and seventyfive cents for 3d grade, and we may assume, therefore, that he will outbid the C grade farmer by offering five dollars and forty cents for the use of the 2d grade land. This would leave the B grade a net return of ten dollars and eighty cents. He could pay seven dollars and twenty cents for ist grade land, and secure the same net return; but the A grade farmer could pay anything, less than seven dollars and forty cents, rather than use any
of the less productive grades of land at the rents which any of the other grades of farmers could afford to pay for those grades of land. It may be assumed, therefore, that he would pay seven dollars and twenty-five cents for the ist grade land.
With the competitive rents determined in this way the A grade farmer can secure a larger net return, and therefore a larger net profit, on ist grade land than on land of any other grade. This is true also of the B grade farmer on the 2d grade land, and so it continues to be true for the succeeding grades of farmers on the corresponding grades of land. The A grade farmer's net return would be twelve dollars and seventy-five cents, but from this must be deducted the necessary return to capital-goods. The remainder, in case all the labor is performed by him and his family, is the net profit. Now since the capital is usually owned by the farmer, it is the net return minus the maintenance of the capital-goods and the farmer's cost of living, which shows the capacity of the farmer to save from his earnings.
These figures are intended only as an illustration, but as an illustration they may enable the student to comprehend the complex character of the forces which are operating to determine the amount of rent which must be paid for a given piece of land at a given time, also how it is that some farmers can pay high rents and at the same
time make large profits; and, finally, it is hoped that by this time it has become quite clear that it is to the interest of each farmer to select that grade of land which corresponds to his degree of qualitative efficiency.
In this illustration we have considered competition in but one kind of agriculture. The more efficient farmer in one branch of agriculture may be the less efficient in another. The best shepherd may be a poor market gardener and vice versa. The shepherd \vill be able to win his largest net profit on cheap land, wrhile the market gardener can do best on expensive lands near the great cities. Yet the general principle holds that the best shepherd can win the largest net profit on the best sheep land, and the best market gardener on the land best suited to his particular line of production.
There is also a differential paid for the use of the more productive forms of capital-goods. This is usually hidden behind the fact that the return to capital-goods is usually thought of in terms of a rate per cent, upon the capital value of the capital-goods. It might be satisfactory to think of the returns to capital goods in this way were it true that the valuations of the different grades of capital-goods varied exactly as the productivity of these capital-goods; but, because of the variations in the qualitative efficiency of the farmers, the variations in the values of these goods
do not correspond to the variations in their productivity. In just the same way as in the case of land, the qualitatively more efficient farmers are in a position to pay more for the more productive grades of capital-goods than the qualitatively inefficient can afford, to pay; and the value of the capital-goods, as is the case in the value of land, tends to vary with the amount which is paid for its use.
This may be illustrated by Fig. 6, by simply replacing the term land by the term capital-goods. In fact it seems clear that, in considering the situation at a given time, land and capital-goods might well be considered together in the illustration given in Fig. 6 when it is the farmer's surplus due to superior efficiency that is under consideration. It seems that the land and capitalgoods employed in agricultural production, are alike in that a differential is paid for the better grades, and that the qualitatively more efficient farmers can well afford to pay more for the use of these better grades of the material instruments of production than the qualitatively less efficient farmers. Indeed, it would seem that this principle may be applied quite generally, and that it explains why the more efficient men in all lines of economic activity are able to outbid the less efficient for the better facilities for production.
goods will be measured by the differential surplus which the marginal farmer could produce upon such land, by employing such capital-goods, plus the further differentials arising from differences in the efficiency of the farmers.
Variation in productivity is, to be sure, the primary occasion of differential rents, and if all farmers possessed the same degree of qualitative efficiency, the differential surplus would represent the differential rent, being the additional amount which all farmers would as willingly pay for the better land and the better grades of capitalgoods as consent to using the less productive grades of these material agents of production. But because of the differences in the efficiency of farmers, the amount of differential surplus which a given piece of land or a given horse or machine will yield is not a definite amount, but varies with the qualitative efficiency of the farmers ; and competition determines what share of the surplus, which a given farmer can produce, will actually be paid as differential rent. The differential rent of the better grades of the material instruments of production will be greater than the differential surplus which the marginal farmer could produce by using them, but it will be less than the surplus which the most efficient farmer can produce.
among the factors of production. This illustration is a modification of Fig. 6, and it is assumed that the factors will be brought together in the most productive manner, that is, with the qualitatively most efficient farmers operating the most productive forms of capital-goods upon the most productive land and that these factors are associated in the proper proportion. Under these conditions the composite units which are made up of the most productive grades of the factors, will yield a relatively larger product, in proportion to their productivity even, than the units made up of the less productive grades of the factors, and hence, in the higher grades each factor will receive the necessary minimum and a further differential due to superior productivity and to the cooperation of the more productive grades of the factors. When the subject of distribution is viewed from the standpoint of industrial progress, through a long period of years, the most important fact to be considered is that the other factors usually increase more rapidly than does land. As the farmers and the capital-goods continue to increase more rapidly than the land, some of the better grades of these more rapidly increasing factors are crowded down farther and farther upon the less and less productive land. This necessarily results in the driving out of business of some of the lower grades of the farmers and the capital-goods, leaving upon the margin higher
grades of these factors which will be able to earn their necessary minimum upon lower grades of land, and hence the margin of cultivation will be
driven down to less productive land by the competition of the increasing numbers of farmers and the increasing quantities of capital-goods. The resulting change in the distribution of the gross product among the factors, is illustrated by the dotted line in Fig. 7, where it will be noted that the rent rises as a result of a fall in the returns to the other factors of production.
It is possible for the rent to rise, however, without any absolute decline in the returns to the other factors. Changes in the prices of agricul-
tural products will greatly influence the share which will be accounted to land. When, as a result of increased demand for food and clothing, the prices of agricultural products rise, the share of the returns of a given farm which may be credited to land, increases. When, for any reason, such as the opening up of vast areas of very productive land, the prices of agricultural products fall, the share of the gross returns which can be paid for the use of land will, other things remaining the same, necessarily fall.
The laws of value and price hold true with respect to the price which is paid for the use of land and capital-goods ; but as we have seen, the conditions as to supply and demand are very complex, and the difficult problems in distribution arise out of the fact that costs and prices do not correspond except on the margin where the least productive of all of the factors are brought together, and that there are large surpluses over costs, to be divided. It was one time thought that all of this surplus should be attributed to land; but in recent years economists have come to see that each of the factors is in a position to command a share of the surplus, that the share secured by each is worked out through supply and demand, and that the most slowly increasing factor tends to receive a larger and larger proportion of the surplus.
EQUIPMENTS.
It is easy to say that the price of land, like the price of any other economic good, is determined by the forces and conditions which regulate the demand and the supply ; but this is too general to be of any help to the farmer who is trying to estimate the value of a particular piece of land.
The net rent, or the share of the gross returns which, under conditions of free competition, is credited to land, above what is necessary to keep the land intact, is the starting point for figuring the value of a piece of land. When one invests in land, the thing for which he really pays is the perpetual right to use the land and to be free from the payment of rent, or to receive the income which the land will yield if leased to someone else.
The essential difference between the buying of a piece of land and the buying of a perpetual annuity bond lies in the fact that while the income from the latter is fixed in terms of a money income, the former may rise or fall as a result of changes in the conditions of competition for the
unit of the standard of value.
Let it be assumed that the net rent of a given piece of land is three dollars. On the further assumption that this amount will not change, we may think of this acre of land as a perpetual bearer of an annual income of three dollars. Three dollars this year, three dollars next year, and the next, and so on so long as time shall last. The total amount of rent which may be received from this land is incalculable. If there is no limit to the number of years during which rent may be received for the use of this land, then the amount of rent to be received may become infinitely great, and if one were required to pay down the full amount of all these possible rents, which the future years may possibly yield, the price of land would be such that no man could purchase it.
As a matter of fact, however, the present market value of the perpetual rent bearer is often not more than twenty times the net rent, and it is seldom more than thirty times the rent. This is explained by the fact that present wants are estimated more highly than future wants, which leads to the discounting of future incomes1 "at a rate that reflects the prevailing premium on the present." The rent which will be due one year from
VALUE OF FARM LAND
date is discounted at this prevailing rate, and so it is for all the succeeding rents. The present values of the succeeding future rents grow smaller and smaller as the time one must wait for them becomes greater and greater, until finally the rent which is due at the end of an infinite period of time would be infinitesimal.
When the rate of discount is five per cent., for example, the present valuation of a three dollar rent which will be due in ten years is approximately one dollar and eighty- four cents ; the three dollar rent which is due after twenty years has a present valuation of about one dollar and twelve cents; and the three dollar rent which is due in forty years has a present value of about forty-two cents. If this process of discounting future rents be carried far enough the point would finally be reached where the present value of the future rent is too small to be taken into account. The present value of the rent which is due after an infinite number of years is infinitesimal. If the present values of all these future rents be added together the sum would be the present capital value of the land, or the amount of capital which, if lent at a rate of five per cent, per annum would yield the same income as the land is yielding at the present time.
The simple mathematical method of finding this "sum" is to divide the annual value, that is the net rent, by the rate which "reflects the pre-
vailing premium on the present." If the net annual income derived from a piece of land is three dollars per acre and the rate of discount is five per cent., the present capital value of the land would be sixty dollars per acre. Sixty dollars, is, then, the amount of money which, if lent at five per cent, would yield an annual income of three dollars. This is usually spoken of as the capital value of the land.
That this simple method of dividing the three dollar net rent by the prevailing rate of discount to find the capital value of a piece of land is equivalent to finding the sum of an infinite series of prospective net annual three dollar rents discounted at the same rate may be demonstrated as follows :
if the interest be compounded annually at the
rate of r would be / \ \t since X dollars compounded at rate r would give X (i-\-r)*, and if X (i+r)' =a then X= plTy- If then the net income of a farm be a dollars a year its value would be expressed by the
is the ordinary method of capitalizing rent.1
As a matter of fact, however, the present capital value of the land as determined in this way does not often correspond with the price which is paid for land. There are several important reasons for this difference. First it is not certain that the annual income that can be drawn from sixty dollars will always be three dollars. The rate of interest may fall to four per cent, which would reduce the income to be derived from that amount of money to two dollars and forty cents, while the annual income from the land would not be reduced by a lowering of the current rate of interest. The belief that there is a greater probability of a decline in the income to be derived from the money than from the land, often makes men willing to pay more for land than the amount of capital which will now yield the same income. Another reason which leads men to pay more for land than a money loan which will, at the pres-
1The author is indebted to Prof. E. B. Skinner, of the Department of Mathematics of the University of Wisconsin, for assistance in the preparation of this formula.
ent time, yield the same income, is the belief that with the progress of society the competition for the use of land will result in a rise in rents, that, while there is a tendency for the annual income which can be derived by lending a given amount of money to decline, there is at the same time and under like conditions a tendency for the income of a given amount of land to increase.
The available land supply of a country usually increases less rapidly than the population, so that it becomes necessary to resort to land which is either less fertile, less favorably situated, or more difficult to bring under cultivation ; and as a result of keener competition for the better grades of land the amount which will be offered for the use of such land will rise. While this is what usually happens in the long run, it sometimes happens that the discovery of great quantities of very fertile land, and the invention of better means of transportation making this new land more accessible, will for a time reduce the competition for the land which was already under cultivation, and the rent of such land may, for a time, be reduced; but it is believed that the occasional reactions of this kind cannot permanently counteract the tendency for the price of land to rise.
The land which yields the highest rent at one time may be surpassed in the amount of rent which it will yield at another time, by land which was formerly let for a smaller rent. This may be
the result (i) of the introduction of a new crop which thrives best on the land which for other purposes was counted inferior; (2) it may be the result of a dense population in a region which had formerly been sparsely populated ; in other words, the development of a better home market; (3) it may be the result of an improvement in the means of communication which makes the land which was formerly more fertile but less accessible, equally accessible, and hence, more valuable; or (4) it may be the result of a rise in the prices of agricultural produce, or a fall in the current rate of interest, either of which would result in a more rapid increase in the value of land which is more fertile and accessible, but which requires relatively larger expenditures to bring it into cultivation, than in the value of land which is less fertile or accessible but much more easily brought into cultivation. All of these possible variations in the annual value of land must be properly anticipated and included in the list of future incomes which are discounted to find their present values.
Perhaps enough has been said to impress the thoughtful reader with the fact, that to determine the value of a piece of land is by no means a simple matter. When a man sells a piece of land he transfers his right to a series of annual incomes which may be greater or less as time passes by, but which will probably increase as the years go by. In payment for this land he is to accept
another income-bearer which may yield a larger or smaller annual income as the years go by, but which will probably yield a smaller income in the future than at present. This circumstance makes it impossible to do more than approximate the actual present value of a piece of land.
The presence of so many uncertainties makes the buying of land partake more or less of the character of speculation, and during times of prosperity the tendency is for men to be optimistic and over-estimate the probabilities of a rise in rents or a fall in the rate of interest. On the other hand, when periods of depression come, the tendency is for men to underestimate the future possibilities. As a result of this psychological element, the tendency is for the price of land to rise too high during periods of prosperity and to sink too low during periods of depression. As many years are usually required for one of these changes from undervaluation to overvaluation to take place, land does not lend itself so readily to speculation as does wheat, for example ; and yet the man with plenty of funds which are available at the right time may win large profits from speculations in land. Speculation if indulged in at the proper time may keep the price of land from falling so low as it might otherwise do in times of depression, and also from rising so high as it otherwise might during times of inflated values. This is true only where the speculator is wise enough to
buy when prices are too low and to sell when the values rise too high. Unwise speculation in land may have the very opposite result.
The study of the rise and fall of the price of land in the United States seems to show that there are times when the price rises rapidly for a few years and then remains stationary for several years. This latter period is usually characterized by the fact that sales of land are relatively few. Land is generally held at the prices which were reached during the period of rapid sales when optimistic views of the future forced the price considerably beyond the present capital value. If sales are made during this dull period they are likely to be at a price appreciably lower than that at which land is usually held, and likely to be a forced sale. The price of land, then, may be illustrated by a curve which rises during one period, remains on the same level or falls during a succeeding period, and then rises again. When viewed for a long period of time, the general rise in land values is evident, but the temporary fluctuations are very important to any one interested in buying land.
The price of land in any given district is influenced by the number and character of the men who desire to be farmers in that district. It often happens that competition for the use of land is keener in some regions than in others, even though the land be as fertile, and the prices of agricultural 13 i93
products as high in the one place as in the other. Some districts produce more high grade farmers each generation than do other districts, and as a strong motive is required to impel the surplus of farmers to remove to another district, competition in the over-populated district forces the rents and the prices which are paid for land higher and higher until they are appreciably above the level of those which are paid for land in other districts which are capable of producing crops which are just as valuable in terms of money.
Again, it sometimes happens that land is valued for the social standing which accompanies its ownership, as well as for the income in money which it yields. In a country where this is true, and where, at the same time, there are large numbers of persons who have great fortunes and who are very desirous of attaining to a high social position, the prices which may be paid for land often rise far beyond what could be paid if the series of annual incomes in cash were the only factor to be taken into account.
Of two pieces of land which will rent for the same amount, that in one district may sell for a higher price than that in another because there is more money seeking investment in the one place than in the other. A man of wealth will usually rather have his capital invested in land near where he lives than at a great distance where he cannot so readily look after his property, or if he invests
in land at a greater distance he will usually expect a higher rate of return to counteract the disadvantages arising from the distance.
This same principle of capitalization may be applied to other forms of income bearers as well as to land. In estimating the value of a given machine, the farmer may think of the amount of service he is to get out of the machine during the next ten years, let us say, on the assumption that the machine will be worn out in that time. This is a rather difficult process because the deterioration of the machine and perhaps, also, the invention of a better machine to do the same work will result in a gradual reduction in the usefulness of the machine; and yet, if he is to invest wisely in the various forms of capital-goods, the farmer should attempt to estimate the value of the series of uses which may reasonably be expected to be gotten from the particular instrument of production during the time which it shall be at all serviceable, and then find the present value of these future uses by discounting them "at a rate that reflects the prevailing premium on the present."
This capital value of the instrument represents the maximum price which the farmer can afford to pay, but does not, of course, necessarily represent the market price of the instrument of production. The market price may be greater or less than the capital value obtained in this way, for the instrument of production may have as many valuations
as there are different grades of farmers to use it and different grades of uses to which it may be put by a given farmer. In order to get a capital value that will correspond more or less closely to the market value of the various forms of capitalgoods it will be necessary, therefore, to arrive at the competitive price which will be paid for the use of a given capital-good during the series of years of its usefulness, and then find the present value of the series of incomes, in the same way as has been done in the case of land. But since it is not common in this country to let horses, tools and machinery to farmers for a hire, this method of capitalization is less practical to the farmer when applied to capital-goods than when applied to land.
The cost of producing the machine or the horse is an important element in determining the price which must be paid for it in order that it may be produced. On the other hand, the usefulness of the machine or the horse to the farmer forms the basis for his estimating whether or not he can better afford to pay the market price or do without them. It may be true even that the capital value of the instrument, when calculated on the basis of its usefulness to a given farmer, may be greater than its market value and yet it might be unprofitable for the farmer to buy the particular horse or machine, because other means of securing the same end might prove more profitable.
The theory of capitalization is especially useful in the consideration of the value of farm land because the value of a given piece of land has no particular relation to the cost of bringing such land under cultivation. The income received by the landlord is largely a surplus which is credited to land because it is scarce, rather than because it costs any definite amount to improve the land. Land is also much more permanent in character than are capital-goods, and for this reason, also, it lends itself with more facility to the above method of capitalization.
These a-re some of the most important principles and conditions which should be kept in mind in the consideration of the values of farm land, and of farm live stock and equipment. The prospective buyer of land will do well to bear in mind the advice of Cato, a Roman agricultural writer, who is quoted by Pliny1 as saying, "Do not be too eager in buying a farm. In rural operations never be sparing of your trouble, and, above all, when you are purchasing land. — A bad bargain is always a ground for repentance."
Section I. Free land. — Hitherto the progress of American agriculture has been powerfully influenced by the presence of vast areas of government lands which were easily secured, easily brought into cultivation, and which gave large returns upon investments. The presence of these vast areas of cheap land of great fertility in a country where labor was scarce led to the invention of many labor saving devices until America became noted the world over for her agricultural machinery; but, above all, the presence of free land has made the oppressions of landlords impossible. The farmers have been able to take up valuable government lands. This means of acquiring land ownership has been very important from the time the first settlers landed in the New World until the present time. When, in the earlier days, land became scarce in Massachusetts, emigration to Connecticut set in, and when the best lands in both of these colonies were occupied, there still remained unoccupied, good land in New York. When the small farmers of Virginia were
MEANS OF ACQUIRING LAND
crowded out by the great planters, they found unoccupied lands in North Carolina, and later they followed Boone into the wilderness of Kentucky. In time the occupation of the Mississippi valley was completed, and in more recent years, since the great plains have been made easily accessible by railways, the settlement of new land has gone on at an exceedingly rapid rate.
That the acquisition of landownership was an easy task for the American farmer of the earlier days is indicated by the following quotation taken from a description of the settlements along the Monongahela in 1772 and 1773 : "Land was the object which invited the greater number of these people to cross the mountains, for as the saying then was, 'It was to be had here for taking up' ; that is, building a cabin and raising a crop of grain, however small, of any kind, entitled the occupant to four hundred acres of land, and a preemption right to one thousand acres more adjoining, to be secured by a land office warrant."1
In 1790 Alexander Hamilton proposed a plan for the disposition of the public lands which reads as follows : "In the formation of a plan for the disposition of the vacant lands of the United States there appear to be two leading objects of consideration : one, the facility of advantageous sales, according to the probable course of pur-
chases; the other the accommodation of individuals now inhabiting the western country, or who may hereafter emigrate thither. The former, as an operation of finance, claims primary attention; the latter is important, as it relates to the satisfaction of the inhabitants of the western country. It is desirable, and does not appear impracticable, to conciliate both. Purchasers may be contemplated in three classes : moneyed individuals and companies who will buy to sell again ; associations of persons who intend to make settlements themselves; single persons or families, now resident in the western country or who may emigrate thither hereafter. The two first will be frequently blended, and will always want considerable tracts. The last will generally purchase small quantities. Hence a plan for the sale of the western lands, while it may have due regard for the last, should be calculated to obtain all the advantages which may be derived from the two first classes."1
The government was slow in formulating the plan which finally became most significant in the conversion of the public domain into a nation of farms. The American statesmen of the Eighteenth Century looked upon the western lands "as an asset to be cashed at once for payment of current expenses of government and extinguishment
of the national debt."1 This desire to convert the public domain into cash lecj to the sale of land in large tracts. Under the ordinance of May 20, 1785, surveyed lands were offered in lots as large as a whole township of 32 sections of 640 acres each, for not less than $i per acre.2 Under an Act passed May 18, 1796, which provided for the survey of certain lands in the present state of Ohio, surveyed lands were to be offered at public sale in sections of 640 acres, and in lots of eight such sections each. The minimum price was then fixed at $2 per acre.3 Prior to May 10, 1800, 1,484,047 acres of land had been sold from the public domain for the benefit of the United States. From these sales was realized $1,201, 725. 68.4
Under an Act of May 10, 1800, land offices were opened in the Northwest Territory. The minimum price was kept at $2 per acre. Lands were offered for three weeks at public sale in sections and half sections, and what remained at the end of this period was to be sold privately, as wanted, at the minimum price. During the next twenty years the net sales of government lands were 13,642,536 acres, from which the sum of $27,900,379.29 was realized.5 In 1820 the minimum price of land was reduced to $1.25 per acre.
The revenue idea was gradually abandoned and the settlement of the western country came to be looked upon as the principal end in view in the disposition of the public domain.
The preemption system, which gave the preference to actual settlers in the sales of land at the minimum price, was embodied in sixteen special Acts between 1801 and 1841. At the latter date a general Act was passed which, with minor changes, remained in force until 1891. The actual settlers were permitted to enter upon tracts of land not larger than 160 acres nor less than 40 acres before such lands had been offered at public sale. The requirements were that the person should reside in a dwelling upon the tract, improve and cultivate a part of the land, and after a limited period pay $1.25 per acre.
"The preemption system," says Donaldson,1 "arose from the necessities of settlers, and through a series of more than 57 years of experience in attempts to sell or otherwise dispose of the public lands. The early idea of sales for revenue was abandoned and a plan of disposition for homes was substituted. The preemption system was the result of law, experience, executive orders, departmental rulings, and judicial construction. It has been many-phased, and was applied by special acts to special localities, with peculiar or additional features, but it has always and to this
day [1880] contains the germ of actual settlement, under which thousands of homes have been made and lands made productive, yielding a profit in crops to the farmer and increasing the resources of the Nation."
The Homestead Act of 1862 was the final step in the direction of free land for actual settlers. This law was the result, in part at least, of the agitations of the Free Soil Democrats. They claimed "that the public lands of the United States belong to the people, and should not be sold to individuals, nor granted to corporations, but should be held as a sacred trust for the benefit of the people, and should be granted in limited quantities, free of cost, to landless settlers."1
The homestead law enables the landless farmers to secure a quarter-section, 160 acres, of land and acquire a title to the same by maintaining residence thereupon and improving and cultivating the land for the continuous period of five years.2
"The homestead act," says Donaldson,3 writing in 1880, "is now the approved and preferred method of acquiring title to the public lands. It has stood the test of eighteen years, and was the outgrowth of a system extending through nearly eighty years, and now, within the circle of a hun-
1 See The Public Domain, by Donaldson, p. 332. a Circular from the General Land Office showing the manner of proceeding to obtain title to public lands, 1904,
dred years since the United States acquired the first of her public lands, the homestead act stands as the concentrated wisdom of legislation for settlement of the public lands. It protects the government, it fills the states with homes, it builds up communities, and lessens the chances of social and civil disorder by giving ownership of the soil, in small tracts, to the occupants thereof. It was copied from no other nation's system. It was originally and distinctively American, and remains a monument to its originators."
had been entered up to June 30, 1904.
From 1873 to 1891 a Timber Culture Act was in force. This Act, as first passed, enabled "any person'' to obtain not more than 160 acres of land by planting 40 acres of timber and properly caring for the same for ten years. The number of acres of timber required was finally reduced to 10, and the period of cultivation to eight years. The privilege came to be restricted, however, to persons twenty-one years of age, heads of families, citizens of the United States, or one who has filed his declaration of intention to become such. The law was a failure from the standpoint of timber culture, but in all 44,229,950 acres of land were entered by this method.
The total area included in farms was more than doubled between 1860 and 1900. The acreage in farms was 407,212,538 in 1860, and in
1900 it was 838,591,774. The importance of free land in this increase in the total area of land in farms is shown by the fact that between January i, 1863, and June 30, 1900, 188,149,032 acres of land were entered under the homestead laws. It is estimated that public lands had been disposed of by the government prior to June 30, 1860, to the extent of 417,587,322 acres;1 whereas 524,509,414 acres have been disposed of since that date.
The following figures show the number of acres of land disposed of by the government for each year from 1863 to 1904. In column A is given the acreage of original homestead entries. In column B is given the area disposed of for cash, the total acreage of original entries under the Homestead Acts and the Timber Culture Acts, the total acreage located with agricultural college and other
1 Donaldson (Public Domain, p. 519) says: "The disposition of the public domain from its origin to June 30, 1883, is estimated at about 620,000,000 acres." From this number has been subtracted the sum of the amounts annually disposed of each year from June 30, 1860, to June 30, 1883, or 202,412,322 acres. It will be noted that the total amount disposed of from the origin of the public domain to June 30, 1904, according to these figures is 942,096,736 acres. Whereas according to the report of the Land Office for 1904, the total area appropriated prior to June 30 of that year was 794,794,384 acres. This discrepancy is easily accounted for by the fact that considerable quantities of the land selected by railways or entered by individuals under the various Acts, was restored to the public domain and became subject to entries and selections a second time ; 794,794,384 acres represents the net amount disposed of for the whole period, but it is impossible to ascertain the net amount disposed of each year, so the amounts disposed of each year, without regard to the amounts restored to the public domain, are taken as representing the importance of this means of acquiring land.
Total 233,043,939 518,027,830
From the above table it will be noted that during the decade from 1890 to 1900, the amount of land disposed of by the government was much smaller than for the decade from 1880 to 1890. This falling off was looked upon at the time as suggesting that all the more desirable lands had been selected from the public domain. Since 1900, however, the number of acres disposed of each year has been much greater, — rising to almost twenty-three millions in the year ending June 30, 1903. In 1902, nearly four and one-half millions of acres were disposed of in Oklahoma, and slightly more than two and a half millions in North Dakota. There were five states in which more than one million acres of land w.ere disposed of in 1902, namely, Wyoming, Montana, Oregon, Washington, and Colorado. In 1903, nearly three millions of acres were disposed of in each of the two states, Florida and North Dakota, two millions in Wyoming, and between one and two
millions in Colorado, Mississippi, Oklahoma, Oregon, and Washington. During the past ten years more land has been disposed of by the government in Oklahoma than in any other state or territory. North Dakota ranks second in this respect. These facts suggest that the opening of Indian reservations to white settlers has been the most prominent factor in bringing about an increase during the last few years in the number of acres disposed of by the government.
That the free distribution of farms will soon reach its limit is shown by the fact that threefourths of the total land area of the United States, exclusive of Alaska and the insular possessions, has been appropriated or reserved. Out of the total area of 1,900,947,200 acres, there yet remain about 473,836,000 acres unappropriated and unreserved. Of this 270,267,760 acres have been surveyed. This land which is still open for appropriation is found principally in Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, North Dakota, Oregon, Utah, and Wyoming. Most all of the land which is desirable for agricultural purposes has been appropriated or reserved. When an Indian reservation is now thrown open to settlers there are many applicants for every desirable piece of land. In the summer of 1904 there were in one case 106,308 persons registered with the hope of drawing farms where
each for distribution.1
The presence of unoccupied lands of good quality which has, hitherto, made the task of acquiring landownership an easy one in this country, will be of less and less significance as the years go by, and other considerations will become more and more important. This leads us to study the importance of gift and inheritance as means of acquiring landownership.
Section II. Gift and Inheritance. — A vast amount of wealth passes on from generation to generation by gift and inheritance. Hence it is not necessary, in order to maintain the class of landowning farmers in a country where this class is already established, that each succeeding generation of farmers should save from the profits of their industry sufficient wealth to purchase their farms, and to hand this accumulated wealth over to the preceding generation of landowners. This would be necessary, however, in order to reestablish a class of landowning farmers in one generation in a country where landlordism has become universal. In England, where most of the land is owned by a comparatively small number of landlords, the estates are handed down from generation to generation and thus remain the property of the landlord class; and in that country it is
unusual indeed for a tenant farmer to undertake to purchase a farm. In Germany, where peasant proprietorship is the rule, the farms are handed down from father to son by inheritance, and thus the property is kept in the hands of the tillers of the soil. The conditions with respect to inherited wealth are, therefore, of great importance in determining the status of farmers with respect to landownership.
In the United States it is a matter of common observation that farmers who are able to do so, assist their sons in buying farms. This assistance may be relatively very great in the case of a wealthy farmer who has a small family; and again it may be very small in the case of a farmer in moderate circumstances, who has a large number of children among whom he wishes to distribute his assistance. Often the home farm is greatly enlarged by purchasing a "forty" here and an "eighty" there while the boys are growing to manhood, and then parceled out as the young men wish to establish homes for themselves. Again, when the parents are gone, the remainder of their accumulated wealth passes by inheritance to their sons and daughters and helps very greatly in the enlargement of their farms as their growing families make larger farms desirable.
this country, results in the movement of a vast amount of wealth away from the agricultural industry, which must be replaced from some source if the wealth of farmers is not to decline. The general principle may be thus stated: The greater the amount of land and other forms of wealth acquired by one generation and transmitted to the farmers of the next, and the more evenly this wealth is distributed, the greater the ease with which the ownership of land may be acquired by the succeeding generations of farmers ; but the larger the farm families of a given community, and the larger the percentage of each succeeding generation who seek a livelihood in other industries, the greater the amount of wealth which will be drawn from agriculture into other industries by gift and inheritance, and the smaller the part which inherited wealth will play in the acquisition of landownership.
The number of persons employed in the various other occupations has increased much more rapidly than has the number engaged in agriculture. This is shown by the following table which gives the proportion of those engaged in all gainful occupations, which were employed in "agricultural pursuits."1
Perhaps the most important explanation of this more rapid increase in the percentage of those engaged in other occupations than agriculture, is the transfer of a share of the agricultural population to the other industries. This has often been spoken of as the movement from the country to the city. Men who have long been farmers sometimes move to the cities and enter other occupations, but what is more significant than this is the movement of the farm boys from country to city. A large percentage of the boys who are brought up in the country are educated and sent into the city, where they enter occupations of every description. A large percentage of the men who control the industries of cities to-day were one time farm boys.
This movement from country to city has been especially rapid in the last twenty years and that for two reasons : First, agricultural methods have been transformed by the introduction of labor-saving machinery, until a much smaller percentage of the total working population is required to produce the same supply per capita of
food stuffs and raw materials. Second, the manufacturing industries have been developing rapidly during the same period, giving opportunity for a share of the increasing farm population to find remunerative employment in the industries of the cities. To quote Dr. A. C. True, "Between 1870 and 1890, speaking relatively and in round numbers, two million men gave up farming and went to join the great army of toilers in our cities. Taking their families into account, six million people from the farm were added to the population of the town. . . . Men leave the farms because they are not needed there. The introduction of labor saving machinery and rapid transportation has produced the same result in agriculture as in manufactures. A smaller number of men working in our fields turn out a much greater product than the greater number of laborers could possibly secure in olden times, and the products of all lands are easily carried where they are needed. . . . Within the past twenty-five years, invention has gained the mastery in agriculture as in other arts. The brain of man has triumphed over his hand here as elsewhere."1
If only the poor moved from country to city, the total wealth of the country would be affected but little by this movement of population. But the rich farmers are quite as apt to move to the cities as are the poor ones, in fact they are per-
haps more likely to do so, for they are in a position to live from the rent of their farms as many retired farmers are doing in nearly every town of the country. The sons of the well-to-do farmers are more likely to receive an education and to be attracted to other pursuits than are the sons of poor farmers; on the other hand, it may be true in many cases that the son of a poor farmer would be more likely to seek employment in the city because his chances of getting a start in the country are not so good as those of the young man with a well-to-do father to aid him.
This stream of population is carrying a vast amount of wealth from country to city every year. This movement of wealth from country to city has rightly been given as one cause of an increase in the percentage of tenancy, for it transfers to the city the owners of many farms, and these farms are cultivated by tenants until some farmer is able to acquire its ownership by transferring to the city-owner an equivalent amount of wealth.
Thus while gift and inheritance are economic conditions of great importance in determining the status of farmers with respect to landownership, and make any rapid change in their status in this regard impossible, some other means of accumulating wealth must be available if the present percentage of landowning farmers is to be maintained. This leads to the investigation of savings
Section III. Savings. — The process of saving from the earnings of many years and making a purchase, is a means of acquiring landownership which is of especial significance in the consideration of the conditions which make it possible for tenant farmers to become landowners. The majority of the tenants are able to save from their earnings, because their net returns are more than enough to cover the expenses of living. When long periods of time are taken into consideration, the prices of agricultural products tend to be such that the total product of the least capable farmer who can remain permanently in the business will equal his cost of living and all other annual expenditures, including rent and normal returns on permanent investments. This is true partly because long-time-average prices are a most important factor in determining the degree of efficiency which is necessary for making a living by farming, and all who do not prove themselves efficient to that degree must leave agriculture to those who are more capable ; again, it is true partly because the long-time-average price must be' such as will encourage the production of sufficient produce to supply the effective demands of the people, and the least capable farmer who is required to produce this supply must receive prices which will enable him to live in accordance with his idea of
a living, to pay rent, wages (unless he and his family do all the work, in which case this item is included in a living), wear and tear on machinery and normal returns on permanent investments.
It is true, certainly, that, at any given time, there are those who are producing at a loss, others who are just able to make both ends meet, and still others, — and ordinarily this class includes the vast majority, — who are able to make an extra profit because of their superior ability. This will be easily understood if we refer to the figures which are available showing the cost of producing maize.1 From the figures published by the Illinois Experiment Station, it is possible to compile a list showing the variations in the cost of producing maize, which list shows that in the vast majority of the cases reported the cost of producing the maize was far below the market price. The items included under costs are : breaking stalks, plowing, disking, harrowing, rolling, planting, cultivating, husking, seed maize, and rent. The numbers are averages for counties; but as the average number of returns per county was not more than four, the process of averaging by no means eliminated the variations, and the figures show wide differences in the costs of producing maize.
bushel, of producing maize in Illinois as presented in Bulletin No. 50. Before each statement of costs is placed in parenthesis the number of returns averaged. The county averages are so arranged that they read in succession from the highest to the lowest cost of production. (2) 38.8, (2) 31.5, (i) 29.5, (2) 28.5, (i) 26.8,
(1) 18.2, (4) 18.2, (5) 18.2, (2) 17.7, (5) 17.6, (4) 17.6, (5) 17.5, (4) 17-4, (8) 17-3, (6) 17-3, (9) 17.3, (6) 17.3, (2) 17.2, (4) 17-2, (2) 17.0,
(3) 16.9, (3) 16.9, (12) 16.9, (2) 16.8, (8) 16.7, (6) 16.6, (i) 16.3, (3) 16.1, (4) 16.1, (i) 16.1, (i) 15.6, (i) 15.6, (3) 15.6, (23) 15.5, (3) !5-3> (3) 15-2, (i) 15-2, (4) 15-2, (2) 15.1,
These figures show a variation in the cost of
producing maize, ranging from 38.8 to 11.3 cents per bushel. Could the returns of the separate producers be compared, instead of the county averages, a wider variation in costs would doubtless be found.
This differential gain, or profit due to superior ability is the condition which, even where gift and inherited wealth are insignificant, make it
possible for farmers to accumulate wealth and to become the owners of farms. It is true, certainly, that the more efficient may live much better than the least capable, or marginal farmers, and thus the habits of life may reduce the power of the more efficient farmers to save from their profits. But the condition which gives rise to this differential gain certainly makes it possible for the more efficient tenant farmers to buy land.
The greater the number of those who have gained a degree of efficiency above that of the marginal farmers and the greater the difference between the degree of efficiency of the majority of farmers and that of the marginal farmers, the greater is the differential gain which will go to farmers as personal profits, and the better able they will be to become landowners. On the other hand the more homogeneous the farmers who supply the market, that is, the smaller the number who have gained a degree of efficiency above that of the marginal farmer and the less this degree of difference, the smaller is the total differential profit and the less able are tenant farmers to accumulate sufficient wealth to buy a farm.
Section IV. Credit. — It is a common practise in the United States for farmers to borrow money to invest in land. When a young man has saved enough money to pay some share, say half or twothirds of the price of the farm, he borrows the remainder and makes an investment, a mortgage
being given to secure the loan. This enables the farmer to buy land much sooner than he could if he were required to save the entire amount before making the purchase. Where too high a rate of interest is not charged, it is often more desirable to pay interest than to pay rent ; for the difficulty of adjusting the relations between landlord and tenant is in this way removed, and the farmer is free to improve the land as he chooses, knowing the benefits will be his own.
A study of the mortgage indebtedness of farmers in the United States, in 1890, showed that 1 8.6 per cent, of all the farm families occupied encumbered farms. The total encumbrance of farm homes amounted to $1,085,995,960, which was thirty-five per cent, of the total value of the encumbered farms, and 8.2 per cent, of the total value of all farms.1 An investigation of the distribution of farm mortgages2 showed that throughout the southern states where the percentage of tenancy was very high, the percentage of encumbered farms was very low; that the six states having the highest encumbrance on farms were New York, Iowa, Illinois, Kansas, Ohio, and Pennsylvania ; the total encumbrance of these states being $553,964,594, or 51 per cent, of the total for the United States; yet with this high total encumbrance, the mortgages represented
only 37.25 per cent, of the value of the encumbered farms, and 9.86 per cent, of the total value of all farms in these six states. Thus while a large per cent. (51.) of the farm-mortgage indebtedness of the United States is concentrated on a small area, there is also a large per cent. (42.3) of the farm values concentrated on the same area. The following quotation from the Census Report, throws much light upon the reasons why mortgages are placed upon land :
As a result of inquiries made in 102 selected counties, distributed throughout the United States, the conclusion is that 80.13 per cent, of the mortgages in force were made to secure the purchase price of real estate and to make real estate improvements, when these objects are not complicated with other objects, and that the original amount of these mortgages is 82.66 per cent, of the total original amount of all mortgages in force. If to these objects are added the objects of business and the purchase of various articles of personal property of the more durable kind, such as domestic animals, wagons, farm machines, when not combined with other objects, the mortgages are 89.82 per cent of the entire number in force, and their original amount is 94-37 Per cent, of the total original amount of all mortgages
in force The mortgages distinctly representing a loss
of wealth, or wealth soon to be consumed, are embraced in the description of farm and family expenses, and their number is 5.4 per cent, of the total number of mortgages in force, while their original amount is 1.73 per cent, of the total original amount A distinction must be observed between the cause and the consequence of mortgages. The mortgage, in its motive, is for the most part a mere business venture, and, so far as foreclosures show, for the most part
reason it becomes a business mistake.1
These figures, it is true, refer to real-estate mortgages generally; but there is no reason for thinking that the mortgage is used for other than the securing of the purchase price of real estate in the case of farm mortgages than in the case of other real estate mortgages. In general, we would be inclined rather to think that farm mortgages were more likely to be given to secure the purchase price than the mortgages on city lots, for example, where the total value of the lot might be relatively small compared with the value of the business which might be established thereon, and which might be an occasion for desiring to mortgage the real estate to secure funds to extend the business. In general, the conclusion which should be drawn seems to be that the mortgages on farms are in the vast majority of cases used as a means of making the transition from tenancy to landownership.
The evidence seems to show, also, that the farmers are usually successful in their use of the mortgage as a means of acquiring the ownership of,land. In Illinois, Michigan, Minnesota, and New Jersey, from one-third to one-half per cent., only, of the farm mortgages are foreclosed each
year;1 and the average duration of farm mortgages in the United States is about five years.2 From this we may conclude that in the above named states not much more than from one and two-thirds to two and one-half per cent, of the farm mortgages are foreclosed. But we cannot argue from this that from ninety-seven and onehalf to ninety-eight and one-third per cent, of the mortgages are duly paid, out of the profits of agriculture. Many cases will come to the mind of the reader, where the unsuccessful aspirants to landownership have sold their mortgaged farms in order to pay off the mortgage and save a part of their original investment. Howrever, it is fair to say that the vast majority of such adventures prove successful.
A classification by age groups of the owners of farm homes, in the United States, may be obtained for the years 1890 and 1900, which gives the percentage of the owned farm homes which are encumbered. This classification is shown in the following table :3
55 years and over , 32. i 32.2
From these figures it will be seen that the percentage of encumbrance increases from youth to middle age, and declines from middle age to old age. This fact, and also the relation between the increase in the percentage of mortgages and the decline in the percentage of tenancy, is shown more clearly in the following table in which the one state of Illinois is considered, Illinois being the one of the northern states in which the percentage of tenancy is the highest :
TABLE 6. THE PERCENTAGE OF OWNED FARM HOMES WHICH WERE KNOWN TO BE ENCUMBERED, AND THE PERCENTAGE OF ALL FARM HOMES WHICH WERE KNOWN TO BE HIRED, IN THE STATE OF ILLINOIS, FOR THE YEAR 1900.
When we consider the mortgage in all of its relations it is apparent that this is one of the important means of acquiring landownership ; and while it sometimes proves disastrous, it is practically indispensable in our rural organization, and on the whole it may be looked upon as an institution friendly to the interests of the farmers.
Section V. The taxation of mortgages. — It has been noted by economists that the market price of land is often greater than the capitalization of the net rent at the current rate of interest. That is, men are willing to take a lower return on investments in land1 than on loans, [even where the security is a farm mortgage. This is said to increase the difficulty of paying off farm mortgages. The man whose farm is mortgaged must pay, for example, six per cent, for the use of money which, as an investment in land, is yielding him no more than four per cent.
With the Ricardian theory of distribution in mind, which assumes that all farmers possess the same degree of efficiency, economists have concluded that this discrepancy between the net rent and the interest would make it practically impossible for the farmers to pay off their mortgages. It will be readily understood from the discussion of profits due to superior ability, that all but the less efficient farmers are able to counterbalance this loss by earning personal profits, so that the fact of the discrepancy is not so disastrous as has
been supposed by the economists ; yet this discrepancy has an important retarding influence upon the movement from tenancy to the unencumbered ownership of land.
This difference between net rent and interest is due to many causes. Many of these causes have already been discussed in the chapter on the price of land ; but we wish to emphasize especially the influence of double taxation in this connection. Double taxation, the taxing of both the farm and the mortgage upon the farm, tends to increase the difference between the rate which must be paid upon the loan and the returns received upon investments in land. The man who lends money upon a mortgage wants at least as large a return as if he had purchased the land himself. Had the man who lent the money purchased the land and rented it, he would have paid the land tax out of the net rent. If he lends the money and has to pay tax at the same rate on the mortgage, he will demand interest equal, at least to the net rent of that proportion of the farm represented by the face of the mortgage. This means that the farmer will have to pay interest equal to the net rent and then pay the land tax besides; thus paying more in interest and in the tax, by the amount of the tax, than he would have paid as a tenant. To tax a farm mortgage is, therefore, to tax a farmer for using the mortgage as a means of acquiring landownership. 15 225
Section VI. The need of a system for obtaining credit on land, the District Credit Associations in Germany. — The farmers of the United States are in need of a good credit system. Not only is it important that the young farmers who wish to go in debt for land should be able to borrow money at a low rate of interest; but it is equally important that the tenant farmers should be able to invest their savings in a profitable manner, until they have accumulated sufficient capital to enable them to invest in land. It is well known that the country bankers are not willing to pay more than four per cent, for the savings which the farmers may deposit with them ; and that these same bankers will not lend money to the same men, on the best of security, — the farm mortgage, — for less than six per cent, with the interest paid semiannually in advance. It is also true that the length of time for which the farmers wish to borrow money is usually longer than that for which the bankers wish to put their money out; in fact, the lending of money on mortgages is not the class of investment which seems most congenial to the ordinary banker.
The banks are of far less importance in the making of loans to farmers for the purpose of buying land, in most communities, than are the well-todo and the retired farmers of the neighborhood. Nearly every community has at least one such man in it. While there are many exceptions,
these men are usually close-fisted, and more or less miserly in character. They are not willing to take any risk. They lend to the men whom they know. They take mortgages on land, the value of which they can readily ascertain. Some of these men, perhaps the most of them, deal honorably ; but they charge a higher rate of interest than the farmers can well afford to pay. But while some, perhaps the most, of these men who lend money to the farmers deal honorably, there are men in this business who have rightly been called "land sharks." These men watch for a chance to foreclose a mortgage and get a farm for much less than its real value. Having the farm in their possession they wring all they can from the tenants who are so unfortunate as to contract for the land, or they sell it to some farmer who gives a mortgage in part payment; this done the land shark watches his chance to get the farm again for much less than the price for which he sold it, as he had done before, and so the process is continued until untold damage is done to his fellowmen.
Besides these moneyed men who live in the neighborhood and lend money to the farmers, there is usually some one who acts as the agent of some large insurance company, and whose business it is to lend the funds of the company to the farmers. These loans are secured by mortgages. The company is in no hurry for the money, and has no use for the land. The main objection to
this means of borrowing money is the rate of interest, which is usually higher than it should be, and higher than the farmers would have to pay for the use of money if they had the benefit of a good credit system.
But neither the local money lender nor the agent of the insurance company provide the farmers with a means of investing their savings. The young farmer who saves but a few hundred dollars each year, cannot hope to lend this money on a mortgage, because those who wish to borrow money to invest in land generally desire a larger sum at one time. Hence the farmer finds the country bank with its low rate of interest, about the only chance for investing his savings during the years when he is trying to accumulate enough capital to enable him to invest in land. When the time has come for him to make an investment by paying half of the value of a piece of land from the savings of many years, he is embarrassed by the fact that while he has been able to get no more than four per cent, for the use of his money, he must pay six per cent, for the money which he wishes to borrow. This should certainly be enough to convince the farmer that something is wrong. The important question is, Can anything be done to remedy this condition of affairs ?
Something has been done in other countries, and there is no reason why something cannot be done in this country to give the farmer a better
credit system. More than a hundred years ago institutions were established in Germany for the purpose of lending money to the farmers at a low rate of interest; and the years have proved the wisdom of this course of action. The most important institutions for making loans to farmers, in Germany, are the district cooperative credit associations (Lands chaf ten) which are public, or semi-public institutions for the purpose of lending money on mortgages. These are organizations of landowners, who by combining their resources into an unlimited company are able to borrow money at a very low rate, — at a rate comparable to that for which the government can float its bonds. As the institution is not intended for profit, the loans are made to landowners at a rate just enough higher than that paid by the institution to cover the costs of carrying on the business. Money is loaned on mortgages to the farmers and in order to raise the money for such loans, the institution is permitted by public authority to issue mortgage bonds to the value of the mortgages it holds. As all the members of the association are jointly and severally liable to the full value of their lands, the bonds are considered excellent investments, and are floated at a very low rate of interest.
When the money has been lent to a farmer and a mortgage given to secure the loan, it is the regular thing to collect a small amount as a partial
payment each year until the whole amount is paid. If, for example, the rate of interest charged by the institution is four per cent., five per cent, will be collected each year. Four per cent, is interest and the one per cent, is a partial payment which accumulates with interest until at the end of a little over forty years sufficient has been paid in to cancel the debt. It is also possible for the more thrifty farmers to make other payments which shorten the period required for canceling the debt. In some cases, these partial payments must be paid in mortgage bonds, which can be bought at the market price.
These mortgage bonds make a safe and ready means of investing the farmers' savings. In them the farmer finds a safe investment which is as permanent as he may desire to have it, and at the same time an investment on which he can realize at any time in case he decides to invest in land. The German form of the institution may not exactly meet our needs, but it is certainly true that the principle of association is especially desirable in any system of land credit.
Not only do such institutions make it possible for the young farmers to invest their savings until they are ready to buy, and then to borrow money to finish paying for the land, but they make it more desirable for the retiring farmers to sell their land, as they can invest in bonds which are as safe as the investment in land and pay practically the
of the tenant problem.
The safety of these institutions is insured by the fact that they are district associations. Each institution operates only within a very limited and well defined field, so that the officials are able to know the men and the land values throughout the district.
The good effect of this credit system is evinced by the fact that, in 1895, only 16.42 per cent, of the farms of Germany were composed entirely of leased land; and only 12.38 per cent, of all the land included in farms was leased land. Indeed, Germany is a nation of landowning farmers, while in France 47.2 per cent, of the cultivated area is occupied by tenants, and in England the landowning farmer is rarely found.
Tenancy in Germany is largely among the occupiers of the very large and of the very small farms. This is shown in the following table :
in this regard in recent years. In 1882, 15.71 per cent, of the farms were composed solely of leased land, and in 1895 the percentage was 16.42 ; but at the same time, 12.88 per cent, of all land in farms was leased land in 1882, and only 12.38 per cent, in 1895. It would appear, therefore, that there was little change in the status of the farmers with respect to landownership during this period.
That this high percentage of landowning farmers is due in a large degree to the good system of land credit, is indicated by the fact that the farms of Prussia, are mortgaged to about half their market value. And yet it may be that in this high percentage of indebtedness there lies a danger. The indebtedness on land in Prussia increased twenty-four per cent, during the thirteen years from 1883 to 1896; and it may well be feared that while the forms of landownership have been retained the real ownership is gradually slipping away from the farmers as surely as it is in our own country.
Even if the good credit system is not all that is needed to enable the tenant farmers to become landowners in sufficient numbers to stop the decline in the percentage of landowning farmers, yet it is certainly an important method of facilitating the acquiring of landownership on the part of the farmers, and in this way it is a means of checking to some extent the decline of the class of land-
owning farmers in the United States. Gift, inheritance, and profits, aided by a good credit system are the most important means of acquiring the ownership of land. Now that the government has practically exhausted its supply of good farms, and competition is driving the price of land higher and higher, it becomes more and more important that every facility be provided the farmer for making the most of the means which yet remain for acquiring the ownership of land. The farmer should have every facility for acquiring a knowledge of the facts and principles which underlie his art, in order that he may so operate his farm as to win large profits from which to save money to invest in land. He should be provided, also, with a credit system such as will enable him to invest his savings with profit, and provide an economical source of funds, such as will avoid high rates of interest and double taxation, when it is desirable to borrow money to invest in land.
PROBLEM ILLUSTRATING THE FOREGOING PRINCIPLES. I. Four farmers, A, B, C and D, are in competition for four grades of land, ist, 2nd, 3rd, 4th. The following figures represent the value of the produce which the farmers of each grade can produce on the land of different grades as a result of the expenditure of six dollars' worth of labor and capital.
(b) Supposing that the six dollars are expended upon one acre in case of the fourth grade land, and that the third grade land is farmed 5 per cent, more intensively than the fourth grade, and the second grade 10 per cent, and the first grade 15 per cent, more intensively than the fourth grade, how much would the rent per acre be on each grade of land?
(c) Supposing that the net rent is go per cent, of the gross rent, and that the current rate of interest on safe loans is five per cent., what would be a fair capitalization of the income of each piece of the land?
(d) Supposing that all farmers live equally well, and leaving out of account the influence of variations in quantitative efficiency, how long would it take each man to pay for the land which he cultivates by saving from his profits if the land can be purchased at its capital value ?
UNITED STATES.
Less than two-thirds of the whole number of farms in the United States are cultivated by their owners. According to the census for 1900, twenty-two and two-tenths per cent, of the farms were operated by share tenants, thirteen and onetenth per cent, by cash tenants, one per cent, by managers, nine-tenths per cent, "by owners and tenants," seven and nine-tenths per cent, by "part owners," and fifty-four and nine-tenths per cent, by owners. The following table shows the percentage of all farms which were operated by these different classes of farmers in the United States and in the geographic divisions of the country, as shown by the census for I9OO.1
*N. B. — The following instructions to the enumerators explain the significance of the terms used in the following table : "OWNER. — If a farm is cultivated by a person who owns all or a part of it, by a man whose wife owns all or a part of it, by a widow or widower, by the heir or heirs thereto, or by the trustees or guardian for such heirs, write 'owner.' For census purposes a settler on government land who has not 'proved up,' a person who has bought land on a contract for a
Alaska and Hawaii 30.5 6.1 5.6 54.9 2.9
This table shows that the percentage of tenancy is the highest in the Southern divisions and the lowest in the Western division. Farms operated by managers are relatively most abundant in the Western and in the North Atlantic divisions. In the West the farms operated by managers are largely cattle and sheep ranches which are conducted for profit, while in the East these farms
and must be so marked.
"OWNER AND TENANT. — If a farm is cultivated jointly by its owner and by one or more other persons working for a share of the farm products, write 'owner' after the name of the owner, and 'share' after the tenant on shares.
"CASH TENANT. — If the farm is cultivated by a tenant who pays a fixed rental in money, or a stated amount of labor or farm commodities (not a proportionate share of all), write 'cash.'
"TENANT ON SHARES. — If the farm is cultivated by a tenant who pays for its use a share (as one-third, one-half, or other proporti-i) of the crops raised, write 'share.'" (See Twelfth Census of the United States, 1900, Vol. V, p. 759).
wealthy families.
The three classes, farms operated by, "owners, part owners, and owners and tenants," may be grouped together as including the farms on which the owners have a direct share in the management of the land. These three classes of farms represented 63.7 per cent, of all farms in the United States ; while the percentage was 78.2 in the North Atlantic division, 71.2 in the North Central division, 54.8 in the South Atlantic, 50.8 in the South Central, and 80.3 in the Western divisions.
The cash and share tenants, taken together, operate 35.3 per cent, of the total number of farms in the United States. These rented farms represent 30.2 per cent, of the "improved area" in farms, and 23.3 per cent, of the total area in farms. These same farms represent 28.4 per cent, of the total value of the farm land and buildings, being 30.1 per cent, of the total value of all farm land (exclusive of the value of buildings), and 22.7 per cent, of the value of all farm buildings.
Section L The decline in the percentage of landowning farmers in the United States. — There were no statistics available on the subject of landownership, in the United States, prior to 1880. The census of 1880 showed that 74.44 per cent.
of the farms were operated by owners, while 25.56 per cent, were operated by tenants. This 'condition of affairs gave rise to much discussion concerning the probable future of the American farmer. Some writers considered tenancy a transitionary stage to landownership, while others contended that those who once had owned land finally lost it and became tenants, — that in time tenancy would become general.
In 1886, David B. King said:1 "While there are exceptions, and tenants are found who are unthrifty, or whose lot is a hard one, as a rule the American tenant farmer prospers, and in very many cases passes from the tenant to the landowning class. It is a decided advantage to many an agricultural laborer and farmer's landless son that numbers of owners of farms have become so prosperous that they do not care to till the soil themselves [and for this], or, for other reasons rent their land. It often happens that a young man, engaged in agriculture or other labor, by thrift and economy, lays by enough to stock a small farm which he rents 'on shares' or for a fixed sum. In a few years he saves enough to buy the property, paying perhaps one-half of the purchase money at once, and the remainder in annual payments extending through several years. The former owner is secured by a mortgage on the farm. It is not surprising that the casual observer, seeing many owners apparently deeply in debt, should be alarmed at the state of things. On closer observation one finds, however, that in most cases, the hard-working tenant and the interest-paying owner are both prosperous and rapidly becoming independent."
Mr. Henry Strong, whose business it was to sell railroad lands and lend money on farm mortgages, said;1 "Just after the panic of 1873, and during the years 1874, 5, and 6, I loaned several hundred thousand dollars in Illinois and Iowa upon farm mortgages, and all of these loans, with two exceptions, were paid. These exceptions were in cases of large farmers, who were speculating in cattle in the Chicago market, failed in business, and turned over the mortgaged lands to me, aggregating about three thousand acres of mostly cultivated farms, which I divided up and rented to about a dozen tenants. These lands were afterwards nearly all bought by these tenants, and so far as I know, owned by them or their grantees. .... I could cite a great many similar instances." This quotation, which was published in the same number of the same magazine as that quoted from Mr. David King, corroborates the generalizations made by the latter.
others who believed that the movement was rather from free ownership of farms to encumbered ownership, and finally to the ranks of the tenant class. In a later number of the same magazine Henry George responded to the articles by Messrs. King and Strong as follows : "Tenancy is not the normal state of man, and is so far from being the primary condition of American agriculture that we have been accustomed to look on the American farmer as necessarily the owner of the acres he tilled. Mr. Strong would have us think, and Professor King really seems to think, that tenant farming is, in the natural order of things, the intermediary stage through which 'Agricultural laborers' are enabled to pass into a condition of landowners, just as, in the older handicrafts the condition of journeyman was the intermediary condition between that of apprentice, with which all craftsmen must begin, and that of master workman, to which all could aspire. The truth is just the reverse of this. Tenant farming is the intermediary stage through which independent tillers of the soil have in other countries passed, and in this country are now beginning to pass, to the condition of agricultural laborers and chronic paupers.
TENANCY AND L AN D O W N ERSHI P
lation have already been divorced from the soil. Tenancy is only the later form of the disease ; the earlier form is the mortgage."1
Three sets of statistics on tenancy and landownership, those for 1880, 1890, and 1900, are now available, and a comparison of these figures shows that there has been a decline in the percentage of landowning farmers in the United States since 1880. The extent of this decline is shown in the following table :2
1900 64.7 I3.I 22.2
This table shows a decline of nine and eighttenths in the percentage of landowning farmers during the last two decades of the Nineteenth Century ; and the decline has been more rapid during the decade from 1890 to 1900 than during the preceding decade.
This decline in the percentage of landowning farmers does not necessarily imply, however, that farmers who once owned land have lost it and become tenant farmers. The ownership of land is ever changing. If all farmers were to cease acquiring the ownership of land for one generation, there would be no landowning farmers left; and
ing bankrupt and losing his farm.
The decline in the percentage of landowning farmers is due largely to the fact that a decreasing percentage of the succeeding generations of young farmers are able to acquire land. This is shown in the following table :
55 years and over 82.2 17.8 81.4 18.6
This table indicates that nearly three-fourths of the farmers under twenty-five years of age are tenants ; that the percentage of tenant farmers declines, and the percentage of landowning farmers increases, as we pass from the younger to the older age periods, until less than a fifth of the farmers who are fifty-five years of age and over are tenants.
Statistics of this kind were first collected in 1890, and while they showed the status at that time and suggested a movement from tenancy to landownership, they did not prove the existence of such a movement. By comparing the figures for 1890 with those for 1900, this movement is
clearly shown. The occupiers of farm homes, who were from 25 to 34 years of age in 1890, were from 35 to 44 in 1900. By comparing these occupiers at the two dates, we find an increase in the percentage of home owners, from 49.8, in 1890, to 64.4, in 1900. Of the farm-home occupiers belonging to the age period from 35 to 44 in 1890, and to the age period 45 to 54, in 1900, 64 per cent, were owners at the earlier date, and 70.7 per cent, at the latter.
These figures indicate a constant movement from tenancy to landownership. This, however, is a commonplace fact recognized by all who actually observe agrarian movements. This movement is necessary. Young farmers start in with little capital, and through gifts, inheritances, or savings from their profits, they gradually acquire ownership. But, from generation to generation, a smaller percentage of the farmers are able to make this transition. Notice in the above table that of the occupiers of farm homes who were less than 25 years of age, a smaller percentage were owners in 1900 than in 1890. This is true for every age period given in the table except one ; the reverse being true for the period from 35 to 44. This suggests that the decline in landownership is due to the inability, or disinclination of the succeeding generation to acquire landownership so generally as their predecessors.
and more difficult for a farmer to acquire the ownership of land, we must study those forces and conditions which enable the farmer to buy land, and also the conditions which retard his making investments in land. If we wish to improve the conditions with respect to the ownership of farms, we should devise some means of improving the farmer's facilities for making such acquisitions.
Section II. Land values and land ownership. — That progress in society which results in a rise in land values, tends to make it more difficult to buy a farm out of the savings from personal profits. This may be given as an important factor in bringing about the decline in the percentage of landowning farmers. It may be that the farmer will be able to save a larger sum of money each year, and, yet, not be able to pay for a farm so readily after a rise in land values as before; because more money would be required to pay for the land. If the rise in land values kept pace with the rise in the value of farm produce, and no more, so that the profits due to personal ability would rise in the same proportion as land values, the amount of time required for saving the money with which to buy a farm would remain the same. But as a matter of fact the progress which makes a demand for farm products at an increased price is usually accompanied by an increase in the agricultural population, and hence a larger number of farmers would be competing for the use of the
land, so that a larger proportion of the product is credited to the land, and while the efficient farmers may be able to save more money each year than formerly, their savings will not increase so rapidly as will the annual value of the land. More time will be required, therefore, to save the amount necessary to pay for a farm of a given size. Hence, with the progress which brings continually rising land values, a smaller percentage of each generation of farmers will be able to acquire the ownership of land, and this will result in a gradual decline in the percentage of landowning farmers.
A great and unexpected change in prices has a marked influence upon the farmer who is paying off the mortgage on his farm. A rise in prices enables him to pay off the mortgage in a much shorter time than if prices had remained the same as when the debt was contracted. A fall in prices makes it very difficult to pay a debt. The returns from the land fall below the amount that was expected when the debt was contracted and a larger share of the gross returns of the farm is required to pay the interest and a smaller surplus is left, which may be used in paying off the mortgage. When the price of wheat went down, about thirty years ago the price of land in England, and in parts of the United States, went down more than half. Farmers who had purchased land and given mortgages often found their farms worth no
more, and sometimes even less than the face of the mortgage. To pay the interest was a great burden, and many farmers were forced to sell, often for little more than enough to pay the mortgages. Thus it is seen that while the ultimate result of rising prices is to make it harder to acquire landownership, the immediate result may be the opposite, and again, that while cheap land is conducive to landownership, the immediate effect of a lowering of land values is to reduce many landowning farmers, who have encumbered their lands with mortgages as a means of buying land, to the ranks of the tenant class.
In the northern states there seems to be some relation at the present time, between the value of farms and the percentage of tenancy. This relation is shown in the following table which gives the average value per farm (of farm land and improvements, including buildings), and the percentages of tenancy, in the North Atlantic and North Central divisions :
North Dakota 8.5 4,385
From the above table it will be seen that, in the North Atlantic division, the state in which the average value of farms is highest is also the state in which the percentage of tenancy is highest, and that the state which shows the lowest farm values, shows, also, the lowest percentage of tenancy. Yet, when the division as a whole is considered, the relation between farm values and the percentage of tenancy becomes very much confused. It is hard to understand why the percentage of tenancy is so low in Massachusetts, for example, where land values are relatively high.
with the North Central division, the relation between farm values and tenancy seems to sustain the general proposition that a higher percentage of tenancy is generally associated with high land values than with low land values. It is also true that the state with the highest average farm values in the North Central division is the one with the highest percentage of tenancy. When the four states which lie in the heart of the corn belt, Illinois, Iowa, Indiana, and Ohio, are compared, the same relation holds true ; but other states such as Missouri and North Dakota seem to throw this relation into confusion. And when the new states, Kansas and Nebraska, are compared with an old state like Massachusetts the influence of the more recent supply of government land in the new states seems to be much more than counterbalanced by some other forces.
By comparing the northern part of Wisconsin with the southern part of that state, the two factors of low land values and recent settlement are brought into comparison with high land values and longer established settlements. While the average percentage of tenancy in the state of Wisconsin seems very low (13.5 per cent.), especially in comparison with that of the state of Illinois (39.3 per cent.), it will be found upon analysis that this low average for the state is due, in a large degree, to the extremely low percentages of tenancy in the northern counties, where there
is much cheap and unoccupied land. There are eighteen counties in the northern part of the state in which the percentage of tenancy is below five. These counties, with their farm values and percentages of tenancy are given in the following table :
Oneida 350
While the percentage of tenancy is low in the northern part of Wisconsin it is relatively high in the southern part. The fourteen counties which showed the highest percentage of tenancy, in 1900, form a solid block in the southern part of
Dodge 4,994 18.1 7,313
These tables show clearly that, in general, the percentage of tenancy is high, in the state of Wisconsin, in the districts which have been longest settled and where land values are relatively high. And yet, there are here, as in the other comparisons, many exceptions to the general rule; and this makes it necessary to emphasize the fact that many forces are operating together in bringing about the condition with respect to landownership and tenancy.
Section III. Landownership and tenancy among the negroes. — In the southern states where the percentage of tenancy is high, in comparison
with that of the northern states, the value of land is relatively low. Other factors have evidently had more to do in determining the situation here than the influence of land values. The average value of farms is $4,354 in the North Central division, while it is only $1,628 in the South Central division, whereas the percentage of tenancy is 48.6 in the latter and only 27.9 in the former division. The negro seems to be an important factor in the problem of tenancy and landownership in the southern states. In the following table is given the percentage of all farms, which are occupied by tenants; the percentage of all farms operated by white farmers, which are occupied by tenants; the percentage of all farms operated by negro farmers, which are operated by tenants ; and the average value per farm of all farm land and improvements :
From the above table it will be seen that the situation in the South can be explained, in part at least, in terms of the negro population. It is relatively a short time since the freedmen started with nothing, and the fact that a small percentage of them, even, now own the land which they cultivate is in itself an encouraging fact. In the South Central division 26.8 per cent, of all farms are operated by negroes, and while the percentage of tenancy for all farmers in this division is 48.6 that for the negro farmers is 78.5. In Alabama, where 42. i per cent, of the farms are operated by negroes, the percentage of tenancy for all farms was 57.7, while that among negro farmers was 84.9 and that among white farmers was 37.9. In Mississippi, where 62.4 per cent, of all farms were operated by tenants, 83.6 of the negro farmers were tenants, while only 32.9 per cent, of the white farmers were tenants.
In Adams county, Mississippi, where 92.4 of all farmers are negroes, the percentage of tenancy is 87.9, whereas in Hancock county, where 91.7 of all farmers are whites, only 8.5 per cent, of the farms are operated by tenants. Again, Issaquena county, where 95.7 per cent, of all farmers are negroes, 90.3 of all farms are operated by tenants. This is sufficient to illustrate the general principle that where the negro farmers are very numerous the percentage of tenancy runs higher than where the white population dominates. Both the white
and the negro farmers are more commonly tenants where the negroes are most numerous. In the states containing the black belt the percentage of tenancy among the negroes is relatively high.
The present situation with respect to tenancy and landownership among the negro farmers, is described in a recent census bulletin in the following terms :* "Present conditions in the farm life of the southern negro can be understood only by bringing to mind the historic development. Before the war the southern plantation consisted of the owner, from 20 to 200 slaves, and several hundred acres of land. . . . One of the most striking features in connection with plantations such as these is their large area. . . . Between 1850 and 1860 the average size of the plantations in the cotton growing South increased from 427 to 431 acres; leaving out Texas, whose ranches in 1850 were not really farms, the increase was from 353 to 408 acres, or 15.7 per cent/'
"The situation of the farming population in the black belt to-day shows four well defined economic classes. There is the farm laborer who receives for his work, at the end of the year, certain fixed wages, varying from $30 to $60. Some receive also a house, perhaps with a garden spot, and have their supplies of food and clothing advanced ; in such cases the supplies must be paid
for, with interest, out of the money wages. Another class of laborers are contract hands — i. e., laborers paid by the month or year and fed and supplied by the landowner. Such laborers receive from 30 to 40 cents per day during the working season ; they .are usually unmarried persons, many being women, and when they marry they become metayers, or occasionally, renters.
"The cropper is entirely without capital, even in the limited sense of food or money to keep him from seed time to harvest; all he furnishes is labor, while the landowner furnishes house, land, stock, tools, and seed. At the end of the year the cropper gets a stipulated portion of the crop ; out of his share, however, comes payment, with interest, for food and clothing advanced him during the year. Thus we have a laborer without capital and without wages, and an employer whose capital consists largely of food and other supplies advanced to laborers — an arrangement unsatisfactory to both parties, and in vogue usually on poor land with hard pressed owners.
"Above the cropper comes the share tenant who works the land on his own responsibility, paying rent in cotton, and supported by the crop lien system. The great mass of the negro population is found in this class. After the war this plan attracted the freedmen on account of its larger freedom and its possibility for making a surplus. If the rent fixed was reasonable, this was an incen-
tive to the tenant to strive; on the other hand, if the rent was too high or if the land deteriorated, the result was to discourage and to check the efforts of the tenant.
"The renter for a fixed money rental belongs in the highest of the emerging classes. The advantages possessed by this class are their freedom to choose their crops and the increased responsibility which comes through having money transactions. While some of the renters differ little in condition from the metayers, yet on the whole, they are a more intelligent and responsible class and are the ones who eventually become landowners."
As to the distribution of the landowning negro farmers and the conditions which have been conducive to the acquiring of landownership on the part of the freedmen the following may be quoted from the same source as the above : "In the states along the northern border of the South, .... the per cent, of owned farms among negro farmers is comparatively high, varying from 40.5 in Delaware to 72 per cent, in West Virginia. In Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana the percentage is very low, ranging from 13.7 per cent, in Georgia; to 16.3 per cent, in Mississippi; in South Carolina the percentage is somewhat higher (22.2) but is still below the average for the country. These five states are in the heart of the South; they comprise the greater part of the black belt ; in each of them negroes form between
45 and 60 per cent, of the total population, and negro farmers between 35 and 60 per cent, of all farmers. Collectively they contain almost onehalf (47.5) of the total negro population of the United States."
"In states where negroes are relatively less numerous the percentage of ownership is higher. This suggests the inference that where the negroes are massed, tenancy is the prevailing form of farm tenure; but it is not so clear that we have here a direct relation of cause and effect. These states are all cotton growing states. The massing of negroes, tenant farming and cotton culture appear to be correlated facts, the first resulting from the last, and the second and the last acting as reciprocal cause and effect to the crop lien system. In Florida, which has a percentage of negro population (43.7) almost as high as that of Georgia (46.7) the percentage of ownership among colored farmers is high (48.4) because of the greater ease of acquiring fertile land in a newly settled state. For the same reason, in Texas, where ninetenths of the negro farmers make cotton their principal crop, the percentage of ownership (30.7) though not high, is above the average for the country."
larger body of negroes to a considerable degree of culture and civilization before 1861 than had any other state. It also bore the main brunt of the war, and the breaking up of estates gave the negroes a chance to buy." Hence it will be seen that such considerations as government lands, efficiency of the farmers, etc., are important factors in determining the percentage of tenancy among the negroes as well as among the white farmers.
Section IV. The Ownership of rented farms. — The ownership of these rented farms is not concentrated in the hands of a few wealthy persons as is the case in England, but is widely distributed. In collecting the data for the Census of 1900, an attempt was made to ascertain the names and residence of the owners of rented farms. As a result of this inquiry, the residence of the owners of 95.6 per cent, of all farms in the United States (exclusive of Alaska and Hawaii) were reported.
"Of the 1,934,346 farms in the United States for which the names and post-office addresses of the owners were reported, the owners of 1,523,863, or 78.8 per cent, resided in the same county in which their farms were located; 307,656, or 15.9 per cent., in the same state but not in the same county; 102,827, or 5.3 per cent., outside of the state; [and 1,097, or -OS1 Per cent> in foreign countries] . Many residing in the same state, but 17 257
not in the same county, had homes very near their rented farms. This was notably the case with farms located near county lines. Such owners can hardly be classed as non-residents, and the very small per cent, of rented farms owned by non-resident landlords would have been still further reduced if it had been practicable to exclude such owners.
"The Western division had the smallest proportion of rented farms whose owners resided in the county where their rented farms were located. .... The South Central and South Atlantic divisions had the largest proportion of owners residing in the county where their rented farms were located. . . . The North Central division had the largest, and the Western the next largest, proportion of rented farms with owners residing outside of the state."1
Eighty per cent, of the owners of rented farms in the United States owned but one rented farm each, and fifty-two per cent of the rented farms were owned by persons who owned but one rented farm. The situation in this regard is made clear by the following tables, which show the per cent, of the number of rented farms and of the number of owners of rented farms classified by the number of farms owned by one person :2
It will be noted that the ownership of rented farms is more concentrated in the southern states than in other parts of the United States. This is explained in the census report as follows : "Originally, great areas of land in the South were held in large plantations and operated by slave labor. After emancipation that form of labor was super-
seded by some form of contract leasehold, by which the former slaves or wage laborers were given charge of .... small tracts of land, upon which they were to raise crops."
Thus we find that while more than a third of the farmers of the United States hire the land which they cultivate, these hired farms are so generally held by men who live near by, that the relation of landlord and tenant is generally a personal one, and the problems of absenteeism and of concentration of ownership which have been so perplexing in certain other countries have as yet been of little significance in the United States. Nevertheless the statistics for the last twenty years show a significant increase in tenancy, and it is to be expected that the men who have made fortunes in the great industries of the cities will eventually invest some of their savings in landed estates, and in this way bring forward problems from which we have hitherto been comparatively free.
Section V . The relations between landlords and tenants in the United States. — Thirty-five and three-tenths per cent, of all the farms in the United States, exclusive of Alaska and the insular possessions, were occupied by tenant farmers in 1900. In all 2,024,964 farms were operated by this class of farmers. Of these, 1,273,299 or 62.8 per cent, were operated by share tenants and 751,665 or 37.2 per cent, by cash tenants. A farm was said to be operated by a cash tenant if culti-
vated by a tenant who paid "a fixed rental in money, or a stated amount of labor or farm commodities/' and by a share tenant if operated by a tenant who paid "for its use a share (as one-third, or one-half or other proportion) of crops raised."1
Share tenancy. — Share tenancy is preferred by many tenant farmers because the risk is less. The thought of paying a fixed rent whether the crop is large or small and whether the prices are high or low is not attractive to the majority. And again, many of the tenants do not possess sufficient wealth to enable them to own all of the stock necessary to operate a farm on a cash basis.
The landlords who live in close proximity to the land which they let, and who have time to devote to its supervision, usually prefer a share of the crop because they find it more profitable to them. The share system is more profitable to the landlords largely because of the close supervision which they give to the farms let on shares. Many of the tenants are young and inexperienced, and are willing to leave the general management of the farm to the landlord, who is very likely to be an elderly farmer, and the fact that he has a farm to let suggests that he has been a successful farmer. All tenants are not so willing to be directed by their landlords, but if they pay a share of the products as rent the landlord's right to give advice is apparent, whereas, if cash is paid there
seems to be no good reason why the tenant should not do as he likes. The principle being established that the landlord has a right to direct more or less definitely the operations of the farm, as in the case o'f share tenancy, the landlord has little difficulty in so directing the management of the farm as to preserve the fertility of the land. The choice of crops, and the organization of the fieldsystem are subjects which the share tenant is usually willing to leave to the landlord, and in many cases the landlord controls the field operations in the minutest detail. For example, the depth to which land is to be plowed, the time of sowing, planting, harvesting, etc. ; the number of times a field of Indian corn should be cultivated, etc., are details to which the landlord often gives his attention under this system of letting land. The landlord is willing to exert himself for these purposes because his profits are increased by such activity. Another reason often given by landlords for preferring a share of the crop to a cash rent, is that, in a country where most of the tenants have little wealth, a share of the product proves more profitable to the landlord, in the long run, because he shares the benefit of an extra large crop and gets something out of the smallest one, whereas in case he is receiving a fixed rent, the tenant gets all the advantage of an extra large crop, but in case of a crop failure the tenant is often unable to pay the fixed rent and the landlord has to stand
the losses when the crops are short without getting the advantage of the extra large crops. Where the tenants are men of considerable wealth this is a matter of less importance.
Again, it is said that the collection of the rent is an easier matter where a share of the crop is given. "Farmers will give a fifty cent chicken for a church dinner when they would not think of giving as much as twenty-five cents in cash," says an Iowa farmer who has tried both systems, and he continues, "They will give the landlord his share of the farm products much more cheerfully than pay him cash."
The share rent adjusts itself to changes in the value of the products without any change in the contract. This is looked upon by some farmers and landlords as a reason of first importance for adhering to the share system.
Participation of the landlord in the management of the farm, is the chief reason for the success of share tenancy in this country. This point has been emphasized over and over again in the communications received from men who are in a position to know. Share tenancy is, as a rule, more profitable to the landlord only when the farm is under his immediate supervision. If the management must be left entirely to the tenant farmer the cash system is usually preferable to the landlord. If the tenant is a capable manager, so that the supervision of the landlord adds nothing to
superior ability.
The methods of letting land for a share of the products are so very numerous that to describe all the forms of share tenancy is practically impossible. In this connection we shall attempt no more, therefore, than to outline briefly some of the methods in common use in the North Central states.
Perhaps the simplest form of share tenancy arises where one farmer has more land than he cares to cultivate while some of his neighbors have less than they wish to cultivate. This leads to a form of share tenancy in which persons living on their own farms and in their own houses simply enter the fields of the landlord to grow a crop of grain or to make hay on shares. The usual method is for the tenants to furnish seed, teams, tools and machinery. In some cases the bill for binding twine and the threshing bill are paid entirely by the tenant and sometimes these bills are divided between landlord and tenant in the same proportion in which the grain is shared. The landlord's share of the crop varies in different parts of the country from one-third to one-half of the grain, to be put into the landlord's bin or delivered at the market. When meadows are let in this way one-half or more of the hay is delivered to the landlord in the mow or in the stack.
Under this system, the landlord has absolute control of the kinds of crops to be grown and of the system of crop rotation. The land is usually let for but one year. A serious objection to this system of letting land is the fact that a large share of the product is taken from the land and sold or fed out on another man's land.
The share system becomes somewhat more complex when the landlord furnishes a house and barn and garden-patch for the tenant. If the tenant desires to keep but little live stock, let us say a team, a cow, a few hogs, and some poultry, his living upon the place will not make a great difference in the system ; but if he desires to keep sufficient live stock to consume his share of the crop, and especially if he wishes to keep cattle, the system becomes more complicated. The tenant's demand for pasture land is often met by leasing to him for a cash rent, a certain amount of land to be used for grazing purposes. The feeding of the crop on the farm is an important advantage of this method of letting land. In tenancies of this description, the contracts are most commonly drawn for but one year with the understanding that a satisfactory tenant may renew his contract indefinitely.1
In the United States, tenant farmers are largely young men, however, who do not as a class possess a great amount of wealth which can be in-
vested in live stock. In the dairy districts, especially, it is common, therefore, for the landlord to furnish a part of the live stock. In some instances the landlord furnishes a given number of cows, and other kinds of live stock, while the tenant furnishes the horses (the number to be kept being limited by the contract), the tools, machinery, etc., necessary to operate the farm.1 In other instances the "stock and land" lease is so arranged that the landlord and the tenant each owns a half interest in all of the live stock, tools, machinery, etc., necessary to operate the farm. The tools and machinery are sometimes furnished by the tenant, and in other cases each party owns a half interest in them, in fact there exists the greatest variety of arrangements between landlords and tenants.2 The management of the farming operations is usually under the close supervision of the landlord. The product is usually shared equally by landlord and tenant. This form of tenancy is essentially a partnership in which the labor is balanced against the land.
The landlords are usually unwilling to enter into an agreement to let land on this plan for more than one year, unless they know the tenant. On the other hand, it is well understood by both parties that it would be unprofitable to enter into a partnership of this kind for but one year. It is
common, therefore, where the landlord and the tenant are acquainted with each other, for tenancies of this kind to be entered upon for three, or five year periods, with the understanding that the tenant is to remain for a much longer period if satisfactory to both parties.
Where land is let for a share of the crop there are so many details which must be agreed upon by both parties, that troublesome differences of opinion are likely to arise. It is quite generally agreed among those concerned, however, that where difficulties arise between landlords and tenants, it is usually due to the fact that one or both of the parties is too grasping. A grasping landlord drives the tenant to use dishonest means in order to make both ends meet. The landlord who is willing to give his tenants a fair chance, and then insists on good farming and honest business, and discharges every tenant at once who is very inefficient and not strictly honest, will have little trouble with his tenants.
Time and again, landlords have said to the writer that if both parties would observe the golden rule there would be no occasion for trouble between landlords and tenants. There is occasion, very often, for the use of the golden rule in the relations between the share tenant and his landlord. This is true because of the close relations into which they are thrown in the management of the farm. The landlord may think that a
certain field of Indian corn should be cultivated one time more than the tenant cares to cultivate it. The tenant may figure that his share of the additions to the crop due to the extra cultivation, will not remunerate him for the extra effort. In a case of this kind, however, the fair minded tenant should be willing to give as many cultivations to the crop as he would if he owned the land, and this is all a fair minded landlord should ask. Cash tenancy.1 — Cash tenancy is usually considered by economists as a step in advance of share tenancy. "This method of putting out lands to farm," says Turgot,2 a French writer, whose work was published in 1770, "is the most advantageous of all, both to the proprietors and to the cultivators; it establishes itself everywhere where there are rich cultivators in a position to make the advances of the cultivation; and as rich cultivators can provide the land with much more labor and manure there results from it a prodigious increase in the produce and revenue of estates. In Picardy, Normandy, the neighborhood of Paris, and in most of the provinces of the North of France, the lands are cultivated by cash tenants. In the provinces of the South they are cultivated by share tenants; the provinces of the North of
While only a little more than a third of the tenant farmers of the United States pay a cash rent, this form of tenancy has been increasing more rapidly in recent years than has share tenancy. In 1880, 31.1 per cent, of farms operated by tenants were operated by cash tenants ; in 1890, 35.1 per cent. ; and in 1900, 37.2 of all such farms were let for a cash rent.
Landlords who live too far from their land, or are too busy, to give it the needed supervision for making share tenancy a success, usually prefer to let their farms for a cash rent. It is claimed by many landlords that the tenants devote much greater care to their farming under the cash system of letting land. The feeling that every extra bushel of grain and every extra fork of hay is all his own will naturally make the tenant more painstaking than he would be if only a part of these products were to be added to his own profits.
This desire to obtain as large a return as possible is, at the same time, the greatest source of trouble in adjusting the relations between landlords and tenants. The tenant who has a contract for but one year is inclined to look too strictly to securing as large a profit as possible for that one year without any regard to the future. As a result of this short-sighted economy, too
large a proportion of the land is often devoted to exhausting crops and the larger profit of the one year is obtained at the expense of the profits of future years. The cash tenant sacrifices the longtime-average returns in order that his net profit for the one year may be increased.
By proper regulations with respect to the proportion of the land which shall be devoted to certain crops, this difficulty can be more or less successfully overcome, but such regulations are always annoying to the tenants. The granting of a lease for several years is thought by many to be all that is necessary to meet the difficulties arising from the short-sightedness of the tenants, but many landlords object to making a contract for a period of any great length. With all the difficulties which may beset this system, cash tenancy is preferable to share tenancy wherever the management of the farm is to be left almost entirely to the tenant, and where agriculture is extensive and where the use of commercial fertilizers is unknown the letting of land for cash is a fairly successful method.
Where intensive culture and the use of commercial fertilizers have become necessary the tenant problem takes on a more acute form. If we would study to advantage the problems which arise under these conditions, we must turn our attention to an older country than our own, where the tenant problem has been a more serious one,
and whence we may learn from the experience of others the remedies which are fast becoming necessary to good relations between landlords and tenants in this country. The further discussion of the tenant problem will be deferred, therefore, until the next chapter in which the experience of the English in adjusting the relations between landlords and tenants will be taken up.
Farm No
THIS INDENTURE, Made and entered into this first day of March, A. D., 190. ., between the executors of the Estate of Hiram Sibley,
party of the
second part : Witnesseth, That the parties of the first part have this day demised, leased and to farm let, and by these presents do demise, lease and to farm let to the party of the second part the following described land, situated in the County of Ford, and State of Illinois :
of crops. nants with the parties of the first part to
pay as rent for said premises two-fifths (2-5) part of the corn, two-fifths (2-5) part of the oats and other small grain and one-half (%) part of all kinds of straw raised or grown upon said premises.
by tenant. agrees to furnish all necessary teams,
implements, seed and labor to properly prepare and cultivate said land, and all crops thereon, in extra good and farmerlike manner; to put in said crops in good order as early as the season will admit, to harvest said crops as soon as they are sufficiently matured, and to promptly deliver the rent share thereof to said party of the first part in such manner and at such times as hereinafter specified.
clover seed.
6. Planting and Corn to be planted in check rows on cultivation land to be prepared as party of the first of corn. part may direct, and to be cultivated at
Manner and The said party of the second part heretime of deliv- by covenants and agrees that he will ery of rent deliver the rent share of the corn, as corn. stated above, to said party of the first
part, in crib at Sibley Station, Ford County, Illinois, clean husked and in good condition, and before any other share, part or portion of said crop shall have been gathered, and to complete delivery of said rent portion before the first day of January, 190.., and to remove from the fields the remainder of said corn crop before the first day of February, 190. ., and that he, the said party of the second part, shall divide said crop of corn by the rows as standing in the field in a just, fair and equitable manner. Sixteen (16) rows for rent share and twenty-four (24) rows for tenant's share. The counting and laying out of the rent rows and the tenant's rows shall be done before the fifteenth day of October, 190. ., and the tenant's rows shall be marked by cutting out four (4) or more hills of each row on one end of the tenant's share.
cleaned. the party of the second part, with team
and scraper, when directed by said first party. All willows or other trees or shrubs growing in open ditches to be dug out by the party of the second part. All tile outlets to be kept open and in repair by said second party.
highways to mow all weeds on highways adjoining be mowed. said premises, to the center of the traveled road, during the first ten days of the month of September, 190. ., such mowing to be done upon that side of said highways as adjoins said land.
11. First party Said party of the first part also reserves may plow the privilege of plowing the stubble or stubble stalk ground on said premises when said ground. party of the second part may have secured
the crops or grain grown thereon, and may enter on said premises at any time for purposes of improvement, or for any
12. Right of reasonable purpose which said party of entry re- the first part may deem proper ; and unserved. less otherwise agreed in a written contract, the use of the stalk and stubble ground shall belong to and be vested in the said first parties, or be at their disposal as they may deem most advantageous to their interests.
13. Meadows And further it is agreed, that no meadand pas- ows or pastures shall be plowed or tures not to broken up during the term of this lease be plowed. without the written consent of said first
14. Burrs and burrs, Canada thistles, bull nettles, burweeds to be dock and other noxious weeds by pulling destroyed, out and destroying all such weeds before hedges, etc., the 20th day of August, 190. ., to propkept clear, erly cut or trim during August and Sepmanure to tember the hedges belonging to said land, be spread, and pile and burn1 all brush resulting etc., deliv- therefrom, to keep clear of weeds and ery of pos- trash all hedges, turn rows and ditches session on the said land; to spread when and
good repair all fences and outbuildings on said premises ; to properly care for all hedges, trees and shrubbery of all kinds ; and to deliver the free and full possession of said premises (with fences, buildings and other appurtenances therewith belonging, in as good condition as when received, except the natural wear from careful usage and the elements) to said parties of the first part, their successors or assigns, on the first day of March, A. D., 190. ., without any further demand or notice.
shall not sub-let said premises or any part thereof, without the written consent of the parties of the first part. The 16. Stock con- party of the second part also covenants fined. that no live stock of any character shall
be permitted to run at large on said premises, nor to be turned into said premises, except within a properly enclosed pasture, and said party of the second part further agrees to pay in cash, on or before September 1st, 190. ., to said parties of the first part the sum of
rent. closed pasture and for all parts of said
premises from which the stipulated share rent is not received, and land sown to clover and remaining in clover second year the sum of two and fifty one-hundredths dollars ($2.50) per acre for first year, and said land to be used for hay and seed only. Each succeeding year the rent to be same as pasture land.
All cash payments of rent to draw interest at the rate of seven per cent, per annum after the date when due until paid.
18. Material to All materials for improvements of any be hauled. kind to be hauled at the expense of second party, and no claim for labor or for materials will be recognized by first parties, excepting as agreed in writing to be endorsed on this lease.
It is understood and agreed that no buildings or sheds of any kind shall be attached to buildings belonging to parties of the first part without the consent of said first parties.
rent. and agrees that the parties of the first
part shall have a first lien and claim on all the products of said land, during said term, to secure the payment of said rent, and the taking or giving of any "notes or other security for said rent shall in no wise affect said lien, but shall be taken and considered as additional security to said landlord's lien.
20. Premises to ments herein, the said parties of the first revert to part may at any time, when such abanfirst party donment or failure occurs, take actual in case of possession of said premises and buildings abandon- thereon, which said party of the second went. part agrees to surrender, and said first
parties- may employ other persons to tend said crop and harvest or gather the same, and may remove and sell the same at public or private sale and apply the proceeds thereof to the expense and cost of carrying out the provisions of this lease and the payment of said rent hereby reserved, and all advances, and if the proceeds of the crops as aforesaid shall not be sufficient to repay said first parties all the money so expended, the said party of the second part agrees to refund to said parties of the first part such deficiency on demand out of any other property belonging to the said second party.
21. First party And it is further expressly agreed beway termi- tween the parties hereto, that if any denote lease fault shall be made of any of the covenfey default. ants and agreements herein contained to
be kept by party of the second part, this lease shall at the election of the parties of the first part be null and void.
22. Superin- And it is further understood and agreed tendence of that all the farm work on said premises farm work. during said term shall be under the direction and supervision of the parties of the first part, their agent or superintendent.
The cost of all seed or grain for feed furnished by first parties is to be considered as advances, and added to the rent herein reserved.
STOCK is LET WITH THE LAND.
After describing the land, giving the time of entry which is sometimes October i, sometimes i/iarch i, and sometimes April i, and the term for which the lease is drawn, which varies from one to five years, the following covenants are inserted :
The landlord agrees to furnish for the use of said farm during said lease, from twenty-five to thirty cows, one bu>l, eight head of brood sows, one boar, all grass seed that is required and one-half of all feed for said stock.
Also to haul out and distribute upon said farm, at places most needed, all manure made thereon, and at such times and at such places as shall be designated by the landlord.
sessed on said farm and property for the year 190. .
The tenant further agrees to furnish the teams and all farming utensils necessary to work said farm in the best possible manner. (It is common where the horses thus furnished by the tenant, are fed out of the common stores of feed, to limit the number of horses that can be kept, and if the number be increased beyond this limit to charge the tenant for the feed thus used.)
said stock.
The milk from said cows is to be delivered free of charge by said tenant to such creamery or cheese factory as shall be for the best interest of both parties, and the money derived therefrom is to be equally divided between the landlord and the tenant.
All feed of every description raised on said farm during the term of this lease is to be fed out upon said farm if it can be fed profitably, except in case any wheat is raised thereon, the same to be equally divided after threshing, each party to have one-half, and the half belonging to the landlord is to be stored by the tenant in the granary situated on said farm.
fences on said farm, the landlord to furnish the materials.
The tenant further agrees to take all necessary steps to prevent any washouts on said farm, by using proper care in plowing and to seed such places as are likely to be washed out.
It is further agreed by and between said parties that all the hay, corn fodder, straw, and other rough feed raised upon said farm and not fed out at the expiration of this compact is to be the property of the landlord.
Also that all grain raised upon said farm that can be profitably fed to the stock shall be so fed and the surplus, if any remain at the expiration of this contract, is to be equally divided between said parties.
Also that the increase from said stock shall be sold at such time or times as shall be deemed to the best interests of both parties and the proceeds equally divided.
of one cow. Also one acre of ground for garden purposes.
At the expiration of this contract said tenant agrees to deliver peaceable possession of said farm together with the stock described herein to said party of the first part.
party of the second part.
It is agreed between these contracting parties, that they are to buy and own all personal property that is needed and used in conducting operations on this farm and share alike equally all profits and losses resulting from same.
It is agreed that the said party of the second part is to perform or pay for the performance of all labor used in conducting operations on said farm except it be for the repairing or painting of buildings which the party of the first part must be holden for unless they be minor repairs.
Also that said party of the second part is to build and keep in good repair all fences on said farm and all material used for same to be furnished by party of first part at his own expense.
first part.
Also that said party of the second part is to work or pay the road tax, party of the first part is to pay all taxes on realty, and the taxes on personal property to be paid jointly.
second part.
Also that all noxious weeds, including bull thistles to be cut at the proper time and the weeds of any description on the highways adjoining the above described land to be cut to the middle of the road by party of the second part.
Also all flood wood and debris lodging along the banks of the creek from freshets to be removed by party of the second part. All brush and debris in the grove on said farm to be kept gathered up and burned by party of the second part. All dead trees in said grove to be used by party of the second part for fire wood, if he wants the same, also all refuse from buildings and fences not fit for use again.
It is further agreed that no stock shall be allowed in the pastures or meadows while the frost is leaving the ground or until the ground is fairly settled.
It is also agreed that the party of the first part is to have the use of teams for his private use at any time he wishes when they are not in use on the farm, party of the second part to have the same privilege.
run from March . .. 190. ., for the term of years,
and at the termination of said lease, should a dissolution be agreed upon, all personal property to be equally divided between said parties. [There are various methods used in dividing the property at the termination of a partnership of this kind. One method is to have the property appraised by disinterested parties and then retained by the one or the other party as the case may be, who pays to the other party
one-half the appraised value of all such property. Another method is to put the property up at public sale and divide the proceeds equally between the contracting parties. Still another method is to have the tenant divide all of the live stock of each kind and all of the other personal property which is held in common, into two lots and then the landlord takes his choice of the lots.]
county and state aforesaid, party of the second part,
Witnesseth : that the said party of the first part, for and in consideration of the rents, covenants and agreements hereinafter mentioned, reserved and contained, on the part and behalf of the party of the second part, their heirs, executors, administrators and assigns, to be paid, kept and performed, hath demised and to farm let, and by these presents doth grant, demise and to farm let, unto the said party of the second part that certain farm. [Here follows description of the farm to be let.]
To have and to hold the said demised premises for the term of three years, said term beginning March I, 190. ., and ending with the last day of February, 190. . ; then to be fully completed and ended unless previously terminated according to conditions hereinafter mentioned.
Yielding and paying as rent therefor to the said first party, his heirs, .executors, administrators or assigns, the sum of Sixteen Hundred Eighty Dollars ($1680.00), according to the tenor and effect of six certain promissory notes, of even date herewith, due and payable as follows :
Number one, for $280.00 due Nov. I5th, 1903 Number two, for $280.00 due Feb. I5th, 1004 Number three, for $280.00 due Nov. I5th, 1004 Number four, for $280.00 due Feb. i5th, 1905
It is expressly stipulated and agreed, by and between the parties hereto, that on or before November I5th, of each year, during the continuance of this lease, the said second party, their heirs or assigns, will secure to the said party of the first part, his heirs or assigns, to the entire satisfaction of the latter, the payment of the above mentioned notes for the year's rent next succeeding the year in which said security is given.
The said second party covenants and agrees to cultivate the plow-land on said farm in a good farmer-like manner; not to grow any one kind of grain more than two successive seasons on the same piece of the plow-land without special permission of the first party; to keep at least 80 acres of the said demised premises, not including "orchard lot," house and barn yard, seeded down to grass for meadow and pasture; to "fall-plow" all the "stubble land" immediately after the grain is cut and before the weeds become grown rank on the same, except in the fall of the year 1904; to keep all hollows and ravines, on said farm, seeded down to grass to prevent washing thereof, and in case it should be discovered that a "wash" has commenced in any of said hollows or ravines said second party agrees to haul and place in such "wash" straw, manure, brush or whatever may be necessary to prevent further washing, and, after plowing or otherwise covering same with soil, to sow grass seed on the same, said seed to be furnished by the first party; to protect, trim and prune orchard and shade trees in a proper manner and as directed by the first party; to keep fences, buildings, wells, cisterns, windmill, pumps, tanks, and all other improvements on said premises in as good repair and condition as the same are now in, or may be put in, during said term, all free of charge to lessor except that lessor agrees to pay for new materials, should any be necessary; that they will not stable or confine or permit any livestock within any buildings on said premises not built or intended to be used for such purposes.
make any improvements on said farm which will be for the use and benefit of the lessees, during said term, the said lessees hereby agree to haul all materials and otherwise assist to the extent of their ability; and should lessor, at any time, have men employed, making improvements on said premises who do not live in the immediate neighborhood, it is hereby agreed and understood that they shall be furnished, free of charge, with bed and board by said lessees.
After threshing the grain, said lessees agree to stack the straw in a proper manner and to have all straw and stalks which are raised thereon, fed out and converted into manure on said demised premises, no straw or stalks to be taken off the farm without special permission from the said lessor; lessees further agree to haul out and spread on said land, where most needed, all manure which is sufficiently rotted for fertilizing purposes.
Lessees further agree to take special pains to keep the buildings and yards clean and tidy, not allowing straw, manure or any other litter to be scattered around, thus making the premises present a better appearance and reducing the liability of accident on account of fire. . If at any time, the parties to this lease decide to seed down for use as pasture or meadow, any part of said premises, it is understood and agreed that the first party will pay for the grass seed decided necessary to do such seeding, and that the second party will, free of charge, perform the labor necessary in seeding down said land. In case lessees desire to break up any sod, either meadow or pasture, on said farm, which would thereby reduce the number of acres herein agreed to be kept under sod by said lessees, they hereby agree to seed down at their own expense for seed and labor, in a good farmer-like manner, as many acres of some other part of the plow-land as they have broken up of sod, and in the same year, all of such breaking and seeding to be done after obtaining permission of the lessor. The said lessees further agree to take extra pains to sow good clean seed on said farm; to keep the land clear of all obnoxious weeds and burrs, pulling and digging the same as required by law. Also, to work out or pay the highway tax
same to the first party.
The second party agrees to pay the rent promptly at the time specified in the above mentioned rent notes ; to deliver up possession of said premises peaceably and quietly and in as good repair and condition as the same are now in, or may be put in, reasonable use and ordinary wear and tear excepted, at the end of said term.
The first party expressly reserves, for himself or his agent, the right to enter said premises at any time, to view the same, to plant trees, erect buildings or fences or to make any improvements he may see fit, also for the purpose of plowing or hauling and spreading manure on any part of the premises, at any time after the grain is cut or the corn picked in the fall of the last year that the said second party, their heirs or assigns, put in a crop on said farm.
The first party reserves the right to sell the said demised premises, or any part thereof at any time in the term of this lease and the said lease shall terminate and become null and void on the first day of March next after such sale. The first party agrees that, in case of such termination of this lease, he will return to the second party all of the above mentioned rent notes which become due after said first day of March last above referred to.
able by the said lessees.
In case of failure to perform or fulfill any of the covenants, conditions or agreements of this lease, to be done and performed by the said lessees, the said lessees will forfeit all rights under this lease, and the said lessor, his agent or assigns shall have full authority to re-enter said premises and oust said lessees, all notice under the statutes or otherwise being expressly waived; but in case the said lessees shall faithfully and punctually comply with all the covenants, conditions and agreements herein contained, on their part, they are to have peaceable and quiet enjoyment of said premises to the end of said term. Witness our hands, etc.
IN ENGLAND
So long as a country has an abundant supply of productive land, and its agriculture is characterized by the extensive exploitation of the natural fertility of the soil, the adjustment of the relations between landlords and tenants is a comparatively simple matter. But when some of the elements of this original fertility have begun to show signs of exhaustion, or when the increasing demands of a growing population make it necessary that each acre of land shall yield a larger product, so that it becomes necessary to introduce a more intensive system of culture, involving investments which cannot be realized upon for several years, then it is that the tenant problem becomes a serious one.
The same progress which makes intensive farming necessary, tends also to augment the numbers of those who must hire the land which they cultivate. With the growth of population, competition for the use of land becomes more and more keen and drives the price of land higher and higher. This makes it ever more and more diffi-
LANDLORDS AND TENANTS
cult for the succeeding generations of farmers to acquire the ownership of land. Hence with the progress of society the tenant problem becomes more general as well as more difficult to solve.
England is preeminently the land of tenant farmers. Less than fourteen per cent, of the farm land of that country is reported as operated by its owners, and in most cases such land is operated by hired farmers, or bailiffs as they are called. About eighty-six per cent, of the farm land of England is operated by tenants who pay a fixed rent for its use. Share tenancy is not practised in England.
It was more than a century ago that the progress of English industrial society had reached the stage of development where intensive agriculture was socially desirable, and also profitable to the farmers where their relations to the land were so adjusted as to guarantee to them just returns upon their investments. The earliest attempts at improving the agriculture of the country at once brought forward the tenant problem. In 1649, Walter Blith wrote r1 "If a tenant be at ever so great pains or cost for improving of his land, he doth thereby but occasion a great rack upon himself, or else invest his landlord with his cost and labor gratis, or at best lies at his landlord's mercy for requital, which occasions a neglect of good
For more than a century the rural economists of England have been trying to solve this problem. Hence it is in England that the tenant problem can best be studied in the light of history.
Prior to the introduction of the new agriculture, which movement became important during the latter half of the Eighteenth Century, the tenant farmers of England usually held their lands "at will," without any written agreements. Under this tenure, the common law and the customs of the estates formed the only tie between owners and tenants, and either party could bring the tenancy to a close, by giving six months' notice to the other.1 Towards the close of the Eighteenth Century, it became a common custom, where land was held from year to year, to draw up legal agreements, by which the tenants bound themselves "to the fulfillment of certain clauses and conditions."2 But the most significant movement of this period was that in favor of leases for a term of years. The rural economists of that time were quite generally of the opinion that long leases were necessary wherever the farmers were expected to make investments in or upon the land, such as require several years to yield their full
return. It was stated in 1799, that the improvements which had taken place in England prior to that time had been almost entirely due to the custom of granting twenty-one year leases, and that where it was uncommon to grant leases for long periods of years, agriculture remained in a backward condition.1
During the early years of the Nineteenth Century the English Board of Agriculture published a series of surveys which set forth the conditions of agriculture in every county of the kingdom. This material, supplemented by the other agricultural writings of the time, makes it possible to present, in considerable detail, the history of the attempts to solve the tenant problem in England by the introduction of long leases.
From these surveys it appears that the greater part of the tenant farmers of England one hundred years ago held their farms "at will," without written agreements, or "from year to year" under written agreements. In either case they might be thrown out of the possession of their farms on six months' notice, at the pleasure of the landlord. But while this was the dominant form of land tenure throughout the greater part of England, the use of long-term leases had greatly increased during the latter part of the Eighteenth Century, and leases varying in duration from three to
twenty-one years were found in every county. Twenty-one-year leases were much used in the eastern counties, and leases running from seven to fourteen years were quite common in the western and southern counties. The county of Norfolk, the home of the new agriculture, was preeminently the land of long leases. Arthur Young wrote of this county : "The great improvements which for seventy years past have rendered Norfolk famous for its husbandry, were effected by means of twenty-one-year leases, a circumstance which very fortunately took place on the first attempt to break up the heaths and warrens in the northwestern part of the county. ... In general it may be held for sound doctrine in Norfolk, that an estate can neither be improved, nor even held to its former state of improvement, without long leases."1 This view was held, also, by that most competent agricultural writer of the time, William Marshall,2 who wrote as follows on this same subject, in 1795 : "Marling is the principal improvement of a Norfolk farm, but who would marl on a seven years' lease? Where much marling is to be done, fourteen years is too short a term."
In some places, it is true, the old and simple system of holding land from year to year was thought to be entirely satisfactory. It was reported that great estates were let in full confidence
without leases in the East Riding of Yorkshire, "where a lease was never asked for, probably never wished for," because the tenants were "equally secure" when holding their farms from year to year.1 In Staffordshire the conditions were much the same.2 In Derbyshire, the Duke of Devonshire granted no leases, "but owing to his fair treatment of tenants" improvements were carried on extensively ; but the other landlords of the county were not able to inspire such confidence.3 Arthur Young, who was the champion of long leases, laid down the general rule, that upon rich soils where no improvements are necessary, "the want of leases cannot be material ; but where liming, marling, draining, fencing, etc., are demanded, the want of a lease will often be the want of the improvements."4
But while "tenancy at will" or "from year to year" was quite satisfactory where no improvements were to be made, or where the landlords were able to win the confidence of their tenants, the surveyors reported quite generally that the security of long leases was necessary to induce the farmers to carry on the needed improvements. In remarking upon the lack of security to the investments of tenants in England, at that time, James Anderson says "an unprejudiced person,
who should attentively consider the whole system of conduct pursued by landed proprietors, and the ideas that in general prevail in this respect, would believe that agriculture was an employment which it was deemed to be a good policy to repress above all others/'1
John Tuke, who for many reasons favored the letting of land from year to year, says in his report on the North Riding of Yorkshire : "Experience, nevertheless, teaches us, that under some landlords, especially those in straitened circumstances, .... or where considerable improvements are to be made at the expense of the tenants, it is more advisable to be under greater certainty, though attended with greater rent."2 The desirability of increasing the number of twenty-one-year leases in the West Riding of Yorkshire was stated very forcibly by Robert Brown, who believed that without long-term leases improvements could not be made.3 In Derbyshire improvements were thought to be much retarded because the tenants lacked the security of long term leases.4 In Lincolnshire, where leases for a term of years were very rare, it was generally believed that, while improvements had been carried forward fairly well, longterm leases would result in much greater improve-
ment.1 In Leicestershire, the yeomen farmers were improving their lands, but the tenant farmers were slow to make improvements owing to the lack of long-term leases. It was said that •while in many cases the present landlords could be trusted by the farmers, the estates might change hands at any time and that a new lord usually meant a different ordering of affairs. The phrase, "New lords, new laws," was current in Leicestershire.2 In 1784, William Marshall was of the opinion that, in the midland counties, it was of little importance whether land was held under a lease for a term of years, or from year to year, — such was the confidence of the tenantry in the landlords. An instance is given of a young man who held a large farm from year to year, and who proceeded to improve the land in various ways. Five years later the following note was added to the earlier statement: "Unfortunately for the tenant, in this instance, his farm is now on sale, and the very expensive improvements which he has been making, are, probably, in a great measure sunk."3
It was thought that farmers would be more enterprising in Shropshire, if more leases were granted.4 In Worcestershire, it was believed, both by the landlords and by the tenants,
that, where improvements were to be made, a lease for a term of years was necessary.1 John Priest, the author of the Buckinghamshire Survey, made a plea for long leases, especially where improvements were to be made.2 In Cambridgeshire, where most of the farms were held on yearly tenures the lack of certainty of tenure was much felt.3 In general the tendency was for the tenant farmers who held their farms from year to year, to adhere to the old customs and to attempt no new improvements ; for the saying :
He that improves must flit,
expressed a common belief among the tenant farmers of that day who held their land from year to year.4 The farmers and the rural economists of the time were quite generally agreed that the adoption of long-term leases throughout the land was essential to the introduction of the desired improvements in agriculture.5
The long-term lease of one hundred years ago reached its highest degree of perfection in the county of Norfolk.6 The two main objects to be secured by the covenants of the lease were : first, to guarantee to the tenant the continued posses-
8 Ibid., p. 38.
* R. E. Prothero, English Farming, p. 58. 'Hunter's Georgicol Essays, (1804), Vol. 6, Essay XXXVI. 'See Appendix to Chapter XIII, for Mafsba-H's description of the Norfolk fease.
sion of the farm for a period sufficiently long to encourage investments in improvements, especially such improvements as are made in and upon the soil by careful tilth and by the addition of artificial fertilizers, and second, to secure the landlord against improper use of the property during the last few years of the tenancy so that the farm would be returned to the landlord in good condition. "No department of the management of an estate gives more uneasiness to both landlord and tenant," says Marshall, "than do removals, or exchanges of tenants; and every covenant which facilitates this unpleasant business is valuable."1
In the Norfolk leases the greater number of the covenants which restrict the farmer in his operations, pertain to the last three years of the tenancy. This was true to a greater or less extent in the other counties where long term leases were in use. This method of laying down restrictions seems to have been based on the belief that the interest of the tenant would lead him to farm in accordance with the rules of good husbandry until the last few years of the tenancy, at which time he could increase his own profits by exhausting the soil and leaving the farm in bad condition for the incoming tenant.
leases, which forbids the taking of more than two grain crops without a whole year's fallow, a crop of turnips, or "a two years' lay." Writing nine years later than Marshall (1804), Arthur Young gives the following clause among "new covenants" in use in the county of Norfolk. The tenant "shall not sow any of the lands with two successive crops of corn, grain, pulse, rape or turnips for seed,"1 without the consent of the landlord. The rule that two grain crops should not be grown in succession on the same piece of land became an established custom in most of the grain-growing districts of England. This rule was in harmony with the Norfolk four-course system of crop rotation. In this four-course system, a fallow crop, that is a cultivated crop, usually a root crop, is followed by a crop of spring grain with which clover or grass seeds are sown. After harvesting the hay the next season, the field is plowed and put into condition for fall grain which is the fourth crop in the course. For more than a century this system has been the most highly approved of all systems of crop rotation in use in England. This same system was introduced into Germany by Albrecht Thaer.
A study of the leases in use in the various counties of England at the close of the Eighteenth Century, does not give so favorable an impression as do the descriptions of the Norfolk system.
The limitations and restrictions as to the crops which could be grown, and as to the system of crop rotation, were often of such a character as to make them injurious to the interests of the farmers. These regulations were likely to be of such a character as would make it impossible for the farmers to adjust their farming to the demands of the times. In the Vale of Gloucester, for example, where nearly all of the land was as yet in the common fields, the tenants were required "to fallow the arable land, every third or fourth year; according to the established course of husbandry of the township." And again, "not to sow hemp, flax, or rape seed on any part of the premises. Nor, otherwise, to cross-crop; but to sow the same corn and grain, from year to year, according to the best and most usual course of husbandry used in the respective townships."1
In writing on the subject of the restricting clauses, generally found in the leases of his time, Robert Brown says : "The restrictions imposed during the time he occupies his farm, prevent the farmer from changing his management, or of adapting his crops to the nature of the soil he possesses. Agriculture is a living science which is progressively improving, consequently what may be esteemed a good course of cropping at one time, may, from experience and observation, be
afterwards found defective and erroneous. That particular covenants in a lease are obstacles to improvements cannot be disputed; for the very nature of a covenant supposes that the practise to be regulated by it had arrived at its ne plus ultra, and could not be mended. These covenants or restrictions subsist more or less irf every lease we heard of; and the shorter the lease the more numerous they are. . . . General rules of management are very proper in leases, such as, to keep the farm in good order, to consume all the straw raised upon it, and to sell no dung. These restrictions we will allow; and every good farmer will follow them whether he is bound to do so or not. Nay, we will go farther — if leases of a proper duration were granted, it is very reasonable that the property of the landlord should be protected by restricting clauses for the three years previous to their expiration. But after all, it will be found that no clause can be inserted, besides the general ones already mentioned, that will serve to enhance the value of the land, except obliging the farmer to leave a proportional quantity of such land in grass at the expiration of the lease, and specifying the manner in which that land is to be sown down. Other clauses serve only to distress the farmer, but will never promote the interests of the landlord."1
no means in full agreement with Robert Brown in his views on the subject of leases. Leases seem to have been in best repute in the eastern counties, where they were usually for a term of twenty-one years. Mr. Bailey is quoted as saying, in criticism of Mr. Brown's position as stated above, that, "if the proprietors of land were sure of always getting tenants that would act properly there would be no need of restricting covenants; but this is not always the case, and there are many instances of estates being much injured by exhausting crops where tenants were not properly restricted. That many covenants are useless or hurtful I readily admit; but covenants may be so framed, that a tenant shall have ample liberty to take such crops as he shall think proper, and to propose such modes as shall benefit himself without injuring his landlord."1
It was quite generally agreed that long leases properly drawn, were extremely desirable from the standpoint of the farmer, wherever improvements were to be made. But the landlords were not so generally of the opinion that long term leases were a good thing. Many landlords claimed that it made the tenants too independent.2 But a more important objection was found in the fact that while a lease of sufficient
length would enable the tenant to make improvements, it was hard to arrange matters so that the tenants would not exhaust the land at the end of the tenancy. It often happened that a tenant would bring the land into good tilth and to a high degree of fertility during the early years of his tenancy, and then take as nearly everything out of it as possible during the last few years of the lease.
Another objection to the granting of leases for long terms became quite general between 1790 and 1815. The landlords objected that as a result of rising prices during the period covered by the leases, they sustained great losses. It was maintained by the landlords of Surrey, for example, that by letting land for a term of fourteen or twenty-one years or any longer period, the owners of the land actually received, "almost every year during the currency of the lease, and certainly in the latter years of it, a less rent than he did at the commencement, from the depreciation in the value of money."1 And for this reason the landlords were objecting to the granting of leases. Even in the county of Norfolk, where the twentyone year lease had proved so beneficial, the landlords objected to long leases because it so often happened that soon after a farm was rented the prices of agricultural produce would rise so much higher than when the lease was taken, that the
tenants were "under-rented" for a series of years.1 The basis for complaint on this ground is shown by the fact that the average price of wheat was about twice as high for the five years from 1809 to 1813 as for the five years from 1790 to I794.2 A statement of the tenant problem and the solution proposed by an eminent rural economist of the time will be interesting in this connection. In his work on Landed Estates, published in 1806, William Marshall reviews the existing forms of land tenure.3 "The tenant holding at will"; "holding from year to year, under a written agreement, with specified covenants"; "leases for a term of years, as seven, fourteen, twenty-one, or greater number of years" ; and says :
Objections are urged against each of these species of tenancy. The depreciation of the circulating value of money, and the consequent nominal rise, in the rental value of lands, has rendered long leases greatly disadvantageous to proprietors : while annual holdings are not only discouraging to tenants ; — especially to men of exertion and capital — but are a bar to the improvement, and a clog on the prosperity of an estate: beside being, in the first instance, unfriendly to the interests of proprietors; inasmuch as they lower the fair rental values of their lands.
Some years ago, on perceiving the antipathy which had gone forth among men of fortune, against granting leases for long terms, and being well aware of the disadvantages of annual holdings, it occurred to me that agreements for occupying from three years to three years, instead of from year to year, would be an eligible species of tenancy :-
which is the same thing, granting leases for six years certain; with a condition that if neither party give notice to quit, before the expiration of the first three years, then the term to be prolonged to nine years; and so on, from three years to three years .... until three years after notice has been duly given, by either party to the other.
This gives room for a tenant "to turn his hand in," and a loose to his exertions. He has, in reality, a fresh lease of six years granted him, every third year. This is sufficient to encourage him to keep his lands, continually, in a husbandlike state. And if he execute at his own expense, any of the higher improvements, such as [improving waste lands, etc.] it is but reasonable that he should have, whenever he may quit his farm, an equitable remuneration for the remainder of such improvements. Thus, the tenant is placed on sure ground. He may till, manure, and improve, with much the same confidence, as if the lands in his occupation were his own property.
In return for such advantages, the tenant cannot refuse to covenant, that, during the last three years of his term, he will manage his farm in a husbandlike manner, and, at the end of the term, will leave it in such a state of cultivation and repair, as will induce a good tenant to take it, at a full rent ; — or suffer the proprietor to put it in such a state, at his (the outgoing tenant's) expense.
An estate which is under lease, on these principles, and under attentive management, cannot be let down to an unprofitable state. It must continually remain under a regular course of husbandry, and in a state of cultivation and repair. If the acting manager do his duty, even the changing of tenants cannot interrupt its prosperity. The incoming tenant (under attentive management) steps into his farm, with the advantages that he would have enjoyed, had it been under his own direction for the three preceding years.
But, with a lease on this principle, and with a proper choice -of tenants, removals can rarely happen. What superintendent, who knows the difficulty of procuring a good tenant, would wish to discharge him? And no such tenant
will readily leave the farm he is settled upon, if he find proper treatment. Even should notice be given, in consequence of any misunderstanding between the parties, three years allow time for reflection; and, before they expire, resentment may die away, and cordiality be restored. If, however, either party remain dissatisfied, he has an easy way of dissolving the connection. Or if a proprietor or a superintendent is desirous to make fresh arrangements on an estate ; or to regulate its rent roll, by the existing value of money ; he need not wait many years to fulfill his desire. For if the tenant in occupancy will not agree to pay a fair rent, he has three years before him to choose one who will ; — another valuable advantage of the tenancy proposed.
Thus, a lease on this principle has a decided preference by a proprietor, to long leases. And its advantage over annual holdings is not less considerable. The lands of an estate are well worth from five to ten -per cent, more, to a tenant, under the former, than under the latter, tenancy. So that, beside the conveniences mentioned, a proprietor may be immediately adding very considerably to his income, by this principle of management.
This species of tenancy I have had the happiness of being the means of introducing, upon some considerable estates, in England, in Wales, and in Scotland; with, I believe, the mutual satisfaction of the men of fortune who possess them, and of their tenants.
• While this system proposed by Marshall might solve the problem of adjusting the amount of rent to changes in real rental values, and while it might encourage the tenant to make such improvements as he could realize upon in three years, it had laid down no scheme for determining the value of unexhausted improvements, and, indeed, does not even propose that a tenant shall have remuneration for the investments made
upon the land during the last three years, and on which, if he farms in a husbandlike manner, he cannot realize all of the benefit. Thus it seems that Marshall failed to solve the most permanent difficulty which the tenant problem presented; for the unsettled condition of the money market became less important in the course of time, while the problem of unexhausted improvements has been of increasing importance as the years have gone by.
Various methods were devised, in different parts of England, for keeping the tenants from leaving the land in an exhausted condition at the termination of their leases. It was the custom on one estate in Shropshire to lease the land for twenty-one years "certain," and for seven years more at the option of the landlord. At the end of the twenty-one-year period, a new contract of the same kind might be entered into, if terms could be agreed upon, or the tenancy might be brought to a close, but the important condition was that if the tenant had reduced the land to a very low degree of fertility he could be forced to keep the farm for seven years longer at the old rent. Even if this system had succeeded in protecting the landlord, it failed even to recognize the right of the tenant to unexhausted improvements.
the farmers from exhausting the land during the last few years of the tenancy, is that reported in the Yorkshire Survey. The system was that of granting remuneration to the retiring tenant for all his investments on which time had not yet allowed him to realize their full returns ; the tenant was then left free to farm as he pleased so long as he conformed to the rules of good husbandry. One of the examples of this system is as follows :
The landlord covenants to allow the tenant, on quitting his farm, what two indifferent persons shall deem reasonable, for what is generally called full tillage and half tillage, being for the rent and assessment of his fallow ground, the plowing and the management of the same ; the lime, manure, or other tillage laid thereon ; the seed sown thereupon ; the sowing and harrowing thereof ; also for the sowing, harrowing, manuring, and managing any turnip fallow which he may leave unsown ; also for any clover seed sown on the premises; and harrowing and rolling in of such seed; and for every other matter and thing done and performed in a husbandrylike manner on such fallow lands, in the two last years of the term ; also for the last year's manure left upon the premises ; and for any manure and tillage laid upon the grass land.1
During the period of rising prices prior to 1812, the farmers were anxious to rent land on long leases. It is said that at that time, "good tenants always wanted leases," that "they were galloping after one another to take leases at any rent."2 After the close of the Napoleonic wars,
prices fell back almost to their old level. The average price of wheat was just about half as high for the five years from 1821 to 1825, as for the five years from 1809 to 1813. With this fall in prices the farmers became even more averse to the taking of long leases than the landlords had previously been. One after another the witnesses before the Parliamentary Committee on Agriculture, in 1833, bore testimony to the fact that the farmers were objecting seriously to taking long leases, because they did not know how soon they might be unable to pay the rent, as their capacity to pay the rent depended upon such uncertain prices. The farmers were in doubt as to how much protection they were to have from the competition of foreign producers. But without regard to this, they knew that the prices of agricultural products had been falling for several years in succession and they were unable to tell when the limit would be reached.
With depressed prices the landlords found new reasons for objecting to long leases. This was the time, one might think, for the landlords to regain what they had lost during the period of rising prices, but they found it rarely happened that the tenants were able to stand the losses incurred by falling prices. The farmer could not be forced to live up to his contract, if he was losing money. It was said that leases were binding upon the landlords but not upon the tenants.
The fall in prices seemed to demoralize the farmers, so that the landlord was never certain that his tenant would not disregard the contract in case of a fall in prices, whereas the tenant would certainly remain to reap the benefits in case of a rise in prices.
The remedy which was often prescribed for the evils of fluctuating prices, was the introduction of "corn rents."1 By this it is not meant that the farmer was to give a certain share of his crop to the landlord as rent, but that he should pay as rent the value of a certain fixed amount of grain. The rent was figured on the basis of what was called in Scotland the "fiars prices of the county." In Scotland the sheriff of each county was bound to summon a jury once each year to examine on oath, a number of witnesses, such as farmers, grain dealers, brewers, etc., and according to the evidence thus obtained, to fix the "fiars prices" of the different grades of grain. This system was quite generally resorted to in Scotland during the period of falling prices. Corn rents were advocated by the English rural economists of the time, and were introduced with success in a few instances in the western counties ; but this system failed to gain general favor among the farmers and landlords of England.2
The use of long leases declined rapidly in England during the period following the close of the continental wars. In those counties where they had been most numerous and most beneficial, the farmers came to prefer short leases or even tenancy from year to year. The long lease as a means of solving the tenant problem had been "weighed in the balances and found wanting." Yet it must be admitted that long leases had done a great deal of good in promoting improvements in English agriculture and now that the prices of agricultural products were depressed the farmers did not find it profitable to farm their lands so intensively as formerly even if they had long term leases. Thus, the tenant problem was of less importance in the minds of the farmers for a series of years, until the return of prosperity again raised the question of investments in improvements and the means of securing just returns upon such investments.
The period from 1836 to 1875 was one of general prosperity for English farmers, and by 1850 the tenant problem was receiving the attention of Parliament. The use of long leases had gradually declined during the first half of the Nineteenth Century, and while there were agricultural economists who still advocated this means of securing to the farmers legitimate returns upon their investments, there was a very prevalent dislike to long leases on the part of both parties con-
cerned. Yet it was generally recognized that security to the tenant's investments was essential to the promotion of that degree of intensity of culture which was most profitable in the long run both to the tenant and to the landlord.1
The long period lease had proved so unsatisfactory that especial attention was now given to the perfecting of the "year to year" agreement. The custom of "tenant-right," which had proved satisfactory in Lincolnshire, formed the basis for the hope that tenants holding their farms from year to year might be given that degree of security which would promote good agriculture.
The introduction of agricultural improvements came rather later in Lincolnshire than in many other parts of England, but when the transition did come it was "rapid and striking, perhaps more so than in any other county in England."2 These improvements were made, too, without the protection of long time leases. They were made under the protection of the Lincolnshire system of tenant-right. "It was very fortunate," says Gaird, "that when the time for [the introduction of agricultural improvements] arrived, the lead-
*To avoid the necessity of making specific references in great numbers it will simply be stated that the discussion of this period is based upon a Parliamentary Report on Agricultural Customs, Parliamentary Papers, 1847-8, Vol. VII; and Caird's English Agriculture in 1850 and 1851. In these sources the material here used is indexed under "tenantright."
ing landlords [of Lincolnshire] were liberal and intelligent men. . . . They saw the advantage of encouraging tenants to embark their capital freely; and as leases were not the fashion of the county, they gave them that security for their invested capital, which is termed 'tenant-right,' or compensation for unexhausted improvements. Though this tenant-right may not be a strictly legal claim, it is universally admitted in Lincolnshire, the landlord paying it when a farm falls into his own hands, and refusing to accept a tenant who declines to comply with the custom. It varies, however, considerably in the different parts of the county, and appears to have enlarged in its obligations with the greater development of agricultural improvements. In North Lincolnshire, the usual allowances claimed by the outgoing from the incoming tenant, include draining, marling, chalking, claying, lime, bone, guano, rape dust and oil-cake. The following is the scale on which these allowances are usually made :
When the landlord has found tiles, and the tenant has done the labor, if done within twelve months before the end of the tenancy and no crop has been taken from land after the draining thereof is completed the whole cost is allowed. If one crop has been taken from such land, three-fourths of the cost are allowed, and so on, diminishing the allowance by one- fourth for each crop taken ; but this allowance is made only when the work is well and properly done by the tenant, to the satisfaction of the landlord or his agent, expressed in writing. For marling or chalking, if done within twelve months before tfoe end of the tenancy, the whole
cost is allowed ; for that done in the previous year, seveneighths of the cost are allowed ; and so on, diminishing the allowance by one-eighth for each year that shall have elapsed since the marling or chalking. — For lime used within twelve months before the end of the tenancy, if no crop has been taken from the land limed in that year, the whole cost, including labor, is allowed ; if one crop has been taken from such land, four-fifths of the cost are allowed ; and so on, diminishing the allowance by one-fifth for each crop taken from such land. — For claying on light land, a similar allowance to that for lime. — For bones used within twelve months before the end of the tenancy two-thirds of the cost are allowed, and for those used in the previous year one-third of the cost. — For guano and rape dust used within twelve months before the end of the tenancy for turnips or other green crop, two-thirds of the cost are allowed.— For oil-cake given to cattle and sheep one-third of the cost price of that so used within twelve months before the end of the tenancy, and one-sixth of the cost price of that so used in the previous year is allowed.
"The amount of these allowances is settled by arbitration. . . . On the whole, .... the system is believed to have worked well."1
The custom of tenant-right was fully recognized in the counties of Sussex, Surrey, and Lincoln, in the Weald of Kent, in the northern part of Nottinghamshire, and in the West Riding of Yorkshire. In some of these regions the system was not giving very good results. In Surrey, the custom of tenant-right was said to be "promoting an extensive system of fraud and falsehood among the farmers."1 The custom seems to have been quite loosely formulated in that county, and
it was possible for the farmers to "work up a quitting," as it was called,1 and thus defraud the landlord or the succeeding tenant. Not being properly regulated the "compensation" often embraced "large payments for imaginary improvements and alleged operations, which, even if they had ever been performed would be more injurious than beneficial."2
But while the custom of tenant-right was very imperfect in its operations in some parts of England, the principle on which it was based was sound, and in time it was to be embodied in the laws of the land. The custom of tenant-right struck at the very heart of the tenant problem. It guaranteed to the tenant just returns for his investments, without involving the many disadvantages of the long-period lease. The experience of the landlords and tenants of Lincolnshire had already proved that where the system was properly regulated the custom of tenant-right was satisfactory in practise as well as sound in principle.
In 1850, a bill was introduced into Parliament which aimed at the embodiment of this custom of tenant-right into a law. It \vas entitled "A Bill for the Improvement of the Relation between Landlord and Tenant in England and Wales." Its purpose, as stated in the preamble, was to
insure to farmers, compensation for properly constructed, permanent improvements. The idea of enacting a law of this kind was not new in 1850. Two hundred years before, Walter Blith advised that a law be enacted "whereby every landlord should be obliged .... to give him [the tenant] reasonable allowance for his clear improvements."1 The bill of 1850 did not pass, but neither did it die. Again and again similar bills were brought before Parliament, and in 1875 an act was passed, which laid down the conditions for compensating the outgoing tenant, but unfortunately no provision was then made to keep the landlords from requiring the tenants to contract themselves out of the right to claim compensation under the law, and while the law was beneficial in that it systematized and brought greater uniformity into the practise of granting compensation where tenant-right was recognized, it was not generally adopted. The author of the bill, even, asked his tenants to contract themselves out of the benefits of the law which he himself had framed. In 1883, a new bill, the Agricultural Holdings Act, was passed. This Act contained a clause making it illegal for a landlord to contract himself out of the conditions of the law. The law of 1883 with the slight modifications of the Amending Act of 1900, is still in force, and it will be worth while to examine it with considerable care.
The law enables the tenant farmers to obtain from the landlords as compensation for improvements at the termination of their tenancies, "such sum as fairly represents the value of the improvement to an incoming tenant."
The improvements for which compensation could be claimed under this law were divided into three classes. The first class includes all those improvements to which the consent of the landlord is required if the payment of compensation is to be enforced by law. This class includes the following list of improvements :
(8) Making or improving of water courses, ponds, wells or reservoirs, or of works for the application of water power or for supply of water for agricultural or domestic purposes.
The drainage of land is put into a class by itself. It is required that the tenant shall give notice to the landlord of his intention to construct a drainage system if he is to expect compensation under the law for his improvement. This notice must be given not more than three months nor less than two months before the beginning of the execution of the work, and during this time the landlord may, if the tenant has not in the meantime withdrawn the notice, "undertake to execute the improvement himself, and may execute the same in any reasonable and proper manner which he thinks fit, and charge the tenant with a sum not exceeding five pounds per centum per annum on the outlay incurred in executing the improvement, or not exceeding such annual sum payable for a period of twenty-five years as will repay such outlay in the said period, with interest at the rate of three per centum per annum, such annual sum to be recoverable as rent. In default of any such .... undertaking, and also in the event of the landlord failing to comply with his undertaking within a reasonable time, the tenant may execute the improvement himself, and shall in respect thereof be entitled to compensation" under the Agricultural Holdings Act.
purchased manure.
(24) Consumption on the holding by cattle, sheep, or pigs, or by horses other than those regularly employed on the holding of corn, cake, or other feeding-stuffs not produced upon the holding.
(25) Consumption on the holding by cattle, sheep, or pigs, or by horses other than those regularly employed on the holding, of corn proved by satisfactory evidence to have been produced and consumed on the holding.
(26) Laying down temporary pasture with clover, grass, lucerne, sainfoin, or other seeds sown more than two years prior to the determination of the tenancy.
gardener.
In ascertaining the amount of compensation payable to a tenant, account is taken of any benefit which the landlord has given or allowed to the
tenant for making the improvement. Also in case the tenant is under contract to return a certain amount of manure to the soil each year, and in case such amount shall not exceed the amount that is produced from the feeds which are produced upon the holding, this amount is excluded from the amount for which compensation can be claimed.
In case the landlord and the tenant fail to agree as to the amount of compensation which the tenant should have for the various improvements which have been named above, the difference is settled by means of arbitration.
In case of any breach of contract on the part of either landlord or tenant, damages may be claimed by the party injured. Also in case the tenant causes or allows any waste, injures the soil, or destroys the improvements, the landlord can make a claim for payment for such injuries. These claims are arbitrated the same as those for improvements.
In case of permanent improvements such as are not mentioned in either of the above classes, the tenant may remove the improvement unless the landlord may choose to buy the same, with the proviso that he repair any damages which may have been incurred by the removal of the building, that is he must leave the premises in as good condition as if the improvement had not been made.
It is the usual thing for the incoming tenant to pay the sum which is due the outgoing tenant as remuneration for improvements; and in case the new tenant remains but a short time on the farm, so that at the expiration of his tenancy he has not had time to realize in full upon such investments, he receives remuneration for such improvements just the same as if he had executed them himself.
These are the essential points of the Agricultural Holdings Act of 1883 as modified by the amending Act of 1900. The changes made by the amending Act were matters of detail meant to meet certain objections to the practical workings of the original Act. This law, as it now stands, seems to supply the regulations necessary to an amicable adjustment of the relations between landlord and tenant in England.
Tenancy from year to year is the rule iri England to-day, and no question is raised as to the security of the landlord or of the tenant. Either party may bring the tenancy to a close at the expiration of any year, by giving proper notice. Under the act, twelve months' notice is required, but by special agreement between landlord and tenant the time may be changed to six months.1
Written contracts are generally used, but the
1The Agricultural Holdings Act as now in force may be found in convenient form in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, third series, Vol. XI, Part III, 1900.
leading agriculturists of the country agree that such contracts should contain few restrictions upon the methods of farming, except that the farm shall be operated in accordance with the rules of good husbandry. Many of the written agreements now in use would, if strictly enforced, bind the tenants hand and foot ; but as a matter of fact many of these covenants are recognized to be obsolete and others are "winked at" by the landlords. A study of the written agreements nominally in force at the present time would, in themselves, give a very erroneous idea of the actual relations between landlords and tenants.
The farmers and the landlords of England have quite generally come to recognize that liberty and honesty are essential to success in agriculture. The writer gradually gained the impression by coming in personal contact with farmers and landlords, or more often the agents of the latter, that accompanying the gradual perfecting of the Agricultural Holdings Act, there has been the growth of a sense of justice in the minds of both the landlords and the tenants. This sense of justice is all the more effective because it is accompanied by the belief that in farm management, whatever is beneficial to the farmer is likewise advantageous to the landlord.
The English method of regulating the relations between landlord and tenant is successful throughout Great Britain. The history of land tenure in
Scotland would prove very interesting and helpful. Leases of long duration, most commonly for nineteen or for twenty-one years, have been in general use in Scotland for more than a century. The system of "corn rents," already referred to, proved an effective means of adjusting rents to prices at the time when this problem was proving disastrous to the long term lease in England. At the present time the Agricultural Holdings Act of Scotland is practically the same as that in force in England. While it continues to be the custom among Scottish landlords and tenants to have long term leases drawn, it has become the common thing to include a clause which makes it possible for either the landlord or the tenant to bring the tenancy to a close at certain periods, as for example, at the end of the fifth, tenth or fifteenth year, or at the end of the second, fourth, sixth, etc., year, by giving proper notice to the other party. In effect, therefore, the long term lease is passing away, for the same object is now attained through the Agricultural Holdings Act. In another connection the writer had occasion to publish the statement that, "the relation between landlord and tenant is very satisfactorily arranged, the farmers are, as a rule, contented with the present system, and the fields of England prove that landownership on the part of farmers is not essential to good agriculture." This statement has occasioned surprise on the part of some
American readers, but an eminent agriculturist of Great Britain, Mr. John Speir, says this statement "expresses briefly and concisely the position here." The writer had no thought of minimizing the importance of landownership on the part of farmers, but rather to emphasize that in spite of the fact that tenancy is the rule in that country, the agriculture of England is, in many ways, worthy of our emulation, and that this advanced position of English agriculture is due, in a great measure, to an excellent system of adjusting the relations between landlord and tenant.
That Americans may profit by the experience of their British cousins, should be evident from the foregoing pages. That they will be willing to draw upon the experience of the English, will scarcely be questioned. The Americans have become independent in thought and action, and have become leaders in nearly every line to which they have turned their attention, yet they have always been willing to accept all that is of value in the achievements of other countries, and we believe that as America has profited by the experience of the English in the development of factory legislation, so will she profit by a study of the English agrarian legislation.
MARSHALL
[The following description of the Norfolk leases is taken from the second edition of William Marshall's Rural Economy of Norfolk (1795), PP- 70 to 80.] The following heads of a lease will place the general management of a Norfolk estate in a clear and comprehensive point of view. They are not, either in form or substance, copied, precisely, from the lease in use upon any particular estate; but exhibit, I believe, a pretty faithful outline of the modern Norfolk lease.
able repair.
3. Also to furnish rough materials, and pay half the workmen's wages in keeping them in repair, during the term of the demise ; willful or negligent damage excepted.
4. Also to furnish the premises with such ladders as may be wanted in doing repairs, or in preserving the buildings, in case of high winds, fire in chimneys, etc. (an excellent clause).
5. Also to furnish rough materials for keeping the gates, gate-posts, styles, etc., etc., in repair; or to furnish the materials ready cut out ; tenant paying the usual price of labor for cutting out.
newed.
Landlord reserves, I. All minerals, fossils, marls, clays; with liberty to work mines, quarries and pits, and to burn lime and bricks upon the premises ; likewise to carry away such minerals, etc., etc.; excepting such marl, or clay, as may be wanted for the improvement of the farm.
char, and carry off such timber or other woods; excepting such thorns and bushes as shall be set out by landlord, for making and repairing fences; provided the thorns, etc., so set out be cut in the winter months; excepting, however, out of this proviso, such few as may be wanted in the course of the summer months, for stopping accidental gaps.
3. Also, full liberty of planting timber trees in hedges, or on hedgebanks; with a power to take to himself, after twelve months' notice given, some certain number of acres of land for the purpose of raising timber trees, other trees, or underwood; allowing the tenant such yearly rent, etc., for the land so taken, as two arbitrators shall fix.
4. Also, a power of altering roads, and of inclosing commons, or waste lands, without the control of the tenant; to which intent, all common-right is usually reserved, in form, though seldom in effect, to the landlord.
and within thirty days after it be due ; under forfeiture of the lease; and further, to pay the last half-year's rent two months, or a longer time, before the expiration of the term.
2. Also, to do all carriage for repairs (within a specified distance) ; and to find all iron-work and nails ; and to furnish wheat-straw for thatching; and to pay half the workmen's wages, and find them with small beer.
3. Also, to do all ditching, etc., set out by landlord (provided the quantity set out do not exceed one-tenth of the whole) ; and to pay half the workmen's wages, and find them in small beer ; and to defend with hurdles, or otherwise, all such young hedges as shall be exposed, in spring and summer, to the browsings of pasturing stock.
4. Also, to make, or pay for making, such gates, etc., as shall be wanted upon the farm during the term of the demise ; and to hew, or to pay for hewing, all necessary gateposts ; and to put down and hang, in a workman-like manner, such gates and gateposts at his own sole expense; as
5. Also, not to assign over, nor in any other way, part with possession of his farm; but to make it his constant residence during the term of the lease. Nor to take any other farm; nor to purchase any lands adjoining, or intermixed with it ; without the license and consent of landlord ; under forfeiture of the lease.
6. Also, not to break up any meadow, pasture, or furze ground, under the penalty of ten pounds an acre a year. Nor to cut "flags," that is, turves, under fifty shillings a hundred.
7. Also, not to lop or top any timber tree, under the penalty of twenty pounds ; nor other tree, under ten pounds ; nor cut underwood or hedgewood (except as before excepted) under ten pounds a load. But, on the contrary, to preserve them from damage as much as may be; and. if damaged by others, to give every information in his power under the penalty of twenty pounds.
8. Also, not to take more than two crops of corn without a whole year's fallow, — a crop of turnips twice hoed, — or a two years' lay, — intervening, under the penalty of
9. Also, to consume on the premises all hay, straw, and other stover; and not to carry off, or suffer to be carried off, any part, under pretense of being tithe compounded for, or under any other pretense whatever, under the penalty of ten pounds, for every load carried off
dung, muck, etc., under five pounds a load.
11. Nor to impair the foundations of the buildings round the dungyard, by scooping out the bottom of the yard too near the buildings; but to keep up a pathway three feet wide between the dungpit and the foundations (an excellent clause).
without being yoked and rung.
15. Also, in the last year, to permit landlord, or incoming tenant to sow grass seeds over the summer corn ; and to harrow them in, gratis; and not to feed off the young grasses after harvest.
16. Also, in the last year, not to sow less than
acres of fallow, of, at least, three plowings and suitable harrowings, with two pints an acre of good, marketable, whiteloaf turnip seed; and, in due time, to give the plants two hoeings (or, if the crop miss, to give the fallow two extra plowings} in a husbandlike manner; and, at the expiration of the term, to leave such turnips growing on the premises; free from wilful or neglectful injury; under the penalty of pounds an acre.
17. Also, to permit the landlord or incoming tenant to begin, on or after the first day of July, in the last year, to break up the two years' lay (hereafter agreed to be left) for wheat fallow, or any other purpose ; and to harrow, stir, and work the said fallows; and to carry and spread dung or other manure thereon, without molestation.
and to protect it thereon.
19. Also, to lay up and leave upon the premises, at the expiration of the lease, all the hay of the last year (or of any preceding year, if unconsumed at the expiration of
carry off.
20. Also, to lay up, in the usual barns and rickyards, the last year's crops of corn; together with the tithe, if compounded for ; and to thresh them out in proper season ; and in such manner that the straw, chaff, and colder shall be injured as little as may be.
21. Also, at the expiration of the term, to leave no less than acres of olland [meadow-land, literally oldland], of two years laying (including that which may have been broken up by landlord or incoming tenant) and which shall have been laid down in a husbandlike manner, after
of pound an acre.
22. Also, at the expiration of the term, to leave all the yard manure, produced in the last year of the lease, piled up in a husbandlike manner, on the premises; excepting such part of it as may have been used for the turnip crop ; and excepting such other part as may have been used by landlord, or incoming tenant, for wheat.
23. Also, at the expiration of the term, to leave the buildings, ladders, gates, fences, water-courses, etc., etc., in good and tenantable repair; landlord in this, as in every other case, performing his part as above agreed to. Also, upon such parts of an estate as lie near the residence of the owner, it is customary for the tenant to agree to furnish annually, a certain number of loads of straw, according to the size of his farm ; also to do the carriage of a certain number of loads of coal; also to keep dogs, warn off sportsmen, and suffer them to be prosecuted in his name : remnants, these, of the ancient base tenures of soccage and villanage.
Tenant to be alloived, i. The full value of all the hay left upon the premises, of the last year's growth, or of the growth of any preceding year ; provided the quantity of old hay do not exceed loads.
2. Also, the full value of the turnips left on the premises ; or the accustomed price for the plowings, harrowings, and manuring; at his own option.
3. Also, the feedage of the lays broken up, by the landlord, or the incoming tenant, from the time of their being broken up until the expiration of the term the ensuing Michaelmas; also, for all damage arising in carrying on manure or otherwise.
July next ensuing.
6. Also, (by way of a consideration for the stover) the customary price for threshing and dressing the corn; the landlord, or incoming tenant, also carrying the same to market, gratis : provided the distance required to be carried
All the above allowances to be referred to two arbitrators ; one to be chosen by each party, in Michaelmas week ; and the amount awarded to be immediately paid down by the landlord, or the incoming tenant
Dr. Wilcox's forthcoming book differs from most works on this subject in that it is practical and concrete, rather than critical and theoretical. It embodies a careful first-hand investigation of administration in a number of typical cities — Washington, New York, Chicago, Philadelphia, St. Louis, and Boston. It brings to the student's desk a great amount of statistical and statutory matter for which otherwise he would have to make difficult search. It exposes, in short, the actual workings of the municipal government in American cities in a way that every scholar should appreciate.
Professor of Sociology in Adelphi College
Quite recently the National Board of Young Women's Christian Associations of the United States conducted an investigation throughout the entire country of the status of women in the most important industries. Its results are incorporated in this book.
"This book needed to be written. Society has to be reminded that the prime function of women must ever be the perpetuation of the race. It can be so reminded only by a startling presentation of the woman who is 'speeded up' on a machine, the woman who breaks records in packing prunes or picking hops, the woman who outdoes all others in vamping shoes or spooling cotton. . . . The chapters give glimpses of women wage-earners as they toil in different parts of the country. The author visited the shoeshops, and the paper, cotton, and woolen mills of New England, the department stores of Chicago, the garment-makers' homes in New York, the silk mills and potteries of New Jersey, the fruit farms of California, the coal fields of Pennsylvania, and the hop industries of Oregon. The author calls for legislation regardless of constitutional quibble, for a shorter work-day, a higher wage, the establishment of residential clubs, the closer cooperation between existing organizations for industrial betterment." — Boston Advertiser.
THE CITIZEN'S LIBRARY OF ECONOMICS, POLITICS, AND SOCIOLOGY is edited by Richard T. Ely, Professor of Political Economy at the University of Wisconsin. For a complete list of the volumes included in the series, address
Edited by SAMUEL McCuNE LINDSAY, PH.D.
A series of handbooks for the student and general reader, giving the results of the newer social thought and of recent scientific investigations of the facts of American social life and institutions. Each volume about 200 pages.
The new American Social Progress Series, which The Macmillan Company is bringing out under the editorship of Professor Samuel McCune Lindsay, has been admirably launched with Professor Patten's book, "The New Basis of Civilization." A wellknown writer on economics has characterized it as "the book we have been waiting for to put social work on the basis of a well-reasoned philosophy."
This is a subject on which President Hadley has already spoken with conspicuous wisdom, and no man in America is better fitted to discuss it adequately. The events of the past two or three years have made this topic one of general interest, and President Hadley's treatment of it will be found full of suggestive and stimulating thought.
The book presents a great deal of information and comment which the average citizen should possess, and is written in Professor Jenks's shrewd, practical, and readable style.
the abject poverty to be found in certain sections of the country.
It has grown out of the author's experience in philanthropic work in Chicago and New York, and her service for the State of Illinois and for the Federal Government in investigating the circumstances of the poorer classes, and conditions in various trades.
University of Wisconsin
Professor Ely discusses in a straightforward way the progress of the working classes, the changes in their condition, their tendencies toward better and brighter things, and the effect of these tendencies on society generally. The benefit of competition and the improvement of the race, municipal ownership and concentration of wealth, are treated in a sane, helpful, and interesting manner.
The importance of general educational advance to industrial progress and the necessity for manual training as a means of development among the working classes, are subjects of the greatest general interest to-day. Professor Carlton is probably one of the best equipped men in the country to handle this subject clearly and dwells especially on the importance of a broader industrial education.
The Newer Ideals of Peace
Miss Addams points out that in the growth of the moral sense of the nations the goal of universal peace will be reached through the cooperation of the very elements now regarded as disturbers — the immigrant population in the large cities. She discusses the Labor Movement ; the Protection of Women and Children ; " Women in City Government," etc.
"A clean and consistent setting forth of the utility of labor as against the waste of war, and an exposition of the alteration of standards that must ensue when labor and the spirit of militarism are relegated to their right places in the minds of men. . . . Back of it lies illimitable sympathy, immeasurable pity, a spirit as free as that of St. Francis, a sense of social order and ritness that Marcus Aurelius might have found similar to his own." — Chicago Tribune.
Democracy and Social Ethics
" Its pages are remarkably — we were about to say refreshingly — free from the customary academic limitations . . .; in fact, are the result of actual experience in hand-to-hand contact with social problems. . . . No more truthful description, for example, of the 'boss' as he thrives to-day in our great cities has ever been written than is contained in Miss Addams's chapter on ' Political Reform.' . . . The same thing may be said of the book in regard to the presentation of social and economic facts." — Review of Reviews.
"Too much emphasis cannot be laid upon the efficiency and inspiration afforded by these essays. . . . The book is startling, stimulating, and intelligent." — Philadelphia Ledger.
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MkiV5WGNWiiy7v-m | 3.2: Assyria | 3.2: Assyria
The Assyrian Culture
The Assyrian and Neo-Assyrian capitals of Nimrud, Dur-Sharrukin, and Nineveh are known today for their ruins of great palaces and fortifications.
Describe the key aspects of the Assyrian capitals of Nimrud, Dur-Sharrukin, and Nineveh
Key Points
- Nimrud, also known as Kalhu, was the Assyrian capital from the thirteenth century BCE until 706 BCE. Ashurnasirpal II made the city famous when he built a large palace and temples on top of ancient ruins c. 880 BCE.
- Dur-Sharrukin was a single-period site; therefore, few individual objects were found. The primary discoveries shed light on Assyrian art and architecture.
- Nineveh, the capital of the Neo-Assyrian Empire , rose to greatness under Sennacherib . He laid out new streets and squares and built within it the famous “palace without a rival”, the plan of which has been mostly recovered.
Key Terms
- Obelisk :A tall, square, tapered, stone monolith topped with a pyramidal point, frequently used as a monument.
- ziggurat :A temple tower of the ancient Mesopotamian valley, having the form of a terraced pyramid of successively receding stories.
Nimrud and Ashurnasirpal II
Nimrud is an ancient Assyrian city located in southern, modern Iraq on the River Tigris. In ancient times the city was called Kalhu. The ruins of the city are found some 30 kilometers (19 miles) southeast of Mosul.
The Assyrian king Shalmaneser I made Nimrud, which existed for about a thousand years, the capital in the thirteenth century BCE. The city gained fame when king Ashurnasirpal II of Assyria (c. 880 BCE) built a large palace and temples on the site of an earlier city that had long fallen into ruins. Nimrud housed as many as 100,000 inhabitants and contained botanic gardens and a zoologic garden. Ashurnasirpal’s son, Shalmaneser III (858–824 BCE), built the monument known as the Great Ziggurat and an associated temple. The palace, restored as a site museum, is one of only two preserved Assyrian palaces in the world. The other is Sennacherib’s palace at Nineveh. Nimrud remained the Assyrian capital until 706 BCE when Sargon II moved the capital to Dur-Sharrukin, but it remained a major center and a royal residence until the city was completely destroyed in 612 BCE when Assyria succumbed under the invasion of the Medes.
Excavations at Nimrud in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries revealed remarkable bas- reliefs, ivories , and sculptures . A statue of Ashurnasirpal II was found in an excellent state of preservation , as were colossal winged man-headed lions, each guarding the palace entrance. The large number of inscriptions pertaining to king Ashurnasirpal II provide more details about him and his reign than are known for any other ruler of this epoch.
Portions of the site have been also been identified, such as temples to Ninurta and Enlil, a building assigned to Nabu (the god of writing and the arts), and extensive fortifications. Furthermore, the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III, discovered in 1846, stands six-and-a-half-feet tall and commemorates the king’s victorious campaigns from 859–824 BCE. It is shaped like a temple tower at the top, ending in three steps.
On one panel, Israelites led by king Jehu of Israel pay tribute and bow in the dust before king Shalmaneser III, who is making a libation to his god. The cuneiform text on the obelisk reads “Jehu the son of Omri” and mentions gifts of gold, silver, lead, and spear shafts . The “Treasure of Nimrud” unearthed in these excavations is a collection of over 600 pieces of gold jewelry and precious stones.
Sargon II and Dur-Sharrukin
Dur-Sharrukin, or present day Khorsabad, was the Assyrian capital in the time of King Sargon II. Today, Khorsabad is now a village in northern Iraq, and is still inhabited by Assyrians. The construction of Dur-Sharrukin was never finished. Sargon, who ordered the project, was killed during a battle in 705. After his death, his son and successor Sennacherib abandoned the project and relocated the capital with its administration to the city of Nineveh.
Dur-Sharrukin was constructed on a rectangular layout. Its walls were massive, with 157 towers protecting its sides. Seven gates entered the city from all directions. A walled terrace contained temples and the royal palace. The main temples were dedicated to the gods Nabu, Shamash, and Sin, while Adad, Ningal, and Ninurta had smaller shrines. A ziggurat was also constructed at the site. The palace was adorned with sculptures and wall reliefs, with its gates flanked by winged-bull shedu statues weighing up to 40 tons. On the central canal of Sargon’s garden stood a pillared pleasure-pavilion which looked up to a great topographic creation—a man-made Garden Mound. This mound was planted with cedars and cypresses and modeled after the Amanus mountains in northern Syria.
The colossal bull statue (above) was uncovered outside the throne room. It was found split into three large fragments. The torso alone weighed about 20 tons. Since Dur-Sharrukin was a single-period site that was evacuated in an orderly manner after the death of Sargon II, few individual objects were found. The primary discoveries from Khorsabad shed light on Assyrian art and architecture.
Nineveh
Nineveh was an ancient Assyrian city on the eastern bank of the Tigris River, and the capital of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. Its ruins are across the river from the modern-day major city of Mosul in Iraq.
Today, Nineveh’s location is marked by two large mounds, Kouyunjik and Nabī Yūnus “Prophet Jonah,” and the remains of the city walls. These were fitted with fifteen monumental gateways which served as checkpoints on entering and exiting the ancient city, and were probably also used as barracks and armories. With the inner and outer doors shut, the gateways were virtual fortresses. Five of the gateways have been explored to some extent by archaeologists.
Nineveh was an important junction for commercial routes crossing the Tigris. Occupying a central position on the great highway between the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean, Nineveh united the East and the West, and received wealth from many sources. Thus, it became one of the oldest and greatest of all the region’s ancient cities, and the capital of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. The area was settled as early as 6000 BCE, and by 3000 BCE had become an important religious center for worship of the Assyrian goddess Ishtar.
It was not until the Neo-Assyrian Empire that Nineveh experienced a considerable architectural expansion. King Sennacherib is credited with making Nineveh a truly magnificent city during his rule (c. 700 BCE). He laid out new streets and squares and built within it the famous “palace without a rival”, the plan of which has been mostly recovered. It comprised at least 80 rooms, many of which were lined with sculpture. A large number of cuneiform tablets were found in the palace. The solid foundation was made out of limestone blocks and mud bricks. Some of the principal doorways were flanked by colossal stone-door figures that included many winged lions or bulls with the heads of men. The stone carvings in the walls include many battle and hunting scenes, as well as depicting Sennacherib’s men parading the spoils of war before him.
Nineveh’s greatness was short-lived. In around 627 BCE, after the death of its last great king Ashurbanipal, the Neo-Assyrian empire began to unravel due to a series of bitter civil wars, and Assyria was attacked by the Babylonians and Medes. From about 616 BCE, in a coalition with the Scythians and Cimmerians, they besieged Nineveh, sacking the town in 612, and later razing it to the ground .
The Assyrian empire as such came to an end by 605 BC, with the Medes and Babylonians dividing its colonies between them. Following its defeat in 612, the site remained largely unoccupied for centuries with only a scattering of Assyrians living amid the ruins until the Sassanian period, although Assyrians continue to live in the surrounding area to this day.
Architecture in Assyria
Assyrian architecture eventually emerged from the shadow of its predecessors to assume distinctive attributes, such as domes and diverse building materials, that set it apart from other political entities.
Identify the distinguishing characteristics of Assyrian architecture
Key Points
- Inscriptions and reliefs produced under the Assyrian Empire depict structures with octagonal and circular domes , which were unique to the region at the time.
- Assyrian ziggurats eventually consisted of enameled walls and two towers.
- Massive fortified walls are a common attribute in Assyrian fortresses, pointing to the political instability of the time and the need for architectural defense.
- Architectural materials in the Assyrian empire were quite diverse, consisting of a variety of woods, stones, and metals.
Key Terms
- lamassu : A guardian figure consisting of the head of a human, massive wings, and the body of a lion or bull.
During the Assyrian Empire’s historical span from the 25th century BCE to 612 BCE, architectural styles went through noticeable changes. Assyrian architects were initially influenced by previous forms dominant in Sumer and Akkad. However, Assyrian structures eventually evolved into their own unique style.
Temples
Little is known of the construction of Assyrian temples with the exception of the distinctive ziggurats and massive remains at Mugheir. Ziggurats in the Assyrian Empire came to be built with two towers (as opposed to the single central tower of previous styles) and decorated with colored enameled tiles. Contemporaneous inscriptions and reliefs describe and depict structures with octagonal and circular domes, unique architectural systems for the time. Little remains of the temple at Mugheir, but the ruins of its base remain quite impressive, measuring 198 feet (60 m) long by 133 feet (41 m) wide by 70 feet (21 m) high.
Dur-Sharrukin
Building plans remained rectangular through much of the empire’s history. The fortress of Sargon II (reigned 722–705 BCE) at Dur-Sharrukin, or Khorsabad, was the best known. Consisting of a stone foundation punctuated by seven gates, the fortress housed the emperor’s palace and a ziggurat among massive load-bearing walls with regularly spaced towers.
Despite the intended political symbolism of Assyrian superiority, these fortified walls signify preparation for an attack by enemy invaders. Among the ornamental features excavated was a monumental lamassu outside the throne room. After the death of Sargon II, the site was abandoned.
Nimrud
Lamassu figures abounded throughout the Assyrian Empire, featuring in the Northwest Palace of Ashurnasirpal II (reigned 883-859 BCE) at Nimrud. Reconstructions show that they adorned the gateways of the palace, including an entrance marked by a round arch . According to contemporaneous inscriptions, the palace consisted of wood from a diverse number of tree species, alabaster , limestone , and a variety of precious metals. As with Dur-Sharrukin, the palace of Ashurnasirpal II was surrounded by fortified load-bearing walls.
Balawat Gates
Builders increasingly used wood, particularly cedar and cypress, in architecture. As a result, much of the architecture has decayed, leaving archaeologists to produce reconstructions for present-day scholars. One example is the Balawat Gates, from the Assyrian outpost of Balawat, or Imgur-Enlil. Two sets were commissioned during the reign of Ashurnasirpal II and one addition set under the reign of his son Shalmaneser III (859–824 BCE). Assyrian inscriptions suggest the gates were made of cedar. Experts estimate that the gates stood over 22 feet high. The metal bands that adorned the gates suggest that they measured 285 feet wide. Lacking hinges, the gates opened by turning enormous pine pillars that rotated in stone sockets. Despite the long-term fragility of wood, the scale of the gates and the mechanisms by which they opened and closed point to the political instability of the time and the need to defend all parts of the empire.
Artifacts of Assyria
Assyrian artifacts consist of a variety of media and range in size from hand-held to monumental.
Discuss artifacts that have been found from Assyria
Key Points
- The Assyrian Lion Weights and the Statue of Ashurnasirpal II represent rare examples of surviving Assyrian sculpture in the round .
- The Assyrian Lion Weights represent the importance of weights and measures and accommodation of more than one language.
- The Statue of Ashurnasirpal II, the lamassu reliefs , and the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III provide examples of art rich in political and religious symbolism .
- The Statue of Ashurnasirpal II and the lamassu reliefs provide examples of royal hairstyles and beard lengths.
Key Terms
- stylized :Art that is not naturalistic, yet not distorted enough to be abstract.
- sculpture in the round :A free-standing object that is usually meant to be viewed from multiple angles.
- relief :A sculpture that projects from a background.
- Obelisk :Four-sided monument that tapers with height and is usually capped by a pyramidal form.
- register :A usually horizontal band on an artwork that divides designs into logical patterns.
- bas relief :A sculpture with minimal projection from its background.
Artifacts produced during the Assyrian Empire range from hand-held to monumental and consist of a variety of media , from clay to bronze to a diversity of stone. While reliefs comprise the majority of what archaeologists have found, existing sculptures in the round shed light on Assyrian numerical systems and politics.
Assyrian Lion Weights
The Assyrian Lion Weights (800-700 BCE) are a group of solid bronze weights that range from two centimeters (approximately 0.8 inches) to 30 centimeters (approximately 12 inches). Admired as sculptures in the round today, the weights represent one of only two systems of weights and measures in the region at the time. This system was based on heavy mina (about one kilogram) and was used for weighting metals. Additionally, they bear inscriptions in Assyrian cuneiform and Phoenician script, indicating use by speakers of both languages. Eight lions in the set bear the only known inscriptions from the reign of Shalmaneser V (reigned 727-722 BCE).
Statue of Ashurnasirpal II
This magnesite (magnesium carbonate) sculpture of Ashurnasirpal II (9th century BCE) serves as a rare example of sculpture in the round produced during the Assyrian Empire. The kings stands stiffly with a sickle in his right hand (at his side) and a mace in his left, which he holds to his torso. Both objects are symbolic; the sickle was used as a weapon against monsters, while the mace was a symbol of political and religious authority. The inscription on his chest announce his genealogy, titles, and military triumphs. Although the sculpture is stylized , it gives the viewer a glimpse into fashion norms for rulers at the time. The length of the king’s hair and beard set him apart from commoners, who would have found such styles impractical.
Lamassu
The lamassu was a mythological guardian figure with large wings, the head of a human, and the body of a lion or a bull. Originally a protective spirit to the households of Babylonian commoners, the lamassu was later adopted by Assyrian royalty to protect political and religious interests. In Assyrian sculpture, lamassu figures bear similar beards and hairstyles to those of Ashurnasirpal II in the sculpture discussed above. These monumental sculptures usually appeared in relief form in pairs at major entrances to cities, palaces, or fortresses. Each lamassu directed its gaze toward one of the cardinal directions, which explains why some look straight ahead and others have their heads turned.
Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III
Erected during a time of civil war (825 BCE), the limestone Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III is the most intact Assyrian obelisk found to date. Each side consists of five registers of bas reliefs that celebrate the achievements of King Shalmaneser III (reigned 858-824 BCE). Three registers on each side focus on conquered kings from specific regions paying tribute to the Assyrian ruler. The registers at the top and bottom of each side bear an inscription from the annals of Shalmaneser III, celebrating his annual military campaigns.
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