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20231101.en_13222137_13
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wissenschaftlicher%20Katholischer%20Studentenverein%20Unitas%20Stolzenfels%20zu%20Bonn
|
Wissenschaftlicher Katholischer Studentenverein Unitas Stolzenfels zu Bonn
|
A bundle of arrows (the arrows represent Amicitia, the friendship in the fraternity meaning that the community is strong and cannot be broken like a single arrow)
|
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20231101.en_13222137_14
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wissenschaftlicher%20Katholischer%20Studentenverein%20Unitas%20Stolzenfels%20zu%20Bonn
|
Wissenschaftlicher Katholischer Studentenverein Unitas Stolzenfels zu Bonn
|
An owl (Representing Scientia, meaning science and education. Sometimes sitting on a book or completely replaced by a book. The owl also sometimes sits on top of the coat of arms.)
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222137_15
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wissenschaftlicher%20Katholischer%20Studentenverein%20Unitas%20Stolzenfels%20zu%20Bonn
|
Wissenschaftlicher Katholischer Studentenverein Unitas Stolzenfels zu Bonn
|
As a sign of membership in every fraternity a needle is affixed to the collar of every new member at their official reception into the fraternity. The new member is now a "Fux". "Füxe" can look into the fraternity for one year and then decide to become lifelong members ("Burschen") or to leave the fraternity.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222142_0
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio%20equipment%20testing
|
Audio equipment testing
|
Audio equipment testing is the measurement of audio quality through objective and/or subjective means. The results of such tests are published in journals, magazines, whitepapers, websites, and in other media.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222142_1
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio%20equipment%20testing
|
Audio equipment testing
|
Those who test and evaluate equipment can be roughly divided into two groups: "Objectivists", who believe that all perceivable differences in audio equipment can be explained scientifically through measurement and double-blind listening tests; and the "Subjectivists", who believe that the human ear is capable of hearing details and differences that cannot be directly measured.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222142_2
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio%20equipment%20testing
|
Audio equipment testing
|
Disagree that subjective listeners can overcome placebo and confirmation bias in non-blind listening tests.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222142_3
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio%20equipment%20testing
|
Audio equipment testing
|
Objectivists believe that audio components and systems must pass rigorously conducted double-blind tests and meet specified performance requirements in order to validate the claims made by their proponents.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222142_4
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio%20equipment%20testing
|
Audio equipment testing
|
Objectivists point out that properly conducted and interpreted double-blind tests fail to support subjectivists' claims of significant or even subtle sonic differences between devices in cases where measurements predict that there should be no sonic differences in normal music listening.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222142_5
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio%20equipment%20testing
|
Audio equipment testing
|
Objectivists feel that subjectivists often lack engineering training, technical knowledge, and objective credentials, but nevertheless make authoritative claims about product performance.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222142_6
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio%20equipment%20testing
|
Audio equipment testing
|
Objectivists are likely to stress the importance of accounting for the influence of placebo and confirmation bias in subjective listening tests .
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222142_7
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio%20equipment%20testing
|
Audio equipment testing
|
Objectivists reject arguments that are based on accepted physical principles but applied to circumstances where they are irrelevant. For instance, the skin effect, which relates the efficiency of cables to the frequency transmitted, is often applied to audio frequencies where it is insignificant .
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222142_8
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio%20equipment%20testing
|
Audio equipment testing
|
Objectivists believe that subjectivists' preferences are often driven by gullibility and fashion—e.g., the late eighties' vogue for marking the edges of CDs with a green felt marker or suspending cables above the floor on small racks—and bear no relation to well-known laws of physics.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222142_9
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio%20equipment%20testing
|
Audio equipment testing
|
Objectivists claim that subjectivists often reject attempts to notate differences in sound using objective measurements, despite the evidence of their effectiveness.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222142_10
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio%20equipment%20testing
|
Audio equipment testing
|
Because measured audio distortion is higher in electromechanical components such as microphones, turntables, tonearms, phono cartridges, and loudspeakers than in purely electronic components such as preamplifiers and power amplifiers, objectivists generally do not accept that very subtle differences in the latter can have an appreciable effect on the perceived quality of reproduced sound.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222142_11
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio%20equipment%20testing
|
Audio equipment testing
|
British audio equipment designer Peter Baxandall, who is often considered an objectivist, has written, "I ... confidently maintain that all first-class, competently designed amplifiers, tested under completely fair and carefully controlled conditions, including the avoidance of overloading, sound absolutely indistinguishable on normal programme material no matter how refined the listening tests, or the listeners, may be; and that when an inferior amplifier is compared with a very good one and a subjective quality difference is genuinely and reliably established, it is always possible, by straightforward scientific investigation, to find a rational explanation for this difference." Baxandall also proposed a "cancellation test", which he claimed would prove his point.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222142_12
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio%20equipment%20testing
|
Audio equipment testing
|
Subjectivist Harry Pearson, long-time editor of The Absolute Sound, an audiophile magazine, has stated:
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222142_13
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio%20equipment%20testing
|
Audio equipment testing
|
"We believe that the sound of music, unamplified, occurring in a real space is a philosophic absolute against which we may judge the performance of devices designed to reproduce music."
|
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38,
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] |
20231101.en_13222142_14
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio%20equipment%20testing
|
Audio equipment testing
|
Subjectivists rely on demonstrations and comparisons but believe there are problems in applying double-blind methods to comparisons of audio devices. They believe that a relaxing environment and sufficient time measured in days or weeks is necessary for the discriminating ear to do its work. They believe that careful individual listening is an appropriate tool for discovering the true worth of a device or treatment, and will generally acquire equipment that suits their own listening or style preferences as opposed to measurable equipment performance. They are also likely to de-emphasize or ignore the potential impact of placebo and confirmation bias on subjective listening tests.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222142_15
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio%20equipment%20testing
|
Audio equipment testing
|
Subjectivists claim that experienced listeners can be relied upon for valid advice on how equipment sounds. British Hi-fi critic, Martin Colloms, writes that "the ability to assess sound quality is not a gift, nor is it the feature of a hyperactive imagination; it is simply a learned skill", which can be acquired by example, education and practice. In any event, the eventual purchase decision will be made by the end-user, whose "perception is reality" and can be influenced by factors other than the equipment's actual performance.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222142_16
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio%20equipment%20testing
|
Audio equipment testing
|
The most significant difference between the two groups is that subjectivists claim there is a limit to what can be tested using objective measurements, while objectivists believe that since blind testing is the gold standard of all science, perceived sound quality should not be exempt from objective measurements.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222142_17
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio%20equipment%20testing
|
Audio equipment testing
|
Objectivists tend to see the subjectivists as irrational and prone to gullibility, while subjectivists often dismiss objectivists as simple "meter men" who lack a nuanced appreciation of sound.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222142_18
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio%20equipment%20testing
|
Audio equipment testing
|
Although the debate can be heated in certain quarters, both groups seek optimal listening experiences, and in some cases, the findings of one group has informed the other.
|
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34,
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] |
20231101.en_13222142_19
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio%20equipment%20testing
|
Audio equipment testing
|
Objectivists argue that vacuum-tube amplifiers often exhibit lower-fidelity than solid-state designs, and that in addition to their substantially higher total harmonic distortion level, they require rebiasing, tend to be less reliable, less powerful, generate more heat, and are usually more expensive.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222142_20
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio%20equipment%20testing
|
Audio equipment testing
|
Subjectivists are often argue that while tube electronics are less linear than solid-state electronics at high-signal levels, they are much more linear at low-signal levels (less than one watt) and that many musical signals spend much of their time at these low levels.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222142_21
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio%20equipment%20testing
|
Audio equipment testing
|
However, in cases where the subjectivists' claims can be verified by objective measure, it could not be considered a strictly "subjective" position. A more literally subjectivist argument is that listeners may be able to discern pleasurable benefits from tube equipment that would escape any attempt at objective measurement.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222142_22
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio%20equipment%20testing
|
Audio equipment testing
|
Objectivists claim that digital sound can have higher fidelity than analog sound because it lacks clicks, pops, wow, flutter, audio feedback, degradation, generational loss, and rumble, has a higher signal-to-noise ratio, has a wider dynamic range, has less total harmonic distortion, and has a flatter and more extended frequency response.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222142_23
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio%20equipment%20testing
|
Audio equipment testing
|
Subjectivists have argued that the process of converting a bit-stream to an analog waveform requires heavy filtering to remove spurious high-frequency information and that it should be expected that such filtering should involve some signal degradation and a large amount of phase shift in the passband. They point out that commonly used consumer-grade digital-to-analog converters (DACs) exhibit poor linearity at low levels.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222142_24
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio%20equipment%20testing
|
Audio equipment testing
|
Both of these problems have since been verified by objective measure, and were then addressed by such solutions as digital filtering, oversampling, and the use of DACs operating at 20-bit (or higher) resolution.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222142_25
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio%20equipment%20testing
|
Audio equipment testing
|
Today, many objectivists and subjectivists may agree that a preference for analog formats is often rooted in pleasing and familiar distortions and artifacts. At the same time, members of both camps might also agree that the best historical analog formats have often displayed great levels of audio fidelity as well.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222142_26
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio%20equipment%20testing
|
Audio equipment testing
|
Musician Neil Young is a harsh critic of the sound of the original CD format, but has expressed approval for the sound of higher definition formats such as SACD, which he believes has a greater safety margin between its ideal behavior and the theoretical limits of human hearing.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222142_27
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio%20equipment%20testing
|
Audio equipment testing
|
However, many independent listening tests and mathematical studies have shown that Young's assertions are basically untrue. Regardless, in 2011, Neil Young filed paperwork to trademark his own developing high-resolution audio player.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222142_28
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio%20equipment%20testing
|
Audio equipment testing
|
Objectivists and Subjectivist were once at odds about the importance of total harmonic distortion. Both groups now seem to agree that the distribution of harmonic distortion can be important in perceived sound quality. This is another case where subjective opinion was eventually verified by objective measure, and taken into account by objectivist engineers.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222142_29
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio%20equipment%20testing
|
Audio equipment testing
|
Although this is no longer technically a point of contention, objectivists may be more likely to stress the importance of reducing total harmonic distortion in a system, while subjectivists may more often stress the importance on creating a more pleasing distribution of harmonic distortion.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222142_30
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio%20equipment%20testing
|
Audio equipment testing
|
It is difficult, but very important, to match sound levels before comparing systems, as minute increases in loudness—more than 0.15 dB or 0.1 dB—have been demonstrated to cause perceived improvements in sound quality.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222142_31
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio%20equipment%20testing
|
Audio equipment testing
|
Listening tests are subjected to many variables, and results are notoriously unreliable. Thomas Edison, for example, showed that large audiences responded favorably when presented both live performances by artists and reproductions by his recording system, which today would be regarded as primitive in quality.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222142_32
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio%20equipment%20testing
|
Audio equipment testing
|
Similarly, results of component evaluation between various listeners or even the same listener under different circumstances cannot be easily replicated or standardized.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222142_33
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio%20equipment%20testing
|
Audio equipment testing
|
Similarly, the acoustic behavior of the listening room—the interaction between loudspeakers and the room's acoustics—and the interaction between an electromechanical device (loudspeaker) and an electronic device (amplifier) are subjected to many more variables than between electronic components. Thus the "difference" in sound quality between amplifiers is actually the ability of an amplifier to interface well with loudspeakers or a lucky combination of loudspeaker, amplifier, and room that works well together.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222142_34
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio%20equipment%20testing
|
Audio equipment testing
|
The introduction of switching apparatus, with either metal connection (mechanical switches) or electronic processing (solid-state switches), may, some believe, obscure the differences between the two signal sources being tested.
|
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-24
] |
20231101.en_13222142_35
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio%20equipment%20testing
|
Audio equipment testing
|
Skepticism advocate James Randi has offered a $1 million prize to subjectivists who can prove their most dubious claims through scientific blind testing. The prize remains unclaimed.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222142_36
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio%20equipment%20testing
|
Audio equipment testing
|
The Audio Critic - Thirty-year publication, now online only, with in-depth independent verification of vendors' claims.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222142_37
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio%20equipment%20testing
|
Audio equipment testing
|
Stereophile - Largest, oldest, and most read subjectivist magazine includes online reviews and articles.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222175_0
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Au%20Kin-yee
|
Au Kin-yee
|
She is a long-time screenwriter for films directed by Johnnie To and/or Wai Ka-Fai of Milkyway Image and frequently works alongside writers Wai Ka-Fai, Yau Nai-Hoi and Yip Tin-Shing.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222202_0
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire%20Down%20Below
|
Fire Down Below
|
Fire Down Below (novel), a novel by William Golding and final part of the trilogy To the Ends of the Earth
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222202_1
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire%20Down%20Below
|
Fire Down Below
|
"Fire Down Below", a song written by bassist Jerry Scheff for Elvis Presley; the backing track was recorded in 1976, but vocals by Presley or any other backing singers were never overdubbed.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222213_0
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscogee%20Nation
|
Muscogee Nation
|
The Muscogee Nation, or Muscogee (Creek) Nation, is a federally recognized Native American tribe based in the U.S. state of Oklahoma. The nation descends from the historic Muscogee Confederacy, a large group of indigenous peoples of the Southeastern Woodlands. Official languages include Muscogee, Yuchi, Natchez, Alabama, and Koasati, with Muscogee retaining the largest number of speakers. They commonly refer to themselves as Este Mvskokvlke (). Historically, they were often referred to by European Americans as one of the Five Civilized Tribes of the American Southeast.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222213_1
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscogee%20Nation
|
Muscogee Nation
|
The Muscogee Nation is the largest of the federally recognized Muscogee tribes. The Muskogean-speaking Alabama, Koasati, Hitchiti, and Natchez people are also enrolled in this nation. Algonquian-speaking Shawnee and Yuchi (language isolate) are also enrolled in the Muscogee Nation, although historically, the latter two groups were from different language families and cultures than the Muscogee.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222213_2
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscogee%20Nation
|
Muscogee Nation
|
Other federally recognized Muscogee groups include the Alabama-Quassarte Tribal Town, Kialegee Tribal Town, and Thlopthlocco Tribal Town of Oklahoma; the Coushatta Tribe of Louisiana, the Alabama-Coushatta Tribe of Texas, and the Poarch Band of Creek Indians in Alabama.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222213_3
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscogee%20Nation
|
Muscogee Nation
|
The Muscogee Nation is headquartered in Okmulgee, Oklahoma, and serves as the seat of tribal government. The Muscogee Nation's Reservation status was affirmed in 2020 by the decision of the United States Supreme Court in Sharp v. Murphy, which held that the allotted Muscogee Nation reservation in Oklahoma has not been disestablished and therefore retains jurisdiction over tribal citizens in Creek, Hughes, Okfuskee, Okmulgee, McIntosh, Muskogee, Tulsa, and Wagoner counties in Oklahoma.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222213_4
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscogee%20Nation
|
Muscogee Nation
|
The government of the Muscogee Nation is divided into three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial. Okmulgee is the capital of the Muscogee Nation and also serves as the seat of government.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222213_5
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscogee%20Nation
|
Muscogee Nation
|
The Executive branch is led by the Principal Chief, Second Chief, Tribal Administrator, and Secretary of the Nation. The Principal Chief and Second Chief are democratically elected every four years. Citizens cast ballots for both the Principal Chief and Second Chief as they are elected individually. The Principal Chief then chooses staff; some of which must be confirmed by the legislative branch known as The National Council. The current members of the executive branch are as follows:
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222213_6
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscogee%20Nation
|
Muscogee Nation
|
The legislative branch is the National Council and consists of sixteen members elected to represent the 8 districts within the tribe's jurisdictional area. National Council representatives draft and sponsor the laws and resolutions of the Nation. The eight districts include: Creek, Tulsa, Wagoner, Okfuskee, Muskogee, Okmulgee, McIntosh, and Tukvpvtce (Hughes).
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222213_7
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscogee%20Nation
|
Muscogee Nation
|
Under the inherent sovereign authority of the Mvskoke Nation, the Nation's citizens ratified the modern Mvskoke Nation Constitution on October 6, 1979. The Supreme Court was re-established by Article VII. The Court is vested with exclusive appellate jurisdiction over all civil and criminal matters that fall under Mvskoke jurisdiction and serves as the final interpretive authority on Mvskoke law. The Court consists of seven justices who serve six-year terms after nomination by the Principal Chief and confirmation by the National Council. Annually, the Court selects from its members a Chief Justice and Vice-Chief Justice. The Justices are as follows:
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222213_8
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscogee%20Nation
|
Muscogee Nation
|
The Muscogee Nation also has its own Bar Association, referred to as the M(C)N Bar Association. The Board members include President Shelly Harrison, Vice President Clinton A. Wilson, and Secretary/Treasurer Greg Meier. The M(C)N Bar Association has Facebook and Twitter accounts for members to stay connected.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222213_9
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscogee%20Nation
|
Muscogee Nation
|
In 2019, the total population of Muscogee citizens was 87,344. Oklahoma accounted for 65,070 of this population, with California accounting for 4,787 and Texas with some 4,466 citizens. Tulsa, Oklahoma, was the city most populated with citizens at 11,194. The population is split exactly in half, 50% of the citizens are female and 50% are male, with the age range of 18-54 dominating. The criteria for Citizenship are to be Creek by Blood and trace back to a direct ancestor listed on the 1906 Dawes Roll by issuance of birth and/or death certificates. The Citizenship Board office is governed by a Citizenship Board consisting of five members. This office provides services to citizens of the Muscogee Nation of Oklahoma or to potential citizens in giving direction or assisting in the lineage verification process of the Muscogee people. The mission of this office is to verify the lineage of descendants of persons listed on the 1906 Dawes Roll. In doing so, research is involved in the whole aspect of attaining citizenship. The Director of the Citizenship Board is Nathan Wilson.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222213_10
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscogee%20Nation
|
Muscogee Nation
|
A 2023 Muscogee court ruling found that descendants of black slaves held by Muscogee nation members can be granted citizenship in the nation.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222213_11
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscogee%20Nation
|
Muscogee Nation
|
The Nation operates its own division of housing and issues vehicle license plates. Their Division of Health contracts with Indian Health Services to maintain the Creek Nation Community Hospital and several community clinics, a vocational rehabilitation program, nutrition programs for children and the elderly, and programs dedicated to diabetes, tobacco prevention, and caregivers.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222213_12
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscogee%20Nation
|
Muscogee Nation
|
The Muscogee Nation operates the Lighthorse Tribal Police Department, with 43 active employees. The tribe has its own program for enforcing child support payments.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222213_13
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscogee%20Nation
|
Muscogee Nation
|
The Mvskoke Food Sovereignty Initiative is sponsored by the nation. It educates and encourages tribal members to grow their own traditional foods for health, environmental sustainability, economic development, and sharing of knowledge and community between generations.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222213_14
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscogee%20Nation
|
Muscogee Nation
|
The Muscogee Nation also operates a Communications Department that produces a twice-monthly newspaper, the Mvskoke News, and a weekly television show, the Native News Today.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222213_15
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscogee%20Nation
|
Muscogee Nation
|
The tribe operates a budget in excess of $290 million, has more than 4,000 employees, and provides services within their jurisdiction.
|
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31
] |
20231101.en_13222213_16
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscogee%20Nation
|
Muscogee Nation
|
The tribe has both gaming (casino related) and non-gaming businesses. Non-gaming business ventures include both Muscogee Nation Business Enterprise (MNBE) and Onefire. MNBE and Onefire oversee economic development as well as investigating, planning, organizing and operating business ventures projects for the tribe related to non-gaming business. Gaming enterprises consist of 9 stand alone casinos; the largest being River Spirit Casino Resort featuring Margaritaville in Tulsa. The revenue from both gaming and non-gaming business are reinvested to develop new businesses, as well as support the welfare of the tribe.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222213_17
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscogee%20Nation
|
Muscogee Nation
|
The Creek National Capitol, also known as the Council House, was built in 1878 and is located on a landscaped city block in downtown Okmulgee. Exterior walls of the symmetrical Italianate building are constructed of rough-faced sandstone in a coarse ashlar pattern with paired brackets at the cornice. The building measures 100 by 80 feet with two identical entrances on both the north and south elevations. A bracketed porch with a balcony above covers each entrance and 6-over-6, double-hung sash windows line the exterior walls. The hipped roof is crowned with a square wooden cupola, which originally housed bells to call tribal leaders to meetings. The inside of the building is centrally divided by a stair hall, creating an east and west side. The stairs lead to a similarly divided second story. The House of Warriors had a large meeting room on the east side, while the House of Kings had a meeting room, referred to as the Supreme Court Room, on the west side. The capitol served as a meeting place for the legislative branches of the Muscogee Nation until 1907, when Oklahoma became a state. Tribal business in the capitol ended in 1908, when Congress authorized the possession of tribal lands, effectively ceasing tribal sovereignty. From the time of statehood to 1916, the Council House served as the Okmulgee County Courthouse. In 1926, Oklahoma Native Will Rogers visited Okmulgee to entertain a crowd of nearly 2,000. While doing so, he said that it was important to maintain buildings like the Creek National Capitol, since people were speculating on what they would use the Capitol for now that its legislative use had expired. His words had an impact, considering the building is still standing to this day. Since then, the building has served as a sheriff’s office, Boy Scout meeting room, and a YMCA. In 1961, the building was designated as a National Historic Landmark. By 1979, tribal sovereignty had been fully renewed and the Muscogee adopted a new constitution. The Creek Council House underwent a full restoration in 1989–1992 and reopened as a museum operated by the City of Okmulgee and the Creek Indian Memorial Association. In 2010, the Muscogee Nation purchased the building back from the City of Okmulgee for $3.2 million. It now serves as a museum of tribal history, which is open to the public and exhibits Native American History and culture.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222213_18
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscogee%20Nation
|
Muscogee Nation
|
In 2004, the Muscogee Nation founded a tribal college in Okmulgee, the College of the Muscogee Nation (CMN), one of only 38 Tribal Colleges in the US. CMN is a two-year institution, offering associate degrees in Tribal Services, Police Science, Gaming, and Native American Studies. It offers Mvskoke language, Native American History, Tribal Government, and Indian Land Issue classes as well. The CMN offers financial aid through FAFSA and offers on-campus housing. For the spring trimester in 2018, individual student enrollment was 197. A needs assessment survey revealed that a majority of Muscogee citizens were interested in attending the tribal college. Of 386 tribal citizens from the 8 districts, 86% of those were interested in attending college responded that they would attend a tribal college. When asked if they had others in their family who were interested in attending a tribal college 25% of the survey sample responded yes.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222213_19
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscogee%20Nation
|
Muscogee Nation
|
The nation includes the Muscogee people and descendants of their African-descended slaves who were forced by the US government to relocate from their ancestral homes in the Southeast to Indian Territory in the 1830s, during the Trail of Tears. They signed another treaty with the federal government in 1856.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222213_20
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscogee%20Nation
|
Muscogee Nation
|
During the American Civil War, the tribe split into two factions, one allied with the Confederacy and the other, under Opothleyahola, allied with the Union. There were conflicts between pro-Confederate and pro-Union forces in the Indian Territory during the war. The pro-Confederate forces pursued the loyalists who were leaving to take refuge in Kansas. They fought at the Battle of Round Mountain, Battle of Chusto-Talasah, and Battle of Chustenahlah, resulting in 2,000 deaths among the 9,000 loyalists who were leaving.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222213_21
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscogee%20Nation
|
Muscogee Nation
|
After defeating the Confederacy, the Union required new peace treaties with the Five Civilized Tribes, which had allied with that insurrection. The Treaty of 1866 required the Creek to abolish slavery within their territory and to grant tribal citizenship to those Creek Freedmen who chose to stay in the territory; this citizenship was to include voting rights and shares of annuities and land allotments. If the Creek Freedmen moved out to United States territory, they would be granted United States citizenship, as were other emancipated African Americans.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222213_22
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscogee%20Nation
|
Muscogee Nation
|
The Muscogee established a new government in 1866 and selected a new capital of Okmulgee. In 1867 they ratified a new constitution to incorporate elements of the new peace treaty, and their own desire for changes.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222213_23
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscogee%20Nation
|
Muscogee Nation
|
They built their capitol building in 1867 and enlarged it in 1878. Today the Creek National Capitol is a National Historic Landmark. It now houses the Creek Council House Museum, as more space was needed for the government. During the prosperous final decades of the 19th century, when the tribe had autonomy and minimal interference from the federal government, the Nation built schools, churches, and public houses.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222213_24
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscogee%20Nation
|
Muscogee Nation
|
At the turn of the century, Congress passed the 1898 Curtis Act, which dismantled tribal governments in another federal government attempt to assimilate the Native American people. The related Dawes Allotment Act required the break-up of communal tribal landholdings to allot land to individual households. This was intended to encourage adoption of the European-American style of subsistence farming and property ownership. It also was a means to extinguish Native American land claims and prepare for admitting Indian Territory and Oklahoma Territory as a state, which took place in 1907.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222213_25
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscogee%20Nation
|
Muscogee Nation
|
The government declared that communal land remaining after allotments to existing households was "surplus". It was classified as excess and made available for sale to non-Natives. This resulted in the Muscogee and other tribes losing control over much of their former lands.
|
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8
] |
20231101.en_13222213_26
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscogee%20Nation
|
Muscogee Nation
|
In the hasty process of registration, the Dawes Commission registered tribal members in three categories: they distinguished among "Creek by Blood" and "Creek Freedmen," a category where they listed anyone with visible African ancestry, regardless of their proportion of Muscogee ancestry; and "Intermarried Whites." The process was so confused that some members of the same families of Freedmen were classified into different groups. The 1906 Five Civilized Tribes Act (April 26, 1906) was passed by the US Congress in anticipation of approving statehood for Oklahoma in 1907. During this time, the Muscogee had lost more than to non-Native settlers and the US government.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222213_27
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscogee%20Nation
|
Muscogee Nation
|
Later, when Muscogee communities organized and set up governments under the 1936 Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act, some former Muscogee tribal towns reorganized that were in former Indian Territory and the Southeast. Some descendants had remained there and preserved cultural continuity. Others reorganized and gained recognition later in the 20th century. The following Muscogee groups have gained federal recognition as tribes: the Alabama-Quassarte Tribal Town, Kialegee Tribal Town, and Thlopthlocco Tribal Town of Oklahoma; the Coushatta Tribe of Louisiana, the Alabama-Coushatta Tribe of Texas, and the Poarch Band of Creeks in Alabama.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222213_28
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscogee%20Nation
|
Muscogee Nation
|
The Muscogee Nation did not reorganize its government and regain federal recognition until 1970. This was an era of increasing Native American activism across the country. In 1979 the tribe ratified a new constitution that replaced the 1866 constitution. The pivotal 1976 court case Harjo v. Kleppe helped end US federal paternalism. It ushered in an era of growing self-determination. Using the Dawes Rolls as a basis for determining membership of descendants, the Nation has enrolled more than 58,000 members, descendants of the allottees.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222213_29
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscogee%20Nation
|
Muscogee Nation
|
From 1981 to 2001, the Muscogee had membership rules that allowed applicants to use a variety of documentary sources to establish qualifications for membership.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222213_30
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscogee%20Nation
|
Muscogee Nation
|
In 1979 the Muscogee Nation Constitutional Convention voted to limit citizenship in the Nation to persons who could prove descent by blood, meaning that members had to be able to document direct descent from an ancestor listed on the Dawes Commission roll in the category of "Creek by Blood". Persons proving they are descended from persons listed as Creek by blood can become citizens of the Muscogee Nation. The 1893 registry was established to identify citizens of the nation at the time of allotment of communal lands and dissolution of the reservation system and tribal government.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222213_31
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscogee%20Nation
|
Muscogee Nation
|
The 1979 vote on citizenship excluded descendants of persons recorded only as Creek Freedmen in the Dawes Rolls. This decision has been challenged in court by those descendants, according to the 1866 treaty of "Creek Freedmen."
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222213_32
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscogee%20Nation
|
Muscogee Nation
|
The Freedmen were listed on the Dawes Rolls. Some descendants can prove by documentation in other registers that they had ancestors with Muscogee blood. The Freedmen had been listed on a separate register, regardless of their proportion of Muscogee ancestry. This classification did not acknowledge the unions and intermarriage that had taken place for years between the ethnic groups. Prior to the change in code, Muscogee Freedmen could use existing registers and the preponderance of evidence to establish qualification for citizenship, and were to be aided by the Citizenship Board. The Muscogee Freedmen have challenged their exclusion from citizenship in legal actions which are pending.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222213_33
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscogee%20Nation
|
Muscogee Nation
|
Ernest Childers (1918–2005), lieutenant colonel in the U.S. Army during World War II and the first Native American to be awarded a Medal of Honor during that war
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222213_34
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscogee%20Nation
|
Muscogee Nation
|
Shelly Crow (1948–2011), first woman to serve in the executive branch of the National Council, as Second Chief
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222213_35
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscogee%20Nation
|
Muscogee Nation
|
William Harjo LoneFight (b. 1966), author, President of Native American Services, languages and cultural activist
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222213_36
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscogee%20Nation
|
Muscogee Nation
|
Grant-Lee Phillips (born 1963), alternative Americana singer-songwriter and founder-songwriter of Grant Lee Buffalon
|
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20231101.en_13222213_37
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscogee%20Nation
|
Muscogee Nation
|
Allie P. Reynolds (1917-1994), professional baseball player for the Cleveland Indians and New York Yankees, businessman
|
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20231101.en_13222213_38
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscogee%20Nation
|
Muscogee Nation
|
Will Sampson (1933–1987), film actor, noted for performance in One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (1978)
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222213_39
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscogee%20Nation
|
Muscogee Nation
|
France Winddance Twine (born 1960), professor of sociology at the University of California, Santa Barbara
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222213_40
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscogee%20Nation
|
Muscogee Nation
|
Stella Mason (unknown–1918), she was subject to a known lawsuit, highlighting a pattern of abuse against freedmen among the Five Civilized Tribes
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222213_41
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscogee%20Nation
|
Muscogee Nation
|
Innes, Pamela. "Creek in the West." William C. Sturtevant, editor. Handbook of North American Indians: Volume 14, Southeast. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution, 2004. .
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222218_0
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batten%20Kill
|
Batten Kill
|
The Batten Kill, Battenkill, or Battenkill River is a river rising in Vermont that flows into New York and is a tributary of the Hudson River. It is the longest Hudson tributary on that river's east. As "kill" means a creek, the name "Battenkill River" is pleonastic.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222218_1
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batten%20Kill
|
Batten Kill
|
The mouth of the Batten Kill is in Easton, New York, and the source of the river is in East Dorset, Vermont.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222218_2
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batten%20Kill
|
Batten Kill
|
The river is known for its fishing, as it has a prominent trout population. The Shushan Covered Bridge crosses it at one point, and the headquarters of the Orvis Corporation are also located along its course.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222218_3
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batten%20Kill
|
Batten Kill
|
The Batten Kill valley is home to the Tour of the Battenkill, the largest road cycling race in North America.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222218_4
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batten%20Kill
|
Batten Kill
|
The Batten Kill rises in East Dorset, Vermont, and flows south, with Mad Tom Brook soon joining it from the southern slope of Mount Tabor. It flows in a southwesterly direction to Arlington and then in a westerly direction, entering New York. The river continues west, forming the boundary between the towns of Jackson and Salem, turning north at the hamlet of Shushan. Turning west again at Greenwich Junction, the river becomes the boundary between Jackson and the town of Greenwich, passing the hamlets of East Greenwich, Battenville and Center Falls before reaching the village of Greenwich. The Batten Kill continues as the boundary between Greenwich and the town of Easton, past the hamlet of Middle Falls and ends at the Hudson River, at a point one mile (1.6 km) north of Schuylerville.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222218_5
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batten%20Kill
|
Batten Kill
|
From source to mouth following the major windings, the river measures . The length of the river in Vermont is approximately .
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222218_6
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batten%20Kill
|
Batten Kill
|
The Vermont portion of the Batten Kill watershed drains much of the northern portion of Bennington County and includes an area of approximately . The New York portion of the watershed covers .
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222218_7
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batten%20Kill
|
Batten Kill
|
The Vermont portion of the Batten Kill watershed is mountainous, steep and heavily forested. The tributaries are, for the most part, wooded, steep and narrow. National Forest Service land in this watershed is almost . The average yearly rainfall over the entire basin area is . The following river and tributary descriptions for the Vermont portion of the basin were taken in part from the United States Geological Survey publication Surface Waters of Vermont.
|
[
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] |
20231101.en_13222218_8
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batten%20Kill
|
Batten Kill
|
Mad Tom Brook rises on the southern slope of Mount Tabor in the northwestern part of the town of Peru at an altitude of above sea level. It flows southward and south-westward to East Dorset where it joins the beginning of the Batten Kill from the north. Its length is about , and its fall is about .
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222218_9
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batten%20Kill
|
Batten Kill
|
The West Branch rises on the northern slope of Bear Mountain in the southeastern part of the town of Rupert at an altitude of about above sea level. It flows eastward about , then turns and flows southeastward to near Manchester Center. The West Branch has a length of about and a fall of , of which occurs in the first .
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222218_10
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batten%20Kill
|
Batten Kill
|
Bourn Brook rises in Bourn Pond in the northeastern part of the town of Sunderland at an altitude of above sea level. It flows somewhat east of north for about and then takes a northwesterly course to its junction with the Batten Kill half a mile south of Manchester Center. Its length is about and fall about of which of drop occurs within in the middle of its course.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222218_11
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batten%20Kill
|
Batten Kill
|
Lye Brook rises in Lye Brook Meadows in the northeastern part of Sunderland at an elevation of above sea level. It flows in a northerly direction about , then turns abruptly and flows southwestward to its junction with the Batten Kill. Its length is , and its fall is , of which occurs in the northward flowing stretch.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222218_12
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batten%20Kill
|
Batten Kill
|
Mill Brook rises near the center of Sunderland at an altitude of above sea level and flows southwestward, westward and northwestward to its junction with the Batten Kill at Sunderland. Its length is approximately and its fall about , of which occurs within of the head of the stream.
|
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] |
20231101.en_13222218_13
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batten%20Kill
|
Batten Kill
|
The Green River flows generally southward from its source, west of Manchester, passing through Sandgate, above sea level and winding to its junction with the Batten Kill on the south side of State Route 313 at West Arlington.
|
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-42,
-14,
-15,
-1,
2,
17,
9,
-19,
0,
33,
16,
-33,
-20,
-19,
-35,
-15,
20,
-6,
-10,
-52,
15,
5,
15,
11,
10,
-10,
26,
-1,
-6,
-19,
28,
-26,
-1,
54,
-38,
-1,
14,
-5,
35,
-20,
-41,
0,
-31,
-31,
-1,
-9,
34,
2,
2,
-23,
-17,
-1,
45,
-24,
-17,
-3,
20,
27,
-47,
-25,
-35,
-31,
-15,
-12,
29,
-16,
-19,
-11
] |
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