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20231101.en_47664587_8
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photogeochemistry
|
Photogeochemistry
|
After several decades of experiments centered around the reduction of carbon dioxide, interest began to spread to other light-induced reactions involving naturally occurring materials. These experiments usually focused on reactions analogous to known biological processes, such as soil nitrification, for which the photochemical counterpart "photonitrification" was first reported in 1930.
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] |
20231101.en_47664587_9
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photogeochemistry
|
Photogeochemistry
|
Photogeochemical reactions may be classified based on thermodynamics and/or the nature of the materials involved. In addition, when ambiguity exists regarding an analogous reaction involving light and living organisms (phototrophy), the term "photochemical" may be used to distinguish a particular abiotic reaction from the corresponding photobiological reaction. For example, "photooxidation of iron(II)" can refer to either a biological process driven by light (phototrophic or photobiological iron oxidation) or a strictly chemical, abiotic process (photochemical iron oxidation). Similarly, an abiotic process that converts water to O2 under the action of light may be designated "photochemical oxidation of water" rather than simply "photooxidation of water", in order to distinguish it from photobiological oxidation of water potentially occurring in the same environment (by algae, for example).
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] |
20231101.en_47664587_10
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photogeochemistry
|
Photogeochemistry
|
Photogeochemical reactions are described by the same principles used to describe photochemical reactions in general, and may be classified similarly:
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664587_11
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photogeochemistry
|
Photogeochemistry
|
Photosynthesis: in the most general sense, photosynthesis refers to any light-activated reaction for which the change in free energy (ΔGo) is positive for the reaction itself (without considering the presence of a catalyst or light). The products have higher energy than the reactants, and therefore the reaction is thermodynamically unfavorable, except through the action of light in conjunction with a catalyst. Examples of photosynthetic reactions include the splitting of water to form H2 and O2, the reaction of CO2 and water to form O2 and reduced carbon compounds such as methanol and methane, and the reaction of N2 with water to yield NH3 and O2.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664587_12
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photogeochemistry
|
Photogeochemistry
|
Photocatalysis: this refers to reactions that are accelerated by the presence of a catalyst (the light itself is not the catalyst as may be erroneously implied). The overall reaction has a negative change in free energy, and is therefore thermodynamically favored. Examples of photocatalytic reactions include the reaction of organic compounds with O2 to form CO2 and water, and the reaction of organic compounds with water to give H2 and CO2.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664587_13
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photogeochemistry
|
Photogeochemistry
|
Uncatalyzed photoreactions: photoinduced or photoactivated reactions proceed via the action of light alone. For example, photodegradation of organic compounds often proceeds without a catalyst if the reactants themselves absorb light.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664587_14
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photogeochemistry
|
Photogeochemistry
|
Any reaction in the domain of photogeochemistry, either observed in the environment or studied in the laboratory, may be broadly classified according to the nature of the materials involved.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664587_15
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photogeochemistry
|
Photogeochemistry
|
Reactions among naturally occurring compounds. Photogeochemistry, both observational and exploratory, is concerned with reactions among materials known to occur naturally, as this reflects what happens or may happen on Earth.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664587_16
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photogeochemistry
|
Photogeochemistry
|
Reactions in which one or more of the reactants are not known to occur naturally. Studies of reactions among materials related to naturally occurring materials may contribute to understanding of natural processes. These complementary studies are relevant to photogeochemistry in that they illustrate reactions that may have a natural counterpart. For example, it has been shown that soils, when irradiated, can generate reactive oxygen species and that clay minerals present in soils can accelerate the degradation of synthetic chemicals; it may therefore be postulated that naturally occurring compounds are similarly affected by sunlight acting on soil. The conversion of N2 to NH3 has been observed upon irradiation in the presence of the iron titanate Fe2Ti2O7. While such a compound is not known to occur naturally, it is related to ilmenite (FeTiO3) and pseudobrookite (Fe2TiO5), and can form upon heating of ilmenite; this may imply a similar reaction with N2 for the naturally occurring minerals.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664587_17
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photogeochemistry
|
Photogeochemistry
|
Direct photogeochemical catalysts act by absorbing light and subsequently transferring energy to reactants.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664587_18
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photogeochemistry
|
Photogeochemistry
|
The majority of observed photogeochemical reactions involve a mineral catalyst. Many naturally occurring minerals are semiconductors that absorb some portion of solar radiation. These semiconducting minerals are frequently transition metal oxides and sulfides and include abundant, well-known minerals such as hematite (Fe2O3), magnetite (Fe3O4), goethite and lepidocrocite (FeOOH), and pyrolusite (MnO2). Radiation of energy equal to or greater than the band gap of a semiconductor is sufficient to excite an electron from the valence band to a higher energy level in the conduction band, leaving behind an electron hole (h+); the resulting electron-hole pair is called an exciton. The excited electron and hole can reduce and oxidize, respectively, species having suitable redox potentials relative to the potentials of the valence and conduction bands. Semiconducting minerals with appropriate band gaps and appropriate band energy levels can catalyze a vast array of reactions, most commonly at mineral-water or mineral-gas interfaces.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664587_19
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photogeochemistry
|
Photogeochemistry
|
Organic compounds such as "bio-organic substances" and humic substances are also able to absorb light and act as catalysts or sensitizers, accelerating photoreactions that normally occur slowly or facilitating reactions that might not normally occur at all.
|
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-2
] |
20231101.en_47664587_20
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photogeochemistry
|
Photogeochemistry
|
Some materials, such as certain silicate minerals, absorb little or no solar radiation, but may still participate in light-driven reactions by mechanisms other than direct transfer of energy to reactants.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664587_21
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photogeochemistry
|
Photogeochemistry
|
Indirect photocatalysis may occur via the production of a reactive species which then participates in another reaction. For example, photodegradation of certain compounds has been observed in the presence of kaolinite and montmorillonite, and this may proceed via the formation of reactive oxygen species at the surface of these clay minerals. Indeed, reactive oxygen species have been observed when soil surfaces are exposed to sunlight. The ability of irradiated soil to generate singlet oxygen was found to be independent of the organic matter content, and both the mineral and organic components of soil appear to contribute to this process. Indirect photolysis in soil has been observed to occur at depths of up to 2 mm due to migration of reactive species; in contrast, direct photolysis (in which the degraded compound itself absorbs light) was restricted to a "photic depth" of 0.2 to 0.4 mm. Like certain minerals, organic matter in solution, as well as particulate organic matter, may act as an indirect catalyst via formation of singlet oxygen which then reacts with other compounds.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664587_22
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photogeochemistry
|
Photogeochemistry
|
Indirect catalysts may also act through surface sensitization of reactants, by which species sorbed to a surface become more susceptible to photodegradation.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664587_23
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photogeochemistry
|
Photogeochemistry
|
Strictly speaking, the term "catalysis" should not be used unless it can be shown that the number of product molecules produced per number of active sites is greater than one; this is difficult to do in practice, although it is often assumed to be true if there is no loss in the photoactivity of the catalyst for an extended period of time. Reactions that are not strictly catalytic may be designated "assisted photoreactions". Furthermore, phenomena that involve complex mixtures of compounds (e.g. soil) may be hard to classify unless complete reactions (not just individual reactants or products) can be identified.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664587_24
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photogeochemistry
|
Photogeochemistry
|
The great majority of photogeochemical research is performed in the laboratory, as it is easier to demonstrate and observe a particular reaction under controlled conditions. This includes confirming the identity of materials, designing reaction vessels, controlling light sources, and adjusting the reaction atmosphere. However, observation of natural phenomena often provides initial inspiration for further study. For example, during the 1970s it was generally agreed that nitrous oxide (N2O) has a short residence time in the troposphere, although the actual explanation for its removal was unknown. Since N2O does not absorb light at wavelengths greater than 280 nm, direct photolysis had been discarded as a possible explanation. It was then observed that light would decompose chloromethanes when they were absorbed on silica sand, and this occurred at wavelengths far above the absorption spectra for these compounds. The same phenomenon was observed for N2O, leading to the conclusion that particulate matter in the atmosphere is responsible for the destruction of N2O via surface-sensitized photolysis. Indeed, the idea of such a sink for atmospheric N2O was supported by several reports of low concentrations of N2O in the air above deserts, where there is a high amount of suspended particulate matter. As another example, the observation that the amount of nitrous acid in the atmosphere greatly increases during the day lead to insight into the surface photochemistry of humic acids and soils and an explanation for the original observation.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664587_25
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photogeochemistry
|
Photogeochemistry
|
The following table lists some reported reactions that are relevant to photogeochemical study, including reactions that involve only naturally occurring compounds as well as complementary reactions that involve synthetic but related compounds. The selection of reactions and references given is merely illustrative and may not exhaustively reflect current knowledge, especially in the case of popular reactions such as nitrogen photofixation for which there is a large body of literature. Furthermore, although these reactions have natural counterparts, the probability of encountering optimal reaction conditions may be low in some cases; for example, most experimental work concerning CO2 photoreduction is intentionally performed in the absence of O2, since O2 almost always suppresses the reduction of CO2. In natural systems, however, it is uncommon to find an analogous context where CO2 and a catalyst are reached by light but there is no O2 present.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664592_0
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syd%20Wingate
|
Syd Wingate
|
Sydney Wingate (1894 – 17 April 1953) was an English professional golfer. He twice finished in the top 10 of the Open Championship, in 1920 and 1925.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664592_1
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syd%20Wingate
|
Syd Wingate
|
Wingate was from a golfing family. His father, Frank (1872–1923), was a professional, as also were his uncles Charles and Sydney. His sister Poppy (1903–1977) was the first women to play in a professional tournament in Great Britain while his brother Roland (1896–1968) emigrated to America in 1922 and was a professional there.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664592_2
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syd%20Wingate
|
Syd Wingate
|
Wingate was born in Harborne where his father was professional at the local club. His father moved to Hornsea in 1906. After being an assistant to his father at Hornsea, he moved again with his father to Ravensworth Golf Club, Gateshead in 1913 and was then professional at Wearside Golf Club, Sunderland from 1921 to 1923. In 1924 he became the first professional at Temple Newsam Golf Club where he stayed until leaving in 1935 due to ill-health at the age of 42. He died in 1953 following a heart attack.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664592_3
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syd%20Wingate
|
Syd Wingate
|
Wingate won the Northumberland and Durham Open Championship four times in succession from 1920 to 1923 and the Yorkshire Open Championship in 1928. He was runner-up in the Leeds Cup in 1920 and a semi-finalist in the News of the World Matchplay in 1921.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664594_0
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luo%20Lan
|
Luo Lan
|
Luo Lan (; 10 October 1919 – 29 August 2015) was a Taiwanese writer and radio personality. Born Chin Pei-fen (靳佩芬) in Ninghe, Hebei, she moved to Taiwan from Tianjin in 1948. Luo was first published in 1963 and became well-known first in Taiwan, before finding the same success in China after the opening of the Three Links. Best known for an essay collection, Luo Lan Xiao Yu, she won a Golden Bell silver class special award in 1994. Luo died of cardiopulmonary failure in Taipei on 29 August 2015. She received two governmental citations during the course of her career. The first was issued by the Ministry of Education in 1979, and the second was posthumously awarded by the Ministry of Culture in 2015.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664623_0
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conor%20McKenna
|
Conor McKenna
|
Conor McKenna (born 28 March 1996) is an Irish Gaelic football and Australian rules football player. He currently plays professional Australian rules football for Brisbane Lions in the AFL. McKenna previously played Australian rules football for Essendon in the Australian Football League (AFL) and Gaelic football for Eglish St Patrick's and Tyrone. He won the All-Ireland Senior Football Championship playing for Tyrone in 2021.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664623_1
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conor%20McKenna
|
Conor McKenna
|
McKenna was born in County Tyrone, Northern Ireland, and grew up in the village of Benburb near Dungannon. There he played Gaelic football for Eglish St Patrick's and the Tyrone county team (minor level). He played a starring role in Tyrone's run to the 2012 All-Ireland Minor Football Championship Final.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664623_2
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conor%20McKenna
|
Conor McKenna
|
In December 2013, 18-year-old McKenna attracted interest from several AFL clubs when he was spotted at a talent combine in Ireland. Ten months later, on 3 October 2014, Essendon secured McKenna to a two-year deal as a Category B rookie. McKenna made his AFL debut against at the Melbourne Cricket Ground in round 22, 2015, and kicked a goal with his first kick. McKenna re-signed with Essendon at the end of 2017 with a new four-year contract.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664623_3
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conor%20McKenna
|
Conor McKenna
|
On 20 June 2020, McKenna tested positive for COVID-19. This resulted in the postponement of the match scheduled for the following day between Essendon and Melbourne. One other player was quarantined due to close contact during training. McKenna had another COVID-19 test on 22 June which was confirmed as negative in the evening of 23 June. He remained in quarantine pending a further test later in the week. During this time McKenna was subjected to an intense trial by media, abuse on social media and became a public villain in the country, treatment which provoked much criticism. Geelong footballer Zach Tuohy described the official and media abuse directed at McKenna as "disgraceful" and "outrageous". In Ireland, it was also suggested "stars of the future that may being tempted to pursue a life in the AFL Down Under, may reconsider".
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664623_4
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conor%20McKenna
|
Conor McKenna
|
On 8 September 2020, McKenna announced his retirement and return to Ireland after 79 games played. Though he had a contract until 2021, McKenna parted on good terms with the club, its representatives and supporters, stating: "I will always be grateful for Essendon's support of both myself and my family since I arrived at the club from the other side of the world at the end of 2014. I will miss my teammates and coaches and I want to thank the Bomber fans for their support across the journey too. I will always wish the boys well and hope they see success in the not too distant future". McKenna told the local ABC outlet that "the way the media works in Melbourne there doesn't seem to be [repercussions]. There's just a free-for-all to say whatever you want. If there are no repercussions, they'll just continue to do that and treat players like a piece of meat". After returning home and resuming his Gaelic football career, he told the Irish Examiner: "I think [the media] it's a very negative thing over there… No matter if it's true, they want to be the first person to say it, no matter what it is", but described an apology as not "something that I was looking for... it didn't make much difference at that stage".
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664623_5
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conor%20McKenna
|
Conor McKenna
|
The following month, McKenna made his first start for Tyrone against Donegal as the 2020 National Football League resumed after a long suspension caused by the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on Gaelic games. Donegal defender Stephen McMenamin fouled McKenna to concede a penalty in that game but Donegal won by four. In his second game McKenna scored two goals that helped relegate Mayo, in what was that county's first time to be knocked out of the top flight in 23 years.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664623_6
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conor%20McKenna
|
Conor McKenna
|
McKenna scored two goals in the 2021 All-Ireland Senior Football Championship semi-final defeat of Kerry. When Tyrone then defeated Mayo in the 2021 All-Ireland Senior Football Championship Final, McKenna became the fourth former AFL player to win the Sam Maguire Cup (and the first since Tadhg Kennelly in 2009).
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664623_7
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conor%20McKenna
|
Conor McKenna
|
McKenna confirmed his intention to resume his AFL career in 2023, signing with the Brisbane Lions ahead of the 2023 AFL season.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664623_8
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conor%20McKenna
|
Conor McKenna
|
McKenna made his Brisbane debut against Port Adelaide in Round 1, kicking one goal and racking up 20 disposals in a 54-point defeat.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664623_9
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conor%20McKenna
|
Conor McKenna
|
| || 45 || 2 || 2 || 3 || 13 || 9 || 22 || 7 || 3 || 1.0 || 1.5 || 6.5 || 4.5 || 11.0 || 3.5 || 1.5
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664623_10
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conor%20McKenna
|
Conor McKenna
|
| || 45 || 12 || 3 || 3 || 102 || 65 || 167 || 41 || 21 || 0.3 || 0.3 || 8.5 || 5.4 || 13.9 || 3.4 || 1.8
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664623_11
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conor%20McKenna
|
Conor McKenna
|
| || 45 || 19 || 5 || 1 || 207 || 115 || 322 || 69 || 29 || 0.3 || 0.1 || 10.9 || 6.1 || 16.9 || 3.6 || 1.5
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664623_12
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conor%20McKenna
|
Conor McKenna
|
| || 45 || 18 || 7 || 4 || 213 || 109 || 322 || 57 || 30 || 0.4 || 0.2 || 11.8 || 6.1 || 17.9 || 3.2 || 1.7
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664623_13
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conor%20McKenna
|
Conor McKenna
|
| || 45 || 22 || 2 || 1 || 316 || 144 || 460 || 58 || 34 || 0.1 || 0.0 || 14.4 || 6.5 || 20.9 || 2.6 || 1.5
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664628_0
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nie%20Jingjing
|
Nie Jingjing
|
Nie Jingjing (; born 1 March 1988) is a female racewalker from China. She came in fourth place in the Women's 20 kilometres walk event at the 2014 Asian Games in Incheon, South Korea and also competed in the Women's 20 kilometres walk event at the 2015 World Championships in Athletics in Beijing, China.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664629_0
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin%20Palmer
|
Kelvin Palmer
|
Kelvin Palmer (born October 23, 1990) is a professional gridiron football offensive tackle who is a free agent. He played for the Edmonton Eskimos, BC Lions and Hamilton Tiger-Cats of the Canadian Football League (CFL). Palmer played college football at Baylor University.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664629_1
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin%20Palmer
|
Kelvin Palmer
|
Palmer was placed on injured reserve by the Houston Roughnecks on February 17, 2020. He had his contract terminated when the league suspended operations on April 10, 2020.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664650_0
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rachel%20Tallent
|
Rachel Tallent
|
Rachel Tallent (born 20 February 1993) is a female racewalker from Australia. She competed in the Women's 20 kilometres walk event at the 2015 World Championships in Athletics in Beijing, China. She also competed in the 2016 Olympics, while racing with a stress reaction in her left femur. She is the sister of Olympic Champion Jared Tallent who was previously her coach.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664661_0
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education%20inequality%20in%20China
|
Education inequality in China
|
Education inequality in China exists on multiple levels, with significant disparities occurring along gender, geographical, and ethnic divides. More specifically, disparities exist in the distribution of educational resources nationwide, as well as the availability of education on levels, ranging from basic to higher education.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664661_1
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education%20inequality%20in%20China
|
Education inequality in China
|
Shortly after the Chinese Revolution of 1949, the Communist government was confronted with heavy educational disparities across the nation. In the years following the Chinese Revolution, the Chinese government attempted to address these disparities with alternating approaches, creating periods of differing emphasis on opposing educational models. The first model, based on egalitarianism, emphasizes equality across regions of varying economic wealth and development. Conversely, the second model, based on competition, emphasizes individualistic competition, rationalizing any existing educational disparities as a necessary sacrifice for national economic development.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664661_2
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education%20inequality%20in%20China
|
Education inequality in China
|
The Chinese government also focused educational policies on higher education and specialized training, leaving basic education underdeveloped throughout large parts of the country. Government funding for education was reserved for urban areas; rural communities, already at an economic disadvantage, were left to fund their own schools, exacerbating the already existing divide between urban and rural education. When collectivization policies passed in 1955, placing rural families into agricultural cooperatives that distributed income on the basis of labor hours, the importance of education dropped even further within these rural communities, and they were much less likely to fund primary education for the children of their communities.
|
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30
] |
20231101.en_47664661_3
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education%20inequality%20in%20China
|
Education inequality in China
|
Also beginning in the 1950s, the hukou system assigned the Chinese population into urban and rural regions, exacerbating continuously worsening inequalities within health, employment, housing, and education. Further complicating education policy, people of rural-hukou status are able to live and work in urban areas without changing their hukou designation. According to Xiaogang Wu's tabulation, based on figures from the 2000 Chinese Census, an estimated 33% of city residents were actually designated as rural-hukou holders.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664661_4
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education%20inequality%20in%20China
|
Education inequality in China
|
A significant shift in education finance policy occurred in 1982 with the introduction of decentralization, in which provincial governments were now individually in control of financing education within their region. The change in policy sought to capitalize on rapid income growth by funding education from non-governmental sources, and in the 1980s and 1990s, the government share of education expenditures dropped, even as total education expenditures increased. As a result, families had to pay increased tuition and fees, and schools turned to surcharges and social contributions to fund themselves. Education for children of poorer families was only attainable with state subsidies, which often did not reach the families who were most in need. Tuition and fees also increase as students move from lower to higher grade levels, so even if these poorer students were able to move through the education system, many were prevented from even completing their compulsory education by economic barriers. Additionally, this shift to a wider financial base for education also coincided with rising interprovincial inequality, significantly impairing education opportunities for children in poorly developed rural provinces.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664661_5
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education%20inequality%20in%20China
|
Education inequality in China
|
Although basic education policies remain in control of the Communist Party, increased open-mindedness shown by party authorities indicates the possibility of more substantial educational reform, in addition to recent reforms to the national college entrance examination. Although educational inequality has lessened overall, great gaps in educational attainment still exist between populations on multiple divides, affirming the need for a regional focus within reform initiatives.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664661_6
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education%20inequality%20in%20China
|
Education inequality in China
|
Although recent studies have shown reductions in gender inequality within Chinese education since the 1980s, disparities still remain across different regions of China. Studies have indicated that education in rural areas of China shows significantly greater gender disparity than education in urban areas. Since 1981, the rural illiteracy rate of females has consistently been over twice that of males, despite an overall decrease in illiteracy in rural regions.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664661_7
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education%20inequality%20in%20China
|
Education inequality in China
|
However, with rapid economic growth, the increase of parental income enables more children to obtain at least a basic education, and this greatly increases chances of girls going to school as well. Previously, it was common for parents to prioritize the education of sons over that of their daughters; with greater opportunities, the demand for female education can be easier satisfied, fueling an increase in the actual demand for female education as well.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664661_8
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education%20inequality%20in%20China
|
Education inequality in China
|
The One-child Policy in China plays an important role in the inequality of education. The One-child policy was implemented in China in 1979 to slow down the country's explosive population growth and was abolished in 2016. Before the one-child policy, parents were allowed to have more than one child and had the opportunity to display a preference toward male children; this so-called “son preference” has prevailed among most Chinese parents for centuries. However, after the One-child policy was enacted, the only-child girls were able to receive more educational opportunities because there was not as much competition for household resources as in multiple-child households. The gender inequality has improved by this One-child policy and therefore, female education opportunity has increased. The big issue on gender inequality has been improved through this policy.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664661_9
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education%20inequality%20in%20China
|
Education inequality in China
|
There are a number of factors that contribute to the existing disparities between urban and rural education, with the latter lagging far behind the former as a result of economic, social, and political disparities. In China, the household registration system separates citizens into urban residence and rural residence. The underfunding of rural schools, inadequate government efforts to provide financial aid for rural students, and the current household registration system all contribute to the urban-rural educational divide.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664661_10
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education%20inequality%20in%20China
|
Education inequality in China
|
Interprovincial inequality in school funding has increased, along with increased dependence in non-budgeted funding sources. Research indicates that the disparity between provincial primary educational expenditures per student nearly doubled between 1990 and 2000. Additionally, while overall illiteracy rates have dropped since 1980, the disparity between urban and rural illiteracy rates continued to increase, with the rural illiteracy rate double that of urban areas in 2000.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664661_11
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education%20inequality%20in%20China
|
Education inequality in China
|
Another recent problem causing regional education disparity is the migration of a large portion of China's rural population into urban areas. In many rural regions, particularly within smaller rural towns, this decrease in population also creates problems for schools. As a result, to confront drastic increases in enrollment, many schools consolidate students of multiple grade levels into multigrade classes, a practice that not only challenges teachers, but also negatively affects the quality of education that students receive.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664661_12
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education%20inequality%20in%20China
|
Education inequality in China
|
As a result of the vast numbers of rural workers migrating to the cities to find employment opportunities, many children are left behind, keeping these children in rural schools that still lag far behind their urban counterparts. For rural children who do follow their parents to urban areas, the hukou system bars them from attending urban public schools. These children often must attend private schools that charge higher tuition, even while offering subpar education.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664661_13
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education%20inequality%20in%20China
|
Education inequality in China
|
The population of China mainly consists of the Han ethnic majority, with 55 ethnic minorities accounting for around 8% of the total population. However, this small minority population accounts for almost half of China's absolute poor, highlighting the severe income inequality that exists between China's majority Han population and numerous minority groups.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664661_14
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education%20inequality%20in%20China
|
Education inequality in China
|
While overall enrollment rates have risen for both the Han Chinese population and the Chinese minority population, minority enrollment rates remain lower than that of the Han majority population. Aside from enrollment rates, ethnic disparities in education have also manifested in the form of cultural marginalization, especially with the emergence of a state-sponsored curriculum that enforces assimilation. To preserve individual cultures and languages, many ethnic groups have created multilingual school systems.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664661_15
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education%20inequality%20in%20China
|
Education inequality in China
|
The impact of education from family income mainly displays on two things, one involves the physical environment for children, and the other one is the nonphysical influence to children's growth. First of all, “under which poor households have fewer material resources and children who grow up in under‐resourced families tend to lag behind in education and other fields". Household expenditure on children's education in China is different from other countries such as United States or United Kingdom. Chinese parents attach significant importance to their children's private education investment, which includes private tutors, extracurricular classes, interest classes, and so on. Parents with higher income can provide children more training and opportunities of going to more educational institutions. However, families with less financial support are often incapable of providing these extra educational investments. Moreover, poverty affects the ability of parents to monitor their children's various need during growth and there is evidence indicating economic hardship can reduce the communication between parents and children. According to a 2011 survey, children growing under a lower income family can face more challenges from economic hardship and this makes them more likely to drop school or have emotional problems, such as a tendency for violent and crime. In China, parental income is one of the reasons that cause education inequality, and this cannot be neglected, based on its major influence on children's growth.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664661_16
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education%20inequality%20in%20China
|
Education inequality in China
|
Education heavily influences social and economic mobility, with research indicating that higher levels of parental education positively influence their children's levels of education. This connection is especially significant within rural communities, with education playing a large role in breaking the vicious cycle of poverty.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664661_17
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education%20inequality%20in%20China
|
Education inequality in China
|
However, Guangjie Ning's contrasting analysis of existing research suggests that income inequality and education equality are mutually reinforcing factors, perpetuating a vicious cycle of their own. Therefore, by Ning's logic, in accordance with the popular perception of education as a means of escape from poverty, children from poorer families theoretically need education the most, yet encounter greater economic barriers that prevent continuation of education.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664661_18
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education%20inequality%20in%20China
|
Education inequality in China
|
Currently, variations in education policy across different levels of schooling continue to contribute to educational inequality. Even within the same region, school attendance and tuition are regulated differently, often causing confusion for families new to the education system.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664661_19
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education%20inequality%20in%20China
|
Education inequality in China
|
Beginning in the early 1980s, grades 1-6 have been designated as compulsory education; it was not until the mid-1990s that grades 7-9 were also designated as compulsory. This regulation of earlier education was enhanced by the elimination of tuition for grades 1–9 in the early 2000s, and in recent years, the poor are now able to obtain subsidies for the education of their children. This system of 9 year compulsory education has been partially successful in rural areas, with regions reporting very high primary-level enrollment and completion rates. However, grades 10-12 have not been designated as compulsory, and high secondary-level dropout rates break the 9 year compulsory education cycle even earlier. Additionally, in rural areas, the tuition for public high school is comparatively higher than that of most other developing countries, further discouraging rural households from focusing their income on upper secondary education.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664661_20
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education%20inequality%20in%20China
|
Education inequality in China
|
Additionally, as a result of China's large population, college enrollment slots are still restricted in availability, with tuition so high that the costs far dwarf the income of a typical family in poverty. Recent efforts to expand college education availability, coupled with increasing emphasis on scholarships and loans, may help counter rising tuition costs (and other income-related barriers to higher education). Despite tuition challenges, more and more students have been able to graduate from college, with the number of college graduates quadrupling in the past decade.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664661_21
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education%20inequality%20in%20China
|
Education inequality in China
|
As an attempt to level the playing field, the gaokao, or Chinese university examination, offered extra points for students of ethnic minority backgrounds, although this was scaled back in the 2014 reforms to the national examination policy after multiple cases of ethnicity alteration prompted national backlash. The new reforms also included provisions for provincial quotas, requiring universities to reserve a designated number of admission seats for students from outside of the university's region.
|
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6
] |
20231101.en_47664661_22
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education%20inequality%20in%20China
|
Education inequality in China
|
The implementation of the double reduction policy in 2021 was a new attempt by Chinese regulators to reduce the inequality of educational resources allocation caused by regional inequality and economic differences during the compulsory education period. According to Opinions on Further Reducing the Homework Burden and Off-Campus Training Burden of Students in Compulsory Education, schools should narrow the educational quality gap and reduce the need for students to rely on tutoring institutions by optimizing teaching methods, designing teaching materials based on students' different abilities, and providing students with abundant educational resources. As schools provided "on-campus classes for both academic subjects and extra-curricular activities" and tutoring institutions were no longer permitted to be for-profit institutions, the double reduction policy had relieved the inequality phenomenon whereby poor families did not have access to adequate educational resources while rich families can obtain better academic performance through tutoring institutions. And the Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China also pointed out that the higher level of educational equity could be realized through the student-oriented education method, which satisfies students’ individual growth needs.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664663_0
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wendy%20Cornejo
|
Wendy Cornejo
|
Wendy Cornejo (born 7 January 1993) is a female racewalker from Bolivia. She competed in the Women's 20 kilometres walk event at the 2015 World Championships in Athletics in Beijing, China.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664668_0
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe%20Martin%20Stage%20Race
|
Joe Martin Stage Race
|
Joe Martin Stage Race is a road cycling stage race held annually in Fayetteville, Arkansas. It is part of the UCI America Tour in category 2.2. It was created in 1978 under the name of Fayetteville Spring Classic. It was renamed the Joe Martin Stage Race in 1989 in honor of the race director Joe Martin, who died that year.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664669_0
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kumiko%20Okada
|
Kumiko Okada
|
is a female racewalker from Japan. She competed in the women's 20 kilometres walk event at the 2015 World Championships in Athletics in Beijing, China.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664669_1
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kumiko%20Okada
|
Kumiko Okada
|
She competed in the women's 20 kilometres walk at the 2022 World Athletics Championships held in Eugene, Oregon, United States.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664681_0
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miranda%20Melville
|
Miranda Melville
|
Miranda Melville (born March 20, 1989) is an American race walker. She competed in the women's 20 kilometers walk event at the 2015 World Championships in Athletics in Beijing, China. Melville represented the United States in the 2016 Olympic Games in the women's 20k Race Walk where she finished in 34th place.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664681_1
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miranda%20Melville
|
Miranda Melville
|
Melville started race walking on her high school track and field team at Rush–Henrietta Senior High School in Henrietta, New York. She is now coached by Tim Seaman.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664681_2
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miranda%20Melville
|
Miranda Melville
|
Miranda held her high school record for the 1500 meter race walk and the 2000 meter steeple chase, from her freshman to senior year. She attended college at University of Wisconsin Park side. During college she competed in race walk and cross country. She was an all American. Miranda competed in the 2008 and 2010 Race walking world cup. In 2008 she was the junior National Champion for US vs Canada.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664681_3
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miranda%20Melville
|
Miranda Melville
|
Miranda is related to the author Herman Melville. Her titles include, winning 14 national championships, has been a member of team USA 17 times including during the 2016 Olympics.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664685_0
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manasara%20%28film%29
|
Manasara (film)
|
Manasara () is a 2010 Indian Telugu language romance film set against the backdrop of Kalaripayattu, a martial art form that has origins in Kerala. The film is produced by Prakash Babu Kadiyala on directed by Ravi Babu and stars debutants Vikram and Sri Divya.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664685_1
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manasara%20%28film%29
|
Manasara (film)
|
Rajapalayam in Kerala is a village where time has stood still. A maternal, ritualistic society where honour held its head and sword high. The village folk lived and breathed Kalaripayittu that was their God, life and justice and were totally cut off from the modern world. Vikram's (Vikram) family had to move to this village when his father's job gets transferred there.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664685_2
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manasara%20%28film%29
|
Manasara (film)
|
Anjali (Sri Divya) is a village belle who teaches blind kids. Vikram falls in love with her but conscious of his average looks is not sure the pretty Anjali would accept him. His local benefactor Krishnan Kutty (Bhanu Chander) tells him that the secret to gain a woman's love was not good looks but to have a good heart. Show her your heart, not your face, Kutty advises Vikram. Vikram follows the advice and masks himself and starts helping Anjali in difficult moments. The goodness of Vikram melts Anjali's heart and she falls in love with him.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664685_3
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manasara%20%28film%29
|
Manasara (film)
|
But trouble was brewing in Anjali's home as her wicked step-mother tries to get Anjali closer to Rajan. Rajan was the national Kalaripayittu champ and the devil incarnate when it came to women. He was also the brother of Anjali's step-mother. Anjali's relationship with Vikram is discovered by Rajan and Anjali is locked up in her home. Rajan thrashes Vikram in front of Anjali and makes him lick his sandals in front of Anjali to show her Vikram's cowardice. Vikram's family is told to pack and leave town immediately.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664685_4
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manasara%20%28film%29
|
Manasara (film)
|
Krishnan Kutty intervenes and calls for a meeting of the village elders. He tells them that Vikram's only mistake was that he had fallen in love and that Anjali was in love with him too. He tells them that since their society was maternal the girl's wishes had to be respected. But the village elders ordain that Vikram was not a local and had to forget the girl and leave. But on further persuasion by Krishan Kutty, they reconsider their decision and deliver their verdict. Since the girl had two suitors, only a bout of Kalaripayittu would determine who her husband would be. The winner would get her hand. The gauntlet is thrown and a boy with no knowledge of Kalaripayittu is pitted against the champ. Krishnan Kutty decides to train Vikram and Anjali's father trains Rajan. Both Anjali's father and Krishnan Kutty were disciples of one master and had a score to settle themselves. The bloody ten-round Kalaripayittu climax decides the fate of Anjali and Vikram.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664685_5
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manasara%20%28film%29
|
Manasara (film)
|
Jeevi of Idlebrain.com wrote that "On the flip side, a better second half and an inspiring climax would have changed the commercial aspect of the movie". A critic from NDTV wrote that "the film has nothing big to offer".
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664695_0
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuddhi%20%28film%29
|
Shuddhi (film)
|
Shuddhi is a 2017 Indian Kannada-language crime-drama film written and directed by Adarsh Eshwarappa. The film mainly stars Nivedhitha, Lauren Spartano and Amrutha Karagada in the lead roles. It also stars Shashank Purushotham and Sidhaartha Maadhyamika in supporting roles.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664695_1
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuddhi%20%28film%29
|
Shuddhi (film)
|
Whilst the cinematography is by Andrew Aiello, the film score was composed by Jesse Clinton. The major portion of the film has been shot using handheld technique which is a rarity in Indian cinema. The sound designer of the film is Nithin Lukose; Shuddhi was one amongst the very few films in Kannada, which was shot in sync sound.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664695_2
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuddhi%20%28film%29
|
Shuddhi (film)
|
The plot of the film highlights the crimes against women faced in the society. Karlyn Smith is an American, who lands in the City of Bengaluru in India. She is on a secret mission, which we gradually discover more about, as we cruise along with her on a spiritual journey. Jyothi & Divya are two journalists of a weekly magazine, who alongside their profession, are fighting against the country's lenient Juvenile Justice Act. They form a team and put up street plays in an effort to generate funds and strengthen their protest with a nationwide tour. Rakesh Patil & Bharat Gowda from the state special crime branch office, along with a team are chasing a criminal and in the process, stumble upon a few mysterious killings.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664695_3
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuddhi%20%28film%29
|
Shuddhi (film)
|
The culmination of the three stories towards the end; gives a new dimension to the film as a whole and concludes Shuddhi.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664695_4
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuddhi%20%28film%29
|
Shuddhi (film)
|
The film's trailer was launched on 3 February 2017 and was well received. It trended on YouTube at number 3. Shuddhi released on 17 March 2017 and completed a 100-day theatrical run at Box Office. Shuddhi was screened in over 40 Locations Across North America and went on to become one of the first few Kannada Films to be chosen for Screenings by the Japanese Community in Bengaluru. The Film was bought by and is streaming on Netflix from March 2018. Writer & Director Adarsh Eshwarappa also went on to publish the full Screenplay of the Film online.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664695_5
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuddhi%20%28film%29
|
Shuddhi (film)
|
A review on Bangalore Mirror reads “The reel- and real- life inspired moments are blended together effortlessly, and synchronised sound recording, a trend that’s catching up in regional cinemas, adds a realistic touch to the movie" While Times of India review read 'To talk about the story and plot would be taking away credit from the good screenplay woven by the maker'. 'Shuddhi is a visceral cinematic experience, an absolute shock to the system' wrote Vikram Bondal from 'mad about moviez'
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664701_0
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sapana%20Punia
|
Sapana Punia
|
Sapana, also known as Sapana Punia (born 2 January 1988) is a female racewalker from Jaipur, Rajasthan, India. She competed in the Women's 20 kilometres walk event at the 2015 World Championships in Athletics in Beijing, China. She competed in the 20 km walk at the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil but did not finish. She set a national record in the 20 km walk at the 2015 National Games with at time of 1:40:35.70.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664706_0
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes%20Hertel
|
Johannes Hertel
|
Hertel wrote numerous essays and books on Indological topics. His research focus was Indian narrative literature and the Vedas. Above all, he is known for his scientific work on the textual history of the Panchatantra.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664706_1
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes%20Hertel
|
Johannes Hertel
|
Hertel obtained his Ph.D. from the University of Leipzig in 1897 with a thesis on the Hitopadesha. From 1919 to 1937 he was full professor and Chair of Indian Studies at the University of Leipzig, where he taught Asian and Indo-European languages such as Sanskrit, Vedic, and Avestan, and he translated numerous works from these into German. Most of his works on Vedic and Avestan subjects appeared in the series Indo-Iranische Quellen und Forschungen ("Indo-Iranian Sources and Research"), which he also edited.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664706_2
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes%20Hertel
|
Johannes Hertel
|
In November 1933 Hertel signed the Vow of allegiance of the Professors of the German Universities and High-Schools to Adolf Hitler and the National Socialistic State.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664706_3
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes%20Hertel
|
Johannes Hertel
|
Hertel's extensive correspondence is located in the University Archives of Leipzig and in the manuscript department of the Leipzig University Library.
|
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56
] |
20231101.en_47664713_0
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89milie%20Menuet
|
Émilie Menuet
|
Émilie Menuet (born 27 September 1991) is a female racewalker from France. She competed in the Women's 20 kilometres walk event at the 2015 World Championships in Athletics in Beijing, China.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664713_1
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89milie%20Menuet
|
Émilie Menuet
|
On 1 July 2015, at Blois, she established a new record of France for the 5000m walk (21:41.72). She has held equally since 2010 the junior record of France at the 10 km walk (47:26).
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664713_2
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89milie%20Menuet
|
Émilie Menuet
|
In May 2015, when at the European Walking Cup at Murcie, elle bettered her personal record at the 20 km walk (1:32.20) and gained the minimum qualifier for the 2015 World Championships. She placed 31st at these World Championships
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664713_3
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89milie%20Menuet
|
Émilie Menuet
|
Champion of France at the 20 km walk in 2014, she won the title at the 10000m walk at the 2015 French Athletic Championships.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664718_0
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlos%20Dur%C3%A1n
|
Carlos Durán
|
During 1990s, Durán worked with Colo-Colo youth ranks forming players like Sebastián González, Claudio Maldonado or Luis Ignacio Quinteros. In 1999 after Brazilian Nelsinho Baptista departure he was appointed as club’s caretaker coach, staying in the charge two weeks before Uruguayan Fernando Morena arrival.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664718_1
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlos%20Dur%C3%A1n
|
Carlos Durán
|
On 24 January 2000, it was confirmed his division from the team after a break with the club’s board. Then on mid year he joined Primera B de Chile side Deportes Temuco, signing a three-year contract. However, he failed to continue at Temuco–based team after legal issues between both where Durán won a lawsuit for $40 million pesos due to contractual irregularities.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664726_0
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris%20Hillcoat
|
Chris Hillcoat
|
Chris Hillcoat (born 3 October 1969) is a Scottish football player and coach, who spent all of his senior playing career at Hamilton Academical. Towards the end of his playing career, Hillcoat became the player/manager of Hamilton. He left the club in May 2003, after former Clyde owner Ronnie Macdonald took control of the club. Hillcoat then moved to Clyde as a youth team coach, a position he vacated in December 2004 for business reasons. In February 2014, Hillcoat was appointed to the coaching staff of Queen's Park.
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664741_0
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile%20Duploy%C3%A9
|
Émile Duployé
|
Émile Duployé was a French clergyman, born in 1833 in Liesse-Notre-Dame (Aisne) and died in 1912 in Saint-Maur-des-Fosses (now in Val-de-Marne).
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664741_1
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile%20Duploy%C3%A9
|
Émile Duployé
|
He is the author of the Duployan shorthand technique which was widely used in France in the early twentieth century.
|
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5
] |
20231101.en_47664741_2
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile%20Duploy%C3%A9
|
Émile Duployé
|
He wrote a series of books on this subject, whose first edition was named Stenography-Duployé, writing easier, faster and more readable than any other, which applies to all languages (published in Lyon in 1860).
|
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] |
20231101.en_47664757_0
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeitschrift%20f%C3%BCr%20Antikes%20Christentum
|
Zeitschrift für Antikes Christentum
|
The Zeitschrift für Antikes Christentum / Journal of Ancient Christianity is an academic journal published by Walter de Gruyter. It covers topics related to early Christianity and Patristics.
|
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] |
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