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What are the negative effects of a low carb/high fat diet?
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Well.
What happens during a LCHF-diet is that you force your body to burn fat, and only fat. What happens when you metabolize fat is that [ketone bodies](_URL_0_) as produced, leading to a state of ketosis. Ketone bodies *can* be used as an energy source by the brain and other cells, as in the case during starvation as well as LCHF-diets.
There is evidence on both sides of the spectrum. My own personal opinion is: Eat balanced, eat right. Cutting out one part of your diet is unnecessary unless you have a pathological condition.
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[
"Some randomized control trials have shown that low-carbohydrate diets, especially very low-carbohydrate diets, perform better than low-fat diets in improving cardiometabolic risk factors in the long term, suggesting that low-carbohydrate diets are a viable option alongside low-fat diets for people at risk of cardiovascular disease.\n",
"Much of the research into low-carbohydrate dieting has been of poor quality and studies which reported large effects have garnered disproportionate attention in comparison to those which are methodologically sound. Higher quality studies tend to find no meaningful difference in outcome between low-fat and low-carbohydrate dieting. Low-quality meta-analyses have tended to report favourably on the effect of low-carbohydrate diets: a systematic review found that 9 out of 10 meta-analyses with positive conclusions were affected by publication bias.\n",
"Low carb is also known as low carbohydrate, high fat. \"Diabetes Research and clinical Practice\" found that low carb positively affects glucose control in patients with type 2 diabetes, triglycerides and HDL (high density lipoprotein). It is suggested that ideal diet requires less than 130 g of carbohydrate a day and claims to be promoted as a permanent lifestyle choice through books and websites. For example, people are suggested to eat green vegetables, meat, fish, eggs, and just as well as whole fat dairy and olive oil.\n",
"Carbohydrate has been wrongly accused of being a uniquely \"fattening\" macronutrient, misleading many dieters into compromising the nutritiousness of their diet by eliminating carbohydrate-rich food. Low-carbohydrate diet proponents emphasize research saying that low-carbohydrate diets can initially cause slightly greater weight loss than a balanced diet, but some studies suggest that such an advantage does not persist. In the long-term successful weight maintenance is determined by calorie intake, and not by macronutrient ratios.\n",
"While many studies have found that including polyunsaturated fats in the diet in place of saturated fats produces more beneficial CVD outcomes, the effects of substituting monounsaturated fats or carbohydrates are unclear.\n",
"Low-carbohydrate diets are associated with increased mortality, but they may miss the health advantages – such as increased intake of dietary fiber – afforded by high-quality carbohydrates found in legumes and pulses, whole grains, fruits, and vegetables. Disadvantages of the diet might include halitosis, headache and constipation, and in general the potential adverse effects of carbohydrate-restricted diets are under-researched, particularly for possible risks of osteoporosis and cancer incidence.\n",
"Low-carbohydrate diet advocates including Gary Taubes and David Ludwig have proposed a \"carbohydrate-insulin hypothesis\" in which carbohydrate is said to be uniquely fattening because it raises insulin levels and so causes fat to accumulate unduly. The hypothesis appears to run counter to known human biology whereby there is no good evidence of any such association between the actions of insulin and fat accumulation and obesity. The hypothesis predicted that low-carbohydrate dieting would offer a \"metabolic advantage\" of increased energy expenditure equivalent to 400-600 kcal/day, in accord with the promise of the Atkin's diet: a \"high calorie way to stay thin forever\".\n"
] |
from a business standpoint, what are the benefits and disadvantages of paying employees weekly, biweekly, twice a month, and monthly?
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A weekly or every-other week basis can simplify operations: everyone knows that pay periods close one day, and checks are written on another day of the week, regardless of the calendar date.
A monthly or bi-monthly basis can screw with that, as pay periods and payroll processing may not concurrent with the same day of the week every time, but helps employees budget revolving expenses, which are typically also monthly.
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[
"The reason that employees are often paid according to hours of work rather than by direct measurement of results is that it is often more efficient to use indirect systems of controlling the quantity and quality of effort, due to a variety of informational and other issues (e.g., turnover costs, which determine the optimal minimum length of relationship between firm and employee). This means that methods such as deferred compensation and structures such as tournaments are often more suitable to create the incentives for employees to contribute what they can to output over longer periods (years rather than hours). These represent \"pay-for-performance\" systems in a looser, more extended sense, as workers who consistently work harder and better are more likely to be promoted (and usually paid more), compared to the narrow definition of \"pay-for-performance\", such as piece rates. This discussion has been conducted almost entirely for self-interested rational individuals. In practice, however, the incentive mechanisms which successful firms use take account of the socio-cultural context they are embedded in (Fukuyama 1995, Granovetter 1985), in order not to destroy the social capital they might more constructively mobilise towards building an organic, social organization, with the attendant benefits from such things as \"worker loyalty and pride (...) [which] can be critical to a firm's success ...\" (Sappington 1991,63)\n",
"Average incomes are substantially lower in the informal economy and there is a higher preponderance of impoverished employees working in the informal sector. In addition, workers in the informal economy are less likely to benefit from employment benefits and social protection programs. For instance, a survey in Europe shows that the respondents who have difficulties to pay their household bills have worked informally more often in the past year than those that do not (10% versus 3% of the respondents).\n",
"A typical description of the salaryman is a male white-collar employee who typically earns his salary \"based on individual abilities rather than on seniority.\" Salarymen are known for working many hours, sometimes up to sixty hours per week. Oftentimes, because of his busy work schedule, the salaryman does not have time to raise a family and his work becomes a lifelong commitment. Companies typically hire the salarymen straight after high school, and they are expected to stay with the company until retirement, around the time they reach the age between 55 and 60. As a reward for the demonstration of their loyalty, companies rarely fire the salarymen unless it is under special \"dire\" circumstances. There is also a belief that the \"amount of time spent at the workplace correlates to the perceived efficiency of the employee.\" As a result of this intense work-driven lifestyle, salarymen may be more likely to suffer from mental or physical health problems, including heart failure or suicide.\n",
"Labour supply curves derive from the 'labour-leisure' trade-off. More hours worked earn higher incomes, but necessitate a cut in the amount of leisure that workers enjoy. Consequently, there are two effects on the amount of labour supplied due to a change in the real wage rate. As, for example, the real wage rate rises, the opportunity cost of leisure increases. This tends to make workers supply more labour (the \"substitution effect\"). However, also as the real wage rate rises, workers earn a higher income for a given number of hours. If leisure is a normal good—the demand for it increases as income increases—this increase in income tends to make workers supply less labour so they can \"spend\" the higher income on leisure (the \"income effect\"). If the substitution effect is stronger than the income effect then the labour supply slopes upward. If, beyond a certain wage rate, the income effect is stronger than the substitution effect, then the labour supply curve bends backward. Individual labor supply curves can be aggregated to derive the total labour supply of an economy.\n",
"Under most circumstances, wage earners and lower-level employees may be legally required by an employer to work more than forty hours in a week; however, they are paid extra for the additional work. Many salaried workers and commission-paid sales staff are not covered by overtime laws. These are generally called \"exempt\" positions, because they are exempt from federal and state laws that mandate extra pay for extra time worked. The rules are complex, but generally exempt workers are executives, professionals, or sales staff. For example, school teachers are not paid extra for working extra hours. Business owners and independent contractors are considered self-employed, and none of these laws apply to them.\n",
"Businesses have overhead costs such as training, rent, and employment taxes that do not adjust with operating hours. These expenses paired with higher wages cause the cost benefit of hiring an extra worker to go down, while raising the marginal cost of an additional worker.\n",
"As wages increase above the subsistence level (discussed below), there are two considerations affecting a worker's choice of how many hours to work per unit of time (usually day, week, or month). The first is the substitution or incentive effect. With wages rising, the tradeoff between working an additional hour for pay and taking one extra hour of unpaid time changes in favor of working. Thus, more hours of labour-time will be offered at the higher wage than the lower one. The second and countervailing effect is that the hours worked at the old wage rate now all gain more income than before, creating an income effect, which encourages more leisure to be chosen because it is more affordable. Most economists assume that unpaid time (or \"leisure\") is a normal good and so people want more of it as their incomes (or wealth) rise. Since a rising wage rate raises incomes, all else constant, the attraction of unpaid time rises, eventually neutralising the substitution effect and causing the backward bend. \n"
] |
if the universe is expanding so rapidly, why do we see no visible change locally?
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Because the universe is so huge and we're so small.
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[
"Based on a huge amount of experimental observation and theoretical work, it is now believed that the reason for the observation is that \"space itself is expanding\", and that it expanded very rapidly within the first fraction of a second after the Big Bang. This kind of expansion is known as a \"\"metric\"\" expansion. In the terminology of mathematics and physics, a \"metric\" is a measure of distance that satisfies a specific list of properties, and the term implies that \"the sense of distance within the universe is itself changing\", although at this time it is far too small an effect to see on less than an intergalactic scale.\n",
"Even if the overall spatial extent is infinite and thus the universe cannot get any \"larger\", we still say that space is expanding because, locally, the characteristic distance between objects is increasing. As an infinite space grows, it remains infinite.\n",
"Current evidence suggests that the expansion rate of the universe is accelerating, which means that the second derivative of the scale factor formula_23 is positive, or equivalently that the first derivative formula_24 is increasing over time. This also implies that any given galaxy recedes from us with increasing speed over time, i.e. for that galaxy formula_25 is increasing with time. In contrast, the Hubble parameter seems to be decreasing with time, meaning that if we were to look at some fixed distance d and watch a series of different galaxies pass that distance, later galaxies would pass that distance at a smaller velocity than earlier ones.\n",
"To determine if the expansion rate of the universe is speeding up or slowing down over time, cosmologists make use of the finite velocity of light. It takes billions of years for light from a distant galaxy to reach the Earth. Since the universe is expanding, the universe was smaller (galaxies were closer together) when light from distant galaxies was emitted. If the expansion rate of the universe is speeding up due to dark energy, then the size of the universe increases more rapidly with time than if the expansion were slowing down. Using supernovae, we cannot quite measure the size of the universe versus time. Instead we can measure the size of the universe (at the time the star exploded) and the distance to the supernova. With the distance to the exploding supernova in hand, astronomers can use the value of the speed of light along with the theory of General Relativity to determine how long it took the light to reach the Earth. This then tells them the age of the universe when the supernova exploded.\n",
"The expansion of the universe reaches an infinite degree in finite time, causing expansion to accelerate without bounds. This acceleration necessarily passes the speed of light (since it involves expansion of the universe itself, not particles moving within it), causing more and more objects to leave our observable universe faster than its expansion, as light and information emitted from distant stars and other cosmic sources cannot \"catch up\" with the expansion. As the observable universe expands, objects will be unable to interact with each other via fundamental forces, and eventually the expansion will prevent any action of forces between any particles, even within atoms, \"ripping apart\" the universe.\n",
"Over time, the Universe and its contents have evolved; for example, the relative population of quasars and galaxies has changed and space itself has expanded. Due to this expansion, scientists on Earth can observe the light from a galaxy 30 billion light-years away even though that light has traveled for only 13 billion years; the very space between them has expanded. This expansion is consistent with the observation that the light from distant galaxies has been redshifted; the photons emitted have been stretched to longer wavelengths and lower frequency during their journey. Analyses of Type Ia supernovae indicate that the spatial expansion is accelerating.\n",
"However, because the expansion of the universe is accelerating, it is projected that most galaxies will eventually cross a type of cosmological event horizon where any light they emit past that point will never be able to reach us at any time in the infinite future, because the light never reaches a point where its \"peculiar velocity\" towards us exceeds the expansion velocity away from us (these two notions of velocity are also discussed in Comoving and proper distances#Uses of the proper distance). The current distance to this cosmological event horizon is about 16 billion light-years, meaning that a signal from an event happening at present would eventually be able to reach us in the future if the event was less than 16 billion light-years away, but the signal would never reach us if the event was more than 16 billion light-years away.\n"
] |
Why are gases more soluble in cold liquid, but solids are more soluble in warm liquid?
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Great question. Gas molecules tend to fly around and bump into each other. If you add heat to a gas, which is in a ballon, the volume of the balloon increases because gases expand when you heat them. As you add the heat, the gas molecules move faster and collide with more force. Solids, on the other hand, are in relatively fixed position.
Say you have a pot of boiling water with the lid on, water molecules are constantly being shot out of the liquid and being shot back into it. The amount the leaves and enters depends on pressure, temperature, and volume of the container. The more heat inside the water, the faster the water molecules will shoot out.
A hot gas in a liquid will have a lot of energy and be able to escape the liquid, but a colder gas will have less energy to escape and be more likely to remain in the liquid making it more soluble.
The atoms in solids are in fixed positions and bound together by either ionic or covalent bonding. Let's assume the liquid in this case is water and the dissolvable substance is salt, which has ionic bonds. When you had heat to water the molecules will move faster and with more energy. Water molecules with more kinetic energy will slam into salt particles with more energy which allows it to break apart the salt particles with more ease. Simply imagine throwing a baseball really fast, then really slow, at a LEGO structure. The faster you throw the baseball, the farther the LEGOs will fly.
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[
"Both solids and liquids have free surfaces, which cost some amount of free energy to form. In the case of solids, the amount of free energy to form a given unit of surface area is called surface energy, whereas for liquids the same quantity is called surface tension. The ability of liquids to flow results in different behaviour in response to surface tension than in solids, although in equilibrium both will try to minimise their surface energy: liquids tend to form rounded droplets, whereas pure solids tend to form crystals. Gases do not have free surfaces, and freely diffuse.\n",
"Gaseous solutes exhibit more complex behavior with temperature. As the temperature is raised, gases usually become less soluble in water (to minimum, which is below 120 °C for most permanent gases), but more soluble in organic solvents.\n",
"Usually, the greater the temperature of the solvent, the more of a given solid solute it can dissolve. However, most gases and some compounds exhibit solubilities that decrease with increased temperature. Such behavior is a result of an exothermic enthalpy of solution. Some surfactants exhibit this behaviour. The solubility of liquids in liquids is generally less temperature-sensitive than that of solids or gases.\n",
"By contrast, substances are said to be immiscible if there are certain proportions in which the mixture does not form a solution. For example, oil is not soluble in water, so these two solvents are immiscible, while butanone (methyl ethyl ketone) is significantly soluble in water, these two solvents are also immiscible because they are not soluble in all proportions.\n",
"The other type of solids is weak molecular crystals (e.g., fluorocarbons, hydrocarbons, etc.) where the molecules are held together essentially by physical forces (e.g., van der Waals and hydrogen bonds). Since these solids are held together by weak forces, a very low input of energy is required to break them, thus they are termed \"low energy\". Depending on the type of liquid chosen, low-energy surfaces can permit either complete or partial wetting.\n",
"Liquids can interact with two main types of solid surfaces. Traditionally, solid surfaces have been divided into high-energy solids and low-energy types. The relative energy of a solid has to do with the bulk nature of the solid itself. Solids such as metals, glasses, and ceramics are known as 'hard solids' because the chemical bonds that hold them together (e.g., covalent, ionic, or metallic) are very strong. Thus, it takes a large input of energy to break these solids (alternatively large amount of energy is required to cut the bulk and make two separate surfaces so high surface energy), so they are termed \"high energy\". Most molecular liquids achieve complete wetting with high-energy surfaces.\n",
"In general, ionic and polar substances such as acids, alcohols, and salts are relatively soluble in water, and non-polar substances such as fats and oils are not. Non-polar molecules stay together in water because it is energetically more favorable for the water molecules to hydrogen bond to each other than to engage in van der Waals interactions with non-polar molecules.\n"
] |
. why does room temperature coffee taste ‘cold’ but room temperature milk tastes ‘warm’?
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Because most coffee you drink is hotter than room temperature, so in comparison to what you expect the coffee to feel like, a coffee at room temperature would feel cold.
But we usually drink milk from the refrigerator so when it's a room temperature it's hotter than what you expect.
And the reason why coffee is usually hot is because you need hot water to properly get the favour out of the grains and the reason why milk is usually cold is because you can keep it longer that way.
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[
"A cup of warm milk or a milk-based drink is traditionally used for sleep induction. Hot chocolate is also a traditional bedtime drink but this contains high levels of xanthines (caffeine and theobromine), which are stimulants and therefore may be counterproductive. Also, a pinch of turmeric powder with warm milk reduces stress and induces sleep. The flavor of the milk can be improved by adding honey and/or vanilla.\n",
"Another criterion for tasty milk tea (and also bubble tea) is some white frothy residue inside the lip of the cup after some of it has been drunk. This white froth means that the concentration of butterfat in the evaporated milk used is high enough.\n",
"In parts of Asia and Europe, sweetened condensed milk is the preferred milk to be added to coffee or tea. Many countries in Southeast Asia, such as Vietnam and Cambodia, use condensed milk to flavor their hot or iced coffee. In Malaysia and Singapore, \"teh tarik\" is made from tea mixed with condensed milk, and condensed milk is an integral element in Hong Kong tea culture. In the Canary Islands, it is served as the bottom stripe in a glass of the local café cortado and, in Valencia, it is served as a café bombón.\n",
"Some substances activate cold trigeminal receptors even when not at low temperatures. This \"fresh\" or \"minty\" sensation can be tasted in peppermint, spearmint, menthol, ethanol, and camphor. Caused by activation of the same mechanism that signals cold, TRPM8 ion channels on nerve cells, unlike the actual change in temperature described for sugar substitutes, this coolness is only a perceived phenomenon.\n",
"Transient temperature is not very significant: if coffee is heated to boiling point only very briefly, the taste will be little affected; the longer it is kept at a high temperature the worse the taste becomes.\n",
"The water is normally kept at room temperature, but chilled water is also used. The grounds are filtered out of the water after they have been steeped using a paper coffee filter, a fine metal sieve, a French press, or felt, in the case of the \"Toddy\" brewing system. The result is a coffee concentrate that is diluted with water or milk, and is served hot, over ice, or blended with ice and other ingredients such as chocolate. \n",
"Iced coffee is a type of coffee beverage served chilled, brewed variously with the fundamental division being cold brew – brewing the coffee cold, yielding a different flavour, and not requiring cooling – or brewing normally (hot) and then cooling, generally by simply pouring over ice or into ice cold milk. In hot brewing, sweeteners and flavourings are often mixed into the hot coffee before cooling, due to faster dissolution in hot water. Alternatively, syrup (sugar pre-dissolved in water) may be used, particularly gum syrup. \n"
] |
How did China come to have so many massively populated cities?
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One thing to keep in mind is that administrative boundaries work differently in China than in the United States. Municipal administrative units usually include most of the suburbs of a city, and some of the outlying rural areas as well. The most extreme example of this is Chongqing which is the size of South Carolina in order to put the Three Gorges Dam into the Chongqing urban area. However, even other Chinese municipal areas are much larger than their American counterparts.
In fact, the Chinese government is actively trying to keep it's cities small. Engels had strong views about vast urban agglomeration, and much of Chinese policies, from it's investments in intercity high speed rail, and the operation of the household registration system is designed to keep cities from getting too big. The success in this is mixed at best.
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[
"Chinese cities of the Song period became some of the largest in the world, owing to technological advances and an agricultural revolution. Kaifeng, which served as the capital and seat of government during the Northern Song (960–1127), had some half a million residents in 1021, with another half-million living in the city's nine designated suburbs. By 1100, the civilian population within the city walls was 1,050,000; the army stationed there brought the total to 1.4 million. Hangzhou, the capital during the Southern Song (1127–1279), had more than 400,000 inhabitants during the late 12th century, primarily due to its trading position at the southern terminus of the Grand Canal, known as the lower Yangzi's \"grain basket.\" During the 13th century, the city's population soared to approximately a million people, with the 1270 census counting 186,330 registered families living in the city. Although not as agriculturally rich as areas like western Sichuan, the region of Fujian also underwent a massive population growth; government records indicate a 1500% increase in the number of registered households from the years 742 to 1208. With a thriving shipbuilding industry and new mining facilities, Fujian became the economic powerhouse of China during the Song period. The great seaport of China, Quanzhou, was located in Fujian, and by 1120 its governor claimed that the city's population had reached some 500,000. The inland Fujianese city of Jiankang was also very large at this time, with a population of about 200,000. Robert Hartwell states that from 742 to 1200 the population growth of North China increased by only 54% percent in comparison to the Southeast which grew by 695%, the middle Yangzi Valley by 483%, the Lingnan region by 150%, and the upper Yangzi Valley by 135%. From the 8th to 11th centuries the lower Yangzi Valley experienced modest population growth in comparison to other regions of South China. The shift of the capital to Hangzhou did not create an immediate dramatic change in population growth until the period from 1170 to 1225, when new polders allowed land reclamation for nearly all the arable land between Lake Tai and the East China Sea as well as the mouth of the Yangzi to the northern Zhejiang coast.\n",
"In 2005, China had 286 cities. Most of China's cities have a population of one million and below. Shanghai is the largest city in China, with a population of 19 million, followed by Beijing with a population of 17.4 million. These are the two mega-cities in China.\n",
"Although country urban population—382 million, or 37 percent of the total population in the mid-1980s—was relatively low by comparison with developed nations, the number of people living in urban areas in China was greater than the total population of any country in the world except India. The four Chinese cities with the largest populations in 1985 were Shanghai, with 7 million; Beijing, with 5.9 million; Tianjin, with 5.4 million; and Shenyang, with 4.2 million. The disproportionate distribution of population in large cities occurred as a result of the government's emphasis after 1949 on the development of large cities over smaller urban areas. In 1985 the 22 most populous cities in China had a total population of 47.5 million, or about 12 percent of China's total urban population. The number of cities with populations of at least 100,000 increased from 200 in 1976 to 342 in 1986.\n",
"The region is, on the whole, more heavily urbanised than most parts of China, largely because it was the first part of the country to develop heavy industry owing to its abundant coal reserves. Major cities include Shenyang, Dalian, Harbin, Changchun and Anshan, all with several million inhabitants. Other cities include the steel making centres of Fushun and Anshan in Liaoning, Jilin City in Jilin, and Qiqihar and Mudanjiang in Heilongjiang. Harbin, more than any other city in China, possesses significant Russian influences: there are many Orthodox churches that have fallen out of use since the Cultural Revolution. Shenyang and Dalian, meanwhile, have sizable populations of Japanese and South Koreans due to their traditional linkages.\n",
"Though Beijing was but a peripheral city to Chinese dynasties centered in Luoyang and Xi'an, it was an important entryway into China for tribal peoples to the north. The city's stature grew from the 10th century with successive invasions of China by the Khitan, Jurchen, and Mongols.\n",
"During the Spring and Autumn period, many cities grew in size and population. Linzi, the prosperous capital of Qi, had a population estimated at over 200,000 in 650 , making it one of the largest cities in the world. Alongside other large cities, Linzi served as a centre of administration, trade, and economic activity. Most of the cities' people engaged in husbandry and were thus self-sufficient. The growth of these cities was an important development for the ancient Chinese economy.\n",
"China is the world's most populous country, and its largest city, Shanghai, is the largest city proper in the world, with a population of 26.3 million as of 2019. According to the Demographic research group in 2017, there are 102 Chinese cities with over 1 million people in the \"urban area\", as defined by the group's methodology.\n"
] |
how does viewing violence affect people's mental health?
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I’m not sure there is really a correlation there. More likely people already predisposed to some kind of mental health problem can be affected by viewing violence.
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[
"On July 26, 2000 the American Academy of Pediatrics, the American Medical Association, the American Psychological Association, the American Academy of Family Physicians, and the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry stated that \"prolonged viewing of media violence can lead to emotional desensitization toward violence in real life.\" However, scholars have since analyzed several statements in this release, both about the number of studies conducted, and a comparison with medical effects, and found many errors.\n",
"Findings on violence committed by those with mental disorders in the community have been inconsistent and related to numerous factors; a higher rate of more serious offences such as homicide have sometimes been found but, despite high-profile homicide cases, the evidence suggests this has not been increased by deinstitutionalisation. The aggression and violence that does occur, in either direction, is usually within family settings rather than between strangers.\n",
"Shortly after the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting, Swanson told the \"New York Times\" that \"Psychiatrists, using clinical judgment, are not much better than chance at predicting which individual patients will do something violent and which will not.” The following January, he told the \"Washington Post\" that “there’s a modest relative risk” for violence among people with a serious mental illness.\n",
"BULLET::::5. \"Failure to account for \"third\" variables.\" Some scholars contend that media violence studies regularly fail to account for other variables such as genetics, personality and exposure to family violence that may explain both why some people become violent and why those same people may choose to expose themselves to violent media. Several recent studies have found that, when factors such as mental health, family environment and personality are controlled, no predictive relationship between either video games or television violence and youth violence remain (Ferguson, San Miguel & Hartley, 2009; Ybarra et al., 2008, Figure 2).\n",
"Despite public or media opinion, national studies have indicated that severe mental illness does not independently predict future violent behavior, on average, and is not a leading cause of violence in society. There is a statistical association with various factors that do relate to violence (in anyone), such as substance abuse and various personal, social and economic factors. A 2015 review found that in the United States, about 4% of violence is attributable to people diagnosed with mental illness, and a 2014 study found that 7.5% of crimes committed by mentally ill people were directly related to the symptoms of their mental illness. The majority of people with serious mental illness are never violent.\n",
"It is hypothesized that initial exposure to violence in the media may produce a number of aversive responses such as increased heart rate, fear, discomfort, perspiration and disgust. However, prolonged and repeated exposure to violence in the media may reduce or habituate the initial psychological impact until violent images do not elicit these negative responses. Eventually the observer may become emotionally and cognitively desensitized to media violence. In one experiment, participants who played violent video games showed lower heart rate and galvanic skin response readings, which the authors interpreted as displaying a physiological desensitization to violence. However, other studies have failed to replicate this finding. Some scholars have questioned whether becoming desensitized to media violence specifically transfers to becoming desensitized to real-life violence.\n",
"Although the vast majority of mentally ill individuals are non-violent, some evidence has suggested that mental illness or mental health symptoms are nearly universal among school shooters. A 2002 report by the US Secret Service and US Department of Education found evidence that a majority of school shooters displayed evidence of mental health symptoms, often undiagnosed or untreated. Criminologists Fox and DeLateur note that mental illness is only part of the issue, however, and mass shooters tend to externalize their problems, blaming others and are unlikely to seek psychiatric help, even if available. Other scholars have concluded that mass murderers display a common constellation of chronic mental health symptoms, chronic anger or antisocial traits, and a tendency to blame others for problems. However, they note that attempting to \"profile\" school shooters with such a constellation of traits will likely result in many false positives as many individuals with such a profile do not engage in violent behaviors.\n"
] |
What caused the United States to have the highest infant mortality rate among western countries?
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The [Congressional Research Service](_URL_3_) investigated whether inconsistent recording of births could be the cause of our bad infant mortality rates (IMR) and found that it does not ~~really affect~~ fully explain the results. (There is some effect from the inconsistent recording, but it isn't significant to explain the large gap).
We also have one of the lowest life expectancies of any developed nations and there isn't really any controversy about that statistic. The most likely reason is because we have a poor health care system. High infant mortality is most likely caused by the same thing.
One interesting thing to look at is the IMR of people with different health care plans. "Researchers have found that IMRs are the lowest for infants born to women enrolled in private insurance, that IMRs are higher for women enrolled in Medicaid, and that IMRs are highest for infants born to women who were uninsured."
So basically it is probably safe to say that the primary reason that our IMR is worse than most other countries is that we don't provide very good health care to our citizens.
Links:
_URL_0_
_URL_3_
_URL_1_
_URL_2_
TL;DR Poor health care causes the US to have some of the worst performance in almost every health metric. It is not because we are recording live births differently.
EDIT: Changed a misleading paraphrase. Thanks to /u/ruotwocone for pointing that out.
EDIT 2: I'd also like to point out that the issue of racial diversity was examined by the same CRS study and also found it to not be a particularly significant factor. Included a CDC link with essentially the same findings.
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[
"In the 1850s, the infant mortality rate in the United States was estimated at 216.8 per 1,000 babies born for whites and 340.0 per 1,000 for African Americans, but rates have significantly declined in the West in modern times. This declining rate has been mainly due to modern improvements in basic health care, technology, and medical advances. In the last century, the infant mortality rate has decreased by 93%. Overall, the rates have decreased drastically from 20 deaths in 1970 to 6.9 deaths in 2003 (per every 1000 live births). In 2003, the leading causes of infant mortality in the United States were congenital anomalies, disorders related to immaturity, SIDS, and maternal complications. Babies born with low birth weight increased to 8.1% while cigarette smoking during pregnancy declined to 10.2%. This reflected the amount of low birth weights concluding that 12.4% of births from smokers were low birth weights compared with 7.7% of such births from non-smokers. According to the \"New York Times\", \"the main reason for the high rate is preterm delivery, and there was a 10% increase in such births from 2000 to 2006.\" Between 2007 and 2011, however, the preterm birth rate has decreased every year. In 2011 there was an 11.73% rate of babies born before the 37th week of gestation, down from a high of 12.80% in 2006.\n",
"Although the overall infant mortality rate was sharply dropping during this time, within the United States infant mortality varied greatly among racial and socio-economic groups. The change in infant mortality from 1915 to 1933 was, for the white population, 98.6 in 1,000 to 52.8 in 1,000, and for the black population, 181.2 in 1,000 to 94.4 in 1,000. Studies imply that this has a direct correlation with relative economic conditions between these populations. Additionally, infant mortality in southern states was consistently 2% higher than other states in the US across a 20-year period from 1985. Southern states also tend to perform worse in predictors for higher infant mortality, such as per capita income and poverty rate.\n",
"Infant mortality was the major component of life expectancy. Infant mortality was lower in America compared to other parts of the world because of better nutrition. The rates were higher in urban areas, and in Massachusetts statewide the rates increased as the state urbanized. Public health provisions involving sanitation, water supplies, and control of tuberculosis started showing effects by 1900. Public health conditions were worse in the South until the 1950s.\n",
"In the decades following the 1970s, the United States' decreasing infant mortality rates began to slow, falling behind China's, Cuba's, and other developed countries'. Funding for the federally subsidized Medicaid and Maternal and Infant Care was sharply reduced, and availability of prenatal care greatly decreased for low-income parents.\n",
"In the United States, improving infant mortality in the early half of the 20th century meant tackling environmental factors. Improving sanitation, and especially access to safe drinking water, helped the United States dramatically decrease infant mortality, a growing concern in the United States since the 1850s. On top of these environmental factors, during this time the United States endeavored to increase education and awareness regarding infant mortality. Pasteurization of milk also helped the United States combat infant mortality in the early 1900s, a practice which allowed the United States to curb disease in infants. These factors, on top of a general increase in the standard of living for those living in urban settings, helped the United States make dramatic improvements in their rates of infant mortality in the early 20th century.\n",
"In the 1950s, the maternal mortality rate in the United Kingdom and the United States was the same—1 in 1000 pregnant and new mothers died. By 2018, the rate in the UK was three times lower than in the United States, due to implementing a standardized protocol. In 2010, Amnesty International published a 154-page report on maternal mortality in the United States. In 2011, the United Nations described maternal mortality as a human rights issue at the forefront of American healthcare, as the mortality rates worsened over the years. According to a 2015 WHO report, in the United States the MMR between 1990 and 2013 \"more than doubled from an estimated 12 to 28 maternal deaths per 100,000 births.\" By 2015, the United States had a higher MMR than the \"Islamic Republic of Iran, Libya and Turkey\". In the 2017 NPR and ProPublica series \"Lost Mothers: Maternal Mortality in the U.S.\" based on a six-month long collaborative investigation, they reported that the United States has the highest rate of maternal mortality than any other developed country, and it is the only country where mortality rate has been rising. The maternal mortality rate in the United States is three times higher than that in neighboring Canada and six times higher than in Scandinavia.\n",
"It was in the early 1900s that countries around the world started to notice that there was a need for better child health care services. Europe started this rally, the United States fell behind them by creating a campaign to decrease the infant mortality rate. With this program, they were able to lower the IMR to 10 deaths rather than 100 deaths per every 1000 births. Infant mortality was also seen as a social problem when it was being noticed as a national problem. American women who had middle class standing with an educational background started to create a movement that provided housing for families of a lower class. By starting this, they were able to establish public health care and government agencies that were able to make more sanitary and healthier environments for infants. Medical professionals helped further the cause for infant health by creating a pediatrics field that was experienced in medicine for children.\n"
] |
What was the general sentiment felt by WWII veterans towards Vietnam, the Korean War, and the veterans returning home from those wars?
|
Purely anecdotal
Speaking to Australian Vietnam vets, many were denied admission to their local RSL's, many were told Vietnam 'wasn't a real war' by WW2 vets, and that the strongest condemnation they received was from veterans. I wish I had a source other than anecdote; these were guys from RSL's who came to talk to my class, so I'm inclined to believe them.
|
[
"As well as the negative sentiments towards returned soldiers from some sections of the anti-war movement, some Second World War veterans also held negative views of the Vietnam War veterans. As a result, many Australian Vietnam veterans were excluded from joining the Returned Servicemen's League (RSL) during the 1960s and 1970s on the grounds that the Vietnam War veterans did not fight a \"real war\". The response of the RSL varied across the country, and while some rejected Vietnam veterans, other branches, particularly those in rural areas, were said to be very supportive. Many Vietnam veterans were excluded from marching in Anzac Day parades during the 1970s because some soldiers of earlier wars saw the Vietnam veterans as unworthy heirs to the ANZAC title and tradition, a view that hurt many Vietnam veterans and resulted in continued resentment towards the RSL. In 1972 the RSL decided that Vietnam veterans should lead the march, which attracted large crowds throughout the country.\n",
"There are persistent stereotypes about Vietnam veterans as psychologically devastated, bitter, homeless, drug-addicted people, who had a hard time readjusting to society, primarily because of the uniquely divisive nature of the Vietnam War in the context of US history.\n",
"One of the contentious issues of the Vietnam War and its aftermath was the American public's response to its returning military veterans. Even as the citizenry's opposition to the war mounted, tales began to spread of returning veterans being mistreated. The archetypical story became one of antiwar hippie protesters spitting upon returning veterans in an airport. Twelve years after the Vietnam War ended, on 20 July 1987, syndicated columnist Bob Greene of the \"Chicago Tribune\" proposed testing the truth of what he considered an urban legend. The headline of his column, syndicated in 200 papers, asked: \"\"If You're A Veteran, Were You Spat Upon?\"\" As he wrote in the text:\n",
"The experience of the Vietnam veteran was distinctly different from that of veterans of other American wars. Once he completed his tour of duty, he usually severed all bonds with his unit and comrades. It was extremely rare for a veteran to write to his buddies who were still in combat, and (in strong contrast to the endless reunions of World War II veterans) for more than a decade it was even rarer for more than two or more of them to get together after the war. Korean War veterans had no memorial and precious few parades, but they fought an invading army and experienced a sense of resolution and accomplishment. The Vietnam War was a long, contentious conflict (1955–75) which in the mid to late 1960s started to lose political and domestic support, most notably in academia and film that often portrayed soldiers of this conflict as ignoble adding to their social alienation. That the Vietnam War was ultimately lost on April 30, 1975, furthered the sense of meaninglessness and malaise. It has been demonstrated that as the perception of community alienation increases, an individual's sense of confidence or mastery in decision making will decrease, and so too their motivation to socially engage.\n",
"That social division has expressed itself by the lack both of public and institutional support for the former servicemen that would be expected by returning combatants of most conflicts in most nations. In a material sense also, veterans' benefits for Vietnam era veterans were dramatically less than those enjoyed after World War II. The Vietnam Era Veterans' Readjustment Assistance Act of 1974, as amended, , was meant to try to help the veterans overcome the issues.\n",
"At the same time, the Vietnam War was becoming an ever-bigger catalyst for anti-war sentiment in the United States, and it became evident that most war casualties came from the working class. Chicano youth in the movement viewed this from a racial perspective, arguing that the Mexican-Americans and other minorities were carrying the main burden of the war.\n",
"The San Jose \"Mercury News\" writer Tatiana Sanchez reported that some American and South Vietnamese veterans were \"angry, [and] disappointed\" with the documentary. They characterized it as a \"betrayal\". She writes: \"veterans of the South Vietnamese military say they were largely left out of the narrative, their voices drowned out by the film’s focus on North Vietnam and its communist leader, Ho Chi Minh. And many American veterans say that the series had several glaring omissions and focused too much on leftist anti-war protesters and soldiers who came to oppose the war.\"\n"
] |
When world war 2 ended, why did German soldiers want to surrender to the western allies rather than the Soviet union?
|
Couple of reasons, since the invasion of the USSR in 1941 German treatment of Soviet prisoners had been horrendous, kept in wire enclosures until they starved, succumbed to disease, or were simply summarily executed (among the first victims gassed at Auschwitz were Russian PoWs). With no quarter given on the Eastern Front it could hardly be asked. Wehrmacht soldiers rightly feared Russian vengeance, after what had been done in the occupied territories of the USSR, and knew that capture would mean heading for forced labor in Siberian gulags, if they were not shot out of hand. Many, if they survived, weren't released until the '50s.
Treatment of PoWs from the western allies was - comparatively speaking - much better, as was their treatment of German PoWs, although there were incidents of brutality on both sides they nominally adhered to the Geneva Conventions on treatment of PoWs (to which the USSR was not a signatory). A commander of the [352nd Volksgrenadier](_URL_0_) wrote to the families of six men MIA, *"The Americans opposite us have been fighting fairly, they have treated German prisoners well and fed them. If your husband is a PoW, you will probably receive news of him through the Red Cross."* It got him in trouble with the party for suggesting that captivity was a tolerable state.
Compare this to the Eastern Front, where the wretched prisoners taken by the Red Army were known as *Stalinpferd*, a Stalin horse.
|
[
"One reason for the policy was that the Allies wished to avoid a repetition of the stab-in-the-back myth that arose in Germany after World War I, which attributed Germany's loss to betrayal by Jews, Bolsheviks, and Socialists. The myth was used by the Nazis in their propaganda. It was felt that an unconditional surrender would ensure that the Germans knew that they had lost the war themselves.\n",
"On 8 May, after a signing ceremony in Berlin, the German armed forces surrendered to the Allies unconditionally and the war in Europe was over. Following the war, the Front headquarters formed the Group of Soviet Forces in Germany.\n",
"On 7 May 1945, Germany surrendered unconditionally to the Allied powers, marking the practical end of World War II in Europe. The German Instrument of Surrender applied to German Wehrmacht forces in Yugoslavia, as well as other armed forces under German control, such as the Croatian Armed Forces. This would ordinarily have meant that they too had to cease their activities on 8 May and stay where they found themselves. The military of NDH, however, came under the command of Pavelić, because as the Germans were about to surrender, General Alexander Löhr, Commander-in-Chief of Army Group E, handed command of the Croatian forces to Pavelić on 8 May. Pavelić issued an order from Rogaška Slatina for his troops not to surrender to the Partisans, but to escape to Austria, to implement the NDH government's decision of 3 May to flee to Austria. Following the capitulation of Germany, Tito issued an address via Radio Belgrade on 9 May calling upon all armed collaborators to surrender, threatening \"merciless response\" from the people and the army should they refuse to do so.\n",
"On 9 May 1945 (Moscow time), Germany surrendered, meaning that if the Soviets were to honour the Yalta agreement, they would need to enter war with Japan by 9 August 1945. The situation continued to deteriorate for the Japanese, and they were now the only Axis power left in the war. They were keen to remain at peace with the Soviets and extend the Neutrality Pact, and they were also keen to achieve an end to the war. Since Yalta they had repeatedly approached, or tried to approach, the Soviets in order to extend the Neutrality Pact, and to enlist the Soviets in negotiating peace with the Allies. The Soviets did nothing to discourage these Japanese hopes, and drew the process out as long as possible (whilst continuing to prepare their invasion forces.) One of the roles of the Cabinet of Admiral Baron Suzuki, which took office in April 1945, was to try to secure any peace terms short of unconditional surrender. In late June, they approached the Soviets (the Neutrality Pact was still in place), inviting them to negotiate peace with the Allies in support of Japan, providing them with specific proposals and in return they offered the Soviets very attractive territorial concessions. Stalin expressed interest, and the Japanese awaited the Soviet response. The Soviets continued to avoid providing a response. The Potsdam Conference was held from 16 July to 2 August 1945. On 24 July the Soviet Union recalled all embassy staff and families from Japan. On 26 July the conference produced the Potsdam Declaration whereby Churchill, Harry S. Truman and Chiang Kai-shek (the Soviet Union was not officially at war with Japan) demanded the unconditional surrender of Japan. The Japanese continued to wait for the Soviet response, and avoided responding to the declaration.\n",
"Some Soviet prisoners of war who survived German captivity during World War II were accused by the Soviet authorities of collaboration with the Nazis or branded as traitors under Order No. 270, which prohibited any soldier from surrendering.\n",
"As it became apparent that war was lost, the Germans became more cooperative, especially as Soviet armies approached from the east. When the prisoners of Stalag Luft I were ordered to leave the camp by the camp commandant, Zemke refused the order. Zemke and his staff negotiated an arrangement for the Germans to depart quietly at night, bearing only small arms, and turn the camp over to the Allied POW wing.\n",
"There were several reasons some Germans decided to end their lives in the last months of the war. First, by 1945, Nazi propaganda had created fear among some sections of the population about the impending military invasion of their country by the Soviets or Western Allies. Information films from the Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda repeatedly chided audiences about why Germany must not surrender, telling the people they faced the threat of torture, rape, and death in defeat. These fears were not groundless, as many Germans were raped, mostly by Soviet soldiers, although many by Western Allied soldiers also. The number of rapes is disputed, but was certainly considerable – hundreds of thousands of incidents, according to most Western historians.\n"
] |
why haven't we come up with an easier way to get to the top of mount everest?
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The reason they want to go there is *because* it is dangerous and difficult and life threatening. They aren't going up there for the view and to get a tan.
Regardless, standing at that altitude has seriously life threatening effects. Climbers need to acclimate for weeks to be able to survive it. Making it easier would mean people would be less prepared to go, and probably make it even more dangerous.
Also, the area is a nature preserve and of great cultural and religious importance to the people who live nearby. There are monasteries and shrines around it and many areas on Everest are considered some of the most important sites of Tibetan and Indian Buddhism.
On top of that there is the issue of just how *remote* Everest is. It is many, many miles away from running water, electricity, etc.
|
[
"Sometimes the normal route is not the easiest ascent to the summit, but just the one that is most used. There may be technically easier variations. This is especially the case on the Watzmannfrau, the Hochkalter and also Mount Everest. There may be many reasons these easier options are less well-used:\n",
"The 1921 British Mount Everest reconnaissance expedition set off to explore how it might be possible to get to the vicinity of Mount Everest, to reconnoitre possible routes for ascending the mountain, and – if possible – make the first ascent of the highest mountain in the world. At that time Nepal was closed to foreigners, so any approach had to be from the north, through Tibet. A feasible route was discovered from the east up the Kharta Glacier and then crossing the Lhakpa La pass north east of Everest. It was then necessary to descend to the East Rongbuk Glacier before climbing again to Everest's North Col. However, although the North Col was reached, it was not possible to climb further before the expedition had to withdraw.\n",
"On the 1975 ascent of Mount Everest by its Southwest Face, he and Nick Estcourt climbed the Rock Band at about setting up fixed ropes that allowed other expedition members to reach the summit of Everest for the first time by a route up one of its faces. Not only was this a key aspect of the climb of the face but, by expending their efforts on this part of the climb, they made it unlikely that they themselves would be able to attempt the summit.\n",
"Because Mount Everest is the highest mountain in the world, it has attracted considerable attention and climbing attempts. A set of climbing routes has been established over several decades of climbing expeditions to the mountain. Whether the mountain was climbed in ancient times is unknown. It may have been climbed in 1924.\n",
"Almost all the mountaineering challenges on Mount Everest have now been overcome, but there remain two routes with extraordinary difficulties: a direttissima climb up the avalanche-prone East Face – the only yet unclimbed direct route on Everest, and ascent of the north pillar on the East Face over the (according to George Mallory) so-called \"Fantasy Ridge\". This ridge ends at the centre of the northeast ridge – below the Three Pinnacles. A climber wishing to climb up the Fantasy Ridge on his way to the summit would have to negotiate the east ridge and then climb the Three Pinnacles on the northeast ridge.\n",
"If we accept the fact that they were above the Second Step, they would have seemed to be incredibly close to the summit of Everest and I think at that stage something takes hold of most climbers ... And I think therefore taking all those circumstances in view ... I think it is quite conceivable that they did go for the summit ... I certainly would love to think that they actually reached the summit of Everest. I think it is a lovely thought and I think it is something, you know, gut emotion, yes I would love them to have got there. Whether they did or not, I think that is something one just cannot know.\n",
"The team from the north (Iwan Irawan and Nurhuda) has reached the top of Mount Everest on May 19, 2012. South team ended the expedition without reached the summit of Mount Everest due to Ardeshir Yafftebbi got laryngitis and Fadjri al Lufhfi could not continue the attempt with wind of 50 meter/second (180 kilometer/hour).\n"
] |
why does david cameron want to scrap the human rights act and replace it with "the british bill of rights"?
|
_URL_1_
> In a speech to the Strasbourg assembly, Mr Cameron said the whole concept of human rights laws was in danger of becoming "distorted" and "discredited" because of the court's decisions.
> "We do have a real problem when it comes to foreign national who threaten our security," he said.
> **"The problem today is that you can end up with someone who has no right to live in your country, who you are convinced – and have good reason to be convinced – means to do your country harm. And yet there are circumstances in which you cannot try them, you cannot detain them and you cannot deport them."**
> "So having put in place every possible safeguard to ensure that (human rights) rights are not violated, we still cannot fulfil our duty to our law-abiding citizens to protect them."
> **Mr Cameron's comments come just a week after the European Court of Human Rights ruled that radical Islamic cleric Abu Qatada cannot be deported for fear he will not get a fair trial in Jordan.**
He believes the HRA goes too far and threatens the national security of the UK. So he wants to put in place human rights, but still keep the country safe.. in his eyes. You can have known terrorists in your country, but who have not violated any UK laws. And with that you cannot deport them because they cannot receive a "fair" trial in their wanted countries for their crimes. So you just keep terrorists on your soil, protected from the courts and deportation. This is just one example of the inconsistencies he sees with the HRA and protecting the UK. He wants to take control back from the EU and allow the UK to determine how to handle such situations.
_URL_0_
> “This is the country that wrote Magna Carta, the country that time and again has stood up for human rights, whether liberating Europe from fascism or leading the charge today against sexual violence in war.
> “Let me put it very clearly: We do not require instruction from judges in Strasbourg on this issue.
> “So at long last, with a Conservative government after the next election, this country will have a new British Bill of Rights to be passed in our Parliament, rooted in our values.”
|
[
"Prior to the 2010 general election, Conservative party leader David Cameron proposed replacing the Human Rights Act with a new \"British Bill of Rights\". After forming a coalition with the Liberal Democrats, these plans were shelved and reinstated only after the Conservative party won an overall majority in the 2015 general election. Former Prime Minister David Cameron then vowed to put right what he termed the \"complete mess\" of Britain's human rights laws, on the 800th anniversary of the passage of the Magna Carta by the Kingdom of England, one of the predecessor states to the United Kingdom. Tensions have arisen between those on the political right in the UK, and the European Court of Human Rights, over issues such as prisoner voting.\n",
"Cameron has announced that he would scrap the Human Rights Act 1998 which came into force in 2000. Instead, it would be replaced with a Bill of Rights, based on \"British needs and traditions\". However, he has said that the country would remain a signatory of the European Convention on Human Rights, upon which the Human Rights Act is based.\n",
"In 2007, Howard's successor as Leader of the Opposition, David Cameron, vowed to repeal the Human Rights Act if he was elected, instead replacing it with a \"Bill of Rights\" for Britain. The human rights organisation JUSTICE released a discussion paper entitled \"A Bill of Rights for Britain?\", examining the case for updating the Human Rights Act with an entrenched bill.\n",
"Sands and Kennedy expressed concern that support for a UK Bill of Rights was motivated by a desire for the UK to withdraw from the European Convention of Human Rights. Writing in \"The Guardian\" in May 2015, Sands argued that plans for a British Bill of Rights could leave some people in the UK with more rights than others and that this would be \"inconsistent with the very notion of fundamental human rights, in which every human being has basic minimum rights.\"\n",
"In 2009, the Conservative party, then the main UK opposition party, announced that, if elected, it would repeal the Human Rights Act 1998 and replace it with a Bill of Rights. In March 2010 the Commission published two statements, including one co-signed with the NIHRC, calling for the preservation of the Act and emphasising that human rights would be best protected by building on the Act instead of replacing it.\n",
"There was also a split on whether to introduce a British Bill of Rights that would replace the Human Rights Act 1998; David Cameron expressed support, but Ken Clarke described it as \"xenophobic and legal nonsense\".\n",
"The decision was severely criticised by Frances Lawrence, Philip Lawrence's widow. David Cameron, as leader of the opposition, argued that the case showed the Human Rights Act 1998 'has to go' and be replaced by a \"British Bill of Rights\".\n"
] |
Why has there never been (widely known?) geopolitical conflict between Canada and the United States?
|
Anytime there has been something of that description, Britain was always the motivator.
In Canada's position there are a few things discouraging it from picking a fight with its neighbor.
1.) Canada has always had a population dearth relative to the United States. Less people means less resources for industry, research, and, most importantly, the military. It has been perennially outnumbered.
2.) It does not control trade routes that are critical to US trade. With the exception of the Great Lakes, Canada has never had the geographic advantage to just sever a trade line.
2b.) Canada is a modern military, but like many other nations, does not have the Navy to match the US Navy. If they are going to project power over a coastline, you have to be able to go toe-to-toe with the people you are trying to restrict.
3.) The Canadian border, de-militarized as it is, is near impossible to hold without giving you plans. Either side of the border would have to deploy an unreasonable number of units along that border.
4.) The US and Canada share a very similar heritage. A product of British colonialism, a "frontier legacy", and a people who know each others culture well enough on friendly terms. For instance, the NHL has teams from both sides of the border. Our cultures are inter-twined enough that making the other seem like a true enemy would take a lot of propaganda work.
Those are all I can think of off the top of my head.
|
[
"The dispute between Canada and the United States arose in 1969 with the trip of the U.S. oil tanker SS \"Manhattan\" through the Arctic Archipelago. The prospect of more American traffic headed to the Prudhoe Bay Oil Field made the Canadian government realize that political action was required should it decide to consider the archipelago as internal waters.\n",
"By the mid-1970s Canada's national policy toward Latin America – and other regions of the globe – had almost completely diverged from that of the United States. This was an especially momentous time in Canadian foreign politics because, until this point, Canada had been under the vast political and economic influence of her neighbour to the South. This incredible divergence was essentially manifested in Mitchell Sharp's \"Options for the Future\" (otherwise known as the 'Third Option Paper'), which reaffirmed the tenets of \"Foreign Policy for Canadians\", but considered U.S.–Canada relations in greater detail. Sharp's paper advocated the growth of Canadian economic, political and cultural 'distinctiveness', but did not encourage alienation from America. Ultimately, Sharp's ideas had a profound and lasting effect on Canadian policy and were central to the outward growth of Canada in the international sphere for many years.\n",
"Meanwhile, Canadian foreign relations were beginning to focus on the United States, which had eclipsed Britain as a world power. During World War II, Canada was a minor partner in the alliance between the United States and Britain, and the US had pledged to help defend Canada if necessary. Canada was one of the founding members of the United Nations in 1945, and also of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1949, but was largely overshadowed in world affairs by the United States. Canada remained a close ally of the United States throughout the Cold War.\n",
"Canada's geographic proximity to the United States has historically bound the two countries together in the political world as well. Canada's position between the Soviet Union (now Russia) and the U.S. was strategically important during the Cold War since the route over the North Pole and Canada was the fastest route by air between the two countries and the most direct route for intercontinental ballistic missiles. Since the end of the Cold War, there has been growing speculation that Canada's Arctic maritime claims may become increasingly important if global warming melts the ice enough to open the Northwest Passage.\n",
"Canada became a self-governing dominion in 1867 in internal affairs while Britain controlled diplomacy and defense policy. Prior to Confederation, there was an Oregon boundary dispute in which the Americans claimed the 54th degree latitude. That issue was resolved by splitting the disputed territory; the northern half became British Columbia, and the southern half the states of Washington and Oregon. Strained relations with America continued, however, due to a series of small-scale armed incursions named the Fenian raids by Irish-American Civil War veterans across the border from 1866 to 1871 in an attempt to trade Canada for Irish independence. The American government, angry at Canadian tolerance of Confederate raiders during the American Civil War, moved very slowly to disarm the Fenians. The British government, in charge of diplomatic relations, protested cautiously, as Anglo-American relations were tense. Much of the tension was relieved as the Fenians faded away and in 1872 by the settlement of the Alabama Claims, when Britain paid the U.S. $15.5 million for war losses caused by warships built in Britain and sold to the Confederacy.\n",
"Smith thought that Canada was destined by geography to enter the United States. In his view, separated as it is by north-south barriers, into zones communicating naturally with adjoining portions of the United States, it was an artificial and badly-governed nation. It would break away from the British Empire, and the Anglo-Saxons of the North American continent would become one nation. These views are most fully stated in his \"Canada and the Canadian Question\" (1891). Donald Creighton writes that Smith was most ably rebutted by George Monro Grant in the \"Canadian Magazine\".\n",
"Prior to the confederation of Canada, in which Queen Victoria took personal interest, a number of issues were of prime concern in the deliberations on the amalgamation of the four Canadian provinces into a country, most notably, the threat of invasion by the United States. It was the explicit intention of the Fathers of Confederation to unite the disparate British entities in North America into a single state under a constitutional monarchy, the men seeing that form of government as a balance between the autocracy of the Russian Empire and the popular sovereignty of the United States, the latter having just led to the American Civil War, which was seen as \"the final stage in the discredit of [American] democracy and republicanism.\" A Canadian crown, the Fathers thought, would ensure diversity and racial harmony in Canada, thereby strengthening its legal and cultural sovereignty, especially considering the presence of the United States and its policy of Manifest Destiny. At the 1864 Charlottetown Conference, the deligates agreed unanimously that the new federation should be a constitutional monarchy.\n"
] |
So what's the upper limit on man-made global warming?
|
The thing scientists are most worried about is a positive feedback loop in the climate, where if you pass some tipping point, you have runaway warming. I'm not a climate expert, but a positive feedback loop would put the upper limit quite high.
Here's a fake example made up off the top of my head - say at some temperature, the CO2 in limestone (CaCO3) decides it prefers not to be in limestone anymore and prefers to be in a gaseous state. Then, lets say our CO2 takes the temperature right up to this point - then CO2 starts pouring out of the global sources of limestone and then we have more heating and its a runaway positivefeedback loop. It's hard to predict these kinds of things but we want to be safe :D.
Edit: Fixed being stupid.
|
[
"In 2010, Parties to the UNFCCC agreed that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 °C (3.6 °F) relative to the pre-industrial level. With the Paris Agreement of 2015 this was confirmed, but was revised with a new target laying down \"parties will do the best\" to achieve warming below 1.5 °C. The current trajectory of global greenhouse gas emissions does not appear to be consistent with limiting global warming to below 1.5 or 2 °C. Other mitigation policies have been proposed, some of which are more stringent or modest than the 2 °C limit. In 2019, after 2 years of research, scientists from Australia, and Germany presented the \"One Earth Climate Model\" showing how temperature increase can be limited to 1.5 °C for 1.7 trillion dollars a year.\n",
"The most cost effective way to limit global warming to 1.5°C, a target of the Paris Agreement, includes EU and OECD countries closing all coal-fired power stations by 2030, China by 2040 and the rest of the world by 2050.\n",
"A 2018 study, co-authored by Rockström, calls into question the international agreement to limit warming to 2 degrees above pre-industrial temperatures set forth in the Paris Agreement. The scientists raise the possibility that even if greenhouse gas emissions are substantially reduced to limit warming to 2 degrees, that might be the \"threshold\" at which self-reinforcing climate feedbacks add additional warming until the climate system stabilizes in a hothouse climate state. This would make parts of the world uninhabitable, raise sea levels by up to , and raise temperatures by to levels that are higher than any interglacial period in the past 1.2 million years. Rockström notes that whether this would occur \"is one of the most existential questions in science.\" Study author Katherine Richardson stresses, \"We note that the Earth has never in its history had a quasi-stable state that is around 2 °C warmer than the preindustrial and suggest that there is substantial risk that the system, itself, will ‘want’ to continue warming because of all of these other processes – even if we stop emissions. This implies not only reducing emissions but much more.”\n",
"Limit global warming to 1.5°C with no or limited overshoot would require reducing emissions to below 35 GtCOeq per year in 2030, regardless of the modelling pathway chosen. Most fall within 25–30 GtCOeq per yer, a 40–50% reduction from 2010 levels.\n",
"Climate science dictates that global warming of more than 2 °C would have serious consequences, beyond those already being experienced, such as an increase in the number of extreme climate events. In order to avoid a global average surface temperature increase of 2 °C, global GHG emissions need to be reduced by 40–70% by 2050 and carbon neutrality (i.e. zero emissions) needs to be reached by the end of the century at the latest.\n",
"Publicly, fossil-fuel corporations say that they support the Paris Agreement aiming to limit global warming below 2 °C in 2100. Internal reports of BP and Shell show that they have made contingency business models plans for warming of more than 3°C of global warming in 2050.\n",
"Many underlying proposals are designed to limit global temperature changes to no more than 2 °C above pre-industrial levels, of which 0.8 °C has already taken place and another 0.5–0.7 °C is already committed. 2 °C is usually seen as the upper temperature limit to avoid 'dangerous global warming'. Due to only minor efforts in global Climate change mitigation it is highly likely that the world will not be able to reach this particular target. The EU might then not only be forced to accept a less ambitious global target. Because the planned emissions reductions in the European energy sector (95% by 2050) are derived directly from the 2 °C target since 2007, the EU will have to revise its energy policy paradigm.\n"
] |
Questions for Hitler?
|
Well, to start, Hitler was chancellor of Germany in 1933: he was running the show in 1933. You want to talk to him in the 1920s, it seems, so:
Do some research on the Beer Hall Putsch of 1923 - that's his first grab for power, but it was ultimately unsuccessful. And while serving his ridiculously lenient jail sentence, he wrote Mein Kampf. I might ask him about the up-and-coming Nazi Party - what he plans to do with it. Ask him about the end of World War I and how he feels about Weimar - he had very strong feelings about these. Ask him about race and struggle - those were the cornerstones of Nazi ideology.
|
[
"Beginning in February 1924, Hitler was tried for high treason before the special People's Court in Munich. He used his trial as an opportunity to spread his message throughout Germany. At one point during the trial, Hitler discussed political leadership, during which he stated that leading people was not a matter of political science (\"Staatswissenschaft\") but an innate ability, one of statecraft (\"Staatskunst\"). He further elaborated by claiming that out of ten thousand politicians only one Bismarck emerged, subtly implying that he too had been born with this gift. Continuing, he declared that it was not Karl Marx who stirred the masses and ignited the Russian Revolution but Vladimir Lenin, not making his appeal to the mind but to the senses. His rousing speeches during the trial made Hitler famous, but they did not exonerate him. In April 1924, he was sentenced to five years' imprisonment in Landsberg Prison, where he received preferential treatment from sympathetic guards and received substantial quantities of fan mail, including funds and other forms of assistance. During 1923 and 1924 at Landsberg, he dictated the first volume of \"Mein Kampf\" (\"My Struggle\") to his deputy Rudolf Hess. Originally entitled \"Four and a Half Years of Struggle against Lies, Stupidity, and Cowardice\", his publisher shortened the title to \"Mein Kampf\".\n",
"He met Hitler for the last time on 25 February 1945 in Berlin. Wahl was well aware then that the war was lost. The latter issued on this occasion in front of a large number of \"Gauleiter\" the statement that \"the German people did not have the inner strength they were perceived to have\" and therefore were losing the war. Wahl attributed this harsh statement to the stress the \"Führer\" was in and perceived him to be mortally ill. Nevertheless, he could not understand why Hitler continued the war.\n",
"Hitler's talent as an orator and his ability to draw new members, combined with his characteristic ruthlessness, soon made him the dominant figure. However, while Hitler and Eckart were on a fundraising trip to Berlin in June 1921, a mutiny broke out within the party in Munich. Members of its executive committee wanted to merge with the rival German Socialist Party (DSP). Upon returning to Munich on 11 July, Hitler angrily tendered his resignation. The committee members realised that his resignation would mean the end of the party. Hitler announced he would rejoin on condition that he would replace Drexler as party chairman, and that the party headquarters would remain in Munich. The committee agreed, and he rejoined the party on 26 July as member 3,680. Hitler continued to face some opposition within the NSDAP, as his opponents had Hermann Esser expelled from the party and they printed 3,000 copies of a pamphlet attacking Hitler as a traitor to the party. In the following days, Hitler spoke to several packed houses and defended himself and Esser to thunderous applause.\n",
"On 22 April 1945, at his afternoon situation conference, Hitler fell into a tearful rage (famously dramatized in the 2004 German film \"Downfall\") when he realised that his plans, prepared the previous day, could not be achieved. He declared that the war was lost, blaming the generals for the defeat and that he would remain in Berlin until the end and then kill himself.\n",
"Hitler was born in Austria—then part of Austria-Hungary—and was raised near Linz. He moved to Germany in 1913 and was decorated during his service in the German Army in World War I. In 1919, he joined the German Workers' Party (DAP), the precursor of the NSDAP, and was appointed leader of the NSDAP in 1921. In 1923, he attempted to seize power in a failed coup in Munich and was imprisoned. In jail, he dictated the first volume of his autobiography and political manifesto \"Mein Kampf\" (\"My Struggle\"). After his release in 1924, Hitler gained popular support by attacking the Treaty of Versailles and promoting Pan-Germanism, anti-semitism and anti-communism with charismatic oratory and Nazi propaganda. He frequently denounced international capitalism and communism as part of a Jewish conspiracy.\n",
"Hitler remained in the army, in Munich, after World War I. He participated in various \"national thinking\" courses. These had been organised by the Education and Propaganda Department of the Bavarian Army, under Captain Karl Mayr, of which Hitler became an agent. Captain Mayr ordered Hitler, then an army lance corporal, to infiltrate the tiny \"Deutsche Arbeiterpartei\", abbreviated DAP (German Workers' Party). Hitler joined the DAP on 12 September 1919. He soon realised that he was in agreement with many of the underlying tenets of the DAP, and he rose to its top post in the ensuing chaotic political atmosphere of postwar Munich. By agreement, Hitler assumed the political leadership of a number of Bavarian \"patriotic associations\" (revanchist), called the \"Kampfbund\". This political base extended to include about 15,000 Sturmabteilung (SA, lit. \"Storm Detachment\"), the paramilitary wing of the NSDAP.\n",
"Haffner argues that on gaining office in 1933, Hitler achieved many 'miracles' in economic and military policy.. 90% of Germans approved. Had he died in 1938, he would have been remembered as 'one of the greatest Germans ever'. Few people noticed that he had dismantled the state and concealed the resultant chaos. In the long run, his achievement came to nothing.\n"
] |
I'm no expert of either, but there seem to be some key similarities between Ancient Latin and Greek, like the -us/-os and -um/-on endings. They even have the same word for "I." Did either peoples notice the same thing and suspect that their languages could have come from a common source?
|
~~I'm not sure which "other people" you are referring to.~~ The Romans thought that Latin was a dialect of Greek. Modern linguists believe that they are both part of the Indo-European language family and therefore have a common linguistic ancestor. [This article](_URL_0_) will probably interest you
|
[
"Colonial era scholars familiar with Latin and Greek were struck by the resemblance of the Sanskrit language; both in its vocabulary and grammar; to the classical languages of Europe. It suggested a common root and historical links between some of the major distant ancient languages of the world. William Jones remarked:\n",
"The pluricentric nature of Ancient Greek differs from that of Latin, which was composed of basically one variety from the earliest Old Latin texts until Classical Latin. Latin only formed dialects once it was spread over Europe by the Roman Empire; these Vulgar Latin dialects became the Romance languages.\n",
"Because of the common inheritance of Greek and Latin roots across the Romance languages, the import of much of that derived vocabulary into non-Romance languages (such as into English via Norman French), and the borrowing of 19th and 20th century coinages into many languages, the same numerical prefixes occur in many languages.\n",
"Greek is a largely synthetic (inflectional) language. Although the complexity of the inflectional system has been somewhat reduced in comparison to Ancient Greek, there is also a considerable degree of continuity in the morphological system, and Greek still has a somewhat archaic character compared with other Indo-European languages of Europe. Nouns, adjectives and verbs are each divided into several inflectional classes (declension classes and conjugation classes), which have different sets of endings. In the nominals, the ancient inflectional system is well preserved, with the exception of the loss of one case, the dative, and the restructuring of several of the inflectional classes. In the verbal system, the loss of synthetic inflectional categories is somewhat greater, and several new analytic (periphrastic) constructions have evolved instead.\n",
"In classical antiquity, Latin and Greek were the languages of the dominant political and cultural forces. Afterward, these languages acted for two millennia as essential lingua francas in Western science and religion. As a result, the Western languages have imported many thousands of Greek and Latin words, either through ancestry or through transfer and loan. Many of these same words are found in non-Western languages, such as Arabic, Hindi, Swahili, and Japanese.\n",
"Bernal proposes instead that Greek evolved from the contact between an Indo-European language and culturally influential Egyptian and Semitic languages. He believes that many Greek words have Egyptian or Semitic roots. Bernal places the introduction of the Greek alphabet (unattested before 750 BC) between 1800 and 1400 BC, and the poet Hesiod in the tenth century.\n",
"Greek is one of the few modern Indo-European languages that still retains a morphological contrast between the two inherited Proto-Indo-European grammatical voices: active and mediopassive. The mediopassive has several functions: \n"
] |
Blown up army sizes in Xerxes march on Greece
|
Hi! You might enjoy the answer I gave to this question [here](_URL_0_). My view is that we need to be thinking about these numbers less in terms of "true or false" and more in terms of "plausible or implausible in a world without written records". In the context of his own work, Herodotos made a lot of effort to justify his numbers, which he probably couldn't have lowered without losing credibility in the eyes of his audience.
|
[
"General Papagos rushed Greek units to the Metsovon pass where the Germans were expected to attack. On 14 April a pitched battle between several Greek units and the LSSAH brigade—which had by then reached Grevena—erupted. The Greek 13th and Cavalry Divisions lacked the equipment necessary to fight against an armoured unit, and on 15 April were finally encircled and overwhelmed. On 18 April, General Wilson in a meeting with Papagos, informed him that the British and Commonwealth forces at Thermopylai would carry on fighting till the first week of May, providing that Greek forces from Albania could redeploy and cover the left flank. On 21 April, the Germans advanced further and captured Ioannina, the final supply route of the Greek Epirus Army. Allied newspapers dubbed the Hellenic army's fate a modern-day Greek tragedy. Historian and former war-correspondent Christopher Buckley – when describing the fate of the Hellenic army – stated that \"one experience[d] a genuine Aristotelian catharsis, an awe-inspiring sense of the futility of all human effort and all human courage.\"\n",
"On this very morning, at roughly 05:00, large formations appeared over the capital, Athens. The remaining Allied fighter units in the area committed themselves to defending the Allied ships in what became known as \"the Battle of Athens\". Barely 15 Hawker Hurricanes, the entire Allied air presence in Greece at the time, participated in a series of defensive missions over Athens.\n",
"In the west, the positions of the Greek 88th Regiment were assaulted at 18:30. After a brief uneven clash at close quarters, the Germans overran the 88th, which reeled back toward Aetos. According to Greek sources, an attempted counterattack was aborted when the 88th Regiment's commander was killed; however, German sources mention repulsing a Greek attack against the German right flank at 19:00 (which conforms to the actual disposition of forces, with the Greek regimental HQ south-west of the German attack).\n",
"The \"ten thousand\" marched inland and fought the Battle of Cunaxa and then marched back to Greece during the years 401 BC to 399 BC. Xenophon stated in \"The Anabasis\" that the Greek heavy troops scattered their opposition twice during the battle; only one Greek was even wounded. Only after the battle did they hear that Cyrus had been killed, making their victory irrelevant and the expedition a failure.\n",
"When the Allies received the news that Xerxes was clearing paths around Mount Olympus, and thus intending to march towards Thermopylae, it was both the period of truce that accompanied the Olympic games, and the Spartan festival of Carneia, during both of which warfare was considered sacrilegious. Nevertheless, the Spartans considered the threat so grave that they despatched their king Leonidas I with his personal bodyguard (the \"Hippeis\") of 300 men (in this case, the elite young soldiers in the Hippeis were replaced by veterans who already had sons). Leonidas was supported by contingents from the Peloponnesian cities allied to Sparta, and other forces that were picked up \"en route\" to Thermopylae. The Allies proceeded to occupy the pass, rebuilt the wall the Phocians had built at the narrowest point of the pass, and waited for Xerxes's arrival.\n",
"Prior to and during the German invasion of Greece, Major General Zisis was commander of the Evros Brigade (Ταξιαρχία Έβρου) deployed in Western Thrace and consisting of 2,100 men. In the Battle of Metaxas Line (April 6–9, 1941), the numerically and technically superior German Army invaded Greece from the Bulgarian border. However, the Greek fortifications at Nymfaia, near Komotini were able to provide a two-day resistance against enemy attacks.\n",
"The Battle of Phaleron took place on April 24 (6 May Gregorian ), 1827. The Greek rebel forces were being besieged inside the Acropolis of Athens by Ottoman forces under the command of Mehmed Reshid Pasha. Greek forces outside the city were desperately trying to break the siege.\n"
] |
does mutually assured destruction (ie. nuclear weapons) deter nations into waging war against each other?
|
Lets see. Why would you start a fight?
You want something that other guy has.
You really hate that guy for whatever reason.
A couple of other reasons exist, but the concept is the same.
Now, if that guy has something that will instantly kill or severely hurt you if you attack him, even if you disable him quickly, you wouldn't start that fight.
You won't be able to use that thing you wanted to have and having acted on your hate is probably less valuable then your life.
No rational decisionmaker would decide to attack an opponent who can with near certainty annihilate him if he tried (unless he has a way to circumvent or disable whatever allows his opponent to do this).
Nuclear weapons make pretty sure that you can't win anything by launching an attack.
#EDIT:
About the second part of your question: It would continue to do so until someone develops a way to prevent his own destruction like a reliable defense system or a way to disable the opposing nation so quickly that it can't launch.
|
[
"The doctrine of mutual assured destruction (MAD) assumes that a nuclear deterrent force must be credible and survivable. That is, each deterrent force must survive a first strike with sufficient capability to effectively destroy the other country in a second strike. Therefore, a first strike would be suicidal for the launching country.\n",
"According to game theory, because starting a nuclear war was suicidal, no logical country would shoot first. However, if a country could launch a first strike that utterly destroyed the target country's ability to respond, that might give that country the confidence to initiate a nuclear war. The object of a country operating by the MAD doctrine is to deny the opposing country this first strike capability.\n",
"Nuclear weapons may also lessen a state's reliance on allies for security, thus preventing allies from dragging each other into wars (a phenomenon known as chain ganging, frequently said to be a major cause of World War I).\n",
"Critics of nuclear war strategy often suggest that a nuclear war between two nations would result in mutual annihilation. From this point of view, the significance of nuclear weapons is to deter war because any nuclear war would escalate out of mutual distrust and fear, resulting in mutually assured destruction. This threat of national, if not global, destruction has been a strong motivation for anti-nuclear weapons activism.\n",
"First, it is argued that suicidal or psychotic opponents may not be deterred by either forms of deterrence. Second, if two enemy states both possess nuclear weapons, Country \"X\" may try to gain a first-strike advantage by suddenly launching weapons at Country \"Y\", with a view to destroying its enemy's nuclear launch silos thereby rendering Country \"Y\" incapable of a response. Third, diplomatic misunderstandings and/or opposing political ideologies may lead to escalating mutual perceptions of threat, and a subsequent arms race that elevates the risk of actual war, a scenario illustrated in the movies \"WarGames\" (1983) and \"Dr. Strangelove\" (1964). An arms race is inefficient in its optimal output, as all countries involved expend resources on armaments that would not have been created if the others had not expended resources, a form of positive feedback. Fourth, escalation of perceived threat can make it easier for certain measures to be inflicted on a population by its government, such as restrictions on civil liberties, the creation of a military–industrial complex, and military expenditures resulting in higher taxes and increasing budget deficits.\n",
"Some NUTS theorists hold that a mutually assured destruction-type deterrent is not credible in cases of a small attack, such as one carried out on a single city, as it is suicidal. In such a case, an overwhelming nuclear response would destroy every enemy city and thus every potential hostage that could be used to influence the attacker's behavior. This would free up the attacker to launch further attacks and remove any chance for the attacked nation to bargain. A country adhering to a NUTS-style war plan would likely respond to such an attack with a limited attack on one or several enemy cities.\n",
"One view argues that countervalue targeting upholds nuclear deterrence because both sides are more likely to believe in each other's no first use policy. The line of reasoning is that if an aggressor strikes first with nuclear weapons against an opponent's countervalue targets, then, by definition, such an attack does not degrade the opponent's military capacity to retaliate.\n"
] |
can someone explain the chandraskhar limit in simplistic terminology?
|
During a star's lifetime, the outward pressure exerted from all of the thermal energy being created by fusion in the core holds the volume of the star up against the force of gravity created by all of that mass. When a star uses up its nuclear fusion fuel supply, there's a number of end scenarios that can play out, and which one happens generally depends on the mass of the star.
One of the possible end results is something called a white dwarf. The fusion has shut down, and so that thermal pressure stops, and the star begins to contract due to gravity. This continues and the star gets increasingly dense until something called [electron degeneracy pressure](_URL_0_) stops it. Long story short, at a quantum level, mass resists getting smashed together even denser, and the force of this resistance is called Electron degeneracy pressure.
So in a white dwarf, electron degeneracy pressure holds the star at a particular volume, and assuming no other significant celestial bodies influence it, the white dwarf just sort of hangs out in the universe, slowly radiating away all its residual heat.
But that only happens to most stars. Some stars have so much mass, and create so much gravity, that that inward collapsing is stronger than electron degeneracy pressure. That amount of mass is called the Chandraskhar Limit. If a dying star has more mass than that limit, then it'll contract past the white dwarf stage, and proceed on to a neutron star, or maybe a quark star (we're not sure if those exist), or even a black hole if it's massive enough.
|
[
"The limiter function is constrained to be greater than or equal to zero, i.e., formula_11. Therefore, when the limiter is equal to zero (sharp gradient, opposite slopes or zero gradient), the flux is represented by a \"low resolution scheme\". Similarly, when the limiter is equal to 1 (smooth solution), it is represented by a \"high resolution scheme\". The various limiters have differing switching characteristics and are selected according to the particular problem and solution scheme. No particular limiter has been found to work well for all problems, and a particular choice is usually made on a trial and error basis.\n",
"The Zero one or infinity (ZOI) rule is a rule of thumb in software design proposed by early computing pioneer Willem van der Poel. It argues that arbitrary limits on the number of instances of a particular entity should not be allowed. Specifically, an entity should either be forbidden entirely, only one should be allowed, or any number of them should be allowed. Although various factors outside that particular software could limit this number in practice, it should not be the software itself that puts a hard limit on the number of instances of the entity.\n",
"In calculus, the (ε, δ)-definition of limit (\"epsilon–delta definition of limit\") is a formalization of the notion of limit. The concept is due to Augustin-Louis Cauchy, who never gave an (formula_1) definition of limit in his \"Cours d'Analyse\", but occasionally used formula_1 arguments in proofs. It was first given as a formal definition by Bernard Bolzano in 1817, and the definitive modern statement was ultimately provided by Karl Weierstrass. It makes rigorous the following informal notion: the dependent expression \"f\"(\"x\") approaches the value \"L\" as the variable \"x\" approaches the value \"c\" if \"f\"(\"x\") can be made as close as desired to \"L\" by taking \"x\" sufficiently close to \"c\".\n",
"The definition of the limit using the hyperreal numbers formalizes the intuition that for a \"very large\" value of the index, the corresponding term is \"very close\" to the limit. More precisely, a real sequence formula_2 tends to \"L\" if for every infinite hypernatural \"H\", the term \"x\" is infinitely close to \"L\", i.e., the difference \"x\" − \"L\" is infinitesimal. Equivalently, \"L\" is the standard part of \"x\"\n",
"A similar argument implies that the limit set has Lebesgue measure zero. For it is contained in the complement of union of the images of the fundamental region by group elements with word length bounded by \"n\". This is a finite union of circles so has finite area. That area is bounded above by a constant times the contribution to the Poincaré sum of elements of word length \"n\", so decreases to 0.\n",
"Keisler proved that a hyperreal definition of limit reduces the quantifier complexity by two quantifiers. Namely, formula_140 converges to a limit \"L\" as formula_3 tends to \"a\" if and only if for every infinitesimal \"e\", the value formula_161 is infinitely close to \"L\"; see microcontinuity for a related definition of continuity, essentially due to Cauchy. Infinitesimal calculus textbooks based on Robinson's approach provide definitions of continuity, derivative, and integral at standard points in terms of infinitesimals. Once notions such as continuity have been thoroughly explained via the approach using microcontinuity, the epsilon–delta approach is presented as well. Karel Hrbáček argues that the definitions of continuity, derivative, and integration in Robinson-style non-standard analysis must be grounded in the ε–δ method in order to cover also non-standard values of the input. Błaszczyk et al. argue that microcontinuity is useful in developing a transparent definition of uniform continuity, and characterize the criticism by Hrbáček as a \"dubious lament\". Hrbáček proposes an alternative non-standard analysis, which (unlike Robinson's) has many \"levels\" of infinitesimals, so that limits at one level can be defined in terms of infinitesimals at the next level.\n",
"The fact that the limit exists takes some effort to prove, though the advantage of doing this is that the proof avoids the use of the axiom of choice and also gives uniqueness of Haar measure as a by-product. The functional formula_64 extends to a positive linear functional on compactly supported continuous functions and so gives a Haar measure. (Note that even though the limit is linear in formula_57, the individual terms formula_59 are not usually linear in formula_57.)\n"
] |
how is it possible that we can have orgasms in our sleep, without any physical stimuli?
|
All physical sensation is just impulses interpreted by the brain. No need for the actual stimuli, just need the part of the brain that responds to the stimuli to activate.
Same idea as starting a car. The conventional way is to use a key to start the engine. You can bypass the key by hot wiring it (or so movies have led me to believe). Your brain is hot wiring your sexy time centers, bypassing the physical stimulation.
|
[
"In addition to physical stimulation, orgasm can be achieved from psychological arousal alone, such as during dreaming (nocturnal emission for males or females) or by forced orgasm. Orgasm by psychological stimulation alone was first reported among people who had spinal cord injury. Although sexual function and sexuality after spinal cord injury is very often impacted, this injury does not deprive one of sexual feelings such as sexual arousal and erotic desires.\n",
"In men, the most common way of achieving orgasm is by physical sexual stimulation of the penis. This is usually accompanied by ejaculation, but it is possible, though also rare, for men to orgasm without ejaculation (known as a \"dry orgasm\"). Prepubescent boys have dry orgasms. Dry orgasms can also occur as a result of retrograde ejaculation, or hypogonadism. Men may also ejaculate without reaching orgasm, which is known as anorgasmic ejaculation. They may also achieve orgasm by stimulation of the prostate (see below).\n",
"Human orgasms usually result from physical sexual stimulation of the penis in males (typically accompanying ejaculation) and of the clitoris in females. Sexual stimulation can be by self-practice (masturbation) or with a sex partner (penetrative sex, non-penetrative sex, or other sexual activity).\n",
"Orgasm control is most easily learned through solitary masturbation, although many individuals enjoy including elements of orgasm control in sex with a partner. Masturbation provides the individual with the opportunity of learning about their bodies and the amount of pleasure they can experience without reaching orgasm. Self-stimulation can help both men and women acknowledge the limits of their body and the techniques that may help them in controlling their orgasms.\n",
"Sexual stimulation is any stimulus (including bodily contact) that leads to, enhances and maintains sexual arousal, and may lead to orgasm. Although sexual arousal may arise without physical stimulation, achieving orgasm usually requires physical sexual stimulation.\n",
"There is some debate whether certain types of sexual sensations should be accurately classified as orgasms, including female orgasms caused by G-spot stimulation alone, and the demonstration of extended or continuous orgasms lasting several minutes or even an hour. The question centers around the clinical definition of orgasm, but this way of viewing orgasm is merely physiological, while there are also psychological, endocrinological, and neurological definitions of orgasm. In these and similar cases, the sensations experienced are subjective and do not necessarily involve the involuntary contractions characteristic of orgasm. However, the sensations in both sexes are extremely pleasurable and are often felt throughout the body, causing a mental state that is often described as transcendental, and with vasocongestion and associated pleasure comparable to that of a full-contractionary orgasm. For example, modern findings support distinction between ejaculation and male orgasm. For this reason, there are views on both sides as to whether these can be accurately defined as orgasms.\n",
"Many individuals assert that orgasm control is more often possible with masturbation. This is a direct result of the fact that one is then able to control the intensity and duration of stimulation without having to rely on the partner stopping or changing the type of stimulation in order to postpone the orgasm. Masturbation is then the easy way to learn one's limits and could also be seen as the starting point in the technique of orgasm control.\n"
] |
The Great War: African Theatre Literature?
|
Hew Strachan tackles Africa in his "The First World War," volume 1. I believe you can buy those sections as one unit on Amazon. He'd be a good place to start. I suggest mining the references and going from there.
|
[
"Charles Miller (1918 – 1986) was an American author of popular history books on East Africa such as \"The Lunatic Express, An Entertainment in Imperialism\" (1971) and \"Battle for the Bundu, The First World War in East Africa\" (1974).\n",
"The African Theatre of World War I describes campaigns in North Africa instigated by the German and Ottoman empires, local rebellions against European colonial rule and Allied campaigns against the German colonies of Kamerun, Togoland, German South West Africa and German East Africa. The campaigns were fought by German \"Schutztruppe\", local resistance movements and forces of the British Empire, France, Italy, Belgium and Portugal.\n",
"During this period, African plays written in English began to emerge. Herbert Isaac Ernest Dhlomo of South Africa published the first English-language African play, \"\" in 1935. In 1962, Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o of Kenya wrote the first East African drama, \"The Black Hermit\", a cautionary tale about \"tribalism\" (discrimination between African tribes).\n",
"In an essay entitled \"The Dead End Of African Literature\", published in \"Transition\" in 1963, Obiajunwa Wali stated: \"Perhaps the most important achievement of the last Conference of African Writers of English Expression held in Makerere College, Kampala, in June 1962, is that African literature as now defined and understood leads nowhere. The conference itself marked the final climax on the attack on the Negritude school of Léopold Senghor and Aimé Césaire... Another significant event in the Conference, is the tacit omission of Amos Tutuola.\"\n",
"Our chief source is the anonymous \"Bellum Africum\" (\"The African War\"), also known as \"De Bello Africo\" (\"On the African War\"), an anonymous account of Julius Caesar's African campaign, which supplements Caesar's own account of the civil war and seems to have been written by a soldier who had served under Caesar on the campaign. It is usually included in a larger text along with other accounts of the last stages of the civil war, the \"Bellum Hispaniense\" (War in Spain) and \"Bellum Alexandrinum \" (War in Alexandria). For Considius' earlier career we have some information from Cicero's speech \"Pro Quinto Ligario\" (\"On behalf of Quintus Ligarius\") and the ancient commentary to this, first edited by Jakob Gronovius and so known as the \"Scholia Gronoviana\", but now generally cited from the edition of Thomas Stangl.\n",
"BULLET::::- \"African Theatre: Playwrights and Politics\". Editor: Martin Banham, James Gibbs, Femi Osofisan. The second volume in the annual African Theatre series that focuses on playwrights and politics in Africa.\n",
"His studies of Africa in the slave trade led him, at the urging of English historian Jeremy Black to write a systematic study of African wars and military culture in the period of the slave trade, which appeared in 1999 as \"Warfare in Atlantic Africa, 1500-1800\" (University College of London, 1999).\n"
] |
how dubstep/rap artists can manipulate the computer/synthesizer to get the beat/sound the way they want it?
|
Well they use specific programs designed to augment sound waves. It started out with having the change the actual circuitry of the physical device to produce such sounds, now you can literally just layer loops and press play, if your a lazy fuck.
|
[
"BULLET::::- Vinyl emulation software allows a DJ to manipulate the playback of digital music files on a computer via a DJ control surface (generally MIDI or a HID controller). DJs can scratch, beatmatch, and perform other turntablist operations that cannot be done with a conventional keyboard and mouse. DJ software performing computer scratch operations include Traktor Pro, Mixxx, Serato Scratch Live & Itch, Virtual DJ, M-Audio Torq, DJay, Deckadance, Cross.\n",
"BULLET::::4. By manipulating the turntables' platters, speed controls, and other elements, the DJ thus controls how the computer plays back digitized audio and can therefore produce \"scratching\" and other turntablism effects on songs which exist as digital audio files or computer tracks.\n",
"Both Oswald and Negativland made their recordings by cutting up magnetic tape (or later using digital technology), but several DJs have also produced plunderphonic works using turntables; in fact, \"digging\" for samples plays a large part in DJ culture. Christian Marclay is a turntablist who has been using other people's records as the sole source of his music making since the late 1970s. He often treats the records in unusual ways, for example, he has physically cut up a group of records and stuck them together, making both a visual and aural collage. Sometimes several spoken-word or lounge music records bought from thrift stores are mashed together to make a Marclay track, but his \"More Encores\" album cuts up tracks by the likes of Maria Callas and Louis Armstrong in a way similar to Oswald's work on \"Plunderphonics\". Marclay's experimental approach has been taken up by the likes of Roberto Musci & Giovanni Venosta, Otomo Yoshihide, Philip Jeck and Martin Tétreault, although in these artist's works the records used are sometimes heavily disguised and unrecognisable, meaning the results cannot properly be called plunderphonics.\n",
"DJ software can be used to mix audio files on the computer instead of a separate hardware mixer. When mixing on a computer, DJs often use a DJ controller device that mimics the layout of two turntables plus a DJ mixer to control the software rather than the computer keyboard & touchpad on a laptop, or the touchscreen on a tablet computer or smartphone. Many DJ controllers have an integrated sound card with 4 output channels (2 stereo pairs) that allows the DJ to use headphones to preview music before playing it on the main output.\n",
"The software allows manipulation and playback of digital audio sources using traditional vinyl and turntables. This provides DJs with a platform to scratch or beat match their tracks without losing the genuine vinyl/CD feel.\n",
"Sometimes, live performances incorporate prerecorded sounds. For example, a disc jockey uses disc records for scratching, and some 20th-century works have a solo for an instrument or voice that is performed along with music that is prerecorded onto a tape. Computers and many keyboards can be programmed to produce and play Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) music. Audiences can also \"become\" performers by participating in karaoke, an activity of Japanese origin centered on a device that plays voice-eliminated versions of well-known songs. Most karaoke machines also have video screens that show lyrics to songs being performed; performers can follow the lyrics as they sing over the instrumental tracks.\n",
"A DJ mixer is a type of audio mixing console used by Disc jockeys (DJs) to control and manipulate multiple audio signals. Some DJs use the mixer to make seamless transitions from one song to another when they are playing records at a dance club. Hip hop DJs and turntablists use the DJ mixer to play record players like a musical instrument and create new sounds. DJs in the disco, house music, electronic dance music and other dance-oriented genres use the mixer to make smooth transitions between different sound recordings as they are playing. The sources are typically record turntables, compact cassettes, CDJs, or DJ software on a laptop. DJ mixers allow the DJ to use headphones to preview the next song before playing it to the audience. Most low- to mid-priced DJ mixers can only accommodate two turntables or CD players, but some mixers (such as the ones used in larger nightclubs) can accommodate up to four turntables or CD players. DJs and turntablists in hip hop music and nu metal use DJ mixers to create beats, loops and \"scratching\" sound effects.\n"
] |
when i shower and someone runs water, i freeze. hotels? 100's of showers, no such problem.
|
Hotels have ridiculous tankless water heaters that flash heat water in-line, so they don't retain a huge tank of water like most household water heaters. If your house is older, it probably isn't plumbed very well and/or you have a small/inefficient water heater.
|
[
"Detainees generally are subject to a daily shower convention: shower takes place by the sink in each cell (sink provides only cold water). Showers are typically allowed after dinner without regard for seasonality. This daily shower is considered a “cell” rule. The detention center provides weekly hot shower but such showers are at the mercy of the furnace.\n",
"In the smallest hotels and some bed and breakfast establishments, the front desk may close entirely overnight. Guests in such facilities are typically given a contact number for an employee or manager, who may be sleeping on the premises or live nearby, for use in case of emergency.\n",
"Like a hostel, many amenities are communally shared, including toilets, showers, wireless internet, and dining rooms. In Japan, a capsule hotel may have a communal bath and sauna. Some hotels also provide restaurants, snack bars or bars (or at least vending machines), pools, and other entertainment facilities. There may be a lounge with upholstered chairs for relaxing, along with newspapers and reading material. \n",
"In December 2009, the health department ordered the hotel to close for numerous health-code violations, including dirty linen, old bedding, bed bug stains, mold growing on the walls, black water spilling from faucets, and broken toilet fixtures.\n",
"It is a member of the European Waterparks Association (EWA), and provides saunas, steamrooms, and various kinds of baths. There are also what are referred to as \"adventure showers\". A small room full of snow, kept at , is also available, so that participants can roll in the snow naked (this often follows use of a sauna or other type of steam room). Like many German bathing areas, people are expected to be nude throughout the sauna part of the resort. \n",
"After each sweat, cooling off is repeated and patrons use the break to drink beer, tea, or other beverages, play games or relax in good company in an antechamber to the steam room. Commercial \"banyas\" often have only a steam room or a steam room and a dry room, depending on local custom.\n",
"Cooling down is a part of the sauna cycle and is as important as the heating. Among users it is considered good practice to take a few moments after exiting a sauna before entering a cold plunge, and to enter a plunge pool by stepping into it gradually, rather than immediately immersing fully. In summer, a session is often started with a cold shower. Therapeutic sauna has been shown to aid adaptation, reduce stress hormones, lower blood pressure and improve cardiovascular conditions.\n"
] |
Question about North American arrow heads.
|
In areas where natural copper could be found the nuggets were cold worked by natives into a variety of tools including arrowheads. One of these areas was located around the Great Lakes and is called the Old Copper Complex. Copper arrowheads and other tools were also used in Alaska and the Yukon.
The use of copper was completely dependent on the availability of naturally occurring copper that did not need to be smelted.
|
[
"Lamoka projectile points are stone projectile points manufactured by Native Americans what is now the northeastern United States, generally in the time interval of 3500-2500 B.C. They predate the invention of the bow and arrow, and are therefore not true \"arrowheads\", but rather atlatl dart points. They derive their name from the specimens found at the Lamoka site in Schuyler County, New York.\n",
"A large variety of prehistoric arrowheads, dart points, and spear points have been discovered. Flint, obsidian, quartz and many other rocks and minerals were commonly used to make points in North America. The oldest projectile points found in North America were long thought to date from about 13,000 years ago, during the Paleo-Indian period, however recent evidence suggests that North American projectile points may date to as old as 15,500 years. Some of the more famous Paleo-Indian types include Clovis, Folsom and Dalton points.\n",
"Levanna projectile points are stone projectile points manufactured by Native Americans what is now the northeastern United States generally in the time interval of 700-1350 AD. They are true \"arrowheads\" rather than atlatl dart points, and they derive their name from the specimens found at the Levanna site in Cayuga County, New York.\n",
"About 175 arrowheads that were found on the western side of the Yadkin River at Cooleemee Plantation were classified by Dr. Joffre L. Coe of the University of North Carolina, and Dr. James Bingham, former President of the North Carolina Archaeological Society. The arrowheads which were from different peoples and of different times were dated from approximately 7000 BCE to the 18th century. Several specimens exist which date from 8000 to 8500 years old with the eldest, a Hardaway Point, being dated at 9000 years old.\n",
"Rossville points are a type of arrowhead first recognized as a unique Native American cultural indicator in 1909 by archaeologists of the American Museum of Natural History. They were named by archaeologist Alanson Skinner after the Rossville section of Staten Island, New York where they were found in the vicinity of the old U.S. Post Office building. \n",
"The first arrow-heads were flint, which was replaced by bronze in the 2nd millennium. Arrow-heads were mostly made for piercing, having a sharp point. However, the arrow heads could vary considerably, and some were even blunt (probably used more for hunting small game).\n",
"Although the most obvious origin of the name is that Arrowhead is at the head of the Arrow Lakes, another version claims that it relates to the finding of arrowheads in the ground during construction of buildings in the area, left from an ancient battle between First Nations peoples. Another version says that it is because of the arrowhead-shaped appearance of the lake from high ground in the vicinity. The name of the Arrow Lakes is credit to \"Arrow Rock\", a large cliffside pictograph shot through with clusters of arrows, again relating to an ancient battle (in this case known to be between the Sinixt and the Ktunaxa), which stood above \"the Narrows\", a stretch of fast-flowing channel connecting Upper Arrow to Lower Arrow Lake.\n"
] |
Why can extreme hot weather cause mass power outages/blackouts?
|
The main reason is that electricity usage is highest during heat waves, because everyone's air conditioning is running at full blast.
There's a second less important reason, which is that fossil fuel and nuclear power plants are less efficient in hot weather. They use outside air and/or water to cool their steam back to water to recycle back into the plant, and that doesn't work as well on a hot day.
In fact, it turns out there's a theorem of thermodynamics that says that the maximum possible efficiency of both heat engines (power plant) and refrigerators (air conditioners) is worse when the outside air is warmer.
_URL_0_
|
[
"Power outages can also occur within areas experiencing heat waves due to the increased demand for electricity (i.e. air conditioning use). The urban heat island effect can increase temperatures, particularly overnight.\n",
"Thousands of power outages were reported in Virginia, Kentucky, and North Carolina, reportedly caused by snow weighing down on power lines. By midnight Saturday morning, when the storm had just begun to strike the area, reported power outages had already exceeded 40,000. In Kentucky, 107,000 power outages were reported. A snow emergency was declared in Washington, D.C., where Mayor Adrian Fenty asked residents to avoid venturing onto the roads. States of emergency were declared in Kentucky, Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia and New Castle and Kent counties in Delaware.\n",
"Even away from thunderstorms, atmospheric electricity can be highly variable, but, generally, the electric field is enhanced in fogs and dust whereas the atmospheric electrical conductivity is diminished.\n",
"A second blackout effect is caused by the emission of beta particles from the fission products. These can travel long distances, following the Earth's magnetic field lines. When they reach the upper atmosphere they cause ionization similar to the fireball, but over a wider area. Calculations demonstrate that one megaton of fission, typical of a two megaton H-bomb, will create enough beta radiation to black out an area across for five minutes. Careful selection of the burst altitudes and locations can produce an extremely effective radar-blanking effect.\n",
"It was a hot day (over ) in much of the affected region, and the heat played a role in the initial event that triggered the wider power outage. The high ambient temperature increased energy demand, as people across the region turned on fans and air conditioning. This caused the power lines to sag as higher currents heated the lines.\n",
"February 7 saw yet more major power outages in the Washington, D.C. region. At least 420,000 homes were under a blackout as the snow felled trees and cut power lines. Some 300,000 homes were without electricity in Maryland and neighboring Virginia, while Washington, D.C. was reporting an initial figure of 100,000 power outages for that day. Emergency workers struggled to restore power as of snow and a record snowfall of fell on Maryland. Transport was badly disrupted from West Virginia to southern New Jersey. Washington, D.C., Virginia and Maryland have declared a short term state of emergency, allowing them to activate the National Guard in order to help cope with the storm's onslaught.\n",
"Further widespread blackouts occurred beginning late on Tuesday 27 December 2016, with areas losing power for upwards of twelve hours following severe storms causing damage to over 300 powerlines in the electricity distribution network. The storms also caused flooding and wind damage, including property destruction due to fallen trees. A total of 155,000 properties lost power at the peak of the storms, requiring over 1200 repair jobs resulting from over 350 powerlines being damaged. As of 7.30pm on Thursday 29 December, there were more than 11 500 households still without power across the state, some for up to forty-six hours, in regions including the Adelaide Hills, Mid-North, Flinders Ranges, and Murraylands. By 9am on Saturday 31 December, there were still more than 1600 households without power for more than 80 hours, primarily across the Adelaide Hills.\n"
] |
modern sociology claims that race is a social construct devoid of any biological foundation. if so, how does forensic science work, or anthropological dna-based migrational studies?
|
There are no sociological characteristics that correspond 1:1 with skin color, which is how "race" is determined in the United States. That is not to say that skin color is not a biological trait that is passed from generation to generation. Rather, it simply means that behavioral traits we associate with certain races are not genetically linked to the phenotypical traits we use to define those races.
It may be true that the genes that facilitate becoming a violin virtuoso are disproportionately found among people whose ancestors come from Asia. But these genes are not linked in any way to something like epicanthic folds. Also, genes for dark skin are dominant over genes for fair skin, but other, invisible genes from a white parent may be dominant over those from a black parent. Thus, we see Barack Obama as the first black President because we key in on what we can see, but he's just as white as he is black. We call Tiger Woods a great black golfer, but investigate his racial heritage. I think he is actually 1/4 black. These are the kinds of things that sociologists mean when they say race is a social construction.
Many sociology professors articulate this poorly, partly because it is a very abstract concept, and partly because they aren't in the business of explaining abstract concepts, but rather in political indoctrination. But I'm a sociologist and I don't want to indoctrinate anyone and I assure you that skin color is not a primary characteristic that geneticists use to identify haplogroups.
NEVERTHELESS, lumping people together into a social group will cause them to behave in reaction to society as if they are a "real" group. Affirmative action is not an attempt to ameliorate problems caused by skin color. These policies are designed to ameliorate problems caused by people who think that skin color means something more than how far from the equator your ancestors were when they evolved.
|
[
"Through this small sampling of experts, it is clear that race as a social construction is a common theory. All of the experts in this sampling say that biological race is non-existent. Race therefore must have been created by societies. They were created to do what humans do, to serve the purposes of the majority. The hierarchies created by race have kept the majority \"race\" in control of everything from public policy to the workforce to law enforcement. They benefit from this construction of race. Yet, the minorities, who are just the same genetically, suffer under this system. Most of the points made by the experts expose this issue, yet none truly suggest a way to fix the problem. Bill Nye weighs in on the issue on the same side as the experts in the sample. He says that humans are humans, we are all one species. We have to fix it. If society created the problem, society has to take it on itself to fix it.\n",
"In the social sciences, theoretical frameworks such as racial formation theory and critical race theory investigate implications of race as social construction by exploring how the images, ideas and assumptions of race are expressed in everyday life. A large body of scholarship has traced the relationships between the historical, social production of race in legal and criminal language, and their effects on the policing and disproportionate incarceration of certain groups.\n",
"Similarly, forensic anthropologists draw on highly heritable morphological features of human remains (e.g. cranial measurements) to aid in the identification of the body, including in terms of race. In a 1992 article, anthropologist Norman Sauer noted that anthropologists had generally abandoned the concept of race as a valid representation of human biological diversity, except for forensic anthropologists. He asked, \"If races don't exist, why are forensic anthropologists so good at identifying them?\" He concluded:\n",
"Similarly, biological anthropologist Jonathan Marks agrees with Edwards that correlations between geographical areas and genetics obviously exist in human populations, but goes on to note that \"What is unclear is what this has to do with 'race' as that term has been used through much in the twentieth century—the mere fact that we can find groups to be different and can reliably allot people to them is trivial. Again, the point of the theory of race was to discover large clusters of people that are principally homogeneous within and heterogeneous between, contrasting groups. Lewontin's analysis shows that such groups do not exist in the human species, and Edwards' critique does not contradict that interpretation.\"\n",
"Sociologists, in general, recognize \"race\" as a social construct. This means that, although the concepts of race and racism are based on observable biological characteristics, any conclusions drawn about race on the basis of those observations are heavily influenced by cultural ideologies. Racism, as an ideology, exists in a society at both the individual and institutional level.\n",
"Wagner et al. (2017) surveyed 3,286 American anthropologists' views on race and genetics, including both cultural and biological andthropologists. They found a consensus among them that biological races do not exist in humans, but that race does exist insofar as the social experiences of members of different races can have significant effects on health.\n",
"The majority of anthropologists today consider race to be a sociopolitical phenomenon rather than a biological one, a view supported by considerable genetics research. The current mainstream view in the social sciences and biology is that race is a social construction based on folk ideologies that construct groups based on social disparities and superficial physical characteristics. state, \"Race is a socially constructed concept, not a biological one. It derives from people's desire to classify.\" The concept of human \"races\" as natural and separate divisions within the human species has also been rejected by the American Anthropological Association. The official position of the AAA, adopted in 1998, is that advances in scientific knowledge have made it \"clear that human populations are not unambiguous, clearly demarcated, biologically distinct groups\" and that \"any attempt to establish lines of division among biological populations [is] both arbitrary and subjective.\"\n"
] |
why do things we do on the internet begin with "e-" instead of "i" for internet?
|
"e-" stands for "electronic".
Regular mail is sent on physical paper, but "e-mail" is sent *electronically*. It's "e(lectronic) mail".
|
[
"\"Online\" has come to describe activities performed on and data available on the Internet, for example: \"online identity\", \"online predator\", \"online gambling\", \"online shopping\", \"online banking\", and \"online learning\". Similar meaning is also given by the prefixes \"cyber\" and \"e\", as in the words \"cyberspace\", \"cybercrime\", \"email\", and \"ecommerce\". In contrast, \"offline\" can refer to either computing activities performed while disconnected from the Internet, or alternatives to Internet activities (such as shopping in brick-and-mortar stores). The term \"offline\" is sometimes used interchangeably with the acronym \"IRL\", meaning \"in real life\".\n",
"An \"Internet meme\" is a concept that spreads rapidly from person to person via the Internet, largely through Internet-based E-mailing, blogs, forums, imageboards like 4chan, social networking sites like Facebook, Instagram, or Twitter, instant messaging, social news sites or thread sites like Reddit, and video hosting services like YouTube and Twitch.\n",
"When the term \"Internet\" is used to refer to the specific global system of interconnected Internet Protocol (IP) networks, the word is a proper noun that should be written with an initial capital letter. In common use and the media, it is often not capitalized, viz. \"the internet.\" Some guides specify that the word should be capitalized when used as a noun, but not capitalized when used as an adjective. The Internet is also often referred to as \"the Net\", as a short form of \"network\". Historically, as early as 1849, the word \"internetted\" was used uncapitalized as an adjective, meaning \"interconnected\" or \"interwoven\". The designers of early computer networks used \"internet\" both as a noun and as a verb in shorthand form of internetwork or internetworking, meaning interconnecting computer networks.\n",
"The Internet standards community historically differentiated between \"the\" Internet and \"an\" internet (or internetwork), treating the former as a proper noun with a capital letter, and the latter as a common noun with lower-case first letter. An internet is any internetwork or set of inter-connected Internet Protocol (IP) networks. The distinction is evident in Request for Comments documents from the early 1980s, when the transition from the ARPANET to the Internet was in progress, although it was not applied with complete uniformity.\n",
"Internet 0 is a low-speed physical layer designed to route 'IP over anything.' It was developed at MIT's Center for Bits and Atoms by Neil Gershenfeld, Raffi Krikorian, and Danny Cohen. When it was invented, a number of other proposals were being labelled as \"internet 2.\" The name was chosen to emphasize that this was designed to be a slow, but very inexpensive internetworking system, and forestall \"high-performance\" comparison questions such as \"how fast is it?\"\n",
"It began in late 2001 as an experimental fork by Petr Baudiš of the Links Web browser, hence the \"E\" in the name. Since then, the \"E\" has come to stand for Enhanced or Extended. On 1 September 2004, Baudiš handed maintainership of the project over to Danish developer Jonas Fonseca, citing a lack of time and interest and a desire to spend more time coding rather than reviewing and organising releases.\n",
"The term \"Internet of things\" was likely coined by Kevin Ashton of Procter & Gamble, later MIT's Auto-ID Center, in 1999, though he prefers the phrase \"Internet \"for\" things\". At that point, he viewed Radio-frequency identification (RFID) as essential to the Internet of things, which would allow computers to manage all individual things.\n"
] |
How did cups become a symbol for victory?
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hi! always room for more info on this, but you can get started on this earlier post
* [Why are trophies often cups?](_URL_0_) - featuring responses from /u/TheJucheisLoose and /u/ConventionalAlias
if you have follow-up questions on this locked post, ask them here & page the relevant user by including their username
|
[
"The Cup is made of pure silver. On the top part of the Cup there is the inscription \"OLYMPIC GAMES 1896, MARATHON TROPHY DONATED BY MICHAEL BREAL\". The remaining surface of the Cup had a relief decoration depicting birds and aquatic plants, which were known to exist in the swamp lands of Marathon in ancient times. With this reference, Breal wanted to give the Cup a symbolic significance and connect the ancient Olympic Games with the modern ones. \n",
"\"Cups\" is a version of the 1931 Carter Family song \"When I'm Gone\", usually performed a cappella with a cup used to provide percussion, as in the cup game. It was first performed this way in a YouTube video by Luisa Gerstein and Heloise Tunstall-Behrens as Lulu and The Lampshades in 2009 (under the title \"You're Gonna Miss Me\"). Composition of the song is credited to A. P. Carter and Luisa Gerstein of Lulu and the Lampshades.\n",
"The cup was originally designed by Leslie Buck of the Sherri Cup Co. in 1963, to appeal to Greek-owned coffee shops in New York City, and was later much copied by other companies. The original Anthora depicts an image of an Ancient Greek amphora, a Greek key design on the top and bottom rim, and the words \"WE ARE HAPPY TO SERVE YOU\" in an angular typeface resembling ancient Greek, for example with an E resembling a capital sigma (\"Σ\", a letter pronounced like English \"s\"). The blue and white colors were inspired by the flag of Greece. The cup subsequently became the metropolitan area's definitive coffee-to-go cup.\n",
"The cup has been won a total of 10 times by the United States and 6 times by England, including the initial 1876 match. The match was suspended in the 1940s due to World War II and was not revived until the 1990s.\n",
"The concept of having a standard Cup awarded to the winner was thought of by Teófilo Salinas, a boardmember of CONMEBOL, and it was his initiative that led to the creation of one of the most prized awards of the world. The original trophy was created in 1959 by Alberto de Gasperi, an Italian immigrant, who owned an artisan shop in Lima, Peru; the prestigious memento was forged in the Camusso Jewelry workshop, located on Colonial Avenue of the same forementioned city. Gasperi later commented:\n",
"The symbol of the Red Cup originates from the many plastic, red cups, usually filled with porridge and other meals, used to feed school children in WFP School feeding programmes. When WFP Executive Director Josette Sheeran began working at the World Food Programme, she was given one of these red cups with the name ‘Lily’ scratched onto the bottom (having been discarded by Lily upon receiving her new cup). Seeing that the cup was a powerful visual tool to help show the world how little food it takes to make a huge difference to a child’s life, Sheeran never travels without it. \n",
"The cup was originally awarded in 1851 by the Royal Yacht Squadron for a race around the Isle of Wight in the United Kingdom, which was won by the schooner \"America\". Originally known as the 'R.Y.S. £100 Cup', the trophy was renamed the 'America's Cup' after the yacht and was donated to the New York Yacht Club (NYYC) under the terms of the Deed of Gift, which made the cup available for perpetual international competition.\n"
] |
if i leave the milky way, am i immediately in another galaxy or in a big empty part of space with different galaxies to choose from?
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There are large empty spaces between galaxies that have almost no matter in them at all. Except maybe dark matter, but we still don't understand that well
|
[
"In 2014 researchers reported that most satellite galaxies of the Milky Way actually lie in a very large disk and orbit in the same direction. This came as a surprise: according to standard cosmology, the satellite galaxies should form in dark matter halos, and they should be widely distributed and moving in random directions. This discrepancy is still not fully explained.\n",
"Astronomers have previously noticed that the Milky Way sits in a large, flat array of galaxies called the Local Sheet, which bounds the Local Void. The Local Void extends approximately , beginning at the edge of the Local Group. It is believed that the distance from Earth to the centre of the Local Void must be at least .\n",
"There are 59 small galaxies confirmed to be within of the Milky Way, but not all of them are necessarily in orbit, and some may themselves be in orbit of other satellite galaxies. The only ones visible to the naked eye are the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds, which have been observed since prehistory. Measurements with the Hubble Space Telescope in 2006 suggest the Magellanic Clouds may be moving too fast to be orbiting the Milky Way. Of the galaxies confirmed to be in orbit, the largest is the Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy, which has a diameter of or roughly a twentieth that of the Milky Way.\n",
"As the galactic plane does not pass through this part of Serpens, a view to many galaxies beyond it is possible. However, a few structures of the Milky Way Galaxy are present in Serpens Caput, such as Messier 5, a globular cluster positioned approximately 8° southwest of α Serpentis, next to the star 5 Serpentis. Barely visible to the naked eye under good conditions, and is located approximately 25,000 ly distant. Messier 5 contains a large number of known RR Lyrae variable stars, and is receding from us at over 50 km/s. The cluster contains two millisecond pulsars, one of which is in a binary, allowing the proper motion of the cluster to be measured. The binary could help our understanding of neutron degenerate matter; the current median mass, if confirmed, would exclude any \"soft\" equation of state for such matter. The cluster has been used to test for magnetic dipole moments in neutrinos, which could shed light on some hypothetical particles such as the axion. Another globular cluster is Palomar 5, found just south of Messier 5. Many stars are leaving this globular cluster due to the Milky Way's gravity, forming a tidal tail over 30000 light-years long.\n",
"The Milky Way galaxy is about 100,000 light-years in diameter, and the Sun is about 25,000 light-years from the galactic center. The small common star UDF 2457 may be one of the farthest known stars inside the main body of the Milky Way. Globular clusters (such as Messier 54 and NGC 2419) and stellar streams are located further out in the galactic halo.\n",
"Al-Jawziyya also recognized the Milky Way galaxy as \"a myriad of tiny stars packed together in the sphere of the fixed stars\" and thus argued that \"it is certainly impossible to have knowledge of their influences.\"\n",
"Al-Jawziyya also recognized the Milky Way galaxy as \"a myriad of tiny stars packed together in the sphere of the fixed stars\" and thus argued that \"it is certainly impossible to have knowledge of their influences.\"\n"
] |
why can't doctors diagnose cte in a living person?
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Because the physical degeneration thought to be involved in CTE can only be observed in autopsies. It doesn't really show readily or conclusively is regular brain scans which look for neuron activity or chemical processes. Cracking open a living person's skull soley for research or diagnosis purposes in a very risky surgery is a rather tough sell for an ethical comittee.
|
[
"Where it is readily available, computed tomography (CT) has become frequently used, especially in people whose diagnosis is not obvious on history and physical examination. Concerns about radiation tend to limit use of CT in pregnant women and children, especially with the increasingly widespread usage of MRI.\n",
"Symptoms from CTE do not typically appear in a subject until many years after the initial injuries, and a conclusive diagnosis of the disease can only be achieved through autopsy. In the years since its inception, the BU CTE Center and Brain Bank has devoted the majority of its time and effort into researching methods for diagnosing CTE in living subjects and developing potential treatments for the disease.\n",
"Computed tomography (CT or CAT) scans may be useful for diagnosing retained hemothorax as this form of imaging can detect much smaller amounts of fluid than a plain chest X-ray. However, CT is less used as a primary means of diagnosis within the trauma setting, as these scans require a critically ill person to be transported to a scanner, are slower, and require the subject to remain supine.\n",
"Computed tomography (CT scanning) is a more sensitive test for pulmonary contusion, and it can identify abdominal, chest, or other injuries that accompany the contusion. In one study, chest X-ray detected pulmonary contusions in 16.3% of people with serious blunt trauma, while CT detected them in 31.2% of the same people. Unlike X-ray, CT scanning can detect the contusion almost immediately after the injury. However, in both X-ray and CT a contusion may become more visible over the first 24–48 hours after trauma as bleeding and edema into lung tissues progress. CT scanning also helps determine the size of a contusion, which is useful in determining whether a patient needs mechanical ventilation; a larger volume of contused lung on CT scan is associated with an increased likelihood that ventilation will be needed. CT scans also help differentiate between contusion and pulmonary hematoma, which may be difficult to tell apart otherwise. However, pulmonary contusions that are visible on CT but not chest X-ray are usually not severe enough to affect outcome or treatment.\n",
"Multiphase CT examinations are very important for the detection and characterization of certain clinical conditions, but should not be generalized for every patient undergoing CT of the abdomen and pelvis. A recent survey demonstrated that many physicians are routinely performing multiphase CT for the majority of patients in an attempt to prospectively characterize potential lesions detected during the scan. However, unindicated multiphase CT examinations are an important source of medical radiation that does not contribute to the care of patients. Adherence to published standards such as the ACR appropriateness criteria can both decrease medical radiation and optimize imaging for the specific clinical indication.\n",
" The detection of CTCs may have important prognostic and therapeutic implications but because their numbers can be very small, these cells are not easily detected. It is estimated that among the cells that have detached from the primary tumor, only 0.01% can form metastases.\n",
"Currently, CTE can only be definitively diagnosed by direct tissue examination after death, including full and immunohistochemical brain analyses. Abnormal p-tau accumulation in \"neurons, astrocytes, and cell processes in an irregular pattern at the depths of the cortical sulci\" is the most specific feature of CTE and required for pathological diagnosis.\n"
] |
if clouds are water in a gaseous state (aren't they?), why aren't they at a greater than boiling temperature, and is evaporating water boiling?
|
Let me try to put this in a 5YO level of understanding.
Remember when it was December and you went outside and you could see your breath? That was water vapor. The water inside you was not boiling. If it was, you would have been boiling, and we don't want that to happen.
Remember in the summer when you felt that cold water pipe and there was water droplets on it? The pipe was cold, but there was cold water drops on it.
Then in the fall when I took you camping and you saw the mist over the lake when I woke you up to go fishing. You saw the mist even though it was too cold for you to get out of your sleeping bag.
Clouds work the same way. The cold air can hold water vapor. For reasons that will have to wait until you get into a good college, warm air can hold more water vapor. The thing is that the water vapor wants to hang out together in colder areas. If the air gets full enough of this water vapor, you see clouds. The warmer the air is, the higher the clouds will have to be, usually.
There is still a lot of stuff about atmospheric pressure and transference of heat that you will have to ask your mother about, but why not, it's Mother's Day. Go wake her up while I make breakfast.
|
[
"Water vapor, water vapour or aqueous vapor is the gaseous phase of water. It is one state of water within the hydrosphere. Water vapor can be produced from the evaporation or boiling of liquid water or from the sublimation of ice. Unlike other forms of water, water vapor is invisible. Under typical atmospheric conditions, water vapor is continuously generated by evaporation and removed by condensation. It is less dense than air and triggers convection currents that can lead to clouds.\n",
"For example, water has a critical temperature of , which is the highest temperature at which liquid water can exist. In the atmosphere at ordinary temperatures, therefore, gaseous water (known as water vapor) will condense into a liquid if its partial pressure is increased sufficiently.\n",
"In the case of evaporation of water to steam, the place occupied by water would be occupied by water vapor, which has a density vastly lower than that of liquid water (the exact number depends on pressure and temperature; at standard conditions, steam is about as dense as liquid water). Because of this lower density (of mass, and consequently of atom nuclei able to absorb neutrons), light water's neutron-absorption capability practically disappears when it boils. This allows more neutrons to fission more U-235 nuclei and thereby increase the reactor power, which leads to higher temperatures that boil even more water, creating a thermal feedback loop.\n",
"Clouds that have low densities, such as cirrus clouds, contain very little water, thus resulting in relatively low liquid water content values of around .03 g/m. Clouds that have high densities, like cumulonimbus clouds, have much higher liquid water content values that are around 1-3 g/m, as more liquid is present in the same amount of space. Below is a chart giving typical LWC values of various cloud types (Thompson, 2007).\n",
"Since the saturation vapor pressure is proportional to temperature, cold air has a lower saturation point than warm air. The difference between these values is the basis for the formation of clouds. When saturated air cools, it can no longer contain the same amount of water vapor. If the conditions are right, the excess water will condense out of the air until the lower saturation point is reached. Another possibility is that the water stays in vapor form, even though it is beyond the saturation point, resulting in supersaturation.\n",
"Clouds form when invisible water vapor ( in gas phase) condenses into microscopic water droplets ( in liquid phase) or into microscopic ice crystals ( in solid phase). This may happen when air with a high proportion of gaseous water cools. A distrail forms when the heat of engine exhaust evaporates the liquid water droplets in a cloud, turning them back into invisible, gaseous water vapor.\n",
"Supersaturation of more than 1–2% relative to water is rarely seen in the atmosphere, since cloud condensation nuclei are usually present. Much higher degrees of supersaturation are possible in clean air, and are the basis of the cloud chamber.\n"
] |
is x86 software made for 32-bit os or 64-bit?
|
If it just says x86 then it is probably 32-bit. It will still work just fine, but unless you have a reason otherwise, you should typically get the 64-bit version, which should be labeled x86_64.
|
[
"Modern x86 is relatively uncommon in embedded systems, however, and small low power applications (using tiny batteries) as well as low-cost microprocessor markets, such as home appliances and toys, lack any significant x86 presence. Simple 8-bit and 16-bit based architectures are common here, although the x86-compatible VIA C7, VIA Nano, AMD's Geode, Athlon Neo and Intel Atom are examples of 32- and 64-bit designs used in some \"relatively\" low power and low cost segments.\n",
"x86-64 (also known as x64, x86_64, AMD64 and Intel 64) is the 64-bit version of the x86 instruction set. It introduces two new modes of operation, 64-bit mode and compatibility mode, along with a new 4-level paging mode. With 64-bit mode and the new paging mode, it supports vastly larger amounts of virtual memory and physical memory than is possible on its 32-bit predecessors, allowing programs to store larger amounts of data in memory. x86-64 also expands general-purpose registers to 64-bit, as well extends the number of them from 8 (some of which had limited or fixed functionality, e.g. for stack management) to 16 (fully general), and provides numerous other enhancements. Floating point operations are supported via mandatory SSE2-like instructions, and x87/MMX style registers are generally not used (but still available even in 64-bit mode); instead, a set of 32 vector registers, 128 bits each, is used. (Each can store one or two double-precision numbers or one to four single precision numbers, or various integer formats.) In 64-bit mode, instructions are modified to support 64-bit operands and 64-bit addressing mode. The compatibility mode allows 16- and 32-bit user applications to run unmodified coexisting with 64-bit applications if the 64-bit operating system supports them. As the full x86 16-bit and 32-bit instruction sets remain implemented in hardware without any intervening emulation, these older executables can run with little or no performance penalty,\n",
"On the x86 architecture, a 32-bit application normally means software that typically (not necessarily) uses the 32-bit linear address space (or flat memory model) possible with the 80386 and later chips. In this context, the term came about because DOS, Microsoft Windows and OS/2 were originally written for the 8088/8086 or 80286, 16-bit microprocessors with a segmented address space where programs had to switch between segments to reach more than 64 kilobytes of code or data. As this is quite time-consuming in comparison to other machine operations, the performance may suffer. Furthermore, programming with segments tend to become complicated; special \"far\" and \"near\" keywords or \"memory models\" had to be used (with care), not only in assembly language but also in high level languages such as Pascal, compiled BASIC, Fortran, C, etc.\n",
"x86-based 64-bit systems sometimes lack equivalents of software that is written for 32-bit architectures. The most severe problem in Microsoft Windows is incompatible device drivers for obsolete hardware. Most 32-bit application software can run on a 64-bit operating system in a compatibility mode, also termed an emulation mode, e.g., Microsoft WoW64 Technology for IA-64 and AMD64. The 64-bit Windows Native Mode driver environment runs atop 64-bit NTDLL.DLL, which cannot call 32-bit Win32 subsystem code (often devices whose actual hardware function is emulated in user mode software, like Winprinters). Because 64-bit drivers for most devices were unavailable until early 2007 (Vista x64), using a 64-bit version of Windows was considered a challenge. However, the trend has since moved toward 64-bit computing, more so as memory prices dropped and the use of more than 4 GB of RAM increased. Most manufacturers started to provide both 32-bit and 64-bit drivers for new devices, so unavailability of 64-bit drivers ceased to be a problem. 64-bit drivers were not provided for many older devices, which could consequently not be used in 64-bit systems.\n",
"The x86-64 architecture is distinct from the Intel Itanium architecture (formerly IA-64), which is not compatible on the native instruction set level with the x86 architecture. Operating systems and applications written for one cannot be run on the other.\n",
"Starting with the AMD Opteron processor, the x86 architecture extended the 32-bit registers into 64-bit registers in a way similar to how the 16 to 32-bit extension took place. An R-prefix identifies the 64-bit registers (RAX, RBX, RCX, RDX, RSI, RDI, RBP, RSP, RFLAGS, RIP), and eight additional 64-bit general registers (R8-R15) were also introduced in the creation of x86-64. However, these extensions are only usable in 64-bit mode, which is one of the two modes only available in long mode. The addressing modes were not dramatically changed from 32-bit mode, except that addressing was extended to 64 bits, virtual addresses are now sign extended to 64 bits (in order to disallow mode bits in virtual addresses), and other selector details were dramatically reduced. In addition, an addressing mode was added to allow memory references relative to RIP (the instruction pointer), to ease the implementation of position-independent code, used in shared libraries in some operating systems.\n",
"The minimal implementation of the x86-64 architecture provides 48-bit addressing encoded into 64 bits; future versions of the architecture can expand this without breaking properly written applications.\n"
] |
what is the simplest way to explain gauss' law and how its used? (algebra based physics) thank you in advance
|
You can tell how much charge is in an enclosed space by looking at the electric field along the boundary.
|
[
"One of the main practical uses of the Gaussian law is to model the empirical distributions of many different random variables encountered in practice. In such case a possible extension would be a richer family of distributions, having more than two parameters and therefore being able to fit the empirical distribution more accurately. The examples of such extensions are:\n",
"Gauss's law has a close mathematical similarity with a number of laws in other areas of physics, such as Gauss's law for magnetism and Gauss's law for gravity. In fact, any inverse-square law can be formulated in a way similar to Gauss's law: for example, Gauss's law itself is essentially equivalent to the inverse-square Coulomb's law, and Gauss's law for gravity is essentially equivalent to the inverse-square Newton's law of gravity.\n",
"In the classical differential geometry of surfaces, the Gauss–Codazzi–Mainardi equations consist of a pair of related equations. The first equation, sometimes called the Gauss equation (named after Carl Friedrich Gauss), relates the \"intrinsic curvature\" (or Gauss curvature) of the surface to the derivatives of the Gauss map, via the second fundamental form. This equation is the basis for Gauss's theorema egregium. The second equation, sometimes called the Codazzi–Mainardi equation, is a structural condition on the second derivatives of the Gauss map. \n",
"Gauss's law was formulated by Carl Friedrich Gauss in 1835, but was not published until 1867, meaning that the formulation and use of D were not earlier than 1835, and probably not earlier than the 1860s.\n",
"Gauss also made important contributions to number theory with his 1801 book \"Disquisitiones Arithmeticae\" (Latin, Arithmetical Investigations), which, among other things, introduced the symbol for congruence and used it in a clean presentation of modular arithmetic, contained the first two proofs of the law of quadratic reciprocity, developed the theories of binary and ternary quadratic forms, stated the class number problem for them, and showed that a regular heptadecagon (17-sided polygon) can be constructed with straightedge and compass. It appears that Gauss already knew the class number formula in 1801.\n",
"Gauss's Theorema Egregium (Latin for \"Remarkable Theorem\") is a major result of differential geometry proved by Carl Friedrich Gauss that concerns the curvature of surfaces. The theorem is that Gaussian curvature can be determined entirely by measuring angles, distances and their rates on a surface, without reference to the particular manner in which the surface is embedded in the ambient 3-dimensional Euclidean space. In other words, the Gaussian curvature of a surface does not change if one bends the surface without stretching it. Thus the Gaussian curvature is an intrinsic invariant of a surface.\n",
"Gauss' law states that \"the total electric flux through any closed surface in free space of any shape drawn in an electric field is proportional to the total electric charge enclosed by the surface.\" Mathematically, Gauss's law takes the form of an integral equation:\n"
] |
Was the Sherman tank a name resented by US soldiers from the south during WWII?
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If this question isn't relevant, feel free to remove mods.
Given the nicknames M3 Lee, M3 Stuart, M3 Grant, and M4 Sherman, why were Union and Confederate general names given to tanks, or any modern weapons for that matter?
|
[
"The M4 was the best known and most used American tank of World War II. Christened \"Sherman\" by the British, it was named for the famous US Civil War General, William Tecumseh Sherman. The M4 Sherman was a medium tank that proved itself in the Allied operations in North Africa, Europe and the Pacific theaters of war in World War II. The Sherman was a relatively inexpensive, easy to maintain and produce combat system. Similar to production efforts on the part of the Soviet Union with their T-34 tank system, the M4 Sherman was the same class of tank weapon under an American guise.\n",
"The first Shermans to see battle in World War II were M4A1s (Sherman IIs) with the British Eighth Army at the Second Battle of El Alamein in October 1942. The tanks had been supplied in a hurry from the USA, which had removed them from their own army units. They were then hastily modified to meet British military requirements and for desert and hot-weather conditions, such as the addition of sandshields over the tracks. Over 250 of these US-supplied Shermans, which were divided among 12 regiments, participated in the battle. They formed the so-called \"heavy squadrons\" (16 tanks in each) of one brigade in each division of X Corps and some other squadrons of the other units taking part in the battle, with the other heavy squadrons still being equipped with M3 Lee/Grant tanks and light squadrons possessing M3 Stuart 'Honey' light tanks and Crusader cruiser tanks. The British Shermans were able to tackle enemy rearguard units and defending troops by using high-explosive (HE) shells which were fired indirectly at them whilst the German 5 cm Pak 38 anti-tank gun was only effective against the Sherman if it could engage it from the more-vulnerable sides. More of the British armoured units in North Africa were converted to increasingly-larger quantities of Shermans over time from their successful outcome at El Alamein, including the addition of Sherman IIIs (M4A2s) aside from the previous Sherman II, although the infantry tank units retained use of their Churchill tanks.\n",
"The M4 Sherman served with the U.S. Army and Marine Corps during World War II. The U.S. also supplied large numbers to the various Allied countries. Shermans were used during the war by British and Commonwealth armies, the Soviet Union's Red Army, Free French forces, the Polish army in exile, China's National Revolutionary Army, and Brazil's Expeditionary Force.\n",
"Sherman's advance through Georgia and South Carolina was characterized by widespread destruction of civilian supplies and infrastructure. Although looting was officially forbidden, historians disagree on how well this regulation was enforced. Union soldiers who foraged from Southern homes became known as bummers. The speed and efficiency of the destruction by Sherman's army was remarkable. The practice of heating rails and bending them around trees, leaving behind what came to be known as \"Sherman's neckties,\" made repairs difficult. Accusations that civilians were targeted and war crimes were committed on the march have made Sherman a controversial figure to this day, particularly in the American South.\n",
"The M4 Sherman, officially Medium Tank, M4, was the most widely used medium tank by the United States and Western Allies in World War II. The M4 Sherman proved to be reliable, relatively cheap to produce, and available in great numbers. Thousands were distributed through the Lend-Lease program to the British Commonwealth and Soviet Union. The tank was named by the British for the American Civil War general William Tecumseh Sherman.\n",
"BULLET::::- Sherman lent his name to the Sherman tank. Formally named the Medium Tank, M4, it acquired the name \"Sherman\" from the British Army, who received M4 tanks under the Lend-Lease Act. The combined name \"M4 Sherman\" or just \"Sherman\" spread to American personnel and it has since become common to refer to it by that name.\n",
"The M46 was the first tank to be named after General George S. Patton Jr., commander of the U.S. Third Army during World War II and one of the earliest American advocates for the use of tanks in battle.\n"
] |
Do we really know anything about Mayan warfare?
|
Maya records do give us a good look at the nature of (and possible motivations for) a variety of military endeavors. Let's take a look at a few.
* Palenque and Calakmul were two of the many pairs of constantly competing city states, located just south of the Tabasco region in southern Mexico. Sometime around 608 AD, Palenque, led by Ajen Yol Mat, began expanding it's control to the northeast, towards the direction of Calakmul. Calakmul's rulers, who styled themselves "snake lords," did not take very kindly to this. The Lord Scroll Serpent retaliated in 610 AD and for months sacked (the Mayan verb is literally "axed") cities on his route to Palenque itself. In these battles, Ajen Yol Mat and and brother/second in command Janab' Pakal the Elder were killed, and Palenque would be in its darkest days.
* During this troublesome period, in 603, a fellow named K'inich Janaab' Pakal 1 ("Sacred Flower Shield the First") was born. The aforementioned deaths of so many royals left him as the next best candidate for succession, even if it was a matrilineal claim. His mother, Ix Sak K'uk', effectively ruled from 615 until the young king was capable. K'nicich Janaab' Pakal 1 would become Palenque's greatest ruler, reigning 68 years, constructing its most impressive monuments, and, of course, executing successful military campaigns. Around 650, Janaab' Pakal began reasserting Palenque's northern and eastern frontiers. Yet again, Calakmul got cranky and marched towards Palenque, "axing" it once more in 654. But it was not the same degree of blow as before, and Palenque quickly retaliated, capturing Calakmul's allied city Pomona, sacrificing its leaders, and installing member
s of Palenque's own dynasty on the throne.
* Yaxchilan, to the southwest of Palenque, was one of the first sites to have a mostly complete timeline of rulers established. One anomaly, though, sticks out. One ruler, Shield Jaguar 1, died on December 1, 741. The next ruler would not be seated on the throne until May 3, 752. This man called himself Bird-Jaguar IV, was the sun of a "Lady Eveningstar," and, curiously, appears nowhere in the records until his accession. Even curioser: we know that Lady Eveiningstar was from Calakmul and a secondary wife of Shield Jaguar 1, most likely a political marriage. But Shield Jaguar's Queen consort, Lady Xoc, was an incredibly popular and powerful woman; why should her son not rule? Well, if we look at Bird Jaguar IV's activities, it's clear that he was purveying an enormous amount of propaganda: inserting himself into historical scenes, showing him and his mother alongside important individuals doing rituals, and comminsioning images of him capturing all varieties of enemies. Bird Jaguar IV's name is also frequently followed by numerous titles: "Captor of Lord Jeweled Skull," "He of 20 Captives," and "Captor of Aj Uk." (A rather common tradition) He uses these titles from the very beginning of his reign, before he could have led many military campaigns. And over at Piedras Negras, a rival of Yaxchilan, we find an inscription showing a captured noble from between 741 and 752, a noble many consider to be the missing son of Lady Xoc. Put this together, and we have a picture of a Classic Maya *Game of Thrones*: queens, brothers, and some opportunist neighbors vying for succession after the death of a highly successful king.
As you can see, military efforts in the Classic Maya lowlands were often quite political. Kingdoms were competing over land and influence over surrounding, smaller towns. Nobles were competing for thrones when succession was unsure. And in each situation, the victors were taking important figures captive and sacrificing them, and then gracing themselves with titles of "Captor."
|
[
"Warfare was prevalent in the Maya world. Military campaigns were launched for a variety of reasons, including the control of trade routes and tribute, raids to take captives, scaling up to the complete destruction of an enemy state. Little is known about Maya military organization, logistics, or training. Warfare is depicted in Maya art from the Classic period, and wars and victories are mentioned in hieroglyphic inscriptions. Unfortunately, the inscriptions do not provide information upon the causes of war, or the form it took. In the 8th–9th centuries, intensive warfare resulted in the collapse of the kingdoms of the Petexbatún region of western Petén. The rapid abandonment of Aguateca by its inhabitants has provided a rare opportunity to examine the remains of Maya weaponry \"in situ\". Aguateca was stormed by unknown enemies around 810 AD, who overcame its formidable defences and burned the royal palace. The elite inhabitants of the city either fled or were captured, and never returned to collect their abandoned property. The inhabitants of the periphery abandoned the site soon after. This is an example of intensive warfare carried out by an enemy in order to completely eliminate a Maya state, rather than subjugate it. Research at Aguateca indicated that Classic period warriors were primarily members of the elite.\n",
"Although the Maya were once thought to have been peaceful (see below), current theories emphasize the role of inter-polity warfare as a factor in the development and perpetuation of Maya society. The goals and motives of warfare in Maya culture are not thoroughly understood, but scholars have developed models for Maya warfare based on several lines of evidence, including fortified defenses around structure complexes, artistic and epigraphic depictions of war, and the presence of weapons such as obsidian blades and projectile points in the archaeological record. Warfare can also be identified from archaeological remains that suggest a rapid and drastic break in a fundamental pattern due to violence.\n",
"Scholars have identified four examples of Maya hieroglyphs that refer to different kinds of Maya warfare. There is considerable variation and other glyphs also relate to violence, but these are the most generally identifiable.\n",
"Maya warfare was not so much aimed at destruction of the enemy as the seizure of captives and plunder. The Spanish described the weapons of war of the Petén Maya as bows and arrows, fire-sharpened poles, flint-headed spears and two-handed swords crafted from strong wood with the blade fashioned from inset obsidian, similar to the Aztec \"macuahuitl\". Pedro de Alvarado described how the Xinca of the Pacific coast attacked the Spanish with spears, stakes and poisoned arrows. Maya warriors wore body armour in the form of quilted cotton that had been soaked in salt water to toughen it; the resulting armour compared favourably to the steel armour worn by the Spanish. The Maya had historically employed ambush and raiding as their preferred tactic, and its employment against the Spanish proved troublesome for the Europeans. In response to the use of cavalry, the highland Maya took to digging pits on the roads, lining them with fire-hardened stakes and camouflaging them with grass and weeds, a tactic that according to the Kaqchikel killed many horses.\n",
"In Maya narrative, warfare includes the warriors' transformation into animals (wayob) and the use of black magic by sorcerers. In the pre-Hispanic period, war rituals focused on the war leaders and the weapons. The jaguar-spotted War Twin Xbalanque counted as a war deity in the Alta Verapaz; preceding a campaign, rituals were held for him during thirty days, so that he might imbue the weapons with his power. The Yucatec ritual for the war chief (\"nakom\") was connected to the cult of a puma war god, and included a five-day residence of the war leader in the temple, \"where they burned incense to him as to an idol.\" In Classic war rituals, the Maya jaguar gods were prominent, particularly the jaguar deity associated with fire (and patron of the number Seven), whose face commonly adorns the king's war shield. The Palenque Temple of the Sun, dedicated to war, shows in its sanctuary the emblem of such a shield, held up by two crossed spears.\n",
"Maya warfare was a major theme in \"Apocalypto\" (2006), directed by Mel Gibson. The film depicts the attack on a small village by warriors from a larger polity for the purpose of capturing men to be sacrificed atop a pyramid during a solar eclipse. The warfare depicted in the film, like most other aspects of Late Postclassic Maya society, should not be taken as factual. Richard Hansen, who acted as the historical consultant for the film, has worked mostly on early Maya civilization, more than a millennium before the time period depicted in the film.\n",
"Maya armies were highly disciplined, and warriors participated in regular training exercises and drills; every able-bodied adult male was available for military service. Maya states did not maintain standing armies; warriors were mustered by local officials who reported back to appointed warleaders. There were also units of full-time mercenaries who followed permanent leaders. Most warriors were not full-time, however, and were primarily farmers; the needs of their crops usually came before warfare. Maya warfare was not so much aimed at destruction of the enemy as the seizure of captives and plunder. Maya warriors entered battle against the Spanish with flint-tipped spears, bows and arrows and stones. They wore padded cotton armour to protect themselves. The Spanish described the weapons of war of the Petén Maya as bows and arrows, fire-sharpened poles, flint-headed spears and two-handed swords crafted from strong wood with the blade fashioned from inset obsidian, similar to the Aztec \"macuahuitl\". Maya warriors wore body armour in the form of quilted cotton that had been soaked in salt water to toughen it; the resulting armour compared favourably to the steel armour worn by the Spanish. Warriors bore wooden or animal hide shields decorated with feathers and animal skins. The Maya had historically employed ambush and raiding as their preferred tactic, and its employment against the Spanish proved troublesome for the Europeans. In response to the use of cavalry, the highland Maya took to digging pits on the roads, lining them with fire-hardened stakes and camouflaging them with grass and weeds, a tactic that according to the Kaqchikel killed many horses.\n"
] |
Why was North Vietnam able to field such a massive army that easily over-ran the south when the Americans left? Why did the south not have a more capable or large enough army to hold them off?
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[I've answered this previously in this thread.](_URL_0_)
The period we're going to speak about is completely focused on conventional warfare, as opposed to the asymmetrical warfare in which the Vietnam War (the American portion of it) had largely been fought. With the exception of two major occasions, the Tét offensive in 1968 and the Nguyen Hue (Easter) Offensive in 1972, the People's Army of (North) Vietnam and the Army of the Republic of (South) Vietnam (henceforth abridged as PAVN and ARVN) had never truly faced of against each other in a conventional battle. In fact, one of the main reasons for the ARVN's failure in conducting proper counterinsurgency is that it had been trained since 1955 to repel an expected invasion from the North. When the time came for the PAVN to face off against ARVN in the Easter Offensive of 1972, the PAVN suffered several losses and was ultimately beaten back by the ARVN with help from American fire support. The PAVN had yet to perfect combined arms tactics and suffered greatly because of it. The ordinary ARVN soldier, who is usually the scorn of popular history on the Vietnam War, labelled as nothing but incompetent and coward soldiers, showed remarkable courage and fighting ability in fighting the Tét offensive (alongside American troops) and the Easter Offensive (practically on their own with American advisors or special forces).
So if the ARVN had managed to fight off the PAVN in 1972, what went so disastrously wrong in 1975?
There are several reasons for this.
The Americans had left Vietnam two years previously and while all equipment and machinery had been left behind for the South Vietnamese to use, they were practically useless without ammunition or spare parts - items which the US were not prepared to supply. While President Gerald Ford tried to gain support in Congress to increase the money given to South Vietnam, the ARVN found itself in an ammunition shortage. Since the US were not prepared to help South Vietnam with fire support like in the previous two conventional encounters, it would be an increasingly difficult task to stem the tide of North Vietnamese crossing the DMZ. The PAVN was also superior in numbers, having increased in size and improved itself during late 1973, but which had been constantly developing since 1968. PAVN had several veteran units, and plenty of soldiers in the PAVN had combat experience and were of rather high quality. Unlike the 1972 offensive, combined tactics training had been carried out and improvement on collaboration had been achieved. Combine this with competent generals and commanders in the field as well as sound and proper preparation for the offensive (in particular when it came to logistics and transportation) as well as the successful use of deception tactics to disguise that Ban Me Thuot was the target of the initial 1975 offensive.
The ARVN by this time was unfortunately still plagued with the corruption of senior officers and with widespread lack of proper training. However, when put to the test, the average ARVN soldier could stand his ground. To say that the North crushed the South instantly is perhaps too much of an exaggeration. ARVN stood its ground on plenty of battlefields, right up to the end at Xuan Loc. However, we have to consider the human factor in this and many soldiers feared for possible reprisals. Considering the importance of family in Vietnamese culture, it was only natural for men to desert to seek up their family amongst the refugees, but there are also plenty of ARVN soldiers who used the thought of protecting their families as their prime motivations in fighting.
In the end, it was simply too much for an already weakened ARVN. Without fire support, without the necessary equipment, spare parts or ammunition and with the enemy close to their families, it became too much for them to bear. After the fall of Ban Me Thuot President Thieu decided to evacuate the Central Highlands and effectively cut South Vietnam in two. The final collapse came soon thereafter.
To read more on this and the 1975 offensive, I'd recommend Gorge J. Veith's *Black April: The Fall of South Vietnam 1974-75*.
|
[
"In 1965, the United States rapidly increased its military forces in South Vietnam, prompted by the realization that the South Vietnamese government was losing the Vietnam War as the communist-dominated Viet Cong gained influence over much of the population in rural areas of the country. North Vietnam also rapidly increased its infiltration of men and supplies to combat South Vietnam and the U.S.. The objective of the U.S. and South Vietnam was to prevent a communist take-over. North Vietnam and the insurgent Viet Cong sought to unite the two sections of the country. \n",
"Each side had its relative strengths and weaknesses. The North had a larger population and a far larger industrial base and transportation system. It would be a defensive war for the South and an offensive one for the North, and the South could count on its huge geography, and an unhealthy climate, to prevent an invasion. In order for the North to emerge victorious, it would have to conquer and occupy the Confederate States of America. The South, on the other hand, only had to keep the North at bay until the Northern public lost the will to fight. The Confederacy adopted a military strategy designed to hold their territory together, gain worldwide recognition, and inflict so much punishment on invaders that the North would grow weary of the war and negotiate a peace treaty that would recognize the independence of the CSA. The only point of seizing Washington, or invading the North (besides plunder) was to shock Yankees into realizing they could not win. The Confederacy moved its capital from a safe location in Montgomery, Alabama, to the more cosmopolitan city of Richmond, Virginia, only 100 miles from the enemy capital in Washington. Richmond was heavily exposed, and at the end of a long supply line; much of the Confederacy's manpower was dedicated to its defense. The North had far greater potential advantages, but it would take a year or two to mobilize them for warfare. Meanwhile, everyone expected a short war.\n",
"As the fighting between the two capitals stalled, the North found more success in campaigns elsewhere, using rivers, railroads, and the seas to help move and supply their larger forces, putting a stranglehold on the South—the Anaconda Plan. The war spilled across the continent, and even to the high seas. After four years of appallingly bloody conflict, with more casualties than all other U.S. wars combined, the North's larger population and industrial might slowly ground the South down. The resources and economy of the South were ruined, while the North's factories and economy prospered filling government wartime contracts.\n",
"The North Vietnamese had already sent units of their regular army into southern Vietnam beginning in late 1964. Some officials in Hanoi had favored an immediate invasion of the South, and a plan was developed to use PAVN units to split southern Vietnam in half through the Central Highlands. The two imported adversaries first faced one another during Operation \"Silver Bayonet\", better known as the Battle of the Ia Drang. During the savage fighting that took place, both sides learned important lessons. The North Vietnamese, began to adapt to the overwhelming American superiority in air mobility, supporting arms, and close air support by moving in as close as possible during confrontations, thereby negating the effects of the above.\n",
"In 1965, both the United States and North Vietnam rapidly increased the numbers of their soldiers in South Vietnam. Communist forces totaled 221,000 including an estimated 105 Viet Cong and 55 PAVN battalions. American soldiers in Vietnam totaled 175,000 by the end of the year, and the South Vietnamese army numbered more than 600,000. Commanding General William Westmoreland rejected the use of the U.S. army to pacify rural areas, instead utilizing U.S. superiority in mobility and firepower to find and combat Viet Cong and PAVN units. Intensification of the conflict caused many peasants and rural dwellers to flee to the cities for safety. The number of internal refugees increased from about 500,000 in 1964 to one million in 1966. By December 1966, South Vietnam could only claim—optimistically in the U.S.'s view—to control 4,700 of the country's 12,000 hamlets and 10 of its 16 million people\n",
"With the increased involvement of the United States military in 1965, the North's military strategy was forced to change. As Lê Duẩn noted in a letter to Nguyễn Chí Thanh, the war would become \"fiercer and longer\". He believed the fundamentals of the conflict had not changed; the South Vietnamese regime's unpopularity remained its \"Achilles' heel\" and he continued to advocate a combination of guerrilla warfare and People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) offensives. The communist commanders in the South were to avoid large attacks on the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN), but instead focus on many small attacks to demoralize the enemy. Lê Duẩn believed that the key to victory was for the PAVN to keep the initiative. He dismissed the possibility of an attack against North Vietnam by American forces, claiming that an attack on North Vietnam would be an attack on the entire socialist camp.\n",
"Throughout a large portion of the War, North Vietnam denied that any of its soldiers were even \"in\" the south, but it is clear that the Communist forces were able to place tens of thousands of troops in the southern war zone, including complete units of regular NVA, rather than simply individual fillers.\n"
] |
i often hear how states around the country are hemorrhaging due to the lack of teachers, why isn't there a greater demand for teachers?
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There is a demand in terms of students who need teachers. But the lack is due to the budgets of the states, who tend to undervalue teachers, as is traditional.
|
[
"Moreover, a lack of governmental legislation and intervention can be to blame. In parts of South America (with the exception of Chile and Colombia), there are no laws that make physical education compulsory: thus, it is omitted from many schools.\n",
"The problems of state's education system are complex. Due to public apathy the public schools are run inefficiently. Privately run schools (including those run by Christian missionaries) are functional, but expensive and so beyond the reach of ordinary people.\n",
"Reports show that on any day over 5,000 women are unable to use services because of a lack of funding or space. Many states have also cut their funds for women's shelters. In 2009, Governor Schwarzenegger of California cut $16 million in state funding to domestic violence programs because of the state's budget deficit. In late 2011 Washington governor Christine Gregoire released a budget proposal stripping all state funding for domestic violence and women's shelters across Washington State. These types of budget cuts caused several shelters to close their doors, leaving women with no safe haven to escape Intimate partner violence. Local communities are now also taking it upon themselves to create a safe place for domestic violence refugees. In Grand Forks, British Columbia, a small community of less than 3,600, people organized the Boundary Women's Coalition, to support their local women's shelter.\n",
"Teachers and administrators in the public school systems of the United States come in contact with a wide variety of sub-cultures and are at the forefront of the challenge of bringing diverse groups together within a larger American society. Issues confronting teachers and administrators on a daily basis include student learning disabilities, student behavioral problems, child abuse, drug addiction, mental health, and poverty, most of which are handled differently within different cultures and communities.\n",
"The academic disparities in the United States are also caused by other factors. One is that qualified, effective teachers are often concentrated in school districts that offer higher salaries Yet these districts are inhabited mainly by wealthier families and less by students of color. Another cause is that impoverished circumstances prevent children from learning in school, increasing the achievement gap. Studies have also revealed that the trend of school choice is a hindrance to social mobility, as more affluent families have access to schools with greater resources that are often private. This tendency has generated greater school segregation not only amongst students of various races but also of different socioeconomic classes.\n",
"The topic of educational funding in various states within the United States has become a controversial subject. In early 2018, teachers in the states of Arizona, Colorado, North Carolina, Oklahoma, and West Virginia conducted strikes. In Colorado, the strikes occurred because of low teacher salaries and insignificant benefits. Colorado teachers were represented by the Colorado Education Association (CEA) and were opposed by officials of state government. The CEA demanded a two percent salary increase and a significant favorable adjustment to the Colorado Public Employees’ Retirement Association (PERA). In response, on April 20th, 2018, Colorado Senator Bob Gardner and Representative Paul Lundeen introduced Senate Bill 18-264. Gardner and Lundeen intended to discourage teachers from conducting protests. “The bill prohibits public school teachers and teacher organizations from directly or indirectly inducing, instigating, encouraging, authorizing, ratifying, or participating in a strike against any public-school employer” (SB18-264, n.d.). However, Senate Bill 18-264 was heavily criticized and was dismissed. Despite the threat of the bill, Colorado teachers began to strike on April 27th, 2018 and continued to do so until May 12th, 2018. Ultimately, the state government of Colorado agreed to give teachers a two percent salary increase.\n",
"The government provides services throughout the entire US territory. As a result, the state is more politically and economically stable. In general, citizens have more time to concentrate on political and social activities because they do not have to worry about daily subsistence. Thus, civil society has a strong presence in the United States and provides an arena through which the government can affect daily life.\n"
] |
Why does my voice tend to go higher around new company or in formal situations?
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Higher pitched voices are often perceived as less threatening. So it is a way of reassuring new people you are not a threat. It could also be the excitement of meeting a new person being expressed as a higher pitch.
|
[
"Deep voice privilege, an idea in sociology and psychology, is the privilege that a man gains from having a deeper speaking voice. According to one study, there is a correlation between voice pitch, CEO salary, and size of firm that the CEO runs.\n",
"The ability and right to a voice is linked with feelings of respect and value, which emphasizes the importance of the interpersonal factors of procedural justice. This is important in the workplace because employees will feel more satisfied and respected, which can help to increase job task and contextual performance. There is an emphasis on the interpersonal and social aspects of the procedure, which result in employees feeling more satisfied when their voices are able to be heard. This was argued by Greenberg and Folger. Procedural justice also is a major factor that contributes to the expression of employee dissent. It correlates positively with managers' upward dissent. With procedural justice there is a greater deal of fairness in the workplace. There are six rules that apply to procedural justice, \"Leventhal's rules\", are consistence, bias suppression, accuracy, correctability, representativeness, and ethicality. With procedural justice in the workplace and in communication, things need to be fair to everyone, when something is applied it has to be applied to everyone and procedures need to be consistent with the moral and ethical values.\n",
"Voice refers to any attempt to change, rather than escape from, the dissatisfying situation. Voice can be constructive response, such as recommending ways for management to improve the situation, or it can be more confrontational, such as by filing formal grievances. In the extreme, some employees might engage in counterproductive behaviors to get attention and force changes in the organization.\n",
"Most of the voice change begins around puberty. Adult pitch is reached 2–3 years later but the voice does not stabilize until the early years of adulthood. It usually happens months or years before the development of significant facial hair. Under the influence of androgens, the voice box, or larynx, grows in both sexes. This growth is far more prominent in boys than in girls and is more easily perceived. It causes the voice to drop and deepen. Along with the larynx, the vocal folds (vocal cords) grow significantly longer and thicker.\n",
"Some studies confirm Hirschman's assertion that greater exit and entry costs heighten the likelihood of voice. Particularly when examining dispute resolution in contexts with limited exit opportunities, increased entry costs make workers' voice more likely.\n",
"The facial bones begin to grow as well. Cavities in the sinuses, the nose, and the back of the throat grow bigger, thus creating more space within the head to allow the voice to resonate. Occasionally, voice change is accompanied by unsteadiness of vocalization in the early stages of untrained voices. Due to the significant drop in pitch to the vocal range, people may unintentionally speak in head voice or even strain their voices using pitches which were previously chest voice, the lowest part of the modal voice register.\n",
"The pitch of a male voice is about half as high in males in comparison to females. Even after controlling for body height and volume, the male voice remains lower. Some scientists have suggested that human voice evolved through intersexual sexual selection, via female male choices. Puts (2005) showed that preference for male voice pitch changed according to the stage of the menstrual cycle whilst Puts (2006) found women preferred lower male voices mainly for short-term, sexual relationships. Intrasexual selection, via male competition, also causes a selection in voice pitch. Pitch is related to interpersonal power and males tend to adjust their pitch according to their perceived dominance when speaking to a competitor.\n"
] |
Is it possible to cryogenically freeze an entire ovary to save the eggs for later?
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I don't believe we've reached a point where we can 'revive' tissue after cryopreservation. In the case of gametes and embryos, special freezing media is required to protect them from cold shock and freezing damage. Cryoprotectants such as low density lipoproteins and glycerol stabilise the plasma membrane during chilling and replace intracellular fluid to prevent ice crystals forming within the cell. As the follicular fluid does not have these properties, I doubt the oocytes would survive being frozen within the ovary itself.
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[
"Cryopreservation in humans with regards to infertility involves preservation of embryos, sperm, or oocytes via freezing. Conception, \"in vitro\", is attempted when the sperm is thawed and introduced to the 'fresh' eggs, the frozen eggs are thawed and sperm is placed with the eggs and together they are placed back into the uterus or a frozen embryo is introduced to the uterus. Vitrification has flaws and is not as reliable or proven as freezing fertilized sperm, eggs, or embryos as traditional slow freezing methods because eggs alone are extremely sensitive to temperature. Many researchers are also freezing ovarian tissue in conjunction with the eggs in hopes that the ovarian tissue can be transplanted back into the uterus, stimulating normal ovulation cycles. In 2004, Donnez of Louvain in Belgium reported the first successful ovarian birth from frozen ovarian tissue. In 1997, samples of ovarian cortex were taken from a woman with Hodgkin's lymphoma and cryopreserved in a (Planer, UK) controlled-rate freezer and then stored in liquid nitrogen. Chemotherapy was initiated after the patient had premature ovarian failure. In 2003, after freeze-thawing, orthotopic autotransplantation of ovarian cortical tissue was done by laparoscopy and after five months, reimplantation signs indicated recovery of regular ovulatory cycles. Eleven months after reimplantation, a viable intrauterine pregnancy was confirmed, which resulted in the first such live birth – a girl named Tamara.\n",
"Cryoconservation is the process of freezing cells and tissues using liquid nitrogen to achieve extreme low temperatures with the intent of using the preserved sample to prevent the loss of genetic diversity. Semen, embryos, oocytes, somatic cells, nuclear DNA, and other types of biomaterial such as blood and serum can be stored using cryopreservation, in order to preserve genetic materials. The primary benefit of cryoconservation is the ability to save germplasms for extended periods of time, therefore maintaining the genetic diversity of a species or breed. There are two common techniques of cryopreservation: slow freezing and vitrification. Slow freezing helps eliminate the risk of intracellular ice crystals. If ice crystals form in the cells, there can be damage or destruction of genetic material. Vitrification is the process of freezing without the formation of ice crystals.\n",
"Human oocyte cryopreservation (egg freezing) is a procedure to preserve a woman's eggs (oocytes). This technique has been used to enable women to postpone pregnancy to a later date - whether for medical reasons such as cancer treatment or for social reasons such as employment or studying. Several studies have proven that most infertility problems are due to germ cell deterioration related to ageing. Surprisingly, the uterus remains completely functional in most elderly women. This implies that the factor which needs to be preserved is the woman's eggs. The eggs are extracted, frozen and stored. The intention of the procedure is that the woman may choose to have the eggs thawed, fertilized, and transferred to the uterus as embryos to facilitate a pregnancy in the future. The procedure's success rate (the chances of a live birth using frozen eggs) varies depending on the age of the woman, and ranges from 14.8 percent (if the eggs were extracted when the woman was 40) to 31.5 percent (if the eggs were extracted when the woman was 25).\n",
"Cryoconservation is limited by the cells and tissues that can be frozen and successfully thawed. Cells and tissues that can be successfully frozen are limited by their surface area. To keep cells and tissues viable, they must be frozen quickly to prevent ice crystal formation. Thus, a large surface area is beneficial. Another limitation is the species being preserved. There have been difficulties using particular methods of cryoconservation with certain species. For example, artificial insemination is more difficult in sheep than cattle, goats, pigs, or horses due to posterior folds in the cervix of ovines. Cryopreservation of embryos is dependent on the species and the stage of development of the embryo. Pig embryos are the most difficult to freeze, thaw, and utilize produce live offspring due to their sensitivity to chilling and high lipid content.\n",
"Cryo-preservation or cryo-conservation is a process where organelles, cells, tissues, extracellular matrix, organs, or any other biological constructs susceptible to damage caused by unregulated chemical kinetics are preserved by cooling to very low temperatures (typically −80 °C using solid carbon dioxide or −196 °C using liquid nitrogen). At low enough temperatures, any enzymatic or chemical activity which might cause damage to the biological material in question is effectively stopped. Cryopreservation methods seek to reach low temperatures without causing additional damage caused by the formation of ice crystals during freezing. Traditional cryopreservation has relied on coating the material to be frozen with a class of molecules termed cryoprotectants. New methods are constantly being investigated due to the inherent toxicity of many cryoprotectants. By default it should be considered that cryopreservation alters or compromises the structure and function of cells unless it is proven otherwise for a particular cell population. Cryoconservation of animal genetic resources is the process in which animal genetic material is collected and stored with the intention of conservation of the breed.\n",
"Cryopreservation was applied to humans beginning in 1954 with three pregnancies resulting from the insemination of previously frozen sperm. Fowl sperm was cryopreserved in 1957 by a team of scientists in the UK directed by Christopher Polge. During 1963, Peter Mazur, at Oak Ridge National Laboratory in the U.S., demonstrated that lethal intracellular freezing could be avoided if cooling was slow enough to permit sufficient water to leave the cell during progressive freezing of the extracellular fluid. That rate differs between cells of differing size and water permeability: a typical cooling rate around 1 °C/minute is appropriate for many mammalian cells after treatment with cryoprotectants such as glycerol or dimethyl sulphoxide, but the rate is not a universal optimum.\n",
"Oocyte cryopreservation is an option for individuals undergoing IVF who object, either for religious or ethical reasons, to the practice of freezing embryos. Having the option to fertilize only as many eggs as will be utilized in the IVF process, and then freeze any remaining unfertilized eggs can be a solution. In this way, there are no excess embryos created, and there need be no disposition of unused frozen embryos, a practice which can create complex choices for certain individuals.\n"
] |
how do we know that pet euthanasia is truly painless?
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First, I'm sorry to hear you're going through this. It's the absolute worst part of owning a pet.
To answer your question, though, pet euthanasia is essentially done with a large dose of anesthesia. Have you ever had surgery? It's the same process, but with an alternative end. The feeling you felt while being put under is the same feeling your pet will feel. No pain at all. They'll slowly drift away peacefully.
|
[
"People deal with their unwanted pets in many ways. Some people have the pet euthanized (also known as \"putting it down\" or \"putting it to sleep\"), although many veterinarians do not consider this to be an ethical use of their resources for young and healthy animals, while others argue that euthanasia is a more humane option than leaving a pet in a cage for very long periods of time. Other people simply release the pet into the wild or otherwise abandon it, with the expectation that it will be able to take care of itself or that it will be found and adopted. More often, these pets succumb to hunger, weather, traffic, or common and treatable health problems. Some people euthanize pets because of terminal illnesses or injuries, while others even do it for common health problems that they cannot, or will not, pay for treating. More responsible owners will take the pet to a shelter, or call a rescue organization, where it will be cared for properly until a home can be found. One more way is to rehome a dog (find another owner for this dog) that can occur because of allergy to a dog, pet-owner death, divorce, baby born or even relocation. Homes cannot always be found, however, and euthanasia is often used for the excess animals to make room for newer pets, unless the organization has a no-kill policy. The Humane Society of the United States estimates that 2.4 million healthy, adoptable cats and dogs are euthanized each year in the US because of a lack of homes. Animal protection advocates campaign for adoption instead of buying animals in order to reduce the number of animals who have to be euthanized. Many shelters and animal rescues encourage the education of spaying or neutering a pet in order to reduce the number of animals euthanized in shelters and to help control the pet population.\n",
"Recently, PETA have been accused of mass euthanasia of animals within PETA owned shelters in violations with the euthanasia laws of the state of Virginia. These actions have prompted the creation of the no kill movement.\n",
"PETA opposes the no-kill movement, attempts to address the animal-overpopulation crisis at its source through spaying and neutering companion animals as well as by opposing breeders and puppy mills, transfers adoptable animals to open-admission shelters, and euthanizes most of the animals who end up at its \"shelter of last resort.\" According to its 2014 recent filing with the Virginia Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services (VDACS), PETA euthanized 81 percent of the animals who ended up at its shelter. According to VDACS, PETA took 3,017 animals into its shelters in 2014, of which 2,455 were euthanized, 162 were adopted, 353 were released to other shelters, and 6 were reclaimed by their original owners. The group justifies its euthanasia policies toward animals who are not adopted by saying that it takes in feral cat colonies with diseases such as feline AIDS and leukemia, stray dogs, litters of parvo-infected puppies, and backyard dogs and says that it would be unrealistic to follow a \"no-kill\" policy in such instances. PETA offers free euthanasia services to counties that kill unwanted animals via gassing or shooting—the group recommends the use of an intravenous injection of sodium pentobarbital if administered by a trained professional and for severely ill or dying animals when euthanasia at a veterinarian is unaffordable. The group recommends not breeding pit bulls and supports euthanasia in certain situations for animals in shelters: for example, for those living for long periods in cramped cages.\n",
"PAWS recommends using the methods that cause a rapid loss of consciousness and that cause minimal pain, distress, and suffering in the animal. PAWS opposes any euthanasia methods or techniques that do not meet these humane principles. PAWS opposes “tambucho” gassing and electrocution as methods of euthanasia.\n",
"The Humane Society of the United States reports that about 4 million cats and dogs are euthanized yearly in shelters in the US. But, the NAIA says that the Humane Society does not differentiate in its reporting on euthanasia between the number of adoptable animals and others. For instance, shelters generally consider feral cats as unadoptable, as are a number of dogs that are too old, too sick or have behavior problems.\n",
"The SPCA (HK)'ｓpolicy on animal euthanasia has long been controversial among animal lovers and pet owners. According to the SPCA (HK)'ｓannual report, 4128 animals were put down by the society in 2007 to 08.\n",
"BULLET::::- Euthanasia of Shelter Animals: recognizing that the number of animals in shelter exceeds the number of responsible people available to adopt them, the society condones euthanasia but condemns the use of high-altitude decompression chambers, electrocution, injectable paralytic agents, unfiltered and uncooled carbon monoxide, and drowning for this purpose\n"
] |
Why not send a drone to Mars that can recharge with solar panels?
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NASA is considering the possibility of a helicopter drone for a future Mars mission. You can read about this [from NASA](_URL_3_), as well as some articles on others sites, such as [this](http://www._URL_0_/28360-nasa-mars-helicopter-drone.html) (from _URL_0_) and [this](https://www._URL_1_/extreme/229937-nasa-testing-helicopter-drone-to-accompany-next-mars-rover) (from _URL_1_).
Though it's a different kind of thing, there is also consideration of a [glider](_URL_5_).
|
[
"Although spacecraft are protected by Whipple shields, solar panels, which are exposed to the Sun, wear from low-mass impacts. These produce a cloud of plasma which is an electrical risk to the panels.\n",
"Even at a destination, the SEP system can be configured to provide power to maintain the systems or prevent propellant boil-off before the crew arrives. However, existing flight-qualified solar-electric propulsion is at levels of 1–5 kW. A Mars cargo mission would require ~100 kW, and a crewed flight ~150–300 kW.\n",
"On 25 February 2007, the craft was scheduled for a low-altitude flyby of Mars, to correct the trajectory. This was not without risk, as the estimated altitude of the flyby was a mere . During that encounter, the solar panels could not be used since the craft was in the planet's shadow, where it would not receive any solar light for 15 minutes, causing a dangerous shortage of power. The craft was therefore put into standby mode, with no possibility to communicate, flying on batteries that were originally not designed for this task. This Mars manoeuvre was therefore nicknamed \"The Billion Euro Gamble\". The flyby was successful, with \"Rosetta\" even returning detailed images of the surface and atmosphere of the planet, and the mission continued as planned.\n",
"For a 500-day crewed Mars mission NASA has studied using solar power and nuclear power for its base, as well as power storage systems (e.g. batteries). Some of the challenges for solar power include a reduction in solar intensity because Mars is farther from the sun, dust accumulation, and periodic dust storms, in addition to the usual challenges of solar power such as storing power for the night-time. One of the difficulties is enduring the global Mars dust storms, which cause lower temperatures and reduce sunlight reaching the surface. Two ideas for overcoming this are to use an additional array deployed during a dust storm and to use some nuclear power to provide base-line power that is not affected by the storms. NASA has studied nuclear-power fission systems in the 2010s for Mars surface missions. One design was planned for an output of 40 kilowatts, and its more independent of the sunlight reaching the surface of Mars which can be affected by dust storms.\n",
"Robotic missions do not require an abort capability or radiation minimization, and because modern launchers routinely meet \"instantaneous\" launch windows, space probes to the Moon and other planets generally use direct injection to maximize performance. Although some might coast briefly during the launch sequence, they do not complete one or more full parking orbits before the burn that injects them onto an Earth escape trajectory.\n",
"Using solar power on the Martian surface is challenging because the Martian atmosphere has a significant amount of dust suspended in it. In addition to blocking sunlight from reaching Mars's surface, dust particles gradually settle out of the air and onto objects. As \"Pathfinder\" was NASA's first Mars surface mission to be solar-powered, the effect of Martian dust settling on solar cells was not well understood before the mission. It was predicted at the time that dust particles in the Martian atmosphere would settle on the solar cells powering \"Pathfinder\", blocking sunlight from striking them and slowly causing \"Pathfinder\" to lose power. Since knowing how the settling of dust out of Mars's atmosphere would affect solar cell performance would be critical to subsequent solar-powered missions on Mars, the MAE was included aboard the \"Sojourner\" rover to measure the degradation in performance of a solar cell as dust settled.\n",
"The power to the two orbiter craft was provided by eight 1.57 × 1.23 m solar panels, two on each wing. The solar panels comprised a total of 34,800 solar cells and produced 620 W of power at Mars. Power was also stored in two nickel-cadmium 30-A·h batteries.\n"
] |
Conspiracy people claim the Apollo Astronauts would have been killed by radiation outside of the protection of the Van Allen Belt. How much of this is pseudo science?
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Well all of it. Apollo 11 that carried Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin was deliberately launched from the descending node of the geomagnetic plane specifically so that it would be almost completely out of reach of the Van Allen Belts by the time it was far enough away from the Earth to no longer be protected. The trajectory was carefully planned, is very well known, and you can verify this fact for yourself.
The Van Allen Belts aren't like a sphere of death that surrounds the planet.
edit: Also, the title of the post seems to insinuate that space everywhere is deadly radiant and the "Van Allen Belt" is something that protects from it. This is almost the opposite of the truth, the background radiation in space is not terribly harmful, it's the Van Allen Belts themselves that are a deadly concentration of radiation.
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[
"Reliable projections for CNS risks from space radiation exposure cannot be made at this time due to a paucity of data on the subject. Existing animal and cellular data do suggest that space radiation can produce neurological and behavioral effects; therefore, it is possible that mission operations will be impacted. The significance of these results on the morbidity to astronauts has not been elucidated, however. It is to be noted that studies, to date, have been carried out with relatively small numbers of animals (10 per dose group); this means that testing of dose threshold effects at lower doses (0.5 Gy) has not yet been carried out to a sufficient extent. As the problem of extrapolating space radiation effects in animals to humans will be a challenge for space radiation research, such research could become limited by the population size that is typically used in animal studies. Furthermore, the role of dose protraction has not been studied to date. An approach has not been discovered to extrapolate existing observations to possible cognitive changes, performance degradation, or late CNS effects in astronauts. Research on new approaches to risk assessment may be needed to provide the data and knowledge that will be necessary to develop risk projection models of the CNS from space radiation. A vigorous research program, which will be required to solve these problems, must rely on new approaches to risk assessment and countermeasure validation because of the absence of useful human radio-epidemiology data in this area.\n",
"1. The astronauts could not have survived the trip because of exposure to radiation from the Van Allen radiation belt and galactic ambient radiation (see radiation poisoning and health threat from cosmic rays). Some conspiracists have suggested that Starfish Prime (a high-altitude nuclear test in 1962) was a failed attempt to disrupt the Van Allen belts.\n",
"Without proper shielding, the crews of missions beyond low Earth orbit (LEO) might be at risk from high-energy protons emitted by solar flares and associated solar particle events (SPEs). Lawrence Townsend of the University of Tennessee and others have studied the overall most powerful solar storm ever recorded. The flare was seen by the British astronomer Richard Carrington in September 1859. Radiation doses astronauts would receive from a Carrington-type storm could cause acute radiation sickness and possibly even death. Another storm that could have incurred a lethal radiation dose if astronauts were outside the Earth's protective magnetosphere occurred during the Space Age, in fact, shortly after Apollo 16 landed and before Apollo 17 launched. This solar storm of August 1972 would likely at least have caused acute illness.\n",
"During spaceflight, particularly flights beyond low Earth orbit (LEO), astronauts are exposed to both galactic cosmic radiation (GCR) and solar particle event (SPE) radiation. Evidence indicates past SPE radiation levels that would have been lethal for unprotected astronauts. One possible such event occurred in 1859, but another occurred during the Space Age, in fact in a few months gap between Apollo missions, in early August 1972. GCR levels that might lead to acute radiation poisoning are less well understood.\n",
"Sibrel's claims that the moon landing was a hoax making claims about supposed photographic anomalies; disasters such as the destruction of Apollo 1; technical difficulties experienced in the 1950s and 1960s; and the problems of traversing the Van Allen radiation belts. Sibrel proposes that the most condemning evidence is a piece of footage that he claims was secret, and inadvertently sent to him by NASA; he alleges that the footage shows Apollo 11 astronauts attempting to create the illusion that they were from Earth (or roughly halfway to the Moon) when, he claims, they were only in a low Earth orbit.\n",
"Occurring between Apollo missions, the storm has long been chronicled within NASA. Apollo 16 had returned home in April, and the final Apollo mission was a Moon landing planned for the following December. Those inside an Apollo command module would be shielded from 90% of incoming radiation, which could still have exposed astronauts to radiation sickness if they were located outside the protective magnetic field of Earth, which was the case for much of a lunar mission. A moonwalker or one on EVA in orbit could have faced severe acute illness and potentially a nearly universally fatal dose. An enhanced risk of contracting cancer would have been unavoidable regardless of the location of astronauts or spacecraft. This is one of only a handful of solar storms occurring in the Space Age that could cause severe illness, and was the most hazardous thus far. Had the most intense solar activity of early August occurred during a mission it would have forced contingency measures up to an emergency return landing for medical treatment.\n",
"Mary Bennett and David Percy have claimed in \"Dark Moon: Apollo and the Whistle-Blowers\", that, with all the known and unknown hazards, NASA would not risk broadcasting an astronaut getting sick or dying on live television. The counter-argument generally given is that NASA in fact \"did\" incur a great deal of public humiliation and potential political opposition to the program by losing an entire crew in the Apollo 1 fire during a ground test, leading to its upper management team being questioned by Senate and House of Representatives space oversight committees. There was in fact no video broadcast during either the landing or takeoff because of technological limitations.\n"
] |
how does the body store water?
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It gets absorbed and distributed throughout all your cells within your body. It's not really stored anywhere, but when your cells are at a nice hydrated state, any access water that enters your body will go to your bladder, which is why the more water you drink, the clearer, or more like water, your urine gets.
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[
"Water is found both inside and outside the body’s cells. It forms part of the blood, helping to carry the blood cells around the body and keeping oxygen and important nutrients in solution so that they can be taken up by tissues such as glands, bone and muscle. Even the organs and muscles are mostly water.\n",
"In physiology, body water is the water content of an animal body that is contained in the tissues, the blood, the bones and elsewhere. The percentages of body water contained in various fluid compartments add up to total body water (TBW). This water makes up a significant fraction of the human body, both by weight and by volume. Ensuring the right amount of body water is part of fluid balance, an aspect of homeostasis.\n",
"Water is the most important substance for life on Earth. It provides the medium in which all metabolic processes proceed. As such it is necessary for the absorption of macronutrients, but it provides no nutritional value in and of itself. Water often contains naturally occurring micronutrients such as calcium and salts, and others can be introduced to the water supply such as chlorine and fluoride for various purposes such as sanitation or dental health.\n",
"Water in the animal body performs a number of functions: as a solvent for transportation of nutrients; as a medium for excretion; a means for heat control; as a lubricant for joints; and for shock absorption.\n",
"About two thirds of the total body water of humans is held in the cells, mostly in the cytosol, and the remainder is found in the extracellular compartment. The extracellular fluids may be divided into three types: interstitial fluid in the \"interstitial compartment\" (surrounding tissue cells and bathing them in a solution of nutrients and other chemicals), blood plasma and lymph in the \"intravascular compartment\" (inside the blood vessels and lymphatic vessels), and small amounts of transcellular fluid such as ocular and cerebrospinal fluids in the \"transcellular compartment\". The interstitial and intravascular compartments readily exchange water and solutes but the third extracellular compartment, the transcellular, is thought of as separate from the other two and not in dynamic equilibrium with them.\n",
"Water is collected from the atmosphere in windtraps that condense the humidity and add it to the underground water store (caches). Water can also be collected from dead animals and people, using a deathstill to remove the water from a corpse for addition to the sietch water store. The Fremen who obtains the body — through discovery or honorable killing — is then given a set of water rings whose markings denote the volume collected. These rings are used as a form of currency, and are backed by fixed volumes of water (analogous to the historical gold standard). For example, the victor of a sanctioned duel would claim his dead opponent's water, and a dead Fremen's water can be inherited by his/her spouse or children. Water rings have a profound significance in matters of birth, death, and courtship ritual.\n",
"The human body contains from 55% to 78% water, depending on body size. To function properly, the body requires between of water per day to avoid dehydration; the precise amount depends on the level of activity, temperature, humidity, and other factors. Most of this is ingested through foods or beverages other than drinking straight water. It is not clear how much water intake is needed by healthy people, though the British Dietetic Association advises that 2.5 liters of total water daily is the minimum to maintain proper hydration, including 1.8 liters (6 to 7 glasses) obtained directly from beverages. Medical literature favors a lower consumption, typically 1 liter of water for an average male, excluding extra requirements due to fluid loss from exercise or warm weather.\n"
] |
Why did Japan and South Korea turn into a democratic state with little corruption but other East Asian countries did not?
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I don't think that the premise of this question (that Japan and South Korea have avoided corruption, unlike the rest of East Asia) really holds up. If you look at the Economist's [Democracy Index](_URL_0_), and Transparency International's [Corruption Perceptions Index](_URL_1_), you'll find that things are a little more complicated in that region.
You're right that South Korea and Japan are at the top of the DI in Asia. But Taiwan is up there with them, and other East and Southeast Asian countries, such as Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Indonesia, and Hong Kong are in the "flawed democracy" category as well (albeit at the lower end).
On the CPI, Singapore leads in East and Southeast Asia by a large margin, and is tied for the 3rd least-corrupt country in the world. Japan sits at number three in East/Southeast Asia, just behind Hong Kong. Taiwan is next, then South Korea, whose score of 57 puts it in the "middling" range, close to countries such as Rwanda and Costa Rica.
To address the question itself: When talking about the economies of these countries in the 20th century, economists like to refer to the "Japanese Economic Miracle" and the "Miracle of the Four Asian Tigers" (South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, and Hong Kong), essentially asking "How did these five impoverished countries, ravaged by World War II, create their highly-developed economies within a generation?" \*
Likely factors include: a high degree of state intervention in the economy, an emphasis on export-oriented policies, low taxes for foreign corporations, and early investment in infrastructure, technological innovation, and universal primary education. At the time, there were few limits to state power in any of these countries, so economic directives from the top could be implemented quickly and effectively. Some writers and politicians include a "cultural" factor into the mix, claiming that there is a certain set of "Asian values" such as hard work, stability, collective success, and respect toward authority. This same set of values was used to explain why these countries retained their authoritarian governments—until, of course, they didn't.
South Korea and Taiwan both experienced peaceful democratic revolutions in the 1980s, a development that many political scientists attribute to their newly-educated, aspirational, and globally-aware young populations who wanted a greater say in their futures (both revolutions were initiated by student groups). And in 1993, Japan's Liberal Democratic Party, which had ruled the country since the end of the American occupation, lost their parliamentary majority for the first time and peacefully ceded power to the opposition, a huge milestone in solidifying democratic institutions in any country. Hong Kong and Singapore made democratic and transparency reforms during this period but never transitioned into fully democratic states.
Answering why a country did become a democratic state is a lot easier than speculating on why one didn't, so I'm not going to touch on the remainder of East and Southeast Asia. Suffice to say there's a whole lot of variation across the continent, and each country has its unique set of advantages and challenges.
\* Scholars are finally beginning to reconsider using the term "miracle" when discussing these developments. Using the term "miracle" implies that the success of these countries could have only come from sheer luck or an act of God, which feels pretty condescending.
|
[
"However, the Joseon dynasty court which ruled Korea was well aware of the displacement of the traditional ruling classes of China as a result of the First and the Second Opium Wars, and maintained a strict policy of isolationism forbidding any of those they ruled to trade with the outside world to avoid a similar fate.\n",
"The Korean kingdoms had traditionally become client states of China under nominal tributary status. As western colonial and trade expansion into Asia occurred, it exposed the weakness of China due to centuries of isolation, and led Japan to modernize and nurture its own colonial designs, but many of the skirmishes occurred in Korea, and ultimately, was a battle over political and cultural control of Korea. The clear waning of Chinese protection and the looming threat of Japanese occupation led to numerous uprisings such as the Donghak Peasant Rebellion (東學農民革命, 동학 농민 혁명). In response, King Gojong instituted a series of proclamations, the Gap-o Reforms (甲午, 갑오) of 1894-1896. This led to the termination of the client relationship with China when King Gojong proclaimed himself Emperor Gwangmu (高宗光武帝, 고종 광무제). Emperor Gwangmu also ended the \"gwageo\" examination system and the use of literary Chinese as the language of the royal court, courts, government records and sanctioned literature. Korean written in the 'national letters' (國文, 국문)—now understood as an alternate name for \"hangul\"—but actually referred to the mixed script was made the official language of governance.\n",
"However, corruption in government and social unrest prevailed in the years thereafter, causing numerous civil uprisings and revolts. The government made sweeping reforms in the late 19th century, but adhered to a strict isolationist policy, earning Korea the nickname \"Hermit Kingdom\". The policy had been established primarily for protection against Western imperialism, but soon the Joseon dynasty was forced to open trade, beginning an era leading into Japanese rule.\n",
"The country during this period was plagued with political and economic chaos, which arose from a variety of causes. The after-effects of the Japanese occupation were still being felt in the occupation zone, as well as in the Soviet zone in the North. Popular discontent stemmed from the U.S. Military Government's support of the Japanese colonial government; then once removed, keeping the former Japanese governors on as advisors; by ignoring, censoring and forcibly disbanding the functional and popular People's Republic of Korea (PRK); and finally by supporting United Nations elections that divided the country.\n",
"Korea and Japan sinicized because their ruling class were largely impressed by China's bureaucracy. The major influences China had on these countries were the spread of Confucianism, the spread of Buddhism, and the establishment of centralized governance. In the times of the Sui, Tang and Song dynasties (581–1279), China remained the world's largest economy and most technologically advanced society. Inventions such as gunpowder, woodblock printing and the magnetic compass were improved upon. China stood in contrast to other areas at the time as the imperial governments exhibited concentrated central authority instead of feudalism.\n",
"Japanese rule was oppressive but changed over time. Initially, there was very harsh repression in the decade following annexation. Japan's rule was markedly different than in its other colony, Formosa. This period is called \"amhukki\", the dark period by Koreans. Tens of thousands of Koreans were arrested for political reasons. The harshness of Japanese rule increased support for the Korean independence movement. Many Koreans left the Korean Peninsula, some of whom formed resistance groups and societies in Manchuria to agitate for Korean independence. Some went to Japan, where groups agitated clandestinely. There was a prominent group of Korean Communists in Japan, who were in danger for their political activities.\n",
"Both the governments of China and South Korea take a firm stand on issues in relation to Japanese war crimes. Korea had been under Japanese rule after the collapse of the Joseon Dynasty in 1910. During the Second Sino-Japanese War, Japan invaded and occupied eastern China.\n"
] |
dual citizenship
|
Some countries allow dual citizenships but there are some countries which do not allow it. And then there are some countries which are very vague if they allow it or not.
> Are you responsible for both nation's laws?
As a citizen or non-citizen, you are always responsible for any country's laws. And ignorance is never accepted as an excuse.
> Do you pay two taxes?
For the most part, no. However, the one big exception to this rule is the USA. The USA demands that all USA citizens residing in the USA or abroad earning income, must file for their taxes.
It can get very complicated and expensive and for this reason many USA citizens living abroad have renounced their USA citizenship.
> Can you come and go as you please?
If you have the money, yes.
> Do you have to have two houses?
There is no requirement to own property.
|
[
"Based on the U.S. Department of State regulation on dual citizenship (7 FAM 082), the Supreme Court of the United States has stated that dual citizenship is a \"status long recognized in the law\" and that \"a person may have and exercise rights of nationality in two countries and be subject to the responsibilities of both. The mere fact he asserts the rights of one citizenship does not, without more, mean that he renounces the other\", \"Kawakita v. U.S.\", 343 U.S. 717 (1952). In \"Schneider v. Rusk\", 377 U.S. 163 (1964), the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that a naturalized U.S. citizen has the right to return to his native country and to resume his former citizenship, and also to remain a U.S. citizen even if he never returns to the United States.\n",
"BULLET::::- Dual Nationality does not necessarily refer to two citizenship, it can mean more than that. The definition dual-Citizenship in international law is the base for obtaining MANY citizenships. If, for instance, a person is granted Irish-South African Citizenship AT birth then later on moved to New Zealand, they can obtain New Zealand Citizenship should they wish. This is a common misinterpretation.\n",
"In the United States, dual citizenship is associated with two categories of security concerns: foreign influence and foreign preference. Contrary to common misconceptions, dual citizenship in itself is not the major problem in obtaining or retaining security clearance in the United States. As a matter of fact, if a security clearance applicant's dual citizenship is \"based solely on parents' citizenship or birth in a foreign country\", that can be a mitigating condition. However, taking advantage of the entitlements of a non-US citizenship can cause problems. For example, possession or use of a foreign passport is a condition disqualifying one from security clearance and \"is not mitigated by reasons of personal convenience, safety, requirements of foreign law, or the identity of the foreign country\" as is explicitly clarified in a Department of Defense policy memorandum which defines a guideline requiring that \"any clearance be denied or revoked unless the applicant surrenders the foreign passport or obtains official permission for its use from the appropriate agency of the United States Government\".\n",
"Later, the Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2005, expanded the scope of grant of OCI for PIOs of all countries except Pakistan and Bangladesh as long as their home country allows dual citizenship under their local law. It must be noted here that the OCI is not actually a dual citizenship as the Indian constitution forbids dual nationality (Article 9).\n",
"BULLET::::2. If dual citizenship was obtained at birth. Some countries do not accept the \"dual-citizenship-by-birth principle,\" so the concerned person must later choose one citizenship and renounce the other.\n",
"Dual citizenship is associated with two categories of security concerns: foreign influence and foreign preference. Dual citizenship in itself is not the major problem in obtaining or retaining security clearance in the USA. If a security clearance applicant's dual citizenship is \"based solely on parents' citizenship or birth in a foreign country\", that can be a mitigating condition. However, \"exercising\" (taking advantage of the entitlements of) a non-U.S. citizenship can cause problems. For example, possession and/or use of a foreign passport is a condition disqualifying from security clearance and \"is not mitigated by reasons of personal convenience, safety, requirements of foreign law, or the identity of the foreign country\" as is explicitly clarified in a Department of Defense policy memorandum which defines a guideline requiring that \"any clearance be denied or revoked unless the applicant surrenders the foreign passport or obtains official permission for its use from the appropriate agency of the United States Government\". This guideline has been followed in administrative rulings by the Department of Defense (DoD) Defense Office of Hearings and Appeals (DOHA) office of Industrial Security Clearance Review (ISCR), which decides cases involving security clearances for Contractor personnel doing classified work for all DoD components. In one such case, an administrative judge ruled that it is not clearly consistent with U.S. national interest to grant a request for a security clearance to an applicant who was a dual national of the United States and Ireland. DOHA can rule on issues involving the granting of security clearances.\n",
"There are a lot of objections against dual citizenship; some are based on the following questions that come to mind. If people hold more than one citizenship, which state is responsible? Are dual citizens subject to two conflicting sets of laws (i.e., marriage and divorce laws) and obligations (i.e., taxes and military duty)? Usually these problems are easily solved. In most cases the laws and obligations of the state in which the person lives need to be followed.\n"
] |
what is standard error and confidence interval?
|
Both answers so far have been laymen's guesses at what are specific terms.
Standard Error is an estimate, normally of the standard deviation from the mean of a population based on a sample. It's estimated by dividing the standard deviation of the sample by the square root of the sample size.
If you have a population of 100, and you sample 5 from the population, and you find the sample mean to be 3, you can simplisticly estimate that the mean of the population is 3. However, without considering the deviation from the sample mean, you can't begin to guess at how accurate your estimate is.
It is logical that if the five numbers in your sample are -102,100,3,-950,964, and the mean happens to be 3, then there's a good chance that the whole population also exhibits significant variation, and as a result, it is relatively unlikely that your mean is accurate.
However, if the five numbers are, 2, 4, 3, 3, 3 then it suggests that your estimate of 3 is probably fairly accurate.
In the first case, the Standard Deviation of our sample is very high (as an example 676.24). We can then calculate our Standard Error as 676.24/sqrt(5), which is about 302.42.
In the second case, our standard deviation is just 0.71, so we can calculate our standard error as 0.71/sqrt(5), which is about 0.32.
Note that this **isn't** an estimate of the population mean, it's an estimate of the accuracy of our sampling, and in particular, the standard deviation of the numbers produced by repeated sampling (ie: if we continued to sample repeatedly, then 302.42 is a good estimate of the standard deviation of the sample means).
In order to estimate the population mean, this is where we turn to confidence intervals. If we take our sample with the highest variation, then our estimates for the mean should range wildly, because the sample is not highly consistent. So let's say, we need to know estimate with 95% confidence what the mean will be. In this case, we'll need to provide a range.
Now, we know what the Standard Error of our sample is (676.24), and we know that our sample mean was 3. Now what we need to do is refer to a magic table of numbers to find a multiplier that gives 95% confidence. These numbers will vary based on the type of distribution, etc., but for a normal distribution, we can use a multiplier of 1.96. So now, we can work out the upper bound of our confidence, which will be our mean plus the standard error multiplied by our magic number 3 + 676.24 \* 1.96 = 1 328.43. We can use the same idea except with subtractions to estimate a lower bound: 3 - 676.24 \* 1.96 = -1 322.43. So we can say that we are 95% confident that the population mean is between -1 322.43 and 1 328.43. This is called a **confidence interval**.
With our less varied sample, we can be 95% confident that the mean falls between 2.46 and 3.54 (see below maths).
3 - 0.19 \* 1.96 = 2.46
3 + 0.19 \* 1.96 = 3.54
In short:
* **Standard Error** is an estimate of the accuracy of a specific statistical measure (most commonly the mean) based on the variation within a sample compared to the overall size of the population.
* A **Confidence Interval** is a range within which a mean can be expected to fall with a specific level of confidence, based on the estimated accuracy of a sample
The two things work very closely together to help statisticians estimate the mean of a population based on the mean and the variation within a sample.
|
[
"A very common error that arises from the construction of a confidence interval is the belief that the level of confidence such as formula_67 means 95% chance. This is incorrect. The level of confidence is based on a measure of certainty, not probability. Hence, the values of formula_68 fall between 0 and 1, exclusively.\n",
"A 95% confidence interval is sought for the probability \"p\" of an event occurring for any randomly selected single individual in a population, given that it has not been observed to occur in \"n\" Bernoulli trials. Denoting the number of events by \"X\", we therefore wish to find the values of the parameter \"p\" of a binomial distribution that give Pr(\"X\" = 0) ≥ 0.05. The rule can then be derived either from the Poisson approximation to the binomial distribution, or from the formula (1−\"p\") for the probability of zero events in the binomial distribution. In the latter case, the edge of the confidence interval is given by Pr(\"X\" = 0) = 0.05 and hence (1−\"p\") = .05 so \"n\" ln(1–\"p\") = ln .05 ≈ −2.996. Rounding the latter to −3 and using the approximation, for \"p\" close to 0, that ln(1−\"p\") ≈ −\"p\", we obtain the interval's boundary 3/\"n\".\n",
"In statistics, a confidence interval (CI) is a type of interval estimate, computed from the statistics of the observed data, that might contain the true value of an unknown population parameter. The interval has an associated confidence level that, loosely speaking, quantifies the level of confidence that the parameter lies in the interval. More strictly speaking, the confidence level represents the frequency (i.e. the proportion) of possible confidence intervals that contain the true value of the unknown population parameter. In other words, if confidence intervals are constructed using a given confidence level from an infinite number of independent sample statistics, the proportion of those intervals that contain the true value of the parameter will be equal to the confidence level.\n",
"Note that there is not necessarily a strict connection between the true confidence interval, and the true standard error. The true \"p\" percent confidence interval is the interval [\"a\", \"b\"] that contains \"p\" percent of the distribution, and where (100 − \"p\")/2 percent of the distribution lies below \"a\", and (100 − \"p\")/2 percent of the distribution lies above \"b\". The true standard error of the statistic is the square root of the true sampling variance of the statistic. These two may not be directly related, although in general, for large distributions that look like normal curves, there is a direct relationship.\n",
"Prediction intervals are used in both frequentist statistics and Bayesian statistics: a prediction interval bears the same relationship to a future observation that a frequentist confidence interval or Bayesian credible interval bears to an unobservable population parameter: prediction intervals predict the distribution of individual future points, whereas confidence intervals and credible intervals of parameters predict the distribution of estimates of the true population mean or other quantity of interest that cannot be observed.\n",
"The principle behind confidence intervals was formulated to provide an answer to the question raised in statistical inference of how to deal with the uncertainty inherent in results derived from data that are themselves only a randomly selected subset of a population. There are other answers, notably that provided by Bayesian inference in the form of credible intervals. Confidence intervals correspond to a chosen rule for determining the confidence bounds, where this rule is essentially determined before any data are obtained, or before an experiment is done. The rule is defined such that over all possible datasets that might be obtained, there is a high probability (\"high\" is specifically quantified) that the interval determined by the rule will include the true value of the quantity under consideration. The Bayesian approach appears to offer intervals that can, subject to acceptance of an interpretation of \"probability\" as Bayesian probability, be interpreted as meaning that the specific interval calculated from a given dataset has a particular probability of including the true value, conditional on the data and other information available. The confidence interval approach does not allow this since in this formulation and at this same stage, both the bounds of the interval and the true values are fixed values, and there is no randomness involved. On the other hand, the Bayesian approach is only as valid as the prior probability used in the computation, whereas the confidence interval does not depend on assumptions about the prior probability.\n",
"These confidence intervals reflect random error, but do not compensate for systematic error, which in this case can arise from, for example, the reference group not having fasted long enough before blood sampling.\n"
] |
physiologically speaking, how do falls from heights kill people?
|
Its not the fall that kills you, its the sudden deceleration at the end.
So your body is tough, but its not unbreakable. Hitting concrete at 120 miles per hour (roughly terminal velocity for a human I believe) is a lot of force.
So your bones are breaking into pieces which is going to wreck, rip and tear all sorts of things in your body.
Meanwhile your vital organs (which are being shredded by your now fragmented bones) are smashed into the ground or into the bones around them. This is not good for the organs and most of your insides would be pulp. This includes your brain which is not going to be in great shape having just smashed itself into your unyielding skull.
Then the impact (and bones again) will probably break a lot of blood vessels so internal/external bleeding is a nasty option as well.
End of the day, a whole lot of different stuff combines to just kill you. People have survived falls like this, but those are rare cases.
|
[
"According to the HSE “Falls from height are one of the biggest causes of workplace fatalities and major injuries. Common causes are falls from ladders and through fragile roofs. The purpose of WAHR is to prevent death and injury from a fall from height.\"\n",
"Falling from height in the workplace accounts for nearly half of fatal injuries per year (on average), the majority of these fatalities are within the Construction Industry. There are roughly 40 fatalities per year from people falling from a height. “The most common hazards associated with scaffolding are falls, falling objects from a higher level of scaffolding, electric shock from nearby power lines and failures of either the scaffolding itself or the planks used as flooring.”\n",
"Jumping from height is the act of jumping from high altitudes, for example, from a window (self-defenestration or auto-defenestration), balcony or roof of a high rise building, cliff, dam or bridge. This method, in most cases, results in severe consequences if the attempt fails, such as paralysis, organ damage, and bone fractures.\n",
"Most people experience a degree of natural fear when exposed to heights, known as the fear of falling. On the other hand, those who have little fear of such exposure are said to have a head for heights. A head for heights is advantageous for those hiking or climbing in mountainous terrain and also in certain jobs such as steeplejacks or wind turbine mechanics. Some people may also be afraid of the high wind, as an addition of falling. This is actually known as added ancraophobia.\n",
"Injuries caused by falls from buildings vary depending on the building's height and the age of the person. Falls from a building's second floor/story (American English) or first floor/storey (British English and equivalent idioms in continental European languages) usually cause injuries but are not fatal. Overall, the height at which 50% of children die from a fall is between four and five storey heights (around ) above the ground.\n",
"A study of 1998 (Joyce & Fleminger) reported that according to the Office of Census and Surveys 1990-1994, 4% of all deaths by suicide were accountable by falling from height or jumping in front of a moving object.\n",
"The fear of falling (FOF), also referred to as basophobia (or basiphobia), is a natural fear and is typical of most humans and mammals, in varying degrees of extremity. It differs from acrophobia (the fear of heights), although the two fears are closely related. The fear of falling encompasses the anxieties accompanying the sensation and the possibly dangerous effects of falling, as opposed to the heights themselves. Those who have little fear of falling may be said to have a head for heights. Basophobia is sometimes associated with astasia-abasia, the fear of walking/standing erect.\n"
] |
how do microchips know time?
|
Crystal oscillators
[Wikipedia](_URL_1_)
> A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit that uses the mechanical resonance of a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create an electrical signal with a very precise frequency. This frequency is commonly used to keep track of time (as in quartz wristwatches), to provide a stable clock signal for digital integrated circuits, and to stabilize frequencies for radio transmitters and receivers. The most common type of piezoelectric resonator used is the quartz crystal, so oscillator circuits designed around them became known as "crystal oscillators."
Hope that helps.
You were also asking about the flashing LED
The LED is wired up to another little chip, which again gets its clock from some kind of an crystal oscillator. But you dont need a new crystal for every chip.
It´s possible to divide the clock rate in half by using [JK latches](_URL_0_). (Linking fixed, thanks to droneprime)
|
[
"Time capture is the concept of making sense of time-related data based on timestamps generated by system software. Software that run on PCs and other digital devices rely on internal software clocks to generate timestamps. In turn, these timestamps serve as the basis for representing when an event has occurred (i.e. when an outgoing call was made), and for how long that event lasted (i.e. the duration of a phone call).\n",
"In March 2016 a security researcher based in Barcelona, demonstrated laboratory techniques using time measurement via JavaScript at the 1-millisecond level could potentially identify and correlate a user's unique mouse movements provided the user has visited the same \"fingerprinting\" website with both the Tor browser and a regular browser. This proof of concept exploits the \"time measurement via JavaScript\" issue which has been an open ticket on the Tor Project for ten months.\n",
"Biometric time clocks are a feature of more advanced time and attendance systems. Rather than using a key, code or chip to identify the user, they rely on a unique attribute of the user, such as a hand print, finger print, finger vein, palm vein, facial recognition, iris or retina. The user will have their attribute scanned into the system. Biometric readers are often used in conjunction with an access control system, granting the user access to a building, and at the same time clocking them in recording the time and date. These systems also attempt to cut down on fraud such as \"buddy clocking.\" When combined with an access control system they can help prevent other types of fraud such as 'ghost employees', where additional identities are added to payroll but don't exist.\n",
"Timepix is device conceptually originating from Medipix-2. It adds two more modes to the pixels, in addition to counting of detected signals: Time-over-Threshold (TOT) and Time-of-Arrival (TOA). The detected pulse height is recorded in the pixel counter in the TOT mode. The TOA mode measures time between trigger and arrival of the radiation into each pixel.\n",
"Time capture software use data mining techniques to index, cleanse and make sense of this data. Applications include automated time tracking, where software can track the time a user spends on various PC-based tasks, such as time in applications, files/documents, web pages (via browser), and emails.\n",
"Microcontrollers operating within embedded systems (such as the Raspberry Pi, Arduino, and other similar systems) do not always have internal hardware to keep track of time. Many such controller systems operate without knowledge of the external time. Those that require such information typically initialize their base time upon rebooting by obtaining the current time from an external source, such as from a time server or external clock, or by prompting the user to manually enter the current time.\n",
"Two layers of encoding make up Unix time. The first layer encodes a point in time as a scalar real number which represents the number of seconds that have passed since 00:00:00UTC Thursday, 1 January 1970. The second layer encodes that number as a sequence of bits or decimal digits.\n"
] |
Does light and sound truly travel in a wave-like manner as we draw it (sine wave), or is the pattern of travel misrepresented by our pictures of the sine wave and the actual travel motion something different?
|
No, they don't 'travel' in a sine wave. Rather, if you take a sound wave, and you measure the air pressure along its path, you'll notice that you will measure a sine wave in pressure.
Similarly, for light, if you measure the electric field along the path of light, you will measure a sine wave.
|
[
"For example, when a wave travels through an anisotropic medium, such as light waves through an asymmetric crystal or sound waves through a sedimentary rock, the wave vector may not point exactly in the direction of wave propagation.\n",
"Associated with propagation of a disturbance are several different velocities. For definiteness, consider an amplitude modulated electromagnetic carrier wave. The phase velocity is the speed of the underlying carrier wave. The group velocity is the speed of the modulation or envelope. Initially it was thought that the group velocity coincided with the speed at which \"information\" traveled. However, it turns out that this speed can exceed the speed of light in some circumstances, causing confusion by an apparent conflict with the theory of relativity. That observation led to consideration of what constitutes a \"signal\".\n",
"The direction in which the wave vector points must be distinguished from the \"direction of wave propagation\". The \"direction of wave propagation\" is the direction of a wave's energy flow, and the direction that a small wave packet will move, i.e. the direction of the group velocity. For light waves, this is also the direction of the Poynting vector. On the other hand, the wave vector points in the direction of phase velocity. In other words, the wave vector points in the normal direction to the surfaces of constant phase, also called wavefronts.\n",
"This two-dimensionality, compared with the apparent four-dimensionality of light, is because light travels in rays (0D at a point in time, 1D over time), while by Huygens–Fresnel principle, a sound wave front can be modeled as spherical waves (2D at a point in time, 3D over time): light moves in a single direction (2D of information), while sound simply expands in every direction. However, light travelling in non-vacuous media may scatter in a similar fashion, and the irreversibility or information lost in the scattering is discernible in the apparent loss of a system dimension.\n",
"Travelling waves are the current and voltage waves that creates a disturbance and moves along the transmission line from the sending end of a transmission line to the other end at a constant speed. The travelling wave plays a major role in knowing the voltages and currents at all the points in the power system. These waves also help in designing the insulators, protective equipment, the insulation of the terminal equipment, and overall insulation coordination.\n",
"If a traveling wave has a fixed shape that repeats in space or in time, it is a \"periodic wave\". Such waves are sometimes regarded as having a wavelength even though they are not sinusoidal. As shown in the figure, wavelength is measured between consecutive corresponding points on the waveform.\n",
"Waves that are sinusoidal in time but propagate through a medium whose properties vary with position (an \"inhomogeneous\" medium) may propagate at a velocity that varies with position, and as a result may not be sinusoidal in space. The figure at right shows an example. As the wave slows down, the wavelength gets shorter and the amplitude increases; after a place of maximum response, the short wavelength is associated with a high loss and the wave dies out.\n"
] |
what processes or treatments are performed upon meat to classify it as a carcinogen according to the who study? what can i look for on the nutrition facts label to determine whether it's relatively safe?
|
The most recent one (about processed or red meat like bacon, sausage, and steak) is actually a report based on over 800 independent studies they've aggregated the information on.
The methods vary, but the results show that consumption of those products leads to an increased cancer risk, thus they are "carcinogens". They do not cause cancer, they've merely shown a link between consumption and raised risk.
It's important to note, almost everything is a carcinogen. So many things, in fact, it's not worth worrying about. There is no labeling to indicate carcinogen status.
For instance: anything that is browned or burned, from toast to roasted garlic to a marshmallow, is carcinogenic. Sunlight is carcinogenic. Birth control pills, alcohol, vinyl chloride (used to make the white PVC pipes in your house), diesel exhaust, ginger, salted fish, wood dust, mineral oil, various dyes, nickle, breathing non-filtered air, and many other things are all in the same "Group 1" of carcinogens, along with many other things.
|
[
"There are concerns about a relationship between the consumption of meat, in particular processed and red meat, and increased cancer risk. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), a specialized agency of the World Health Organization (WHO), classified processed meat (e.g., bacon, ham, hot dogs, sausages) as, \"\"carcinogenic to humans\" (Group 1), based on \"sufficient evidence\" in humans that the consumption of processed meat causes colorectal cancer.\" IARC also classified red meat as \"\"probably carcinogenic to humans\" (Group 2A), based on \"limited evidence\" that the consumption of red meat causes cancer in humans and \"strong\" mechanistic evidence supporting a carcinogenic effect.\"\n",
"The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classified processed meat (e.g., bacon, ham, hot dogs, sausages) as, \"\"carcinogenic to humans\" (Group 1), based on \"sufficient evidence\" in humans that the consumption of processed meat causes colorectal cancer.\" IARC also classified red meat as \"\"probably carcinogenic to humans\" (Group 2A), based on \"limited evidence\" that the consumption of red meat causes cancer in humans and \"strong\" mechanistic evidence supporting a carcinogenic effect.\" Subsequent studies have shown that taxing processed meat products could save lives, particularly in the West where meat intensive diets are the norm. If the amount of taxation was linked to the level of harm they caused, some processed meats, such as bacon and sausages, would nearly double in price.\n",
"In 2015, the International Agency for Research on Cancer of the World Health Organization classified processed meat, that is, meat that has undergone salting, curing, fermenting, or smoking, as \"carcinogenic to humans\".\n",
"On 26 October 2015, a Working Group of 22 experts from 10 countries evaluated the carcinogenicity of the consumption of red meat and processed meat and classified the consumption of red meat as \"probably carcinogenic to humans (Group 2A)\", mainly related to colorectal cancer, and to pancreatic and prostate cancer. It also evaluated processed meat to be \"carcinogenic to humans (Group 1)\", due to \"sufficient evidence in humans that the consumption of processed meat causes colorectal cancer\".\n",
"The International Agency for Research on Cancer at the World Health Organization classifies processed meat as Group 1 (carcinogenic to humans), because the IARC has found sufficient evidence that consumption of processed meat by humans causes colorectal cancer.\n",
"Some methods of food preservation are known to create carcinogens. In 2015, the International Agency for Research on Cancer of the World Health Organization classified processed meat, i.e. meat that has undergone salting, curing, fermenting, and smoking, as \"carcinogenic to humans\".\n",
"A 2013 systematic review by the German Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR) examined more than 1000 epidemiological studies, animal studies, and \"in vitro\" studies. It found that \"no classification and labelling for carcinogenicity is warranted\" and did not recommend a carcinogen classification of either 1A or 1B. It provided the review to EFSA in January 2014 which published it in December 2014.\n"
] |
How did walled cities deal with urban sprawl when walls were critical for city defense?
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In the case of Rome, they would just build a new, larger wall around the city. It is important to note that city walls were huge undertakings that were extremely costly, so usually walls were only built when it was believed that the cost of not building a wall would exceed the cost of building one. By the time gunpowder was popular, city walls had generally ceased to be effective enough to merit the investment in their construction.
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[
"In the wake of city growth and the ensuing change of defensive strategy, focusing more on the defense of forts around cities, many city walls were demolished. Also, the invention of gunpowder rendered walls less effective, as siege cannons could then be used to blast through walls, allowing armies to simply march through. Today, the presence of former city fortifications can often only be deduced from the presence of ditches, ring roads or parks.\n",
"Many areas did little or nothing to change their city defences, perhaps an indication that they were left untouched by the wars. City walls were either left in their ruinous state or only partially rebuilt. In the case of London, the city was able to avoid being devastated by convincing the York and Lancaster armies to stay out after the inability to recreate the defensive city walls.\n",
"All cities were protected by a city wall (two consecutive walls in the case of Shabwa), with at least two gates, which could be protected by towers. The course of the walls, which was either simply structured or included bastions, had to follow the terrain, especially in mountainous regions, and this is what created irregular city plans. Sometimes cities were protected by citadels, as in Shabwa, Raidan, Qana', and the Citadel of Rada'a.\n",
"Some of the walls were probably enclosing towns for the first time. Others, such as at Worcester, were to extend walls in order to bring suburbs inside the town, or to fund the repair of existing walls, as was the case at Canterbury, to which murage was granted in 1378, 1379, 1385, 1399 and 1402.\n",
"When bastides were founded most had no city walls or fortifications. This was because it was a peaceful time in history, and walls were prohibited by the Treaty of Paris (1229). Fortifications were added later. This was paid for either through a special tax, or carried out through a law that required that the people of the city helped build the walls. A good example is Libourne. Ten years after the city was founded, the people asked for money to build city walls. Once they had received the money, they spent it on making their city prettier, rather than building walls.\n",
"Urban areas outside the city walls, so-called Vorstädte, were often enclosed by their own set of walls and integrated into the defense of the city. These areas were often inhabited by the poorer population and held the \"noxious trades\". In many cities, a new wall was built once the city had grown outside of the old wall. This can often still be seen in the layout of the city, for example in Nördlingen, and sometimes even a few of the old gate towers are preserved, such as the \"white tower\" in Nuremberg. Additional constructions prevented the circumvention of the city, through which many important trade routes passed, thus ensuring that tolls were paid when the caravans passed through the city gates, and that the local market was visited by the trade caravans.\n",
"With increased stability and freedom, many walled cities removed such fortifications as city gates, although many still survive; albeit for historic interest rather than security. Many surviving gates have been heavily restored, rebuilt or new ones created to add to the appearance of a city, such as Bab Bou Jalous in Fes. With increased levels of traffic, city gates have come under threat in the past for impeding the flow of traffic, such as Temple Bar in London which was removed in the 19th century.\n"
] |
Do people transitioning through HRT experience changes in muscle tone and physical ability?
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I am unaware of any studies specifically about muscle tone in transgender people, if anyone knows about them I'd love to read up on them.
In terms of policy, the International Olympics Committee recognizes that hormone replacement therapy significantly alters an athlete's abilities. Transgender people who have been on HRT for at least two years and have had sex reassignment surgery are eligible to compete in sports as their recognized gender.
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[
"The psychological changes are harder to define, since HRT is usually the first physical action that takes place when transitioning. This fact alone has a significant psychological impact, which is hard to distinguish from hormonally induced changes. Most trans men report an increase of energy and an increased sex drive. Many also report feeling more confident.\n",
"EMG can also be used for indicating the amount of fatigue in a muscle. The following changes in the EMG signal can signify muscle fatigue: an increase in the mean absolute value of the signal, increase in the amplitude and duration of the muscle action potential and an overall shift to lower frequencies. Monitoring the changes of different frequency changes the most common way of using EMG to determine levels of fatigue. The lower conduction velocities enable the slower motor neurons to remain active.\n",
"Neural changes like reduced motor unit discharge rates, increased variability of motor unit discharge activity, altered recruitment and derecruitment behavior mediate modifications in muscle control. On the other hand, physiological deleterious factors including motor unit loss, increased motor unit innervation ratios also affect muscle force. Through strength training, old adults can significantly improve their force control. The rapid adaptation suggests modifications in motor unit activation, increased excitability of motoneuron pool, and decreased antagonist cocontraction.\n",
"This IL-6 increase is also observed during times of increased psychological stress. In a laboratory setting, individuals exposed to psychological stressors have had raised IL-6 (and acute phase protein CRP) measured especially in those who displayed anger or anxiety in response to stressful stimulus. Just as the human body responds to inflammation-inducing illness with increased fatigue or reduced sleep quality, so too does it respond to psychological stress with a sickness behaviour of tiredness and poor sleep quality. While sleep is important for recovery from stress, as with an inflammatory illness, continuous and long term increases of inflammatory markers with its associated behaviours may be considered maladaptive. \n",
"All aforementioned physical changes can, and reportedly do, change the experience of sensation compared to prior to HRT. Areas affected include, but aren't limited to, the basic senses, erogenous stimulus, perception of emotion, perception of social interaction, and processing of feelings and experiences.\n",
"Evidence has shown that increases in strength occur well before muscle hypertrophy, and decreases in strength due to detraining or ceasing to repeat the exercise over an extended period of time precede muscle atrophy. To be specific, strength training enhances motor neuron excitability and induces synaptogenesis, both of which would help in enhancing communication between the nervous system and the muscles themselves. However, neuromuscular efficacy is not altered within a two-week time period following cessation of the muscle usage; instead, it is merely the neuron's ability to excite the muscle that declines in correlation with the muscle's decrease in strength. This confirms that muscle strength is first influenced by the inner neural circuitry, rather than by external physiological changes in the muscle size.\n",
"High intensity exercise has been shown to result in reduced DNA methylation in skeletal muscle. Promoter methylation of PGC-1α and PDK4 were immediately reduced after high intensity exercise, whereas PPAR-γ methylation was not reduced until three hours after exercise. By contrast, six months of exercise in previously sedentary middle-age men resulted in increased methylation in adipose tissue. One study showed a possible increase in global genomic DNA methylation of white blood cells with more physical activity in non-Hispanics.\n"
] |
is there really a difference between large tv screens and computer screens anymore?
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Many TVs actually have post-processing in order to make their picture look better than similar competitors. This software causes slight input lag that may not be noticeable for some, but with PC gamers it can be noticeable.
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[
"Recently \"widescreen\" has spread from television to computing where both desktop and laptop computers are commonly equipped with widescreen displays. There are some complaints about distortions of movie picture ratio due to some DVD playback software not taking account of aspect ratios; but this may subside as the DVD playback software matures. Furthermore, computer and laptop widescreen displays are in the 16:10 aspect ratio both physically in size and in pixel counts, and not in 16:9 of consumer televisions, leading to further complexity. This was a result of widescreen computer display engineers' assumption that people viewing 16:9 content on their computer would prefer that an area of the screen be reserved for playback controls, subtitles or their Taskbar, as opposed to viewing content full-screen.\n",
"When electronics became more advanced, it became clear that adding some extra devices for an OSD was cheaper than adding a second display device. TV screens had become much bigger and could display much more information than a small second display. OSDs display graphical information superimposed over the picture, which is done by synchronizing the reading from OSD video memory with the TV signal.\n",
"The primary reason for this move was considered to be production efficiency - since display panels for TVs use the aspect ratio, it became more efficient for display manufacturers to produce computer display panels in the same aspect ratio as well. A 2008 report by DisplaySearch also cited a number of other reasons, including the ability for PC and monitor manufacturers to expand their product ranges by offering products with wider screens and higher resolutions, helping consumers to adopt such products more easily and \"stimulating the growth of the notebook PC and LCD monitor market\".\n",
"A home screen, homescreen, or start screen is the main screen on a mobile operating system or computer program. Home screens are not identical because users rearrange icons as they please, and home screens often differ across mobile operating systems. Almost every smartphone has some form of home screen, which typically displays links to applications, settings, and notifications.\n",
"Televisions and other displays typically list their size by their diagonal. Given the same diagonal, a 4:3 screen has more area compared to 16:9. For CRT-based technology, an aspect ratio that is closer to square is cheaper to manufacture. The same is true for projectors, and other optical devices such as cameras, camcorders, etc. For LCD and plasma displays, however, the cost is more related to the area. Producing wider and shorter screens can yield the same advertised diagonal, but with less area.\n",
" the majority of desktop and laptop computers used microprocessors compatible with the 32- and 64-bit x86 instruction sets. Smaller portable devices use processors with different and incompatible instruction sets, such as ARM. The difference between larger and smaller devices is such that detailed software operation is different; an application designed to display suitably on a large screen cannot simply be ported to a pocket-sized smartphone with a tiny screen even if the functionality is similar.\n",
"Finally, very terses layouts might better utilize modern wide-screen computer displays. In the past screens were limited to 40 or 80 characters (such limits originated far earlier: manuscripts, printed books, and even scrolls, have for millennia used quite short lines (see for example Gutenberg Bible). Modern screens can easily display 200 or more characters, allowing extremely long lines. Most modern coding styles and standards do not take up that entire width. Thus, if using one window as wide as the screen, a great deal of available space is wasted. On the other hand, with multiple windows, or using an IDE or other tool with various information in side panes, the available width for code is in the range familiar from earlier systems.\n"
] |
Why does drinking whiskey help my throat when it is sore?
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When you drink whiskey (and don't have a sore throat) it feels kind of hot and tingly, right? That happens because compounds in the whiskey (primarily alcohol and some tannins) are able to partially turn on the same neurons that normally sense heat and pain. It's a relatively weak effect, and short lived, but it happens.
So, neurons that transmit pain and heat information to the brain run in networks with other neurons that sense benign stimuli like touch and pressure, and these adjacent neurons influence the signalling of one-another. The overall neuron network has a limited information carrying capacity (since neurons can only conduct information at a limited rate, and have a period of time after firing during which they cannot fire again).
Think about a time when you've poked a finger, stubbed a toe, or banged you knee on a table. What did you do next? Probably started shaking your finger, walking around quickly (saying "ouch, ouch, ouch") on the toe, or rubbed your knee. Right? This is behavior that exploits the limited information carrying capacity of the pain network. You flood the neuron "pipe" with benign, non-pain, information and thus effectively block some of the pain signal from getting to the brain.
The whiskey on your sore throat has a similar effect. The neurons that sense warmth and one type of pain get stimulated by the whiskey, and temporarily block the other pain neurons from delivering their "my throat is sore" information to the brain. It also increases the latency period of the pain neurons for a while, meaning they are able to fire less often, and thus deliver less total pain signal to your brain.
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[
"Home remedies for throat irritation include gargling with warm water twice a day, sipping honey and lemon mixture or sucking on medicated lozenges. If the cause is dry air, then one should humidify the home. Since smoke irritates the throat, stop smoking and avoid all fumes from chemicals, paints and volatile liquids.\n",
"Also, note that alcohol consumption does not cause chronic gastritis. It does, however, erode the mucosal lining of the stomach; low doses of alcohol stimulate hydrochloric acid secretion. High doses of alcohol do not stimulate secretion of acid.\n",
"In Eastern culture, opium is more commonly used in the form of paregoric to treat diarrhea. This is a weaker solution than laudanum, an alcoholic tincture which was prevalently used as a pain medication and sleeping aid. Tincture of opium has been prescribed for, among other things, severe diarrhea. Taken thirty minutes prior to meals, it significantly slows intestinal motility, giving the intestines greater time to absorb fluid in the stool.\n",
"The eugenol in clove smoke causes a numbing of the throat which can diminish the gag reflex in users, leading researchers to recommend caution for individuals with respiratory infections. There have also been a few cases of aspiration pneumonia in individuals with normal respiratory tracts possibly because of the diminished gag reflex.\n",
"A sore throat is usually from irritation or inflammation. The most common cause (80%) is acute viral pharyngitis, a viral infection of the throat. Other causes include other infections (such as streptococcal pharyngitis), trauma, and tumors. Gastroesophageal (acid) reflux disease can cause stomach acid to back up into the throat and also cause the throat to become sore. In children streptococcal pharyngitis is the cause of 37% of sore throats.\n",
"Studies have shown that heavy drinkers put themselves at greater risk for heart disease and developing potentially fatal cardiac arrhythmias. Excessive alcohol consumption can cause higher blood pressure, increased cholesterol levels and weakened heart muscles. Studies have shown that moderate wine drinking can improve the balance of low-density lipoprotein (LDL or \"bad\" cholesterol) to high-density lipoprotein (HDL or \"good\" cholesterol), which has been theorized as to clean up or remove LDL from blocking arteries. The main cause of heart attacks and the pain of angina is the lack of oxygen caused by blood clots and atheromatous plaque build up in the arteries. The alcohol in wine has anticoagulant properties that limits blood clotting by making the platelets in the blood less prone to stick together and reducing the levels of fibrin protein that binds them together.\n",
"This affliction is a common cause of throat irritation. Normally the stomach produces acid in the stomach which is neutralized in the small intestine. To prevent acid from flowing backwards, the lower part of the swallowing tube (esophagus) has a valve which closes after food passes through. In some individuals, this valve becomes incompetent and acid goes up into the esophagus. Reflux episodes often occur at night and one may develop a bitter taste in the mouth. The throat can be severely irritated when acid touches the vocal cords and can lead to spasms of coughing. To prevent throat irritation from reflux, one should lose weight, stop smoking, avoid coffee beverages and sleep with the head elevated.\n"
] |
why is it hard to get a good picture of something that "glows in the dark?"
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Your eyes are magnificent sensors, and cameras are not as good. Your eye has adaptive gain control, which allows you to see better in the dark by trading "frame rate" for sensitivity. To get the same effect in a camera, you need a longer exposure. If you have a nice camera and a tripod, you should be able to get great images. The camera on your cell phone just has too small a lens. You eye also slightly blooms glowing objects in a dark space, which the camera would not.
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[
"Light direction is very important to the quality of a photoclinometric image. Light that comes from directly over the surface (behind the camera) makes it hard to distinguish the shadows. Multiple light sources are also a problem, since they destroy important shadows required for the algorithms to work properly.\n",
"\"As a painter - when I pick up a camera it becomes a drawing tool. Night photography has so many things about it that fit my aesthetic - a way to truly capture light and movement. Since the light is limited at that time of day and I'm using a hand held camera I can't expect to get a \"picture.\" What I get instead is an image of long exposure red, white, yellow and green light line tracings; from street lights, signals, car and porch lights – the reseeding and approaching sunlight for its beautiful blues and violets and any other accidental light source that finds its way onto the sensor of my camera.\"\n",
"A skilled photographer can manipulate how a viewer is likely to react to the content of a photo by manipulating the lighting. Outdoors that can require changing location, waiting for the ideal time of day or in some cases the ideal time of year for the lighting to create the desired impression in the photo or manipulating the natural lighting by using reflectors or flash. In a studio setting there is no limit to options for lighting objects to ether make them look \"seen by eye\" normal or surreal as the goals for the photograph require. But more often than not the reaction on the part of the view will be from the baseline of whether the lighting seems normal/natural or not compared to other clues. Mistakes less skilled photographer often make when mixing flash and natural lighting is not matching with the flash the highlight and shadow clues seen in the ambient lit background. If the background is illuminated by the setting sun but the face in the foreground appears to have been photographed at noon it will not seem normal because the clues don't match.\n",
"The goal in all photographs is not to create an impression of normality. But as with magic, knowing what the audience normally expects to see required to pull off a lighting strategy which fools the brain or creates an other than normal impression. Light direction relative to the camera can make a round ball appear to be a flat disk or a sphere. The position of highlights and direction and length of shadows will provide other clues to shape and outdoors the time of day. The tone of the shadows on an object or provide contextual clues about the time of day or environment and by inference based on personal experience the mood of person.\n",
"You will catch these pictures on a piece of white paper, which placed vertically in the room not far from that opening, and you will see all the above-mentioned objects on this paper in their natural shapes or colors, but they will appear smaller and upside down, on account of crossing of the rays at that aperture. If these pictures originate from a place which is illuminated by the sun, they will appear colored on the paper exactly as they are. The paper should be very thin and must be viewed from the back.\n",
"Photographic lighting is the illumination of scenes to be photographed. A photograph simply records patterns of light, color, and shade; lighting is all-important in controlling the image. In many cases even illumination is desired to give an accurate rendition of the scene. In other cases the direction, brightness, and color of light are manipulated for effect. Lighting is particularly important for monochrome photography, where there is no color information, only the interplay of highlights and shadows. Lighting and exposure are used to create effects such as low-key and high-key.\n",
"Using just a key light results in a high-contrast scene, especially if the background is not illuminated. A fill light decreases contrast and adds more details to the dark areas of an image. An alternative to the fill light is to reflect existing light or to illuminate other objects in the scene (which in turn further illuminate the subject).\n"
] |
What should I know about Arendt before reading her? The good and bad.
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Here is a [haAretz article on what's controversial with her writings on Eichmann](_URL_1_). [That controversy was made into a film](_URL_0_).
For her writings on Totalitarianism she had no access to Russian language sources. She relies on the sayings out of date with what she is using them for not sourced and taken, as google reveals, from news papers, from Trotskist pamphlets etc.
In her «Reflections on Little Rock» she voiced opposition towards Black Suffrage in US America.
Her support for Heidegger was controversial because Heidegger would refuse to show remorse for what he had done in the Nazi regime.
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[
"Dan Gardner argues that Ehrlich has been insufficiently forthright in acknowledging errors he made, while being intellectually dishonest or evasive in taking credit for things he claims he got \"right\". For example, he rarely acknowledges the mistakes he made in predicting material shortages, massive death tolls from starvation (as many as one billion in the publication \"Age of Affluence\") or regarding the disastrous effects on specific countries. Meanwhile, he is happy to claim credit for \"predicting\" the increase of AIDS or global warming. However, in the case of disease, Ehrlich had predicted the increase of a disease based on overcrowding, or the weakened immune systems of starving people, so it is \"a stretch to see this as forecasting the emergence of AIDS in the 1980s.\" Similarly, global warming was one of the scenarios that Ehrlich described, so claiming credit for it, while disavowing responsibility for failed scenarios is a double standard. Gardner believes that Ehrlich is displaying classical signs of cognitive dissonance, and that his failure to acknowledge obvious errors of his own judgement render his current thinking suspect.\n",
"Schildt's books have a reputation for being riddled with errors. Their technical accuracy has been challenged by many reviewers, including ISO C committee members Peter Seebach and Clive Feather, C FAQ author Steve Summit, and numerous \"C Vu\" reviewers from the Association of C and C++ Users (ACCU).\n",
"Journalist Dan Gardner has criticized Ehrlich both for his overconfident predictions and his refusal to acknowledge his errors. \"In two lengthy interviews, Ehrlich admitted making not a single major error in the popular works he published in the late 1960s and early 1970s … the only flat-out mistake Ehrlich acknowledges is missing the destruction of the rain forests, which happens to be a point that supports and strengthens his world view—and is therefore, in cognitive dissonance terms, not a mistake at all. Beyond that, he was by his account, off a little here and there, but only because the information he got from others was wrong. Basically, he was right across the board.\"\n",
"Weil has been criticized for specific cases where he has appeared to reject aspects of evidence-based medicine, or promote unverified beliefs; and critiques by scientific watchdog organizations for his failing to disclaim in cases of his writings that have had connections to his own commercial interests, as well as for his and his peers downplaying social, structural, and environmental factors that contribute to the etiology of disease in the West, and for the clear component of entrepreneurialism associated with his establishing his brand of health care services and products. He refused to be interviewed by \"Frontline\" for their January 19, 2016 episode about health supplements.\n",
"As he told \"The Observer\", \"The last bit of the book is very foody. But that is how it was. Towards the end I finally get rid of these two people in my life I did not like [his father and stepmother, who had been the family's cleaning lady]—and to be honest I was really very jubilant—and thereafter all I wanted to do was cook.\" Slater's negative portrayal of his stepmother is challenged, however, by his stepsisters.\n",
"Arendt was profoundly shocked by the response, writing to Karl Jaspers \"People are resorting to any means to destroy my reputation ... They have spent weeks trying to find something in my past that they can hang on me\". Now she was being called arrogant, heartless and ill-informed. She was accused of being duped by Eichmann, of being a \"self-hating Jewess\", and even an enemy of Israel. Her critics included The Anti-Defamation League and many other Jewish groups, editors of publications she was a contributor to, faculty at the universities she taught at and friends from all parts of her life. Her friend Gershom Scholem, a major scholar of Jewish mysticism, broke off relations with her, publishing their correspondence without her permission. Arendt was criticized by many Jewish public figures, who charged her with coldness and lack of sympathy for the victims of the Holocaust. Because of this lingering criticism neither this book nor any of her other works were translated into Hebrew until 1999. Arendt responded to the controversies in the book's Postscript.\n",
"The story relates Ashenden's recollections of his past associations with the Driffields, especially Rosie. Due to his intimate association with her he hesitates to reveal how much information he will divulge to Driffield's second wife and Kear, who ostensibly wants a \"complete\" picture of the famous author, but who routinely glosses over the untoward stories that might upset Driffield's surviving wife. Ashenden holds the key to the deep mystery of love, and the act of love, in the life of each character, as he recounts a history of creativity, infidelity and literary memory.\n"
] |
the relationship between the legislative, judicial and executive branches of the us government.
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They're mutually independent branches of government that have (many) various, different responsibilities and, generally, have the capacity to limit the actions of one another.
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[
"The executive branch is headed by the president and is formally independent of both the legislature and the judiciary. The cabinet serves as a set of advisers to the president. They include the vice president and heads of the executive departments. Legislative power is vested in the two chambers of Congress, the Senate and the House of Representatives. The judicial branch (or judiciary), composed of the Supreme Court and lower federal courts, exercises judicial power. The judiciary's function is to interpret the United States Constitution and federal laws and regulations. This includes resolving disputes between the executive and legislative branches. The federal government's structure is codified in the Constitution.\n",
"The executive power is exercised by the executive branch, which is headed by the President, advised by a cabinet of secretaries that are independent of the legislature. Legislative power is vested upon the Congress of the Union, a two-chamber legislature comprising the Senate of the Republic and the Chamber of Deputies. Judicial power is exercised by the judiciary, consisting of the Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation, the Council of the Federal Judiciary and the collegiate, unitary and district tribunals.\n",
"The executive power is exercised by the executive branch, which is headed by the president and his Cabinet, which, together, are independent of the legislature. Legislative power is vested upon the Congress of the Union, a bicameral legislature comprising the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies. Judicial power is exercised by the judiciary, consisting of the Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation, the Council of the Federal Judiciary, and the collegiate, unitary, and district courts.\n",
"The Government consists of three branches: executive, legislative and judicial. The Executive branch consists of the Cabinet and is led by the Prime Minister. It is totally independent of the legislative branch that consists of a bicameral parliament. The Upper House is the Senate whilst the National Assembly is the lower house. The Judicial branch forms with the composition of the Supreme Court as an apex court, alongside the high courts and other inferior courts. The judiciary's function is to interpret the Constitution and federal laws and regulations.\n",
"Executive power is exercised by the executive, headed by the President, advised by a Cabinet of Ministers. The President is both the head of state and the head of government. Legislative power is vested upon the National Congress, a two-chamber legislature comprising the Federal Senate and the Chamber of Deputies. Judicial power is exercised by the judiciary, consisting of the Supreme Federal Court, the Superior Court of Justice and other Superior Courts, the National Justice Council and the regional federal courts.\n",
"The executive branch is headed by the president, who is also the chief of state and of the army. The legislative branch consists of the Union of Congress and is divided into an upper and lower chamber. The judicial branch is headed by the Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation and does not participate in federal elections.\n",
"The federal government exercises control over the central government and is divided into three independent branches: executive, legislative and judicial. Executive power is exercised by the President, advised by a cabinet. Legislative power is vested upon the National Congress, a two-chamber legislature comprising the Federal Senate and the Chamber of Deputies. Judicial power is exercised by the judiciary, consisting of the Supreme Federal Court, the Superior Court of Justice and other Superior Courts, the National Justice Council and the Regional Federal Courts.\n"
] |
what is a power over ethernet interface module
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Some modern networking equipment can get power via the Ethernet cord along with network access. You see it in devices that may be hardwired with ethernet, but that would otherwise be difficult to get power to - like security cameras, access points and conference phones.
However, in order for Power over Ethernet (PoE) to work, you need a router that can do PoE. If you don't have a router that supports it, you can get a PoE Interface module that connects after the router and supplies the power.
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[
"Power over Ethernet or PoE describes any of several standard or ad-hoc systems which pass electric power along with data on twisted pair Ethernet cabling. This allows a single cable to provide both data connection and electric power to devices such as wireless access points, IP cameras, and VoIP phones.\n",
"The I/O subsystem provides the system with an 8-bit single-ended SCSI bus, 10 Mbit/s Ethernet, serial line, the Serial Desktop Bus and analog audio. SCSI is provided by a NCR 53C94 ASC (Advanced SCSI Controller). Ethernet is provided by an AMD Am7990 LANCE (Local Area Network Controller for Ethernet) and an AMD Am7992 SIA (Serial Interface Adapter) that implements the AUI interface. A single serial port capable of 50 to 19,200 baud with full modem control capability is provided by a Zilog Z85C30 SCC (Serial Communications Controller). Analog audio and ISDN support is provided by an AMD 79C30A DSC (Digital Subscriber Controller). These devices are connected to IOCTL ASIC via two 8-bit buses or one 16-bit bus. The ASIC interfaces the subsystem to the TURBOchannel interconnect.\n",
"The I/O subsystem provides the DEC 3000 AXP with Ethernet, ISDN and audio capability, four serial lines, and a real time clock. The I/O subsystem is interfaced to TURBOchannel by the IOCTL ASIC, which also implements two 8-bit buses, known as IOBUS HI and IOBUS LO, to which the I/O devices connect to. These two 8-bit buses can be combined to serve as one 16-bit bus to provide an I/O device with more bandwidth. Ethernet is provided by an AMD Am7990 LANCE (Local Area Network Controller for Ethernet), an AMD Am7992 SIA (Serial Interface Adapter) that implements the 10BASE-T or AUI Ethernet interface, and an ESAR (Ethernet Station Address ROM) that stores the MAC address. The Am7990 is the only I/O device in the subsystem to have a 16-bit interface to the IOCTL ASIC. ISDN and telephone-quality audio is provided by an AMD Am79C30A DSC (Digital Subscriber Controller). The four serial lines are provided by two Zilog Z85C30 SCC (Serial Communications Controller) dual UARTs, and the real time clock is a Dallas Semiconductor DS1287A.\n",
"Ethernet Local Management Interface (E-LMI) is an Ethernet layer operation, administration, and management (OAM) protocol defined by the Metro Ethernet Forum (MEF) for Carrier Ethernet networks. It provides information that enables auto configuration of customer edge (CE) devices.\n",
"\"Power sourcing equipment\" (PSE) are devices that provide (\"source\") power on the Ethernet cable. This device may be a network switch, commonly called an \"endspan\" (IEEE 802.3af refers to it as \"endpoint\"), or an intermediary device between a non-PoE-capable switch and a PoE device, an external PoE \"injector\", called a \"midspan\" device.\n",
"Energy-Efficient Ethernet (EEE) is a set of enhancements to the twisted-pair and backplane Ethernet family of computer networking standards that reduce power consumption during periods of low data activity. The intention is to reduce power consumption by 50% or more, while retaining full compatibility with existing equipment.\n",
"Virtual Distributed Ethernet is a set of programs to provide virtual software-defined Ethernet Network Interface Controllers across multiple devices, typically computers, which are either virtual or physical. It forms part of the Virtual Square project from the Italian Bologna University whose code is available on public servers using free software licenses, mostly GPLv2. Researchers at the Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, Xavier University, Cincinnati OH are also working on the project.\n"
] |
what happens to money lost due to depreciation?
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The $5000 wasn't lost. The guy you bought the car from has it.
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[
"Depreciation has been defined as the diminution in the utility or value of an asset. Depreciation is a non cash expense. It does not result in any cash outflow. Causes of depreciation are natural wear and tear.\n",
"Depreciation is applied to tangible assets when those assets have an anticipated lifespan of more than one year. This process of depreciation is used instead of allocating the entire expense to one year.\n",
"Depreciation expense does not require current outlay of cash. However, since depreciation is an expense to the P&L account, provided the enterprise is operating in a manner that covers its expenses (e.g. operating at a profit) depreciation is a source of cash in a statement of cash flows, which generally offsets the cash cost of acquiring new assets required to continue operations when existing assets reach the end of their useful lives.\n",
"While depreciation expense is recorded on the income statement of a business, its impact is generally recorded in a separate account and disclosed on the balance sheet as accumulated under fixed assets, according to most accounting principles. Accumulated depreciation is known as a contra account, because it separately shows a negative amount that is directly associated an accumulated depreciation account on the balance sheet, depreciation expense is usually charged against the relevant asset directly. The values of the fixed assets stated on the balance sheet will decline, even if the business has not invested in or disposed of any assets. The amounts will roughly approximate fair value. Otherwise, depreciation expense is charged against accumulated depreciation. Showing accumulated depreciation separately on the balance sheet has the effect of preserving the historical cost of assets on the balance sheet. If there have been no investments or dispositions in fixed assets for the year, then the values of the assets will be the same on the balance sheet for the current and prior year (P/Y).\n",
"The fact that assets and material in the real world eventually wear down, and thence break, is a situation that must be accounted for. Depreciation itself is defined by the decreasing of value of any given asset, though some exceptions do exist. Valuation can be considered the basis for depreciation in a basic sense, as any decrease in \"value\" would be based on an \"original value\". The idea and existence of depreciation becomes especially relevant to engineering and project management is the fact that capital equipment and assets used in operations will slowly decrease in worth, which will also coincide with an increase in the likelihood of machine failure. Hence the recording and calculation of depreciation is important for two major reasons.\n",
"Depreciation is a corresponding concept for tangible assets. Methodologies for allocating amortization to each accounting period are generally the same as these for depreciation. However, many intangible assets such as goodwill or certain brands may be deemed to have an indefinite useful life and are therefore not subject to amortization (although goodwill is subjected to an impairment test every year).\n",
"If creditors (note holders of gold originally deposited) lost faith in the ability of a bank to pay their notes, however, many would try to redeem their notes at the same time. If, in response, a bank could not raise enough funds by calling in loans or selling bills, the bank would either go into insolvency or default on its notes. Such a situation is called a bank run and caused the demise of many early banks.\n"
] |
How was it like on Earth immediately after the impact that formed the moon?
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I think the prevailing theory is that the impact was so energetic that within hours the entire surface of the planet was raised to somewhere in the neighborhood of 3,000 degrees Celsius, meaning that it was entirely molten rock and a great deal of vaporized rock as well. If there was liquid water on the Earth before the impact, it was certainly vaporized, so I guess that means sea levels would have risen, in so far as they were all up in the air somewhere.
I imagine that for a short while the Earth looked like a little, tiny star. Not even remotely as bright since the light would have been black body radiation from the molten rock, rather than light emitted from fusion reactions, but still, a cute, tiny little star.
Check this out: _URL_0_
Edit: FYI, the real jam starts right around 5:50
|
[
"Samples brought back from the Apollo program showed that the Moon was composed of the same material as the mantle of the Earth. This surprising result was still unexplained in the early 1970s, when Cameron began work on an explanation of the Moon's origins. He theorized that the formation of the Moon was the result of a tangential impact of an object at least the size of Mars on the early Earth. In this model, the outer silicates of the body hitting the Earth would be vaporized, whereas a metallic core would not. The more volatile materials that were emitted during the collision would escape the Solar System, whereas silicates would tend to coalesce. Hence, most of the collisional material sent into orbit would consist of silicates, leaving the coalescing Moon deficient in iron and volatile materials, such as water.\n",
"Earth was initially molten due to extreme volcanism and frequent collisions with other bodies. Eventually, the outer layer of the planet cooled to form a solid crust when water began accumulating in the atmosphere. The Moon formed soon afterwards, possibly as a result of the impact of a large planetoid with the Earth. Some of this object's mass merged with the Earth, significantly altering its internal composition, and a portion was ejected into space. Some of the material survived to form an orbiting moon. More recent potassium isotopic studies suggest that the Moon was formed by a smaller, high-energy, high-angular-momentum giant impact cleaving off a significant portion of the Earth. Outgassing and volcanic activity produced the primordial atmosphere. Condensing water vapor, augmented by ice delivered from comets, produced the oceans.\n",
"The Moon has an outer shell of low-density crystalline rock that is a few hundred kilometers thick, which formed due to a rapid creation. The craters of the Moon have been well preserved through time and were once thought to have been the result of extreme volcanic activity, but actually were formed by meteorites, nearly all of which took place in the first few hundred million years after the Moon formed. Around 500 million years afterward, the Moon's mantle was able to be extensively melted due to the decay of radioactive elements. Massive basaltic eruptions took place generally at the base of large impact craters. Also, eruptions may have taken place due to a magma reservoir at the base of the crust. This forms a dome, possibly the same morphology of a shield volcano where calderas universally are known to form. Although caldera-like structures are rare on the Moon, they are not completely absent. The Compton-Belkovich Volcanic Complex on the far side of the Moon is thought to be a caldera, possibly an ash-flow caldera.\n",
"The prevailing hypothesis is that the Earth–Moon system formed after an impact of a Mars-sized body (named \"Theia\") with the proto-Earth (giant impact). The impact blasted material into Earth's orbit and then the material accreted and formed the Moon.\n",
"A subject of research is the formation of the Moon, some 4.53 Bya. A leading hypothesis is that it was formed by accretion from material loosed from Earth after a Mars-sized object, named Theia, hit Earth. In this view, the mass of Theia was approximately 10 percent of Earth, it hit Earth with a glancing blow and some of its mass merged with Earth. Between approximately 4.1 and , numerous asteroid impacts during the Late Heavy Bombardment caused significant changes to the greater surface environment of the Moon and, by inference, to that of Earth.\n",
"Grove Karl Gilbert suggested in 1893 that the Moon's craters were formed by large asteroid impacts. Ralph Baldwin in 1949 wrote that the Moon's craters were mostly of impact origin. Around 1960, Gene Shoemaker revived the idea. According to David H. Levy, Gene \"saw the craters on the Moon as logical impact sites that were formed not gradually, in eons, but explosively, in seconds.\"\n",
"BULLET::::- Research by UCLA provides further evidence that the Moon was formed by a violent, head-on collision between the early Earth and a “planetary embryo” called Theia, roughly 100 million years after the Earth formed.\n"
] |
why were old movies like "gone with the wind" and "wizard of oz" in color when movies were still in black in white until the late 50s/early 60s
|
Technicolor was cumbersome and required expensive specialty cameras and lighting. It was at first only suitable for big-budget pictures, sort of like 3D today.
Also, many directors preferred black and white for stylistic reasons. This is even true today; look at Schindler's List.
Edit: Jesus, I get it. Schindler's List is over twenty years old. You're all very clever for pointing that out.
My point was that it was made in black and white for stylistic purposes even though color film was cheap and had long become the norm.
|
[
"Richard O'Brien originally intended for the film to be in black and white for the first 20 minutes and turning to color when Frank-N-Furter appeared, starting with red color on his lipstick and spreading color throughout the picture as the song continued—a direct allusion to \"The Wizard of Oz\". It was vetoed by 20th Century Fox for a more conventional look. In the 25th Anniversary DVD, an Easter egg appears that converts the film to a semblance of O'Brien's original vision, with the film switching to color instantly when Riff Raff swings open the doorway during the Time Warp.\n",
"Like \"The Wizard of Oz\", the film utilizes the contrast of color and black-and-white as a narrative device. In this case, the black-and-white represents the sadness and despair brought about by the storm.\n",
"From the beginning \"The Wizard of Oz\" was telecast in color, although few people owned color television sets in 1956. Except for 1961, all U.S. telecasts have been in color, an effect that seemed much more striking in the early 1960s, when there were still relatively few color programs on television. It was not televised in color in 1961 because color telecasts had to be paid for by their sponsors, who declined to do so that year. Between 1956 and 1965, the \"Wizard of Oz\" showings were rare exceptions to the black and white program schedule at CBS. During this period, CBS had the ability to broadcast programs in color, but generally chose not to do so unless a sponsor paid for a film or program to be shown in color. During this period, the competing network NBC was owned by RCA, which by 1960 manufactured 95% of the color sets sold in the U.S. Hence, CBS perceived that increased use of color broadcasting would primarily benefit its rival by promoting sales of RCA color television sets.\n",
"Since the late 1960s, few mainstream films have been shot in black-and-white. The reasons are frequently commercial, as it is difficult to sell a film for television broadcasting if the film is not in color. 1961 was the last year in which the majority of Hollywood films were released in black and white.\n",
"\"The Wizard of Oz\" (1939) is in color when Dorothy is in Oz, but in black-and-white when she is in Kansas, although the latter scenes were actually in sepia when the film was originally released. In a similar manner, in \"Stalker\" (1979), the \"zone\", in which natural laws do not apply, is in colour, and the world outside the \"zone\" generally in sepia. In contrast, the British film \"A Matter of Life and Death\" (1946) depicts the other world in black-and-white (a character says \"one is starved of Technicolor … up there\"), and earthly events in color. Similarly, Wim Wenders's film \"Wings of Desire\" (1987) uses sepia-tone black-and-white for the scenes shot from the angels' perspective. When Damiel, the angel (the film's main character), becomes a human the film changes to color, emphasising his new \"real life\" view of the world.\n",
"Very few of the original camera negatives of movies made in Technicolor Process 2 or 3 survive. In the late 1940s, most were discarded from storage at Technicolor in a space-clearing move, after the studios declined to reclaim the materials. Original Technicolor prints that survived into the 1950s were often used to make black-and-white prints for television and simply discarded thereafter. This explains why so many early color films exist today solely in black and white.\n",
"The film is introduced by George Burns, who tells viewers that they were about to see an old-style double feature. In the old days, he explains, movies were in black-and-white, except sometimes \"when they sang it came out in color.\"\n"
] |
Geologists: What forces caused these adjacent mountain formations to end up looking so different?
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Looks like the darker mountains are cinder cones of volcanic origin.
|
[
"At the time of their deposition the rocks of the Northern Limestone Alps were located several hundred kilometres south of their present position. About 35 million years ago, tectonic forces, that are still active today, began to push these geological units northwards. At that time several kilometres of rock and several hundred metres of water lay on top of the rocks visible today. As a result there was a massive overlapping pressure that prevented the formations underneath from breaking up as they were pushed together.\n",
"The formation of the Rocky Mountains began in the Late Cretaceous Period and finished in the Early Tertiary Period. The pressure on the fault line caused thousands of metres of rock to thrust upward. The contorted beds near the summit of Mount Michener are visible evidence of the tremendous force that caused its formation. A system of limestone caves does exist within the mountain, but they remain undocumented.\n",
"The chain-like arrangement of summits and the formation of long, jagged mountain crests – known in Spanish as sierras (\"saws\") – is a consequence of their collective formation by mountain building forces. The often linear structure is linked to the direction of these thrust forces and the resulting mountain folding which in turn relates to the fault lines in the upper part of the earth's crust, that run between the individual mountain chains. In these fault zones, the rock, which has sometimes been pulverised, is easily eroded, so that large river valleys are carved out. These, so called longitudinal valleys reinforce the trend, during the early mountain building phase, towards the formation of parallel chains of mountains.\n",
"The tendency, especially of fold mountains (e. g. the Cordilleras) to produce roughly parallel chains is due to their rock structure and the propulsive forces of plate tectonics. The uplifted rock masses are either magmatic plutonic rocks, easily shaped because of their higher temperature, or sediments or metamorphic rocks, which have a less robust structure, that are deposited in the synclines. As a result of orogenic movements, strata of folded rock are formed that are crumpled out of their original horizontal plane and thrust against one another. The longitudinal stretching of the folds takes place at right angles to the direction of the lateral thrusting. The overthrust folds of a nappe belt (e.g. the Central Alps) are formed in a similar way.\n",
"Further south, an unusual subduction may have caused the growth of the Rocky Mountains in the United States, where the Farallon plate dove at a shallow angle below the North American plate. This low angle moved the focus of melting and mountain building much farther inland than the normal . Scientists hypothesize that the shallow angle of the subducting plate increased the friction and other interactions with the thick continental mass above it. Tremendous thrusts piled sheets of crust on top of each other, building the broad, high Rocky Mountain range.\n",
"These mountains were created when the surface of the earth was being stretched, forming a horst or a pulling force, forming grabens. The crust ruptured because of this force, and as a result, lava erupted and ended up deposited on top of the preceding sedimentary rock.\n",
"The mountains' geological history began in tropical climes, on the edge of a broad and shallow sea: the Alpine Tethys. To begin with, material was deposited that had been washed into the sea from the land; then the sea level rose and limestone-forming organisms began to populate it. Marine deposits that were near the shore, made of limestones, dolomitic rocks and breccias, are still layered in places in a narrow strip of land between Langlehn and Igelskar (Reichenhall Strata). Because they weather relatively easily, they form cols (\"Scharte\") and \"Törle\" like the \"Biberwierer Scharte\" or the \"Tajatörl\".\n"
] |
why does the weather say 39 but "feels like 30" wouldnt it just be 30 outside?
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Ambient temperature in a general area VS perceived temperature due to humidity and wind chill making it colder.
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[
"It is the approximate southern border of the horse latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere, meaning that much of the land area touching the 30th parallel is arid or semi-arid. If there is a source of wind from a body of water the area would more likely be subtropical.\n",
"It is in Earth's middle latitudes, between roughly 30° to 60° North and South, that a significant portion of \"weather\" can be said to happen, that is, where meteorological phenomena do not persist over the long term, and where it may be warm, sunny, and calm one day, and cold, overcast and stormy the next.\n",
"Weather folklore, therefore, refers to this mid-latitude region of daily variability. While most of it applies equally to the Southern Hemisphere, the Southern Hemisphere resident may need to take into account the fact that weather systems rotate opposite to those in the North. For instance, the \"crossed winds\" rule (see below) must be reversed for the Australian reader.\n",
"BULLET::::- Due to the thin atmosphere, the temperature difference between day and night is much larger than on Earth, typically around 70 °C (125 °F). However, the day/night temperature variation is much lower during dust storms when very little light gets through to the surface even during the day, and instead warms the middle atmosphere.\n",
"Due to its latitude temperatures can vary wildly, especially in the summer when there is a large night-day difference. There is a train station situated in Diamante, which is linked to major cities like Naples and Messina.\n",
"Heavy Weather is a novel by P. G. Wodehouse, first published in the United States on 28 July 1933 by Little, Brown and Company, Boston, and in the United Kingdom on 10 August 1933 by Herbert Jenkins, London. It had been serialised in \"The Saturday Evening Post\" from 27 May to 15 July 1933.\n",
"The climate of the United States varies due to differences in latitude, and a range of geographic features, including mountains and deserts. Generally, on the mainland, the climate of the U.S. becomes warmer the further south one travels, and drier the further west, until one reaches the West Coast.\n"
] |
Does rinsing or just running water over my hands without soap after using the bathroom do anything?
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I dont think that rubbing your hands together will kill bacteria. They are too small to unfluence that way.
About the hot and cold water. You would need to put your hand in boiling water for an extended amount of time (hours) before it even remotely kills enough bacteria to be considered clean. And switching between hot and cold probably isnt gonna cut it either.
As already said the water makes it easier for bacteria to get loose from your hands. So that woulf only spread more.
Best case scenario: wash with water and soap and dry using a (papr) towel and not those blowers
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[
"Washing hands with soap and water eliminates microorganisms from the skin and hands. This provides some protection against transmission of VHF and other diseases. This requires at least cake soap cut into small pieces, soap dishes with openings that allow water to drain away, running water or a bucket kept full with clean water, a bucket for collecting rinse water and a ladle for dipping, if running water is not available, and one-use towels.\n",
"Hand dishwashing detergents utilize surfactants to play the primary role in cleaning. The reduced surface tension of dishwashing water, and increasing solubility of modern surfactant mixtures, allows the water to run off the dishes in a dish rack very quickly. However, most people also rinse the dishes with pure water to make sure to get rid of any soap residue that could affect the taste of the food.\n",
"In use, the shaving brush is dunked into the wide spout, allowing it to soak into the water and heat up. The soap is placed in the soap holder. When needed, one can take the brush and brush it against the soap, bringing up a layer of lather; excess water is drained back. This allows conservation of water and soap, whilst retaining enough heat to ensure a long shave.\n",
"There are certain situations during which hand washing with water and soap are preferred over hand sanitizer, these include: eliminating bacterial spores of \"Clostridioides difficile\", parasites such as \"Cryptosporidium\", and certain viruses like norovirus depending on the concentration of alcohol in the sanitizer (95% alcohol was seen to be most effective in eliminating most viruses). In addition, if hands are contaminated with fluids or other visible contaminates, hand washing is preferred as well as when after using the toilet and if discomfort develops from the residue of alcohol sanitizer use. Furthermore, CDC recommends hand sanitizers are not effective in removing chemicals such as pesticides.\n",
"BULLET::::- Handwashing Hygiene: Frequent handwashing with soap and water (or with an alcohol-based hand sanitizer) is very important, especially after coughing or sneezing, and after contact with other people or with potentially contaminated surfaces (such as handrails, shared utensils, etc.)\n",
"Hand sanitizer is a liquid generally used to decrease infectious agents on the hands. Formulations of the alcohol-based type are preferable to hand washing with soap and water in most situations in the healthcare setting. It is generally more effective at killing microorganisms and better tolerated than soap and water. Hand washing should still be carried out if contamination can be seen or following the use of the toilet. The general use of non-alcohol based versions has no recommendations. Outside the health care setting evidence to support the use of hand sanitizer over hand washing is poor. They are available as liquids, gels, and foams.\n",
"A hard shaving soap is used with a shaving brush to create lather for shaving. For soap in the form of a puck or bar, the brush is first soaked in water and then swirled vigorously over the surface of the soap, causing moist soap to coat the brush's bristles. The brush is then transferred either to a separate bowl or to the shaver's face to be lathered.\n"
] |
why does beer make you crave salty/fatty food?
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Alcohol releases dopamine in your brain, when it starts to wear off you start looking for something else that will release dopamine.
Fat and salt are particular good for this (to do with evolution of humans.)
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[
"Several colloquial terms used to refer to central obesity, and to people who have it, refer to beer drinking. However, there is little scientific evidence that beer drinkers are more prone to central obesity, despite its being known colloquially as \"beer belly\", \"beer gut\", or \"beer pot\". One of the few studies conducted on the subject did not find that beer drinkers are more prone to central obesity than nondrinkers or drinkers of wine or spirits. Chronic alcoholism can lead to cirrhosis, symptoms of which include gynecomastia (enlarged breasts) and ascites (abdominal fluid). These symptoms can suggest the appearance of central obesity.\n",
"Fatty alcohols are mainly used in the production of detergents and surfactants. They are components also of cosmetics, foods, and as industrial solvents. Due to their amphipathic nature, fatty alcohols behave as nonionic surfactants. They find use as co-emulsifiers, emollients and thickeners in cosmetics and food industry. About 50% of fatty alcohols used commercially are of natural origin, the remainder being synthetic.\n",
"Alcohol affects the nutritional state of the chronic drinkers. It can decrease food consumption and lead to malabsorption. It can create imbalance in the skeletal muscle mass and cause muscle wasting. Chronic consumption alcohol can also increase breakdown of important proteins in our body which can affect gene expression.\n",
"It is considered that overeating and lack of muscle tone is the main cause of a beer belly, rather than beer consumption. A 2004 study, however, found a link between binge drinking and a beer belly. But with most overconsumption, it is more a problem of improper exercise and overconsumption of carbohydrates than the product itself. Several diet books quote beer as having an undesirably high glycemic index of 110, the same as maltose; however, the maltose in beer undergoes metabolism by yeast during fermentation so that beer consists mostly of water, hop oils and only trace amounts of sugars, including maltose.\n",
"Though all lagers are well attenuated, a more fully fermented pale lager in Germany goes by the name \"Diät-Pils\" or \"\". \"Diet\" in the instance not referring to being \"light\" in calories or body, rather its sugars are fully fermented into alcohol, allowing the beer to be targeted to diabetics due to its lower carbohydrate content. Because the available sugars are fully fermented, dry beers often have a higher alcohol content, which may be reduced in the same manner as low-alcohol beers. \n",
"With an ever growing health conscious market segment, breweries began to produce craft non-alcoholic beers with as little as 10 calories per can, so that those who crave beer can fulfill their cravings without breaking their health resolution.\n",
"Light beers with significantly lower alcohol content allow consumers to drink more beers in a shorter period without becoming intoxicated. Low alcohol content can also mean a less expensive beer, especially where excise is determined by alcohol content.\n"
] |
how do usb plugs built in to outlets work with phones and other devices that use usb? don’t you need to convert ac to dc?
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There is either a converter built into the wall before the usb. So it goes wires > converter > USB. Or the cube is used because the normal outlet uses the two prongs and not USB.
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[
"Since the Universal Serial Bus specification provides for a five-volt power supply (with limited maximum power), it is possible to use a USB cable to connect a device to a power supply. Products based on this approach include chargers for cellular phones, portable digital audio players, and tablet computers. They may be fully compliant USB peripheral devices adhering to USB power discipline, or uncontrolled in the manner of USB decorations.\n",
"USB connector types multiplied as the specification progressed. The original USB specification detailed standard-A and standard-B plugs and receptacles.The connectors were different so that users could not connect one computer receptacle to another. The data pins in the standard plugs are recessed compared to the power pins,so that the device can power up before establishing a data connection. Some devices operate in different modes depending on whether the data connection is made. Charging docks supply power and do not include a host device or data pins, allowing any capable USB device to charge or operate from a standard USB cable. Charging cables provide power connections, but not data. In a charge-only cable, the data wires are shorted at the device end, otherwise the device may reject the charger as unsuitable.\n",
"USB connector types multiplied as the specification progressed. The original USB specification detailed standard-A and standard-B plugs and receptacles. The connectors were different so that users could not connect one computer receptacle to another. The data pins in the standard plugs are recessed compared to the power pins, so that the device can power up before establishing a data connection. Some devices operate in different modes depending on whether the data connection is made. Charging docks supply power and do not include a host device or data pins, allowing any capable USB device to charge or operate from a standard USB cable. Charging cables provide power connections, but not data. In a charge-only cable, the data wires are shorted at the device end, otherwise the device may reject the charger as unsuitable.\n",
"Some wireless range extending devices connect via a USB port. These USB adapters add Wi-Fi capability to desktop PCs and other devices that have standard USB ports. USB supports not only the data transfers required for networking, but it also supplies a power source so that these adapters do not require electrical plugs.\n",
"Traditional USB Y-cables exist to enable one USB peripheral device to receive power from two USB host sockets at once, while only transceiving data with one of those sockets. As long as the host has two available USB sockets, this enables a peripheral that requires more power than one USB port can supply (but not more than two ports can supply) to be used without requiring a mains adaptor. Portable hard disk drives and optical disc drives are sometimes supplied with such Y-cables, for this reason.\n",
"The USB connector (and voltage) has emerged as a de facto standard in low-power AC adapters for many portable devices. In addition to serial digital data exchange, the USB standard also provides , up to ( over USB 3.0). Numerous accessory gadgets (\"USB decorations\") were designed to connect to USB only for DC power and not for data interchange. The USB Implementers Forum in March, 2007 released the USB Battery Charging Specification which defines, \"...limits as well as detection, control and reporting mechanisms to permit devices to draw current in excess of the USB 2.0 specification for charging ...\". Electric fans, lamps, alarms, coffee warmers, battery chargers, and even toys have been designed to tap power from a USB connector. Plug-in adapters equipped with USB receptacles are widely available to convert or power or automotive power to USB power (see photo at right).\n",
"Some USB devices require more power than is permitted by the specifications for a single port. This is common for external hard and optical disc drives, and generally for devices with motors or lamps. Such devices can use an external power supply, which is allowed by the standard, or use a dual-input USB cable, one input of which is for power and data transfer, the other solely for power, which makes the device a non-standard USB device. Some USB ports and external hubs can, in practice, supply more power to USB devices than required by the specification but a standard-compliant device may not depend on this.\n"
] |
how humid would air need to be for a human to breath their liquid requirements in a 24 hour period?
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It couldn't happen. At 100 degrees F (38C) the partial pressure of water vapor at 100% relative humidity is 49mmHg and change. Humans exhale 47mmHg of water vapor. So at 100% humidity in a 100 degree environment that would effectively "stop" the water loss that comes from exhaling, but not add a huge amount of water back to the system. To increase the partial pressure further, you have to increase the temperature, but as you do so we'll start to lose volume from sweat which competes against the cause. To get to a point where we were in effect breathing in 2x as much water as we were exhaling, you'd have to have 100% humidty at around 122-123 degrees F (50-51C). At that temperature you have to worry not just about sweat loss but heat radiation, and at 100% RH you're looking at heat stroke and death becoming likely.
From a theoretical standpoint (assuming we don't die of heat stroke, and assuming that we don't start losing volume as sweat as temperature increases), there probably is a point where it can happen. Assuming that a normal alveolar ventilation is on the order of 6000L per day (12 breaths per minute, 350ml of alveolar ventilation per breath), you could then figure out how many grams of water you'd need in the air to offset the 2.5L of water an average person on an average day loses. But that math is getting beyond me, I just posted these values as a starting point for anyone who actually wants to work out the ideal gas law of it for a further answer.
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[
"Even with quiet breathing, the inspiratory flow rate at the nares of an adult usually exceeds 12 liters a minute, and can exceed 30 liters a minute for someone with mild respiratory distress. Traditional oxygen therapy is limited to six liters a minute and does not begin to approach the inspiratory demand of an adult and therefore the oxygen is then diluted with room air during inspiration.\n",
"Definition: Non-invasive delivery of oxygen air mixture delivered via a nasal cannula at flows that exceed the patient’s inspiratory flow demands with gas that has been optimally conditioned by warming and humidifying the gas to close to 100% relative humidity at body temperature.\n",
"A typical human breathes between 12 and 20 times per minute at a rate primarily influenced by carbon dioxide concentration, and thus pH, in the blood. With each breath, a volume of about 0.6 litres is exchanged from an active lung volume (tidal volume + functional residual capacity) of about 3 litres. Normal Earth atmosphere is about 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 1% argon, carbon dioxide, and other gases. After just two or three breaths of nitrogen, the oxygen concentration in the lungs would be low enough for some oxygen already in the bloodstream to exchange back to the lungs and be eliminated by exhalation.\n",
"Increased water intake may also help in acclimatization to replace the fluids lost through heavier breathing in the thin, dry air found at altitude, although consuming excessive quantities (\"over-hydration\") has no benefits and may cause dangerous hyponatremia.\n",
"There is, however, a complication that increases the volume of air that needs to be inhaled per minute (respiratory minute volume) to provide the same amount of oxygen to the lungs at altitude as at sea level. During inhalation the air is warmed and saturated with water vapor during its passage through the nose passages and pharynx. Saturated water vapor pressure is dependent only on temperature. At a body core temperature of 37 °C it is 6.3 kPa (47.0 mmHg), irrespective of any other influences, including altitude. Thus at sea level, where the ambient atmospheric pressure is about 100 kPa, the moistened air that flows into the lungs from the trachea consists of water vapor (6.3 kPa), nitrogen (74.0 kPa), oxygen (19.7 kPa) and trace amounts of carbon dioxide and other gases (a total of 100 kPa). In dry air the partial pressure of O at sea level is 21.0 kPa (i.e. 21% of 100 kPa), compared to the 19.7 kPa of oxygen entering the alveolar air. (The tracheal partial pressure of oxygen is 21% of [100 kPa – 6.3 kPa] = 19.7 kPa). At the summit of Mt. Everest (at an altitude of 8,848 m or 29,029 ft) the total atmospheric pressure is 33.7 kPa, of which 7.1 kPa (or 21%) is oxygen. The air entering the lungs also has a total pressure of 33.7 kPa, of which 6.3 kPa is, unavoidably, water vapor (as it is at sea level). This reduces the partial pressure of oxygen entering the alveoli to 5.8 kPa (or 21% of [33.7 kPa – 6.3 kPa] = 5.8 kPa). The reduction in the partial pressure of oxygen in the inhaled air is therefore substantially greater than the reduction of the total atmospheric pressure at altitude would suggest (on Mt Everest: 5.8 kPa \"vs.\" 7.1 kPa).\n",
"Exhaled breath on Earth normally contains about 4% carbon dioxide and 16% oxygen, along with 78% nitrogen, plus about 0.2 to 0.3 liters of water. Carbon dioxide slowly becomes increasingly toxic in high concentrations, and must be scrubbed from the breathing gas. A concept to scrub carbon dioxide from breathing air is to use re-usable amine bead carbon dioxide scrubbers. While one carbon dioxide scrubber filters the astronaut's air, the other can vent scrubbed carbon dioxide to the Mars atmosphere. Once that process is completed, another scrubber can be used, and the one that was used can take a break. Another more traditional way to remove carbon dioxide from air is by a lithium hydroxide canister, however these need to be replaced periodically. Carbon dioxide removal systems are a standard part of habitable spacecraft designs, although their specifics vary. One idea to remove carbon dioxide is to use a zeolite molecular sieve, and then later the carbon dioxide can be removed from the material.\n",
"The first study consisted of human breath test in an enclosure for several hours. A room of square meters was used, with an air storage cell, loaded to 79 atmospheres and a storage capacity of 0.5 m. In addition to instruments to measure the temperature and moisture, there was a tube to re-oxygenate the air supply to the crew through a waterproof cloak and three water buckets to maintain the moisture. Six people locked themselves inside the room; one had to leave an hour and quarter later, but the rest remained for a total of five hours, and the test was considered a total success.\n"
] |
laser thermometers.
|
The laser part is just to visually indicate where you are measuring, the actual temperature is read by a calibrated infra red sensor. Similar to on a remote control.
|
[
"Thermopile laser sensors (Fig 1) are used for measuring laser power from a few µW to several W (see section 2.4). The incoming radiation of the laser is converted into heat energy at the surface. This heat input produces a temperature gradient across the sensor. Making use of the thermoelectric effect a voltage is generated by this temperature gradient. Since the voltage is directly proportional to the incoming radiation, it can be directly related to the irradiation power (see section 2.1).\n",
"An infrared thermometer is a thermometer which infers temperature from a portion of the thermal radiation sometimes called black-body radiation emitted by the object being measured. They are sometimes called laser thermometers as a laser is used to help aim the thermometer, or non-contact thermometers or temperature guns, to describe the device's ability to measure temperature from a distance. By knowing the amount of infrared energy emitted by the object and its emissivity, the object's temperature can often be determined within a certain range of its actual temperature. Infrared thermometers are a subset of devices known as \"thermal radiation thermometers\".\n",
"Thermopile laser sensors find their use mainly where sensitivity to a wide spectral range is needed or where high laser powers need to be measured. Thermopile sensors are integrated into laser systems and laser sources and are used for sporadic as well as continuous monitoring of laser power, e.g. in feedback control loops. Some of the applications are\n",
"Thermopiles are used for measuring the intensity of incident radiation, typically visible or infrared light, which heats the hot junctions, while the cold junctions are on a heat sink. It is possible to measure radiative intensities of only a few μW/cm with commercially available thermopile sensors. For example, some laser power meters are based on such sensors; these are specifically known as thermopile laser sensor.\n",
"Laser schlieren deflectometry (LSD) is a method for a high-speed measurement of the gas temperature in microscopic dimensions, in particular for temperature peaks under dynamic conditions at atmospheric pressure. The principle of LSD is derived from schlieren photography: a narrow laser beam is used to scan an area in a gas where changes in properties are associated with characteristic changes of refractive index. Laser schlieren deflectometry is claimed to overcome limitations of other methods regarding temporal and spatial resolution.\n",
"In laser Doppler velocimetry, laser Doppler anemometers use a beam of light from a laser that is divided into two beams, with one propagated out of the anemometer. Particulates (or deliberately introduced seed material) flowing along with air molecules near where the beam exits reflect, or backscatter, the light back into a detector, where it is measured relative to the original laser beam. When the particles are in great motion, they produce a Doppler shift for measuring wind speed in the laser light, which is used to calculate the speed of the particles, and therefore the air around the anemometer.\n",
"A strontium vapor laser is a laser that produces at its output, high-intensity pulsed light at a wavelength of 430.5 nm in the blue-violet region of the visible spectrum via vaporized strontium metal gas contained within a glass tube.\n"
] |
Do waves move faster then light because of the sinusoidal path they take?
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Light "waves" do not move sinusoidally. This is a convenient way of representing light's wave-like properties, but they don't actually slew ftom side to side like an old truck with a sloppy steering box.
|
[
"Waves that are sinusoidal in time but propagate through a medium whose properties vary with position (an \"inhomogeneous\" medium) may propagate at a velocity that varies with position, and as a result may not be sinusoidal in space. The figure at right shows an example. As the wave slows down, the wavelength gets shorter and the amplitude increases; after a place of maximum response, the short wavelength is associated with a high loss and the wave dies out.\n",
"Assuming a sinusoidal wave moving at a fixed wave speed, wavelength is inversely proportional to frequency of the wave: waves with higher frequencies have shorter wavelengths, and lower frequencies have longer wavelengths.\n",
"A wave can be longitudinal where the oscillations are parallel (or antiparallel) to the propagation direction, or transverse where the oscillations are perpendicular to the propagation direction. These oscillations are characterized by a periodically time-varying displacement in the parallel or perpendicular direction, and so the instantaneous velocity and acceleration are also periodic and time varying in these directions. (the apparent motion of the wave due to the successive oscillations of particles or fields about their equilibrium positions) propagates at the phase and group velocities parallel or antiparallel to the propagation direction, which is common to longitudinal and transverse waves. Below oscillatory displacement, velocity and acceleration refer to the kinematics in the oscillating directions of the wave - transverse or longitudinal (mathematical description is identical), the group and phase velocities are separate.\n",
"Consider a wave going from one material to another where its speed is slower as in the figure. If it reaches the interface between the materials at an angle one side of the wave will reach the second material first, and therefore slow down earlier. With one side of the wave going slower the whole wave will pivot towards that side. This is why a wave will bend away from the surface or toward the normal when going into a slower material. In the opposite case of a wave reaching a material where the speed is higher, one side of the wave will speed up and the wave will pivot away from that side.\n",
"Wave functions change as time progresses. The Schrödinger equation describes how wave functions change in time, playing a role similar to Newton's second law in classical mechanics. The Schrödinger equation, applied to the aforementioned example of the free particle, predicts that the center of a wave packet will move through space at a constant velocity (like a classical particle with no forces acting on it). However, the wave packet will also spread out as time progresses, which means that the position becomes more uncertain with time. This also has the effect of turning a position eigenstate (which can be thought of as an infinitely sharp wave packet) into a broadened wave packet that no longer represents a (definite, certain) position eigenstate.\n",
"An acoustic travelling wave can be reflected by a solid surface. If a travelling wave is reflected, the reflected wave can interfere with the incident wave causing a standing wave in the near field. As a consequence, the local pressure in the near field is doubled, and the particle velocity becomes zero.\n",
"If the waves are propagating through an anisotropic (i.e., not rotationally symmetric) medium, for example a crystal, then the phase velocity vector and group velocity vector may point in different directions.\n"
] |
how does apple make more money than google / android?
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Android isn't a company. Google doesn't completely own the phones that have their operating system in it, so they only get a portion of the profit from them. Apple owns the entire process. I also wouldn't be surprised if the profit on an individual phone was more for an iPhone than an android phone for a lot of reasons.
Android phones might be a bigger part of the phone market, but they share that profit with tons of people, apple doesn't have to really share their profit.
|
[
"Apple amassed 65% of all profits made by the eight largest worldwide smartphone manufacturers in quarter one of 2014, according to a report by Canaccord Genuity. In the first quarter of 2015, the company garnered 92% of all earnings.\n",
"Similar to the Android Market, Google shared in the revenue generated by all sales through One Pass. On its launch date, revenue was split between the publisher and Google in a 90%/10% respectively. That was significantly less than Apple's competing product that provided only 70% of the revenue to the publisher and kept the remaining 30%.\n",
"Apple is well known for its size and revenues. Its worldwide annual revenue totaled $265billion for the 2018 fiscal year. Apple is the world's largest technology company by revenue and one of the world's most valuable companies. It is also the world's third-largest mobile phone manufacturer after Samsung and Huawei. In August 2018, Apple became the first public U.S. company to be valued at over $1 trillion. The company employs 123,000 full-time employees and maintains 504 retail stores in 24 countries . It operates the iTunes Store, which is the world's largest music retailer. , more than 1.3 billion Apple products are actively in use worldwide. The company also has a high level of brand loyalty and is ranked as the world's most valuable brand. However, Apple receives significant criticism regarding the labor practices of its contractors, its environmental practices and unethical business practices, including anti-competitive behavior, as well as the origins of source materials.\n",
"Google Inc.’s Android has overtaken Apple Inc.’s iOS in the wildly growing arena of app downloads. In the second quarter of 2011, 44% of all apps downloaded from app marketplaces across the web were for Android devices while 31% were for Apple devices, according to new data from ABI Research. The remaining apps were for various other mobile operating systems, including BlackBerry and Windows Phone 7.\n",
"Apple when introduced to the highly competitive computer environment retailed for about $2000 but cost less than $500, as over 70% of its components were outsourced (Choo 1995). Instead, Apple focused on the design, logistics, software and product assembly. Due to the concentration of only a few knowledge adding services, Apple was able to rise to the top of the highly competitive PC market and attain great sales (Gupta, Sharma 2004).\n",
"Since 2005, Apple's revenues, profits, and stock price have grown significantly. On May 26, 2010, Apple's stock market value overtook Microsoft's, and Apple's revenues surpassed those of Microsoft in the third quarter of 2010. After giving their results for the first quarter of 2011, Microsoft's net profits of $5.2 billion were lower for the quarter than those of Apple, which earned $6 billion in net profit for the quarter. The late April announcement of profits by the companies marked the first time in 20 years that Microsoft's profits had been lower than Apple's, a situation described by \"Ars Technica\" as \"unimaginable a decade ago\".\n",
"Market research firm Gartner predicted that 102 billion apps would be downloaded in 2013 (91% of them free), which would generate $26 billion in the US, up 44.4% on 2012's US$18 billion. By Q2 2015, the Google Play and Apple stores alone generated $5 billion. An analyst report estimates that the app economy creates revenues of more than €10 billion per year within the European Union, while over 529,000 jobs have been created in 28 EU states due to the growth of the app market.\n"
] |
What was Richard III's role in the end of The War of the Roses?
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Is this related to your [High School English Assignment](_URL_0_) or a separate homework?
|
[
"The Wars of the Roses began the following year, with the First Battle of St Albans. Initially, Richard aimed only to purge his Lancastrian political opponents from positions of influence over the king. It was not until October 1460 that he claimed the throne for the House of York. In that year the Yorkists had captured the king at the battle of Northampton, but victory was short-lived. Richard and his second son Edmund were killed at the battle of Wakefield on 30 December.\n",
"The Wars of the Roses were a series of conflicts between various English lords and nobles in support of two different royal families descended from Edward III. In 1461 the conflict reached a milestone when the House of York supplanted its rival, the House of Lancaster, as the ruling royal house in England. Edward IV, leader of the Yorkists, seized the throne from the Lancastrian king, Henry VI, who was captured in 1465 and imprisoned in the Tower of London. The Lancastrian queen, Margaret of Anjou, and her son, Edward of Lancaster, fled to Scotland and organised resistance. Edward IV crushed the uprisings and pressured the Scottish government to force Margaret out; the House of Lancaster went into exile in France. As the Yorkists tightened their hold over England, Edward rewarded his supporters, including his chief adviser, Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick, elevating them to higher titles and awarding them land confiscated from their defeated foes. The Earl grew to disapprove of the King's rule, however, and their relationship later became strained.\n",
"The ascension of Richard III occurred under a cloud of controversy, and shortly after assuming the throne, the wars sparked anew with Buckingham's rebellion, as many die-hard Yorkists abandoned Richard to join Lancastrians. While the rebellions lacked much central coordination, in the chaos the exiled Henry Tudor, son of Henry VI's half-brother Edmund Earl of Richmond, and the leader of the Lancastrian cause, returned to the country from exile in Brittany at the head of an army of combined Breton and English forces. Richard avoided direct conflict with Henry until the Battle of Bosworth Field on 22 August 1485. After Richard III was killed and his forces defeated at Bosworth Field, Henry assumed the throne as Henry VII and married Elizabeth of York, the eldest daughter and heir of Edward IV, thereby uniting the two claims. The House of Tudor ruled the Kingdom of England until 1603, with the death of Elizabeth I, granddaughter of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York. \n",
"The Wars of the Roses was a 1963 theatrical adaptation of William Shakespeare's first historical tetralogy (\"1 Henry VI\", \"2 Henry VI\", \"3 Henry VI\" and \"Richard III\"), which deals with the conflict between the House of Lancaster and the House of York over the throne of England, a conflict known as the Wars of the Roses. The plays were adapted by John Barton, and directed by Barton himself and Peter Hall at the Royal Shakespeare Theatre. The production starred David Warner as Henry VI, Peggy Ashcroft as Margaret of Anjou, Donald Sinden as the Duke of York, Paul Hardwick as the Duke of Gloucester, Janet Suzman as Joan la Pucelle, Brewster Mason as the Earl of Warwick, Roy Dotrice as Edward IV, Susan Engel as Queen Elizabeth and Ian Holm as Richard III.\n",
"\"Richard III\" aired in 2016 as part of the concluding cycle \"The Hollow Crown: The Wars of the Roses\", along with a two-part adaptation of the other plays in Shakespeare's first tetralogy, \"Henry VI, Part 1\", \"Henry VI, Part 2\" and \"Henry VI, Part 3\". Benedict Cumberbatch was nominated for the British Academy Television Award for Best Leading Actor and \"The Wars of the Roses\" was nominated for Best Mini-Series.\n",
"The Wars of the Roses were civil wars over the throne of the Kingdom of England fought among the descendants of King Edward III through his five surviving adult sons. Each branch of the family had competing claims through seniority, legitimacy, and/or the sex of their ancestors, despite patriarchal rule of the day. Thus, the senior Plantagenet line was ended with the death of Richard II, but not before the execution of Thomas of Woodstock for treason. The heirs presumptive through Lionel of Antwerp were passed over in favour of the powerful Henry IV, descendant of Edward III through John of Gaunt. These Lancaster kings initially survived the treason of their Edmund of Langley (York) cousins but eventually were deposed by the merged Lionel/Edmund line in the person of Edward IV. Internecine killing among the Yorks left Richard III as king, supported and then betrayed by his cousin Buckingham, the descendant of Thomas of Woodstock. Finally, the Yorks were dislodged by the remaining Lancastrian candidate, Henry VII of the House of Tudor, another descendant of John of Gaunt, who married the eldest daughter of Yorkist King Edward IV.\n",
"BULLET::::- Wars of the Roses (1455–1487) – in England and Wales; Richard III was the last English king to die in combat, The Wars of the Roses were a series of dynastic wars for the throne of England. They were fought between supporters of two rival branches of the royal House of Plantagenet, the houses of Lancaster and York. They were fought in several sporadic episodes between 1455 and 1487.\n"
] |
why is there such a significant price gap between canadian crude oil prices and us crude oil prices?
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There isn't a price gap between the price of west texas crude this is what the stock market is looking at when saying the price of oil is xx per barrel.
The price gap is caused by a misnomer what you are calling canadian crude oil is not actual crude. It is bitumen. Now for Canada to ship it it needs to be diluted so that it flows better.
Bitumen is more costly to refine into petroleum products than crude oil. The current infrastructure in place for Canada to get this to market has minimal going to tide water (oceans) within Canada. This means that the only market that is purchasing the raw product from Canada is the u.s. and typically it's about 50 to 60 percent of the oil price.
Canada would get a better price per barrel if more markets are available to sell to. This is why there is an importance to pipelines to tide water. Environmental concerns are the push back to this. But what is not looked at or ignored is oil is going to tide water by rail already. Just not in any capacity to affect market prices.
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[
"More recently, between 2011 and 2014 the price of crude oil was relatively stable, fluctuating around $US100 per barrel. It dropped sharply in late 2014 to below $US70 where it remained for most of 2015. In early 2016 it traded at a low of $US27. The price drop has been attributed to both oversupply and reduced demand as a result of the slowing global economy, OPEC reluctance to concede market share, and a stronger US dollar. These factors may be exacerbated by a combination of monetary policy and the increased debt of oil producers, who may increase production to maintain liquidity.\n",
"The US Energy Information Administration attributes the price spread between WTI and Brent to an oversupply of crude oil in the interior of North America (WTI price is set at Cushing, Oklahoma) caused by rapidly increasing oil production from Canadian oil sands and tight oil formations such as the Bakken Formation, Niobrara Formation, and Eagle Ford Formation. Oil production in the interior of North America has exceeded the capacity of pipelines to carry it to markets on the Gulf Coast and east coast of North America; as a result, the oil price on the US and Canadian east coast and parts of the US Gulf Coast since 2011 has been set by the price of Brent Crude, while markets in the interior still follow the WTI price. Much US and Canadian crude oil from the interior is now shipped to the coast by railroad, which is much more expensive than pipeline.\n",
"From the mid-1980s to September 2003, the inflation adjusted price of a barrel of crude oil on NYMEX was generally under $25/barrel. A rebound in the price of oil worldwide led to big provincial surpluses in Alberta since the mid-1990. During 2004, the price of oil rose above $40, and then $50. A series of events led the price to exceed $60 by August 11, 2005, leading to a record-speed hike that reached $75 by the middle of 2006.\n",
"In late 2014, as the global demand for oil slows down, and production of crude oil remains high in the United States, Canada and in Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries, the oil market collapsed into a bear market. While the decision by OPEC to \"hold their production steady at 30 million bpd\" contributed to the continued price decline of oil, there was a rebound in oil futures on 1 December 2014. The price of West Texas Intermediate (WTI), the benchmark for North American crude dropped to $US68.93 and to the decline in the price of Western Canadian Select, which is the benchmark for emerging heavy, high TAN (acidic) crudes to US$51.93. By early December 2014, Connacher was one of several oilsands bitumen-focused producers to struggle financially due to the drop in the price of oil and a tightening of capital markets. Others include OPTI Canada Inc., Southern Pacific Resources Corp., and Sunshine Oilsands Ltd.. On 1 December Connacher which is $1.05 billion in debt hired BMO Capital Markets advisors to undertake a review process of its \"liquidity and capital structure.\" If the price of WTI per barrel was US$75, the Connacher could generate $C70 million of EBITDA in 2015, but it has $90 million in debt payments.\n",
"From the mid-1980s to September 2003, the inflation-adjusted price of a barrel of crude oil on NYMEX was generally under US$25/barrel. During 2003, the price rose above $30, reached $60 by 11 August 2005, and peaked at $147.30 in July 2008. Commentators attributed these price increases to many factors, including Middle East tension, soaring demand from China, the falling value of the U.S. dollar, reports showing a decline in petroleum reserves, worries over peak oil, and financial speculation.\n",
"Throughout the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, the retail price of petroleum in Canada consistently remained close to the price of gasoline in the United States (and at oftentimes lower than prices seen in the U.S., especially during the price spikes of the 1970s). Following NEP (which raised the price of fuel in the West and coincided with a hike in provincial gas taxes in Ontario and Quebec), the retail price of gasoline in Canada became noticeably higher than in the U.S. (a trend which continues to this day).\n",
"October 18 Crude Oil for November delivery falls to its lowest level since August 1999 on the New York Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX). Light, sweet crude falls 50 cents per barrel to settle at $21.31 per barrel. Brent crude for. Poor economic prospects in the next few months, and OPEC's inability to respond so far are seen as factors contributing to the sliding prices of crude oil. (OD)\n"
] |
who are you genetically closer to?
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Your kids. As you said, kids are 50% "you". But your siblings are only 25% "you" in average.
It is true that they are made 50% your mum and 50% your dad as well. But consider that your dad's DNA is made of copy A and B of each chromosome, and your mum copy C and D. Then you could have got copy A from your dad and C from your mum, making you A-C for example. While your siblings could have got A-C (same as you), A-D, B-C, or B-D. Repeat this idea for all 23 pairs of chromosomes. So by probablity only in 25% of the cases you will have the same combination.
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[
"Second, presuming a panmictic population, the vast majority of pairs of individuals exhibit a roughly average level of relatedness. For a given individual, the majority of others are not worth helping or harming. While it is easy to identify the few most closely related ones (see: kin recognition), it is hard to identify the most genetically distant ones.\n",
"No two humans—not even monozygotic twins—are genetically identical. Genes and environment influence human biological variation in visible characteristics, physiology, disease susceptibility and mental abilities. The exact influence of genes and environment on certain traits is not well understood.\n",
"The other approach, that of Evolutionary psychology, continues to take the view that genetic relatedness (or genealogy) is key to understanding human kinship patterns. In contrast to Sahlin's position (above), Daly and Wilson argue that \"the categories of 'near' and 'distant' do not 'vary independently of consanguinal distance', not in any society on earth.\" (Daly et al. 1997, p282). A current view is that humans have an inborn but culturally affected system for detecting certain forms of genetic relatedness. One important factor for sibling detection, especially relevant for older siblings, is that if an infant and one's mother are seen to care for the infant, then the infant and oneself are assumed to be related. Another factor, especially important for younger siblings who cannot use the first method, is that persons who grew up together see one another as related. Yet another may be genetic detection based on the major histocompatibility complex (See Major Histocompatibility Complex and Sexual Selection). This kinship detection system in turn affects other genetic predispositions such as the incest taboo and a tendency for altruism towards relatives.\n",
"W. D. Hamilton published an influential paper on altruism in 1964 to explain why genetic kin tend to help each other. He argued that genetically related individuals are likely to carry the copies of the same alleles; thus, helping kin may ensure that copies of the actors' alleles pass onto next generations of both the recipient and the actor.\n",
"No two humans are genetically identical. Even monozygotic twins (who develop from one zygote) have infrequent genetic differences due to mutations occurring during development and gene copy-number variation. Differences between individuals, even closely related individuals, are the key to techniques such as genetic fingerprinting.\n",
"All Gen-Active humans have a telepathic link to each other. This link usually is very weak, even unnoticeable to most, but stronger between relatives (they sometimes can feel when a relative is in extreme pain). The link also allows sensitive Gen-Actives to notice the presence of other Gen-Actives. In case of Team 7, the link also made the sum of their powers greater than each member's individual powers.\n",
"Scientists who have written on the conceptual significance of intersex individuals include Anne Fausto-Sterling, Katrina Karkazis, Rebecca Jordan-Young, and Joan Roughgarden. While the medical literature focuses increasingly on genetics of intersex traits, and even their deselection, some scholars on the study of culture, such as Barbara Rogoff, argue that the traditional distinction between biology and culture as independent entities is overly simplistic, pointing to the ways in which biology and culture interact with one another.\n"
] |
why does white meat chicken always taste dryer than dark meat chicken?
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There's more fat in the dark meat. Fats and oils will keep the dark meat moist even when the water in the white meat has cooked off.
> [Dark meat contains 2.64 times more saturated fat than white meat, per gram of protein.](_URL_0_)
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[
"In nutritional studies however, \"white meat\" includes poultry and fish, but excludes all mammal flesh, which is considered red meat. The United States Department of Agriculture classifies meats as red if the myoglobin level is higher than 65%. This categorization is controversial as some types of fish, such as tuna, are red when raw and turn white when cooked; similarly, certain types of poultry that are sometimes grouped as \"white meat\" are actually red when raw, such as duck and goose.\n",
"Within poultry, there are two types of meats—white and dark. The different colours are based on the different locations and uses of the muscles. White meat can be found within the breast of a chicken or turkey. Dark muscles are fit to develop endurance or long-term use, and contain more myoglobin than white muscles, allowing the muscle to use oxygen more efficiently for aerobic respiration. White meat contains large amounts of protein. \n",
"In poultry standards, solid white is coloration of plumage in chickens (\"Gallus gallus domesticus\") characterized by a uniform pure white color across all feathers, which is not generally associated with depigmentation in any other part of the body.\n",
"Dark meat, which avian myologists refer to as \"red muscle\", is used for sustained activity—chiefly walking, in the case of a chicken. The dark colour comes from the protein myoglobin, which plays a key role in oxygen uptake and storage within cells. White muscle, in contrast, is suitable only for short bursts of activity such as, for chickens, flying. Thus, the chicken's leg and thigh meat are dark, while its breast meat (which makes up the primary flight muscles) is white. Other birds with breast muscle more suitable for sustained flight, such as ducks and geese, have red muscle (and therefore dark meat) throughout. Some cuts of meat including poultry expose the microscopic regular structure of intracellular muscle fibrils which can diffract light and produce iridescent colours, an optical phenomenon sometimes called structural colouration.\n",
"The characteristics of dark meat from poultry; such as its color, low plasticity, and high fat content; are caused by myoglobin, a pigmented chemical compound found in muscle tissue that undergoes frequent use. Because domestic poultry rarely fly, the flight muscles in the breast contain little myoglobin and appear white. Dark meat which is high in myoglobin is less useful in industry, especially fast food, because it is difficult to mold into shapes. Processing dark meat into a slurry makes it more like white meat, easier to prepare.\n",
"In culinary terms, white meat is meat which is pale in color before and after cooking. The most common kind of white meat is the lighter-colored meat of poultry (light meat), coming from the breast, as contrasted with dark meat from the legs. Poultry white (\"light\") meat is made up of fast-twitch muscle fibres, while red (\"dark\") meat is made up of muscles with fibres that are slow-twitch. In traditional gastronomy, white meat also includes rabbit, the flesh of milk-fed young mammals (in particular veal and lamb), and pork.\n",
"Red meats such as beef, lamb, and venison, and certain game birds are often roasted to be \"pink\" or \"rare\", meaning that the center of the roast is still red. Roasting is a preferred method of cooking for most poultry, and certain cuts of beef, pork, or lamb. Although there is a growing fashion in some restaurants to serve \"rose pork\", temperature monitoring of the center of the roast is the only sure way to avoid foodborne disease.\n"
] |
somalia and what's happening there
|
Today 'Somalia' is basically a geographic expression, the country has had no central government since the 80s. The previous government did a lot of bad things in the north so when that government (Siad Barre) fell they were able to step away and run their own business. So the north is a pretty decent place. They have their own (unrecognized) government and their own (unrecognized) currency. You can even go there as a tourist and you'll be relatively safe.
The southern part of the country is a different story. When the Barre government collapsed there was no more governmental authority. Warlords and clan chiefs stepped into the void and spent about 15 years fighting one another in an anarchic free for all.
Eventually a group of Islamists called the Union of Islamic Courts was created to attempt to end the civil war and restore stability. While they were fighting to take over the south the U.S. gave millions of dollars worth of weapons to the warlords. The UIC won anyways, and for a little while they were doing some good. They were more moderate than the Taliban and while some of their punishments were barbaric they made progressing in restoring a semblance of order. They also got the airports and port running for the first time since things went
to shit.
Once the warlords were beaten there was a lot of concern about terrorists going to Somalia. So Ethiopia, whose military is largely a product of American money, went in (presumably with U.S. backing) and attempted to overthrow the UIC and install the U.N. backed provisional government. The provisional government has a lot of problems though, it's mostly made up of warlords and has no presence inside Somalia-- they have to hold their meetings in Kenya.
Ethiopia tried occupying Somalia for a little while but since they'd gotten rid of the UIC and didn't have the resources to stay that long they got out. The UIC of 2006 didn't really exist by this time, it had been splintered. The previous leadership tended to be older and more moderate, but after the Ethiopian intervention the Islamists who were left fighting were the youngest, fiercest, and most extreme. They call themselves al-Shabaab (meaning 'youth movement'.) While the UIC cared more about restoring law in Somalia than international terrorism, al-Shabaab is much more sympathetic to terrorists who want to carry out attacks abroad. They've provided a safe haven to some al-Qaeda guys and have carried out a few attacks of their own elsewhere in Africa. Kenya and Uganda have both been bombed by al-Shabaab, in retaliation for support they've given to the provisional government.
So Somalia is a complex place, with regions that look radically different from one another. The north will probably continue to do well and likely will be recognized as an independent state some day. There's no reason to be positive about the south though; that's only getting worse and worse. Especially since we've now got all kinds of drones flying around the place.
|
[
"Since January 1991, Somalia has been in a [[Somali Civil War|state of civil war]], without a functioning central government that controls the entire country. The northwestern region of [[Somaliland]] unilaterally declared independence in May 1991, while the northeastern region of [[Puntland]] unilaterally declared its regional autonomy within Somalia in 1998; both gradually evolved their own legal systems, and made efforts to outlaw the practice of forcing a rape victim to marry her attacker in the late 2010s.\n",
"Somalia, located in the Horn of Africa, has a population of about 95.6 million people, but there are 1.5 million refugees because of long-term civil war. Somalian are major(85 percent of the population), but there is a multiracial group such as Helman, Arabs, and Indian. Somalia was originally an Islamic Emirate since the end of the 19th century, but it became independent from Britain and Italy on July 1, 1960. Although the coup regime assumed power in 1969, a large and small civil war continued to ensue. In January 1991, the United Somali Congress (USC), a group of Somali rebels, expelled the Barre regime of the Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party (SRSP), which has continued to reign after the coup d'état, which has continued its dictatorship and nepotism. But in the United Somali Congress (USC), conflicts between president Mahdi and chairman of Aidid have been getting worse and consequently the civil war of anarchy has been lasted. The United Nations established the United Nations Operation in Somalia I (UNOSOM I) in April 1992 for peace and reconstruction of Somalia under the United Nations Security Council Resolution 733. However, the civil war continued as the infighting continued, and the state of anarchy continued. In December 1992, the U.S.-led multinational force was dispatched to Somalia, and the United Nations Operation in Somalia II (UNOSOM II) was established in March 1993. In February 1993, South Korea decided to dispatch troops after a field survey and three related ministries’ meeting in order to actively participate in the UN peacekeeping effort and enhance international status. On May 18, 1993, South Korea dispatched 516 members to carry out UN peacekeeping operations, which were held in Mogadishu from July 1993 to March 1994.\n",
"The Federal Government of Somalia, the first permanent central government in the country since the start of the civil war, was later established in August 2012. By 2014, Somalia was no longer at the top of the fragile states index, dropping to second place behind South Sudan. UN Special Representative to Somalia Nicholas Kay, European Union High Representative Catherine Ashton and other international stakeholders and analysts have also begun to describe Somalia as a \"fragile state\" that is making some progress towards stability. In August 2014, the Somali government-led Operation Indian Ocean was launched against insurgent-held pockets in the countryside.\n",
"In 1992 Somalia became a war zone with no effective government, police, or basic services after the collapse of the dictatorship led by Siad Barre and the split of power between warlords. This coincided with a massive drought, causing over 300,000 Somalis to perish.\n",
"By mid-2012, the insurgents had lost most of the territory that they had seized, and a search for more permanent democratic institutions began. A new provisional constitution was passed in August 2012, which reformed Somalia as a federation. The same month, the Federal Government of Somalia was formed and a period of reconstruction began in Mogadishu. Somalia has maintained an informal economy, mainly based on livestock, remittances from Somalis working abroad, and telecommunications. It is a member of the United Nations, the Arab League, African Union, Non-Aligned Movement and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation.\n",
"The Federal Government of Somalia (FGS) (, ) is the internationally recognised government of Somalia, and the first attempt to create a central government in Somalia since the collapse of the Somali Democratic Republic. It replaced the Transitional Federal Government of Somalia on 20 August 2012 with the adoption of the Constitution of Somalia.\n",
"The United States had a military involvement in Somalia until 1994, and had then withdrawn. Earlier in 2017 the US designated Somalia a \"zone of active hostilities\" (allowing it to apply looser rules and oversight concerning the authorization of drone strikes and ground operations), and the deployment of regular US forces to Somalia was again authorized. This saw America’s ground forces in Somalia increase from about 50 in 2016 to 400 in 2017.\n"
] |
why almost no smartphone protective case has a cover for the camera glass?
|
A decent quality smartphone will have a hard protective layer (e.g. gorilla glass) over the lens so it doesn't get scratched. It will resist scratches pretty well.
On the other hand, smartphone cases are made of cheaper materials, usually some kind of plastic, and are much easier to scratch. So if you had a case over the lens, over time, there would be a bunch of scratches in front of the lens, all your pictures would come out blurry and terrible.
Also, even if the case is nice and clear with no scratches, it will tend to add distortion, extra glare, and so forth to your photos.
So bottom line is, they make a cut-out for the camera so your photos aren't potato quality.
|
[
"iFixit gave the phone a 2 out of 10 in terms of repairability, praising the solid construction which improved durability, but mentions that it is \"very difficult\" to open the device without damaging the glass camera cover due to the unibody design, and panned the difficulty in replacing the screen and the adhesive holding the rear cover panels and battery in place.\n",
"A lens cover or lens cap provides protection from scratches and minor collisions for camera and camcorder lenses. Lens covers come standard with most cameras and lenses. Some mobile camera phones include lens covers, such as the Sony Ericsson W800, the Sony Ericsson K750 and the Sony Ericsson K550.\n",
"Security films are applied to glass so when the glass is broken it holds together, preventing dangerous shards from flying about, or to make it more difficult for an intruder to gain entry. Typically applied to commercial glass, these films are made of heavy-gauge plastic and are intended to maintain the integrity of glass when subject to heavy impact. The most robust security films are capable of preventing fragmentation and the production of hazardous glass shards from forces such as bomb blasts. Some companies have even experimented with bullet ballistics and multiple layers of security film. Another key application for security window films (safety window films) is on large areas of \"flat glass\" such as storefront windows, sliding glass doors, and larger windows that are prone to hurricane damage. These security films, if applied properly, can also provide protection for vehicles. These security films are often tinted and can be up to 400 micrometers (µm) thick, compared to less than 50 µm for ordinary tint films. If anchored correctly, they can also provide protection for architectural glazing in the event of an explosion. A layer of film (of 100 µm thickness or greater) can prevent the ejection of spall when a projectile impacts on its surface, which otherwise creates small dagger-like shards of glass that can cause injury.\n",
"Some owners however complain that the all-glass construction leads to a phone that is fragile and easily broken. Additionally, if the earlier phones are left on a smooth surface, an alarm with vibration will cause the phone to \"walk\" off the surface and fall. The glass screen is also sensitive to breakage due to the thin plastic \"surround\" that leaves little margin if the edge of the phone is crushed in an impact or when dropped, making either the plastic \"bumper\" or better still, a well-made, impact-absorbing case a necessity.\n",
"Screen protectors are made of either plastics, such as polyethylene terephthalate (PET) or thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU), or of tempered glass, similar to the device’s original screen they are meant to protect. Plastic screen protectors cost less than glass and are thinner, around thick, compared to for glass. At the same price, glass will resist scratches better than plastic, and feel more like the device's screen, though higher priced plastic protectors may be better than the cheapest tempered glass models, since glass will shatter or crack with sufficient impact force.\n",
"Camera phones, or more specifically, widespread use of such phones as cameras by the general public, has increased exposure to laws relating to public and private photography. The laws that relate to other types of cameras also apply to camera phones. There are no special laws for camera phones. Enforcing bans on camera phones has proven nearly impossible. They are small and numerous and their use is easy to hide or disguise, making it hard for law enforcement and security personnel to detect or stop use. Total bans on camera phones would also raise questions about freedom of speech and the freedom of the press, since camera phone ban would prevent a citizen or a journalist (or a citizen journalist) from communicating to others a newsworthy event that could be captured with a camera phone.\n",
"Safety and security films are used where there is a potential for injury from broken glass (such as glass doors or overhead glazing). These films can be applied to toughened, annealed, or laminated glass.\n"
] |
does tire tread help when driving on wet surfaces? if so; how?
|
Tread refers specifically to the channels cut into the surface of a tire. The tread is designed to shed water displaced from under the road contacting surfaces of the tire, though the actual pattern isn't actually terribly important so long as certain key criteria are met, and is highly stylized.
An over-inflated tire has a significant impact on improving said displacement, as the bulging center can more easily press the water from the center out. I'm not advocating you over-inflate your tires - while it also reduces rolling resistance, increasing fuel economy, it also reduces traction, so you're more likely to lose control of your vehicle, especially at higher speeds, and it wears the center of your tire excessively, greatly reducing durability.
If you can't displace water fast enough, typically due to speed, lack of tread, or an under inflated tire having too much displacement, you'll hydroplane - the car will literally be floating. That's not driving, that's sailing.
Snow and ice tires are hard rubber with bold edges to dig into the snow and ice, and use *that* as the road surface. They make pretty bad rain tires because if it's warm enough to rain and not snow, you're still driving on hard rubber that doesn't really care all that much about gripping the road surface.
Tread is the gaps between the road contacting surfaces of the tire, and the less tire you have in contact with the road, the less friction. Tread actually reduces traction in ideal conditions by virtue of being "not tire", which is why performance tires for ideal conditions have little to no tread. Racing tires, aka "slicks" (which are anything but, depending on the compound, they can be as sticky as duct tape when *cold*) are illegal for road use because they are dangerous to drive on in the presence of any amount of moisture on the road. They have no means of displacing water but by casting a wake in front of the point of contact. I was in a Dodge Viper that nearly wiped out at 25 mph driving through a neighborhood because it rained, *two days prior*, because of the tires on it at the time.
So treads are a compromise in the design, and all season tires are the ultimate compromise.
|
[
"BULLET::::- \"Wet traction—\"Wet traction is the tire's traction, or grip, under wet conditions. Wet traction is improved by the tread design's ability to channel water out of the tire footprint and reduce hydroplaning. However, tires with a circular cross-section, such as those found on racing bicycles, when properly inflated have a sufficiently small footprint to not be susceptible to hydroplaning. For such tires, it is observed that fully slick tires will give superior traction on both wet and dry pavement.\n",
"High traction is desired for tires for automobile dirt track racing, off-road racing, off-road vehicles, and off-road motorcycles, so their tread is therefore coarse. Nevertheless, some riders will lower the tire pressure to cause the tread to spread out and create a larger contact patch. This practice can create a safety hazard, as there may not be enough pressure to adequately secure the tire beads to the wheel. Reactive ground forces push a tire to one side or the other, especially the outside rear tire of a racing vehicle when it is turning in a corner of a track. This could cause a bead of the tire to come off the rim completely, or enough to cause partial loss of air. It is also possible for the tire to have more traction on the ground than there is friction between the tire and rim. In this case the wheel would slip around the tire beads without turning the tire. Beadlocks, of one form or another including adhesive, are therefore used to keep the beads of off-road tires firmly seated and prevent slip, even when inflation pressure is low.\n",
"The technique works best on loose or wet surfaces where the friction between the tires and the road is not too high, but can also be used on asphalt or other surfaces with high friction if the vehicle has enough power to maintain speed. \n",
"The grooves in the rubber are designed to allow water to be expelled from beneath the tire and prevent hydroplaning. The proportion of rubber to air space on the road surface directly affects its traction. Design of tire tread has an effect upon noise generated, especially at freeway speeds. Generally there is a tradeoff of tread friction capability; deeper patterns often enhance safety, but simpler designs are less costly to produce and actually may afford some roadway noise mitigation. Tires intended for dry weather use will be designed with minimal pattern to increase the contact patch. Tires with a smooth tread (i.e., having no tread pattern) are known as slicks and are generally used for racing only, since they are quite dangerous if the road surface is wet.\n",
"Sticky materials, such as mud, may adhere to the smooth outer tire surface, while smooth loose objects, such as stones, can become temporarily embedded in the tread grooves as the tire rolls over the ground. These materials can be ejected from the surface of the tire at high velocity as the tire imparts kinetic energy to the attached objects. For a vehicle moving forward, the top of the tire is rotating upward and forward, and can throw objects into the air at other vehicles or pedestrians in front of the vehicle.\n",
"When accelerating or braking a vehicle equipped with tires, the observed angular velocity of the tire does not match the expected velocity for pure rolling motion, which means there appears to be apparent sliding between outer surface of the rim and the road in addition to rolling due to deformation of the part of tire above the area in contact with the road. When driving on dry pavement the fraction of slip that is caused by actual sliding taking place between road and tire contact patch is negligible in magnitude and thus does not in practice make slip ratio dependent on speed. It is only relevant in soft or slippery surfaces, like snow, mud, ice, etc and results constant speed difference in same road and load conditions independently of speed, and thus fraction of slip ratio due to that cause is inversely related to speed of the vehicle. The difference between theoretically calculated forward speed based on angular speed of the rim and rolling radius, and actual speed of the vehicle, expressed as a percentage of the latter, is called ‘slip ratio’. This slippage is caused by the forces at the contact patch of the tire, not the opposite way, and is thus of fundamental importance to determine the accelerations a vehicle can produce.\n",
"Mountain bike and some motorcycle tires feature tread similar to off-road tires used on cars and trucks but may sometimes include an unbroken tread that runs along its center. This feature provides better traction and lower noise on asphalt at high speed and on high tire pressure, but retains the ability to provide grip on a soft or loose surface- lower tire pressure or soft ground will cause the side lugs to come into contact with the surface. Road bike tires may have shallow grooves for aesthetic purposes, but such grooves are unnecessary in narrow applications.\n"
] |
why is that when i say "a university student" it sounds right but when i say "an university student" like it should be in english, it sounds completely wrong.
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Someone posted something similar the other day on here, and it more has to do with pronunciation not lettering.
You use the singular designator "a," for words that follow don't have a vowel sound. You use "an" if it is a vowel sound.
|
[
"In the UK a university student is said to \"study\", to \"read\" or, informally, simply to \"do\" a subject. In the recent past the expression 'to read a subject' was more common at the older universities such as Oxford and Cambridge. In the US a student \"studies\" or \"majors in\" a subject (although \"concentration\" or \"emphasis\" is also used in some US colleges or universities to refer to the major subject of study). \"To major in\" something refers to the student's principal course of study; \"to study\" may refer to any class being taken. \n",
"In this interaction, the cues received by the student's style of speaking suggests that they are speaking to an authority figure, because they are deferring through the use of questions. Furthermore, you can see the formality in their language throughout the brief interaction. The student speaks in elongated sentences, saying things such as \"I don't understand well\" rather than just the informal \"I don't get it.\" In examining the professor's use of language, they switch between the informal form (\"I (definitely) think so, you know.\") and the formal form (\"After all, do you mind (their behavior)?\"). This suggests that the professor used cues to learn that the student would prefer to remain in the formal form, and molded their language style to fit that. The reverse is seen within the next example: \n",
"Some errors that second-language learners make in their speech originate in their first language. For example, Spanish speakers learning English may say \"Is raining\" rather than \"It is raining\", leaving out the subject of the sentence. This kind of influence of the first language on the second is known as \"negative\" language transfer. French speakers learning English, however, do not usually make the same mistake of leaving out \"it\" in \"It is raining.\" This is because pronominal and impersonal sentence subjects can be omitted (or as in this case, are not used in the first place) in Spanish but not in French. The French speaker knowing to use a pronominal sentence subject when speaking English is an example of \"positive\" language transfer. It is important to note that not all errors occur in the same ways; even two individuals with the same native language learning the same second language still have the potential to utilize different parts of their native language. Likewise, these same two individuals may develop near-native fluency in different forms of grammar.\n",
"While teaching at the University of Florida, Alfred Korzybski counseled his students to eliminate the infinitive and verb forms of \"to be\" from their vocabulary, whereas a second group continued to use \"I am,\" \"You are,\" \"They are\" statements as usual. For example, instead of saying, \"I am depressed,\" a student was asked to eliminate that emotionally primed verb and to say something else, such as, \"I feel depressed when ...\" or \"I tend to make myself depressed about ...\"\n",
"BULLET::::- Student: Etymologically derived through Middle English from the Latin second-type conjugation verb \"stŭdērĕ\", which means \"to direct one's zeal at\"; hence a student is one who directs zeal at a subject. Also known as a disciple in the sense of a religious area of study, and/or in the sense of a \"discipline\" of learning. In widest use, \"student\" is used to mean a school or class attendee. In many countries, the word \"student\" is however reserved for higher education or university students; persons attending classes in primary or secondary schools being called pupils.\n",
"Some students may have problems due to the incoherence in rules like were, a noun is a noun and a verb is a verb because grammarians say they are. For e.g. In \"I am suffering terribly\" \"suffering\" is the verb, but in \"My suffering is terrible\", it is a noun. But both sentences expresses the same idea using the same words. Other students might have problems due to the prescribing and proscribing nature of rules in the language formulated by amateur grammarians rather than ascribing to the functional and descriptive nature of languages evidenced from distribution. For example, a cleric, Robert Lowth introduced the rule to never end a sentence with a preposition, inspired from Latin grammar through his book \"A Short Introduction to English Grammar\". Due to the inconsistencies brought from Latin language standardization of English language lead to classifying and sub-classyfing an otherwise simple language structure. Like many alphabetic writing systems English also have incorporated the principle that graphemic units should correspond to the phonemic units, however, the fidelity to the principle is compromised, compared to an exemplar like Finnish language. This is evident in the Oxford English Dictionary, for many years they experimented with many spellings of SIGN to attain a fidelity with the said principle, among them are SINE, SEGN, and SYNE, and through the diachronic mutations they settled on SIGN. Cultural differences in communication styles and preferences are also significant. For example, a study among Chinese ESL students revealed that preference of not using tense marking on verb present in the morphology of their mother tongue made it difficult for them to express time related sentences in English. Another study looked at Chinese ESL students and British teachers and found that the Chinese learners did not see classroom 'discussion and interaction' type of communication for learning as important but placed a heavy emphasis on teacher-directed lectures.\n",
"English subject pronouns are generally not translated into Spanish when neither clarity nor emphasis is an issue. \"I think\" is generally translated as just \"Pienso\" unless the speaker is contrasting his or her views with those of someone else or placing emphasis on the fact that their views are their own and not somebody else's.\n"
] |
why did adam sandler seemingly stop being funny some years ago?
|
I'd say that your sense of humor has changed, Adam Sandler's humor has always been childish/frat guy's humor
|
[
"Sandler has been referenced multiple times in various media, including in the TV shows \"The Simpsons\" in the episode \"Monty Can't Buy Me Love\", in \"Family Guy\" in the episode \"Stew-Roids\", and in \"South Park\" in the episode \"You're Getting Old\". He was also referenced in the video game \"\". The HBO series \"Animals\" episode \"The Trial\" features a mock court case to decide whether Sandler or Jim Carrey is a better comedian.\n",
"In 1994, Sandman changed his gimmick after ECW owner Tod Gordon suggested that he channel his own personality into his character, creating an edgier gimmick. He began a feud with his former tag team partner Tommy Cairo, after The Sandman was temporarily blinded following a match and inadvertently struck Peaches. When The Sandman regained his sight and saw Cairo assisting Peaches to her feet, he attacked Cairo. The Sandman subsequently became estranged from his wife (claiming \"life's a bitch, and then you marry one\"). After losing a match against Cairo, that led to Peaches hitting him with a strap profusely, Woman attacked Peaches and led her back to the ring where Sandman held her and Woman applied the strap to her skin before Cairo returned to save her. After this event Sandman adopted Woman as his new manager. In keeping with The Sandman's character, Woman would open his beers and light his cigarettes prior to matches. She began carrying a Singapore cane with which she would strike The Sandman's opponents.\n",
"For decades, film critics and historians have theorized that because Dumont never broke character or smiled at Groucho's jokes, she did not \"get\" the Marxes' humor. On the contrary, Dumont, a seasoned stage professional, maintained her \"straight\" appearance to enhance the Marxes' comedy. In 1965, shortly before Dumont's death, \"The Hollywood Palace\" featured a recreation of \"Hooray for Captain Spaulding\" (from the Marxes' 1930 film \"Animal Crackers\") in which Dumont can be seen laughing at Groucho's ad-libs — proving that she got the jokes.\n",
"The reasons for Astaire's (temporary) retirement remain a source of debate: his own view that he was \"tired and running out of gas,\" the sudden collapse in 1945 of the market for Swing music which left many of his colleagues in jazz high and dry, a desire to devote time to establishing a chain of dancing schools, and a dissatisfaction with roles, as in this film, where he was relegated to playing second fiddle to the lead. Ironically, it is for his celebrated solo performance of \"Puttin' On The Ritz,\" which featured Astaire leading an entire dance line of Astaires, that this film is most remembered by some today.\n",
"Keaton claimed he was having so much fun that he would sometimes begin laughing as his father threw him across the stage. Noticing that this drew fewer laughs from the audience, he adopted his famous deadpan expression whenever he was working.\n",
"Sandler's recent comedy films, including \"Grown Ups\" and \"Grown Ups 2\", have received strongly negative reviews. In reviewing the latter, critic Mark Olsen of \"The Los Angeles Times\" remarked that Sandler had become the antithesis of Judd Apatow; he was instead \"the white Tyler Perry: smart enough to know better, savvy enough to do it anyway, lazy enough not to care.\"\n",
"The incident was later parodied on several TV shows, including \"MadTV\", \"Family Guy\", \"South Park\", and \"Extras\". In an episode of \"Curb Your Enthusiasm\", Richards appeared as himself and poked fun at the incident. In a 2012 episode of Seinfeld's web series \"Comedians in Cars Getting Coffee\", Richards admitted that the outburst still haunted him, and was a major reason for his withdrawal from performing stand-up.\n"
] |
what is with the weird "bubble in your throat" phenomenon?
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I am pretty sure it's just some mucus messing with your vocal cords, as ,usually, coughing to clear your voice will get rid of it.The voice changes, usually gets a deeper pitch, because the air you are exiling is not just making the vocal cord vibrate, but also all the mucus covering them and all the temporary mucus membranes between them.
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[
"Gargling (same root as 'gurgle') is the act of bubbling liquid in the mouth. It is also the washing of one's mouth and throat with a liquid that is kept in motion by breathing through it with a gurgling sound. Vibration caused by the muscles in the throat and back of the mouth cause the liquid to bubble and flurry around inside the mouth cavity.\n",
"Bubble is awoken by a newspaper which features an advert for a funfair. Bubble is intrigued and seems eager; but Squeek would rather work. However, Squeek quickly changes his mind when he sees a shining three-tone horn for grand prize. They can't get knock the coconut down, which is how they will get the horn. Until, a fortune-teller gives them another ball to knock it down, but that does not work. Ashamed and empty-handed, Bubble tries to kill himself, but Squeek diverts the gun and ends up destroying the funfair and the coconut, which makes them win the grand prize.\n",
"Bubbles are also known to form within other tissues, where they may cause damage leading to symptoms of decompression sickness. This damage is likely to be caused by mechanical deformation and stresses on the cells rather than local hypoxia, which is an assumed mechanism in the case of gas embolism of the capillaries.\n",
"\"The Boy in the Bubble\" is a song by the American singer-songwriter Paul Simon. It was the third single from his seventh studio album, \"Graceland\" (1986), released on Warner Bros. Records. Written by Simon and Forere Motloheloa (an accordionist from Lesotho), its lyrics explore starvation and terrorism, juxtaposed with wit and optimism.\n",
"Musically, \"Bubble Butt\" is an electronic dance music (EDM), hip hop, and dancehall song. It is a \"swaggering\" and energetic number that draws heavily from crunk inspirations. It was composed with the intention of being played at clubs. The track features squawking samples, heavy bass, \"squiggly synths\", clap beats, and bubble-popping sound effects, culminating with the \"bub-bub-bubbing hook\". \"Consequence of Sound\"s Derek Staples noted the resemblance between \"Bubble Butt\" and Major Lazer’s \"Pon de Floor\" (2009). Both songs feature lyrics that are seen as an anthem to twerking, \"ass-shaking\" and big buttocks. Mars repeats the chorus multiple times, \"Bubble butt, bubble butt, turn around, stick it out, show the world you got a bubble butt\", which draws inspiration from Rihanna's \"Rude Boy\" (2010), while Tyga raps \"Damn, bitch, talk much?/I don't want interviews/Ha! I'm tryin' ta get into you/then make you my enemy\". Mystic is found \"lyrically wining circles around Bruno Mars and Tyga\". Critics found that the combination of the track's lyrics and its catchy beat would make a \"dance-floor hit\".\n",
"\"Bubble Butt\" is a song by American electronic dance music trio Major Lazer from their second studio album, \"Free the Universe\" (2013). It was released as the album's fourth single on May 24, 2013, for digital download. The track features American singer-songwriter Bruno Mars, and rappers Tyga and Mystic. The single version also features verses from American rapper 2 Chainz. Thomas Pentz, David Taylor, Mars, Michael Stevenson and Mystic co-wrote the track, while production was handled by Major Lazer and Valentino Khan. Musically, it is an electronic dance, hip hop and dancehall track with lyrics implying that girls twerk and show off their giant buttocks.\n",
"In radiology, the double bubble sign is a feature of pediatric imaging seen on radiographs or prenatal ultrasound in which two air filled bubbles are seen in the abdomen, representing two discontiguous loops of bowel in a proximal, or 'high,' small bowel obstruction. The finding is typically pathologic, and implies either duodenal atresia, duodenal web, annular pancreas, and on occasion midgut volvulus, a distinction that requires close clinical correlation and, in most cases, surgical intervention. \n"
] |
a fever.
|
Hi i am a doctor.
In response to an invading pathogen (bug) the body starts an inflammatory cascade (attacks the bug). Lots of chemicals are released (cytokines etc) these chemicals cause the brain to reset the normal body temperature to a higher value, say 40 degrees Celsius. This is believed to help the immune system fight the infection but has not been scientifically confirmed. Although the brain raises the set point the body has to actually heat up to this new set point so you may have a temperature of 39 but the brain says that it should be 40 so you feel cold (even though you are not) and start shivering in order to generate more heat. This is a fever and when you shiver its called "rigoring"
When you get a fever from heat stroke/exhaustion the brain doesn't raise the set point and as you heat up you actually feel hot this time, this is called hyperthermia (not a fever)
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[
"A fever can be caused by many medical conditions ranging from non serious to life-threatening. This includes viral, bacterial and parasitic infections such as the common cold, urinary tract infections, meningitis, malaria and appendicitis among others. Non-infectious causes include vasculitis, deep vein thrombosis, side effects of medication, and cancer among others. It differs from hyperthermia, in that hyperthermia is an increase in body temperature over the temperature set point, due to either too much heat production or not enough heat loss.\n",
"Fever during treatment can be due to a number of causes. It can occur as a natural effect of tuberculosis (in which case it should resolve within three weeks of starting treatment). Fever can be a result of drug resistance (but in that case the organism must be resistant to two or more of the drugs). Fever may be due to a superadded infection or additional diagnosis (patients with TB are not exempt from getting influenza and other illnesses during the course of treatment). In a few patients, the fever is due to drug allergy. The clinician must also consider the possibility that the diagnosis of TB is wrong. If the patient has been on treatment for more than two weeks and if the fever had initially settled and then come back, it is reasonable to stop all TB medication for 72 hours. If the fever persists despite stopping all TB medication, then the fever is not due to the drugs. If the fever disappears off treatment, then the drugs need to be tested individually to determine the cause. The same scheme as is used for test dosing for drug-induced hepatitis (described below) may be used. The drug most frequently implicated as causing a drug fever is RMP: details are given in the entry on rifampicin.\n",
"Fever is a regulated elevation of the set point of core temperature in the hypothalamus, caused by circulating pyrogens produced by the immune system. To the subject, a rise in core temperature due to fever may result in feeling cold in an environment where people without fever do not.\n",
"Intermittent fever is a type or pattern of fever in which there is an interval where temperature is elevated for several hours followed by an interval when temperature drops back to normal. This type of fever usually occurs during the course of an infectious disease. Diagnosis of intermittent fever is frequently based on the clinical history but some biological tests like complete blood count and blood culture are also used. In addition radiological investigations like chest X-ray, abdominal ultrasonography can also be used in establishing diagnosis. \n",
"A fever occurs when the core temperature is set higher, through the action of the pre-optic region of the anterior hypothalamus. For example, in response to a bacterial or viral infection, certain white blood cells within the blood will release pyrogens which have a direct effect on the anterior hypothalamus, causing body temperature to rise, much like raising the temperature setting on a thermostat.\n",
"Fever is one of the most common medical signs. It is part of about 30% of healthcare visits by children and occurs in up to 75% of adults who are seriously sick. While fever is a useful defense mechanism, treating fever does not appear to worsen outcomes. Fever is viewed with greater concern by parents and healthcare professionals than it usually deserves, a phenomenon known as fever phobia.\n",
"Fever phobia is the name given by medical experts to parents' misconceptions about fever in their children. Among them, many parents incorrectly believe that fever is a disease rather than a medical sign, that even low fevers are harmful, and that any temperature even briefly or slightly above the oversimplified \"normal\" number marked on a thermometer is a clinically significant fever. They are also afraid of harmless side effects like febrile seizures and dramatically overestimate the likelihood of permanent damage from typical fevers. The underlying problem, according to professor of pediatrics Barton D. Schmitt, is \"as parents we tend to suspect that our children’s brains may melt.\"\n"
] |
the sudden outrage towards dr. oz
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This doesn't explain why it's suddenly become such a big issue, but as for the outrage itself...
He uses (abuses) his status as a medical doctor (specifically, he seems to be an excellent heart surgeon) in order to make large piles of money by promoting bullshit alternative medicine to people who don't know any better.
There was a pretty funny montage on Youtube recently of all the times he has said on his show "I have this magic weight loss pill that will burn the fat right off you without you doing anything..." or some close variation, and then cuts to his recent congressional hearing, being asked "is there a magic weight loss pill?" and him trying to evade the question but finally answering "no."
|
[
"He is a proponent of alternative medicine, and has been criticized by physicians, government officials, and publications, including \"Popular Science\" and \"The New Yorker\", for giving non-scientific advice and promoting pseudoscience. In 2014 the British Medical Journal examined over 400 medical or health recommendations from 40 episodes of his program and found that only 46% of his claims were supported by reputable research, while 15% of his claims contradicted medical research and the remainder of Oz's advice were either vague banalities or unsupported by research.\n",
"\"The Dr. Oz Show\" is an American daytime television syndicated talk series, which debuted in 2009. Over the course of its run, various episodes and segment features have been criticized for a lack of scientific credibility in reference to the medical claims on \"The Dr. Oz Show\". A study by the British Medical Journal in 2014 concluded that less than half the claims made on the Dr Oz Show were backed by \"some\" evidence, and that fell to a third when the threshold was raised to \"believable\" evidence. The website Science Based Medicine goes even further, claiming: \"No other show on television can top The Dr. Oz Show for the sheer magnitude of bad health advice it consistently offers, all while giving everything a veneer of credibility.\" What follows is a selection of claims proven to be false and misleading.\n",
"Mehmet Oz, the head of cardiac surgery at Columbia Presbyterian Medical Center in NYC and better known to millions of Winfrey's viewers as \"Dr. Oz\", regularly appeared on Tuesdays during the 2008–2009 season. In 2009, Dr. Oz debuted \"The Dr. Oz Show\" in first-run syndication. The series is co-produced by Harpo Productions and Sony Pictures Television. Dr. Oz has been criticized as promoting pseudo-science, and was the 2009 winner of the Pigasus Award.\n",
"In April 2015, a group of ten physicians from across the United States, including Henry Miller, a fellow in scientific philosophy and public policy at Stanford University's Hoover Institute, sent a letter to Columbia University calling Oz's faculty position unacceptable. They accused Oz of \"an egregious lack of integrity by promoting quack treatments and cures in the interest of personal financial gain\".\n",
"The Dr. Oz Show is an American daytime television talk series. Each episode has segments on health, wellness and medical information, sometimes including true crime stories and celebrity interviews. It is co-produced by Oprah Winfrey's Harpo Productions and distributed by Sony Pictures Television.\n",
"BULLET::::- Mehmet Oz (born 1960), as host of \"The Dr. Oz Show\", has promoted pseudoscientific health treatments and supplements and faced a hearing at the United States Senate for helping companies sell fraudulent medicine.\n",
"On the show, Oz addressed issues like Type 2 diabetes and promoted resveratrol supplements, which he stated were anti-aging. His \"Transplant!\" television series won both a Freddie and a Silver Telly award. He served as medical director for Denzel Washington's \"John Q\".\n"
] |
Who is generally credited with being the first musician/band/musical act etc. to have branched beyond performance to merchandise their name as a brand?
|
Some professional signers of the baroque period and later had sweet merch, although I don't believe any of them profited from it directly through royalties or such, only indirectly through spreading their celebrity. It was a bit of a "thing" to have little enamel miniatures of your favorite singer and you could put them on your dress as a pin, on a chain as a necklace, or on the tops of your shoes (like decorative buckles). Luigi Marchesi and Farinelli are the only ones I know off the top of my head who got fangirls enough to merit shoe-toppers. [Here is an example of one of those enamel miniatures for Farinelli.](_URL_0_) There were also plaster busts of signers that were popular to collect, [here is one of an unknown man](_URL_1_), they were very fragile and very few survived, I don't know of any for opera singers that survived to today, but we have mentions of women collecting them for their favorite signers in satires and newspapers. There were also some direct musical appeals to celebrity from music publishers, like publishing "Favorite Songs of Sig. Farinelli" using singer's names and their famous arias, not sure if that would count.
But for who first deliberately cultivated such non-musical branding opportunities for their own direct commercial gain like "Pickles Nickels," not sure, but there's not really an equivalent in the 17th-19th centuries. The idea of "personality rights" wasn't really there yet. Some vague movement towards moral rights of artistry (like the right not to have your music ripped off and published at someone else's gain) but even that was very sketchy, and depended on where you were working in Europe.
|
[
"By 1982, musical performers played the Horse on a regular basis, with many performers being nationally known or critically renowned artists. Some now well known acts such as Suzanne Vega, Stanley Jordan, George Winston, Michelle Shocked, Tracy Chapman, Dar Williams, Northampton-area native Sonya Kitchell and comedian Steven Wright performed at the Iron Horse before they became nationally known artists. The lineup of musicians has also included legendary reggae group Toots & the Maytals, Michael Franti, pop-rock icon John Mayer, monster guitarist Jorma Kaukonen (a founding member of Jefferson Airplane), pioneering free-jazz pianist Cecil Taylor, jazz pianist Mose Allison, folk-blues legend Taj Mahal, alternative-rock band They Might Be Giants, psychedelic-folk act The Incredible String Band, rock musician Jesse Malin, folk-rocker Steve Forbert, Chicago blues guitarist Jimmy Dawkins, children's musician Mister G the Five Blind Boys of Alabama, and rapper George Watsky. The Iron Horse closed for a time in the 90's, but was eventually reopened.\n",
"The world's most popular / famous / revered music artists of the 20th century include : Louis Armstrong, Little Richard, Igor Stravinsky, Gustav Mahler, George Gershwin, Sergei Prokofiev, Benjamin Britten, Maurice Ravel, Arnold Schoenberg, Dmitri Shostakovich, Aaron Copland, Béla Bartók, Ernesto Lecuona, Sergei Rachmaninoff, Richard Strauss, Thelonious Monk, Ella Fitzgerald, Duke Ellington, Bing Crosby, ABBA, The Beach Boys, The Beatles, Harry Belafonte, Chuck Berry, James Brown, Miles Davis, Bob Dylan, Jimi Hendrix, Eagles, Michael Jackson, Elton John, Bee Gees, Barbra Streisand, Cher, Nat \"King\" Cole, Robert Johnson, Led Zeppelin, Leonard Cohen, Queen, Madonna, Bob Marley, Metallica, Charlie Parker, Pink Floyd, Elvis Presley, The Rolling Stones, Frank Sinatra, Stevie Wonder, Aretha Franklin, Tupac Shakur, Nirvana (band), The Notorious B.I.G., Amr Diab, Fairuz, Umm Kulthum, Abdel Halim Hafez, Randy Newman and many more.\n",
"The \"New Musical Express\" (NME) carried a series of articles about famous members of bands whose musical contribution to their bandmates' success was negligible. The newspaper used the name \"Bez\" as a generic label for the likes of Chas Smash of Madness, Andrew Ridgeley of Wham!, Paul Morley of Art of Noise, Linda McCartney of Wings, and Paul Rutherford of Frankie Goes to Hollywood.\n",
"The earliest recording artists included co-owner Mercer, Johnnie Johnston, Morse, Jo Stafford, the Pied Pipers, Tex Ritter, Tilton, Paul Weston, Whiteman, and Margaret Whiting Capitol's first gold single was Morse's \"Cow Cow Boogie\" in 1942. \n",
"As a musician He was open to different music styles and played classical, operetta, Broadway musical, as well as popular music. He sold more than 20 million records all over the world and received 13 golden albums as well as one golden cassette.\n",
"BULLET::::- There are several well-known bands that have endured for decades – bands that are promoted and perceived to be continuations of the original. These types of bands are analogous to franchises, except, instead of multiple bands touring under the same name, only one band performs, but with a turnover of musicians. Examples includeTower of Power (currently, in its year)\n",
"Shortly after, VH1 created a companion series, \"Legends\" (originally sponsored by AT&T), profiling artists who have made a more significant contribution to music history to qualify as \"Legends\" (that is, those artists who have gone beyond the category of \"Behind the Music\" biographies). The artists profiled so far have included Aerosmith; the Bee Gees; David Bowie; Johnny Cash; Eric Clapton; The Clash; George Clinton; Sam Cooke; Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young; The Doors; John Fogerty; Aretha Franklin; Marvin Gaye; The Grateful Dead; Guns N' Roses; Jimi Hendrix; Michael Jackson; Eminem; Elton John; Janis Joplin; B. B. King; Led Zeppelin; John Lennon; Curtis Mayfield; Nirvana; Pink Floyd; The Pretenders; Red Hot Chili Peppers; Queen; Bruce Springsteen; Tina Turner; U2; Stevie Ray Vaughan; The Who, and Neil Young.\n"
] |
how come household incomes haven't gone up significantly in decades if more and more women have joined the labor force?
|
In part precisely because more and more women have entered the labor force. Labor supply went up faster than demand, so labor became cheaper. The other issue is that technically compensation has continued to increase. People tend to only look at wage and say that people get paid the same as three decades ago. That's not true though, because healthcare benefits are compensation too, but they've eaten up a larger share of compensation (hence the push to reduce healthcare costs with the ACA).
|
[
"However, as indicated by the charts below, household income has still increased significantly since the late 1970s and early 80s in real terms, partly due to higher individual median wages, and partly due to increased opportunities for women.\n",
"During the Great Recession, which spanned December 2007 to June 2009, the average duration of unemployment reached a record high in the United States, which led to an increased incidence of the added worker effect (Rampell, 2010). The labor force participation rate of the wife rises with the expectation that her husband will be unemployed permanently due to aging or other factors (Maloney, p. 183). Women who expect their husbands will be unemployed for the long-run are more likely to accept a job when they have the opportunity, but without the intention of dropping out implied by the Added Worker Effect.\n",
"However, much of this can be attributed to employment rates. The employment rate of women in their 30s has increased from 39% in 1964 to 70% in 2004; whereas, the rate of employment for men in this same age group has decreased from 91% in 1964 to 86% in 2004. This sharp increase in income for working women, in addition to stable male salaries, is the reason upward economic mobility is attributed to women.\n",
"When it comes to income and earning ability in the United States, women are once again at an economic disadvantage. Indeed, for a same level of education and an equivalent field of occupation, men earn a higher wage than women. Though the pay-gap has narrowed over time, according U.S Census Bureau Survey, it was still 21% in 2014. Additionally, pregnancy negatively affects professional and educational opportunities for women since \"an unplanned pregnancies can prevent women from finishing their education or sustaining employment (Cawthorne, 2008)\".\n",
"For added workers to enter the labor market when earning power decreases, the negative income effect must outweigh the positive substitution effect (Mincer, p. 68). In families whose male head of household loses his job, “the relative decline in family income is much stronger than the relative decline in the 'expected' wage rate of the wife.” In this case, the net effect leads the wife to enter the labor market, thereby increasing the labor supply. An example of the effect can be found in a study by Arnold Katz, who attributes the bulk of the increase in married female workers in the depression of 1958 “to the distress[ed] job seeking of wives whose husbands were out of work” (1961, p. 478).\n",
"The statistics for the labor market participation of women show growth. In 1990, 36% of the female population was employed, which had grown to 52% in 2003. 74% of the male population was employed, which shows a disparity, but the gap is closing. The unemployment rate for women, 7.4%, is higher than men, who are at a 3.6% unemployment rate.\n",
"Women's participation in economic development increased from 22.5 percent to 40 percent between 1976 and 2002. As of 2002, 44 percent of women worked. Women living in urban areas tend to have the least paying and unproductive types of jobs, which is believed to be due to the lack of educational opportunities for women and educational requirements for better jobs. In rural areas women struggle more due to their gender and of being indigenous. As of 1992 rural working women had risen from 18.3 percent in 1976 to 38.1 percent, but working conditions are often poor, wages low and have low productivity. Some employers require women to sign agreements not to get pregnant. Indigenous women tend to work long hours as street vendors or domestic worker. Women who work the latter tend to work more hours, with less days off and low pay.\n"
] |
Will the GPS coordinates of a fixed point on land change due to Continental Drift? Also, why is 0 lattitude 0 longitude in the ocean instead of on land?
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> Will the GPS coordinates of a fixed point on land change due to Continental Drift?
Yes, Very Very VERY slowly.. at most [2-6 inches a year](_URL_2_).
> Also, why is 0 latitude 0 Longitude in the ocean instead of on land?
Well the Earth is a sphere so 0 latitude is the equator. Runs right round the middle of the world in a North/South orientation
0 longitude is a bit different. The world power at the time of the definition of the prime meridian (0 longitude), Was England. They set 0 longitude as the line running right down the middle of the [Royal Observatory front door](_URL_1_).
Why 0,0 is out at sea.. well that's the way the World lines up when [divided into Graticules](_URL_0_) based on those standards.
|
[
"If a global reference frame (such as WGS84, for example) is used, the longitude of a place on the surface will change from year to year. To minimize this change, when dealing just with points on a single plate, a different reference frame can be used, whose coordinates are fixed to a particular plate, such as \"NAD83\" for North America or \"ETRS89\" for Europe.\n",
"Determination of longitude at sea was not possible without a considerable margin of error until the mid 18th century. One of the methods that was used instead was dead reckoning, from the last point of land sighted. Lizard Point in Cornwall was a famous starting point for this, as was the 3,718 metre Teide volcano of Tenerife. From the early 1640s some Dutch cartographers were using Tenerife as a prime meridian in maps, with a significant increase in use after 1662. Joan Blaeu started using it in 1663, Frederik de Wit in 1670, and German mapmakers Weigel and Homann in the 1720s/1730s. After 1675 Tenerife was the predominant meridian on Dutch maps and in 1787 the Amsterdam Admiralty issued a formal statement of support to the meridian.\n",
"Cook estimated the coordinates of his Point Hicks (from a great distance) to be located at , a location in the sea over 60 km to the South West. Though measuring longitude in Cook's time was problematic due to the paucity of reliable [[marine chronometers]], Cook and his astronomer's measurements of latitude were usually very accurate. Nevertheless, the latitude of 38 degrees S placed the point more than 20 km out to sea from the East-West running coastline. It is likely that the reckoning was an error, that a cloudbank was mistaken for land, and that the true location of landfall by \"Endeavour\" lies somewhat to the East of Cape Everard.\n",
"Determining longitude on land was fairly easy compared to the task at sea. A stable surface to work from, known coordinates to refer to, a sheltered environment for the unstable chronometers of the day, and the ability to repeat determinations over time made for great accuracy.\n",
"Determining longitude at sea was also much harder than on land. A stable surface to work from, a comfortable location to live in while performing the work, and the ability to repeat determinations over time made various astronomical techniques possible on land (such as the observation of eclipses) that were unfortunately impractical at sea. Whatever could be discovered from solving the problem at sea would only improve the determination of longitude on land.\n",
"Once out of sight of the coast, Portuguese and Spanish ship pilots could rely upon the astrolabe and quadrant to determine their location on a north/south reference, however longitude was noticeably more difficult to acquire. The problem was time. Out on the vast stretches of the ocean, it is very difficult to keep track of time once leaving port. In order to calculate longitude a sailor would need to know the time difference between his current location and a fixed point somewhere on earth, usually the port of call. Even if one could determine the time of day while in deep waters, they still needed to know the time at their home port. The answer was the ephemerides, astronomical charts plotting the location of the stars over a distinct period of time. The German astronomer Regiomontanus published an accurate day-to-day Ephemerides in 1474. \n",
"Due to the movement of Earth's tectonic plates, the line of 0° longitude along the surface of the Earth has slowly moved toward the west from this shifted position by a few centimetres; that is, towards the Airy Transit Circle (or the Airy Transit Circle has moved toward the east, depending on your point of view) since 1984 (or the 1960s). With the introduction of satellite technology, it became possible to create a more accurate and detailed global map. With these advances there also arose the necessity to define a reference meridian that, whilst being derived from the Airy Transit Circle, would also take into account the effects of plate movement and variations in the way that the Earth was spinning.\n"
] |
How do people in space (ex: living on the ISS) keep track of time? Do they adjust their sleep-wake schedules according to one master clock?
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Pretty much. There is so much to do for astronauts whether it's science, maintenance, spacewalks etc. that their days are fairly choreographed and planned. Then they just block off time for sleeping each 24 hour period. One of the physiological issues with life on the ISS is there is a sunset/sunrise every 90 minutes and it can mess with your circadian rhythm and sleep cycles.
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[
"Orbiting spacecraft typically experience many sunrises and sunsets in a 24-hour period, or in the case of Apollo program astronauts travelling to the moon, none. Thus it is not possible to calibrate time zones with respect to the sun, and still respect a 24-hour sleep/wake cycle. A common practice for space exploration is to use the Earth-based time zone of the launch site or mission control. This keeps the sleeping cycles of the crew and controllers in sync. The International Space Station normally uses Greenwich Mean Time (GMT).\n",
"The amount and quality of sleep experienced in space is poor due to highly variable light and dark cycles on flight decks and poor illumination during daytime hours in the space craft. Even the habit of looking out of the window before retiring can send the wrong messages to the brain, resulting in poor sleep patterns. These disturbances in circadian rhythm have profound effects on the neurobehavioural responses of crew and aggravate the psychological stresses they already experience (see Fatigue and sleep loss during spaceflight for more information). Sleep is disturbed on the ISS regularly due to mission demands, such as the scheduling of incoming or departing space vehicles. Sound levels in the station are unavoidably high because the atmosphere is unable to thermosiphon; fans are required at all times to allow processing of the atmosphere, which would stagnate in the freefall (zero-g) environment. Fifty percent of space shuttle astronauts take sleeping pills and still get 2 hours less sleep each night in space than they do on the ground. NASA is researching two areas which may provide the keys to a better night's sleep, as improved sleep decreases fatigue and increases daytime productivity. A variety of methods for combating this phenomenon are constantly under discussion.\n",
"Human spaceflight often requires astronaut crews to endure long periods without rest. Studies have shown that lack of sleep can cause fatigue that leads to errors while performing critical tasks. Also, individuals who are fatigued often cannot determine the degree of their impairment.\n",
"Human spaceflight often requires astronaut crews to endure long periods without rest. Studies have shown that lack of sleep can cause fatigue that leads to errors while performing critical tasks. Also, individuals who are fatigued often cannot determine the degree of their impairment.\n",
"Astronauts must remain alert and vigilant while operating complicated equipment. Therefore, getting enough sleep is a crucial factor of mission success. Weightlessness, a confined and isolated environment, and busy schedules coupled with the absence of a regular 24-hour day make sleep difficult in space. Astronauts typically average only about six hours of sleep each night. Cumulative sleep loss and sleep disruption could lead to performance errors and accidents that pose significant risk to mission success. Sleep and circadian cycles also temporally modulate a broad range of physiological, hormonal, behavioral, and cognitive functions.\n",
"The International Space Station (ISS) does not use an MET clock since it is a \"permanent\" and international mission. The ISS observes Coordinated Universal Time (UTC/GMT). When the shuttle visited ISS the ISS-crew usually adjusted their workday to the MET clock to make work together easier. The shuttles also had UTC clocks so that the astronauts could easily figure out what the \"official\" time aboard ISS was.\n",
"Astronauts have reported performance errors and decreased cognitive ability during periods of extended working hours and wakefulness as well as due to sleep loss caused by circadian rhythm disruption and environmental factors.\n"
] |
Is it technically possible that somewhere in the Universe some of the fundamental constants are actually variable?
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Is it possible in the sense that we can't conclusively rule it out? I guess I have to reluctantly say yes; that's the price of having empirical science.
Is it possible in the sense that there is *any* reason to believe it happens, or in the sense that it's consistent with our present observations? Absolutely not.
|
[
"In a more philosophical context, the conclusion that these quantities are constant raises the question of why they have the specific value they do in what appears to be a \"fine-tuned Universe\", while their being variable would mean that their known values are merely an accident of the current time at which we happen to measure them.\n",
"\"N\" and \"ε\" govern the fundamental interactions of physics. The other constants (\"D\" excepted) govern the size, age, and expansion of the universe. These five constants must be estimated empirically. \"D\", on the other hand, is necessarily a nonzero natural number and cannot be measured. Hence most physicists would not deem it a dimensionless physical constant of the sort discussed in this entry.\n",
"Although not a physical constant, appears routinely in equations describing fundamental principles of the universe, often because of 's relationship to the circle and to spherical coordinate systems. A simple formula from the field of classical mechanics gives the approximate period of a simple pendulum of length , swinging with a small amplitude ( is the earth's gravitational acceleration):\n",
"The premise of the fine-tuned universe assertion is that a small change in several of the dimensionless physical constants would make the universe radically different. As Stephen Hawking has noted, \"The laws of science, as we know them at present, contain many fundamental numbers, like the size of the electric charge of the electron and the ratio of the masses of the proton and the electron. ... The remarkable fact is that the values of these numbers seem to have been very finely adjusted to make possible the development of life.\"\n",
"It is known that the Universe would be very different if these constants took values significantly different from those we observe. For example, a few percent change in the value of the fine structure constant would be enough to eliminate stars like our Sun. This has prompted attempts at anthropic explanations of the values of some of the dimensionless fundamental physical constants.\n",
"Some physicists have explored the notion that if the dimensionless physical constants had sufficiently different values, our Universe would be so radically different that intelligent life would probably not have emerged, and that our Universe therefore seems to be fine-tuned for intelligent life. The anthropic principle states a logical truism: the fact of our existence as intelligent beings who can measure physical constants requires those constants to be such that beings like us can exist. There are a variety of interpretations of the constants' values, including that of a divine creator (the apparent fine-tuning is actual and intentional), or that ours is one universe of many in a multiverse (e.g. the many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics), or even that, if information is an innate property of the universe and logically inseparable from consciousness, a universe without the capacity for conscious beings cannot exist.\n",
"The Universe may be \"fine-tuned\"; the Fine-tuned Universe hypothesis is the proposition that the conditions that allow the existence of observable life in the Universe can only occur when certain universal fundamental physical constants lie within a very narrow range of values, so that if any of several fundamental constants were only slightly different, the Universe would have been unlikely to be conducive to the establishment and development of matter, astronomical structures, elemental diversity, or life as it is understood. The proposition is discussed among philosophers, scientists, theologians, and proponents of creationism.\n"
] |
who was jeffrey epstein? why is him committing suicide suspicious? what does him committing suicide mean?
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Had a child sex slave trafficking ring with multiple elite billionaires involved but hasn’t given much info and was supposed to go to trial soon also was on suicide watch but somehow still committed “suicide” it’s suspicious because there’s a high chance it’s a coverup
|
[
"Epstein died of an overdose of Carbitral, a form of barbiturate or sleeping pill, in his locked bedroom on 27 August 1967. He was discovered after his butler had knocked on the door and then, hearing no response, asked the housekeeper to call the police. Epstein was found on a single bed, dressed in pyjamas, with various correspondence spread over a second single bed. At the statutory inquest his death was officially ruled an accident, caused by a gradual buildup of Carbitral combined with alcohol in his system. It was revealed that he had taken six Carbitral pills in order to sleep, which was probably normal for him, but in combination with alcohol they reduced his tolerance.\n",
"Epstein's lawyers urged the court to allow Epstein to post bail, offering to post up to a $600million bond (including $100million from his brother, Mark) so he could leave jail and submit to house arrest in his New York mansion. Judge Richard M. Berman denied the request on July 18, saying that Epstein posed a danger to the public and a serious flight risk to avoid prosecution. On July 23, Epstein was found injured and semiconscious at 1:30 a.m. on the floor of his cell, with marks around his neck that were suspected to be from a suicide attempt or an assault. His cellmate former New York City police officer, Nicholas Tartaglione, who is charged with four counts of murder, was questioned about Epstein's condition. He denied knowledge of what happened. According to NBC News, two sources said that Epstein might have tried to hang himself, a third said the injuries were not serious and could have been staged, while a fourth source said that an assault by his cellmate, had not been ruled out.\n",
"On February 23, 2003, Epstein died from complications related to drug use. MTV News reported that Epstein's death was caused by a heroin overdose. He was 47. Investigators were told Epstein had been using heroin. On the day of his death, Howie was driven to St. Vincent Hospital in Santa Fe, New Mexico by his girlfriend, who described him as \"under distress\". Epstein was taking antibiotics for an illness and had recently suffered from influenza, stomach problems, and an abscess on his leg, friends said. Additionally, it was reported that he had been extremely distraught over the death of his 16-year-old dog a few days earlier.\n",
"Epstein died of an accidental drug overdose in August 1967, not long after negotiating a contract with the BBC for Black to appear in a television series of her own. Relations between Epstein and Black had somewhat soured during the year prior to his death, largely because he was not paying her career enough attention and the fact that her singles \"A Fool Am I\" (UK No. 13, 1966) and \"What Good Am I?\" (UK No. 24, 1967) were not big successes.\n",
"Epstein attended a traditional shiva in Liverpool after his father died, having just come out of the Priory clinic where he had been trying to cure his acute insomnia and addiction to amphetamines. A few days before his death he made his last visit to a Beatles recording session on 23 August 1967, at the Chappell Recording Studios on Maddox Street in Mayfair, London.\n",
"Police began an 11-month undercover investigation of Epstein, followed by a search of his home. The Federal Bureau of Investigation also became involved in the investigation. Subsequently, the police alleged that Epstein had paid several girls to perform sexual acts with him. Interviews with five alleged victims and 17witnesses under oath, a high school transcript and other items found in Epstein's trash and home allegedly showed that some of the girls involved were under 18. The police search of Epstein's home found two hidden cameras and large numbers of photos of girls throughout the house, some of whom the police had interviewed in the course of their investigation.\n",
"On September 1, 1982, he made his live debut at the Santa Cruz Civic Auditorium in Santa Cruz, California, on the tour to promote the album, \"Long After Dark\". Epstein was a member of the Heartbreakers until his departure due to his failing health caused by his heroin addiction. He made his final appearance with the band when they were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in March 2002.\n"
] |
if your body, very slowly, began to not get the oxygen it needs, which systems would shut down first? (and last) and why?
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Im not aware of any published evidence on this so I will give my professional opinion.
Firstly it depends on why are not getting the oxygen it needs. The two main reasons are because of a lack of oxygen in the air (rare) or your lungs not oxygenating blood properly (common).
Not having enough oxygen in your blood (as measured by a blood test from your artery) is termed respiratory failure. There are two types, one is just not enough oxygen with low carbon dioxide caused by hyperventilating to try to get enough oxygen in. The second type is not enough oxygen AND too much carbon dioxide because the lungs are not moving air in and out efficiently enough.
If you're talking about lack of oxygen then that would typically show the first type of respiratory failure on the arterial blood test. We would still term it respiratory failure even though the lungs were working fine. Without any shadow of a doubt your brain would be the first thing to go. Most of your organs can survive a certain amount of hypoxia but you would go unconscious fairly rapidly. Your liver and kidneys would probably go next - the liver because it is the organ that carries out the most chemical reactions and needs oxygen for this and the kidneys because they require a lot of oxygenated blood flow to keep working.
If you removed the oxygen very very slowly (over days and weeks) then other mechanisms would kick in such as the blood production mechanisms to ensure there is more haemoglobin to mop up as much as possible of the scarce oxygen that you breathe in. This is why mountaineers have to spend time acclimatising and why people who live at high altitude in for example Chile have very high haemoglobin levels. If you kept removing the oxygen though, you'd eventually pass out.
After you'd passed out the liver and kidneys would begin to shut down next and then probably your heart. You wouldn't live long after you'd passed out. The brain is obviously the top priority. After this the body will just keep trying to get as much oxygen as it can until the heart stops.
Tl;dr: The brain.
Source: I am a doctor.
Edit: Grammar
|
[
"\"One of medicine's new frontiers: treating the dead\", recognizes that cells that have been without oxygen for more than five minutes die, not from lack of oxygen, but rather when their oxygen supply is resumed. Therefore, practitioners of this approach, e.g., at the Resuscitation Science institute at the University of Pennsylvania, \"aim to reduce oxygen uptake, slow metabolism and adjust the blood chemistry for gradual and safe reperfusion.\"\n",
"Mechanical shock forced the oxygen valves closed on the number 1 and number 3 fuel cells, leaving them operating for only about three minutes on the oxygen in the feed lines. The shock also either partially ruptured a line from the number 1 oxygen tank, or caused its check or relief valve to leak, causing its contents to leak out into space over the next 130 minutes, entirely depleting the SM's oxygen supply.\n",
"From measuring the oxygen buildup in the biodome the scientific task force (Exon's daughter Denise, her fiancé Howard Rogers, Nobel prize winning microbiologist Max Flinders, and a government-backed scientist named only as \"Blowers\",) discover that the oxygen output is so high that if unchecked within twenty years the oxygen balance of the planet will have been doubled to 40%, making current life all but extinct. Another emergency vent of the biodome is required, but a 747 Jumbo jet passes through the escaping oxygen bubble causing it to explode as the engines suck in pure oxygen.\n",
"Since oxygen is carried to tissues in the blood, insufficient blood supply causes tissue to become starved of oxygen. In the highly metabolically active tissues of the heart and brain, irreversible damage to tissues can occur in as little as 3–4 minutes at body temperature. The kidneys are also quickly damaged by loss of blood flow (renal ischemia). Tissues with slower metabolic rates may undergo irreversible damage after 20 minutes.\n",
"Becker discovered that re-introduction of oxygen, rather than loss of oxygen, was primarily responsible for cell death. Cell death can be delayed or stopped through the application of therapeutic hypothermia. In the case of Swedish skier Anna Bågenholm, who fell through ice into freezing water, the cold protected her from brain damage despite being without oxygen for over an hour.\n",
"Oxygen (O) must be present in every breathing gas. This is because it is essential to the human body's metabolic process, which sustains life. The human body cannot store oxygen for later use as it does with food. If the body is deprived of oxygen for more than a few minutes, unconsciousness and death result. The tissues and organs within the body (notably the heart and brain) are damaged if deprived of oxygen for much longer than four minutes.\n",
"Under normal conditions, humans cannot store much oxygen in the body. Prolonged apnea leads to severe lack of oxygen in the blood circulation. Permanent brain damage can occur after as little as three minutes and death will inevitably ensue after a few more minutes unless ventilation is restored. However, under special circumstances such as hypothermia, hyperbaric oxygenation, apneic oxygenation (see below), or extracorporeal membrane oxygenation, much longer periods of apnea may be tolerated without severe consequences.\n"
] |
how are synthetic materials (such as plastic) unnatural / toxic, if they are made from ingredients found on earth?
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Naturally occuring chemicals can be used to make chemicals which do not occur in nature. Think of it like baking a cake. The main ingredients in cake (sugar, flour, oil, eggs) are all naturally occuring but you would never a cake in nature. It's similar with plastics. While the chemicals used in plastic manufacturing (most petroleum based) are naturally occuring, you can combine them in specific ways to make something which is not.
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[
"Pure plastics have low toxicity due to their insolubility in water and because they are biochemically inert, due to a large molecular weight. Plastic products contain a variety of additives, some of which can be toxic. For example, plasticizers like adipates and phthalates are often added to brittle plastics like polyvinyl chloride to make them pliable enough for use in food packaging, toys, and many other items. Traces of these compounds can leach out of the product. Owing to concerns over the effects of such leachates, the European Union has restricted the use of DEHP (di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate) and other phthalates in some applications, and the United States has limited the use of DEHP, DPB, BBP, DINP, DIDP, and DnOP in children's toys and child care articles with the Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act. Some compounds leaching from polystyrene food containers have been proposed to interfere with hormone functions and are suspected human carcinogens. Other chemicals of potential concern include alkylphenols.\n",
"Plastics are typically organic polymers of high molecular mass and often contain other substances. They are usually synthetic, most commonly derived from petrochemicals, however, an array of variants are made from renewable materials such as polylactic acid from corn or cellulosics from cotton linters.\n",
"BULLET::::- Synthetic organic compounds are tens of thousands of synthetic chemical compounds, all containing carbon, that are extremely useful, including medicines, rubbers, plastics, refrigerants, etc.\n",
"Synthetic resins are industrially produced resins, typically viscous substances that convert into rigid polymers by the process of curing. In order to undergo curing, resins typically contain reactive end groups, such as acrylates or epoxides. Some synthetic resins have properties similar to natural plant resins, but many do not.\n",
"Blended into most plastics are additional organic or inorganic compounds. The average content of additives is a few percent. Many of the controversies associated with plastics actually relate to the additives: organotin compounds are particularly toxic.\n",
"A commonly used synthetic material is PLA - polylactic acid. This is a polyester which degrades within the human body to form lactic acid, a naturally occurring chemical which is easily removed from the body. Similar materials are polyglycolic acid (PGA) and polycaprolactone (PCL): their degradation mechanism is similar to that of PLA, but they exhibit respectively a faster and a slower rate of degradation compared to PLA. While these materials have well maintained mechanical strength and structural integrity, they exhibit a hydrophobic nature. This hydrophobicity inhibits their biocompatibility, which makes them less effective for in vivo use as tissue scaffolding. In order to fix the lack of biocompatibility, much research has been done to combine these hydrophobic materials with hydrophilic and more biocompatible hydrogels. While these hydrogels have a superior biocompatibility, they lack the structural integrity of PLA, PCL, and PGA. By combining the two different types of materials, researchers are trying to create a synergistic relationship that produces a more biocompatible tissue scaffolding.\n",
"Synthetic resins are of several classes. Some are manufactured by esterification of organic compounds. Some are thermosetting plastics in which the term \"resin\" is loosely applied to the reactant or product, or both. \"Resin\" may be applied to one of two monomers in a copolymer, the other being called a \"hardener\", as in epoxy resins. For thermosetting plastics that require only one monomer, the monomer compound is the \"resin\". For example, liquid methyl methacrylate is often called the \"resin\" or \"casting resin\" while in the liquid state, before it polymerizes and \"sets\". After setting, the resulting PMMA is often renamed acrylic glass, or \"acrylic\". (This is the same material called Plexiglas and Lucite).\n"
] |
what do you do with your invention idea?
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Write all plans, print it out and mail it to yourself, never opening it.
It's a poor man's copyright.
Other than that, I don't know. Hopefully someone else has more in-depth knowledge.
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[
"Invention is often a creative process. An open and curious mind allows an inventor to see beyond what is known. Seeing a new possibility, connection or relationship can spark an invention. Inventive thinking frequently involves combining concepts or elements from different realms that would not normally be put together. Sometimes inventors disregard the boundaries between distinctly separate territories or fields. Several concepts may be considered when thinking about invention.\n",
"An invention is a unique or novel device, method, composition or process. The invention process is a process within an overall engineering and product development process. It may be an improvement upon a machine or product or a new process for creating an object or a result. An invention that achieves a completely unique function or result may be a radical breakthrough. Such works are novel and not obvious to others skilled in the same field. An inventor may be taking a big step in success or failure.\n",
"Invention is often an exploratory process with an uncertain or unknown outcome. There are failures as well as successes. Inspiration can start the process, but no matter how complete the initial idea, inventions typically must be developed.\n",
"To invent is to see anew. Inventors often envision a new idea, seeing it in their mind's eye. New ideas can arise when the conscious mind turns away from the subject or problem when the inventor's focus is on something else, or while relaxing or sleeping. A novel idea may come in a flash—a Eureka! moment. For example, after years of working to figure out the general theory of relativity, the solution came to Einstein suddenly in a dream \"like a giant die making an indelible impress, a huge map of the universe outlined itself in one clear vision\". Inventions can also be accidental, such as in the case of polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon).\n",
"An invention is useful if it does what it promises; following the directions should result in the desired effect. The inventor does not have to have created the product of the invention, but the specifications must disclose an actual way to do so. \n",
"Idea for an Invention may be developed on paper or on a computer, by writing or drawing, by trial and error, by making models, by experimenting, by testing and/or by making the invention in its whole form. Brainstorming also can spark new ideas for an invention. Collaborative creative processes are frequently used by engineers, designers, architects and scientists. Co-inventors are frequently named on patents.\n",
"In the process of developing an invention, the initial idea may change. The invention may become simpler, more practical, it may expand, or it may even \"morph\" into something totally different. Working on one invention can lead to others too.\n"
] |
how do television ratings work? how long do i have to be tuned in to a channel for the rating to count? and what's the correlation between the rating number (i.e. 13.4) and the number of viewers?
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Ratings are based off what are called Nielsen Ratings. The Nielsen Company employs a system where they select families of a certain demographic in every single area code and "hires" out these families to be what are known as The Nielsen Families.
How do they gather what shows they watch? Nielsen employs a box that connects to a family's DVR or cable box as well as connects to their TV so that they know exactly what shows the family is watching, when they watch it, how they watch it (recorded or live), and how often. All of this information gets transferred into the box and that's then transmitted to their data warehouse down in Texas.
There, millions upon millions of data is migrated, mined, and reported out to various companies who have bought media, and they receive a report around GRPs or Gross Rating Points. Gross Rating Points tell you the frequency (how often and length) and reach (# of Nielsen families). Each company has a set threshold that they wish to hit so that's how some shows get cancelled vs others.
Not everyone can impact ratings as this would require tons of data plus not everyone wants to have their viewing habits shared with companies. You cannot choose to become a Nielsen Family, you have to live in a certain area and hit a type of demographic (income, race, make up of the family, etc) for you to be selected by The Nielsen Company.
Ratings count by seconds so you can be on a channel for a brief moment for it to be counted. For example, if you're channel surfing, the box will record exactly what channels you accessed and for how long even if it was for a second or less. They can also tell if you've accessed the channel guide. They can also tell when you switched the tv over to gaming and play a game.
There's a high correlation between the two as the ratings take into account number of viewers (reach) and frequency of viewing (how many times viewed and length of time).
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[
"Television rating point (TRP) for calculation purposes is a device attached to the TV set in a few thousand viewers, houses for judging purposes. These numbers are treated as a sample from the overall TV owners in different geographical and demographic sectors. Using a device a special code is telecasted during the programme, It records the time and the programme that a viewer watches on a particular day. The average is taken for a 30-day period, which gives the viewership status for the particular channel. It is also known as \"Target Rating Point\".\n",
"One single television ratings point (Rtg or TVR) represents 1% of television households in the surveyed area in a given minute. As of 2004, there are an estimated 109.6 million television households in the United States. Thus, a single national ratings point represents 1%, or 1,096,000 television households for the 2004–05 season. When used for the broadcast of a program, the average rating across the duration of the show is typically given. Ratings points are often used for specific demographics rather than just households. For example, a ratings point among the key 18- to 49-year-olds demographic is equivalent to 1% of all 18- to 49-year-olds in the country.\n",
"The Broadcasters' Audience Research Board (BARB) measures television ratings in the UK. As of November 2017, the average weekly viewing time per person across all broadcast channels was 24 hours 16 minutes. 12 channels have a share of total viewing time across all channels of ≥ 1.0%.\n",
"In the following summary, \"rating\" is the percentage of all households with televisions that tuned to the show, and \"share\" is the percentage of all televisions in use at that time that are tuned in. \"18–49\" is the percentage of all adults aged 18–49 tuned into the show. \"Viewers\" is the number of viewers, in millions, watching at the time. \"Rank\" is how well the show did compared to other TV shows aired that week.\n",
"In the following summary, \"rating\" is the percentage of all households with televisions that tuned to the show, and \"share\" is the percentage of all televisions in use at that time that are tuned in. \"18-49\" is the percentage of all adults aged 18–49 tuned into the show. \"Viewers\" are the number of viewers, in millions, watching at the time. \"Rank\"; how well the show did compared to other TV shows aired that week.\n",
"The rating system is very simple. All the major Japanese television networks make up the television market, so a research firm must determine the size of an average audience. The audience size is determined using two factors: the amount of content that is transmitted and the amount that is received, as market size varies from firm to firm. The viewer count of a given episode is calculated using a variety of polling methods. Ratings are calculated using a percentage or point system. This is based on the episode's viewership numbers divided by the market size. Finally, the numbers are published on the research firm's website. A hard copy is also produced.\n",
"In the following chart, \"rating\" is the percentage of all households with televisions that tuned to the show, and \"share\" is the percentage of all televisions in use at that time that are tuned in. \"18–49\" is the percentage of all adults aged 18–49 tuned into the show. \"Viewers\" are the number of viewers, in millions, watching at the time.\n"
] |
why are smartphones $500-700+ while laptops with the same or better specs are considerably less?
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Designing electronics when you have no, or relaxed space constraints is **much** easier and therefore cheaper. Also, the specific parts, while maybe less powerful, are likely more efficient with regards to power (this is highly variable, of course). So even though your particular processor or whatnot is *slower,* it has a more complicated design to ensure better battery life and smaller physical size.
EDIT: A lot of people are nitpicking about the fact that margins are very high in devices like Samsungs phones and the iPhone line. Just because their *raw materials cost* is low, and the profit margin is high on the device, does not mean miniaturization is irrelevant. The reason they can charge those prices, is because miniaturization is **hard** and they've made new, successful, miniature devices. They are recouping their R & D costs. The market will push these prices down (as evidenced by Google's new phones) because the bulk of the R & D is done, and that cost isn't repeated. Companies learn from one another, which is in part some of the issues with patent laws but that's another story.
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[
"As far as computers are concerned, off-the-shelf versions are usually newer and hence more powerful than proprietary POS terminals. Custom modifications are added as needed. Other products, like touchscreen tablets and laptops, are readily available in the market, and they are more portable than traditional POS terminals. The only advantage of the latter is that they are typically built to withstand rough handling and spillages; a benefit for food & beverage businesses.\n",
"According to StatCounter web use statistics (a proxy for all use), smartphones (alone without tablets) have majority use globally, with desktop computers used much less (and Android in particular more popular than Windows). Use varies however by continent with smartphones way more popular in the biggest continents, i.e. Asia, and the desktop still more popular in some, though not in North America.\n",
"Unlike desktop computers, only minor internal upgrades (such as memory and hard disk drive) are feasible owing to the limited space and power available. Laptops have the same input and output ports as desktops, for connecting to external displays, mice, cameras, storage devices and keyboards. Laptops are also a little more expensive compared to desktops, as the miniaturized components for laptops themselves are expensive.\n",
"There is a discrepancy between the 2009 numbers due to the various sources cited; i.e. the units sold by all ODMs add up to 144.3 million laptops, which is much more than the given total of 125 million laptops. The market share percentages currently refer to those 144.3 million total. Sources may indicate hard drive deliveries to the ODM instead of actual laptop sales, though the two numbers may be closely correlated.\n",
"The personal computer, also known as the PC, is one of the most common types of computer due to its versatility and relatively low price. Laptops are generally very similar, although they may use lower-power or reduced size components, thus lower performance.\n",
"Subnotebooks are smaller than full sized laptops but larger than handheld computers. They often have smaller-sized screens, less than 14 inches, and weigh less than typical laptops, usually being less than 2 kg (4.4 lbs). The savings in size and weight are usually achieved partly by omitting ports and optical disc drives. Many can be paired with docking stations to compensate.\n",
"Smartphones use small displays, but modern smartphone displays have a larger PPI rating, such as the Samsung Galaxy S7 with a quad HD display at 577 PPI, Fujitsu F-02G with a quad HD display at 564 PPI, the LG G6 with quad HD display at 564 PPI or – XHDPI or Oppo Find 7 with 534 PPI on 5.5\" display – XXHDPI (see section below). Sony's Xperia XZ Premium has a 4K display with a pixel density of 807 PPI, the highest of any smartphone as of 2017.\n"
] |
how are these girls doing the math in their head so fast?
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Do you notice how they're moving their hands around as the guy reads the numbers? That's because they're using a mental abacus. An abacus allows you to do fast calculations that would be very hard to do in your head. All they have to do is picture what the abacus would look like and they can read off the answer even without actually holding on to one.
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[
"In the Team Competition section, each participating school sends in four selected student mathematicians per year level. The participants compete against other schools in the Christchurch Horncastle Arena. It's a speed competition and takes 30 minutes. There are 20 questions for each team to complete, the aim being for each team to answer all questions the fastest. One of the four team members is a runner who runs to a judge to check if the answer to their current question is right. Each question is worth 5 points, allowing a maximum score of 100. A team can only attempt one question at a time and have to keep working on it until they get it right. Passing is allowed, but no points will be received for that question, as well as preventing the team from returning to that question. \n",
"BULLET::::- Don't Forget About Me: Teams have to solve a memory puzzle while hiking up and down a mountain. First, the guys will lift up a 300-pound steel door out of the sand that is connected to a rope for as long as they can. Under the steel door is an answer key that contains various colors of squares and rectangles, which the female partners will have to memorize. Whenever the girls feel that they have memorized the answer key enough, or their male partners are unable to keep the steel doors from shutting, each partner will be required to hike up a mountain with a bag containing their puzzle pieces, to their designated puzzle station, which the girls will have to solve. The process continues back and forth, and the first team to correctly solve their puzzle wins the Power Couple. Initially, the last team to correctly solve their puzzle would be automatically sent to the Dome; however, due to time constraints and the reduced amount of daylight, host T. J. Lavin explained to the last four teams that the team with the fewest correctly-solved puzzle pieces would be sent to the Dome instead.\n",
"In order to answer the questions, each team of students is given a \"clicker\" that connects to a scoring computer on stage. Students then choose their answer by pressing A, B, C, D, or E on their clicker. Once the question has been read aloud by the bowl master (usually Alpaca-In-Chief Daniel Berdichevsky), students are given 15 seconds to submit their answer. The questions gets harder each time and worth more points than the previous one. There are sometimes rapid fire questions which have to be answered in 5 seconds (5 such questions will be present and each question will usually carry 100 points).\n",
"Each morning at 8.40, Jim-Jim & Mark chat to a kid in a car on their way to school. They then must try guess what the kid is thinking about in 20 seconds. If they fail, the kid shouts the catchphrase \"Ha Ha, In Your Face Suckers\"\n",
"BULLET::::- You Can Count On It – Questions related to math were being called out, and players had to guess what number was the answer to the problem. After 30 seconds, the teams had to guess what was the picture on the screen.\n",
"Kids roll around on a green screen floor, revealing pictures (associated with a category) for the parents to guess in 90 seconds. Up to ten are used per family and a right answer scores ten points. Highest score after the game wins. If there is a tie after the 90 second time limit, the team who correctly solved the words in the fastest time wins.\n",
"So often in our society, girls receive signals from an early age that they are not good at math, or that boys are simply better. This can occur at home, when wives ask their husbands for help when it comes to math. In 2013, women received 57% of all Bachelor’s degrees, however they only received 43% of math degrees, 19% of engineering degrees, and 18% of computer science degrees. At school and at home, many young girls receive the message that they either “have the math gene or they do not.” When a mother tells her daughter that she wasn’t good at math in school, oftentimes, the daughter’s mathematical achievement will decrease. Oftentimes, women do not realize they are sending these messages to their daughters.\n"
] |
why it hurts to look at the sky on a cloudy day
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* ELI5 version: the sky is still very bright even when you're not looking at the sun, so it can still hurt your eyes.
* Super technical version: [Here is an AskScience question that has a very detailed answer](_URL_0_).
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[
"When visibility is poor, as at night during rainstorms or fog, the eye tends to relax and focus on its best distance, technically known as \"empty field\" or \"dark focus\". This distance is usually just under one meter (one yard), but varies considerably among people. The tendency is aggravated by objects close to the eye, drawing focus closer.\n",
"On a regional scale, it can be also worth of note that some extensive areas of Earth experience cloudy conditions virtually all time such as Central America's Amazon Rainforest while other ones experience clear-sky conditions virtually all time such as the Africa's Sahara Desert.\n",
"Due to their high altitude and the curvature of the surface of the Earth, these clouds will receive sunlight from below the horizon and reflect it to the ground, shining brightly well before dawn or after dusk.\n",
"If the observer looks up and does not see dark clouds, or if he runs for shelter but it does not rain, then there is fresh occasion to question the utility or the validity of his knowledge base. But we must leave our foulweather friend for now and defer the logical analysis of this testing phase to another occasion.\n",
"The whiteness or darkness of clouds is a function of their depth. Small, fluffy white clouds in summer look white because the sunlight is being scattered by the tiny water droplets they contain, and that white light comes to the viewer's eye. However, as clouds become larger and thicker, the white light cannot penetrate through the cloud, and is reflected off the top. Clouds look darkest grey during thunderstorms, when they can be as much as 20,000 to 30,000 feet high.\n",
"The cloudy outer edge of the eye is called the \"eyewall\". The eyewall typically expands outward with height, resembling an arena football stadium; this phenomenon is sometimes referred to as the \"stadium effect\". The eyewall is where the greatest wind speeds are found, air rises most rapidly, clouds reach to their highest altitude, and precipitation is the heaviest. The heaviest wind damage occurs where a tropical cyclone's eyewall passes over land.\n",
"When weather systems predominantly move from west to east, a red sky at night indicates that the high pressure air (and better weather) is westwards. In the morning the light is eastwards, and so a red sky then indicates the high pressure (and better weather) has already passed, and an area of low pressure is following behind.\n"
] |
li5: poker
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In almost every form of poker, you make a five card hand. The hands ranked from best to worst (the notation should make sense if you're familiar with playing cards, Jc is the jack of clubs, Th is the ten of hearts, etc):
* Straight flush (same suit, 5 in a row, like 5h 6h 7h 8h 9h)
* Four of a kind (like 6c 6s 6d 6h 9c)
* Full house (three of one rank, two of another, like 8c 8s 8d 5h 5c)
* Flush (5 of one suit, like 3c 5c 9c Tc Qc)
* Straight (5 in a row, like 8c 9c Tc Jc Qc)
* Three of a kind (like 2c 2s 2d Jh Kh)
* Two pair (like 6s 6c Ts Th Ad)
* One pair (like 3d 3c 2h 5s 9c)
* High card (this means none of the above, like 2c 4c 7s Tc Qd is called "Queen high")
Some games give you more than 5 cards, some include a combination of cards just for you and what are called "community cards" which everyone can use in your hand. But in just about every game, you will be trying to make a 5 card hand.
The way betting works, is that it generally starts with the person left of the dealer. When the betting gets to you:
* If no one has bet yet this round, you may **check** (do nothing) or **bet** (put money into the pot that others will at least have to match to continue).
* If someone else has bet before you act, you may **fold** (give up the hand, you don't have to put any more money in), **call** (match the person's bet to stay in), or **raise** (in addition to matching the bet, you bet even more).
Some games have what are called "fixed limits." In every betting round, there is an amount you are allowed to bet. If the fixed limit for a round is $2, the first player may check or bet $2. If he bets $2, the next player may fold, call $2, or raise another $2 for a total of $4. In fixed limit, the bet in each round goes up in increments of the limit.
Other games are called "no limit." This means you may bet any or all of your chips at any time. Two exceptions: there is generally a minimum, and if someone has bet $x and you want to raise, you have to raise at least by another $x for a total of $2x.
Two important pieces of advice:
* Tell the people you're playing with that you are a newbie. It's a heck of a lot easier to get the hang of things by having things explained to you as it goes.
* Figure out how much money you are ok with losing before arriving. Under no circumstances should you let yourself lose more than that.
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[
"Five-card draw (also known as a Cantrell draw) is a poker variant that is considered the simplest variant of poker, and is the basis for video poker. As a result, it is often the first variant learned by new players. It is commonly played in home games but rarely played in casino and tournament play. The variant is also offered by some online venues, although it is not as popular as other variants such as Seven-card stud and Texas hold 'em.\n",
"Five-O Poker is a heads-up poker variant in which both players must play five hands of five cards simultaneously. Four of the five cards in each hand are face-up. Once all five hands are down, there is a single round of betting. The winner is determined by matching each hand to the corresponding hand of the opponent. The player with the stronger poker hand in three (or more) out of the five columns, wins, unless a player folds on a bet that was made. If a player beats their opponent with all five hands, this is called a “Five-O” win.\n",
"Poker is a family of gambling games in which players bet into a pool, called the pot, value of which changes as the game progresses that the value of the hand they carry will beat all others according to the ranking system. Variants largely differ on how cards are dealt and the methods by which players can improve a hand. For many reasons, including its age and its popularity among Western militaries, it is one of the most universally known card games in existence.\n",
"The poker part of the game was based on five-card stud, using a deck of 24 cards ranging from 9 to Ace. Before each question, a pair of face-up cards came down a chute. The first question was directed at the guys and had to do with \"girl stuff\". If they got it right, they received control. A miss gave the girls a chance to take control by giving the correct answer. If they missed, however, the guys got control by default, because the question was in the girls' area of knowledge. Questions alternated between the two teams, with the girls being asked about \"guy stuff\" on their turns.\n",
"\"Poker Night\" is a computer-based Texas Hold 'Em poker simulation between the player as an unseen participant and the four characters, Max, Tycho, The Heavy, and Strong Bad. Each player starts with a $10,000 buy-in and stays in the game until they are broke, with the goal of the player being the last player standing. The game uses no-limit betting and a gradually-increasing blind bets over the course of several rounds. Randomly, one of the four non-playable characters will not be able to front the money but will offer one of their possessions as buy-in for the game. The player can win these items as \"Team Fortress 2\" unlockable equipment only if he or she is the one to bust that non-player character out of the game. The game keeps track of the player's statistics over the course of several games, and by completing certain objects (such as number of hands or games won) can unlock different playing card or table artwork to customize the look of the game.\n",
"Poker is a popular card game that combines elements of chance and strategy. There are various styles of poker, all of which share an objective of presenting the least probable or highest-scoring hand. A poker hand is usually a configuration of five cards depending on the variant, either held entirely by a player or drawn partly from a number of shared, community cards. Players bet on their hands in a number of rounds as cards are drawn, employing various mathematical and intuitive strategies in an attempt to better opponents.\n",
"Poker is a family of card games that combines gambling, strategy, and skill. All poker variants involve betting as an intrinsic part of play, and determine the winner of each hand according to the combinations of players' cards, at least some of which remain hidden until the end of the hand. Poker games vary in the number of cards dealt, the number of shared or \"community\" cards, the number of cards that remain hidden, and the betting procedures.\n"
] |
how did humans discover music? or is there music among animals as well?
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"Or is there music among animals as well?"
You - you've never heard of a bird?
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[
"This natural history of music begins with Attenborough playing the piano. Searching for the origins of human music, he traces its connections to the musical sounds that other animals make: the beauty of the wolf's howl, the complexity of the bat's cry, the deep rumble of the elephant's signals, the acoustically sophisticated sounds the dolphin produces and the songs of whales and birds. Why do these animals produce this amazing variety of sounds? It's all tied up with sex and territory.\n",
"The origins of music during the Paleolithic are unknown. The earliest forms of music probably did not use musical instruments other than the human voice or natural objects such as rocks. This early music would not have left an archaeological footprint. Music may have developed from rhythmic sounds produced by daily chores, for example, cracking open nuts with stones. Maintaining a rhythm while working may have helped people to become more efficient at daily activities. An alternative theory originally proposed by Charles Darwin explains that music may have begun as a hominin mating strategy. Bird and other animal species produce music such as calls to attract mates. This hypothesis is generally less accepted than the previous hypothesis, but nonetheless provides a possible alternative.\n",
"In \"Cosmic Consciousness\", beginning with Part II, Bucke explains how animals developed the senses of hearing and seeing. Further development culminated in the ability to experience and enjoy music. Bucke states that, initially, only a small number of humans were able to see colors and experience music. But eventually these new abilities spread throughout the human race until only a very small number of people were unable to experience colors and music.\n",
"Composers have evoked or imitated animal sounds in compositions including Jean-Philippe Rameau's \"The Hen\" (1728), Camille Saint-Saëns's \"Carnival of the Animals\" (1886), Olivier Messiaen's \"Catalogue of the Birds\" (1956–58) and Pauline Oliveros's \"El Relicario de los Animales\" (1977). Other examples include Alan Hovhaness's \"And God Created Great Whales\" (1970), George Crumb's \"Vox Balaenae\" (Voice of the Whale) (1971) and Gabriel Pareyon's \"Invention over the song of the Vireo atriccapillus\" (1999) and \"Kha Pijpichtli Kuikatl\" (2003). The Indian zoomusicologist, A. J. Mithra has composed music using bird, animal and frog sounds since 2008.\n",
"Music can be theoretically traced to prior to the Paleolithic age. The anthropological and archaeological designation suggests that music first arose (among humans) when stone tools first began to be used by hominids. The noises produced by work such as pounding seed and roots into meal are a likely source of rhythm created by early humans. The first rhythm instruments or percussion instruments most likely involved the clapping of hands, stones hit together, or other things that are useful to create rhythm. Examples of paleolithic objects which are considered unambiguously musical are bone flutes or pipes; paleolithic finds which are currently open to interpretation include pierced phalanges (usually interpreted as \"phalangeal whistles\"), bullroarers, and rasps. These musical instruments date back as far as the paleolithic, although there is some ambiguity over archaeological finds which can be variously interpreted as either musical or non-musical instruments/tools. \n",
"The study of sound and musical phenomenon prior to the 19th century was focused primarily on the mathematical modelling of pitch and tone. The earliest recorded experiments date from the 6th century BCE, most notably in the work of Pythagoras and his establishment of the simple string length ratios that formed the consonances of the octave. This view that sound and music could be understood from a purely physical standpoint was echoed by such theorists as Anaxagoras and Boethius. An important early dissenter was Aristoxenus, who foreshadowed modern music psychology in his view that music could only be understood through human perception and its relation to human memory. Despite his views, the majority of musical education through the Middle Ages and Renaissance remained rooted in the Pythagorean tradition, particularly through the quadrivium of astronomy, geometry, arithmetic, and music.\n",
"Music is the only form of communication that saves us from an overwhelming amount of small talk. This is not only a human phenomenon, but happens throughout the animal world. Thomas makes examples of animals from termites and earthworms to gorillas and alligators that perform some sort of rhythmic noise making that can be interpreted as music if we had full range of hearing. From the vast number of animals that participate in music it is clear that the need to make music is a fundamental characteristic of biology. Thomas proposes that the animal world is continuing a musical memory that has been going since the beginning of time.\n"
] |
Who was the first Ottoman Sultan to claim the title of Caliph, and how was he able to legitimize himself as such?
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Selim I "the Grim," over the course of his brief reign 1512-1520, secured Mecca, Medina, and Jerusalem, the three Islamic holy cities, and utterly demolished the Mamelukes of Egypt, who had been seen as the holders/protectors of the Holy Cities. Selim's conquests totally changed the character of the Ottoman holdings, which had previously been majority Christian and heavily European, into a truly Eastern Mediterranean empire with large Muslim populations in Syria and Egypt added. With the collapse of the Mamelukes, the possession of the holy cities, and the rivalry with the Shi'ite Safavids, proclaiming the Ottoman sultan the successor to the caliph tradition and the commander of the faithful etc. was just the natural next step.
In short, Selim became the first Ottoman caliph in 1517 after his dramatic conquest of all the Mameluke holdings (Egypt, the Levant, and the Hedjaz).
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"The Ottoman Dynasty embodied the Ottoman Caliphate since the fourteenth century, starting with the reign of Murad I. The Ottoman Dynasty kept the title Caliph, power over all Muslims, as Mehmed's cousin Abdülmecid II took the title. The Ottoman Dynasty left as a political-religious successor to Muhammad and a leader of the entire Muslim community without borders in a post Ottoman Empire. Abdülmecid II's title was challenged in 1916 by the leader of the Arab Revolt King Hussein bin Ali of Hejaz, who denounced Mehmet V, but his kingdom was defeated and annexed by Ibn Saud in 1925.\n",
"The head of the Ottoman dynasty was just entitled \"Sultan\" originally, but soon it started accumulating titles assumed from subjected peoples. Murad I (reigned 1362–1389) was the first Ottoman claimant to the title of Caliph; claimed the title after conquering Edirne.\n",
"After the conquest of Constantinople in 1453 by Mehmed II, Ottoman sultans came to regard themselves as the successors of the Roman Empire, hence their occasional use of the titles Caesar ( \"Qayser\") of Rûm, and emperor, as well as the caliph of Islam. Newly enthroned Ottoman rulers were girded with the Sword of Osman, an important ceremony that served as the equivalent of European monarchs' coronation. A non-girded sultan was not eligible to have his children included in the line of succession.\n",
"The first Ottoman ruler to actually claim the title of \"Sultan\" was Murad I, who ruled from 1362 to 1389. The holder of the title Sultan (سلطان in Arabic) was in Arabic-Islamic dynasties originally the power behind the throne of the Caliph in Bagdad and it was later used for various independent Muslim Monarchs. This title was senior to and more prestigious than that of Amir; it was not comparable to the title of Malik 'King', a secular title not yet common among Muslim rulers, or the Persian title of Shah, which was used mostly among Persian or Iranian related rulers.\n",
"The Ottoman Empire was an absolute monarchy during much of its existence. By the second half of the fifteenth century, the sultan sat at the apex of a hierarchical system and acted in political, military, judicial, social, and religious capacities under a variety of titles. He was theoretically responsible only to God and God's law (the Islamic \"şeriat\", known in Arabic as \"sharia\"), of which he was the chief executor. His heavenly mandate was reflected in Islamic titles such as \"shadow of God on Earth\" ( \"ẓıll Allāh fī'l-ʿalem\") and \"caliph of the face of the earth\" ( \"Ḫalife-i rū-yi zemīn\"). All offices were filled by his authority, and every law was issued by him in the form of a decree called \"firman\" (). He was the supreme military commander and had the official title to all land. Osman (died 1323/4) son of Ertuğrul was the first ruler of the Ottoman state, which during his reign constituted a small principality (\"beylik\") in the region of Bithynia on the frontier of the Byzantine Empire.\n",
"The highest position in Islam, \"caliphate\", was claimed by the sultans starting with Murad I, which was established as the Ottoman Caliphate. The Ottoman sultan, \"pâdişâh\" or \"lord of kings\", served as the Empire's sole regent and was considered to be the embodiment of its government, though he did not always exercise complete control. The Imperial Harem was one of the most important powers of the Ottoman court. It was ruled by the Valide Sultan. On occasion, the Valide Sultan would become involved in state politics. For a time, the women of the Harem effectively controlled the state in what was termed the \"Sultanate of Women\". New sultans were always chosen from the sons of the previous sultan. The strong educational system of the palace school was geared towards eliminating the unfit potential heirs, and establishing support among the ruling elite for a successor. The palace schools, which would also educate the future administrators of the state, were not a single track. First, the Madrasa (') was designated for the Muslims, and educated scholars and state officials according to Islamic tradition. The financial burden of the Medrese was supported by vakifs, allowing children of poor families to move to higher social levels and income. The second track was a free boarding school for the Christians, the \"Enderûn\", which recruited 3,000 students annually from Christian boys between eight and twenty years old from one in forty families among the communities settled in Rumelia or the Balkans, a process known as Devshirme (').\n",
"The following is a list of Sheikh-ul-Islams of the Ottoman Empire. After the fondation of the Ottoman empire around 1300, the title of Sheikh-ul-Islam, formerly used in the Abbasid Caliphate, was given to a leader authorized to issue legal opinion or fatwa. During the reign of Sultan Murad II, (1421-1444, 1446-1451) the position became an official title, with authority over other muftis in the empire. In the late 16th century, Sheikh-ul-Islam were assigned to appoint and dismiss supreme judges, high ranking college professors, and heads of Sufi orders. Prominent figures include Zenbilli Ali Cemali Efendi (c1445-1526), Ibn-i Kemal (Kemalpasazade) (1468-1533) and Ebussuud Efendi (c1491-1574).\n"
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Why did Moscow become the capitol of the USSR even though Petrograd was the center of the revolution?
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Firstly, one only has to look at a map of the positions of the soviet civil war/pre 1939. Petrograd was mere miles away from first the German occupied areas of Russia signed away by the bolsheviks, and then also threatened by the breakaway Baltic republics and Finland. Moscow, being in the centre of Bolshevik Russia was a much more defensible position
Secondly, Moscow and st Petersburg have had a sort of duelling cultural meaning in Russian culture. St Petersburg was the city of the tsars and represented, essentially, westernism. Moscow was the cultural heartland of Russia. In picking Moscow, the Bolshevik in part rejected the capitalist west to build a new society out of true Russia
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"Following the success of the Russian Revolution of 1917, Vladimir Lenin, fearing possible foreign invasion, moved the capital from Saint Petersburg back to Moscow on March 12, 1918. The Kremlin once again became the seat of power and the political centre of the new state.\n",
"In 1918 Moscow became the country's capital after the October Revolution of 1917 and the Russian Civil War (1917–1922) followed; for more than a decade plans to build a metro in St. Petersburg languished.\n",
"The city of Moscow gradually grew around the Moscow Kremlin, beginning in the 14th century. It was the capital of the Grand Duchy of Moscow (or Muscovy), from 1340 to 1547 and in 1713 renamed as the Tsardom of Russia by Peter I \"the Great\" (when the capital was moved to Saint Petersburg). Moscow was the capital of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic from 1918, which then became the Soviet Union (1922 to 1991), and since 1991 has served as capital of the Russian Federation.\n",
"According to the Russian historian Kluchevsky, the rise of Moscow under Ivan I Kalita was determined by three factors. The first one was that the Moscow principality was situated in the middle of other Russian principalities; thus, it was protected from any invasions from the East and from the West. Compared to its neighbors, Ryazan principality and Tver principality, Moscow was less often devastated. The relative safety of the Moscow region resulted in the second factor of the rise of Moscow – an influx of working and tax-paying people who were tired of constant raids and who actively relocated to Moscow from other Russian regions. The third factor was a trade route from Novgorod to the Volga river.\n",
"For much of its architectural history, Moscow was dominated by Orthodox churches. However, the overall appearance of the city changed drastically during Soviet times, especially as a result of Joseph Stalin's large-scale effort to \"modernize\" Moscow. Stalin's plans for the city included a network of broad avenues and roadways, some of them over ten lanes wide, which, while greatly simplifying movement through the city, were constructed at the expense of a great number of historical buildings and districts. Among the many casualties of Stalin's demolitions was the Sukharev Tower, a longtime city landmark, as well as mansions and commercial buildings The city's newfound status as the capital of a deeply secular nation, made religiously significant buildings especially vulnerable to demolition. Many of the city's churches, which in most cases were some of Moscow's oldest and most prominent buildings, were destroyed; some notable examples include the Kazan Cathedral and the Cathedral of Christ the Savior. During the 1990s, both were rebuilt. Many smaller churches, however, were lost.\n",
"The relocation of the capital from St. Petersburg to Moscow caused an increased need to house civil servants in Moscow. In 1927, a commission decided that a building would be constructed in the Bersenevka neighborhood, opposite the Kremlin, which had been occupied by the Wine and Salt Court, an old distillery and excise warehouse. During the Tsarist era, the area had been used mainly as a mushroom market.\n",
"Moscow is a seat of power of the Government of Russia, being the site of the Moscow Kremlin, a medieval city-fortress that is today the residence for work of the President of Russia. The Moscow Kremlin and Red Square are also one of several World Heritage Sites in the city. Both chambers of the Russian parliament (the State Duma and the Federation Council) also sit in the city. Moscow is considered the center of Russian culture, having served as the home of Russian artists, scientists, and sports figures and because of the presence of museums, academic and political institutions and theatres.\n"
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How much does an understanding of historical linguistics benefit study of the period?
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Do you mean historical linguistics or knowing the languages? Historical linguistics is the study of how languages change over time, it's what's used to reconstruct things like Proto-Indo-European. It's not the same as knowing the languages, a historical linguist doesn't necessarily actually know the language that he's working on, although for obvious reasons it helps. It's also generally not all that helpful for history, although it can be useful for learning the languages (I don't personally think you can learn Greek without some basic idea of how the Greek language changed from prehistory to Attic, because otherwise you have to memorize the paradigms of literally every verb you encounter like a psycho). Knowing the languages, though, is of great use. I would argue that it's nearly impossible to study ancient history and classics without knowing Greek and Latin (although there are a *very* few number of scholars who actually don't). In more contemporary fields maybe it's not as important, I don't know--as a classicist I deal more or less exclusively with the texts themselves, so I would be forced to work from translation, which is very unsatisfactory for any detail or nuance and is not always possible, as some texts have never been translated. What's important in any historical field is being able to read the sources, whether that's direct material or scholarly material
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"Historical linguistics provides the main basis for the theory, analysing the development and changes of languages, and establishing relations between the various Indo-European languages, including the time frame of their development. It also provides information about shared words, and the corresponding area of the origin of Indo-European, and the specific vocabulary which is to be ascribed to specific regions. The linguistic analyses and data are supplemented with archaeological data and anthropological arguments, which together provide a coherent model that is widely accepted.\n",
"Linguistics also deals with the social, cultural, historical and political factors that influence language, through which linguistic and language-based context is often determined. Research on language through the sub-branches of historical and evolutionary linguistics also focuses on how languages change and grow, particularly over an extended period of time.\n",
"Historical linguists study the history of specific languages as well as general characteristics of language change. The study of language change is also referred to as \"diachronic linguistics\" (the study of how one particular language has changed over time), which can be distinguished from \"synchronic linguistics\" (the comparative study of more than one language at a given moment in time without regard to previous stages). Historical linguistics was among the first sub-disciplines to emerge in linguistics, and was the most widely practised form of linguistics in the late 19th century. However, there was a shift to the synchronic approach in the early twentieth century with Saussure, and became more predominant in western linguistics with the work of Noam Chomsky.\n",
"Historical linguistics emerged as an independent field of study at the end of the 18th century. Sir William Jones proposed that Sanskrit, Persian, Greek, Latin, Gothic, and Celtic languages all shared a common base. After Jones, an effort to catalog all languages of the world was made throughout the 19th century and into the 20th century. Publication of Ferdinand de Saussure's \"Cours de linguistique générale\" created the development of descriptive linguistics. Descriptive linguistics, and the related structuralism movement caused linguistics to focus on how language changes over time, instead of just describing the differences between languages. Noam Chomsky further diversified linguistics with the development of generative linguistics in the 1950s. His effort is based upon a mathematical model of language that allows for the description and prediction of valid syntax. Additional specialties such as sociolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, and computational linguistics have emerged from collaboration between linguistics and other disciplines.\n",
"At first, historical linguistics served as the cornerstone of comparative linguistics primarily as a tool for linguistic reconstruction. Scholars were concerned chiefly with establishing language families and reconstructing prehistoric proto-languages, using the comparative method and internal reconstruction. The focus was initially on the well-known Indo-European languages, many of which had long written histories; the scholars also studied the Uralic languages, another European language family for which less early written material exists. Since then, there has been significant comparative linguistic work expanding outside of European languages as well, such as on the Austronesian languages and various families of Native American languages, among many others. Comparative linguistics is now, however, only a part of a more broadly conceived discipline of historical linguistics. For the Indo-European languages, comparative study is now a highly specialized field. Most research is being carried out on the subsequent development of these languages, in particular, the development of the modern standard varieties.\n",
"The critical period hypothesis is the subject of a long-standing debate in linguistics and language acquisition over the extent to which the ability to acquire language is biologically linked to age. The hypothesis claims that there is an ideal time window to acquire language in a linguistically rich environment, after which further language acquisition becomes much more difficult and effortful.\n",
"Scholarship is therefore interested in this period as a crucial step in the evolution of society—a long and cumulative process whose roots could be seen at the beginning of the Neolithic more than 6000 years earlier and which had picked up steam in the preceding Ubayd period in Mesopotamia. This is especially the case in English-language scholarship, in which the theoretical approaches have been largely inspired by anthropology since the 1970s, and which has studied the Uruk period from the angle of 'complexity' in analysing the appearance of early states, an expanding social hierarchy, intensification of long-distance trade, etc.\n"
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